T ^•- ti f^ '^ ^ (EIlE ja. H. %m Hibramj i ^ortl] (Carcltrm Stale College 1.2- This book must not be taken from the Library ,4'7G5 THE FARMER'S GUIDE TO SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. THE LABORS OF THE FARMER, IN ALL THEIK VARIETY, AND ADAPTING THEM TO THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR AS THKY SUCCESSIVELY OCCUR. BY HENRY STEPHENS, E.RS.E., AUTHOR OF "THE BOOK OF THE FARM, ETC., ETC., ETC., ASSISTED BT JOHN P. NORTON. M.A., 'ROFESSOR OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE IN YALE COLLEGE, NEW BAVEV. IN TWO VOLUMES— WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. VOL 11. NEW YORK: LEONARD SCOTT & Co., 79 FULTON STREET AND 54 GOLD STREET. 1851. CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. PRACTICE— SUMMER. Summary of the field operations, and of the weather in summer, - 1 On the hay given to farm horses, ------ 26 On the sowing and the summeh treatment of flax, - - - 28 On the sowing and the summer treatment of hemp, - - - 33 On the planting and the summer culture of the hop, - - - 36 On the sowing and the summer culture of the turnip, - - - 46 On the sowing and the summer treatment of kohl-rabi, - - 87 On the planting and the summer treatment of the cabbage, - - 88 On the sowing and the summer treatment of mangold-wurzel, - - 90 On the sowing and the summer treatment of the carrot, - - 94 On the sowing and the summer treatment of parsnip, - - - 99 On the sowing and the summer treatment of rape, _ - . 101 On the sowing and the summer culture of buckwheat, - - 103 On the sowing and the summer culture of the sun -flower, - - 105 On the sowing and the summer culture of madia, _ - - ib. On the sowing and the summer culture of maize, _ _ - 106 The rationale of the germination of seeds, . - - - 110 On sowing broadcast, drilled, and dibbled — thick and thin — AND AT DIFFERENT depths, - - - - - " -114 On repairing the fences of pasture fields, . _ - - 128 On the DISPOSAL OF the FAT SHEEP, - - - - - 130 On THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE, ... - - 139 On mares foaling, - - - - - - - -153 On THE PASTURING OF SHEEP IN summer, _ _ _ - - 158 On the PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER, ... - - 169 On the TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER, . _ - - - 180 On the weaning of calves, ------- 184 On the pasturing of farm- horses in summer, - - - - 186 On the soiling of stock on forage plants, - - - - 190 On the washing op sheep, ------- 196 On the shearing of sheep, ------- 200 On the rolling of fleeces, and on the quality of wool, - - - 206 On the summer culture of beans, ------ 216 On THE SUMMER culture of pease, ------ 218 On the weaning of lambs, ------- 219 4^'?'Gb Vi CONTENTS. Pan On TDK DRAFTING OF EWE3 AND GIMMEK8, - - - -- - 223 On the marking of sheep, --«._-. 225 On hay- making, .-.-.--- 226 On the sdmmek culture of wheat, -.-.--. 245 On the summer cultube ok barley, -..--- 252 On the summer culture of oats, ------ 253 On the summer culture of rye, ------ 254 On the summer culture of potatoes, ----- 256 On summer-fallow, -------- 261 On the reaping of turnip seed, ------ 267 On making butter and cheese, ------ 268 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. Summary of the field operations, and of the weather in autumn, - 300 On the sowing of the stone turnip, and on the sowing of turnip for seed, 309 On the sowing of winter tares, - - - - - -310 On THE SOWING OF rape IN AUTUMN, --.--. 311 On the sowing of crimson clover in autumn, . - - . ib. On THE SOWING OF BOKHARA clover, - - - - - -312 On THE sowing of RED clover for seed, ----- 313 On the sowing of itali.vn rye-grass in autumn, - - - - 314 On the picking and drying of hops, - - - - -315 On the sowing of winter beans, ------ 320 On the pulling, steeping, and drying of flax, - - - - . 321 On the pulung, steeping, and drying of hemp, - - - - 326 On reaping wheat, barley, oats, and bye, - . - . 328 On reaping beans, and pease, and tares, when gro^-n for seed, - - 354 On the carrying and stacking of wheat, barley, oats, beans, and pease, 355 On reaping buckwheat, ------- 374 On harvesting the sunflower, ------ 375 On harvesting maize, ------- i^. On the common Jerusalem artichoke, ----- 377 On the birds destructive to the grain crops, - - . - ib. On putting the tups to the ewes, ------ 384 On the bathing and smearing of sheep, - ... - 387 On lifting potatoes, --.-...- 395 On storing potatoes, -.---._ 400 On sowing wheat in AtnuMN, ------ 403 On sowing barley in autumn, ------ 409 Ox SOWING pease in AUTUMN, --,--. 410 On sowing SEVERAL varieties OF GRAIN TOGETHER, - - - - 411 On PLANTING POTATOES IN AUTUMN, - - - - - - 412 On the EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES, - - . - . 413 On electro-culture, ------.. 444 On the rationale of the application of specla.l manures, - - 448 On the rotation of crops, -.--.._ 455 On the fertility of soils, ------- 454 On the disposal of the fat pigs, ------ 468 On THK management of fowls, ------ 471 On the animals destructive to poultrt, ----- 478 •^ CONTENTS. Vii REALISATION. Page On the differences in toe phtsicai. geography op farms, - - 482 On climate and its effects, ----.. 435 On the judging of land, .--._.. 494 On estimating the rent of a farm, -..-.. 497 On the mode of offering for a farm, - - _ _ - 503 On negotiating the covenants of the lease, ... - 505 On entering to a farm, - - - - - . -512 On the stocking of a farm, - - - - - - -516 On choosing the site, on building, and on the expenses of erecting the steading, .---.... 5j8 On the farm-house, ....... 537 On COTTAGES FOR FARM- SERVANTS, ----.. 542 On insurance against fire and disease, - - . . . 548 On the principles of enclosure, and on shelter, - - . - 550 On the planting and rearing of thorn-hedges, - - - . 553 On the building of stone fences, ---.-. 533 On wire fences, ..--.... 593 On embanking against rivulets, ...... 595 On the construction of field- gates, ..... 599 On the draining of land, ....... 604 On improving waste land, ....... 651 On trench and subsoil ploughing, ...... 557 On the liming of land, ....... 665 On forming water-meadows, - - - - - -671 On irrigation, ......... 677 On the treatment of draught stallions, .... ggQ On the breaking-in of young draught horses, - - - . 683 On the breaking-in of young saddle-horses, .... 686 On training and working the shepherd's dog, .... 688 On slaughtering oxen, sheep, and pigs, ..... 690 On the points to be aimed at in breeding the most perfect forms in live stock, --.-..... 706 Description of the animals whose portraits are given in the plates, - 709 Account of some other breeds of cattle and sheep, ... 717 On the principles of breeding, ...... 723 On the selection of parents in breeding, ..... 730 On breeding in-and-in, ....... 733 On crossinc, -------. 735 On the hiring of farm- servants, - - ... 737 On the wages of farm- servants, ...... 741 On the farm smith, joiner, and saddler, ..... 745 On the care due to the implements, ..... 749 On making experiments on the farm, ..... 751 On corn markets, ........ 757 On farm book-keeping, ....... 751 Concluding exhortations to the young farmer, .... 777 Index, ......... 733 LIST OF THE ILLUSTKATIONS IN VOL IL ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. Fig. 242. The Hay-Knife, - 243. Crosskill's Clod-Crusher, 244. Side View of one Wheel of the Clod-Crusher. 245. Hepburn's Double-Conical Land- Roller, - - - - 246. The Norwegian Harrows, 247. The Foot-Pick, 248. The Trenching-Fork with Three Prongs, ... 249. The Trenching-Fork with Two Prongs, 260.- The Square Method of Planting Hops, .... 251. The Quincunx Method of Planting Hops, .... 262. Espalier Form of Training Hops, 253. The Wire-Womi and its Perfect Beetle — CcUaphcegm lineatug, 254. The East-Lothian Tumip-Sowing Drill, .... 255. The Seed-Barrel, - 256. Geddes' Two-Rowed Tumip-Sowing Dnll, .... 257. The Vertical Section of the Seed- Distributor, 258. The Turnip-Barrow for Sowing One Drill, 259. The Two-Rowed Turnip and Bone- Dust Sowing-Drill, 260. The Plan of the Two-Rowed Turnip and Bone-Dust Sowing Drill, 261. Smith's Drop-Sowing Drill, 262. The Body of the Double Mould- Board altered to a Scuffling Plough, - - . . 263. "Wilkies Horse-Hoe with Parallel Motion, 264. The Common Drill-Grubber, 265. Wilkie's Drill-Grubber and Harrow, 266. The Turnip or Hand Draw-hoe, - Page Fig. 26 267. 28 268. 29 269. 270. ib. 30 271. 35 272. 36 273. ib. 274. 37 275. 38 42 276. 277. 43 278. 279. 47 280. 48 281. 49 282. ib. 283. 50 284. 51 285. 52 286. 53 287. 62 288. V ib. 289. 63 64 290. ib. The Singling of Turnips, - 65 Turnip Flea-Beetle — JIaltica n<- morum, - - - - 73 Larva of the Flea-Beetle, - - 74 The Turnip Saw-Fly — Aihalia spir na7-um, • - - - 76 "Winged Male of the Common Tur- nip Plant- Louse — Aphis rapa, - 77 Wingless Female of the Common Turnip Plant-Louse — Aphis rapce, ib. Winged Male of the Swede Plant- Louse — Aphis brassicce, - • ib. Wingless Female of the Swede Plant-Louse — A phis brassicce, • 78 Two and Seven Spotted Lady-Birda — Coccinella bi et septempv/nctata, 78 Ichneumon Fly — Aphidixu rapes, 79 Cloddy and Stony Soil, - - 111 Soil with Water and without Air, ib. Soil with Air and without Water, ib. Soil with Water and Air, - - ib. The Component parts of a Grain of Wheat, - - - - 113 A Plant of Wheat in the State of Germination, ... II4 Well-Ploughed Regular Furrow- Slices, - - • - ib. The Position of Seeds when Sown on Regular Furrow-Slices, - 115 Irregular Brairding from even Re- gular Furrow-Slices, • • ib. Hi-Ploughed Irregular Furrow- Slices, - • • - ib. Irregular Deposition of Seed on Hl- Ploughed Furrow-Slices, - ib. Irregular Braird on Ill-Ploughed Furrow-Slices, - - ■ ib. Regular Depths of Seed by Drill- Sowing, ■ • • - ib. Regular Braird from Drill-Sown Seed, . . • • Uf LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Pte. 291. Newberry's One-Rowed Dibbling Machine, - - - 292. Newingtoa's Six-Rowed Dibbling Machine, - - - 293. The Double Roots of Deep-sown Wheat, - - - . 294. The roots of Shallow-sown Wheat, 295. Secure Mode of Fastening the Hang- ing Post of a Field-Gate, 296. The Side View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 297. The Hind View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 298. The Front View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 299. The View of the Back of a Ripe Fat Ox, - 800. The Measuring of a Ripe Fat Ox, to ascertain its Weight, sinking the Offals, 301. Plan of the Cart-Steelyard, 802. Transverse Section of the Cart- Steelyard, 303. Longitudinal Section of the Cart- Steelyard, 304. The Bush-Harrow, 805. The Head-Cap, or Hood, fitted on the Sheep, - - 306. Sheep Bot-Fly — (Fstrus oris, 307. Sheep Bot Larva — CEstrus oris, 308. Sheep Ked — Melophagus ovinus, 309. Maggot of the Checkered Blow-fly — b'arcophaga carnaria, 310. Cock-Chafers — Melolontha vulgaris, 811. The Scoop for filling the Water- ^ Barrel, .... '%12. The Cattle-Bot and ha.rxa.—(Estrus V/^ " boris, .... ';^3,* Larva and Pupa of the Cattle Cleg — Tabanus bovinus, '314. The Bull's Ring in the state iro be inserted in his Nose, 316. The Bull's Ring as fastened in bis Nose, 316. The Bullock-Holder, 317,, Swivelled Spring-Hook, 31l8.;The Cleg or Gleg — HoBmatopota '■ 'pluvialis, - - - 319. The HorseBot — Gasterophilus equi, 320. A Horse-Fly-- Chrysops ccecutiens, 321. The Horse FoTesi-Flj—MipiJobosca equir.a, - . - . 322. The Patent Scythe with bent Sned, - - . - 323. A Scythe Strickle, 324. Scythe Stones. 825. Sheep Washing, - 326. The Wool-Shears, 327. The First Stage of Clipping a Sheep, 328. The Second Stage of Clipping a Sheep, - - . . 329. The Third and Last Stage of Clip- ping a Sheep, 330. A new Clipped Sheep, 331. The Rolling of a Fleece of Wool 332. A Fleece of Wool Rolled up, ' - 833. The White-Shouldered Wool-Moth — Tinea sarcitella, 334. The Weighing and Packing of Wool, - - - . 122 123 Fig. 335 336 337 124 ib. 338. 339. 130 .S40. 139 341. 140 ih. 342. 343. 141 344. 345. 346. 143 145 347. 146 348. ib. 161 349. 165 ib. 350. ib. 351. ib. 352. 353. 166 354. 168 355. 173 356. 177 357. 178 358. 180 359. 360. 181 182 361. ib. 188 362. ib. 189 363. ib. 364. 192 365. 193 366. ib. 367. 197 368. 201 369. 202 370. 371. 203 372. 373. 204 374. 205 375. 207 ib. 376. 208 377. 378. 209 379. Page The Wingless Female of the Bean Plant-Louse — Aphis fubce, - 217 . The Winged Male of the Beau Plant-Louse — Aphis fabce, - ii. . The Striped Pea-Weevil— &'proach comes wilhin the distance in which the force of the positive electricity is able to overcome the resistance of the air between the positive and negative clouds, the fluid leaves the positive and enters into the nesrative cloud in lightning in such quan- tity as to restore the equilibrium of b^th. The forcible passage of the fluid causes such a concussion in the air between the two clouds that its vibrations, striking against the earth and mountains, cause the noise which is heard in thunder. 2987. The time taken by the electric fluid to pass from one cloud to another is inappreciable, but the velocity of sound is calculable. For every 4cj seconds of time which elapse after seeing the lightning to hearing the thunder, the clouds are situate as many miles from the auditor. Far at sea, where are no objects for sound to be reflected from, thunder is very seldom heard ; whereas in a mountainous country it inspires terror, though, being mere sound, it can do no harm; while the light- ning, which can do harm, does all the mischief it can before we are aware of its presence. 2988. Lightning is of three kinds. If the lightning joins two clouds, whose height is not equal, the sky appears irregu- larly illuminated. If the lightning goes from a cloud to the earth, we observe a narrow train of dazzling light, surrounded by a less intense light. We observe the same train when it joins two clouds of equal heiglit, because there is no lower cloud in this case to hide it from our view. The two sorts of lightning are of course identical, and we name tiiem difl'erently because they affect our sense of sight difl'erently. When we remark a point of light which is not clearly deflnod, we call it sheet lightning. When lightning is of a zigzag form, though in reality it is of the form of a helix, or spiral screw, we call \i forked. The unequal conductibility of the air explains this course of lightning, as well as its bifurcations. The third kind, hall lightning, passes slowly from the clouds to the earth, and is visible for several seconds ; whereas the lightnings of tiie otlier two kinds do not last fur the millionth part of a second, according to the observations of M. Arago. 2989. Lightning is generally of a daz- zling wiiite colour, and when the electric spark is sent through vacuo, it is always of a blue colour, which would seem to indicate that the true colour of electricity is blue. Now, as electricity is known to promote vegetation, (135 to 150,) and as the blue rays more greatly accelerate vegetation than any of the others, (193,) the exciting action of electricity in plants may be connected with its blue colour. 2990. The motion of the electric fluid is most commonly from the clouds to the earth, though numerous examples exist of its having followed an ojsposite direction. It is probable, however, tliat in most cases of electric explosion, the fluid leaves both clouds, or the cloud and the earth, at one time. However this may be, the stroke always goes in the most direct line, even through substances of the least con- ducting power. Animals are frecpiently struck, because their fluids easily cimduct the fluid ; while the shock given to the body seems to be through the nervous system. 2991. Ilence lightning-conductors, call- ed jxiratouncres, have been recommended not only to draw ott" the fluid quietly from the atmosphere into the earth, which they certainly do when attached to houses, but also with the view of lessening the number and virulency of thunder-storms, which it is doubtful that any number of conductors would effect— since at Zurich, and its vicinity, the houses are studded with conductors, and storms are not less rare there than elsewhere. 2992. Electricity emits a peculiar odour, something like sulphur, or perhaps rather garlic. This odour is generally attributed to the discharge of minute par- SUMIVIAJIY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. 11 tides of metal from the conductor of the electric machine ; but Professor Schoenbein of Basle considers it to arise from an ele- mentary body, wliich he calls ozone, libe- rated from combination by the decompos- ing action of electricity, and which, in its electrical characters, resembles chlorine, bromine, and iodine; and it has been stated tliat he has actually decomposed nitrogen into hydrogen and ozone. 2993. The noise of thunder is not always the same, for when it falls direct to the surface of the ground, those near hear a dry noise of varying power, which ceases immediately ; while those at a dis- tance hear a series of noises rapidly suc- ceeding each other, com])Ietely diflerent however from the volleys of thunder. M. Dove explains these varied noises thus :— With a tlash that falls directly, the noise caused by the first explosion is heard at the same instant as the last : while in a horizontal flash, the noises produced at the greater distances arrive later than the others, and a flash which extends over 2000 yards will produce a noise which will last 7 seconds. In the zigzag light- ning the noise reaches the ear at diflerent intervals ; and it is at the angles that the noise is strongest, on account of the com- pression of the air, and hence the unequal intensity of the sound. The rolling of thunder is thus explained by M. Arago : " Lightnings only occupy a point in space, and give place to a short and instantaneous noise. Multiple lightnings, on the con- trary, are accompanied by a rolling, be- cause the diflferent parts of long lines which the lightnings occupy are in general found at difllrent distances, and the sounds which are there engendereil, either suc- cessively or at the same physical instant, must employ times gradually unequal in order to reach the ear of the observer." 2994. All thunder-storms may be divided into two classes, the one class being due to the action of an ascending current, antones beating against each other, or to the conflict of contrary winds. The latter are frequently so violent that the hailstones are transported in a hori- zontal direction. It is often observed that the wind blows in pufls, and that each of them is acconijianied with a torrent of hail. If the hail falls as usual at intervals, hailstones, which are at first driven hori- zontally, finally mingle with the drops of rain ; and in the end there is nothing but rain, the reference in many jour- nals of the weather. The influence now ascribed to St Swithin used to be shared by St John the Baptist, and by St Pauli SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. 19 St Margaret's day, 20th July, used to have some curious superstitions connected with it, relative to ti)e fecundating power of this lady's festival, quite at variance with her character as a virgin martyr. Prohably it may be connected with the circumstance, that heifers are commonly put to the bull about this period of the year. 3044. Among many remains of augury extant at the present day, may be men- tioned the common practice of nailing up dead kites, crows, owls, hawks, weasels, and other rapacious animals against the doors of barns, stables, and outhouses — a custom which originated in an endeavour to terrify their living compeers, and to warn them not to obtrude themselves. 3045. The Shepherd of Banbury's rules affecting the weather of the summer quar- ter are these : — '' In summer or harvest, when the wind has been S. two or three days, and it grows very hot, and you see clouds arise with great white tops like towers, as if one were upon the top of an- other, and joined together with black on the nether side, there will be thunder and rain suddenly. If two such clouds arise, one on either hand, it is time to make haste to shelter. If you see a cloud rise against the wind, or side-wind, when the cloud comes up to you, the wind will blow the same way that the cloud came ; and the same rule holds of a clear place, when all the sky is equally thick except one clear edge. If the clouds lonk dusky, or of a tarnish silver colour,and move very slowly, it is a sign of hail ; and if there be ]a mixture of bine in the clouds, the hail will be small, but if very yellow, large. Small scattering clouds that fly very high, es- pecially from the S. W., denote whirl- winds. The shooting of falling stars through them is a sign of thunder. Sud- den rains never last long ; but when the air grows tiiick by dcirrees, and the sun, moon, and stars shine dimmer and dimmer, then it is like to rain six hours usually. If it begin to rain from the S., with a high wind for two or three hours, and the wind falls but the rain continues, it is like to rain twelve hours or more, and does usually rain till a strong N. wind clears the air. These lonof rains seldom hold above twelve hours, or happen above once a-year. If it begins to rain an hour or two before sun- rising, it is like to be fair before noon, and continue so that day ; but if the rain begin an hour or two after sun-rising, it is like to rain all that day, except the rainbow be seen before it rains."* 3046. Bainhovy. — As showers of rain fall most frequently in summer, so is the rainbow most frequently seen in that sea- son. For the formation of a rainbow it is sufficient that the sun strike drops of water with its rays, and thus may be seen rainbows on clouds, and even on terres- trial objects. In order to see a rainbow, it is necessary that our face be turned away from the sun, and directed towards the rain- drops falling in the opposite direction of the heavens. What we then see is an arc composed of the prismatic colours, (191.) arranged in parallel and concentric arcs, the centre of which is formed by the shadow of the spectator's head. When two arcs appear, they are concentric on the same centre. In the interior bow, which is the more frequently seen, and the colours of which are the more vivid, the violet colour is within and the red without, and consequently, the red space is greater than tlie violet; and when two arcs appear, the outer one has the colours reversed, and con- sequently the violet rays predominate. The colours are more or less vivid in pro- portion to the intensity of the rays of the sun ; and hence it is that lunar rainbows rarely exhibit the prismatic colours, being merely whitish or yellowish. 3047. The conditions under which the inner bow is formed, are, that the ray from the sun. in passing through the drop of rain, is refracted towards the opposite side of the drop, where it is reflected, and directed again by another refraction to- wards the eye. The diflerent prismatic colours are reflected to the eye untler dif- ferent angles. The red ray, in these cir- cumstances, subtends an angle of 42° 23'; and the violet ray only 40° 29'; so that the width of the arc is 1° 54'. 3048. When the ray is twice reflected on the back of the rain drop, before it reaches the eye, a double bow is observed ; The Shepherd of Banbury's Rules, p. 27, 41. 20 PRACTICE— SUMifER. and the angles formed by tlie different colours, in this case, is for the red 50^ 21', and for the violet 53' 46' ; the width of the arc being 3" 25'. 3049. A third and a fourth bow may be formed ; but the intensity of tlie light from these is so feeble that the}' are rarely seen. I have at times observed a triple bow. 30.50. I have hitherto considered only a single drop of rain, and as it moves rapidly, the image from it can only last for a monieut ; but if a great number of drops fall in succession in the same direc- tion, each of them will produce an image in the same place, and the sensation pro- duced by the colours will remain perma- nent. It is evident that, as the various colours subtend different angles with the eye, only one person can see the same rainbow. 3051. When the sun is in the horizon, the bow appears a semicircle, with an api>arent diameter of 41°. "When the sun is 41' above the horizon, the apex of the bow will be a tangent to the plane of the horizon. If the sun is still higher, the bow will be seen projected on the ground, and the colours will be very pale. When the sun attains the height of 52", a rain- bow cannot be formed at noon in summer. When the head is elevated above the plane of the sun, as on a mountain, a larger portion of the arc is seen than the semicircle, in proportion to the height of the mountain, from whence may be seen the circle complete. When the head is ele- vated above the cloud, a red circle will be seen projected upon it, the rays of the sun from which will subtend an angle witii the eye of 42 23', and the apparent diameter of the circle will also be 42" 23'. 3052. When a vividly coloured rainbow is projected on a dark cloud, the sky is much darker above than below the bow, which difference is the more striking when the sun is low. This is a phenomenon opposite to that connected with halos. If wo follow the course of the sun's rays in a rain drop, we shall see that the drops situ- ated above that in which the bow is formed do not send us the rays reflected by their exterior surface, whilst the drops placed below do send them, and these, not- withstanding their divergence, vaguely illuminate the space situated beneath the bow.* 3053. The prognostics connected with the rainbow are the following : — After a long-drought the bow is a certain sign of rain ; and after much wet, of fair weather. When the green is large and bright, it indicates rain ; and when the red is the strongest colour, both wind and rain are indicated. If the bow break u{> at once, therewill follow serene audsettled weather. When the bow is seen in the morning, rain will follow ; if at noon, settled and heavy rain ; and at night, fair weather. The appearance of two or three rainbows indi- cates fair weather for the present, but settled and heavy rain* in two or three days after. 3054. The appearance of ttcilipht, de- pending on the state of the sky, foretells to a certain extent the weather of the following day. When the sky is blue, and after sunset the western region is covered with a slight purple tint, we may be sure that the weather will be fair, especially if the horizon seem covered with a siight smoke. After rain, isolated clouds, coloured red and well illuminated, announce the return of fair weather. A twilight of a whitish yellow, especially when it extends to a distance in the sky, is not a sign of fair weather for the fol- lowing day. We may expect showers when the sun is of a brilliant white, and sets in the midst of a white light, which scarcely jiermits us to distinguish it. The prognostication is still worse when light cirri, that give the sky a dull appearance, ajipear deeper near the horizon ; and when the twilight is of a grayish red, in the midst of which are seen portions of a deep red that j)ass into gray, and scarcely permit the sun to be distinguished. In this case, vesicular vapour is very abimdant, and we may calculate on wind and approaching rain. 3055. The signs drawn from daybreak are somewhat different. When it is very red, we may expect rain j whilst a gray * ELaemtz' Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 440-4. SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. 21 morning announces fair weather. The reason of the difference between a gray dawn and a gray twilight is, because in the evening the colour mainly depends on cirri, in the morning on a stratus, which soon yields to the rising sun ; whilst the cirri become thicker during the night. If at sunrise there is enough of vapours for the sun to appear red, it is then very pro- bable that, in the course of the day, the ascending current will determine the for- mation of a thick stratum of clouds.* 3056. According to the opinion of Dr Kirwan, after forty-one years* observa- tions, it would appear that a dry summer was followed by a dry autumn 5 times ; by a wet one, 5 times ; and a variable one, 12 times. A variable summer was fol- lowed by a dry autumn only once ; a wet one, 3 times; and a variable one, 12 times. 3057. After a dry summer, the proba- bility of a dry autumn occurring, is as .5 to 16 ; a wet one, as .5 to 16 ; and a variable one as 6 to 16. After a icet summer, the probability of a dry autumn is as 1 to 5 ; a wet one as 3 to 5 ; and a variable one as 1 to 5. 3058. In the beginning of any year, the probability of a dry summer is as 16 to 41 ; of a wet one, 20 to 41 ; and of a variable one as 5 to 41. 3059. It may prove useful to such of you as may engage in pastoral farming, to know the prognostications observed in pastoral countries ; and I cannot do this better than in the words of the Rev. Dr Russell, minister of Yarrow. It may be noticed that some of the prognostics have already been enumerated ; but the concur- rent testimony of certain prognostics, in high and low parts of countries, serve to confirm the more strongly the proba- bility of their truth. " When there is a copious deposit of dew," observes Dr Russell, "and it remains long on the grass — when the fog in the valleys is slowly dissipated by the sun's heat, and lingers on the hills — when the clouds a{)- parently take a higher station, and espe- cially when a few cirro-strati aj);>e;ir loose or slightly connected, lying at rest or gently floating along, serene weather may be confidently expected. A change of this settled state is presaged by the wind sud- denly rising, by close continuous cirro- strati gathering into an unbroken gloom, and by that variety (of cirrus) known as the goat's-hairorgray-mare's-tail. Some- times a few fleecy clouds skim rapidly be- tween the superincumbent vapour and the earth's surface, and are the forerunners of snow or rain,'' (the scud). " Should the cirri not pass away with the immediate fall, but extend towards the horizon, and present their troubled edges towards the zenith, there will be stormy weather for some time. When a modification of the cirro-stratus is formed to leeward, thick in the middle, and wasting at both ends, with its side to the wind like a ship lying to^ it indicates continued wind. After a clear frost, we sometimes see long whitish- coloured streaks of cirrus, (cirro-stratus,) whose two extremities seemingly approach each other as they recede from the zenith. This appearance is vulgarly called Noah's- ark ; and if it point from S.W. to N.E., we expect a thaw from S.W. Small blackish boat-shaped clouds rising in the W., and moving sideways, indicate a thaw, with little or no rain. A short glare of red in the E., about sun-rising, portends a rainy and windy day. When the sky shines from the watery exhalations around the 7nid-day sun, rain or snow will soon follow ; when it has a green appearance to the E. or N.E., frost and snow. A crimson red in the W., after sunset, indicates fair weather ; a purple red indicates sleet. Atmospheric changes are more likely to happen a few days after new and full moon than in the quarters. The point when she changes seems to have little influence ; if in the N.W. or N,W. by W., it is often succeeded by boisterous weather. When her horns are sharp and well-defined, we look for frost ; when she is whitish and not very clear, for rain or snow. If the new moon seems to embrace the old, very stormy weather is likely to follow. Halos are seen only when the cirro-strati are slightly but equally diffused over the sky ; the sun or moon seems ' to wander tlirongh the storm,' which is at no great distance. One side of the halo is often Kmc'uiU:' Cvu.jih-U- Cuitrse of Meteorology, 'p. 413. PRACTICI-:— SUMMER. open or imperfectly formerl, owing to the denseness of tlie vaj>oiir. and points to the quarter from wliich the storm is approach- in »». . , . Aurora borealis ia most likely to appear in changeable weather, and is often followed by a S.W. wind. From the apjtearance of falling stars, it may be inferred that the etpiilibrium of the atmosphere, held probably by the agency of electricity, is destroyed. They generally forbode wind, and when many of them are seen, they are faithful though silent monitors, warning us to prepare, with the earliest dawn, for the coming storm. There is often much lightning in the night, both with and without clouds, which announces unsettled weather, espe- cially if it be whitish in colour. When the M-ind shifts to the west, after rain from S. or S.W., it generally fairs up, or there are but a few showers. Frost and snow from S.W. are forerunners of bad weather. If the wind turn suddenly from S.W. or S. to N.X.E., while this is accom- panied with a smell resembling that of coal smoke, a severe storm will follow. The lower animals, but such especially as are in a state of nature, or exposed in the open fields, are very susceptible of atmo- spheric changes. Sheep eat greedily before a storm, and sparingly before a thaw. When they leave the high parts of their range — when they bleat much in the even- ing or during the night, we may exj)ect severe weather. Goats seek a ])lace of shelter, while swine carry litter, and cover themselves better than ordinary, before a storm. Wind is foretold by the cat scratching a post or wall — and a thaw, when she washes her face, or when frogs come from their winter concealment. The gathering of grouse into large flocks, the diving of sparrows in dry dust, the flutter- ing of wild-ducks as they flap their wings, the dismal lengthened howl of sea-gulls in an inland place or around lakes, the mournful note of the curlew, the shrill whew of the plover, the ichet-whet-whct of the chaffinch perched upon a tree, the crowing of the cock at unusual times — all prognosticate rain or snow. When the fieldfare, redwing, starling, swan, snow- fleck, and other birds of passage, arrive soon from the north, it indicates an early and severe winter. When gnats bite keenly, when flies keep near the ground, (shown by swallows, which feed upon the wing, flying low,) we look for wind and rain. But the most wonderful instance of atmospherical changes is upon those crea- tures that burrow in the ground. The earth-worm aj»pearing in abundance indi- cates rain. In like manner, the mole seems to feel its approach, as, a day or two before, he raises more hillocks than usual ; and when, after a long severe frost, he begins again to work, it will soon be- come fresh. The efl'ects of electricity are well known both on the atmosphere and on animals ; and the deposition of aqueous vapours, with the relaxing damp near the surface of the earth, which in certain states takes place, may give rise to this increased activity."* 3060. The strong and refreshing smell which is felt sometimes when showers first fall, after a long drought in summer, is not an invariable attendant on them, even under the circumstances which seem to indicate a strong positive electricity, such as the rising of the barometer in rain. The highly electrified water of summer thunder-storms produces this smell the strongest ; and it is weakest with the cold, and ]ierliaps even electric rain, which sometimes falls after the condensation of a sj)reading sheet of cirro-stratusinto nimbus, with a cold atmosphere. 30()1. I think every one, besides per- sons of a nervous temperament, have felt the truth of the following observations of Mr Forster, on the efl'ects of certain states of the atmosj)here on the hair of the head : — " In people of what are called nervous and susceptible constitutions,'' he says, " I have frequently noticed a remarkable va- riety in the apj earanceof the hairs on the head : they have appeared at times dimi- nished in quantity ; at others, superabun- dant. I have examined them carefully in each of their states, and found their a]'j)a- rent diminution to consist in the shafts themselves becoming smaller, drier, htsing their tension, and lying in closer contact. I was once inclined to attribute their closer contact to a diminuticm of their electricity, by which they would become mutually repulsive : this, however, does * New Statistical Account of Scotland— Ys-rrovr, Selkirkshire, p. 31-4. SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. not seem sufficient to account for their de- crease in size. The shaft may possibly be organised throughout, and its enhirgeinent may be caused by an increased action of its vessels ; there may also be an aeriform perspiration into its cavity, on an increase of which it may be more distended ; and the increased size and tension of the shaft may result from the co-operation of these two causes. The increased size, strength, and tension of the hair, appear to accom- pany health, while the opposite state seems to be connected with disorder. The sym- pathies between the skin and stomach have been frequently adverted to by physiolo- gists : the skin has been found to be alter- nately dry and hot, moist and hot, dry and cold, moist and cold ; and these varieties have been attributed to varieties in the state of the stomach, between which and the skin a very direct sympathy is be- lieved to exist."* 3062. Variety of states in the hair of animals is frequently observed in all classes of the domesticated animals ; and the difference is invariably ascribed either to the pleasant or disagreeable state of the air, or to the functional derangements or activity of the stomach and bowels. As the food in pasture is nearly always the same, any change of the condition of the hair of animals in summer on pasture, must be ascribed to the changes observable in the state of the atmosphere ; and from the recognised sympathy existing between the skin and the stomach, the changes in the state of the hair may safely be ascribed to arise from the altered states of the air. 3063, Mean of the atmospherical pheno- mena occurring in summer is as follows: — Mean of the barometer in England in May, . , . 30-03 inches. June, . . . 29-98 „ July> • . . 30-04 ^ Mean of summer, 3005 ^ Mean of the thermometer in England in Tension of vapour for 59°"9=26*83. Mean fall of rain in England in May, . . . 1-37 inches. June, . . . 2-71 ^ July, . . . 1-66 „ May, June, July, 54°-6 61°-3 63°-8 Mean of summer, 59°-9 Mean of summer, 1-91 Prevailing winds in England in May, . . . E. to N. June, . . . W by N. to N.E. July, . . . W. by S. to E. Number of storms in the west of Europe in summer is 525 iu 100. Number of hail -storms in England in summer is 3 in 100. Aurora borealis observed in May, . . , 184 times. June, ... 65 _ July, ... 87 ~ Number of fire-balls seen in May, 46 June, 20 July, 47 The least number of fire-balls occurs in June, and doubtless the length of the days in summer allows a great many of these meteors to pass unperceived. 3064. No circumstance shows so stronifly the inconvenience to farmino" of arrangmg spring and summer according to the calendar months, than in directing the sowing of the numerous sorts of crops, which must be undertaken at the end of the one and the beginning of the other season, Tiie sowing goes on progressively of one crop after another, from the sowing of beans in February to that of turnips at the end of June; and all that period may be regarded as spring, in as far as field ope- rations are concerned, and yet the latter date brings us a great way into summer. This being the case, many of the crops may as well be sown at the commence- ment of summer as at the end of spring. Thus flux may be sown in April as well as May, and kohl-rabi may be begun to be sown in March as well as in May, ac- cording to the mode of culture followed. As regards the crops, therefore, about to be sown at the commencement of summer, it must not be deemed an absolute requi- site to sow them at that season. The proper time for sowing each crop is speci- fically mentioned, irrespective of the place * Forster's Researches about Atmospherical Phenomena, p. 180. 24 PRACTICE— SUMMER. it may happen to occupy in the spring or siiniiner season, as we have divided these. The real point to attend to is, the order of succession in whicii the different crops follow each other; and which they inva- riably do every year. With this explana- tion, the description of the sowing of the crops will he continued. 30G.5. All the root crops are sown just now, beginning with kohl-rabi, and ending ■with the turnip. The land for all these is worked, cleaned, drilled, dunged, and sown. The culturcof the turnip is a most important and busy occupation, affording much occupation in singling and hoeing the plants the greater part of the sum- mer. 3066. The period has now arrived for disposing of the fat cattle to the butcher or dealer, as they are never put to grass. The fat sheep are also disposed of, except when it is desired to take off their fleece before parting with them, when they are allowed to pasture until the season becomes warm enough for them to be shorn. 30 G 7. Before any of the stock is put on gras.^, it is the duty of the hedger to mend every gap in the hedges, and to have the gaps in the stone walls, and the gates of the fields in grass put into repair. 3068. Young cattle, sheep, and cows, are now put on pasture, to remain all summer. Cattle and sheep graze well together, as the formerbite the grass high, and the latter, following, bite it still lower. For the same reason, horses and cattle graze well together. As both horses and sheep bite low, they are not suitable com- panions on pasture; and horses, besides, often take delight in annoying sheep, by biting and kicking them. 3069. Sheep-shearing is never com- menced until theweather becomes as warm as not to chill the sheep, after the priva- tion of their coats of wool. 3070. Horses now live entirely another sort of life, being transferred "from the thraldom of the stall-collar in the stable to the perfect liberty of the pasture-field, and none of the animals enjoy themselves there more heartily. 3071. The brood raare now brings forth her foal, and receives immunity from labour for a time. 3072. Hay-making is represented by poets as a labour accompanied with un- alloyed pleasure. Lads and lasses are doubtless then as merry as chirping grass- hoppers ; but haymaking is in sober truth a labour of much heat and toil, the wield- ing of the hayrake and pitchfork in hot weather, for the live-long day, being no child's play. 3073. The separation of the lamb from the ewe is now effected, and the marks of age, sex, and ownership are stamped upon the flock. 3074. The forage-plants on farms in the neighbourhood of towns are now disposed of to cow-feeders and carters. 3075. Butter and cheese are made on dairy-farms as often as the requisite sup- ply of milk will warrant. 3076. Summer, of all the seasons, is the most appropriate for the farmer to make serious attacks upon weeds, those spoilers of his fields and contaminators of his grains. Whether in pasture, on tilled ground, along drills of green crops, amongst growing corn, or in hedges, young and old, weeds are daily exterminated; and the extermination is most efiectually ac- complished by the minute and jjainstaking exertions of female field-workers; for which purpose they are provided with appropriate implements. 3077. This is the season in which all manner of insects attack both crops and stock, much to their injury and annoy- 307S. Although yet early, preparations are made in summer for the next year's crop. The fallow land is worked, cleaned, and manured, and perhaps also limed, to be in readiness for the wheat seed in autumn. 3079. The top-dressingof growingcrops, with specific manures, is a recent introduc- tion into fanning. The subject is not yet matured, from want of sufficient experience Library K. C. State Colleire SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. 25 in the peculiar action of each specific, but enough is already known of that to en- courage the farmer to employ tliem, in the fittest state of the weather and the crops. 3080. The hours devoted to field-work in summer vary in difierent parts of tlie country. On the Borders it is tlie practice to go as early as 4 o'clock in the morning to the yoke, and the forenoon's work is over by 9, and time is given for rest in the heat of the day. The afternoon's yoking commences at 1 o'clock, and continues till 6. Thus 10 hours are spent in the fields. But in other parts of the country, the morn- ing yokingdoes not commence till 6 o'clock, and, on terminating at 11, only two hours are allowed for rest and dinner till 1 o'clock, when the afternoon's yoking begins. In most places the afternoon yoking does not commence till 2 o'clock, and, finishing at 6, only 9 hours are spent in the fields, or it is continued to 7 o'clock. In other parts, only 4 hours are spent in the morning yoking, when the horses are let loose at 10 o'clock, and, on yoking again from 2 to 6 in the afternoon, only 8 liours are devoted to work in the fields, the men being employed elsewhere by themselves for 2 hours. This practice is pursued where tlie ploughmen are made to do the work of field-workers, and a large number of draughts are kept. Perhaps tlie best division of time is to yoke at 5 o'clock in the morning, loose at 10, yoke again at 1, and loose at 6 in the evening, giving 3 hours of rest to man and horse at the height of the day, and 10 hours of work in the field. 3081 . Day-labourers, when not working along with horses, as well as field-workers, usually work from 7 to 12, and from 1 to 6 o'clock in the evening, having one hour for rest and dinner. Wlien labourers take their dinner to the field, this is a conve- nient enough division of time ; bat when they have to go home to dinner, one hour is too little for dinner and rest between tlieyokings — and rest is absolutely neces- sary, as neither men nor women are able to work 10 hours without more tiiaii an interval of an hour. It would be a better arrangement for field-workers to go to work at 6 instead of 7, and loose at 1 1 instead of 12, when they have to go home to din- ner; but if they take their dinners to the field, one hour is sufficient for rest and din- ner at the same time. When field-workers labour in connexion with the teams, they must conform with their hours of labour. 3082. The long hours of a summer day, of which at least ten are spent in the fields — the ordinary high temperature of the air, which suffuses the body of the country labourer in constant perspiration — and the fatiguing nature of all field-work in sum- mer, bear hard as well on the mental as the physical energies, and cause him to seek rest at a comparatively early hour of the evening. None but those who have experienced the fatigue of working in the fields, in hot weather, for long hours, can sufiiciently appreciate the luxury of rest — a feeling truthfully depicted in these beautiful lines : — " Night is the time for rest. How sweet, when labours close, To gather round the aching breast Tlie curtain of repose— Stretcli the tired limbs, and lay the head Upon one's own delightful bed !" James Montgomery. 3083. Every operation, in summer, re- quires the constant attention of the farmer. Where natural agencies exert their most active influences on vegetation, he requires to put forth his most active exertions to co- operate with the very rapid changes they produce. Should he have, besides, field experiments in hand, the demands upon his attention and time will be the more urgent, and he must devote both, if he would reap the greatest advantage derivable from experimental results. 3084. Summer is the only season in which the farmer has liberty to leave home without incurring the blame of neglecting his business, and even then the time he has to spare is very limited. Strictly speak- ing, he has only about a fortnight between finishing the fallow and the commence- ment of harvest, in Avhich to have leisure to travel. Such a limitation of time is to be regretted, as a journey once a year to witness the farm-operations conducted in other parts of the kingdom, would en- lighten him on many uncertain points of practice. Such an excursion could not be undertaken by a farmer, who is generally a man of observation, without his acquir- inir confidence in good and i-eceiving con- viction against bad practices. A journey PRACTICE— SUMMER. exliil)itsmanl!.'i.spects,clevates the niiiul above local |ire)ii(liees, and ati'ords a clearer understandini,' ol' places and cus- toms, when reading' about them in the pub- lications of the day. As husbandry is a protrrcssive art, a ramble of a few weeks in liiHerent parts of the country cannot fail to erdighten the most experienced far- mer, much beyond what he can observe around him and peruse in books by always remaining at home. By intrusting the fallow operations to his work people, he might in occasional seasons have as much as a month to si)end in useful travel. ON THE DAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES. 3085. The hay-stack is never broken in upon until the horses get hay in spring, and this is delayed a longer or shorter time, according as there is other nourishing food for horses on the farm. Where good bean- etraw abounds, the hay may be saved until later in the spring, when that sort of straw becomes too dry ; but on farms where no beans are grown, the horses should have hay whenever the seed-time is commenced, whether with spring- wheat or with oats. The site of the hay-stack in the stack-yard S, Plate II., is at n, o])posite the hay-house H., and adjoining the work-horse stable O. The site of the hay-stack may be seen in the isometrical representation of the stack-yard in Plate I. fiOSO. As much of the stack is brought in as will fill the hay-house, and the hay is thence distributed to the h()r. Jerusalem \ _ qii •^*" ■• artichokes ( ■ " "^^^ 400 .. Wangnld-| _ 5 g wuizel, j 400 .. Swtdes, .. =676 400 . . Carrots, . . = 3S2 It may be concluded that the nutritive equiva- lent of the potato, mangold-wurzel, Jerusalem artichokes and carrots, as they are inferred from the amount of azote they contain, may be adopted without detriment to the health of horses. If they err at all, it is that they assign equivalents somewhat too high, making their actual nutritive power less than these numbers give it — so that, a ])ortion of the hay of the standard allowance being substituted for its equivalent of root, the diet will be improved. f * RadclifFe's Ariricidture of Flanderf, p. 259. ■I' Boussingault's Rural Ecunuiuy, Law's Translation, p. 522-48. 28 PRACTICE— SUAOIER. 3093. The composition of the ash of hay is as follows : — Meadow ■hiiy. R ye (trtun ! Uoi my, ^AlIT. TmtUM'. Potash, . 1811 29-03 8-03 Soda, . 1-35 2 44 217 Lime, . . 22-95 1636 650 Iklasnesia, . 6-75 8-82 401 Oxide of iron, alumina ,4c. 169 0-64 O-S*) Phosplioric acid, . . 597 5-63 12-51 Sulphuric acid. . 2-70 3-08 Clilorine, . 2-59 2-97 Silica, . } . 37-89 31-03 64-57 100-00 100-00 98-15 Percentatre of ash in tlie dry state, 6-00 6-20 589. 3094. €rood old hay is long and large, hard and tough ; colour inclining to green rather than to white ; has a sweet taste and fragrant smell, and when infused in hot water produces a rich dark-coloured tea. In damp weather good hay absorbs moisture, and becomes heavier. A truss of good old hay weighs 56 lb. 3095. Bad hay will change a horse's appear- ance in two days, even with an unlimited quan- tity of corn. The kidneys are excited by it to extraordinary activity. The urine, which in this disease is always perfectly transparent, is discharged very frequently and in copious pro- fusion. The horse soon becomes hidebound, emaciated, and feeble. His thirst is excessive. He never refuses water, and he drinks as if he would never give over. The disease does not produce death, but it renders the horse useless, and ruins the constitution. Musty hay is said to be bad " fur the wind," and it is certainly so for every part of the body.+ ON THE SOWING AND SUMMER TREATMENT OF FLAX. SOOfi. The flax plant requires a deep mellow loamy soil, aboundinLr in vegetable matter, and equally removed from strong clay and thin gravel — on the former the plant would grow too strong and branchy, Fig. yielding coarse fibre, and on the latter the crop would be too scanty. Soil in too higii a condition aI;«o causes flax to grow rank and branching, and the fibre coarse. 3097. The finest condition of the flax crop is best attained by sowing it after a corn crop or after lea — as, after a green crop that has been manured, it grows too rank and coarse. When grown after lea, flax may be raised on stronger soil than alter any cereal crop. •3008. Whether after cereals or lea, the land to be cropped by flax should be ploughed early in autumn, to receive the full influences of the winter frost, as it cannot be in too fine a state of pulveri- sation for receiving the flax seed. To obtain this state of the soil, the cross- ploughing should be executed as early as possible in spring, (2613,) taking care not to do it in wet weather, or when the soil is in a wet state, as the least dry weather afterwaiils will render the soil hard and dirticult to pulverise. Any clods left on the surface, after a double turn of the harrows, should be reduced by rolling ; but there are other implements better adapted for pulverising the soil than the smooth roller, fig. 222. 3090. CrosskilVs clod-crusher. — This is one of the most efficient implements of its class, and is represented in jierspective in fig. 243, where a a is the roller, six feet in length, and 30 inches in diameter ; b a cast-iron end frame, at each end of the roller, bolted to the wooden frame c c, to which are bolted the horse shafts d d. 243. crosskill's clod-cru.sher. * Johnston's Lectures on A> I. KrJ. OK THE CLOD-CRUSHER. 3101. This implement has been but partially used by Scottish farmers within these few years, though it is extensively used in England — perhaps on account of the much greater extent of clay soils, which are most subject to induration. Where the implement has been used in Scotland, the results have proved equally favourable on strong and light soils — in pulverising the former and consolidat- ing the latter. The price is a bar to its introduction into Scotland, as the smallest size is £ 1 8. The weight of the implement is 26 cwt. ; it forms a good draught for two horses, and frequently for three. 3102. Hepburn's double conical land- roller. — Another implement of this class is the double conical roller, in- vented by J. Stewart Hepburn, Esq. of Colquhalzie, near Creiff", Perth- shire. The leading feature of this im- ]>lement is to give the roller a conical form, and to add to it a series of trans- verse parallel flutings carried round the conical surface. Two of these conical irustums are placed jn one frame, base to base, but having their axes so inclined tliat the fore part of the periphrasis, and also those parts which lie on the ground, shall be in a straight line. Fig. 245 re- presents this implement in perspective in the most approved form, where a a is the framework, similar to that of the common land-roller, fig. 222, surmounted by three horse shafts b b b, for yoking two horses abreast. The three pendant bars c c e carry the axles of the two cones d d, in- 245. HSPBURN'S DOUBLS CONICAL LAND-ROLLXK. 80 PRACTICE— SUMMER. clined aa above described. A light frame e is attached to carry the scrapers which clear the flutings of adhering earth. 3103. The effects of this form of roller upon the surface are peculiar and impor- tant. While the smooth cylindrical roller acts merely by its j)ressure on the rough soil, the conical form as here arranged will, besides acting by direct pressure, produce a strictly pulverising effect, for the cones having a constant tendency to Fig, move outward in a circle, and being re- ."^trained by the bearings in which they revolve, their surface will produce a crush- ing and abrading action well adapted for the pulverisation of the soil.* 3104. Noriregian harrows. — Another pulverising implement which has recently been introduced into practice, is the Nor- wegian harrows. Fig. 246 is a view in perspective of these harnnvs, where a aa is a frame, supported by two wheels i, 246. THE NORWEGIAN HARROWS. ■which give locomotion to the machine. The into smaller ones, and the third row splits lower bars of the frame a support three those smallest pieces into still smaller ones; axles, in the same plane, threading a nnin- so that, by the time the clods have undor- ber of discs containing each 6 long rays c, gone those various sj)littings, they are })ro- which, being loose, revolve round their bably sufficiently j)ulverised ; but if not, centres by successive insertions of their they may be so by another similar process points into the ground. The frame a is of splitting, prolonged in a triangular form to itself; and as is about the middle of April. soon as the flax ])lant shall have attained the height of an inch, so as to be identi- 3111. Linseed is of an oblong lenticular fied from weeds, the ground should be form, having as smooth a surface as to freed of them. The flax being best cul- appear oily, and it should feel heavy and tivated in broadcast, and thickly sown, seem j)lump and fresh. It is obtained of the only practicable way of weeding the tl'.e finest quality for sowing from Russia, ground is with the hand; and as the plant of the variety called ^/^aX;/rt^/i, which the is not of a succulent nature, but firm Dutch obtain for their sowing seed from and elastic, even when young it is not in- Riira, It weighs about 52 lb. per bushel, jured by the weeders kneeling or ly- ai'd affi rds 840 seeds to 1 drachm weight, ing upon it in the act of weeding. The (i32.:J.) As good seed is of great import- weeding sliould be done effectually, and if ance in the success of the flax crop, so once done, the weeds will nut again * Wanies' Sugijestiona for Fattening Cattle on Nntlre Produce, p. 8, 1st edition. + Radclitf's Agriculture of Flaiuhrs, p. 42. ss PRACTICE— SUMMER. trouble tlie crop in clean ground, Lefore it grows beyond danger ; ami although band-weeding costs several shillings per acre, according to the state of the ground, the increased value of the crop will more than repay the cost. 3116. Besides the common surface and root weeds wliich infest the soil, according to its nature, th.ere are others specially found amongst flax : of these, one is the common Gold (if Pleasure, C'/w^'/fM'/ satira, the seelace, the dodder twists itself round the flax, and throws out from the side next to its victim several small processes, which penetrate the outer coat or cuticle of the flax, and act as suckers, by which the parasitical dodder appropriates to its otcn use the sap which has been prepared in the Jinx, upon which the growth of the Jiax depends. The dodder then separates itself from the ground, and relies solelv uj)on the flax for its nourishment, producing long slender leafless stems, which attach themselves to each stem of flax that comes in their way. Thus large masses of the crop are matted together, and so much weakened a.s to become almost useless. This plant produces great tpiantities of seed, which is usually threshed with the flax-seed, and sown again with it in tho suc- ceeding year. Several years since, I took considerable trouble to ascertain if all foreign flax-seed was mixed with that of the dodder, and was led to the conclusion that the American flax-seeil is nearlv free from this pest, and that that from Kussia, and especially from Odessa, is peculiarly infected with it."* A thorouirh weeding; will remove this pest from the soil before it has the power of injuring the flax-plaut. 3118. The flax, Linum usitatittimum, from the Celtic Lin, a thread, is in the class and order Pentandria Pentaijynia of Linnaus; in the order Li new of the natural system of Jussieu ; and in the clas.s Ilyyiogynuus Exogens ; alliance 36, Geraniales ; order 183, Linacea; genus 1 Linum, of the natural system of Lindley. The plant is scattered more or less over most parts of the globe. 3119. The meal of the seed of the common flax is used for poultices. The infusion is demulcent and emollient. The oil, mixed with lime water, has been a favourite application to burns. The tenacious and delicate fibre obtained from this plant forms the most beautiful of our linen fabrics. 3120. The oil extracted from linseed (1323) is much used in the arts. The best is that which is cold drawn. The warm drawn is obtained by heating the seed by steam to a temperature of 200° Fahrenheit; and as the heat liquifies the oil, no doubt more is obtained of it by this pro- cess than the cold one. The oil is expressed by putting both the cold and the hot seeds into flan- nel bags, and subjecting them to enormous pres- sure by means either of wedges driven by weighty hammers, or of the hydraulic press, (107.) This oil may be used in fattening cattle, (1322. ) Cold- drawu linseed oil is the best substance for polish- ing furniture of mahogany. 3121. The compressed husk left in the bag, after the expression of the oil, takes the form of a cake — the oil-cake. The English cake weighs about 3 lb., and sells from £10 to £11 per 1000. The oil-cake imported from Denmark, Holland, or America, is sold from £7 to £9 per ton. At £7 the price is three farthings the pound, and at £11, it is about one-penny two-tenths. At Id. the pound the price is £9, 6s. 8d. per ton. That which comes from Flensburg in Schleswig-Hol- steiu is esteemed the best of the foreign cake. The machinery abroad being generally inferior to that of this country, the foreign cake may be supposed to contain more oil than the English, which conjecture chemical analysis has confirmed, (1268.) 3122. Mr James Bruce, Waughton, East Lo- thian, made experiments in 1844. to ascertain tlie comparative value of English and foreign oil- cake in the feeding of sheep; and on two lots of twenty dinmonts each, having as nnich Swedish turnips as they could eat, with 16 oz. eave ground by tlie embryo, are greedily devoured ijy those birds. 3136. The rows admit of the ground beini: easily kept free of weeds with tiie band Ime or hor>e hoe in summer, but the hemp plant? will soon grow u|) and over- top the wecfls, which will be kept down ever after. Care should be taken in weed- ing not to break down the young plants, as they will never rise again. 3137. The hemp plant is not suited to the climate of Scotland I have seen it cultivated there bur once, and that in the farm of Kinnear in Fifesliire, when it was in the possession of the late Mr James Meldrum. It grew in a flat holm of small extent, and had attained the height of about 6 feet, and was in bloom at the time. In England it is grown in many localities, but perhaps most successfully in Suffolk and Lincolnshire. 3138. Hemp would no doubt be bene- fited by a top-dressing of some manure, after it fairly assumed the form of a plant ; and as pigeons' dung is considered by many cultivators as good manuring for hemp, guano, to the extent of 2 or 3 cwt. the acre, would {>erhaps be the best ingredient for the top-dressing. 31 39. The hemp, Cannabis fatita, beloni's to the class and order Diwcia Pentandria of Lin- naeus, which have the male and female flowers on diflFerent plants, and on which account it is un- known, when hemp-seed is sown, whether the plants produced will be male or female. In com- mon parlance, the plant which bears the seed is called the male, whereas it is the female. Hemp is of the order Urliacece of the natural system of Jussieu, and is therefore closely allied to the common nettle ; and it is of the Diclinous Exo- gevs — alliance 19, Urticales — order 86, Can- nabinacew — genus Canna'/is of the natural sys- stem of Lindley. Stem upright, from 5 to 8 toet, strong and branching. Its valuable fibre makes the cordage of our ships. It is a native of the cooler parts of India, and is not cultivated there for its fibre, but for its intoxicating property. Dr Liudley says that " it appears to owe its narcotic properties to the presence of a resin which is not found in Europe. This resin exudes in In-lia from the leaves, slender branches, and fli>wt'rs; when collected into masses it is the chuiTus, or cherrls, of Nepal. Its odour is fragrant and narcotic, its taste slightly warm, bitteri-h, and acrid." The hemp plant of India is a le:;umen of the order Fabacea;, Crotolaria juncea, the sun hemp, which aifords a coarse fibre, from which bags and low-priced canvxss are largely prepared. 3140 " .\ccording to the observation of Vau- clier of Geneva, the seeds of Orabanche raviosa will lie many years in the soil unles.s they come in contact with the roots of hemp, the plant upon which that species grows parasilically, when they immediately sprout. The manner in wiiich the seeds of orabanche attach themselves to the plant- on which they grow has been observ. d by Schlauter. This writer states that they only .-eize seedlings, and are unable to attack root^ of stronger growth." * 3141. An oil is expressed from the seed of hemp, which is " employed with great advantage in the lump, and in coarse painting. They gire a paste made of it to hogs and horses, to fatten them. It enters into the composition of black soap, the u.-e of which is very common in the manufacture of stuffs and felts ; and it is also • Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom, p. 265, 549, and 61 THE CULTURE OF THE HOP. S6 used for tanning nets."* The proportion of oil from the seed varies from 14 to 25 per cent. 3142. The price of hemp-seed in 1849 is for the small and the large from 34s. to 36s. the quarter. It is used for feeding birds, and those of the finch tribe are remarkably fond of it. 3143. The composition of hemp-eeed, according to Bucholz, is as follows : — Oil, Husk, &c., .... Woody fibre and straw, Sugar, &c., .... Mucilage, .... Soluble albumen, (casein ?) . Fatty matter. Loss, 19-1 38-3 5-0 1-6 9-0 247 1-6 0-7 1000 3144. The composition of the ash of the hemp- seed is this : — Potash, Soda, ... Lime, . JIagnesia, . Oxide of iron, Phosphoric acid, . Sulphate of lime, Chloride of sodium. Silica, Percentage of ash, 21-67 o-m 26-63 1-00 0-77 34-96 0-18 0 09 14-04 10000 5-(;0t ON THE PLANTING, AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE HOP. 3145. Formatio7i of a new hop ground. — Tlie soil for the hop should be deep and mellow, and if resting on a fissured rock, 60 much the better. An old garden, or an old meadow, forms the best site for a hop- ground. In every case the ground should be dry, that is, not subject to stagnant water, and, if not naturally dry, should be made so by thorough drainage. 3146. To afford sufficient room for the roots of the plants, the drain in a hop- ground should not be less than 4 feet deep, and the distances between the drains luav be from 15 to 35 feet, according to the porousness of the subsoil. The expense may be stated at £6 the acre. 3147. The exposure of a hop-ground should not be directly to that of the nieri- be subjected to the extreme temperatures prevailing every day ; but it should rather be to the north on gently sloping ground, to receive a modified temperature, and to be away from tlie force of the prevailing S.W. winds. The sloping ground will also be favourable iu evading the blights pre- valent in the flat grounds of hollow val- leys. 3148. The preparation of a new hop- ground, after its thorough drainage, should be the trenching of the soil to the depth of 2^ feet, which may be effected in this manner: — Let the ground be laid off in spaces of 15 feet iu breadth to the length of the hop-ground. Let the surface mould to the depth of 15 inches, and 3 feet in breadth across the 1 5 feet space, be taken away with the common spade, fig 237, to the opposite corner of the other side of the ground, to be ready to finish the trenching when it arrives at that point ; and should a portion of the subsoil be required to be stirred, to make up the 15 inches of the surface so taken away, let it be so ; and should the spade not be able to cut the subsoil, let the foot-pick, fig. 247, be em- ployed to loosen it for the spade. 3149. The foot- pick, fig. 247, is a very Fig. 247. efticieut implement for stirring the subsoil, when in an indurated state. It stands 3 feet 9 inches in height. The shank is of iron, three-quarter inch square at the neck, under the eye through which the cross handle passes, and it is \\ inch broad at the tramp. The tramp is movable, and may be shift- ed to either side of the shank to suit the working foot of the labourer, and it remains firm at 16 inciies from the point, which inclines a little for- ward, to assist the lever power of the implement in soil, or removing large stones The cost of a foot-pick is 63. 6d. THE FOOT-PICK. loosen ins: hard dian sun, because then the plants would The implement is used in this manner; • Wisset's Treatise on Hemp, which contains the sentiments of the best authorities on the cultiva- tion of this plant. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 381 atd 921. S6 PRACTICE— SUMMER. The workman raises it by the liandle with both his hands, •nitli the point bend- ing away from him, and tlirusts the j)oint with force into the ground, and woikt; it down with the pressure of his foot upon the tramp, until the instrument lias penetrated as far as the tramp. He then pulls the handle towards him, and the shank acting as a lever upon the surface of the ground, as a fulcrum, the point raises the ground before it, or displaces any stone that may Jie in its way. Should the ground be too hard to be affected by the power of the man's arms alone, he increases the power by pushing with successive impulses against the handle, upon which he sits, with the weight of the lower part of his body. 3150. Three men work best together when thus trenching ho])-ground. All use the spade alike when the surface mould is of the requisite depth, and no picking is required ; but when picking is needed, after a little of the surface has been removed, one man removes the surface, another picks the subsoil, and the third, generally the master workman, follows and shovels up the loose earth. 3151. After the surface has thus been removed, all the men take each a trenching-fork, such as fig. 248. This instrument consists of three connected prongs of iron, 15 inches in length, and 1^ inch in depth at the neck, tapering to a Fie 248 stout point. The prongs are connected with a hose, into which a wooden helve, with a short cross handle, is fastened. The entire fork stands 3 feet 9 inches in height, and costs 5s. It is used by thrusting the ])rongs into the subsoil with the pressure of the foot, like the common spade; and using the helve as a lever, the workman forces the prongs through the sub- stance of the subsoil, which is thereby ripped up into pieces, which are so far displaced, and deprived of all the stones of a larger size than the spaces between FORK with" the prongs. Should the THRKB PRONGS, stoncs bc Very large, the THE TRENCHING FORK WITH TWO PRONGS. THK TRENCHING- two-pronged fork, fig. 249, will remove them out of the ground with more ease to Fi' 24.0 ^''® men, and the subsoil be equally well subdivided and broken. 3152. When the bared space of 3 feet in breadth, 15 feet in length, and a spading in depth of 1 5 inches, has been fork- trenched by the 3 men, to the depth of the length of the prongs of 15 inches, the entire depth trenched will be 30 inches. The land is then manured thus : — Let a large dunghill of well-prepared and mixed farmyard dung be ready, near at hand to the hop- ground, and whenever each portion of the ground has thus been trenched, let some of the (lung be put upon the trenched pact with the graip, fig. 82, to the extent of 40 or 50 cubic yards to the acre. The dung is si>read equally and trampled firmly down, not to be easily displaced. 3153. Then, upon the dung, let the sur- face soil of the next breadth of 3 feet be thrown to the depth again of 15 inches, by the same process as formerly described. The surface turf should be placed over the dung, with the grass face downwards, and the succeeding soil and subsoil mixed over the turf by chopping with the spade, and rendering the entire soil uniform and firm. Every large stone in the soil should be thrown aside for drains, or breaking into road metal. I have been the more particular in describing the fork-trenching, as well as that by the spade here, where first allusions to the subjects have been made, that the process may not again have to be described. 3154. In this manner let the entire hop-ground be spade and fork trenched, and manured below at 15 inches in depth : and such a mode of trenching and manur- ing has the advantage of removing all the large stones of the subsoil and soil, to the depthof the trench; of placing good manure 15 inches under the surface soil, to nourish the roots of the hop plants when they THE CULTURE OF THE HOP. 37 reach it; and of maintainiug the natural relation subsisting betwixt the soil and subsoil. The trenching should be finislied by the end of autumn, at latest before the winter weather sets in ; and in that state the soil may remain until spring, and de- rive all the melioratinir effects of Irost and 3155. The cost of such a mode of trenchiug is considerable, but as the part trenched with the fork is done at less cost than by the spade, in proportion to the depth stirred, the depth of 2^ feet will cost no more than about 20 inches with the common spade ; because, in fork- trenching, the soil has not to be lifted up and turned over, but only stirred in its own place. The entire cost will, of course, depend on the quantity of stones to be removed, and the indurated nature of the soil and subsoil to be overcome; and, taking these at their worst state, the expense will not likely exceed £l the acre, including the putting in the dung. 3156. To avoid such an expense, it has been recommended to plough and sub- soil the ground simultaneously, the com- mon plough going before and turning over the soil, or a skim-plough going before and turning over a thiu furrow of the turf, fig. 240, followed by the common plough covering the tuif with soil, and then the subsoil plough to stir the subsoil in the last plough furrow. Tiiis process may stir the soil to the depth of from 15 to 18 inches, but when done, however well, is inefficient compared with the thorough trenching described above ; and although this may at first cost more than the com- bined ploughiugs, yet, in a case of estab- lishing a liop-grouud which has to remain perhaps for mauy years, the most substan- tial and the most satisfactory operation, and the most economical too, in the long run, is trenching by the spade and fork. 3157. Early in spring, in the end of March, the surface of the hop-ground should be harrowed and rolled, aud reduced to as fine a tiltii as practicable; and from 150 to 200 bushels of lime to the acre, according to the nature of the soil, should be applied to the surface and harrowed iu. 3158. Everything is now prepared for setting off the ground for the planting of the young plants. There are two methods of arranging the plants in a hop-ground — one in squares, and the other in quincunx; and of these two modes, the quincunx is the preferable, because the plants, stand- ing independently, are more exposed to sun and air ; a greater number of plants are placed on the same extent of ground, in the ratio of 1 20 to 100 ; and the ground can be cleaned nearer the plants with the horse- hoe. In fig. 250 is shown the square Fig. 250. ii'i'ii'' . '' THE SQUARE METHOD OF PLANTING HOPS. method, in which the hills of hops, such as a, are each surrounded, in a triangu- lar form, by three poles. In cleaning the ground with the horse-hoe from b to c, one pole is closely passed at each hill on the right, and two poles are as closely passed on the left hand ; and the same happens in cleaning the ground from d to e. On cleaning the ground in the direction at right angles to the former, as from /'to ^ and k to i, one pole is passed closely on both hands at each hill. The intersecting lines b c, and de, hyf, in one direction, and from b to /, and from ^ to A in another direction, and from d to i, and from k to / in a third direction, the ground is not only all stirred Fig. '251. ^^T^h ^ij^^^—tT^:-^^^" THE QUINCUNX METHOD OF PLANTING HOPS. close to each pole, which is as near the hop plants as any horse implement can ap- proach them, but the greatest proportion of it is twice, and some of it thrice stirred. Of the two methods, therefore, the quin- cunx not only saves much manual labour in cleaning the land, but stirs it the oftener. 3160. The maximum distance between the plants is reuulated by tlie combinatiun of the power of the soil, and tiie nature of the variety to produce the largest develop- ment of plant; and the minimum distance is determined by the room required to keep the ground clean. In the former case, the distance should not exceed 7 feet ; and for the latter purpose, it should not be less than 5q feet. Taking 6,^ feet as a good medium distance, the number of hills in the acre will be 1194 in the quin- cunx order, and 1031 in the square. The distances are set oft" by means of a mea- suring chain, and pins are stuck into the sites of the future plants. 3161. Young plants are produced in two ways, but both by cuttings from the prunings of the bines of the former year's growth, after the crop has been gathered from them. In the one case, the cuttings are inserted directly into the hills, where they are to remain permanently ; and in the other case, the sets are planted on a piece of ground for a year, to produce roots before being permanently inserted in the hills. With the cut sets is the risk of one or more of the plants dying in the hills before striking root, and, therefore, more are planted than are absolutely re- quired ; and should they all succeed in every hill, it becomes too crowded with plants. The number thus planted, is 5 in each hill. AVith bedded sets, as the others are termed, is little danger of loss ; and therefore only 3 are planted in each hill. Of the two methods, I would always prefer the latter, although the other is most practised, merely, perhaps, because it saves the trouble of transplanting the young plants, and of having to provide a ])iece of ground for rooting the sets in. Bedded sets can no doubt be purchased ; but some one, in that case, must take.more trouble than will supply himself, in pre- paring the plants for others. Mr Lance mentions the raising of plants from seed, but when it is considered that no reliance can be placed on the varieties raised from seed, this does not seem an advisable plan, except for exi)eriment to originate new varieties.* 3162. A hole is made in each hill where the ])in was stuck in on setting off the ground ; and before the plants are set into it, some rich compost, consisting of rotten dung, earth, and lime, is put into it, for encouraging the growth of the young roots, and to give them strength to strike down to the manure lielow. The rooted jilauts are set with their roots outwanls, and their stems inclinini; a little inwards, in triangu- lar order, and about six inches apart ; and on the earth being ])ressed around them over the stems, a ring is made on the ground around each hill to mark its place. 3163. There are many varieties of hops cultivated, ard some are greater favourites in one locality than others, being best suited to the soil, and also to other circum- stances prevailing in the locality. Some of the best varieties are the Golding, the Canterbury, the Grape, Jones, and Cole- gates, names directly derived from indi- viduals, places, and character of the pro- Lance's Hop Farmer, p. 53. THE CULTURE OF THE HOP. 39 dace of the plant. Whichever kind is chosen, it is desirable to have only one variety within one hop-ground, or 60 separated as to be distinct from each other in the same ground, because the pick- ing of the hups in the same piece of ground siiould take place at the same time, and different varieties require to be pulled at different times. And it is also desirable, in choosing different varieties, to have them to succeed one another in ripening, that too much work may not be thrown upon the workpeople at one time. Keejiing these distinctions in view, it would seem that the Golding or Canterbury may be taken as one variety, the Grape as another, and the Colegate as the latest. Some of the Jones are recommended, as the broken and short poles answer to sup- port them. 3164. Whatever varieties are chosen, as all sorts of hops are disecious, it is neces- sary to have male plants amongst the female which bear the crop. Many hop farmers contemn the male hop as be- ing useless ; but experience has suffi- ciently proved, and common sense supports it, that when male plants are present to impregnate the female, the crop is always better and heavier. To secure their ser- vices, therefore, a hill of male plants should be planted at every 10 or 12 hills, which will give a proportion of one male hill to every 100 or 120 hop-growing hills. A few extra hills of males on the side of the ground whence the prevailing winds blow, will tend still more to secure the impreg- nation of the female flowers. The effect of the impregnation is not a matter of fancy, since the impregnated flowers are always larger, firmer, and heavier, and never grow so loose and open as the spu- rious ones. 3165. These are all the particulars re- quisite for the furnishing of a new hop- ground ; and the expense per acre attend- ing them is as follows: — Draining, . . . .£600 Spade and fork trenching, . 7 0 0 Manure, 50 cubic yards, at 3s., 7 10 0 Lime, 200 bushels, at 6d., and spreading, . . . . 5 0 0 Harrowing and rolling, . . 0 2 0 Brought forward, £25 12 0 Setting off 1194 hills, at 6^ feet apart, . . , . . 0 2 0 Planting 11 94 hills of bedded sets, at 2s. 6d. per 100, . . 0 14 0 Compost for 1194 hills, . . 10 0 3582 bedded plants, at 6d. per 100, 0 17 0 Twisting the young bines, and re- pairing the hills in autumn, 0 15 0 £29 0 0 One man at 3s., an assistant at 23., and 2 boys at 6d. each, Is. — in all 6s. — v/ill set off 3 acres a-day : 2 men at 2s. each, 4s., and 1 boy at 6d. — in all 4s. 6d. — will plant 600 hills a-day. 3166. In the first year of a new hop- ground, the soil between the hills may be cropped with a green crop, manured for itself, in order to keep the ground clean, and cause it to make some return for the great outlay incurred in converting it into a hop-ground. 3167. During the summer, the young plants wmU put out bines, which must be supported by inserting beside them an old pole or stob, and fastening them to it. When bedded sets have been employed, a small crop of hops may be expected. 3168. In autumn, after the bines havA died down, they should be cut off, and a small mound of earth put over them, to remain all the winter. Some leave the bines on until after the ground is dug in spring, but the mounding the young roots preserves them safe all winter against frost. 3169. Digging. — As regards the treat- ment of the growing plants of a hop- ground, the soil is dug over in spring, a« early as its state will permit in March ; and this is done with a three-pronged tool named a hop-spud, having the forks or specns broad and flat, or with a square speen w'hich turns over the several piecea of the soil raised at each stroke. An experienced hand, with either of these implements, will turn over the ground more easily for him- self than with the common spade, which obliges him to lift as well as turn it over. Digging costs from 18s. to 20s. the acre. 51 70. Manuring. — The annual produce a lmri_fm»nTifl nnncicfinrr nf flip hnnfli di / u. jyianuring. — me annual proauco of a hop-ground, consisting of the faopa Carry forward, £25 12 0 and bines, being very considerable, and as 40 PRACTICE— SUMMER. the perennial nature of the plant does not permit it to he placed in the category of those plants of the farm which follow each other in any given rotation, it is necessary to manure the ground every year at least once, if not twice. The first manuring after the crop maybe given in the autumn or in spring, and if in the latter, the time to do it is before the digging of the ground commences. The best plan is to apply the manure twice a-year — in the spring, with farm-yard manure and rags, and during the summer with some assis- tant, as guano, rape-cake dust. Of farm- yard dung, from 25 to 30 cubic yards should be given to the acre. Black mould is an excellent application about the crown of the roots, and from 80 to 100 single horse-loads should be put on the acre. The dung and mould may be carted on the ground, if its state permit ; but the ma- nure applied and dug in in summer should be wheeled on to the land, and tlie operatitm will cost about Is. per 100 hills. Woollen rags cost £6 per ton, and from 12 to 20 cwt. per acre will be required. Woollen waste or shoddy may be had for £i per ton, and from 20 to 30 cwt. per acre will be required. 3171. Guano and rape-cake dust are convenient applications, in June and July, to be made around the plants and spread over the surface and hoed in with horse- labour in damp weather. About £4 of cost of either, to the acre, w ill suffice for one manuring. Some seem to doubt that the summer manuring does any good, but experience has proved, by comparative ex- periment, that the yield of crop is con- siderably increased by it. 3172. Dressing the shoots. — After the manuring and digging in spring, the shoots of the hops are dressed, and cuttings made from them. These are nice operations, and require an experienced hand to exe- cute them, otherwise the success of the future will be rendered doubtful. A recent author, Mr Rutley, writes thus particu- larly on this subject. After stating that a boy or woman opens around the stock of the hill, with a small narrow hoe, a little below the crown of the hill, "a man follows with a pruning-knife and a small hand hoe, with which he clears out the earth on the crown of the hill between the sets or shoots of last year that were tied to the poles ; and which, from having earth put on them the preceding sum- mer, swell out to four or five times their original size, and form what we call seta or cuttings; and it is the cutting them off at the right part that should be particu- larly attended to, or great injury may be done. It is therefore necessary that the person cutting them should ascertain exactly where the crown of the hill is, that he may not cut them too low or too high; and the place where they should be cut off is between the crown of the hill and the first joint, for it is around the set close to the crown where the best and most fruitful bine comes. If the set is pared off down too close to the stock or crown, it takes away the part from where that bine comes, as little buds are seen ready to shoot forth at the time of cutting, which, if cut off, the bines come weakly and few. On the other hand, if the set is cut off above the first joint, which sometimes will be the case, if the man in cutting does not pay the attention to it he ought, the bines which come from that or any other joint higher up the set grow fast, but are coarse, hollow, or what we call pipey, and unproductive : all such should be discarded at the time of tying. Consequently tlie operation of cutting or dressing, on which tlie future well-doing of the plant so much depends, is not left so much to the judgment or skill of the operator as to his care and attention. Many jdanters have their hops dressed by the day, paying extra wages to persons in whom tliey can confide to do it with care. After all the old bine and runners, as the roots and small rootlets near the surface are called, are cut and trimmed off clean; some fine earth is pulled over the crown, and a circle made round with the hand- picker, to intimate where the hill is before tLe young shoots appear." The male hills are particularly marked. The dressing should be finished before the end of March. It costs Gd. per 100 hills. 3173. Such of the sets as have two or more joints are selected to make a new hop- ground with, or sold for that purpose; but the cuttings should only be taken from the most healthy bines. 3171. Poling. — Everything is now ready THE CULTUEE OF THE HOP. 41 for the reception of the poles — for, the hop being a climbing plant, it is necessary that they be supplied with poles sufficiently strong and long to support them effec- tually. The best poles are of yew, next of chestnut, then larch, ash, willow, oak cut in winter, Scots fir, birch, alder, beech, in the order enumerated. As three poles are required for each hill, every acre of hop-ground requires 3600 poles. They cost Is. per foot the 100 poles — that is, poles of 20 feet in length cost 20s. the 100, or £36 the acre. They last from 3 to 5 years, according to the wood they are made of ; and thus, at the longest, 700 poles per acre are required to maintain the stock of poles in an efficient manner. 3175. To lessen this great expense, it has been suggested to employ stout wire to support the bines between a few strong poles; and I have no doubt, now that wire is extensively employed in field fencing, that it might be as usefully employed fe hop-grounds. The bines could be spread and tied with freedom on such wires, for exposure to sun and air, and the tyings could be effected with great ease and precision. 3176. The poles, when about to be set, are chosen in conformity to the variety of the hop they are intended to support; for if long poles are set beside a low-growing hop, the plant will be drawn too much up and prove unproductive; and, on the other hand, if the poles are too short for the plants, the tops of the plants will bend down and not branch out, and the crop will be smothered. Much, however, must be left to chance in this matter, as a favour- able season for vegetation will cause a short variety of hop to grow tall, and a stinting year will prevent the tallest attaining their proper height. The poles are new sharped at the ends every year ; and, when sharpening them, trial should be made of each jiole, whether it be strong enough above the sharpened point to bear a slight blov/, and if itcaunot, it would have broken off in high wind, and caused much incon- venience and loss. Whenever a pole proves doubtful, it should be cut short and sharped, to be used by a lower class of plants, or by the young plants in a new hop-ground. 3177. Three poles are set around each hill, as shown in figs. 250 and 251 : they are set from 18 inches to 2 feet apart, according to the strength of the plants to be supported. An instrument like the fold-pitcher, fig. 63, makes a hole deep enough to give the end of the pole a firm hold of the ground, which should be as many inches in depth as the pole is of height in feet. The pole is pushed down to the very bottom of the hole, and if it have any crook or set at the lower end, it is placed inwards to be out of the way of the horse in cleaning the ground ; and the top should have a lean outwards, to give room to the bines to branch; while the body of the pole should be as upright as possible, in order to give it the strongest position. The cost of poling and sharping is from Is. to Is. 6d. per 100 hills of three poles, according to the size of the poles and the nature of the ground ; and the carrying of new poles into tlie ground costs from Id. to 3d. per 100 poles. 3178. Many modes have been devised of setting the poles. A mode adapted by Mr Knowles, in Kent, seems to combine the advantages of affording shelter to the hop- ground, and of training the bines for the greatest production. The weather side of the ground is poled four hills deep, with 21 -feet poles in rows from end to end. To these are lashed similar poles, placed horizontally from pole to pole about eight feet above the ground; and each row of such lashed poles is bound to the nearest one, by means of horizontal poles similarly lashed and placed at right angles to them from the outside to the inside rows. By these means a phalanx of poles offers a sufficient resistance to the wind, and shelters the whole ground; and this plan has proved a means of increasing the quantity of hops grown on the outside row, which is covered with from 13 to 14 feet of hops from the top, and branched and clustered most heavily on the cross poles, thereby showing the advantage of keeping tiie tops of the plants firmly fixed, instead of allowing them to swing about in the wind. The increased ex- pense of poling a ground in this way is 30s. the acre, besides an extra hand at the poling; but the saving in a windy season is considerable, both in hops and poles. 42 PRACTICE— SUMMER. 3179. The best hops grown at Lewis- ham have been trainealt,) Silica, 3203. Of the Goldinghop bine, 1 lb. 24 oz. dried at a steam heat, lost 1 1 oz. of moisture, and left 1 lb. I oz. of dry bine. The dry bine burned, gave S.'iS grains of ashes, being at the rate of nearly 5 per cent. Of the yellow grape hop, 2 lb. 12 oz. of bine, dried, lost 41 oz. of moisture, leav- ing 2 lbs. 7 1 oz. of dry bine. The dry bine, in being burnt, gave 5.1 per cent of mineral matter. The composition of the ashes was as follows : — Ooldinc; Hop Yellow Gr.ip« leaves. Hop leaves. . 12.48 5.13 0.32 2.29 . 41.46 32.28 I..09 6.24 4.20 3.63 2.02 3.68 2.93 0.54 . 16.54 21.25 m- 7.92 4.58 . 10.14 20.38 100.00 100.00 Goldins Hop Yellow Grape bine. Hop bine. Potash, 18.62 12.97 Soda, 2.32 Lime, 29.59 17.39 Magnesia, 3.15 12.f;i Sulphuric acid, . 2.63 3.14 Phosphoric acid. 5.22 8.14 Phosphate of iron. 0.31 2.06 Phosjdiate of alumina. 1.55 Carbonic acid, . 23.51 24.18 Manganese, a trace. Chlorideof sodium (com- mon salt,) 4.95 9.98 Chloride of potassium, 7.38 Silica, 4.64 5.66 100.00 100.00* ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMEll CUL- TURE OP THE TURNIP. 3204. I shall now take for subject the culture of tlie turnip, because it is the most important root-crop cultivated, and whatever relates to it may ea.sily he applied to tlie culture of every other of the root-croMs culr.ivateet\veen the sheathes i i of the coul- ter for conveying the seed from the boxes to the ground: the bottoms fif the boxes are firmly attached to the bow A. Con- necting rods kk are attached to the seed- box frame, for regulating the depth of the 48 PRACTICE— SUMMER. coulter in the soil. The seed- barrels are mounted on axles within the box frame//, tlie outer extremity of wliich i.s furnished n-ith a pulley m, correspundiuij to another fixed in tlie end of tlie roller/, and both made to move by means of a jacl<-chain. The handles II move upon the joint l\ and when elevated draw the coulters i i out of the ground, and when depressed by the weight of the hand, keep them steady in the ground. An important function of this machine is its self-adjustment to the width of the drills. This is accomplished by the width between the pendants dh being greater than the length of the rollers, together with their attached pulleys and iron bows //, which admit of a ready lateral motion of the rollers, with their accompaniments of bow, coul- ters, and seed-boxes, so soon as the machine is put in progressive motion, and the curved rollers feel any unequal resis- tance right or left. Any such unequal resistance, on either end of the rollers, draws it immediately to that side where the resistance is felt, until it is fairh' ad- justed to the slojie of the drill ; the effect in this case being produced entirely by the action of the sloping sides of the drill against the conoidal sides of the rollers. 3209. Fig. 255 is a perspective view of the seed-barrel, detached from its seat ; Fig. 255. THE SEBD-BARREL. a a is the axle or spindle in which it re- volves, and on the longer end of wliich the pulley is placed. The barrel is formed of tin-plate, in two conical frusta, joined base to base, with a cylindrical band b interposed between the two, and the truncated ends are closed with discs of hard wood. The band b is usually di- vided into six equal parts, and at er.ch point of division three small apertures are i)unched out, each three varying in size from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch diameter, but all in the same order from more to less. A separate band is then fitted to the first, closed with a clasp- joint, and capable of being slid round, to a snudl extent, upon the interior band, and is, besides, provided with a j)incliing-screw, by which it can be fixed at any point within its range of motion, which does not necessarily exceed one inch. The movable band is likewise divided into six equal parts, and at each division a perforation is made larger than any of those in the in- terior. By these arrangements the mov- able band can be placed so as to expose any of the three sets of the six perforations of the inner band, whereby a greater or lesser quantity of seed can be sown accord- ing to circumstances. In the figure, the perforations are seen on the outer band; the clasp-joint also is seen near the upper side b of the figure ; and the pinching- screw and slit, by which it can be fixed oi moved, are seen in the middle of the figure. The slider d covers a hole by which the barrel can be filled or emi)ticd of seed. 3210, This machine is furnished with a pair of small covering rollers, made of any hard wood, mounted in light iron frames or shears, which are hooked on to a holt in the coulter-frame, and are thus drugged behind the machine. These rollers are not considered as forming an essential j)art of this drill, though they serve to compress light soils from drought, but on heavy soils a crust woidd be formed on the sur- face, should rain fall afterwards. The figure given here is from the machines as manufactured by !M!r James Slight, Edin- burgh. The price of this drill, in the ordinary state for sowing seed alone, ranges from £5 to £G, 10s. 3211. Several varieties of this drill are to be met with, in which the chief differ- ence lies in the nmde of communicating motion to the seed-barrel, and of throwing it out (if gear. 'J'his last particular may be regarded as a defect in the machine just described, and undoubtedly it is a de- fect; but the (juestion issimply whether it is more econtunical to lose ahalf oronepercent of seed every year, or pay a considerable addition in price to the original cost of the machine, which the adoption of the disen- THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP. 49 gaging principle would incur. For my part, I am so fond of having everything in the best state it can be obtained, that I would willingly pay the additional cost rather than want the power of stopping the issue of the seed when desired. 3212. Fig. 256 gives a view in perspec- Fig. 256. GEDDES' TWO-ROWBD TURNIP-SOWING DRILL. tive of a variety of turnip-drill, contrived by Mr Geddes, Cargen Bridge, Dumfries- shire. Its construction of parts is much the same as that already described, but tlie depression of the parts forming the frame- work gives the macliine an aj)pearance of compactness and strength. Tlie bed-frame a a is a plank, h are the pendants upon which the frame-work is sujiported upnu the axles of the curved rollers e e. The horse shafts c are bolted on the plauk a, and the handles dd are jointed to it, and, being embraced by open guards, per- mit the elevation and depression of the coulters by means of the chains k k, ac- cording to circumstances : y y are the seed-box frames; h are spur-gearing, shown exposed, by which the seed axles are moved; and ii are the hind covering wheels. 3213. The distributing apparatus in this machine is peculiar, and has been con- sidered to contain its principal merit, and supposed to afford a more cori-ect means of graduating the quantity to be sown than the common seed-barrel, fig. 255. This apparatus is very simple ; the interior of the seed-box is formed into a semi-cylin- der, which may be of wood or of tin-plate. VOL. II. Fig. 257 is a transverse section of this, d d being the interior surface of the box, Fig. '2H7. THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SEED-DISTRIBUTOR. in the bottom of which an opening is made to receive a brass roller b, having a groove running round it. The roller is mounted on an axle a which is pro- longed to a sufficient distance beyond the box for receiving the last wheel of the series already described, the connexion with which gives moticm to the roller b. A slider c is attached to the interior of the box, and capable of nice adjustment by a screw or otherwise. The lower end of the slider, whicli comes in contact with the roller, is formed with a tongue that enters into the groove, and the adjustment of the opening between the point of the tongue and the bottom of the groove determines 60 PRACTICE— SUMMER. the quantity of seed to be delivered. The expense of tliis inacliine, in consequence of the \N lieei-gearing, is greater liiau that of the niacliiiie above described. 3214. One-roiced turnip-drill. — Tiiese macliines are suitable for tlie larger class of farms, such as those which employ two or more pairs of horses; but for farms of a small class, having only oue pair of horses, a smaller class of machine might answer the purpose; and on this account I give the perspective view of a machine which sows one drill at a time with seed alone in fig. 2.JS, which (f)nsist5 of a frame of timber funned of the two handles a a framed 258. THE TURMP-BARROW FOR SOWING ONK DRILL. upon a broad transverse bar which carries the seed-biix. Besides the broad bar, a round stretcher is introduced near the ])oint of the stills, chiefly intended fur the attach- ment (if a drag-rope; an iron axle is placed below the frame, running in bushes or small pillow-blocks, and the two wheels b b are fitted to it, one of them fixed, the other running free. Two iron legs c c are boiled to the stilts, with stretcher and braces to render thein steady. A toothed spur-wheel d is fixed upon the axle, and this acts upon another e of etpial size fitted upon the spindle of the seed-barrel, which last is of the same construction as fig. 255. The seed barrel is mounted in the case/, anil the wheel e can be disengaged from the driving-wheel. The bottom of the 8ee.l-l)ox is formed into a funnel, termin- ali g in a ull may be too much for one man's strength, M-hen a pony or horse should be employed. The price is from £2, 58., to £2, 15s. 3215. But turnip ., which, following, covers in the seed and the manure, and consolidates tlie soil in the drill. Though tlie machine only sows one drill, it requires to be drawn by a horse; and that the horse and man who drives him may walk in the bottom of the drill, the bar to which it is yoked is placed at one side of the bed- frame, of which q is the yoke-bar or beam, supported by the stay-rod r, and s s are the handles supported by the stay t. M PRACTICE— SUMMER. 3221. In apwingwith this macliinc, the effect of tlie combination of its machinery u to be thus unJerstooJ. Tiie carriage- wheels bein^' three feet iu diaraeter, or 113 inclies in circumference, the wlieels will turn ouce r^unJ while the machine passes over that space. Tiie main spnr-wiieel will also make one revolution in the same space; but, as the pinions npi'n the axle of the seeil anroduce a braird equal, if not superior, to 16 or 18 bushels put in by the continuous mode. Iti the view of its more general adoption, the form of the machine must be changed from the single to the two-row drill, a change of which it is quite cajtable, and which may be done at le>8 than double the expense of the single machine. In its pre:^nt form, the process is too slow for large farms ; and on any such, the additional expense of the double machine is not to be put in comparison with the advantages of despatch in sowing. The price of the single machine is about £6 ; if extended to two rows, the price would not exceed £lO. 3223. Apparently some advantages are derived from this successive mode of depositing the seed and manure, espe- cially with those manures held to be the most active, such as bones, guano, and the like — U>r here the manure is laid into the rut, tiie earth of which ])artially falling in an:lit, it may suggest the question, whether deep sowing alone may not be the cause of the protracted vegetation so often and so seriously experienced in the turnip crop? It is well known that the vegetation of all seeds is decidedly affected by the depth at which they are] danted in the soil, so much so, that at or beyi nd certain depths the seeds lie perfectly dormant; the depth, however, requisite for producing thiseffect varying con>ideraIily with the nature and qualities of the seeds. Thus, a potato-tuber will vegetate if within 2 feet of thesurface, but the process w ill be very much retarded ; the seeds of some Cruciferae, again, to which family the turnip belongs, are sup- pfised to become dormant, though not dead, at the depth of ordinary jdoughing. There need be no suq)rise, then, though we should find the vegetation of the turnip retarded to the extent of days, or even weeks, from the seed being deposited at 2, 3, or even 4 inches, as is sometimes done. Wlow thesurface. ' The subject, as regards the turnip cr p alone, appears to me de- serving of careful experiment, and, if de- termined in the affirmative, much disap- pointment and loss may be prevented by adojiting due jirecautions to insure sowing at proper depths. But independently of the consideration of the relative positions of the seed and manure, which are favour- able, there are practical objections to drop- ping the manure at wide intervals. The intervals should vary according to the kind of turnip sown. Swedes should be placed more apart than yellow or white turnips, THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP. 55 and the last rather wider than the yellow, because they have generally larger bulbs. Whatever distance the intervals maybe, it is evident that the young plants, wliich have sprung directly froin the influence of the manure, Avill be more forward in growth and larger in size than those whicli have risen from the soil alone between the heaps of manure. All the plants, therefore, should be removed from between the heaps of manure, and only one plant left at each heap. But suppose that a careless field- Tporker should remove all the good plants from a heap of manure, a gap would be left iu tiie crop of double the proper dis- tance, and the loss will be irremediable ; but when such a mistake occurs in a con- tinuous deposition of manure, little loss will accrue, because the adjoining plant has as good a chance as the one removed by mistake, to advance in growth, and therefore to supply the deficiency. The growing plant, too, will afterwards have a better chance of obtaining a full supply of food when it is distributed continuously, by sending forth its fibrous roots into the space around it not occupied by plants, thau when confined to food within the limits of a given space. We should expect the success of a plant in the former posi- tion to be as great as in an open border, when compared to the state of another plant with its roots confined within the limits of a flower-pot. 3224. I would make a few remarks on the efl'ects of the too common disuse of the hind rollers of the turnip-drill. There is no doubt that rollers make the best work when the surface of the ground is dry, and as little doubt they make bad work when the sui'face is damp, and that when the surface is wet they should not be used at all. The finer the surface of the ground has been pulverised, those different effects of rollers are the more evidently mani- fested. This being the state of the case, when the ground is damp, the sowing of the turnip-seed will be delayed until the ground become sufficiently dry for the use of the roller, and, in the delay, the fate of the crop may be materially affected for the worse. On the other hand, the disuse of rolling causes a positive inconvenience in the singling ; so that it is worthy of con- sideration whether the inconvenience is so great as to induce to the employment of the rollers at all times. The mechanical effect of the hind rollers is to fill up the rut made by the coulters, and to smoothen the top of the drills. Now, the utility of this suiootiiening and compressing of the top of the drills is, not only to prevent the drought reaching beyond the surface of the ground — which, in both light and strong Soils, is an advantage — but to ren- der the singling of the young turnips more easy and certain ; and after the sides of the drills have been pared by the scufiler, fig. 262, it will be found tliat the turnip-plants are much more easily singled when the tops of the drills have been smoothened than when left rough with a rut ; because the hoe displaces every individual plant more certainly when on the surface than at the bottom of a rut, where the plant is com- paratively out of reach, and partially out of sight of the field-worker. A larger por- tion, too, of the drill is pushed away with the hoe when singling is performed in the bottom of a rut ; the dung is more apt to be torn up along with the plant ; and the plants cannot be singled so young ; for, until they have reached a certain height above the edges of the rut, it is not safe to touch them with the hoe at its bottom, whereas on a smooth surface they may be singled very young. The advantages of a smooth surface are not imaginary, for I have experienced all the inconveniences enumerated when I have been induced to remove the hind rollers in damp weather, from the desire to proceed with the sowing before the ground was perfectly dry on the surface. A scraper is of use on the hind rollers, but still they cannot make the rollers work well when tlie ground is damp. On carefully weighing the disadvantages of both modes, I am convinced of the supe- riority of the smooth drills, inasmuch as I consitler the most proper singling of the plants to be of much greater consequence to the future crop than any injury that can arise from waiting 2 or 3 hours in the morning until the ground becomes dried with the sun and air; and I would much rather work that time longer in the even ing, than sow turnip seed in land in a damp state without the hind rollers. This resolution, however, would not induce me to fix the rollers so as they could not be removed, for the option of removal 56 PRACTICE— SUMlfER. should rest with the farmer, who should act according to the particular state of the weather and the soil. 3225. The land having been dunged and drilled, and the sowing machine prepared, let us first take fig. 254, which sows the turnip seed alone, and the first use made of it is in sowing the Swedisii turnip seed. The quantity of seed required, I have said, is 3 lb. the acre, becuuye, the seed of swedes being large, that quantity is given to secure the necessary number of plants against all the chances of failure connected with old dead seed, and the numerous casualties to which it is sub- jected in the soil by insects, cold, and drought. The seed-box of the sowing- machine should never be above three quarters filled with seed, to allow the-'-eed to fall easily through the holes. Swedish turnip seed requires a larger sized hole of the seed-box than either yellow or white turnip seed. A tin funnel is the most convenieut means of filling the seed-box from the seed-bag. The drills should be browned or dried on tlie surface before the machine is made to sow the seed, as other- wise the coulter will make a large and rough rut in the drill, and the covering rollers will become clogged with earth ; and the rough rutting would he bad work, even with the covering rollers removed. One of these machines could sow a great breadth'of land in a day, but it is seldom that it can be employed throughout a whole day, for two reasons : one is, that the soil is seldom in a dry enough state in the morning to be sown with it; and the other reason is, that a sufiicient quantity of land will not be dunged and split in the course of a day to keep a machine going constantly, because one ])louirii can only split one-third more land in a day than it can plough, so that 3 ploughs will only split 5 acres at most of drills in a day, and thus one machine could hold 4 ])loughs splitting drills ; and as the dunging is carried on at the same time, few farms are so large as to employ 4 ploughs split- ting drills. In like manner are the yel- low and white turnip seeds sown through smaller holes of the seed box ; and as both those seeds are small, 2^ lb. the acre of each will sutHce. At every landing the eowing gear is disengaged, and put on again when the machine begins to sow new drills. 3226. The same remarks apply to the use of the one-rowed sowing machine, fig. 258, when turnip seed alone is sown, with a full manuring of farm-yard dung. 3227. When bone-dust is used as the sole manure for the turnip crop, the land is somewhat differently prepared for the seed from what has been described for farm-yard manure. On the land being ready to be drilled up, it is drilled at once in the double method, (2397,) and is then ready for the manure and seed to be depo- sited in it by the sowing machine. It would not answer to drill the land by the single method, as the drills would be too imperfectly formed for the seed. 3228. The machine for sowing bone- dust, along with the seed, has been de- scribed under fig. 259. The bone-dust is most conveniently taken to the field in a cart, fig. 175, the body of which slopes on its trams on a head-ridge when the horse is taken out. A field-worker takes the manure out of the cart in a rusky, fig. 201, which is most conveniently filled with a lime shovel, fig. 233. Both hoppers are filled to the top with the bone-dust : their exact contents should have been previously ascertained ; and the seed-boxes are filled in the manner described above (3225.) When the machine has been entered by the horse at the end of the first two drills, the sowing gearing is put on and the horse bid to go on, the man guiding the machine by the handles. To ascertain if the machine is sowing the proper quantity of the bone-dust in the acre — namely, 16 bushels, or two quarters — it should be cal- culated beforehand how many yards the known quantity of bone-dust in the hopper should sow along the two drills to distri- bute the proper quantity: one bushel will sow 30 yards 9 inches along two drills, at 16 bushels the acre. 3229. The action of bone-dust on the soil, and its consequent power to produce a large turnip crop, is not yet well under- stood, the means employed being appar- ently so inadequate to the results received. Up to a certain quantity used, this manure THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP. 57 has an evidently beneficial effect, but, be- yond that quantity, no apparent benefit is derived from its use, in as far at least as the crop is concerned. I have tried to raise turnips with different quantities of s bone-dust, varying from 12, 16, 20, to 24 bushels to the acre, and found the crop improved up to IG bushels; but the quantities beyond that, even to 24 bushels, produced no greater effect on the turnips in the same field, and on the same sort of soil, than 16 bushels. More than this, my late agricultural preceptor, Mr George Brown, when he fanned Hetton Steads, in Northumberland, raised as good crops of turnips, as did 16 bushels of bone-dust, with only 8 bushels of bone-dust, combined with an indefinite quantity of sifted dry coal-ashes ; and yet 8 bushels of bone- dust, or an indefinite quantity of coal-ashes, when applied separately, produced a very poor crop of turnips. It is therefore un- necessary, in so far as the crop of turnips is concerned, to sow more than 16 bushels of bone-dust alone, or 8 bushels with coal- ashes, or street manure. 3230. In some parts of tlie country, particularly on the Borders, bone-dust is sown by hand either along the drills made up in the single way (2389,) and which are then split in the double way (2397,) imposing the trouble of a second drilling ; or it is sown on the flat ground, and covered by drilling in the double way. In both cases the turnip seed is sown afterwards by itself, with the common two-rowed sowing machine. The only reason I have heard in favour of sowing bone-dust by hand, instead of machinery, is the saving the cost of the machine; but whatever advantage is gained by this saving, it is, I think, evi- dent tliat the machine must deposit the bone-dust much more regularly tlian the hand ; and as to the cost of a machine, the saving must be trifling, as hoppers for con- taining bone-dust can be attaclied, and made to be removed at pleasure from the ordinary sowing-machine. I always used a machine of this form myself, and found it to answer the purpose well : it was con- structed like fig. 259. But, in a case of this kind, accuracy of work is a more im- portant consideration than the cost of a email machine, although it should only be used for a few weeks every year. Tiiere is, besides, the value of the fact, that, the nearer the bone-dust is placed to the tur- nip seed, the quicker does the seed vegetate, and the more the phmt is encouraged togrow. In sowing by hand, the manure is not placed near the seed, in so far as the sower knows ; and when the seed is sown by it- self, after the bone-dust has been covered up by the drill, the sowing-machine is as likely to deposit some of it away from, as near the manure, and hence an irregular braird may be the consequence. Bone- dust, though in contact with turnip seed, does not afiect its vitality. Guano, on the contrary, affects the vitality of seeds, and should therefore be applied by the hand at a diflerent time from sowing the seed. 3231. The effect on the soil of so small a quantity of bone-dust is surprising. I have lifted a portion of the manured soil of a drill with my hand before the turnip- seed had germinated, and felt it very warm, and found it agglutinated together in a lump with a greasy matter, and the lump interspersed partly with a white mould, and partly with minute fibres of plants. When the turnip seed germinates, which it will do in 8 or 10 days, according to the state of the weather, its radicle strikes into the greasy mass of earth, and sends out an immense number of white fibres around and througli it. Its cotyledons then expand upwards, in two rudimentary smooth leaves, and immediately thereafter the two true leaves appear ; and these last are called rough leaves, because they feel rough on account of the small sharp spiculae which cover the surface of every leaf of the common turnip. The rudimentary leaves of the Swedish turnip are not rough but smooth, the plant not being a true turnip^ but a species of cabbage, which all have smooth leaves. They are, neverthe- less, termed the rough leaves. The smaller bone-dust is ground the more active it is as a manure, because it then mixes most intimately with the soil, though its action continues a shorter time ; and, on the other hand, large or drilled., or inch-bones, as they are called, remain longer in tlie soil undecomposed, but produce less immediate effect. On these accounts, bone-dust is the more valuable manure for turuips, and inch bones for the cereal crops. 3232. A better method than using bone- dust alone, as a manure for turnips, is to 58 PRACTICE— SIBEMER. apply it in conjunction with farm-yard dung. The henefit accruing from tlie combination of the two manures is, that the bone-dust promotes the quick germination of the tur- nip seed, and sujtports the phint until it sends its roots downwards, where it finds the dung ready to sustain its future growth. The quantity of farm-dung, when thus used, is reduced to 10 or 12 tons, and the bone-dust to 8 bushels the acre. Tlie result is generally very satisfactory; and. even on strong clay soils, a cr.'p of swedes may be raised with this mixture of manures. The seed and bone-dust are sown with the bone-dust sowing-machine, fig. 2.5!.», taking care not to dip the coulters 60 tlcep as to disturb the dung below, which should have been well rotted, and covered in with the drills formed in the double method, (2397.) 32.33. Of late it has been deemed better to use btme-dust in combination with sul- phuricacid, orrathertheoilof vitriol as sold in the shops, than by itself, or with farm- yard dung. The effect of the action of the acid on the bones is to reduce them to a pulpy mass, which is made in this manner: — 3Ii.\; a givenquantity of vitriol witli twice its bulk of water, in any convenient ve.*sel, ■when the mixture will evolve a consider- able degree of heat. Put into a large tub or trougii double the weight of bone-dust as of acid u.-'ed, and pour the mixture of acid and water gradually, and by times, over it. An a(;ti(m will soon be observed arising from the escape of carbonic acid gas, and in time, on stirring, the bone- dust will be entirely dissolved, and form a mass with the acid and water. The mass may be dried with riddled sawdust, dry ashes, or fine dry vegetable mould ; and the granulated powder thus juepared, may be sown eitherby it>elf, or in combina- tion with farm~y;ird dung, with the bone- dust sowing-machine, fi^'. 2.)!). Uncrushed bones will answer the purpose as well as crushed, but the acid will take much longer time to act upon them. 3234. The material thus obtained has been called the superphosphate of lime, but a more correct name would be suljihatd hones. It is found to have a greater power of raising turnips on clay soils than bone- dust. No doubt bone-ars b d, carry the tines g g g-, 6 in number, and the central beam car- ries the front tine at b. The wing-bars are each furnished with a quadrant-bar riveted into the wings at rf(/; the tail of the quadrants, passing through the mortise at c, are secured by a pinching-screw fix- ing the wings at any required width. The wiiig-harsare extended back ward, and bent iipi\ards to form the handles c c. To the point of the beam is affixed a simple bridle /"with a cross-web and shackle, giving a email range of yoke right and left. The front wheel, whose office is to regulate the depth of the grubbing, is usually 8 or !J inches diameter, and the tines y are' forged witli duck feet slightly pointing fdrward. In many hjcalities this implement is used for all the purposes of horse-hoeing, ex- cept the process of paring-or of eartliiug up ; and, having cheapness as well as utility as a recommendation, it is very generally approved of. It is, however, sultject to variety in the different districts where it is employed: in some it is shortened to b tiues. in others lengthened out to 9, and in many cases the tines are plain-pointed. It is frequently also made with the tines stand- ing in a zigzag position ; but, except in the second pair of tines, this is of little importance, as those behind the second are suthciently apart to prevent them becom- ing choked with weeds. Tlie price of this grubber is about £2, 10s. 3254. In this class of Implements, we find a very handsomely constructed one, known as Wilkie's drill gruhbrr and har- row, which is represented in fig. 265. This implement is constructed with a beam a 6, and a pair of handles c c attached to the tail of the beam, one on each side. It has no proper body-frame, hut is nierely a skeleton, the grubbing parts of it being the three tines or coulters c? e f. The foremost onerfissetin a coulter-box in the beam, and terminates in a dnul)le- spreading feather or (luck's-foot point; the two others. «and /. are continuations of the two wings, which are ca[!aliIeof adjustment by the (piudrant- bir ^. The effect of the tines on the soil is somewhat similar to thar of the ficuftier, SlC. 2ii2. pacing and undercutting ; but tlie i'iiple'.neut is fanrishod with an ;ipj)en- 6i PRACTICE— SUMMER. dage iu tlie attached 6-tined barrow t, depth by means of its suspenders, and to wliich CdJiipletes the operation at one turn, breadtli by means of its two small quad- Tlie harrow is capable of adjuetmeiit to rant-bars. The regulation of depth is Fig. 265, WILKIE'S DRILL-GRUBBER AND HARROW. aided by the wlieel I hung in the shears n, which is jointed to the beam at a, and to which also is attached a shackle and hook 0 for the draught. The price is £4, 15s, 3255. In stiff soils, the broad-feather shares will with difficulty be kept in the ground ; and, from their great length and breadth, will have the effect of consolidat- ing that part of it which they pass over, into a hard crust. The harrow is an im- portant part of the implement, but adds considerably to the draught ; and the im- plement, upon the whole, is too heavy for one horse being able to produce efficient work with it. By lightening the entire structure, and altering the form of the tine, it might be rendered a very useful horse- hoe. 3256. A ploughman is set to work the scuffler, fig. 262, and he takes one of his horses while the other one is resting, each horse working one yoking every day while at this work. On farms having a large breadth of turnips, two scufflers may be thus engaged. As the work of scuffling is easy compared to ploughing, the aged liorses, or mares suckling foals, are em- ployed at it. Should the companion to the mare with foal be a horse or a mare without a foal, the mare and her foal are sent to pasture, while her companion works all the day. The steadiest horses, in what- ever state they may otherwise be, should only be emploj^ed at scuffling, else by nnsteady walking the implement may cut up the plants right aud left. The ploughman should provide double reins to the horse. In setting the wings of the scuffler, the coulters should be brought to pare the soil from the plants as near as possible without touching them, and the drier and finer the state of the soil, the nearer they may work to the plants. In rough, and damp soil, the ck)ds, raised and disturbed by the coulters, will be apt to fall upon the plants when the coulters are placed toonear to them. In scuffling turnips the ploughman requires to be constantly on his guard, to guide the im])lement in the middle space between the row of plants on each side of him ; and on entering and fin- ishing every landing, he should take care that the horse dues not turn too sharply upon the head-ridge, and canse the coul- ters to cut off some of the plants from the ends of the drills. Scuffling admits of walking at the rate of tliree miles iu the hour or more, aud is a very ex]>editious process, wheu the land is pretty clean. 3257. The scuffling having cleared part of the ground in a yoking in advance, the singling is ready to commence. The im- plement used for singling tnrnips is repre- sented iu fig. 266, and is named the tur- nip-hoe. It consists of a thin iron plate Fig. 266. J^agjT^fir' HMi^Miati-r-^Trn" -ft" '1 iT* THE TURNIP OR HAND DRAW-HOE. a, faced with steel 7 inches in length and 4 inches in breadth, with an eye ft, attached to its u])per edge to receive the shaft c, usually made of fir, to make the implement as light in hand as possible. The shaft should not exceed 3 feet in length, though in some parts of the country it is 4^ feet, whilst THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP. 65 in others as short as 33 inches. The shorter it is the better for the work, as it enables the field- worker to bow closer to the ground; but as this position is really severe for the back, tiie shaft in some places is made as hmg as to allow the field-worker to stand nearly upright, in which position, the eye and hand being both far removed from so small an object as a young turnip plant, the worker cannot command the implement so effectually in the thinning process, as when the hands are placed nearer the working part of the hoe. 3258. The consequences are, that num- bers of the plants are removed by awk- ward pushes of the hoe, and the singling is done very slow. Other forms of hoe are in use, such as the triangular, with the handle attached to a hose rising from the centre of the equilateral triangle. This form has been constructed on the supposition that the hoe which possesses three work- ing faces will last longer than that which has only one; but the utility of the im- plement is sacrificed for the sake of its durability, as it is evident that the nearly square end of the hoe, in fig. 266, is much more likely to separate a bunch of turnip plants while pushing them away from a single one, in a firm and decided manner, than the sharp point of a triangle, over which tlie separating plants are apt to fall upon the one which it is desired to retain. The price of a hoe such as in the figure is 2d. the inch along the face, without the helve, and when made entirely of steel, which is unnecessary, it is dearer, while the triangular hoes are 4d. the inch round all the three faces. 3259. The attitude of the workers, the best method of using the hoe, and of arrang- ing the field-workers at singling, is endea- voured to be represented by fig. 267. This work is performed by the field-workers of Fig. 267. THE SINGLING OF TURNIPS, the farm, and they are placed at every 2 rows, beginning at one side of a field, the first worker getting the charge of the first and second drills, the second of the third and fourth, the third of the fifth and sixth, and so on with the rest of the workers. The reason for this particular arrangement, in- stead of giving a drill to every worker, is, that eacli may have sufticient room to work, and, having 2 drills each, the whole band of workers have the less seldom to shift their ground. 3260. It is not easy to give a short account of the mode of using the hoe in singling turnips ; but the following direc- tions may serve to show the leading requi- sites to perform that operation in the best manner. On commencing to single a drill I m, a foot is placed on each side VOL. II. of the next drill i k, so that the side of the worker is presented to the drill to be singled. The shaft of the hoe is held near its end with one hand, while the other hand, being that of the side in front, is placed a little in advance. The foremost hand indicates whether the person is right or left handed, as it is rare to find a worker that can single turnips equally well with either hand. The foremost hand is steadied by being partially rested on the bend of the leg of the same side, as is particularly shown in the figure o. The hoe, on its face being held downwards and in a horizontal position, is pushed chiefly by the weight of the body of the worker against the ground and the plants, when as many plants are removed along with the earth behind them, by the forward push, as the length of the face of the hoe 66 PRACTICE— SUMMER. covers; and in this action the plant des- tined to he left single falls over if tall, or a little to one side — partly from tlie want of supjiort of tlie other plants, ami jjarlly from takini,' away some of the soil from its root. The hody of the worker is then brou<;iit back to its former position, and thns an oscillation of it forward and back- ward is maintained in the act of singling. In pushing away the next portion of the plants, one side of the hoe takes care not to touch the plant last singled, while its other side covers tht plants next to the one intended tn be left growing, which also falls over, and is left single, and so on, plant after plant. The leaving the preserved plant single constitutes the dirticulty of the operation ; for, if attention and dexterity are not both exercised, the plant will be dragged up by the roots with the slightest hold by the hoe of a portion of a leaf; and although the leaves are not toucheil, its stem or root may be in- tertwined with those of the adjoining plants. 3261. It is found, that the best mode of avoiding these difficulties is to single the plants hef(jre the leaves of each iilantbe- comesoniuch exj)andedas to be confounded with those of the adjoining plants, or the stems become so drawn up as to inter- twine with those of the others. It is also found, that in pushing the hoe is a much more certain mode of leaving the plants single than iu drawing it towards the worker. 32fi2. The plants are represented on their sides in the row 71 0, fig. 2(j7. They receive no injury by falling over, and if the weather is at all favourable, they will have nearly recovered their upright posi- tion hy the following day; an a. All lh« figures in the cut are represented going up singling the first drills of their stints of two drills each. Only 3 figures are introduced in the cut, but the number of workers employed dejicnds on the size of the farm. 32fi4. On shifting the workers from one stint to another, the worker next the side of the field which has yet to be singled forms the pivot upon which the rest turn. Thus the worker on the drill c J. on finish- ing the drill b or.Johii5ton gives an e.xplanation, which you should bear in mind when comparingthe resultsof chemicalaualyses inother things: — " This difference arises from the circum- stance that the lower part contains the largest percentage of water. The present case is only one of many illustrations of the fact, that the relative proportions of mineral matter, in green products, ar3 not to be received as real indices of the rela- tive proportions in which this mineral matter exists in the dry substance of the plant."t 3318. The following table e.xhibits the compo- gitiou of turnip-tops of the respective varieties of the turnips mentioned in it, as ascertained by Professor Way and Mr Ogslon : — This table exhibits wide differences in the com- position of the ash of the turnip-top, the phos- phoric acid of one specimen being double that of others. We are prepared for this, observes Pro- fessor Way. In the growth of plants of this de- scription, the construction of the materials is supposed to go on in the leaves from which the vegetable matter, when fully worked up, de- scends into the tuber, and is there deposited. The leaves would contain, therefore, not only their own proper mineral constituents, but the greater part of the excess of such bodies which had entered the plant. The ash of the top differs from that of the bulb chiefly in containing less phosphoric and sulphuric acid, less potash, but a great deal more lime. On comparing the con- tents of the column of mean results with that of Professor Johnston (in 3317,) a great difference will be observed to exist in the composition of turnip-tops derived from different localities. 3319. It may be useful to give the relative quantities of the mineral matter, in pounds weight, contained in one ton of the tops of each of the kinds of the turnips given in the above table : — Mean Skirving's D«le-« of six Swede, lb. Hvbrid. ib. White. Ib. Bpeci- mena. Ib. Potash, . 509 90S 3-61 6-20 5-18 6--10 24-27 28-73 28-49 Masneaia, 26i 3-18 1-75 3-57 2-85 2-sI O.xide of iron, . 3-02 0-(i6 0-61 3-(9l 0-80 16S Carbiinie acid. 6-18 12-97 13-N2 6-10 14-(i4 9-98 I'h ■sphoric acid. 4-85 6-211 4-.-.,S U-70 .-(•15 6-77 Sulphuric acid. IO-:i6 12-20J 6-71 6 99 7-83 8-43 Chliiride of sodium. 12-41 10-31 18 02 22-70 10-67 1530 Chloride of potas- sium, . 2-09 .. l->*4 16-56 5-04 Silica, Percentafce of ash. 8-04 1-14 1-26 7-35 2 05 3-99 99.9(i 99-93 9998 99-96 99-96 . 1 99-91 197 1-95 1-19 2-25 182 THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP. began to form, and new stems and leaves were put forth luxuriantly. He then cut over others whii'h had flowered, and the same results fol- lowed. Finding the new leaves succulent and delicate, he caused them to be pulled as green food for his cows, and continued to do so during the season, three times, never imagining that the bulbs would ever be of any value. Meanwhile, however, the bulbs enlarged until the latter end of October, when two were pulled, and one weighed 18 lb., the other 15 lb., with scanty stem and leaves, because the former ones had been cut down not long before. 3322. The question, after snch treatment of the bulbs, was, were they deteriorated as food ? From an analysis made of them by Professor Johnston, it would appear they were not — as may be seen from these figures : — — namely, barley, hay, pasture, and oats — were all better in their respective years. 3325. Thus Marchand found the bones of a bear that had been buried for an indefinite time at a shallow depth — where moisture and air may have been supposed to have exercised their influences very actively — not to have diflered very materially in composition to other bones of a bear that had been buried deeply, except in ani- mal matter, as is shown in the following table : — In the natural "Water, Protein compounds, Sugar, gum, fibre, &c., Ash of phosphates, , 90-95 l-'_'8 7-17 0-60 10000 212^ 14-14 79-i3 6-(;3 100-00 The nutritive power not having been diminished, is it probable that green food may be obtained all summer from the Swedish turnip, and enlarged size of bulb for winter in the same season 1 The subject deserves to be experimentally investi- gated, when only a true answer will be obtained to the question. I think, however, that the transplanting process is merely incidental, and cannot aflfect the result ; for it is evident that the plant will produce new stems and leaves, and consequently bulb, whether it had been grown from seed sown at one place, or sown elsewhere and transplanted in that place.* 3323. Bone-dust. — Bone-dust has now com- pletely established itself as a valuable manure ; and 1 believe that, with the exception of farm- yard dung, there is no substance we know upon which we may place more implicit reliance, in one or another of its states, as a fertiliser of the soil, not even excepting guano. 3324. One of its most valuable properties as a manure is its durability ; and in this respect it is superior to farm dung and guano. Bones, even in their reduced state, when applied in large quantities, as 1 j ton and upwards on the acre, as is done by the farmers of Clieshire, will evidence their existence as a manure after the lapse of 20 years. This result arises from the slowness of the decomposition of their organic matter in the soil. I pulled off" 4 acres of turnips raised with bone-dust, and four acres adjoining in the same field, which had been raised with 15 loads of farmyard dung to the acre ; and the irop was not only better after the bone-dust than after the dung, but the crops that followed in the rotation Bones of the Bear buried. Animal matter, .... Deep. ShallowJ lf)-2 4-2 Phosphate of lime, 56-0 621 Carbonate of lime. 131 i:j-3 Sulphate of lime, M 12-3 Phosphate of magnesia. 0-3 0-5 1 Fluoride of calcium, . 2-0 •2-1 Oxides of iron and manganese, • 2-0 2-1 Soda, 1-1 1-3 Silica, ...... 2-2 21 1000 100-0 That substance must be a valuable manure which resists decomposition for a long time, while it imparts nourishment to the roots of plants as they require it. 3326. Bone is a dense substance, as will be seen by the specific gravity of different kinds as determined by Dr Thomson : — Os femoris of a sheep, . . 2-0345 Tibia of a sheep, . . . 20:5-->9 Ilium of an ox, . . . 1-8353 Human OS humeri, . , . 1-7479 Vertebrae of a haddock, . . I-(J350t It thus appears that the bones of sheep are den- ser than those of oxen. 3327. Bones contain a large proportion of water, the quantity of which is greatest when the animal is young, and the interior of the bone spongy, varying from 33 to 15 per cent in the former and from 20 to 80 per cent in the latter case, in difierent animals. 3328. Bones are composed of organic and inorganic matter, the former consisting of fat and cartilage, the latter of earthy matter. The inorganic matter varies in the bones taken from difl'erent parts of the body. When the fat has been removed, the proportion of earthy matter to cirtihige is as follows, according to the experi- ments of Dr Stark :— Earthy matter. Cartilage Bones of the ox contain , 64-5 35-5 horse, 66-7 3.S-3 P'g. 64-7 35-3 birds. 66-2 33-8 fi^hes, 66-1 32-9 In the earthy matter the bones of difl'erent ani- mals do not thus vary much. The earthy mat- ♦ Transactions of the Highland and Agrkulfural Societi/, for March 1848, p. t Thomson's Animal Cheiaistry, p. 234. 241. 84 PRACTICE— SU^IMER. ter consists chiefly of the carbonate and phos- phate of lime ; and Dr Ure says, *' that the bones of the ox are three times richer of the phosphates of lime and magnesia than those of man, and hence we may conclude that as manure they are more valuable."* 3329. When bones are boiled, a large propor- tion of the fat and cartilage pass into the water. The fat is skimmed oflF the surface of the water, and is used by the candle-makers ; the water, when boiled down, makes size for the stiffening of certain kinds of cotton goods. The bones, after being boiled, contain more water than they did before, and when ground into dust make as good manure as when fresh, according to the opinion of some. But it is evident that the loss of the fat and cartilage must deteriorate the value of bones as a manure for general applica- tion. It is probable that the additional water obtained by the boiling may facilitate the decom- position of the bone-dust in the soil, and thereby give to the boiled bone a factitious value. 3330. The organic parts of bones, when heated to redness in the open air, are dissipated, and the earthy matter is left in the form and bulk of the original bone. The calcined bones, which are very brittle, and easily reduced to powder, get the name of animal charcoal, but its proper name is bone-black, which constitutes a valuable manure in some cases. 3331. Bones, when subjected to the action of steam heat, equal to a pressure of 35 lbs. to the inch, become spongy and brittle, and may be reduced easily to powder. Tliis process has lately been introduced to notice by Mr Black- hall of Edinburgh, as a means of reducing bones to powder in a more economical manner than by the powerful machinery which is necessary for the construction of a bone-grinding mill. But the analyses by Dr Anderson make it appear that steaming deprives bones of much animal matter. Thus, in two instances, steamed bones gave of Water, Il'-GB 1:'.«G Animal matter, . . '27'37 19-.''0 Bone-earth, . . , 59-97 C6-24 100-00 100-00 And that of bones in three states gave, from Inch bones. Uone-dust. Entire bones. Water, . . . 1000 103!) 1489 Animal matter, 41-88 4-2-60 37 04 Boue-earth, . 48-12 47-01 48-17 100-00 100-00 100-00 Hence the loss of animal matter is as 27 to 40 ; and hence, also, if crude bones cost £i the ton, steamed bones would cost £5, 6s. 8d., besides the expense of steaming.f It has been more recently stated that steaming bones at a pressure of 50 lb. to the square inch, reduces them to a state of pulp. That the steaming process will deprive the bones of most of their organic matter is evident, since the French have long been in the practice of steaming them for two or three days in continu- ance iu the making of soup. 3332. It is the opinion of both Sprengel and Liebig, that it is the earthy portion of the bone, and particularly the phosphate of lime, which is alone useful as manure in bone-dust. Some experiments may have warranted such a conclu- sion ; but others, on the other hand, would lead to the conclusion, that it is only the organic part of bones which is useful in manure. Such results would depend upon the degree in which the soils experimented on at the time had been previously supplied, from other sources, with organic or inorganic matter. "The most striking change," as Professor Johnston observes, " undergone by bones buried at the roots of trees, was the large loss of organic or animal matter they had suffered. The relative proportions of the piiosphate and carbonate of lime had been comparatively little altered. The main effect, therefore, produced by bones, when buried at the roots of trees, as particularised in the table in (3325,) and their first effect, in all cases, must be owing to the animal matter they contain — the elements of the animal matter, as it decomposes, being absorbed by the roots with which the bones are in contact. He who candidly weighs the considerations above presented, will, I think, conclude, that the whole effect of bones cannot in any case be ascribed exclusively either to the one or the other of the principal constituents. He will believe, indeed, that in the turnip husbandry the organic part performs the most permanent and most immediately useful office, but that the earthy part, nevertheless, affords a ready supply of certain inorganic kinds of food, which in many soils the plants could not otherwise easily obtain. He will assign to each constituent its separate and important function, being constrained at the same time to confess — that, while in very many cases the earthy part of bones applied alone would fail to benefit the land, there are few cultivated fields in which the o;-(/lios]>hate of magnesia, toKfther containing Irom 5 to 9 parts of ammonia, .... 13- Siliceous sand, . . . . ' 1- 100- 3351. Guano is adulterated to a great extent, and one sample, ofiTered to the public by adver- tisement as Peruvian, Dr Ure found to contain the following in;:redients : — Common salt. .32-0 Common siliceous sand, 28-0 Sulphate of iron, or copperas. 5-2 Phosphate of lime, . 4-0 with Organic matter from bad guano, &c. to give it a smell, . 23-3 Moisture, ro 100-00 This stuff had a specific gravity as high as 2-17 produced from the salt, sand, and copperas ; and, THE CULTURE OF KOHL-RABT. 87 for the climate of Scotland, although it may he raised in fa'soured spots, such as gardens. In Ireland it has been success- fully cultivated for years. 3357. As kohl-rabi holds the same position, as a crop, as the turnip, its cul- ture is very similar; but while turnips af- fect the lighter soils, kohl-rabi thrives on the stronger, so it may be raised where turnips cannot be. The stubble-land in the beginning of winter is either gathered up with gore-furrows (749 and 756) or cast with the same, (7o.5 and 75fi.) In not only on account of its superiority to other spring it is cross-ploughed, (2613,) drilled in the single way, (2389,) manured in the drill, (2749,) redrilled in the double way, (2397,) and made ready for the seed, as in the case of turnip culture. All these operations should be gone through by the 1st of ^lay, and before the land for the earliest of the turnips is required. when barned in a hot shovel, left a black fused mass of sea-bait, copperas, and sand.* No farmer should therefore purchase guano without having it analyr^ed by a competent chemist; and in guarding the interests of farmers in this respect, the late Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland was eminently useful. The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland iu their chemical department will be equally protective of the farmers' interest. The sure way to pur- chase genuine guano is to order it only from Messrs Gibbs of London, or Messrs Meyer & Co. of Liverpool, who are the accredited agents of the Peruvian governmeut in this country. 3352. Peruvian guano is always high-priced in this country, being seldom below £10 the ton, kinds — and the longer voyage no doubt incurs a larger freight than the African — but the export- duty imposed on the shippers from Bolivia en- hances the value £3 a ton. African guano is sold for £5 or £6 a ton, and the Chilian for £7- 3353. Guano is now imported duty-free, and the importation in 1847 was 82,393 tons; in 1848, 71,414 tons, which gives a falling off of 10,979 tons in one year, which, at 8 cwt the acre, indi- cates a want of the means of manuring for 79,860 acres in 1848 compared with 1847,+ but the in- crease in the importation of bones in the same period would manure 11,248 acres, at 16 bushels the acre. 3358. Either of two modes may be adoi)ted in cultivating kohl-rabi — to trans- plant plants, or sow the seed. If the me- thod of transplanting is adopted, a piece of good ground in a favoured aspect should 3354. About 4 or 5 cwt. is the quantity of be prepared in February or beginning of guano which experience has ascertained to be required for the acre when applied alone, and 3 cwt. iu conjunction with farm-yard dung. March, by deep digging and manuring, and sowing the seed in rows of 12 inches apart, and not very thick in the row. The rows admit of the ground being hoed with the hand-hoe, fig. 266, which it should occasionallv be, not only to keep down surface-weeds, but to loosen the soil for the encouragement of the growth of the plants. The plants should be raised and carried to the field to be transplanted, in the manner already described for trans- planting swedes, (3269,) in the first week of ^lay, before the sowing of the swedes about the 15th of May. As damp and cloudy weather is the most favourable state of the air for transplanting plants, it should be chosen for the jiurpose ; and the operation may be forwarded or retarded be- fore or after the ordinary time, for the sake of obtaining the assistance of such weather. 3359, But as transplantation is attended with considerable trouble, the crop is equally secure when sown in the seed; England, to which it has hitherto been and the seed may be sown either by itself, confined; but it is, I suspect, too delicate wnth the common turnip-sowing machine, * Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, and Supplement — art. Guano. + Parliamentary Return, 26th February 1849. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT- MENT OP KOHL-RABI. 3355. Kohl-rabi, or the turnip-rooted cabbage, is a plant of recent introduction into the agriculture of Britain. Atten- tion was directed to it in consequence of the properties it possesses of withstanding drought, and being little subjected to the attack of insects — properties which impart to it an intrinsic' value over Swedish tur- nips. Still it was a question wdiether it would afford a large enough crop to be- come a substitute for swedes; and it ap- pears, from recent experience, that it is capable of, aflording, in certain localities at least, a heavy crop. 3356. Agreeing with heat and drought, it may suit the climate of the south of 88 PRACTICE— SUMMER. fig. 254, or along with manure, with tlie bone-dust sowing-machine, fig. 2.59. The quantity of seed may be the same as swedes, namely 3 lb. the acre. And as bone-dust is not favourable to strong soil, the manure selected should be bone-dust prepared witii oil of vitriol, termed sul- phated bones, (3233.) The seed is dear — it costs 2s. 6d. per lb.; on which account, it has been recommended to be sown with manure with the drop-drill sowing- machine, fig. 261, or dibbled in at intervals along the drill. I think the saving would not compensate for the trouble of dibbling, or the purchase of a drop- drill machine. 3360. When the seed is sown, the crop is singled the same as turnips with the hand-hoe, (3259,) and the intervals left between the plants may vary from 12 to [5 inches, according to the vegetating power of the soil. The cleaning of the ground with the scuffler, fig. 262, and with the drill-grubber, fig. 264, is the same as in the case of the turnip, (3256;) but when the finishing operation is arrived at, the ground between the rows should not be left somewhat flat, as recommended for the turnip, (3277,) but raised with the double mould-board plough, fig. 209, as high as just not to cover the bulb upon the fitem of the plant, and this setting up should not be executed until the bulbs have attained the size of a man's hand. 3361. With 16 tons of good farm-yard dung, and 4 or 5 owt. of sulphated bones to the acre, a crop of from 20 to 30 tons may be expected to be raised. Kohl-rabi will yield a heavier crop than swedes on clay land, but not so heavy ou turnip soil. A sprinkling of 2 cwt. of guano to the acre, around each plant after they are singled, would tend to increase the size of the bulb materially. 3362. The advantages which kohl-rabi is said to possess over Swedish turnips by those who have cultivated it in Eng- land and Ireland, are these : — cattle, and especially horses, are fonder of it; the leaves are better food ; it bears transplant- ing better than any other root ; insects do not injure it; drought does not prevent its growth ; it stores quite as well or better; it stands the winter better ; and it aff'ords food later in the season, even in June. 3363. Two varieties of kohl-rabi are cultivated — the green and the purple. The green gives the heavier crop, but the pur- ple the more nutritious one. 3364. Specimens of kohl-rabi have been raised in Scotland weighing from 5 lb. to 7j lb. each ; in Ireland, indivi- dual bulbs have attained the weight of 14 lb.; and in England they commonly reach from 8 lb. to 10 lb. 3365. As kohl-rabi stands in the same position in the Linnaan, Jussieuan, and natural system of Liudley, as the turnip, it is unnecessary to re- peat the particulars which have been already given in (3283.) Its specific name is Brassica oIeracea,cauIo-rapa,alha, of De Candolle, and, as this name indicates, it is a variety of the common cabbage. Its peculiar character is in having its stem towards its upper extremity swollen into a large globular pulpy mass, in consistence and texture somewhat resembling a Swedish turnip; from and near the summit of which mass the leaves, which are smooth, and of various shapes a,nd shades of colour, are produced. The taste of the pulpy mass is very similar to that of the heart of the stem of the cabbage. 3366. The kohl-rabi is used in Germany as a vegetable for the table. In whatever way it is cooked, it is a coarse,, harsh vegetable; and yet we hear people in this country recommend- ing its culture in the gardens of the poor, as a suitable esculent for their use ; but why the vegetables eaten by the poor labouring man and his family should be coarser than those for other people, it is difficult to perceive. If mere bulk of crop is a recommendation of it for tlie poor, the Swedish turnip becomes bulky enough for such a purpose, and it is actually better tasted, even when plain boiled, than the heart of a cabbage stem, to which that of the kohl- rabi has been very truly likened. 3367. The kohl-rabi is an excellent food for cows and horses, and, when boiled with grain for their use, will aiford them true nourish- ment. The leaves may also be used, having en- tirely the character of a true cabbage ; but they should be removed with a sparing hand, else the enlargement of the bulb will be prevented. ON THE PLANTING, AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CABBAGE. 3368. The cabbage may be usefully and successfully raised on a farm ; and, occupying the same position in the order of cropping as the turnip and potato, it is planted ou the fallow break. It likes a rich deep soil with a considerable propor- tion of clay. THE CULTURE OF THE CABBAGE. 3369. The cabbage, up to the time of laying the dung in tbe drill, is cultivated in precisely the same manner as are tur- nips and potatoes. As the cabbage re- quires much manure, 20 tons to the acre of farm-yard dung should be given, and at least 2 cwt. of guano sown by hand over the dung. The drills are then set up in the double form, (2397 ;) and just before the plants are planted on the drills, a light roller, of the form of fig. 222, should flatten their tops, and reduce the soil on them to a fine state. The turnip-sowing machine, fig. 254, with the coulters removed, will do this work well with its curved rollers. 3370. Cabbages may be raised by sow- ing the seed in the drill, as with turnips, or by transplanting prepared plants. The transplanting is much the preferable and secure plan for raising cabbages. The plants are prepared in this way : Plough, or dig with the spade, a piece of ground, which has grown early potatoes or tares for the horses in harvest, with a sprinkling of manure upon it, and sow the cabbage seed, either broadcast, which is the common mode, but better in rows at 12 inches apart, and fence the plot from trespassers during the winter. Hoe the ground be- tween the rows, and keep it clean. From the end of March to May, take the best of the plants in the manner described in transplanting Swedish turnips (32(j9,) and transplant them in moist or dull weather on the newly prepared flattened drills, at 2 feet apart; and at this distance, with 27 inches between the drills, 9680 [ilants will be required for the acre. AVhen pur- chased from nurserymen or gardeners, the plants cost 5s. the 1000. 3371. The summer treatment of the cabbage, as regards scuffling, hand-hoeing, drill-grul)bing for the destruction of weeds and the pulverisation of the surface, is in all respects the same as that of the turnip. The earth should be laid toward the stems with the double mould-board plough, fig. 209, on finishing the operations, to assist in steadyingthe plants, as, when the heads be- come heavy, the wind is apt to cause tlie stem to work a hole around it. 3372. The crop expected from such treatment may be from 30 to 40 tons the acre. In Scotland, the drumliead cabbage has yielded in tlie field from 17 lb. to 22 lb. of individual weight, with the stem and under leaves ; and from 10 lb. to 14 lb. of solidly-hearted leaves. There are a great many small cabbages in a crop, but at 10 lb. of solid heart in each plant, the yield should be 43 tons 4 cwt. the acre. 3373. The under leaves should never be plucked from the close-headed cabbage, but be allowed to drop off. Those of the open-hearted sorts, and of the kales, may be removed by the hand, and the growth of the remaining ones will be increased. 3374. The application of 2 cwt. of sul- phated bones to the acre, around each plant, would greatly increase the size of the close-headed cabbage, and the leaves of the open-hearted kinds. 3375. In autumn the cabbage plant is subjected to the attacks of insects, and particularly to that of the well-known cabbage butterfly Pontia hrassicos, with white wings and black tips, which pro- duces the long, beautiful, green caterpillars, familiar to every one who frequents a garden. 3376. The cabbage occupies the same place as the turnip and kohl-rabi in the systems of botany. The specific name of the drumhead cabbage— so named, 1 suppose, from its resemblance in size and shape to a drum, is Brassica oleracea, capitata depressa, and of tlie Scotch cabbage, Brassica oleracea, capitata spherica alba, of De Candolle, (893.) The large savoy, cape, or drumhead savoy, with its solid-like globular form of head, and wrinkled leaves, being both hardy and pro- ductive, might also be cultivated in the field. The tall purple German green is so cultivated. 3377. The ash left by burning the dry leaves of the cabbage leave the following ingredients, according to the analysis of Dr Fromberg : — Potash, Soila, Lime, Magnesia, . Oxide of iron, . Phosphoric acid, Sulpliuric acid, Chlorine, . .Silica, 11.70 20.42 20.97 5.94 0.(J0 12.37 21.48 5.77 0.75 100.00* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 384. 90 PRACTICE— SUMMER. I have given the quantity of mineral mattrr taken from the soil by a crop of 20 tons of drumhead cabbage at (894.) 3378. In the neighbourhood of large towns, farmers raise the drumliead and common gar- den cabbage to supiily the market gardeners for planting in spring, in the manner described in (3370.) The plants are cleared off tlie ground early in spring, and the ground sown with spring wheat. Good plants fetch about half-a-crown the thousand. 3379. The turnip-rooted cabbage, Braasica cawiiesti-'ts, napo brassica coiiimunis, of De Can- dolle, is little known in English culture, though it is cultivated in the fields of the north of France. Its root is white or red, and its neck and pitioles greenish or purplish. It has a woody short stem, produced by the formation and decay of the leaves; and as new leaves are formed by the central bud of the stem, the lower leaves drop oflf, and thus the top of the bulb assumes the ap- pearance of a stem. Dr Neill observes that it has a root under ground as sweet as a Swedish turnip. 3380. The cow-cabbage, or Cesarean kale, Brassica oleracea, acephala arl>orescens, of De Candolle, which created so much interest a few years ago, only deserves a passing notice. "This plant," says Don, " is almost similar in habit to the palm kale, and it lasts four years without fresh planting. In La Vendee, it is said to at- tain the height of 12 or 16 feet. In Jersey this plant is sufficiently hardy, and there it grows from 4 to 12 feet. The small farmers there feed their cows with the leaves, plucking them from the stem as they grow, leaving the crown at the top. The stems being strong, are also used by them for roofing small outhouses. When the gathering of the leaves is finished at the end of the year, the terminating bud or crown is boiled, and is said to be particularly sweet. It is not sufficiently hardy to stand the climate of Britain, unless planted in a very sheltered situation."* ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT- MENT OF MANGOLU-AVURZEL. 3381. Mangold-wiirzel, a species of beet, is a very iniijortant green crop, and may be regarded as next so to tlie turnip. It con- tains a sweet nutritious juice, which seems well adapted fortlic sujjjjortof cows in milk, as it imparts none of the acrid flavour which the turnip does. This root, therefore, ought to be valued on every dairy farm. 3382. There are several varieties of mangold-wurzel fitted for cultivation in the field; the long red, the long yel- low, and the globe orange, which names truly indicate their respective characters; and where the chief reliance of winter fixid is placed on beet in preference to turnip, all the varieties ought to be cul- tivated, since the globe orange thrives best on light soil, and the long yellow is in a better state for use in the early I)art of winter than the long red. The circumstance of beet not being a safe root to give to cattle, until it has been s(mie time out of the ground, is the only objec- tion, and it is a serious one, to their indis- criminate use, 3383. One and the other of these varie- ties will grow on any soil intermediate from a gravel to a strong clay, on neither of which classes of soil will any one succeed. 3384. The climate of Scotland does not seem to suit mangold-wurzel. I tried it in Forfarshire for three successive years on the best land I possessed, which had as well been long in cultivation as in a fresh state, but failed in two seasons out of the three; and the successful crop was but a poor compensation compared to turnips. In England it succeeds well, particularly in the eastern counties, and in the north of Ireland I have seen very heavy crops of the long red on drained bog. 3385. The mangold-wurzel being a green crop, is subjected to precisely the same culture as the turnip up to the point of pluugliing the dung in the drills, and need not be repeated here. The quantity of farm-yard dung given is the same as to iSwedish turnip.s — 16 tons the acre, with 3 cwt. of guano, sown upon the dung before being covered in the drill. The land should thus be prepared for the seed early in April, and not later than the beirinniuir of May. 33Sf). The seed of mangold-wurzel being covered with a rough integument, cann(»t be sown with a turnip-machine having the common seed-boxes. Perhaps Geddes' turnip sowing-machine, with the mode of feeding the seed described in fig. 2.'>7, might answer the purpose ; and Mr Ixaynbird of Suffolk refers to a one-horse drill which sows three rows of seed at Don's General Dictionary of Botany and Gardening, vol. i. p. 229. THE CULTURE OF MANGOLD-WURZEL. 91 a time, over three acres in two hours.* Newberry's wheel-dibbler has also been «sed. I have never seen a machine cap- able of sowing niangold-vvurzel seed well, and one that will sow two drills at a time, like turnips — and roll the drills be- fore and after the sowing with a light roller — is preferable, for management, to one having three drills. Mr Miles uses an iron wheel, upon the circumference of which are placed iron studs at 18 inches apart and 2^ inches in projection, to act as dibbles in forming holes along the top of the drill ; but a projecting stud from the circumference of a wheel in revolution must make a hole much ragged on one side. In lack of a machine, I tried a plan of sowing which answered very well, and which I would prefer to any dibble — it was this : A light roller flattened and made even the tops of two drills at once, ■when the soil had become dry after the ploughing of the dung. A field-worker followed, and made a light rut along the top of the drill with the corner of a hand- hoe, fig. 266 ; another worker dropped the seed along the rut in the given quantity — 4 ft) or 5 tt) to the acre — steeped or in a dry state as desired; dry sand being mixed with it, in either state, to allow the more easy separation from each other ; and a third worker ftjllowed and levelled the earth, which had been raised up in making the rut, over the seed witli the back of an iron garden rake. The sowing was thus conducted quickly, though a sowing-ma- chine that rolls the drills at the same time wouhl be preferable. A roller fol- lows the sowing, and terminates the whole operation. 3387. A difference of opinion exists whether or not the seeds of mangold-wur- zel should be steeped in some liquor before being sown. Mr Raynbird conceives they should be sown dry, and, on trying an experiment with steeped and dry seeds, found that 10 of the dry germinated, whilst the largest number of the steeped that appeared was only 6, and these had been steeped in water for 14 hours. I prefer the dry seed, as being safest from the effects of frost and drought, both which may be exjiected at the season mangold- wurzel seed should be sown. 3388. When the weather is favourable, the plants should make their appearance above ground in 8 or 10 days. The sciifHer, fig. 262, is first sent along the drills to pare their sides, and cut down any weeds in the intermediate. space; and I may say at once that the entire clean- ing process, during the summer, js precisely the same as for the turnip. The plants are hoed out with the hand hoe, fig. 266, at from 14 to 18 inches apart, according to the streugtli and rich state of the land; and this is the time to fill up the blanks in the crop, by the transplantation of the best plants which had been singled out. 338.9. Mangold-wurzel is raised in rows on the flat surface as well as in drills, and this is chiefly practised on the strongest species of soils, when the manure is plough- ed in at the commencement of winter. The seed is dibbled in by hand, or with Newberry's dibbler, referred to above, (3386,) or with a flat piece of wood 5 or 6 feet long, furnished with short dibbles, in the holes made by which the seed is drop- ped by the hand. In the flat culture sow- ing with the common dibble, giving it a twist with the wrist to keep the hole open until the seeds have been dropped into it by a field-worker, a man and woman sow- ing an acre a day, is apt to make the dibble holes in strong soil receptacles for water. But there is no method so good of raising green crops of all kinds as in drills; and if rough clods are dreaded in strong land, let the land be drilled and manured in winter, as has been recommended in the case of raising turnips on strong soils, (.3244.) One objection to the flnt culture on strong soils seems to me to be insuper- able— that the roots are apt to set out lateral shoots, after the soil is set up with the double mould-board plough. 3390. By some experiments instituted by Mr Pusey, on the effects of certain manures on the growth of mangold-wur- zel, it would a])pear that, in doubling farm-yard dung from 1 3 loads to 26 the acre, only one ton additional was obtained ; and that, of various ingredients used, no effect exceeding 5 tons the acre, beyond what hadno manure at all, was produced — with the exception of 3 cwt. of guano, and Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 213. 9S PRACTICE— SUMMER. 7 cwt. of woollen rags, each along with 13 loads of farm-yard dun-,', which produced 36 tons the acre. The conclusions at which Mr Pusey arrived are sensible, and are thus expressed :— " The two principal re- sults of the experiment seem to be — that there is in some soils a limit beyond which an additional dose of dung is of no use. This result, if confirmed, would be inte- resting in theory. In actual farming there is not much danger of our erring in that direction, as to our dressings of dung; and in some parts of the country this would not, perhaps, be a very safe doctrine to dwell upon. The other inference, a more prac- tical one, is, that it is more profitable to use some artificial manures in conjunction with dung, than to use either singly. Thus guano and woollen rags, used singly, added to my crop only 5 tons the acre. The single dressing of dung added only 1 1 tons, and doubling that amount of dung did no good ; but guano combined with the same amount of dung, and rags com- bined with the same amount of dung, each gave an addition, not of 16 tons of roots, according to their effects when used singly, but of 20 tons, yielding each 36 tons — a produce very large indeed for land which, four years ago, when I took, it in hand, was said to be incapable of growings turnip."* 339 1 . Like all the succulent green crops, mangold-wurzel is subject to the attack of insects. It was at one time believed that this root was exempt from such attacks, but the experience of the few years bypast has produced an opposite conviction. The mangold-wurzel plant, as soon as it ap- pears above ground, is attacked by the larva of a beetle, named Silpha opaca. The eggs are probably laid in the earth — but this remains to be proved — and the larva are hatched in ten or twelve days, and when full-grown are four to five lines in breadth. These are shining black, comprising 13 segments, including the head. They have 6 short legs. From 1844 to 1847 they completely ate down the leaves of the mangold-wurzel in the counties of Londonderry and Tyrone in Ireland ; and what is remarkable, the same insect, though abundant in Enirland, does no harm to that crop there. The ultimate effect of these attacks on the manjiold- wurzel leaves is not serious, the crop re- covering after the larva have dropped into the ground to be transformed into pupae, from which emerge the beetles. A very destructive + insect is the common dart- moth, Noctua or ^gratis segetum^ which is generally of a reddish-brown, but varies so greatly in the tint of the upper wings as to be sometimes of a clay colour. It is in length from 8 lines to three-quarters of an inch, and its expanse is from If to 2 inches. The moth is sometimes seen flying in multitudes about the tops of hedges, soon after sunset, in June and July. The larva is smooth and shining, and of a pale lurid ochreous colour, faintly freckled, with a broad space down the back, often rosy, and a few short hairs scattered over the body. It does great mischief to young mangold- wurzel plants, the roots of which it cuts through just below the crown, and it attacks the potatoes as they are pushing out of the ground, and is exceedingly vora- cious. One cause of the great mischief arising from the attacks of the caterpillar of this species, is its capability of travel- ling at a very rapid rate from one spot to another ; and in this way, as soon as a caterpillar has eaten through the root of a young plant, it marches off in quest of an- other, and thus the evil is greatly multi- plied. The grub which attacks the oat plant in spring, fig. 223, also injures the mangold-wurzel plant by dividing the young root about an inch below the sur- face of the ground. Insects which injure the parts of crops under the ground are much more destructive in their effects than those which injure the leaves and buds of plants. 3302. It is not an unfrequent practice to strip off the under leaves of the man- gold-wurzel plant in summer, as fodder for cows and pigs ; but the practice, as may be supposed, is injurious, as seen from an experiment made by Mr R. Rand, Hadleigh, Suffolk, in 1842. He selected 3 portions of mangold-wurzel, containing each 7 square yards, and from the first por- tion he stripped 4 or o of the under leaves on 8th of July, 6th of August, and first week of September ; from the second portion he stripped the same number at each period of the 6th of August and the first week Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 53i + Ihid. vol. viii. p. 407. THE CULTURE OF MANGOLD-WURZEL. 93 of September; and from the third por- were carefully cleaned and weighed, and tion none were stript at all. The roots the produce was as follows : — From 1st portion, 475 ^b. net weight, or 14 tons, 13 cwt. 0 qrs. 27 lbs. per acre. ... 2d ... 52 16 ... 1 ... 0 ... 2 ... 3(1 ... 61 16 ... 16 ... 2 ... 0* 3397. The German name of the field beet was at one time a matter of dispute, but is now set- tled to be mamjold-wurzel, which literally means the root of the white beet. The former phrase mangel-wurzel means the root of scarcity, and is used by Von Thaer, in common with the former, to denominate the field beet. His opinion is, that the field beet is a hybrid betwixt the red garden beet and the white sugar beet — a not improbable conjecture. § 3398. Mangold-wurzel seed has a remarkable appearance. It proceeds from a capsule which, when green, is soft and fleshy, and, when ripe, hard, and somewhat woody in texture, and into which the rough kidney-shaped seeds are deeply imbedded. The seeds, with their persistent rough capsule, are so large and heavy as only to require 184 to weigh a drachm. 3399. 1 have given the composition of mangold- wurzel in (854,) and the ashes of the bulb and leaf, as ascertained by Professor Way and Mr Ogston, contain ingredients as follows : — 3393. Roots of mangold-wurzel have been grown in Scotland as heavy as 15 lb., and crops obtained of 38 tons to the acre, at Largo in Fifeshire, where the land is of fine quality. From 5 lb. to 8 lb. each root would be near the -ordinary mark ; but in seasons of late frosts, of which there are too many in Scotland, the mangold-wur- zel has no chance of succeeding there. 3394. The plants of mangold-wurzel are very apt to run to seed when exposed to drought early after having been singled out in the row.s ; and the seed from plants, which had prematurely run to seed, en- courages that tendency in the future plant still more than drought. 3395. The mangold-wurzel belongs to the class and order Pentandria Digynia of Linnaeus ; the natural order Chenopodkeoi i\x5S\&\\; and to Hy- pogy7ious Exogens — alliance 38, Chenopodales — order 195, Cherujpodiacece— genus Beta, of the natural system of Lindley. Its specific name is Beta vulgaris campestris, of the order Chenopods, which are closely allied to the Nettleworts. Its leaves are reddish or reddish green ; roots thickly fusiform, globular, or spindle-shaped, of a dullish red colour on the outer surface, and marbled white and red of various shades in the interior. One globular variety is of dull orange colour on the outer skin, and another spindle-shaped is similar in colour. 3396. A white variety, called the white sugar beet, Beta vulgaris campestris alba, has long been cultivated in France for the sugar which it yields. Many mills are at work in that country for the manufacture of the sugar .+ It was the policy of Buonaparte to encourage the culture of this root, in order to render the French people independent of sugar from our colonies. The scheme succeeded in France, but the climate of Britain is unsuited to this delicate root. The physical characters which serve to show that this beet is of good qua- lity for sugar, are its being firm, brittle, emitting a creaking noise when cut, and being perfectly sound within. The degree of sweetness is also a good indication. The 45th degree of latitude appears to be the southern limit of the successful growth of white beet, in reference to the extrac- tion of sugar. Dr Ure states that he has obtained 5 per cent of good sugar from white beet grown near Mitchem in Surrey.* — * Henslow's Letters to the Fariners of Suffolk — Letter xiv. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 922. X Ure's Dictionary of the Arts — art Sugar. i>. 1210. § Thaer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 589— Shaw and Johnston's translation. Bulb. Leaf. Potash, 23-54 8-34 Soda, 19-08 i-2-:i Lime, 1.78 8-72 Magnesia, 1-75 9-84 Oxide of iron, 0-74 1-46 Carbonic acid, 18-14 6-92 Phosphoric acid. 4-49 5-89 Sulphuric acid. 3-68 6-54 Chloride of sodium, . 24-54 37-66 Silica, 2-22 2-35 Percentage of ash, 99-96 1-02 99-93 1-40 2. Of the long red beet. Bulb. Leaf. Potash, 29-05 27-53 Soda, 19-05 5-83 Lime, ■2-17 9-06 Magnesia, 2-79 910 Oxide of iron, 0-56 0-48 Carbonic acid, . 21-61 6-11 Phosphoric acid. 3-11 4-39 Sulphuric acid. 3-31 6--26 Chloride of sodium, . 14-18 29-85 Silica, 4-11 1-35 99-94 99-96 Percentage of ash. 1-00 1.91 94 PRACTICE— SUMMER. 3100. Mineral matters in pounds in one ton of Mean of Mean of three speci- tliree speci- mens of bulb. mens of leaf. lb. lb. Potash, 4-99 7-86 SoJa, . 3-()-2 2.V2 Lime, . 0-41 3-31 Magnesia, 0-43 ?.-27 Oxide of iron. 012 • 0-.52 Phosphoric acid, . 0-66- 1-94 Sulphuric acid, 0-65 2-_'0 Cliloride of sodium. 5:29 12-!:-2 Silica, . 0-54 0-76 1611 35.-20 3401. " The chief features in the composition of the ash of the bulb, are the large proportion of alkali present in it as carbonates, bat existing in the vegetable itself no doubt in great part in the form of nitrates, which are well known to be constituents of beet. Phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, and lime, are found in tlie mangold bulb ash in smaller quantity than in that of the turnip. The high percentage of common salt, chloride of sodium, in beet is remarkable : in one case it constitutes one-third, in another one-fourth, of the entire mineral matter. The ash of beet leaves contain more phosphoric and sulphuric acid, more lime and magnesia, but less alkali, and a smaller amount of alkaline carbonate, than that of the bulb. It contains, however, like the bulb, a very considerable quantity of common salt. The ash of both bulb and leaf evideuecs a partial substitution of soda for potash. Weight for weight, the leaves are considerably richer in phosphoric acid than the bulbs ; and they also contain a very much larger proportion of mag- nesia. The alkalies predominate iu the bulb, whilst common salt, although abundantly present in both, is found in larger quantity in the leaf than in that of the turnip." 3402. It may be owing to the effects of the large quantity of common salt contained in mangold- wurzel and turnips, that the milk of cows de- creases when fed exclusively on raw raangold- wurzel, or that abortion is brought on ewes in lamb when pi iced wholly on turnips in winter, and their milk deficient when the lambs are dropped. It is a well-known fact that, when ewes iu lamb have been principally fed on Swedish turnips, for some time before the lambing season, that their lambs are small and unliealiliy, and themselves are deficient of milk. The effect may arise from the circumstance of the large quantity of common salt contained in turnips dimini^]liMg the secretion of the liver, and the effect would be aggravated by a free use of common .--uU being given to ewes on turnips; and it is, besides, known that incipient disease of the liver is favourable to the production of fat, and hence the hi^h con- dition of the ewes or lamb on turnips, and espe- cially if salt is attainable at pleasure.* ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT- ME.NT OF THE CARROT. 3403. Altliouj:h the carrot is a green crop, ami occupies tlie same course of croppino; as the turniji, it is raised gene- rally ou so limiteil spaces of ground that it has never assumed the importance of a croji of the farm a.s its value deserves. Its limited culture may have arisen from cer- tain inconveniences attending its culti- vati(»n, such as that it requires a particu- lar kind of soil, very deep ploughing — the dung applied in the unusual season of winter, when the land of the fallow break is not likely to be free of weeds, a second manuring when the seed is sown, and some difficulty attending the sowing of the seed. These are all unusual items of practice, which I have no doubt continue to ope- rate as obstacles against the extended cul- tivation of even so valuable a root as the carrot. On however small a scale it is cultivated, every particular of the process of cultivation must be attended to as if the crop occupied as large a space as the turnip. 3404. The best soil for the carrot is a deep sandy loam. It will nut succeed at all on tenacious soil of any kind, nor one resting immediately upon a retentive sub- soil, whether of clay or rock, and much less if either are undrained. 3405. As the carrot has a long fusiform root, which grows almost entirely under grouiid. it is evident that it must have a deep soil ; and such a depth of soil must either be natural or artificiiilly made so, before the root can be expected to arrive at a perfect proportion of length. 34()fi. While treating of sea-weed as a manure. I mentioned that it was .so used for raising carrots, (2110,) by penple in certain parts of the coasts of Scotland, in light sandy soil. This is the mode of raising carrots practised by the feuars of the j)arish of Barrie, Forfarshire, on sandy soil, and it deserves imitation in similar circumstances. Tl'ev begin a trench of 2 fee; deep in the sand in autumn, after a white crop, and, collecting sea- weed as it is washed ashore after storms in the course * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 185-190. THE CULTURE OF THE CARROT. 95 of winter, they lialf-fill trench after trench with it, till the break of soil allotted to the carrot crop is manured. Of course other manure would answer the same pur- pose as sea-ware, but when it can be found in sutticient quantity for the gathering and carriage, it affords a cheap manure for the purpose. Of farm-yard manure, horse- dung is found to be best when treated in this manner as sea-ware is. In the end of April, or beginning of May, ruts are form- ed with the hoe in rows of about 14 inches apart, and old rotten dung is sown along the bottom of them to insure the brairding of the seed on so poor a soil as loose sand generally is, the seed is sown upon the dung, and the soil raked over it. The plants are thinned out by the hand, at about six inches asunder, and the ground kept clean by hand and hoe together. The carrots grown by the sea-weed in this manner, in loose sand, are not only excel- lent in quality, but clean, long, and juicy, as may be witnessed in the Dundee market in autumn and winter. The culture in this case is on a small scale, but may be extended to any degree where the cir- cumstances are similar. At the price of £3, or £3, 10s. the ton, and with a crop of not nu)re than 10 tons to the acre, a considerable sum may be annually realised by the labouring and industrious cottar. Instead of rotten dung in the spring, guano might be employed, and in case of injury to the seed from the guano, the seed should be mixed with a quantity of the sand. 3407. The land intended to bear the carrot crop, should be ploughed in the stubble immediately after the harvest is over, to have time to clean it, should it be foul, before the bad weather in winter. As the soil is light, the mode of plough- ing it will be by casting, (755,) tig. 22 ; and, when ploughed, a second plough should follow in the furrow of the one turning over the surface, in order to stir the soil to the depth of 14 or 16 inches. Reid's two-horse subsoil-plough, to be afterwards figured and described, will a:;swer a similar purpose. The land will now be ready for the dung ; for the man- ure for carrots must be put into the ground before winter, the nature of that root not agreeing with fresh dung, which causes it to divide into a number of roots, each so fil>rous as to be unfit for use. The dung should be applied in drill ; and as it need not be much reduced by fermentation, the drills should be deep, and formed in the double mode, (2397-) The quan- tity applied should be 25 tons to the acre. After the dung has been covered in the double mode again, the land remains in that state until next spring. 3408. About the end of April the seed is sown, and carrot seed should always be steeped in water before being sown, and it is steeped in this way : The bag containing the seed, which should be in the quantity of 6 lb. of the best quality to the acie, and an indefinite number of pounds more when of doubtful soundness — which it will cer- tainly be if older than one year — is placed in a vessel of water and allovved to soak for 48 hours; and this process should be gone through eight or nine days before the seed is sown. After the soaking, the seed is spread about a foot in thickness upon the barn floor, to encourage its germina- tion, which will take place in six or seven days, according to the state of the weather. When the seed is observed to be chipped it should be sown, and it is prepared for sowing by being intimately mixed with fine dry sand to about 4 pecks to the acre, seed and sand together. 3409. About the middle of April, should the drilled ground bear evidence of sur- face weeds, the drill-harrow, fig. 2l^0, should harrow along the drills, and the drill-grul)ber, fig. 264, remove the weeds between the drills. At this time, 2 cwt. of guano should be carefully sown by hand along the top of the drills. The setting up double mould-board plough, fig. 214, should place the mould again upon the drills, and give them again their proper form ; and a light roller, such as the c(m- cave rollers of the turnip sowing-machine, fig. 254, without the coulters, will make the tops even and smooth. The seed should be preparing in the steeping and germinating processes, to answer the time of these last operations ; and the large quantity of sand with which it is mixed will protect it from immediate contact and injury from the action of the guano. 3410. I have never yet seen a properly constructed machine for sowing seeds with rough capsules, such as those of mangold- 96 PRACTICE— SUMMER. wurzel and carrot ; but as carrot seed is mixed K-ith so large a quantity of fine sand, I dare say tlie sowing part of the bean- barrow, fig. 219, niiglit be so adjusted as to answer tbe purpose. Failing any machine, a rut should be made along the top of each drill with the corner of the band-hoe, fig. 2G6; the seed and sand sown by hand in the rut, and covered with tlie earth rai.sed by making the rut about an inch in depth, with light iron rakes. The rollers of fig. 254, on being again passed along the drills, finish the operation. 3411. The varieties of carrot cultivated in the field need not be numerous, as one or two kinds are all that are desirable. The white Belgian carrot now stands at the head of all the varieties for certainty of crop, beauty of root, and sweetness of taste. It is not long, — thick at the crown, and tapering to a point. It grows wholly under ground. The Altringhani is a good carrot — long, blunt in the end, rather irre- gular in its taper, and of an orange tinge in its colour. It grows a considerable height above the ground. The long red is also a good carrot, of a deep red colour, long in proportion to its thickness, and has a comparatively small heart. 3412. The use of the guano is to start the seed and support the young plant, until its long root reaches the dung below, ■which it will not be long in doing. The young germ will appear above ground in from twenty to twenty-five days, and when it is about an inch in Jieight, it is time to single out the plants to G inches apart in the drill, which is best done by the hand, in the case of the long-rooted carrot. Scuffling, fig. 2()2, and drill-grubbing the ground l)ctwecn the drills, fig. 264, to make the land clean and to stir it, are executed in precisely the same manner as for turnips. 3413. Besides light true soils, carrots are successfully raised on reclaimed bog that has some alluvial matter in it. The culture is the same as on earthy soil, the manure being deep buried ; and as dried moss is very porous in texture, the carrot is enabled to push its long root through it with comparative ease. 3414. Carrots maybe raised in rows on the flat ground, but unless the soil is naturally deep and rich, and loose, this mode of culture is not so well suited for the fiehl as that in drills; for with deep-plough- ing to any extent, there is no jtossibility of burying dung so deep, and affording the crop such a depth of soil, as in the drill — and both these conditions are essential to the successful cultivation of the carrot. 341.5. Carrots are also sown broadcast, upon the flat surface; but, excepting in very small patches, this mode of culture is not suited to the use of implements of the field, and the clearing of the ground of weeds must therefore be expensively exe- cuted by the hand. 3416. Insects infest the carrot crop in the root, stem, and flower. The plant no sooner makes its aiijjearance than it is attacked by aphides, the Aphis daiici., which are scarcely larger than cheese mites, of a uniform pale green colour, with 6 legs, 2 horns, and no wings. Their pre- sence is indicated by the yellow foliage, and, in pulling up the plant, the roots are sound and clean, but the crown is not only discoloured, but, on opening the embryo leaves, ninnbers of the aphides are found concealed. 3417. The root of the carrot is affected witii a disease named the riist^ in which the crop gradually dies off, loses its saccha- rine qualities, and, changing to a ferrugin- ous colour, becomes of little value. This complaint is occasioned by the larvte of the carrot-fly, Psila rosoe^ eating galleries along the roots which they inhabit through the summer, when they become pup.-e iu the earth, but a new brood hatches in summer every three or four weeks. This fly is 3 lines long, of a pitchy black; the wings lie horizontally along the back when at rest, and extend beyond the tail, and when ex- panded extend to r> lines. The maggots are ochreons and shining, cylindrical, pointed at the head and obtuse at the tail, resem- bling cheese-hoppers, though they cannot leap, and are exceedingly transparent, every internal part being visible. When cavities have been opened by this maggot in the rest of the carrot, large numbers of the millepede, Poli/desmus complanatus, and of the centipede, Scolopendra electrica, assist in extending the depredations. An- other caterpillar, the larva of the ghost- THE CULTURE OF THE CARROT. 97 moth, Hepialis humili, also eats iuto the root of the carrot and injures it. 3418. Mr Curtis gives the recipe of a composition of sand and spirit of tar, to prevent those insects injuring the carrot root. Take 4 bushels of sand and mix intimately with them one gallon of the spirit of tar. The mixture is to be ap- plied along the drill, and if a space of half a foot in breadth upon the top of the drill is dressed with it, the quantity named will dress about 1300 yards along a drill. If it is applied in the drill when that is formed in winter, the spirit of tar may kill the young larvae in the soil ; if in spring, the female fly may be deterred from de- positing her eggs, and it will no doubt be as successful wiien the crop is sown, as it is the smell of the spirit of tar which is the obnoxious ingredient to insects. As carrots are not cultivated over a large ex- tent of ground in any one place, this remedy may be easily applied, both as regards its cost and the ease of its application. 3419. The larvae of the flat-body moths, Depressaria cicutella and depressella, bore into the stems of the carrot, causing the leaves to stint and decay ; and the larvae of the gray carrot-blossom flat-body moth, Depressaria daucella, commit great havoc ou the floral umbels of the carrot. 3420. Few agricultural seeds are so difficult to obtain in a good state as those of the diff"erent varieties of the carrot ; and this is partly to be ascribed to the injuries occasioned by tliis insect, and greatly also to a wet state of the weather, the form of the umbels being favourable to the reten- tion of much moisture, which either pre- vents impregnation altogether, or destroys the vitality of the seed. Of all the varie- ties, the seed of the Altringham is the most difficult to obtain pure, for though obtained from selected roots, its produce is often unlike the parent stock. 3421. Altringham carrots have been grown at Falkland in Fifeshire, of crop 1834, that have weighed 5 lb. each. In good hazel loam, on the home farm of Blair-Drummond in Perthshire, 29 tons of carrots have been obtained from the acre; but from 16 to 20 tons are a good crop. It is said generally that the produce of the VOL. H. white Belgian carrot is 9 or 10 tons the acre greater, in the same circumstances, than that of the red varieties. In Bel- gium the produce of the white carrot is 160 bushels the acre, the individual carrota weighing 1^ lb., making the crop about 4 tons the acre, raised with 21 tons of man- ure, half of farm-yard dung and half from the privies. 3422. Hares and rabbits are so fond of the carrot that, unless the crop is protected where they abound, it will have a poor chance of coming to maturity ; and unless the fence erected round the crop is a close one, it will not be able to exclude these wily depredators. I believe the only eff'ectual fence is a close paling of laths pushed into the ground, supported near the top and bottom with horizontal spars nailed to them, and the whole held steady by stobs driven at intervals into the ground to act as shores against the paling. If a common 3-sparred paling already exists, it might be made fencible by interlacing stems of broom, or whin, or branches of spruce flr, between the spars. A dead fence of thorns also forms a complete fence. 3423. On account of the land for carrots having to be cleaned and manured before winter, the culture of that root is not likely to be extended in Scotland, where the harvest is not unfrequently late, and little time left for cleansing operations after it. It is true that, should the potato crop oc- cupy a less extent of ground in future than it has hitherto done, the time that would be saved from attending on that crop might be bestowed on the carrot in the end of autumn, and it would thus come in for a share of attention which it has not hitherto received. Both it and mangold-wurzel requiring to be taken up and stored in autumn,''(836-37-38,) wheat v^ould follow them. Trivial as the circumstance may appear of the partiality which hares and rabbits exhibit for the carrot, it will con- tinue to operate as an obstacle to its ex- tended cultivation, for the trouble of fen- cing in the crop so closely cannot be generally practised. 3424. Notwithstanding these considera- tions, I have dwelt the longer on the culture of the carrot, as it is a root suited to the 98 PRACTICE— SUMMER. climate of Scotland, on which account it ni:iy take the place of the potato, the cul- ture of which cannot now be pursued with the panie degree of coniiJence it has hither- to received. 3425. The carrot stand- in the class and order Pentandrin Dlmiila of Linnreus ; in the natural orii<'r, UinbeUifene o^ iw^^y^n; and \n E}ngynous i'.r.KKn*— alliance 55, UnMlales— order 295, j4 pi, ce(E— tribe 12, Daucidoe— genus Daucus,o{ the natural system of Lindley. 3426. Umbellifers are " natives chiefly of the northern part of the northern hemisphere, in- habiting groves, thickets, plains, marshes, and waste places. They appear to be extremely rare in all tropical countries, except at consider- able elevations, where they gradually increase in number as the other parts of the vegetation acquire an extra-tropical or mountain character. Hence, although they are hardly known in the plains of India, they abound on the mountains of Himalaya. They are, however, not uncommon in the southern hemisphere, where they belong principally to hydrocotylids and malinids. The umbelliferous is one of tho!^e large orders in which plants occur with extremely different secretions. They all appear to form three dif- ferent principles : the first, a watery acrid mat- ter ; the second, a gum-resinous milky subst.ince; and the third, an aromatic, oily secretion. When the first of these predominate, they are poisons, as the hemlock ; the second, in excess, converts them into stimulants, as the assalcetida ; the absence of the two renders them useful escu- lents, as celery, fennel, samphire, parsley, and the roots of carrots, parsnips, and skirrets ; and the third causes them to be carminatives and pleasant condiments, as anise, carraway, cori- ander, and cummin, used in veterinary practice."* 3427. The carrot, Daucus earota, has white flowers, with a solitary red or purjdish barren one in the ceotre of the umbel; bristles of 'he seed slender, and as the same becomes ripe, the umbel acquires a contracted and concave form; leaves tripinnate; leaflets, piiinatifid; stems, rough and furrowed ; root, fleshy and fusiform, biennial. Tiie generic name, daucus, is derived from the Greek, signifying liot, implying pungency ; and the specific term earota, is from the Celtic car, meaning red, the colour of the root. 3428. The composition of the carrot has been given in (854). The proportion of water in the carrot ia as follows : — Water, Younc red carrot. Old red carrot. Old white carrot. roots, leaves. 6t«m9. b7-08 7()u3 8 .-58 roota. tops. 80-21 75-y7 roots, tops. 80 23 7416 WAY AHO JOHNSTON. 008TON. White Belgian Toang red Old red carrot- mean carrot. carrot. ofSspf-cimeos. Potash, 4«.;j 4(j.87 32.44 S,ida, 12.92 8.12 13.52 J.iiiie, is.-'a 6.58 ^.83 Jlajnesia, . 2.12 9.06 3.H6 Oxide of iron. o.yo (1.37 1.10 Pliusplioiic acid, 4.65 10.48 8.55 Sulphuric acid. 8.09 6.30 6..55 Carbonic acid, . 17..30 Clil'Tide of sodium, 6.43 10.62 6.50 Silica, 3.14 100.00 1.62 100.02 1.19 99.94 The carrot is rich in alkalies, much resembling the turnip -the latter yields more sulphates, the former more carbonates. 3430. The ash of the leaves contain :— WAV AND JOHNSTON. OGSTON. Young red carrot. Old red carrot White Belgian c.-irTot-niean Stems. Leaves. Tops. of asreoimens. Leaves. 7-12 Potash, 48-.50 19-08 27 04 Soda, . 4-53 5-80 10-97 I.inie, 18-58 34-10 26-53 32-64 Magnesia, . 2-04 4-48 4-95 2-!(2 Oxide of iron. 1-46 2-40 (1-71 2-40 Phosphoric acid, 3-36 8-17 3-(;o 167 Sulpliuric acid, . 505 14-54 7-75 6-20 Carbonic acid, . 17-82 Chloride of potas- sium, 504 Chloride of sodium. 14-.54 9-33 22-69 13-67 Silica, 1-94 210 1-69 10000 4-56 ino-00 10000 99-97 "The ash of carrot-leaf is peculiar in one re- spect," observes Professor Way : " of the alka- lies, potash, and soda, the latter greatly predo- minates. This i.-;, in reality, an important as well as a singular circumstance. The alk-uli suda is much more available for agricultural purposes than potash, especially as the results we have obtained would induce a belief that a plant can obtain this alkali from common salt — the common- est of all salts If any plant be found to content itself with this alkali, such plant will nndxubt- edly be more easy of artificial culture than others which require potash, and refuse to take soda in- stead of it: it is not said that this is the c.ise with the carrot, but attention is drawn to the uni- formity of the result in the case ol the leaves." 3431. Mineral matter in one ton of carrot-roots and of leaves, in pounds : — Mean of Mean of five specimens, three sriecimaifl. Potash, Soda, Lime, Magnesia, Oxide of iron, Phosphoric acid, . Suli)huric acid, Chloride of sodium. Silica, Roots. Leaves. lb. lb. 6.59 6.fi4 2.71 .0.()7 1.77 30.24 0.80 2 5 , 0.22 2 « 1.73 !M 1.21 o.'.l 1.J2 il.95 0.24 4.46 6.79 3429. The ash of the root of the carrot is as follows, from two authorities : — • Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom, p. 775. t Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1847, p. 67-68, 75.14 THE CULTURE OF PARSNIP. 99 Although the ash in the leaf is greater than in than the carrot, and yet it may be raised the root, and varies much m.re greatly in the , gj^^j ^nd even peat, if sufficient dmerent specimens, yet in the eutire plant tne ^ i i- j r 5 - ^ manure be applied. mineral matter will be found far more constant in quantity and composition, than in either the root or the leaf taken separately; the variations which occur being counteracted by the alteration of the percentage of ash, or of the proportion of root to leaf.* 3432. A mode of raising the carrot is practised in Belgium whicli we would consider slovenly and expensive. The seed is sown broadcast with the last turn of the harrows, with a cereal crop in spring, and when the crop is harvested the car- rot has acquired a very moderate growth, and the land is weeded by hand and the stubble also removed, the field-workers going down on their knees and wearing a peculiar dress for the pur- pose, no fewer than 20 weeders being required to the acre. The produce is about half of the regular crop. Each horse is allowed 25 lbs. of carrots a day without hay, and cows receive the same settiug-up double mould-board plouirli, fi^. quantity, upon which they yield good butter 214 ; thougli it is improbable that th^s both as to quantity and quality. t ,^1„„„K ;„ ,1 1 * i ^ ^ 'i } I plough is able to cover so much manure 3433. The farmer may raise as mucli carrot ^^ ^^^^ carrot and parsuip require, seed as to supply his own wants. The largest and best roots are inserted in some convenient piece of ground in October or November, or in the end of February, iu rows 27 inches apart, as deep as to have two or three inches of earth over their crowns. The only care required during the summer is to keep the ground clean, partly with hand-hoeing and drill-grubbing, fig. 264. The 3437. Its culture should be precisely that of the turnip and the carrot, being a green crop in the fallow division of the farm, and requiring a deep soil for the growth of its fusiform roots. This root, however, is not impatient of immediate contact with ma- nure like the carrot, so that the land may be drilled and dunged in spring instead of winter, as is done for the carrot. Pars- nips should receive 25 tons of farm-yard dung in the drill, and 4 cwt. of guano sown over the dung, as described for the turnip crop, (3239,) and the land then drilled up in the double form, (2397,) or with the 3438. Parsnip seed is contained in a broad thin capsule, and is very light. Even when good, 10 lb. will be required for the acre. Care should be taken that it be fresh and new. It should he steeped in water before it is sown, as it would seed will be ripe in autumn, and as birds do not r.fl.Qvv.-;-^ ]\^ 1.^.^^ ;., *i « i 1 r -x .»..,., J . • . 1 otueiwi^e lie long in the ground before it disturb It, the crop does not require to be ,, . ^ , r » • 1 1 watched. Gather the seed only from tlie prin- ^^^»"'l germinate ; but aher being soaked, ci|.al umbel of each plant, which will not only if sown in very dry soil, it is apt to be de- aflFord the ripest and largest seed, but the most privedof its vitality. The sowing- machines vigorous plants. The umbels are very liable to be affected with mildew in damp weather. The yield of seed may be expected to afford from 14 lb. to 5 lb. per rood of 164 f^^t square. A considerable quantity of carrot seed is raised for the Loudon market, near Weatherfield, in Essex. at present in use are not well adapted for the sowing of this seed anymore than that of the carrot and the mangold-wurzel ; but on being mixed with sand, after being soaked, it may be sown in the rut, made in the top of the drill with the coiner of the hand-hoe. fig. 266, or with the bean-drill barrow, fig 219; but it would be more ex- peditiously sown in the rut, out of the liands of two or three workers, than with that machine. Eakes cover the seed with soil very well, and a rolling with concave rollers of the turnip-sowing machine, fig. 2.34, without the coulters, fini.^hes the 3435. The parsnip requires a milder sowing of the crop in a neat manner, climate than Scotland generally affords ; but it grows well in England, and in per- 3439. Parsnips should be singled when- fection in the island of Jersey, both as ever the plant can be discriminate!!. The regards the quality of the root and the ecuffler, fig. 262, clears away the surface weight of the crop. weeds in the first instance. The singling is made at a distance of 8 inches apart in 3436. It will grow in a much stronger soil the drill — the stems and leaves, spreading • Journal of the Einjllsh jiaricuHurnl Soc'ety, vol. viii. p. 192-6. t Radciifft's Agdcuiture of Fiandrrs, p. 76. 3434. Much carrot seed is annually imported from Holland, and, by the tariff of 1846, it pays a duty of 5s., and when from any British pos- session, 2s. 6d. the cwt. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF PARSNIP. 100 PRACTICE— SUMMER. more than those of the carrot, require more room. The after-hoeing and cleaning of the land of the weeds with the drill-grub- ber, fig. 264, are c(»ndiicted in the same maimer as those for the turnip and carrot. The drill should be set up with the double mould-board plough, fig. 214, to heap the earth as much about the root as possible, as in the case of the carrot. 3440. The parsnip may be raised in rows in the flat ground, as well as the carrot, but the same reasons given for the culture of the carrot in the drill (331 4) will apply to that of the parsnip. Colonel Le Couteur describes the broadcast mode pur- sued in Jersey in the following terms : — " An old grass lea is broken up by some persons in September, by others just before the parsnip-land is sown. The former I consider to be the best mode. When the turf is well rotted, 20 tons of stable manure per acre are spread over the land. A trench is then opened through the centre of the field, between 2 and 3 feet wide, and, where the soil will admit of it, from 1 foot to 1 8 inches deep. A 2-horse plough then turns the manure and about 3 inches of soil into the trench, and is immediately followed by a large trench-plough with 3 or 4, and in many cases here, with 8 or 10 horses, which turns one foot or more of clean soil upon the manure and turf, when the land lias been recently skim-ploughed. The soil is then harrowed, and the pars- nip-seed, quite new, is sown at the rate of 3 or 4 lb. to the acre, and lightly harrowed. When the plants are one inch high, they are weeded. The plants, from the first, should be thinned put to 6 inches apart, and, according as the soil is good, should be again thinned out to 9 inches or more at the second hoeing. In a dry season it is well to observe tlfJit moistening the seed with wet sand and earth, and stirring it daily, to be sown in the first moi.->t wea- ther, or after a shower, will forward its growth a fortnight." I may observe that tliis method of cultivating any green crop does no credit to Jersey agriculture. Just conceive a green crop taken after lea — 8 or 10 horses being employed in a trench- plough — the land dunged before being trench-ploughed. But notwithstanding this objectionable mode of culture, which violates every rule of good husbandry, such is the nature of the climate that the crop yields 27 tons and uj)wards the acre — a quantity. Colonel Le Couteur states, which is " nearly sufficient for 10 cows during the 6 winter months, according to the calculation of the Flemings."* 3441. The parsnip is subjected to the attacks of a few insects. The maggots of the parsnip miner, Tephrites onopordonis, are hatched from May to July, and feed upon the parenchyma or pulp of the leaf, causing large blisters upon them ; and when two or three larvae are feeding on the same leaf, the blisters unite and form large discoloured patches, but otherwise the mischief is not serious. The caterpil- lars of the flat-body moth, Depressaria pastinacella., infest the parsnips left for seed, and often much injure and diminish the yield. They prefer the parsnip to the carrot seed, and on this account the growers of carrot seed sow some parsnips beside them, by which to lure the insect from the carrot crop. These caterpillars are gray- ish blue, with the head, thorax, and pec- toral feet, black ; upon each of the seg- ments are (! distinct little black dots, pro- ducing single minute hairs; the sides and the belly are yellow, and the abdominal feet are dotted with black. They live in July upon the flowers and young seeds of the parsnip. There seems to be no better mode of ridding parsnip crops of these caterpillar pests than hand-picking, and shaking the umbels of the flowers over a vessel for them to fall into. The flower of the parsnip is not nearly so liable to be aff'ected by insects, damp, or mildew, as the carrot, on which account the crop of seed is a surer one — though it should be borne in mind that it will not retain its vitality beyond one year.t 3442. It is quite easy to raise as much seed of the parsnip as is required on any farm. Transplant some of the best roots in a spade-dug piece of ground in February, at 2 feet apart in every direction, and insert them with their crowns under the surface of the ground. The ground should be kept clean with the hand-hoe until the leaves of the plants cover the ground. The shoots will become strong stalks, and produce Jtixirnal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. i. p. 419. t /6jrf. vol. ix. p. 190-4. THE CULTURE OF RAPE. 101 large umbels of seed, which will ripen in autumn. From 1^ lb. to 4 lb. of seed, being very light, may be expected from a square rood of I65 feet, dependent on the nature of the season, and escape from the attacks of insects. Birds do not injure it, though, if the seeds are not gathered from the umbels as they ripen, they are very apt to be blown off by the wind. 3443. I have seen a statement of the expense of cultivating an acre of parsnips, and the return obtained from it in 1847 upon the Cappoquin home farm in Ireland, belonging to Sir Richard Keene, Bart. The cost of cultivating the imperial acre, in- cluding trenching 16 inches deep with the spade, ploughing into drills of 27 inches apart, manuring with 40 tons of farm-yard dung, singl ilig, hoeing, weeding, rent, taxes, and planting 400 cabbage plants in the spaces which failed, was ,£ll, 15s. 4d. The return was 20 tons of parsnips the acre, which were sold in Cappoquin mar- ket at 4d. the stone, or £2, 18s. 4d. the ton, amounting to £53, 6s. 8d., and the cabbages fetched £3, 6s. 8d., at 2d. a- piece, averaging 14 lb. each in weight. After deducting the cost, the sum realised from the acre was £44, ISs. 3444. The parsnip is placed in the class and order Pentandria digynia by Linnaeus ; in the natural order Umbelli/erce by Jussieu ; and in the natural system of Epigynous Exogens — alli- ance 55, Umbellales — order 295, Apiacice — tribe 8, Peucedanid.ee — genus Pastinaca, by Lindley. 3445. The parsnip, Pastinaca sativa eduUs, has leaves pinnate or compressed, downy beneath, and generally shining above ; leaflets broadly ovate, cut, and serrated, terminative, three-lobed; colour of the flower yellow ; root fleshy, thick, and fusiform ; biennial. It derives its generic name from the form of the root being like a dibble, pastlnum. This root has long been an inmate of the garden, and was formerly much used. In the times of Popery it was the farmer's Lent root, being eaten with salted fish, to which it is still an excellent accompaniment. " In the north of Scotland," Dr Neill observes, " parsnips are often beat up with potatoes and a little butter ; of this excellent mess the children of the peasantry are very fond, and they do not fail to thrive upon it. In the north of Ireland, a pleasant table beverage is prepared from the roots, brewed along with hops. Parsnip wine is also made in some places ; and they afford an excellent ardent spirit, when distilled after a similar preparatory process to that bestowed on potatoes destined for that purpose."* It is an excellent food for cows, and its fattening pro- perties I have already noticed in (896.) 3446. Parsnips are cultivated in the drill method in Jersey as well as the broadcast, as thus described by Colonel Le Couteur. " The land," he says, " may be prepared as in the broadcast method. In one case I found the plants to answer well by spreading a portion of the manure on the surface of the ploughed land, and then earthing it up into small ridges, one foot apart, with a double mould-board plough. The seed is then sown on the top of the ridge and rolled in, which succeeded extremely well. The hoeing was performed with a horse-hoe in the drills, and the plants were cross-hoed with a hand-hoe. This mode does not appear so neat as the following : when the land is well harrow- ed and levelled, sow the seed broadcast, harrow and roll it ; then when the plants appear, hoe it into drills, either with a horse-hoe or hand-hoe. A drill-machine will be the best method if one could be found to sow parsnip seed regularly ; mine sows it much too profusely. The parsnips require hoeing and thinning as in the broadcast husbandry."'}' It seems strange practice to us to convert a crop into rows by sending an imple- ment through a broadcast braird. 3447. The composition of the parsnip root I have given in (854,) and the composition of the ash, whether of the root or the leaf, has not yet been ascertained by the chemist. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT- MENT OP RAPE. 3448. Rape is cultivated in this coun- try, not for its seed, as is the case on the Continent, but for its leaves as a forage plant, and a more wholesome food for sheep is not raised on the farm. 3449. It may be raised to be consumed at two different seasons — autumn and spring. To be consumed in autumn it should be sown in summer, and for spring consumption it should be sown in autumn. The culture up to the sowing of the seed, in either case, is precisely the same as for turnips. In England, in the richer soils, it is sown without manure; but in Scotland the crop would not repay the trouble were it attempted to be raised without manure, though it does not require the same quantity of farm-yard dung as the turnip; 10 tons the acre being suffi- cient to raise a good crop, or 16 bushels of bone-dust, or 4 cwt. of guano — the Don's General System of Gardening and Botany, vol. iii. p. 354. t Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. i. p. 420-1. 102 PRACTICE— SUMilER. manures being applied respectively as di- renders the culture of rape both convenient reeled for turnips. and useful. 34.50. The culture of this plant ceases after the sowing of the seed, as the crop is not thinned out like tuniips or the other rooted green crops, the object being to rait-e a sufficient number of stems to pro- duce a large crop of leaves, for which purpose 2 lb. of seed to the acre will suffice; and as the seed is large compared to that of the common turnip, and about the size of that of the swede, that quan- tity will not ]>roduce too many plants to stand in the drill. Rape seed affords 810 seeds to one drachm, and weighs about 53 lb. to the bushel. The turnip suwing- machine, fig. 254, is used for sowing the seed, using one of the larger-sized holes in the seed-box. When weeds make their appearance before the plants are suffi- ciently advanced in height to keep them down, the scuffler, fig. 262, drill grubber, fig. 264, and double mould-board plough, fig. 209, must be put in requisition to re- move them, and place the ground again in its proper form and state. 3451. Rape will grow on almost any soil, and certainly well on clay, on which it requires less manure than on hard loam; but it grows on none so well as on drained moss resting on a clay subsoil. The ashes of the surface of a peat-bog, pared and burned, form excellent manure for rape on drained moss. 3452. Rape is raised to be consumed by siieep, by folding on the land, as a mode of manuring fallow ground. This is a common practice in England, for the double purpose of manuring the soil and fattening sheep; «nd to attain both ends the rape seed is sown in May, and the crop is ready for being folded on in July or August. 3453. In Scotland, sheep are never fattened on rape, the crop being appropriat- ed to ewes, to bring them into season f»)r the tup, and to hoggs iu preparation for turnips. For these purposes it is not ne- cessary to sow the rape seed until the beginning of July, after the termination of the turnip seed at the end of June, which 3454. In the progress of growth, the rape is attacked by in.sects. The green veined white butterfly, Pontia napi, is so named because it feeds chiefly upon the rape. The superior wings have tips of powdery black, and the nervures grayish, inferior wings have a black spot on the upper margin, and the dark nervures shin- ing through. Caterpillars are delicately green, clothed with velvety hairs. The male butterflies are nearly three-quarters of an inch long. Tiie larva of this species is destroyed by the ichneumon, named Hemitelcs melanariui. Hand-picking, and young fowls to pick up the larvae as they are switched off the plants, is the most easy mode of getting qpiFt of them. 3455. Sheep are very fond of rape as food; and that it is nourishing food the experience of every farmer who has culti- vated it can testify. By an experiment made on Barteliver farm in Cornwall, it appears that 14 acres of rape, sown at three periods, from 13th May to 10th July, supported 80 sheejt from the 2d of July to the 2d of Xoveniber. On the 10th of August, 10 wether hoggs of those sheep were weighed, and they were 146 lb. each, and on the 21st September they were again weighed and were then 166 lb. each, making an increase of weight of 20 lb. in six weeks — that is, an increase of JOs. a-head in 6 weeks, at 6d. the lb.* 3456. The rape is placed by Linnaeus in the clas.s Tetrad ynamia; in the natural orJer Cruci- ferw by Jussieu; and in llypogynous Erooens — alliance 27, Cistales — order 123, Brassiacece — tribe 3, Orthoplonce — genus Brnsska. The rape is Broislca napus, the botanical characters of which are leaves smooth, of a grayish-glaucous hue, radicle ones lyrate, stem ones pinnatifidand crenated, uppermost ones cordate lanceolate, clasping the stem; siliques devaricate spreading. Native country not known. This species of rape is well suited for culture in winter, and is allied to the common turnip in its nature. 3457. The rape of the Continent is Bransiea canipeftris ol'ifern, or colza, a variety of cabbage allied to the Swedish turnip, and is best suited for summer culture. It is distinguished from the other rape by its leaves being hispid, those of the other being smooth. Its produce also, whea * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 430. THE CULTURE OF BUCKWHEAT. 103 compared to the other, is greater by 955 to 700 according to Gujac* 3458. The colzaiscultivated in Mecklenburg and Holstein fur its seed, out of which is expressed rape oil, used for the purposes of illumination and in manufactures. In Holstein the crop of seed is great, being 4000 lb. the acre, or nearly 36 cwt., which yields from 40 to 70 per cent of oil. 3459. The cake left on the expression of the oil from the seed is called rape-cake, and is more used in this country as a specific manure than for feeding. Its price is from £i, 10s. to £5, lOs. the ton, and is free of duty on importation. 3460. Rape-cake, when subjected to chemical analysis, yields the following constituents, according to Dr Henry R. Madden : — AVater, . . 10-5 10-5 r Soluble in cold water, 24*7"1 ^ . in hot water, 4-8 Urgamc ^ j^^ ^^^^^ p^^^^^^ 3j 5 |^ g^.^ matter, in strong potass, 10-2 (^ Destroyed by heat, Earthy phosphates. Silicate of potass, 14-3 30) 1-0 1 4-0 lOO-O 100-Ot 3461. The quantity of rape seed imported in 1847 was 47,5"23 quarters, and in 1848 it was 129,967, free of duty. The rape-cakes imported in those years were included in the returns of oil-cakes imported, as stated in (3126.) 3462. The plants enumerated from the bean to the rape, are those usually cultivated on a farm : not that any one of these plants are cultivated every year upon the same farm, for space might not be found in some farms for the cultivation of so large a variety of plants ; and it is improbable that any farm contains so diver- sified a soil as to permit the cultivation of such a variety of crops. Beans and turuips cannot be cultivated to a large extent on the same farm, tlie soil best suited to the former being un- genial to the latter. Nor is it convenient to sow a large breadth of turnips and of rape in the same season. Should the weather prevent the sowing of turnips in their proper season, it would be more prudent to employ the labour and manure allotted for them to raise rape a few weeks after the turnip season, to be consumed by the stock in late autumn or early winter, when cows are as fond of rape as sheep are, than to attempt to raise turnips too late. In choosing, therefore, the various crops enumerated and described above, those should be selected which are best suited to the soil to be cultivated, and to the weather which may prevail at the season when the state of the work is ready to undertake the sowing of a crop. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL- TURE OF BUCKWHEAT. 3463. Poultry ami pigs were greatly supported on the potato, as long as it waa available for the purpose ; but now that no implicit confidence can be placed on that crop, and in consequence it will in future fetch a large comparative price, it will be prudential in the farmer to consider what plants may be substituted for it in supporting these useful races of live stock, with wholesome food, at a reasonable cost. Fortunately there are other plants which may be employed for the purpose. Buck- wheat, Poli/gonum fayopyrum, makes ex- cellent food for pigs ; the seeds of the com- mon sun-flower, Heliantlms annms^ fatten poultry ; the madia, Madia sativa, is favourably spoken of on the Continent, for the same purpose ; and the dwarf varie- ties of the Indian corn or maize, 2ea mays, are capable of su])porting the horse as well as the fowl. Whatever may be the results attending the cultivation of these plants, a trial of one or more of them, by way of experiment, should be made in many localities of Scotland ; and then perhaps, ere long, they would become naturalised to the climate. 3464. Buckwheat is not well suited to the variable climate of Britain. It pos- sesses the advantage of growing best on sandy soil, which is too poor to carry barley, and in such heat and drought as are too great for oats to bear. In the circumstances of he.at and sandiness of soil, then, it might be cultivated where no cereal grain would grow ; and on tlie light soil of a farm, in a sheltered situation, it might be attempted, especially on new trenched ground, without manure, in pre- paration of a green crop. Much manure would encourage the growth of the plant, and prevent the formation of seed. This plant is very impatient of frost, and, were it sown as early as to appear above ground before frost had left for the season, the crop would inevitably be destroyed. It should, therefore, not be sown sooner than the last week of May in England, and of June in Scotland : and late sowing is in no case unfavourable to the plant, as it grows quickly, and produces its seed in the principal part of the flower in Septem- ber. The land is very easily cultivated for buckwheat. Having been ploughed in winter, from the oat stubble, by casting * Don's General Siistem of Botany and Gardening, vol. i. p. 242. f Prize £ssays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, yol. xiv. p. 529. 104 PRACTICE— SUMMER. the ridges together, (755,) fig. 22, it should be cross-ploughed (2613) in spring, har- rowed, and picked free of weeds, after which recast, and again harrowed and hand- weeded. As abundance of time will be found to clean tiie land thoroughly before the time arrives for sowing the seed, it mav be jdoughed in any way thought most expedient, should the land show symp- toms of foulness ; but, if not, a j)assage of the grubber, tig. 215, will prevent the sur- face weeds becoming troublesome. From 1 to 2 bushels of seed are sufficient to the acre, and is always sown broadcast, though sometimes recommended to be drilled in rows at 12 inches apart. After the seed has been sown and harrowed in, the crop requires no further care until the harvest. The land should be cultivated for a green crop after the remoTal of buck- wheat. 3465. Buckwheat stands in the order Octan- dria Trigynia of Linnseus ; in the natural order of PoJygoneoB of Jussieu ; and in Hypogynous Exogens — alliance 37, Sllenahs — order 191, Poly- fonacecB — irih^^, Polygonece — genus, Polygonum, of the natural system of Lindley. The cha- racter of this family of plants is, that while the leaves and young shoots are acid and agree- able, the roots are universally nauseous and pur- gative ; and to these are added a third — that of astringency. 3466. " Buckwheat, Polygonum fagopyrum," Fagopyrum esculent um of Tournefort, " is said to be found wild in Persia," observes the late Rev. Mr Rham. " The cultivation of it, accord- ing to some authorities, was introduced into Europe by the crusaders; according to others, the Moors introduced it into Spain from Africa; and hence it has in France the name of Bled sarrasin. The name of buckwheat is a corruption of the German buch-weizen, which signifies beechwheat, from the resemblance of the seed to that of the beech-tree. It is called wheat because, when ground, it produces a fine farina, which resem- bles that of wheat in appearance. The botanical name of the genus. Polygonum, is taken from the angular form of the seed, and the specific xmae, fagofiyrum, from its resemblance to the beech-mast. Buckwheat grows with a strong herbaceous, cylindrical, and branching stem of a reddish colour, about 2 feet high. The leaves, which are ivy-shaped, are placed alternately on the stems. The flowers grow in bunches at the end of the branches, and are succeeded by black angular seeds, formed of four triangles, being thus nearly regular tetrahedrons. The plant is an annual, and the flowers appear very soon after it is out of the ground. They continue to blow and bear seed in succession, till the frost destroys the plant."* 3467. This plant has not yet been satisfactorily examined by chemists: the composition of its green stems, according to Crome, is — Water, .... 8-2-5 Starch, . . . .4-7 Woody fibre, . . .10-0 Sugar, . . . .... Albumen, .... 0-2 Extractive matter and gum, . 2*6 Fatty matter, . . . ? Phosphate of lime, . . . ? 100-0 3468. The composition of the seed of the buck- wheat, according to Zennick, is this, but which is evidently imperfect — Husk, . . . .- 2^.9 Gluten, &c. Starch, Sugar and gum, Fatty matter, 10-7 52-3 8-3 0-4 98^ 3469. The ash of the seed of the buckwheat, according to Bichau, consists in the following proportions of the ingredients : — Potash, .... 8-74 Soda, Lime, . Magnesia, , Oxide of iron, Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Silica, Percentage of aih, 20-10 6-66 10-38 1-05 50-07 2-16 0-69 99-85 2-1-25 3470. The quantity of nutritive matter derived from an acre of buckwheat, yielding a crop of 30 bushels, 1,300 lb., is of husk, 320 lb. ; starch, sugar, &c. 650 lb.; gluten, &c. 100 lb. ; oil or fat, 5 lb. (?) and saline matter, 21 Ibs.f 3471. Buckwheat, which grows to a height of about 30 inches, is extensively cultivated over a great part of Northern Europe, as well as in Brittany, in Siberia, and on the table-lands of Central Asia. It is understood to be a native of Asia, and to have been imported into Europe in the fifteenth century. The seeds of the buckwheat are in some countries used as food, the mealy albumen being mixed with a portion of wheaten flour, of which a coarse bread is made. It is also used by the distillers at Danzig in the manufac- ture of cordials, but it is chiefly used as a green fodder. J 3472. Buckwheat imported in 1847 was 22,917 quarters, in 1848 only 205 quarters; and * Rham's Dictionary of the Farm — art. Buckwheat. t Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 377, 893, 917, 928. J Johnston's Physical Atlas — Phytology, Map, No. 2. THE CULTURE OF MADIA. 105 of buckwheat meal in 1847, 386 cwt., in 1848, 194 cwt. A duty of Is. the quarter is payable ou buckwheat, and 44d. the cwt. on buckwheat meal. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL- TURE OF THE SUN-FLOWER. 3473. The sunflower consists of two species, the tall and the dwarf. The tall is what is best known in this country, though the dwarf is the favourite in France, as its leaves also aff"ord an excellent food for cows. We shall confine our observa- tions to the tall species. 3474. The tall sunflower requires a deep, mellow, rich soil, and also a large quantity of manure. Its long and strong stem ren- ders it unfit to be grown in drills like tur- nips : the roots would not have a suflBcient hold of firm soil to counterbalance the great leverage power of the tall stem. It should, however, be grown in rows, other- wise the ground would not be easily kept free of weeds. Its culture may be pre- cisely that of the turnip up to the point of applying the manure, which shoidd be ploughed in broadcast instead of in drills, and the quantity of farm-yard dung so ploughed in should not be less than 20 tons to the acre. Before the land is har- rowed, 4 cwt. of guano to the acre should be sown upon the surface, and then the land should be harrowed both along and across the ridges, to make it fine. After this the small ribbing-plough, fig. 230, should make ribs along the ridges at 27 inches apart, into which the seed should be sown, by hand, along the ribs, at the rate of 7 or 8 lb. to the acre. As sun- flower seeds are not heavy and easily dis- turbed in their place, it would be proper to cover them in the ribs with the hand- rake, instead of even the lightest harrows. The guano will cause the seed to germi- nate soon, and the dung below will support the plant, through its fibrous roots. When the plants have shot up sufticiently high to be distinguished, they should be thinned in the row to 12 inches apart; and, as the rows are on the flat, the thinning will better be done by hand, leaving the best plants, than with the hand-hoe, fig. 266. The root weeds may be eradicated with the scufller, fig. 262, and the surface once after- wards with the drill-grubber, fig. 264, while the ground between the plants, in the rows, is best cleaned with the hand-hoe. The crop may now remain until harvest. 3475. The sunflower belongs to the class and order Syngenesia Frustranea of Linnasus ; the natural order Coiiif^ositce of Jussieu ; and to Epigynous £'.TO^e«s— alliance 50, Asterales — order 273, ^s^eracea'— sub-order l,TubuliJlorce-~ suh-division 4, iSenecioTiidecB — tribe CoreopsidecB — genus Helianthus. A bland oil abounds in the seeds of many species of this extensive family of plants. Among the most remarkable is the com- mon sunflower, whose large, sweet, nut-like seeds are very palatable and wholesome, and which yield 15 percent of oil. The tall sunflower is Helianthus annuls, which, at one time, was a more common inmate of the flower garden than it is now. The dwarf species is Helianthus in- dicus. The specific characters of the sunflowers are leaves all cordate, rough, and three-nerved ; flowers yellow ; heads large and nodding ; pe- duncles and stalks thick, the latter from 4 to 6 feet high ; branched ; annual. Native of South America; introduced in 1569. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL- TURE OF MADIA. 3476. Of this recently introduced plant Mr Lawson says that, " in its native coun- try the madia has long been cultivated for its oleaginous seeds, the produce of which is deemed by many even superior to that of the olive and poppy. In Europe its culture was first attempted in 1835 by M. Bosch, royal gardener at Stuttgard, since which period it has been greatly ex- tended, and that with the utmost success, under the patronage of his majesty the King of Wiirteniberg, and others. The fol- lowing is extracted from a communication received along with a quantity of seed of the madia in 1839: — 'From its valuable property of enduring winter and spring frosts, the madia may either be sown in autumn or si)ring, the ground being pre- viously well pulverised. Four pounds of seed will suffice for sowing an acre in drills, and about six pounds for the same space broadcast. The young plants should be thinned out, so as to stand at least 4 or 5 inches apart. The crop should be reaped when the earliest seeds acquire a gray colour, and disposed in handfuls to facili- tate drying, after which it should be im- mediately thrashed out, as, if stacked in the haulm, the viscid matter whicli adheres to the foliage would cause fermentation. The seeds sliould afterwards be washed in 106 PRACTICE— SmrMER. warm water, to cleanse them of the same viscid or gelatinous and strong-smelling substance. Tlie crop on an acre of pop- pies averages 12 bushels, which yields ab )ut 22 \h. of oil i>er bushel, or in all 264 lb. at Hd. = £6, 12 ; while an acre of niailia produces on an average 26 bushels of seed, each of which yiehls about 17 lb. of oil, or in all 442 lb. at 6d. = £l I, Is. Chemical analysis shows that 100 parts of madia oil contain 45 of elain. (fluid fat,) 40 of stearin, (margarine, or solid fat,) and 15 of glycerine, a sweetish glutinous sub- stance.' " 3477. Professor Lindley observes, in re- gard to this remarkable plant, that it is "a Chilian plant, lately introduced with success into the agriculture of the drier parts of Europe. Madia oil expressed without heat is described as transparent, yellow, scentless, &c., and fit for salads ; its cake is said to be good for cattle. It produces, in dry climates, as much oil per acre as poppy ; in comparison with colza as 32 to 28 ; linseed as 32 to 21 ; and olives as 32 to 18."* 3478. Mr Lawsnn further observes, that " a quantity of madia sown by us in the vicinity of Edinburgli. in May 1839, ripen- ed seeds in August following ; but the un- usually rainv weather caused many of the plants" to damp oif after flowering. A por- tion of the seeds, which was sown immedi- ately after harvestiuir, produced plants 2 or 3 inches in height that autumn, many of which perished in the course of the win- ter; but the remainder, although weak in spring, recovered sufficiently to produce a good crop of ripe seeds about the middle of July. Upon the whole," Mr Lawson con- cludes, "there seems every probability that, in ordinarily favourable seasons, the madia sativa might be grown very success- fully in Scotland."t It would seem that the culture adapted to the turnip would in every respect suit this plant, and the rich- ness of its seed could not fail to prove nourishing food to poultry and pigs. 3479. The madia is in the Fame botanical posi- tion as the sunflower, excepting in the natural system of Lindley, where it is in the tribe of the Spkenooynfce. The madia, Madia satira, the cultivated or oil-seeded madia, has these generic and specific characters: — Receptacle and seeds naked ; involucre double, the outer usually 8-10 leaved, and much larger tlian the inner, which is composed of many leaves and scales. Plant upright, with numerous diverging branches, and, together with the leaves and in- volucre, covered with a very viscid glandulous hair or down; leaves lanceolate, entire, and more or less clasping ; flowers inconspicuous, yellow, and much crowded at and near the extremity of the branches. Annual ; 1 ^ to 2 feet high. Na- tive of South America. 3480. .\ccording to Souchay, the seed of the madia sativa contains the following ingredients in its ash : — ■ Potash, .... 9-53 Soda, 11-24 Lime, "•74 Magnesia, .... ]5'42 Oxide of iron, . . . 1"08 Phosphoric acid, . . . 54-99 Sulpliuric acid, Chlorine, Silica, 100-OOi It will be observed how large a proportion of soda, magnesia, and particularly of phosphoric acid, the madia contaius. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL- TURE OF MAIZE. 3481. Indian corn, as it is commonly called, but more properly maize, is uu- suited to the climate of this country; but as many varieties of this plant exist, and as Schouw observes, in his account of the geographical distribution of the grasses, that of all the cultivated grasses " maize has the greatest range of temperature," it is, perhaps, possible to select one variety that may succeed so far in our climate as to afford a means of supporting poultry, without having recourse to any of the species of grain cultivated for the use of man. It would appear that two varieties ripen tlieir seeds in the course of our sum- mer in ordinary seasons — one called by the French Mais-a-Poulet, or chicken corn, brought from I]gypt, which ripens its seed in 120 days from planting, but the crop derived from which is so scanty that it does not repay the trouble of cultivation; the other is called the Forty Days' Maize — * Lindley's Vepetabh Khnjdom, p. 707. t Lawson's Agriculturist's Maiiaul — Supplement, p. 57-8. Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chanistry, •2d edition, p. 383, THE CULTURE OF MAIZE. 107 not that it ripens its seeds in 40 days from planting, but because the male flower is ready to fecundate the crop in 40 days from planting, and the seeds come to ma- turity in 140 days after being sown, or in about 5 months. To this latter variety Mr Keene has, in 1849, directed the attention of the British farmers, remarking that the reason of the want of success attending the culture of the maize by the late Mr Cob- bett was, becautie he cultivated an Ameri- can variety, which are all known to be late of ripening in Europe ; but it appears, by a letter in the Gardeners* Chronicle of the 31st of March 1849, from Mr James P. Cobbett, that the Mais Quarantain, or Forty Days' Maize of the French, and "Cob- bett's corn," are precisely the same plant. In fact, Mr Cobbett obtained his corn from Artois in France, and there was no want of success in his cultivation of it, but that at that time (1828) no interest was at- tached to its cultivation in this country. But now that substitutes must be found for the potato, in the success of the cultivation of which we can no longer place implicit reliance, for the feeding of the live stock, which was chiefly supported on the potato, the maize may now receive that attention to which it was not entitled under difler- ent circumstances. The question now is simply whether Cobbett's or any other variety of the maize may be raised in this country with a reasonable expectation of success; and it appears that it is worthy of a trial. 3482. The better the soil the better will the maize grow, but it will grow with pro- per culture in soil^^not of the rtnest quality, provided they be warm, sheltered from strong N.W. winds, exposed well to the sun, be free of bottom wet, and not of tough tenacious clay. 3483. As the maize does not occupy the ground very long, it may be cultivated in England on the land which has borne the winter tare or rape, which has been eaten down in spring with sheep, and the maize is removed in time in autunni for the sow- ing of wheat. In Scotland, there being no winter tares, it may succeed winter rape, where that is grown ; but where not grown, the maize may occupy a part of the fallow or green crop break, as a prepara- tion of it for wheat in the autumn. 3484. The culture of maize is the same as that for the turnip, up to the dunging of the drills ; and as we have already seen how greatlv the crop of maize is increased in Peru by the application of guano, (3345,) it would be proper to sow 4 cwt. of guano over the 20 tons of farm-yard dung, given as the manuring, before covering the dung in the drill in the double mode, (2397.) 3485. The seed should be selected from the middle of the ear, as being there the best and strongest. It is no matter what colour it bears, whether dark purple, light red, yellow, or white, as it will not pro- duce seed of the same colour, but only as many of the same colour in the same pro- portion. The seed should be steeped in water for 24 hours before being sown, and the quantity required is 6 pecks the acre. It has been recommended to steep the seed in the same sort of liquor as wheat is, for the prevention of smut, as the maize is liable to the ergot fully as much as the rye. Cobbett denies that the maize is aflected by any disease or any insect, and perhaps the kind he cultivated may have experienced immunity from disease in this country; but no doubt exists that maize is aflfected with ergot, for, according to lloul- lin, it is very common in Colombia, and the use of it is attended with a shedding of the hair, and even the teeth, of both man and beast. Mules fed on it lose their hoofs, and fowls lay their eggs without the shell. Its action upon the uterus is as powerful as that of rye-ergot, or perhaps more so. The country name of the maize thus affected is Mais peladero. This state- ment, however, as Professor Lindley re- marks, requires confirmation.* 3486. The time for sowing maize seed is an important particular in the culture of the jilant. The young plant is very sus- ceptible of frost, and should the seed be sown as early as to have no assurance of freedom from frost, the plants may be so aff"ected that, although they may not die, the leaves may become yellow, and the growth more backward than that of plants raised from seed much later sown. The frosts of Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom, p. 115. 106 PRACTICE— SUmiER. April and the droughts from the east winds in May are dangerous periods, and ought to be avoided. Mr Keene gives an appa- rently infallible rule in the appearance of the cock-chafer Melolontha vulgaris in the air, as indicative of the temperature in which maize may be sown in safety, and this period usually occurs from the middle to the end uf May. Xo apprehension need be entertained of the crop being too late, for the flowering of the plant will then take place in the finest part of the season, in July, and even early frosts in autumn will not injure the fruit within its covering. 3487. In sowing the seed, Mr Keene recommends the dropping it in the drills between the finger and thumb at distances of 3 inches, and then to cover it in plough- ing the drill.* But such a procedure would be too rough treatment of the seed of a plant that requires the tenderest care we can bestow. A better plan is to cover the dung in the drill before sowing the seed; and as the seed should not be buried beyond 2 inches in depth, the top of the drills should be rolled with the concave roller of the turnip sowing-machine, fig. 254, without the coulters, a rut of about 2 inches deep made along the top of the drills with the corner of the hand-hoe, fig. 266, and the seed then either dropped by hand into the rut, or with the bean- drill barrow, fig. 219, at 3 inches or there- abouts apart, covered over with the earth cast up by the rutting with the hoe, and the drills again rolled with the concave rollers, which will finish the work in fine style. 3488. The spikes of the young plant may be expected to break the ground in about 6 or 8 days. As the ground at this season is easily overrun with weeds, the scuffler, fig. 262, will have to eradicate them in the space between the drills, and pare away the soil from the sides of the drills in preparing for the singling. When the plants have attained 3 or 4 inches in height, they are singled to a distance of 9 inches apart with the hand-hoe, fig. 266. Cobbett, in his own humorous style, thus alludes to the weeding : " Let us now sup- pose the corn plants to be 3 inches high. Long before this iceeds will begin to ap- pear, for they were in the ground long before the corn, and they claim their right of primogeniture, and act upon that right. They will not rise to the same height with the corn plants ; but their inferiority in point of height will be made up for in numbers, and the poor corn plant, if left to itself, will soon be a Gulliver, when bound down by the Lilliputians."t It is recommended by Mr Keene to protract the ultimate thinning for some time, that the plants so taken out may be used as green food. But this is not the object of the culture, which is to produce a crop of seed ; and to do so in the best manner, the ground should be allowed to exert its fullest powers for that purpose, by the removal of all superfluous vegetation, whether of weeds or of superfluous plants. For the same reason, no roots or haricot beans ought to be sown in the drills of maize. All catch crops are no better than robbers of the plants among which they are sown. 3489. After another drill-grubbing, fig. 264, and hoeing, to remove the surface weeds, the maize plants will grow with great rapidity, perhaps an inch a-day, until the flower spike appears ; and so far from other plants being allowed to compete with the principal crop, the suckers which spring from the roots of the standing plants should be removed, and on removing them both hands should be employed — one in stripping down one sucker, and the other another sucker, in the opposite side, at the same time. The suckers may he used as green food by the pigs ; they should not be given to cows, as green maize invariably causes a decrease of milk in them, though it enriches the butter. " The maize now lances out its flower from the seed sheath," says Mr Keene ; " then the seed cob forms, and sends forth its pretty drooping yellow, red, or bronze-coloured silken feather, falling down gracefully upon the smiling head of corn. The flower-stalk shoots up rapidly ; its growth is marvellous, and the broad dark green flag-leaves of the healthy crop denote the strength of the vegetative power which is rapidly pouring into the whole system of this splendid plant. As this begins to re- treat, the graceful feather shows signs of withering; the sap no longer circulates * Keene's Facts for Farmers — Maize, p. 6. + Quoted by Amicus Curiae iu Maize against Potato, p. 130. THE CULTURE OF MAIZE. 109 witli the same vigour ; it is time to confine the remaining strength to the cob, and the flowering-stalk is cut off by a draw of the knife, at an inch higher than the first joint above the cob. Women do this, walking along the rows ; and when they have thus gathered a handful of 1 2 or 15 flower-heads, they bind them round with a leaf, and hitch the little bundle, stalk- end upwards, on the stick of the standing stem, where it hangs for 4 or 5 days to dry, becoming excellent winter food for cattle." The criterion for removing the flower-heads is when all the farina has completely quitted the tassel, and the tassel is dead and dry ; also a perfect deadness of the end of the silk of the cob, where, instead of the bright green that appeared before, gracefully hanging down, a little bunch of withered-up and brown-looking stuff" is seen. The farmer should choose liis time for topping, when the weather is wet and unfavourable for other work ; neither need it be all done at one time, unless the plants are in a fit state for the operation. Mr Keene's Forty Days' Maize only bears one cob, which contains about 48 seeds. 3490. In the case of localities in which frost is felt until late in the season, it is possible to raise plants of maize in a piece of good ground sheltered from frost ; and when they have attained a height of 8 or 9 inches, to transplant them in the prepared drills at 9 inches asunder, and in case some of the plants die, to reserve a few to fill up the gaps. The transplan- tation may be deferred until the third week of June, when all dread of frost is at an end. the harvest. The plants are never laid with rain or broken down by the wind, though the latter may cause some of them to lean over a little. 3492. Maize is of the class and order Trian- dria Digynia of Linnsus ; of the natural order 6rraminefE of Jussieu; and of Endogens — alliance 7, Glumales — order 29, Graminacece— tribe 2, Phalaracece — genus Zea. The maize, Zea mays, has male and female organs in distinct flowers, but on the same plant : male in branching ter- minal spikes ; female in a concealed spike or elongated receptacle, proceeding from the joints of the culm or stalks ; calyx a two-valved blunt glume ; corolla a two-valved glume ; style one, long and pendulous, protruding considerably beyond the leafy envelope of the seed spike ; seeds solitary, immured in an oblong common receptacle. 3493. Maize is also called Turkish wheat. " The origin of this plant has been disputed. In the equatorial countries of America, maize is cultivated, according to Humboldt, at an elevation of 7,600 feet. In Europe, when cultivated in the open fields and for its grain, not as green fodder, its northern limits extend to latitude 47°. It is cultivated in abundance between La Maas and La Fleche, (lat. 48",) for feeding fowls. From this the limit is traced with some difficulty, around Paris to Frankfort on the Maine, (lat. 50" 30'.) Farther east its limits are not ascertained. In the plain of Brandenburg (lat. 52" 30') it yields abundantly, but is little cultivated, and that only for fodder. In Eastern Europe it occurs on the banks of the Dneister, (lat. 49" ;) beyond this its limits are unknown. Maize is an annual plant, which only requires heat in sum- mer, and is not influenced by the cold of winter. In North America, maize is cultivated more ex- tensively than in Europe ; in the interior of Canada, its northern limits reach the parallel of lat. 50". The highest point at which it has been cultivated in Europe is the village of Lescans, in the department of Basses Pyrenees, situated 3,280 feet above the level of the sea. This is above the limits of the vine, which only reaches 2,620 feet."* According to Schouw, in respect of the predominating kinds of grain, the earth may be divided into five grand divisions or king- doms. The kingdom of rice, of maize, of wheat, of rye, and lastly of barley and oats. Rice, maize, and wheat, are the most extensive, and the rice supports the greatest number of the human race. The maize has the greatest range of temperature.+ 3491. In finishing the summer culture of the maize, the drills are set up to their original form with the double mould-board plough, fig. 214; and this operation should be completed before the plants have at- tained siich a size as to come in contact with the horse or implement. The flower- ing season is so critical to the maize, that nooperation should he permitted that would in the least agitate the plants; and for this reason windy weather is unfavourable for the crop at that stage of its growth. The crop, after being set up, remains until * Johnston's Physical Atlas — Phytology, Map No. 2. f Edinhurqh New Philosophical Journal for April 1825. 3494. I have already given the composition of maize in (1303,) and of the composition of the ash of the grain of the maize in (1304.) Every bushel of maize leaves about a pound of ash. I shall now give the composition of the ash of maize straw, grown near Gratz by Hrus- chauer: — 110 PRACTICE— SLTkOIER. PotMh, . . 14-46 4-78 Sotla, . 39-92 12-(.9 Lime, 4-93 11-00 Magnesia, 1-84 1144 Oxide of iron, 0-90 0 73 rhosphoric acid, . 1176 22-39 {•'ulphate of lime, . l-Ol l-;i7 CLloride of sodium, 6--'9 0-55 Silica, . . 18-89 3505 100-00 2-30 100-00 Percentage of ash, 6-50 Professor Johnston makes these important general remarks, in regard to the great discrep- ancy between tlie results in these two analyses. " Between these results we observe great differ- ences, both in the total percentage of ash left, and in the proportions of every one of the con- stituents which the ash contains. This is by no means unexpected, but it illustrates a fact, that our knowledge of the inorganic constituents of plants — of the function performed by them in the several parts of plants — and of the propor- tions required most perfectly to perform these several functions — is yet in its infancy."* 3495. The importation of maize in 1847, the year of the Irish famine, was as great as 3,608,312 quarters, and in 1848, 1,586,771 quarters. Of maize meal in 1847, 1,448,837 cwt., and in 1848, 234,114 cwt. were imported. A duty of Is. a quarter is payable on maize, and of i^d. the cwt. on maize meal. THE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 3496. Now that we have proceeded through the whole course of the seed-time, incidental to spring and to the early part of summer, and the finishing of which ter- minates for a time one busy period of farm operations, it will prove useful to rest a while from actual labour, and consider the principles upon which the success of the operations we have been conducting, chiefly depends. By obtaining a clear view of the circumstances which best promote the germination of the seeds of the crops we have been sowing, and of the earliest growth of the plants arising from them, we shall be enabled to conclude whether or not the practice we pursue, in sowing seeds, is calculated to afford those circumstances which best promote their germination and the growth of the plants from them. 3497. The healthy seed of a plant is a living object. Though apparently lifeless to the sight and the touch, it has life, and its vitality is capable of exerting great power when e.xcited into action. What the agent is, and how it acts, which excites the vitality of seeds, we do not know, and perhaps never shall know — it may be one of the secrets which nature will keep to herself; but we do know the circumstances in which, when seeds are placed, vitality is invariably excited, and the proof of thisexcitement is furnished by their germination, which is the first movement towards the production of a plant. 3498. Now the circumstances which excite germination, are a combination of air, heat, and moisture. These must be aftorded in the most favourable condition.s, before the plant will grow. They may all be supplied to the seed, and its ger- mination secured in the air as certainly as in the ground; but on the develojiment of the radicle, the province of which it is to penetrate into the soil, the young germ, •instead of growing upwards, would die, were it kept constantly in the air. The earth supplies all the requisites of air, heat, and moisture to the plant, in a much better state than the air can of itself, and the soil continues to supply them, not only at the period of its germination, but during its after life. A vital seed [>laced in the ground must be afiecteil by three agencies, one physical, another chemical, and a third physiological, before it can jjroduce a plant. 3409. Physical. — When a vital seed is placed in pulverised ground it is sur- rounded with air; for although the par- ticles of soil may seem to the eye to be close together, on examination it is found that the interstices between the particles occupy one-fourth of a given quantity of soil. HeJice, 100 cubic inches of pulverised soil contain no less than 25 cubic inches of air. Therefore, in a field, the sT*^i^y¥r"»?^ ^?^"* exclu- sion of the air, the water, on evaporation, renders the earth around each seed much colder than it would SOIL WITH WATER AND WITHOUT otlierwiscbe. A'R- The evils of the excess of moisture are evident from this figure. 3502. But total want of moisture pre- vents germination as much as excess. Fig. Fig. -279. 279 shows mxr^y^'-riy- i^K -^. m — /g. y^i the seed a §;fg\>t5 't^f^.m S-? 'oil placedmpul- verised soil, mx .m WMm andtheinter- stices filled with air, but no moisture is visible be- 3S^ ^^^^^^ tween and in J^> WiM, SOIL WITH AIR AND. WITHOUT ^he particlcs WATER, of soil. In such a state of soil, heat will find an easy access to the seed, and as easy an escape from it. The evils of the want of moisture, and of excess of heat, are evident from this figure. 3503. Fig. 280 represents the seed a Fig. 280. >" ^'^'' ^o™- pletely pul- verised ; be- tween every particle of the soil the - , , >,^ air finds easy *^ ^' >' \ u fXT'^. access to the *-t}"».^/ ,A ,U\ .->g seed: and in .1 A ,,i -•Si I^M: I ill r - ; 1 seed ; and in (//^(^^^:,JV:''^ the heart of SOIL WITH WATER AND AIR. every par- ticle of soil moisture is lodged. All that is here re- quired in addition is a favourable tempe- rature, which the season su])plies, and ger- mination proceeds. 3504. Chemical. — The chemical com- position of seeds consists of organic and inorganic substances. The organic are ^ 119 PRACTICE— SUMMER. composed of two classes of elements, the azotised and tlie non-azotised : the inor- ganic of earthy, alkalino, and acid ingre- dients. Tlie azotised elements consist of matter analogous to the casein of milk, albumen of the e'^g and of blood, and of the fibrine "f the flesh of animals; the non-azotised consist of starch and muci- lage, and of fatty and oiiy matters rich in carbon and hydrogen. The proportions of the starch, and of the mucilage, do not vary much in most seeds ; but in other respects the composition varies considerably — in some the gluten predominating, in others the oil, and by which the distinctive quali- ties of the plants are characterised.* 3505. A seed, when fully ripe, contains a large proportion of carbon or mucilage, and, as lontr as it continues to be charged with either, it is unable to grow. It is only able to grow when placed in circumstances in which it can get quit of a large propor- tion of the carbon or mucilage, and this it is enabled to do when sown in the ground. 3506. When a seed is consigned to the ground, the first change which takes place in it is physical — it becomes increased in bulk by the absorption of moisture. If the moisture is presented to it in the pro- portion represented in fig. 280, it is placed in the most favourable circumstances for germination ; it then receives moisture and air, and only requires the requisite degree of temj>erature to excite its vitality into action. If it is placed in want of moisture, as in fig. 279, it will remain in a state of dormancy until moisture arrive, and in the mean time may become the prey of the many animals which inhabit the soil, eager for food, or be scorched to death by heat. If it is placed in excess of moisture, as in fig. 278, its germination is prevented by the exclusion of the air, and its tissues are destroyed by maceration in the water. In favourable circumstances, besides the direct effect of the absorption of moisture in increasing the bulk of the seed, it softens and expands all its parts; many of the dry and soluble parts become fluid ; sap or vegetable food is formed, and a sort of circulation established, which communi- cates between the more remote parts of the embryo. 3507. Heat, if now present, assists the elements of air and moisture to excite the vital principle into action. It expands the air contained in the numerous cavities of the seed, produces distensicm of all the organic parts ; and, their irritability being thus excited, the seed cannot be destroyed but with death. 3508. Immediately on the enlargement of bulk by the moisture, and the excita- tion to vitality by heat, a chemical change takes places in the constitution of the seed. The vital principle decomposes the water absorbed, fixes its hydrogen for future purposes, and its oxygen, uniting with the carbon of the seed, forms carbonic acid, which is parted with by the respiratory organs into the air, and of the seed into the soil, most of the ingredients of the latter absorb it. The carbon is thus got rid of until the proportion is reduced to the amount best suited to its being appropriated by the embryo plant. The evolution of the carbonic acid may be one source of the heat which becomes manifest during germina- tion, just as Liebig has pointed out the source of animal heat by a similar cause in the animal economy. It thus a}ipears that oxygen is essential to germination, since no seed will germinate in hydrogen, nitrogen, or carbonic acid. 3509. When the seed begins to germi- nate a substance named diastase is formed at the expense of its albumen. The func- tions of diastase are important, being to convert the insoluble starch of the seed into soluble dextrin and sugar ; to effect which change it seems to possess extraor- dinary power, as one part of diastase will convert into sugar no less than 2000 parts of starch. The diastase is formed at the base of the germ ; and as the seed shows the first signs of germination there, the diastase converts the starch which it finds there into a useful state for the support of the first efforts of vegetation, and, after hav- ing performed this important function, it disappears. 3510. Acetic acid is formed in the chemical changes effected by germination, but whether it or diastase is first formed, after germination commences, is uncertain. * Boussingault's Rural Economy — Law's translation, p. 19. THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 113 The action of dilute acids gradually changes starch into dextrin, then into cane sugar, and lastly into grape sugar. After the acetic acid has been ejected by the plant, it may serve to dissolve lime, and other earthy matters contained in the soil, and Liebig conjectures this to be an especial function of this acid. 3511. "Under fitting circumstances,'' says Professor Lindley, "the embryo which the seed contains swells, and bursts through its integuments ; it then lengthens, first in a direction downwards, next in an up- ward direction, thus forming a centre or axis round which other parts are ulti- mately formed. No known power can overcome this tendency, on the part of the embryo, to elevate one portion in the air, and to bury the other in the earth ; but it is an inherent property with which nature has endowed seeds, in order to insure the young parts, when first called into life, each finding itself in the situation most suitable to its existence — that is to say, the root in the earth, the stem in the air.'' 3512. When the germ has shot out from the seed, and attained to a sensible length, it is found to be possessed of a sweet taste, which is owing to the presence of grape sugar in the sap which has already begun to circulate through its vessels. There is little doubt that the grape sugar is formed subsequently to the appearance of both diastase and acetic acid.* "With the assistance of this saccharine secretion," continues Professor Lindley, " the root, technically called the radicle, at first a mere point, or rather rounded cone, ex- tends and pierces the earth in search of food ; the young stem rises and unfolds its cotyledons, or rudimentary leaves, which, if tliey are exposed to light, decompose car- bonic acid, fix the carbon, become green, and form tlie matter by which all the pre- existing parts are solidified. And thus a plant is born into the world ; its first act having been to deprive itself of a principle (carbon) which, iu superabundance, pre- vents its growth ; but, in some other pro- portion, is essential to its existence."t 3513. It is easy to comprehend why light is prejudicial to germination. In light the leaves of plants absorb carbonic acid and give off" oxygen, and seeds ex- posed to light follow the same law ; but in the process of healthy germination, car- bonic acid is given off and oxygen absorb- ed. Hence to attempt to germinate seeds in the light is to reverse the order of nature ; and the best way to exclude the light is to cover the seeds with earth. 3514. In oily seeds having no starch mucilage takes its place, which, being easily dissolved, transfuses itself into the circula- tion, and is converted into dextrin or cellulose, as the case may require. 3515. Turnip and carrot seed have no starch, but they contain pectic acid, which being changed into dextrin, leaves car- bon and oxygen \o be used as the occasion may require. 3516. Physiological. — A seed consi- dered in reference to its organisation con- sists of an embryo, which includes the germs of the root and of the stem, and of a cotyle- don or cotyledons. 3517. Fig. 281 represents a grain of wheat magnified, and so dissected as to show its component parts. It consists of two skins, an outer and an inner — a a the outer, and h the inner skin : b is also where the nutritive matters, called the starch and albumen, are situate, and these constitute the wliole seed ; c is the littlescaleorcoty- THE COMPONENT PARTS ledon tlirougli which OF A GRAIN OF wHKAT. tjjg nutritiv'e matter passes in the sweet state, when the grain is germinating, and by which it is rendered most fit for the nourishment of the little plant ; d is the rudimentary plant, at tlie base of which 3 tubers may be seen, fmm which as many roots or stems, or both, will afterwards proceed ; and e is the point where the nutritive matter, the little scale, and the rudimentary plant, are united. All these parts are essential to the growth of the seed, since, any one being absent Fig. 281. Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 221-8. + Lindley's Theory of Horticulture, t^. 8-10. VOL. II. lU rRACTICE— SUMMER. by accident or design, the seed fails to spring. 3.518. The seeds of most species of plants possess such a structure as tiiat only one stem can proceed from them ; but in the grasses, and particularly in the cereal ones, which yield human food, a remark- able departure from this structure is observed. In them the euibr^-o plant is usually thickened towards its base, and is 80 organised tliat, instead of one stem, 3 or 4 usually spring from one grain; and, in tome cases, the number of stems is so great as almost to Fig. 28-2. ] 1 , ■ f ^ exceed heliei. The peculiarity mentioned may be observed at c, fig. 282, which is the rudimentary plant, having 3 projections in the lower part, while in other kinds of seed there would have only been one ; and from each of these three projec- ti(ms a rootlet or a stem, d or b or both, pro- ceeil wlien the S PLANT OP WUEAT IN THE graiU IS |)KlCe 318 747 Uopeumn \ j^g 408 798 1137 407 795 oats, Potato oaU, 1084 plants came up. UJl 1345 . . 1339 . . •75 '75 average -74 •73 •94 •86 •92 Percentage of Wheat > .»o carae up, / Barity, ^60 Oats, •9t) On comparing the brairds of the drilled with the dibbled seeds, the barley and oats do not exhibit much difference, but the wheat incurs less loss of seed when drilled than when dibbled, in the ratio of 1009 to 1084. On comparing the results obtained by Mr Hay in the cases of dibbling and drilling oats with those by Mr M'Lagan, Mr Hay obtained a braird of nine-tenths of the seed sown in both cases ; while Mr M'Lagan only obtained seven-tenths ; and, in the case of sowing oats broadcast, he obtained a still smaller braird, namely, six-tenths. 3535. After a lapse of ten days, on the 18th May, when rain had fallen in the in- terval, the plants sown broadcast were counted, and they were unexpectedly found in greater number than the seeds sown. The plants therefore must have tillered in the course of the ten days during the rain, and the tillering was ascertained to be to the following extent : — Seeds. Plants. Tillering 31.5 Barley produced 3';0 = one-sixtli. 3"-'5 ... ... 460 = 1 bushel ... 288 ... = 1,393,920 = 2 4;« ... = 2,090.880 = 3 576 ... = 2,787,840 = 4 720 ... = 3,428.800 = 5 864 ... = 4,181,760 = 6 3537- Mr Kenyon S. Parker made a comj)arative experiment between drill- ing, dibbling, and broad-casting wheat on clover lea, and the results show little dif- ference between the drilled and dibbled crop with Newberry's dibbler, the differ- ence only consisting in the straw being longer and stronger, and the ears and grain bolder in the dibbled. busli. peclc tlieavre. qr. bush. gal. Weight the acre. per bush, lb. Broadcast, 1 Drilled, ) , at 12 in., ( ' - Dibbled, 1 0 3 produced 3 2 ... 4 4 62 63 63i 3538. Mr Thomas King Thedara, Little Braxted, Essex, made, in 1848, experi- ments uj)i)n wheat deposited in eight differ- ent quantities, dibbled at the same dis- tance, each having 40 holes, upon a space of fourteen square feet, with these results — No. of Amount of Rate of Gi'ains Amended rate. Number of Weight, in- Gnkins Grains per Rate of Seed accordine to the ears cluding In each hole. sown. square foot. per acre. quantities given in (3o3(>.) produced. straw aud chaff. Pecks. Pints. Pecks. Pints. Ounces. 1 40 3 1 3 0 14 67 12 2 80 6 2 6 1 12 97 16 3 120 8 3 10 2 10 157 26 4 160 11 4 12 3 8 170 264 5 200 14 6 4 14 174 26 i 6 240 17 7 3 5 4 242 40 7 280 20 8 6 6 2 224 36 8 320 23 9 9 7 0 222 38 THICK AND THIN SOWING. 119 •' The produce of a slieaf of wheat grown last year, and weighing 12 pounds, was 4 pounds net, or one-third of the gross ; tiiis season 12 pounds gross produced only 3| pounds net; therefore, as there are 43,560 S((uare feet in the acre, only one ounce of wheat is required per square foot to produce 2,722^ pounds, which will amount by weight to something more than 42 bushels, at 61 pounds to the bushel. The foregoing experiment was made upon a gravelly soil, of a tenacious quality, and subject to grub and wireworm ; and the crop that surrounded my experiments was from 6| pecks of seed per acre, drilled with 10 rows upon a 7-feet stetch, and was in general appearance much better than any of that grown upon this thin-sowing system." This exi)eriment indicates that the greatest result was obtained from 240 grains in the given space, which is here stated at 7 pecks 3 pints the acre ; but as the number of grains in a given space is made to show a larger quantity of seed by Mr Thedara than the calculations of Mr Hay and of Mr M'Lagan make it, I have inserted a column of amended rates in the above table, by which the quantity of seed which produced the greatest result is alter- ed to 5 pecks 4 pints, from 7 pecks 3 pints. 3539. The question to which these par- ticular data give rise is, what quantity is too thick or too thin sowing, or what is the least quantity of seed that should be sown to yield the largest crop ? The in- quiry assumes much importance when we consider that from one-tenth to one-four- teenth part of all the grain grown in the country is every year put into the ground as seed. However small a fraction oif either of these proportions could be saved by an- other mode of sowing, would increase the profit of the farmer to that extent. If one bushel of seed could be saved on the acre, the quantity of seed saved would amount to 2,403,198 quarters, according to the data furnished by Mr Couling to "the House of Commons — the number of arable acres in the kingdom being 19,225,583 — a quantity of grain considerably exceeding the annual import of foreign wheat for the long period from 1801 to 1844.* 3540. Tkick and thin sowing of seed have been much discussed and experimen- ted on by several parties, but none has expressed himself so conclusively on it as Mr Hewitt Davis, ]jondon, and farmer of Spring Park, near Croydon, in Surrey. Mr Davis' farm contains 800 acres of high rented poor soil; butScottishfarmers should be made acquainted that this farm stands on a warm subsoil of chalk, an advantage which no farm of theirs possesses. Of his practice, Mr Davis says, that "the practice throughout England is to sow two or three bushels of wheat to the acre, and the yield seldom reaches 40 bushels, and more commonly less than 20 bushels, so that one-tenth at least of the crop grown is consumed as seed, whilst a single grain of wheat, planted where it has room to tiller out, will readily produce many hundred fold. The knowledge of theso facts has induced me, in tlie course of the last fourteen years, to make a variety of » experiments, the results of which have clearly shown me that, independent of the waste, a positive and serious injiay of far more consequence is done to the crop from soioing so much seed. I bear in mind, that, if so much be sown as to produce more plants than the space will allow to attain to maturity, the latter growth of the whole will be impeded, and a diseased state will commence as soon as the plants cover the ground, and continue till harvest. In consequence, I have gradually reduced my proportion of seed-corn to less than a third of what it was my practice to sow; and this reduction I have accom])lished to the A'ery evident improvement of my crops." The quantities of seed which Mr Davis has at length determined on sowing, in accord- ance with these reasons, are, for — Rye, ... 1^ bush, sown in Aug. and Sept. Winter barley, 2 ... ... September. Tares, . . \l (three sowings in ^ 1 Aug. Sept. & Oct. Oats,. . . 6 pecks ... Jan. Feb. March. f Jan. Feb. March, and Barley, . , 5 ... .. v . ., \ April Wheat, . . .3 Sept. and Oct. Pease, . . 9 Dec. Jan. & Feb. Beans, . . 9 Sept. and Oct. It will at once be observed that the times of sowing here specified would not suit most of those crops in Scotland, and on this account alone the English farmer will always possess a great advantage over the Scottish. The results obtained by Mr Davis, * Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 138, 159. ISO PRACTICE— SUMMER. after such scanty sowings, are 5 quarters of the best wlieat, above 13 quarters of oats, aud above 8 quarters of barley to the acre on " very inferior hand," from the manure available on the farm.* 3541. Mr Mcchi, of Tiptree Hall, Essex, continues his experiments of comparative sowing between one bushel and two bushels the acre, aud the advantage is in favour of thin sowing, though the results are not uniformly in favour of it, the products varying from 3 bushels 3 pecks to one bushel the acre in favour of thin sowing, and half a peck the acre in favour of thick sowing. But it should be borne in mind that Mr Mechi's thick sowing is only 2 bushels the acre — a quantity equivalent to the thin sowing of many farmers. 3542. Mr B. Hunt, Basingstoke, tried ^ an experiment of thick and thin sowing of wheat on clover lea, betwixt 6 pecks of seed to the acre, which produced 5 quar- ters the acre, and 10 pecks of seed, which not only produced 6 quarters the acre of grain which was 4 lb. the sack heavier, but half a ton of more straw. The results obtained by Mr Hunt have a tendency to uphold thick sowing, and he is therefore of the opinion that it is not safe to sow less than 7 or 8 pecks of good seed. As he does not mention the mode in which the seed was sown, I conclude it was the com- mon mode of broadcast. 3543. The experience of Scotland as to thin sowing is as yet limited. Mr Hay of Whiterigg tried an experiment in the spring of 1848 with wheat after turnips, by sowing 1.4 bushel against 3 bushels the acre, and the result was that the thin sown gave a greater produce by a small quantity of straw and grain together, the chief advantage being in the saving of seed; but that the thick sown gave rather more than 2 bushels the acre more of grain, which was 1 lb. heavier the bushel. t 3544. Mr John Haxton, Drumnod, in Fifeshire, thus expresses himself on this subject: — "My own practice," he says, " used to be to sow 4 bushels of wheat after green crops, 5 bushels of early oats, 6 bushels of late oats, and 5 bushels of * Davis On the Waste of Corn t Journal of Agriculture barley per .Scotch acre respectively, the Scotch being one-fifth larger than the im- perial acre. More recently, however, I have curtailed these quantities by nearly a bushel per acre, and, so far as I can judge, with manifest advantage to the crops. The straw is much more bulky, and the grain decidedly greater in. quantity; and, if sown early enough, quite equal in quality to what it was under the thick-sowing system. T am persuaded that, were I to drill the seed either with a machine or a plough, I could safely and economically dispense with another bushel per acre. While making these remarks in favour of thin sowing, I am not yet a convert to the English system of infinitesimal small quantities of seed, such as two or three pecks per acre, and can easily conceive circumstances under which this sowing would be positively injurious." Experi- ence here also indicates the propriety of sowing in moderate quantity. 3545. On comparing thebroadcast, drill- ed, and dibbled methods of sowing the cereal grains, from what has been said on the subject, it must be owned that the broadcast method, which is the most com- mon one throughout the country, imposes a loss of seed by the harrowing, which not only leaves some of the seed exposed on the surface, but takes perhaps as many too deep into the soil. These effects are produced whether the seed be sown by the hand, (2316,) or by the broadcast machine, fig. 204, and cannot be avoided as long as the broadcast modes of sowing, as pre- sently practised, are persevered in. I think it would be desirable could a plan be contrived of sowing grain broadcast at a uniform depth. It would be more econo- mical than dibbling or drilling, inasmuch as the horse and hand-hoeing of the crop would be saved. 3546. A saving of one-tenth of the seed- corn is secured by using drilling or dibbling machines instead of the broadcast, and which of these should be chosen nmst be determined by other considerations than the proportion of plants produced by each, since both are nearly alike in that respect, from the thick as well as from the thin sowing. hif Too Thick Soicimi, p. 6-12. for Jauuary 1849, p! 638. THICK AND THIN SOWING. 121 8547. The drill does not work well in etony ground, it easily displacing the coulters, or the stones are displaced by the coulters, or the coulters ride over the tops of some of them ; and where landfast stones or the subjacent rock lie near the surface, drills would be certain of being broken. The dibble is prevented pene- trating into the ground by even a small stone, but perhaps no harm accrues to seed from depositing it upon stones under the surface of the ground. With the exception of such inconveniences, of which many in- stances might occur in Scotland, drilling or dibbling grain is preferable to sowing it broadcast as practised. One great advan- tage those possess is making the surface fine by harrowings and rollings, before the seed is sown, after which it is not disturbed in its position. Reference to figs. 289 and 290 at once shows that the deposition of seed at a uniform depth is more likely to produce a uniform crop than that at irre- gular depths and irregular distances, such as broadcast sowing necessarily deposits it. 3548. On the comparative merits of thick and thin sowing, experience has yet much to teach. The direct saving of seed effected by thin sowing recommends it at once for adoption ; but if this advantage were all — unless the crop it produced were always good, of which there is no con- stant assurance — it would not produce a conviction of its superiority over thick sowing. In so doubtful a position we may safely take the middle course, of sowing a moderate quantity of seed; fori believe no doubt exists of very thick sowing, as hitherto pursued, having wasted a large proportion of the seed. In sowing, any more than in other practices of husbandry, no absolute rule will apply to all circum- stances, and many considerations should be taken into account before a particular rule be adoj)ted. I should say that farmers are, generally, blamable for the lavish manner in which they throw the seed into the ground, and subject themselves to consider- able loss in sowing more seed than the most extreme conditions of soil and season warrant. The great evil of too thick sow- ing, is the crowding the plants together into a space where neither sufficiency of air or of room for their roots are pro- vided. A struggle for existence between the plants commences after they have ar- rived at the stage when their wants are of the most necessitous description ; and the struggle terminates in the least vigorous ones dying off, and leaving the stronger, which would have been as numerous with thinner sowing, but which in consequence of the struggle have been much impeded in growth, and by which the ears and grains contiime small, and yield a small return. Thick sowing is advisable on newly broken up land, containing a large amount of vegetable matter in an active state of decomposition, when it is beneficial in re- pressing, by its numerous roots and stems, that exuberance of growth which produces soft and succulent stems, that become lodged and produce unfilled ears. Thin sowing has a tendency to make the roota descend deep ; and where a ferruginous subsoil exists, thick sowing keeps the roots nearer the surface, away from it. Thin sowing develops a large ear, grain, and stem, but delays maturity. Thick sowing on old land in high condition ren- ders the plant diminutive, and hastens its maturity before the ear and grain have attained their projjer size. Thin sowing in autumn aflords room to plants to tiller and fill the ground in spring, while thin sowing in spring does not afford time for the plant to tiller much. Thick sowing in autumn makes the plants look best in win- ter, but it gradually attenuates them as the spring advances. Thin sowing makes them look worst in winter, but to become more full as the harvest approaches. You thus see that a moderate quantity of seed of the cereal grains is the most prudent practice to adopt generally ; and where exceptional cases occur, as noticed above, the judgment must be particularly exer- cised ; and after experience has certainly established the most proper quantity for every particular case, the difficulties of sowing will be removed, and its economical benefits realised. 3540. I have already described the mode of sowing grain broadcast, (2333,) and also in drill, (2339 ;) it now remains to describe the sowing of it with the dibble, which is done by manual operation or with machines. Dibbling may be performed by the hand with a hand dibbler as potatoes are in gardens, or with pins attaclied to the side of a long piece of wood, and thrust with the foot into the ground, or 122 PRACTICE— SUlVtMER. with small hand dihhlos, thrust through holes formed in a thin hoard of wood. In all these modes the seed is dei)osited into the holes so formed at stated distances of 7 inches hetween the rows, 4 inches ai)art in the rows, and 2i inches in 0, that of the one-rowed on wheels £13, and a hand one, without wheels, £6. This (me-rowed dibble is said to be well suited for sowing mangold-wur- zel seed on the top of the drill. 35.)1. Since then a dibbling machine has been |)resenteil to public notice by Dr Sa;.iuel Newington. of Knole Park, Frant, near Tunbridge Wells, in Kent. Fig. 292 is a view in persjiective of one having six depositors: the box in front contains the seed, and the ])oints of the depositors are seen to rest upon the ground, which has been harrowc t. 1 28 4 10 •70 2 25 4 18 •02 3 14 5 13 •35 4 5 8 14 •12 White Globe. 1 22 4 10 •55 2 18 4 13 •45 3 12 7 0 •30 4 7 7 13 •17 On comparing these results there will at once be seen the large proportion of plants produced by the seeds sown at 1 and 2 inches in depth, comparepear were qui:e puny. Of the kinds of seeds sown, the swedes gave the most vigorous plants, the.^e being al- ways the larijest sized seed. Of the other two kimls, the white globe gave generally the weakest, beiuc the smallest sized seed, though the yellow Aberdeen showed greater weakness than it in penetrating from 4 incites in depth. The conclusion I would draw is, that the seeds of the swedes should not be sown deeper than 3 inche.s, those of the vellow Aberdeen 2 inches, and of the white globe I5 inch. 35fiO. The property of the cereal plants to tUler or stoul — that is, to send up a number of steins from the same root — is a valuable one in an econo- mical point of view. But for this property, when the seeds of the cereals happened to be much de- .stroyed by insects under ground, or by the un- favourable state of the ground or of the air for vegetation, or from the destructive effects of frost, or when the young plants are destroyed by injects as they appear above the surface, the crop would be so scanty on the ground that it would most probably be ploughed up by the far- mer as profitless, and another substituted in its stead. The extent of tillering depends on the circumstances of soil, weather, and the space al- lowed the plant to grow in. A free soil, admitting the shoots of the radicles to penetrate easily, encourages tillering, other circumstances being equal, more than a stiff hard soil. The weather when moist and warm promotes tillering. Unless plants have space tor their roots, or are crowded together, they will not tiller. Tillering implies an instinctive faculty in plants to take advantage of all the food that will support them, and it is strikingly exemplified in the stronger plants in a crowded state, overcoming and killing the weaker ones. 3561. When the cereal plants find abundance of room in which to shoot their radicles around, they do so vigorously, with an apparent deter- mination to occupy it to the exclusion of other plants ; but when they are not crowded together, and are not more numerous than to occupy the ground fully, they exhibit no tendency to tiller. The question which such an observation gives ^i^e to is, Whether it is better to allow few plants to fill the ground by tillering, or to fiil the ground at once with the requisite number of plants ? The answer to this question must be given conditionally. In naturally fertile soils, and in those rendered fertile by art, tillering will take place, and should be encouraged, as the straw and ears of tillered plants are much stronger and larger than iho»e of single ones. In such a coiniitioii of soil, a small quantity of seed will, therefore, suffice, even in early spring, as it IS in that season alone that tillering takes place in a sensible degree ; but then the seed must not be sown so deep, or so late, as to deprive the plant of the time required by its tillering to occupy the ground fully. The extent of tillering is sometimes remarkable. Colonel Le Couteur mentions a downy variety of wheat which tillers to the extent of 32 plants,* and from 5 to 10 stems are a very common tillering for ordinary varieties of wheat. Barley has also tillered as much as wheat, though generally this species of Le Couteur On the Wheat Plant, p. 29. TRANSPLANTATION OF WHEAT. 127 grain shows less tendency to do so th;jin either wheat or oats, the last indicating fully as strong a tendency as wheat. In weak soils, and in those in low condition, the tendency to tiller is mnch checked, each plant being as if conscious of the inability of the soil to support more than itself. Hence the practice is to sow more seed in low than in high conditioned land, and yet ability to support the larger quantity of seed is just the reverse. Still, what can the farmer do than af- ford the soil as much seed as will certainly pro- duce as many plants as will occupy the soil fully? It would be imprudence in him were he to act otlierwise, though a large proportion of the seed should be ultimately lost. The best way for him to escape from such a dilemma is to put the soil in high condition, and reap the advantages derivable from tillering.* 3562. The great loss in plants compared to the numbers of seed sown, may be accounted for from natural causes. Birds pick up seeds exposed on the surface after broadcast sowing. Many vermin, such as the rabbit, devour the young germ as it penetrates the soil, and many insects subsist in the grub state on the stems and roots of young plants ; but I suspect that most of the seed destroyed is so by insects before it germinates. We have seen how much of the ingredient of the seed is converted into grape- sugar, just at the germination of the radicle (3512;) and as every living animal is fond of sugar, it is natural in the very numerous coleopter- ous insects which inhabit the soil, especially in spring, when the insect creation generally bursts into active life, to revel on the large quantity of sweet food presented to them at the time they are most in want of food — in the grub state. The myriads of voracious grubs existing on the grain sown,cannotbut have a sensible effect on the limited quantity consigned to the soil. Were it not lorthe quickness of germination and vegetation, it is quite possible that all the seed sown might thus be devoured ; and accordingly we find that, whenever the weather is such as to retard germination, the largest quantity of the seed is lost, even although that state of weather also tends to retard the development and suppress the numbers of the insect race. 3563. A mode of drilling wheat similar in effect to ribbing with the small plough, (2628 and 2630,) is accomplished with the commun plough and a sivgle horse, and, if necessary, any species of dry manure may be deposited in the furrow. The seed is dropped out of a hopper placed in the bosom of the plough, the quantity of which is regulated by a grooved axle, made to revolve by a small wheel, which receives its motion by being carried along the ground with the plough. Tlie immediate effect of the operation is to cover the seed-wheat with the plough-furrow, which prevents its being thrown out by the frost in spring in soft and spongy land, and to cause the crop to grow in rows 9 inches apart. The pul- verised manure is sown at the same time and in the same manner as the seed, out of the same hopper, in which a division is made to separate the seed from the manure; and both fall through spouts, one placed behind the other. The ad- vantages resulting from this mode of sowing wheat on spongy soil are, that the horse does not tread on the seed, and the seed requires no covering in with the harrow; but the state of the soil for whicli this method of sowing is adapted would be entirely changed by thorough draining.f 3564. A mode of saving seed to a greater degree than by dibbling and drilling, is by trans- plantation. This is done by sowing a small portion of ground with seed early in the season, taking up the plants as they grow, dividing them into single plants, and transplanting them. By thus dividing the plants, as they tiller into single plants, at four periods of the season, a very small quantity of seed will supply as many plants as would cover a large extent of ground. Though wheat no doubt bears transplanting very well, yet as the scheme implies the use of much ma- nual labour, it is questionable if it will repay the expense. The proposed method has been tested by experiment, and the question of com- parative expense stands thus : — Suppose 440 grains of wheat are sown on the 1st of July, and, on the supposition that every seed germi- nates, by the beginning of August each seed will afford 4 plants, or in all, . 1,760 plants. At the end of August these will produce . . . 5,280 In September these again . 14,080 And in November these last will produce . . . 21,120 ... The time occupied in sowing the 440 grains, and dividing and transplanting the produce of them, stands thus : — Hours. Min. fo"wng.} • • • • ^0 grains 0 20 be"gfnnlg,)'^'''"Sup . 440 plants, 0 20 dividing into . 1,760 .. 1 10 planting . 1,760 .. 3 30 August, end, taking up . 1,760 .. 1 28 dividing into . 5,2S0 . . 3 30 planting . 5,2S0 .. 10 33 September, taking up . 5,280 . . 4 24 dividing into . 14,080 . . 9 23 planting . 14,0S0 .. 2S 9 November, tiiking up . 14,080 .. 11 44 dividing into . 21,120 .. 14 4 planting . 21,120 .. 42 14 Equal to 13 days, 4 hours' work, at 10 hours a day. Of tliese say 134 days, 5 days may be reckoned for women and boys occupied in taking up and dividing the plants, which, at lOd. per day, will cost 4s. 2d, The remaining 8i days are for men transplanting, at 10s. per week, or Is. 8d. a day, which will cost 14s. 2d. more ; both 18s. 4d, [ler acre. The seed for the plants, half a bushel at 44s. the quarter, or 5s. 6d. the bushel, would cost 2s. 9d. Tlie entire cost would be £1, Is. Id. The saving of seed from the ordinary quantity sown would be the diffe- rence of cost between half a bushel and three * Brithh Farmens' Magazine, No. vi. old series, p. 15, 1827. t Mark Lane Express for November 24, 1842. 128 PRACTICE— SOIMER. bushels, or 13s. 9d. So that the loss on the trauspbnting oversowing would be 7s. 4d. " In my opinion," says Mr Palmer, the experimenter, '• the only way of executing this' plan is to dibble in the seed. '2 grains in a hole, about 4 inches from each other, the plants to be taken up when they are in a proper state, and divided into 5, whicli would be as many on an average at tliat time as could skilfully be made, and then planted out at once, where they are to remain, thus getting rid of all the intermediate dividings." * 3565. Suppose this method were adopted, the number of grains of wheat required for 1 rood would be 391,040, which would be about half-a- bushel, at a cost of "is. 9d.; and, consequently, about half-a-bushel of wheat will plant 1 95,520 holes. If eacli hole gives 5 plants on an ave- rage, which may be reasonably expected, there would be at the disposal of the farmer about 977,G00 plants, a quantity sufficient to plant 3 acres at 18 inches apart. To limit the time for planting so many plants, suppose they are taken up, separated, and planted again by, say, 25 per- sons taking up, dividing, and supplying '25 plant- ers, in all 50 persons, and allowing each planter to plant 5280 per day^ — suppose it wholly done by boys and girls at 6d. per day — they would take 7 days to do it in. The cost of transplanting the 3 acres would thus be £8, 15s. Wheat-seed for 3 acres, sown in the usual way of 3 bushels to the acre, would cost £2, 9s. 6d. at 44s. the quarter. The whole matter would staad thus : — Cost of half bushel of wheat. Cost of dibbling quarter of acre. Cost of transplanting 3 acres, Cost of sowing 3 bushels of wheat. Loss on transplanting 3 acres. Or £2, 3s. 2d. the acre. ON REPAIRING THE FENXES OF PASTURE FIELDS. 3566. Having placed in tlie ground tlie seeds of all the crops which will he ma- tured in the course of the following autumn, vre must now bestow some at- tention on the treatment, during summer, of the live stock, for whose special use are those crops of roots, and straw, and forage, the culture of which has hitherto occupied our time and skill. The live stock are supported in summer chiefly on pasture grasses and forage plants. We shall lirst consider the management of pastures, as they come first into use, and then we shall treat of the forage plants ; but before £0 2 9 0 1 3 8 15 0 £8 19 0 2 9 6 £6 9 6 taking possession of the pasture fields, it is necessary to inspect the state of the fences enclosing them, and to put them into such repair as to offer no temj)tation to the stock to scramble through neglected gaps, to the injury not only of the fence, hut of tiiem- selves. Sometimes a good deal of W(»rki3 required to put grass-fields in a proper state for the reception of stock, owing principally to the nature of the soil, and partly to the state of the weather. 3567. On every kind of soil, the small stones lying upon the pasture should be gathered by the field-workers, and carted away for the use of drains, or to be broken into metal for the farm-roads. It may happen that the throng of other field-work may prevent the assistance of horses and carts being given for this purpose, in which case the stones should be gathered together in small heaps upon the furrow-brow of every other single ridge ; but in doing this, it should be remembered that many such heaps of stones occupy much ground, and, of course, prevent the growth of as much grass, so that it is much better practice to cart them away at once, although the gathering should be delayed for a few days, and even after the stock have been put into the fields. When carts are used, the stones are thrown directly into them; whereas, in making heaps, they rel to remain on its surface. The best time for rolling is when the surface is rfr?/, not when hnril as well as dry ; for when grass, particularly young grass, is rolled in a * Gardeners' Chronichhi October 1843. REPAIRS OF FENCES. 129 wet state, it becomes bruised and black- ened, but, when dry, it is elastic, and able to bear the pressure of the roller without injury. Light land will bear rolling at any time when the surface is dry ; but plants are liable to be bruised at all times between the roller and hard clods on clay land, and such land in a soft state becomes hardened or encrusted by rolling. The rolling of heavy land thus requires consideration ; but a good criterion of its being in a fit state for the roller, is when the clods crumble easily with the pressure of the foot, and do not press flat, or enter whole into the soil. The rolling is always given across the ridges, (2475.) After rolling, the grass is found to grow rapidly, if the weather is at all favourable. 3569. While the surface of the field is thus preparing for the reception of stock, the hedger should be engaged in repairing the fences of thorn hedges. In this he is frequently assisted by the shepherd, and in case of no professed hedger being on the farm, the shepherd himself undertakes the duty. The repairing chiefly consists in filling up gaps, which are rendered fencible by drawing a thorn branch be- tween the hedge roots, or by driving a couple of stakes into the face of the hedge- bank behind the gap, and nailing 2 or 3 short railsonthem, or inwattling them with branches of trees or of thorn, or by setting a dead hedge upon the hedge-bank. There should nothing be placed in the gap, as is often done, to the prevention of the lateral extension of the thorn-plants on either side to fill it up, which the shoots will do in time in a narrow gap. A wide gap may require to be filled up with liv- ing plants, or with layers from the hedge on both sides. Every gateway in a field, not required for the season, should be filled up with a dead hedge. 3570. Stone-fences should be repaired by a dry ston^ mason, and all they re- quire is chiefly the replacing of some cope-stones, and the rebuilding of any stones in the walls, that may have been driven down by violence. It is seldom that the stones so driven down will repair the dilapidations, so that a few fresh ones should be laid down at the gaps for the use of the mason. Every gateway not required for the season should be built up. VOL. II. The stones left on making the repairs should be immediately removed. 3571. In making repairs in all sorts of fences, it should be borne in mind to keep a passage for the shepherd from field to field when looking after his flock. Such facilities are afforded by leaving small openings at the corners of fields, or by placing wooden stiles across the fence ; and it is better for the fences that these are made at once, than that the shepherd should have afterwards to make them for himself. He is the best judge of where they should be placed, in the short cuts to be taken from field to field. 3572. Besides the fences, the gates of grass-fields require inspection and repairs, so as they may be put into a useful state for the season. "When a post is broken, or a bar awanting, a new one should be supplied by the carpenter, and the iron- work should be repaired by the smith. 3573. The most convenient position for a gate, for easy entrance into and egress from a field, is at the end of one or both headridges, which are always regarded as the boundaries of fields. 3574. Field-gates should always be made to fold back upon a fence, to open beyond the square, and not to shut of themselves. When they shut of them- selves, and are not far enough pushed back when opened, they are apt to catch the wheel of a cart when passing, and to be broken, or the post to be snapped as- under by the concussion ; and as self-shut- tinggates are often left unfastened by people who pass through them, requiring greater attention than is usually bestowed on such matters, the stock, particularly young horses, which seem to take delight to loiter about gates,would then escape from the field. Young horses loiter about gates to rub against them, to prevent which it is neces- sary to wattle thorns into the bars. 3575. I have found an excellent plan of fixing a hanging post is to dig as nar- row a hole as is practicable for the pur- pose, 3 feet deep, and at the bottom lay a flat stone of about 15 inches square, and 7 or 8 inches thick, through the centre of which is cut a hole of 8 or 9 inches in 130 PRACTICE— SUMMER. diameter, to take in the lower end of the post, dressed with the axe to fit the hole. Earth alone is then put in spadefuls into the hole, and made firm around the post with a rammer up to the surface of the ground, in which is sunk the stone, at the edge of the upper face of which the heel-post of the gate is made to rotate in a shallow hollow made to fit it. Fig. 295 shows the different Fig. 295. M:<^^m^^^i ^^: SSCURS MODE OF FASTEMNli THE HaNGIXG-POST OP A FIELD-GATE. parts of this mode of fastening the hang- ing-posts of field-gates; where a b \s the hole into which the post d is sunk, and c the stone in the hole e, of which the end of the post is inserted and secured. Water passing through the stone, the end of the post will be preserved ; and further so by- being in the bark, smeared with coal tar, and the upper part d is planed and paint- ed. The earth is rammed hard into the pit a 6 to the surface of the ground, in which is sunk at /a stone, on which the heel-post of the gate rotates. Part of the hedge fence of the field in which the gate is placed is shown, as also the crook on which the gate is hung, in the gate-post above d. 3576. Every pasture-field should be pro- vided with one good rubhing-post stand- ing 6 feet in height above the ground. It should not be so rough as to injure the skins of the animals, or so smooth as not to titulate the skin. Perhaps the best material for a rubbing-post is the trunk of a spruce tree, with the branches sawn off square, not quite close to the trunk, and the stubs thus left are rubbed smooth by scratching. ON THE DISPOSAL OP THE FAT SHEEP. 3577. When last treating of sheep, in regard to the lambing of ewes, we left the ewes and lambs upon the young grass, (2555,) at which time the sheep were feed- ing on turnips, in the manner described in the early part of winter (940) ; and they continue there until all the turnips allotted to them are consumed. 3578. When the turnips allotted them are all consumed, and the time has arrived for the last of the turnip land to be ploughed up for barley, (2685,) the hogga receive a change of treatment. The wether-hoggs are either sold to the dealer off the turnips, or put to grass till shorn of their wool, and then disposed of. The circumstance that determines which of these ways they should be treated, is the state of the wool and mutton markets. If you find, on examination, that the hoggs are in a condition to realise as much money off the turnips as they probably will, after being kept a month longer on grass, and washed and shorn, it is more profitable to dispose of them at once ; and besides this, should you fear the extent of grass to prove insuflicient to sui)port them in improving condition till they are shorn, a necessity exists for jiarting with tliera immediately off the turnips. But should you find the grass able to maintain them in condition, and that the wool market will probably be brisk, it would be advisable to retain and shear them. 3579. If you determine on selling the wethcr-hoggs, you should first ascertain their value ; and in attempting this you will perceive, that a sheep wearing its coat of wool cannot be subjected to the ordinary rules of measurement ; nor can its true weight be found by weighing it alive, since the weight of the wool enters as a disturbing element into the calcula- tion, and the value of that material de- pends on very difi'erent circumstances from that of mutton. A new-shorn slieei) may be either weighed or measured, and its DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP. 181 value ascertained very nearly. Tlie eye and the hand alone must be employed to judge of the value of a rouirh sheep, and no more certain way of acquiring a correct judgment of the weight exists than by handling it, except by slaughtering one of average size and weighing the four quarters. 3.580. Hoggs, wdien put on turnips in winter, are generally lean ; for although they had been in good condition as lambs when weaned from their motliers in sum- mer, their growth in stature is so rapid, that their flesh is but little intermixed with fat. For the first few weeks on turnips, and in the most favourable circumstances as to quality of food, warmth of shelter, dryness of land, and pleasantness of Treather, they make no apparent advance- ment in condition ; they rather seem to fall off, the wool looks collapsed, and in- dicates a tendency to delicacy in the sheep, in consequence, I suppose, of the turnips operating medicinally on their constitution as an alterative, if not as a laxative. But immediately after that trying period for young sheep, particularly trying in bad weather, has passed, when the grass has been got rid of, and the stomach and in- testines have become accustomed to the more solid food of the turnij), their im- provement is marked, the wool seems longer and fuller, the carcass fills out, the eyes become clear and full, and the gait firm and steady. They then thrive rapidly, and the more so the drier the weather. 3.581. The formation of fat in a sheep placed to be fattened, commences in the inside, the net of fat enveloping the intes- tines being first formed, and a little fat deposited around the kidneys. After that, the fat makes its appearance on the outside, and first upon the end of the rump at the tail-head, whence it moves along the back, on both sides of the back-bone, to the neck, spreading out to the bend of the ribs. It is then deposited between the muscles, par- allel with the cellular tissue. Meanwhile it is covering the lower round of the ribs descending to the flanks, until the two sides meet under the belly, from whence it proceeds to the breast in front, and to the cod behind, filling up the inside of the fore legs and thighs. While all these depositions are proceeding on the outside, the progress of the inside has increased, until a fattening disposition has been en- couraged by the acquired condition; and the result is, that the space between the intestines and loin is filled up with net and kidney fat. By this time, the cellular spaces around each fibre of muscle has received its share, and the fat deposited there in quantity gives the meat the ■marbled appearance. The interfibrous spaces are the last to receive the fat ; but after the deposition has begun, every other part simultaneously receives its share, the back and kidneys receiving the most, the former becoming nicked, that is, the fat is felt through the skin to be divided into two portions, from the tail-head along the back- bone to the top of the shoulder, the tail becoming thick and stiflT, the top of the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck towards the breast full, and the hollows between the breastbone and the inside of the fore-legs, and between the cod and the inside oi the thighs, com- pletely filled up. When in this state, the sheep is said to he fat or ripe. 3582. When the body of a sheep is en- tirely overlaid with fat, it is then in the most valuable state as mutton; but few sheep lay on fat equally over their body — one lays the largest proportion on the rump, another on the back, a third on the ribs, a fourth on the flanks, a fifth on the parts adjoining the fore-quarter, a sixth on those of the hind-quarter, a seventh lays on more fat on the inside, and an eighth more on the outside. Out of so many parts, combining any two or more together, you may expect to find, in a lot of fat sheep, a considerable variety of condition ; yet any one sheep is as ripe in its own way as any other. 3583. Taking these data for your guide, you wnll be able, by handling, to judge the condition of a sheep in its progress towards ripeness. A ripe sheep, however, is easily known by the eye, by the fulness exhibited in all its external parts. It may exhibit a deficiency of fat in some parts, but you easily perceive that those parts will never become so ripe as others ; and the defici- ency arises no doubt from some constitu- tional defect in the animal, because, other- wise, no reason should exist why every part should not be alike ripe. The coudi- 1S3 PRACTICE— SUMMER. tion of a slieep obviously not ripe cannot altogether be ascertained by tlie eye : it mu!^t he hai}dled — subjected to tlie scrutiny of tiie hand. Now the hand scrutinises by discretion. A full-looking sheep need not be handled on the rump, as it would not seem full elsewhere until fat had been deposited there. A thin-looking sheep shoidd be handled on the rump; and, if no fat is felt there, it is useless handling elsewhere, since none exists. Between these two extremes of condition, every variety may be met with ; on which ac- count examination by the hand is the rule to judge a fat sheep, that by the eye alone the exception ; but the hand is much ji--i-"od by the eye, whose acuteness detects ilo() •iciicies and redundancies at once. In handling a sheep, the points of the fingers are chiefly employed, and the accurate knowledge conveyed by them, through practice, of the real state of the condition is truly surprising, and conveys a convic- tion to the mind of an intimate relation existing between the external and internal condition of an animal. So intimate is this relation, that the practical maxim, in the judging of stock of all kinds, has long been established, that no animal will ap- pear ripe to the ei/e, unless as much fat had previously been laid on in the inside as its constitutional habit will allow. The application of the rule is easy — whenever fat is seen or felt on the outside, the inside had previously received a deposition. In tracing the progress of the fat on the out- side, a relation also exists between the parts. Thus, when you find the rump nicked on handling, you expect to find fat on the back ; when you find the back nicked, you expect the fat to have pro- ceeded to the top of the shoulder and over the ribs; and when you find the top of the shoulder nicked, you expect to find fat upon the neck, and on the under side of the belly. To ascertain its existence be- low, you will have to turn the sheep, which is done by setting it upon its rump, with its back inclining against your legs, and its hind-feet pointing upwards. In this position you feel and see whether or not the breast and thighs are completely filled up. Still the criterion to know the real state of the inside of the sheep —the largeness of the mass of fat on the kidneys, weight of net, and thick- ness of layers between the abdominal muscles — is the thickness of the flank, the fulness of the breast, fulness from shoulder to shoulder across the neck ; stiffness and thickness of the root of the tail, and breadth of the back of the neck. Hence the sole object of feeding sheep on turnips is to \viy fat upon every bundle of fleshy fibres, called muscles, which are capable of acquiring it; for as to bone and n)uscle, these increase in weight and extent inde- pendently of fat, and fat only increases the thickness of the muscles. 3584. I have spoken of the turning of a fat sheep, which is done in this way. Standing on the near side of the sheep, or its left side, j)ut your left hand under its chin, and seize the wool there, if rough — if otherwise, the skin ; place your knees, still standing, against its ribs, then lean forward a little, extend your right arm over the far loin of the sheep, and get a firm hold of its flank, by the wool and skin, as far down as you can reach. Lift the .sheep fairly oflf the ground, with the assistance of your arms and knees, and then turn its body towards you upon your left knee placed under its near ribs, and drop it upon its rump on the ground with its back to you, and its hind-feet sticking out and away from you. This is an act which really requires strength, such that, if you cannot lift the sheep off the ground, you cannot turn it; but practice teaches a sleight in doing it, beyond mere physical strength. The art consists in jerking the sheep off its feet at once, before it suspects what you are going to do; for, when it suspects, it is surprising how it contrives to retain hold of the ground with the point of the hoof of the near hind-foot^ which, if you cannot lift oflf the ground, you cannot turn the sheep. I remember seeing four shepherds defeated in the at- tempt to turn 5 dinmonts belonging to the late Mr Edward Smith, Marledown, Nor- thumberland. None of them, not even the tallest and strongest, could turn all the .5 sheej), and one, a short, stout man, could not turn one of them. The ability to turn a sheep easily, is not to be regarded as a feat of strength or dexterit}'^ in a shepherd, but a necessary qualification in connexion with many important operations connected with the management of sheep. 3585. The ewe hoggs are always retained DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP. 133 on the farm, as from them is supplied the waste of ewes, and they are shorn of their wool in due course of time. It is of less importance increasing their condition off the turnips by putting them on the best grass, which the wether lioggs sliould occupy until they are disposed of. Xevertheless, the ewe hoggs should not be allowed to fall off in condition, in case of injuring the quality of their wool. 3586. Farmers of mixed husbandry have seldom any other class of sheep feed- ing on turnips than the hoggs, which are bred on the farm, and perhaps a few draft ewes which had not become fat enough on the aftermath grass in autumn. Occa- sionally, from want of a good market, or from want of condition, dinmonts (924) are retained to be fed on turnips ; and, when this happens, their disposal is subjected to the same considerations as that of the hoggs. 3587. When dinmonts or wethers (925) are seen in quantity feeding on turnips, they have been purchased for the purpose, and are in technical language called a Jiyrng stock; and this is the practice fol- lowed by farmers in most arable districts at a distance from large towns, in follow- ing which they become dealers of sheep, and are subject to the fluctuations of the markets for profit or loss. 3588. Fat sheep are purchased from farmers both by dealers and butchers. Dealers buy from farmers in wholesale, and sell to butchers in retail ; so they constitute a sort of middlemen; but, unlike most middlemen, their avocation is fully as use- ful to both parties as to themselves, inas- much as they purchase at once the whole disposable stock of the farmer, and, assort- ing it, they present it in the most suitable form at the markets which tlie different classes of their customers, tlie butchers, are in the habit of frequenting. They buy at fairs, or on the farmer's own premises. In the former case they pay ready money, and lift the stock immediately ; in the latter, they pay at the time the stock is lifted by agreement. Dealers chiefly buy at the country fairs, where they have ample choice, and only purchase on the farmer's premises when stock happens to be scarce, and prices likely to advance. Butchers purchase chiefly in the market towns in which they reside, though they also attend fairs, and pick up a ie^ fat lots which will not bear the long journeys of the dealers; in which case they pay ready money and lift immediately, as dealers do. But when they purchase on the farmer's premises, they usually lift so many at a time, according to agreement, and pay only for what they lift. Every farmer sliould avoid this practice, as every time the butcher comes for a lot, the sheep have to be gathered, and the whole handled, that he may take away only those which suit his present purpose; and in the com- motion thus made, probably every week, the whole stock are disturbed by the shout- ing of men and the barking of dogs, amongst which the butcher and his dog are not the least noisy or least active. Besides meeting purcliasers at home, farmers take their stock to fairs and market-towns ; and at fairs they meet both sorts of pur- chasers, while, in the market towns, the butchers rule paramount. When a dealer purchases on the farmer's premises, he lifts his lot at any time of day that best suits his own arrangements. He begins to lift the first lot in the more distant part of the country, and, proceeding on the road in the direction of their destination, he lifts lot after lot, until the whole are gathered to the amount of many hundreds. In this way he ma\' lift a lot in the forenoon on one farm, and another in the afternoon on another, which is a much more satisfac- tory way for the farmer to have his stock lifted than the one the butcher chooses to adopt. 3589. The many casualties attending sheep sent to market, should cause the farmer to consider the case well before he undertakes to send them there at his own risk: The expenses of the journey will cost at least Is. a-head, and their jaded appearance in the market, especially if tlie sheep have been overtaken by bad weather, may lower their price 2s. or 3s. a-head more; and, besides, the fees of the market have to be paid. But if he cannot dispose of them at home, which sometimes happens, he has no alternative but to send them to market on his own account. 3590. On determining to send them to market, the sheep require to be selected 1S4 PRACTICE— SUMMER. for the purpose, and divided into equal lots, and eadi lot marked in a particular manner. The slieep selected for market are tlie best cmiditioned at the time, to ascertain which it is necessary to handle the whole lot and shed the fattest from the rest, and this is best done about mid-day, before the sheep feed again in the after- noon. 3.591. The sheep should also be marked with keil, or ruddle, as it is called in Eng- land— the ochry-red ironstone of mineralo- gists, which occurs in abundance near Platte in Bohemia.* The keil-mark is put on the wool and on any part of the body yon choose, the purpose being to identify your own sheep in case of being lost in the fair. The parts usually chosen for marking Leicester sheep are on the wool at the top of the shoulder, back, rump, far and near ribs. The mark is made in this way: — Prepare the keil by wetting it and rubbing the part to be used upon a stone. Take h(dd of a small tuft of wool at an}' of the above parts with the right hand fingers, and seize it with the left hand with the palm upwards, between the fore and middle fin^'ers, and colour the wool in the palm of the hand with the prepared keil. Short-woolled sheep are usually marked on the head, neck, face, and rump, or with a bar across the shoulders, and generally too much keil is put upon them. The lots are keiled in scores and half- sctjres, in large or small lots, according to the value of the sheej), and the character of the market. 3592. The selected ones are put into a field by themselves, where they remain until the time appointed tltem to start arrive. If there be rough pasture to give them, they should be put upon it, to get quit of some of the turni{)S in them. If there be no such pasture, a few cut turnips on a lea- field will answer. Here all their hoofs should be carefully examined, and the loose horny skin removed, but the Jinn portion of the horn should not be touched. Every clotted piece of wool should also be removed with the shears. 3593. Being thus })repared, the sheep ehould have food early in the morning, and be started on their journey about mid-day in winter, and in the afternoon in summer. They should not begin their journey when too full or too hungry. When too full, they will purge on the road, and when too hungry, they will lose strength at once. Let them walk gently away ; and, as the road is new to them, they will go too fast at first, to prevent which the drover should go before them, and let his dog bring up the rear. In a short time they will as.sume the proper speed, about one mile in the hour. Should the road they travel be a green one, the sheep will proceed nibbling their way onwards at the grass, along both sides ; but if a turnpike, especially a nar- row one, the drover will require to exert all his attention in case of meeting and of being passed by every class of vehicles, to avoid injury to his charge. In this part of their business drovers generally make too much ado, both themselves and their dogs ; and the consequence is, that the sheep are driven from side to side of the road more than is necessary. On meeting a carriage, the drover should go forward, instead of sending his dog, and point off, with his stick, the leading sheep to the nearest sidp of the road, and the rest will follow as a matter of course, while the dog should walk behind the flock, and bring up the stragglers. Open gates into fields are sources of great annoyance to drovers, the stock invariably mak-ng en- deavours to go through them. On observ- ing an open gate before, the drover should send his dog behind him over the fence, to be ready to meet the sheep in the gateway. When the sheep incline to rest, let them lie down. Before nightfall the drover shoulrl inquire of lodging for them fcr tlie night. Upon drove-roads, farms will be found at stated distances, with food and lodging for the drover and his flock at a moderate charge. In winter it is retpiisite to put them into a grass-field, and supjdy them with a few turnips or a little hay. If turnij)S or hay are laid down near the gate of the field they occupy, the sheep will be ready to take the road in the morning; but, before lodging them for the night, the drover should ascertain whether the road is infested with stray dogs, which, if it be, the sheep should be taken to the safest spot in the field and watched all night. • Jameson's Mineralogy, vol. iii. p. 245. DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP. 135 Many dogs thatlive in the neighbourhood of drove-roads, and particularly village dogs, are in the habit of looking out for sheep to worry, at some distance from their homes. Short of sitting up all night, the principal precaution that can be used under an appre- hension such as this is, for the drover to go frequently through the flock with a light, be late in retiring to rest, and up again early in the morning. The apprehension regarding dogs is not solely on account of the loss sustained by the worrying, but when sheep have been disturbed by dogs, they will not settle quietly again upon that journey. The first day's journey should be a short one, not exceeding 4 or 5 miles. Allowing 8 miles a-day for a winter-day's travel, and 10 miles in summer, and know- ing the distance of the market by the des- tined route, the sheep should start in good time, allowance being made for unfore- seen delays, that one whole day's rest may be secured to the stock near the market. 3594. The farmers' drover may either be his own shepherd, or a professional drover hired for the occasion. The flock knowing the shepherd, he makes the best drover, if he can be spared as long from home. A hired drover gets 2s. Gd. a-day of wages, besides travelling expenses, and he is intrusted with cash to pay the dues incidental to the road and markets, such as tolls, food, ferries, and market custom. A drover of sheep should always be pro- vided with a dog, as the numbers and nimbleness of sheep render it impossible for one man to guide a capricious flock along a road subject to many casualties ; not a young dog, which is sure to work and bark with a great deal more zeal than judgment, much to the annoyance of the sheep, but a knowing, cautious tyke. The drover should have a walking-stick, a use- ful instrument at times in turning a sheep disposed to break away from the rest. A shepherd's plaid he will find to afford comfortable protection to his body from cold and wet, while the mode in which it is usually worn leaves the limbs free for motion. He should carry provision with him, such as bread, meat, clieese, or but- ter, that he may take luncheon or dinner quietly beside his flock while resting in a sequestered part of the road, and slake his thirst in the first brook or spring he finds, or purchase a bottle of ale at a roadside ale-house. Though exposed all day to the air, and even feel cold, he should avoid drinking spirits, which only produce tem- porary warmth, and for a long time after superinduce chilliness and languor. Much rather drink ale or porter during the day, and reserve the allowance of spirits he gives himself until the evening, when he can enjoy a tumbler of warm toddy beside a comfortable fire, before retiring to rest for the night. The injunction to refrain from spirits during the day will sound odd to the ear of a Highland drover ; but though a dram may do him good in hia own mountain-air, and while taking active exercise, it does not follow that it will do him as much good on a drove-road in the low country, when walking at a very slow pace, in wet or dry weather. I believe raw spirits do more harm than good to all drovers who indulge in them. He should also have a good knife, by which to re- move any portion of horn that may seem to annoy a sheep in its walk ; and also a small bottle of a mixture of tobacco-liquor and spirit of tar, with some cloth and twine, to enable him to smear and bandage a sheep's foot, so as it may endure the journey. He should be able to draw a little blood from a sheep in case of sickness. Should a sheep fail on the road, he should be able to dispose of it to the best advan- tage; or becoming ill, he should be able to judge whether a drink of gruel or a handful of common salt in warm water may not recover it so as to proceed ; but rather than a lame or jaded sheep should spoil the appearance of the flock, it should be dis[iosed of before the flock is present- ed in the market. 3595. Railroads now aff"ord easy means of transit for sheep to markets, to all places, and when the distance to market is consi- derable, and the sheep valuable, such a mode of conveyance ought to be preferred to driving them on the road. The advantages of railroad transit are, that the sheep need not leave home on a journey so soon by per- haps many days, and, being a short number of hours on the journey, they feel, at its end, neither jaded nor hungry, and will, therefore, enter the market in much finer condition than off a long journey on foot. The shepherd should accompany the sheep in the train, and have them conducted to the market at the jjroper hour. The cost 136 PRACTICE— SmiMER. of conveying sLeep by railroad is tliat of the truck, wliicli contains a larger or smaller niiinber, according to tliesizc of the sheep. The charge of the truck is by the nule, and the longer the distance the less is the charge by the mile. 35.06. Under every circumstance, when you have determined on sending 3'our sheep to a market-town, it is the best plan, after the journey, to intrust them to a salesman, rather than stand in the market with them yourself, as you cannot know the character of the butchers so well as he does, nor canyon know what class of pur- chasers your lot may best suit. The con- venience attending the employment of a salesman is now generally felt, as it not only saves the personal annoyance of at- tending a market, but y(jur money is re- mitted to you through a bank in the course of the day. The only precaution requi- site in the matter is to become acquainted with a salesman of judgment, for as to honesty, if he possess not that^ he cannot show his face in any market. In attend- ing country fairs, where are no salesmen, you must disjjose of your stock yourself. Before attending the fair, you should make up your mind what to ask for the stock, in accordance with the current market prices; but, notwithstanding these, you may have to take more or less cash than you anticipated, as the actual state of the market is regulated by the quali- ty and quantity of the stock in it, and by the paucity or numbers of purchasers who may appear. After your sheep are placed you should inquire of friends of the state of prices before you sell, and on doing this you may find the market in a most per- plexing state from various causes. Thus, there may be too many sheep for the buy- ers, when the market will be dull, and remain so all day. Or the stock may be scanty for the buyers, when a briskness may start in the morning and continue until the whole stock are sold off. Or there may be briskness in the morning, the buyers purchasing — dulness at mid-day, buyers declining — and briskness again in the afternoon, buyers becoming eager. Or there may be excessive dulness in the morning, occasioned by the buyers lying off and beating down prices, and, finding they cannot succeed, buy briskly all after- noon. Or there may be dulness in the morning, arising from the dealers finding the condition of the stock below their ex- pectation. The market is never better for the farmer than when it begins brisk early in the morning, and the stock are all sold off early. These are the vicissitudes of a market ; they are interesting, demand at- tention, and are worthy of examination. You will frequently observe a trifling cir- cumstance give a decided tone to a mar- ket. A dealer, for instance, who generally buys largely, and who has bought for many years in that particular fair, will make the prices of the day by his purchases; so that other people, particularly sellers, observing the prices given by him, will sell briskly and with confidence. There is no use, at any time, of asking a much higher price than the intrinsic value of your stock, or than you will willingly take; for, although your stock may be in particularly fine condition, and of good quality, and there- fore worth more than the average price of the market, still their value must conform to the rate of the market, be it high or low, and it is not in your power to con- trol it, though, should prices dissatisfy you, you have it in your power to take your stock home again. There is a com- mon saying applicable to all public mar- kets, and is now received as a maxim, be- cause indicating the truth, that " the first offer is the best" — that is, the first offer from a sincere buyer, for there are people to be found in all markets who, having no serious intention of buying at market price, make a point of offering considerably below it, with the view of catching a bargain from a greenhorn, or from one tired of standing longer in the fair, and they sometimes succeed in their tactics ; but such people are easily dis- covered, and cannot deceive any but inex- perienced sellers. 3.597. There are certain rules which, by tacit consent, govern the principles upon which all public markets of stock are con- ducted, and they are few and sinij>le. A custom is payable for all stock ]tre- sented at fairs, exigible by the lord of the manor, or by other recognised authority. After entering the field, your stock can take up any unoccupied position you choose, appointed for the particular kind of stock you have to show. No one, on pretence of purchasing, has a right to in- DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP. 137 terfere with a lot which is under inspec- tion by another party. Neither have you any riglit to show your lot to more than cue party at a time, unless both parties consent to it. When a bargain is made, there is no necessity for striking hands, or exchanging money, as an earnest of it. When a bargain is finished, a time may be stipulated by the purchaser for lifting the stock ; and until they are delivered to him, or his accredited agents, they continue at the risk of the seller. When counted over before the purchaser, the price becomes immediately due. When the money is paid, there is no obligation on the seller to give a discount off the price, or a luck- penny^ as it is termed; but purchasers, sometimes to humour the whim of the seller, offer the price demanded, on con- dition of getting back a certain sum, to bring the price to their own ideas. Some- times, when parties cannot agree as to price, the offerer proposes to abide by the decision of a third party, but in doing this, you virtually relinquish the power to sell your own stock. Sometimes bills, and bank-post-bills, are tendered by dealers in part or entire payment of their purchases; but it is in your power to refuse any form of cash but the legal tenders of the country, such as Bank of England notes, or gold, or silver. If a bill of exchange or promissory note is proffered instead of ready money, you are quite entitled to refuse the bar- gain; for the usage of trade in a fair im- plies the condition of ready money,* or you may demand a higher price to cover the risk of the bill being dishonoured. The notes of a bank you know to be good should admit of no question. After the stock are delivered, they are at the risk of the pur- chaser. Some dealers' top's-men, the men who take charge of their master's lots after deli very, demand agratuity for the.ir trouble, which you are at liberty to refuse. All these rules, in as far as relates to money and the delivery of stock, apply to the stock purchased by dealers on your own farm. When you purchase stock at a fair, people will be found on the ground willing to render your drover assistance in taking them out of it, and of setting them fairly on the ruad. Such people are useful on the occasion, as it may happen, especially in the case of sheep, that one or more may break away from their own flock, and mis with another, when there is not only diffi- culty in shedding them out, but those into whose lot yours have strayed, may show unwillingness to disturb their stock for the sake of rectifying your blunder, though it is in your power to follow your stray stock and claim it anywhere. 3598. Steam vessels carry live stock to the Smithfield market, in London, in large numbers every year ; and although stock cannot be carried by vessels so quickly as on railroads, and are subjected, besides, to the effects of storm in a sea voyage, they suffer much less deterioration in them than by travelling a long journey on foot. It has been ascertained that a journey of 400 miles on land causes a loss of 6 stones out of 50 stones, or 12 per cent ; whereas the loss by steam is only 2 stones out of the 50 ; and, besides this great loss itself, the state of the remainder of the flesh is worth 6d. a stone less after land travel. When stock are sent to graze after a jour- ney, they require a month to regain their former state on pasture, whereas the steam- carried are again in the same state at the end of a fortnight. Land travel renders the juices of the meat of fat stock in an unnatural state, while, on being carried by steam, these are not sensibly altered. Heavy and high-conditioned stock, travel- ling by land long distances, inevitably sink under the attempt, whilst by steam their condition is preserved with compara- tive ease. The time spent on a land journey is of consideration in regard to altering the tone of the stomach of the animals, when a more expeditious mode of travelling would jjreserve it — and in this respect railroad travelling is eminently superior to any other mode of transit. 3599. When you determine sending stock to London, you should establish a corresjjondence with a live-stock sales- man, who will ])ay all charges of the jour- ney or voyage, and at market, and remit the balance in course of post. The charges by sea consist of freight, which varies with the distance, commission, hay or grass on board, dues, wharfage, hay or grass on shore, and cost of driving to market. By railroad the cost consists of the value of The Farmer's Lawyer, p. 143, 138 PRACTICE— SUMIklER. the truck, liay or grass at the station, and and their mutton is bought for the coUiera the cost of driving to market ; and tliere with avidity. The long-established and are market dues in both cases. You will famed Morpeth market is now transferred never transmit meat to the London market, to Newcastle, as a consequence of the but you should be well acquainted with all opening of the Berwick and Newcastle the pieces into which a carcass of beef or railway. In Smithfield, in London, on mutton is cut up there, that you may Monday, Southdown sheep are to be had know whether your stock is of the descrip- in great perfection and beauty, and the tion to supply the most valuable pieces of mutton they afford finds the most favour meat; without which knowledge you can- in the metropolis. not be certain whether your stock ought to realise the top prices. 3602. Fairs, according to Spelman, were first instituted in England by Alfred, in the year 886. They were established generally by order of and afterwards in the principal street of towns, where a cross was erected. 3603. M'Queen estimated in 1836 the per- manent stock of sheep in Great Britain at — 19,800,000 of long-woolled, and •28,-.iOO,li00 of short- woolled. In all, 48,000,000 1 3604. We shall see what proportion of this number of sheep find their way every year to Smithfield — In 1841 it was 1,435,090 1842 l,(i5.5,370 1843 1,817,360 1844 l,804,8,i0 184.i 1,539,6(;0 1846 1,527.220 1847 1.505,650 1848 1,3.53,720 3600. When you send sheep to London ^J^^^^ yil. in 1078. and were termed Fnice, on your own account, they should be of at which the monks celebrated the festival of the following description, to command the -their patron saint: the vast resort of people occa- besl prices; and unless they are so, you sioned a great demand for goods, wares, fee* had better dispose of them at home. They ^^^'^^ ^^""^ fi'"=*» ^^^^ '"^ churchyards on Sunday, should be ripe, compact, and of light weight ; carrying a large proportion of lean on the back, loins, and shoulders, with a full round leg, and handsome car- cass. Such a form, of 14 lb. to 20 lb. a quarter, will readily take, but most so at 16 lb. to 18 lb. the quarter. Tlie nearer in form and quality they approach the Southduwns, the nearer they will com- mand the top price. True-bred Che- viots, and the Black-faced Linton breed, approach near the Southdown, and com- mand a high price. Half-bred siieep, between Leicester tups and the above sorts of Cheviot and Black-faced ewes, afford valuable mutton. The old Black-faced breed are too thin, and are stvled goati/ in Smithfield, and when only half-fat — kulf- wea/<' Z 49 Multiply by 5 times the length, 25 Divide by 21)1225(58 st. weight. 3631. Thus many rules exist by which the measuring and weighing of cattle may ascertain their nett weights, and many books of tables are found in which those weights are calculated to one's hand. A sliding scale conveniently carried in the pocket, indicating at a glance the weight, with reference to the length and girth of animals, is sold by the philosophical instru- ment makers. 3632. Lord Farnham's Devon ox, slaughtered in Dublin in 1828, weighed 12 cwt. = 96 St. = 1344 lb. The offals weighed, Blood, lost, .... Feet, Head and tongue, Kidneys, .... Hide Heart, liver, and lights. Guts and contents, Fat, Weight lost by evaporation from the carcass, .... Live weight, lb. 22 8 18 30 4 80 25 135 152 504 0 1344 0 Equal to 60 stones, 840 0 The rule by measurement in (3628) comes nearer the truth than those founded on live weight either in (3624) or (3629.)* 3633. After repeated trials by Mr Robert Stephenson, Whitelaw, East Lothian, on a number of oxen of the same weight and age, of the relative proportions of their live and dead weights, the following con- clusions were come to — that every 100 lb. of live weight gave of Butcher meat. 577 per cent. Tallow, 80 ... Hide, 5-5 ... Entrails and offal. 28-8 ... 1000 3634. Accurate measuring would easily be acquired, and the result would ever be correct, were the form of the ox always perfect, which it very seldom is, the fore and hind quarters being frequently un- equal; and tlie degrees of condition various. The judgment is called into exercise to make allowance for those differences, and the allowance may be made somewhat in this manner : — When the fore-quarter seems heavier than the hind, the line should be extended nearerthe head than the exact top of the shoulder a, fig. 300 ; and in like manner, when the hind-quar- ter is heavier than the fore, the line should be stretched a Tittle beyond the tail-head b. In regard to the girth, it is a very common fault in the carcass of an ox to be contracted behind the shoulder; the ac- tual girth of which gives a result below the truth. It is very rare to find the girth filled out beyond its proper form. The tape line must therefore be applied with judgment. The line is most conveniently divided into feet and tent/is, instead of eighths, because the multiplication by de- cimals is the easiest. As an illustration of the practical effects of misapplying the tape-line, I may state, that one inch only added to the girth and length, assumed in the above examples, makes an increase in the above weights of upwards of 2 st. The addition of one inch to the length is a mis- take easily made when the ox stands with his head down ; and a similar error may as easily be made in the girth, when the ox stands with his back raised. Experience alone can give proficiency in measuring cattle. I knew a steward in Berwickshire who so successfully measured cattle, and had so many opportunities of verifying his measurements, that the measured weight of an ordinary ox, whether fat or half lean, differed only from 1 st. to ^ st. of its real weight. 363.5. To an ox from 40 to 70 stones the tables in books apply pretty near, when the measurement is made with judgment; but in weights below and above those figures, the tables are at fault. I have no instances to adduce of error in very small weights, but many in large ones, and shall only adduce one. A short- horn white ox, belonging to Mr Boswell * Quarterly/ Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 552. DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE, 145 Irvine of Kingcausie, was exhibited at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Aberdeen in October 1834. Its measurement was 9 feet 3 inches in girth, and 6 feet 2 inches in length. According to Renton's tables, the farmer once of Dykegatehead,in Berwickshire, the weight was 126 St. 9 lb.; to Strachan's 124 st, 2 lb.; to Ainslie's 122 st.; and to Stewart's 117 St. The actual weight of beef yielded by the ox was 136 st. 10 lb., on being slaughtered by Deacon Sparks of Aber- deen, being 10 st. 1 lb. more than the heaviest, and 19 st. 10 lb. more than the lightest weight indicated by the tables. Such deficiencies of weight, at 7s. the stone, incur a loss to the feeder of from £3, 10s. 6d. to £6, 18s. upon a single ox! 3636. The rule for live-weight is also liable to error when applied to oxen of extraordinary weight. Thus the late Lord Kintore's black ox, 7 years off, exhibited on the above occasion at Aberdeen, weighed, alive, 28 cwt., or 224 stones. By the rule of multiplying the live-weight by the deci- mal '605, the dead weight should have been 135 st. 7 lb.; but when the ox was slaughtered by Mr Rodger, Crown Street, Aberdeen, it weighed 1 73 st. 4 lb., or 37 st. 11 lb. more than the rule indicated, which, at 7s. the stone, made it worth more by £13, 4s. 6d. ! On the other hand, a small spayed heifer, belonging to Mr Boswell Irvine, weighed 88 st. live-weight, which should have yielded, by the rule, .53 st. 3 lb., but it only weighed 49 stones. The rule in (3624) is equally in error when applied to these cases. ■ 3637. Such discrepancies certainly ren- Fisr. der it desirable that means were used for rendering the rules of measurement, as well as of weight, more correct than they are; and I see no way of effecting this end but in collecting data, by instituting experiments in diiferent parts of the coun- try, to measure and ascertain the live- weight of every animal before it is slaugh- tered, be it ox, sheep, or pig, large or small, for a given period, and to weigh its fore and hind quarters, after it is slaughtered. 3688. The cart-steelyard or weigh- Iridge. — As I have mentioned the weigh- ing of cattle alive, for the ascertaining of their value as a marketable commodity, and as many occasions occur in farms for weighing heavy weights, it is proper to give a description of such a steelyard as will be useful on a farm. The cart- steelyard is a machine in which a com- bination of levers are employed to effect, in a commodious way, the weighing of bodies of considerable weight, and which would require the common Roman steel- yard of most inconvenient dimensions, or a balance equally cumbrous, besides the inconvenience of a great mass of move- able weight. The combination consists of two double-fulcrum levers of the second order, combined with a single lever of the first order. The relation of the arms of the first are 3|- to 1, and of the second 8 to 1, making the ultimate ratio 28 to 1 ; so that every cwt. placed upon the plat- form of the machine is balanced by 4 lb. on the scale-board attached to the second lever. 3639. In describing the construction of this compound steelyard, we have in fig. 301, the ground plan: the bed-frame a a « a, PLAN OF THE CAKl-STEJiLYAKI). VOL. II. 146 PRACTICE— SUMMER. 6 feet in length by 4 feet in surrounded by a stand-np which is breadth, is flange. This frame is laid in a pit formed of masonry x x, figs. 302 and 303, adapted to the size of the frame, and having the surface of its foundation course laid level, under the surface of the ground, sufficient to bear the sole-frame, and upon which it requires to be solidly bedded. Four blocks b' b\ fig. 302, are faced on their TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE CART-STEELYARD. lop-8urface with a cradle of steel, forming the dead fulcra of the levers. The two first levers b c d, b c d, fig. 301, seen in profile aibc d, bed, fig 302, are so formed in the horizontal direction as to bring their points of bearing at i, c, and d to the requisite position ; and in the vertical direction, to bring the centres bed into one plane. When the levers are duly placed, their ends d pa.ss each other, being thus suited to the centres of the second lever. The second lever k I, figs 301 and 303, has its main centres g supported upon the two arms %{ the standard h. From the centre g to t, and from ^ to / is 8 to 1 ; the extremity i to k being for the purpose of adjusting the equilibrium of the machine. Upon the two centres i, fig. 301, links are appended, which, in their lower bend^ receive the centres d d oi the two first levers, and the extremity / is formed into the fork, upcm the centres of which, p p, the scale-board m is suspended. In the chamber a' a', the second lever vibrates. The platform, which is left out in fig 301, but is seen in profile in figs. 302 and 303, Fi-. ZO? LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CART-STEELYARD. is a frame with raised ledges, to guide the cart-wheels when being placed upon the platform. Four pendant pillars 72, fig. 302, attached to the platform, bear equally on the centres e of the first levers. If the equilibrium of the levers is not perfect, it is to be adjusted by adding to or taking from the back end of the second lever. Studs projecting inward, coming under the platform at the wheel-tracks, serve to bear not only the weight of the platform when unloaded, but to receive the shocks of the load when coming upon it, thereby saving much of the tear aud wear of the centres. 3640. In this form of weighing-machine, it will be observed that the platform can have no lateral motion, which would be a defect if it had a great range vertically ; but this being extremely sm.all, the want of lateral motion does not affect the accu- racy of the indications. In those ma- chines having slight lateral motion, the principle of the levers is the same as here described, the chief difference being that the jilatform is suspended upon links, to accommodate which the pillars n n are lengthened downwards, and hooked under the first levers, so as rest upon the links suspended from them. 3G41. The most perfect form of such steelyard I have seen was that exhibited by Mr Craig, Liverpool, and manufactured by Redpath, Brown, and Co. Edinburgh, at the general show of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Edinburgh, in August 1S48. This machine is adapted to DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE. 147 the weighing of cattle, as well as every other live or dead stock, whether of large or small bulk and weight. It is constructed on the principle of combined level's, is pro- vided with a platform, the size of wliich is proportioned to the intended purposes, the platfiirni being susi)ende- plied with good turnips and li.iv, or grass, to make them look fresh and to fill up their flanks again; hut if the market is only a short distance, they can travel to it from early morning. 3644. In droving cattle, the drover should have 7iO t/o^y, which will only annoy them. He should walk either before or behind the drove, as he sees them disposed to proceed too fast, or loiter on the road ; atid in passing carriages, the leading ox — for one generally assumes a leadership after travelling for a while together — with a little experience, will make way for the rest. In other respects, their management on the road is much the same as that of sheep, though the rate of travel- ling is quicker. Accommodation will be found at night at stated distances along the road. 3645. On putting oxen into a ferry boat, the shipping of the first one only is attended with much trouble. A man on each side should take hold of a horn, or of a halter of rope, should the ox be hornless, and other two men. one on each side, should push him forward from behind with apiece of rope held between them for a breeching, and the men should simultaneously conduct him along the j)Iank into the boat. This arranirement of the men should be adopted at once, and not after it had been found im- possible to induce the ox to go aboard of himself, or by dint of twisting his tail, the irritation occasioned by which will cause every subse([ueut plan difficult of execution. If the boat have low gunwales, one man should remain beside the ox until one or two more cattle follow their compani(»n, which they will most readily do. In ne- glectinir to guard the first ox in small ferry- boats, I have seen it leap into the water, and it is then difficult to prevent the rest doing the same from the jetty. 3646. Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to walk to a market, they should never be oterdriv^n. The flesh of over- driven cattle, when slaughtered, never be- comes firm, and the tallow has a soft, melted appearance. Much diversity exists in managing cattle on the road by drovers. Some like to proceed on the road quietly, slowly, but surelv, and to take them into the market in a jdacid, cool state. Others drive them smartly along for some dis- tance, and then rest them to cool a while, when they will probably become chilled, and have a staring coat when they enter the market. Whilst others like to enter the market with the t;attle in an excited state, imagining that they look gay ; but distended nostrils, loose bowels, and reeking sides, the ordinary concomitants of excitement, are no recommendations to a purcluiser. Good judges are chary of purchasing cattle in a heated state, as they do not know how long they have been so, and to cover the risk, will oflFer a lower price for them than in a cool state. Some drovers have the habit of thumping the hindmost ox, whichever it may be, with his stick, while on the road. This is a reprehensible practice, as the flesh, where thumped, will bear a red mark after the animal has been slaugh- tered, named a blood-burn. The flesh so aff'ected will not take the salt, and is apt to putrefy. A touch upon the shank, or any tendonous part, when correction ia necessary, is all that is required ; but the voice, in most cases, will answer the end. 3647. A few large oxen look best to- gether in a market, on a position rather above the eye of the spectator. When a large lot is nearly alike in size and appear- ance, they look best and level, on a flat piece of ground. Very large fat oxen never look better than on the same level with the spectator. To look in the best state, an ox should hold his head in a line with his body, have lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a well-licked hide, and stand firm on all his feet. These are invariable symi>toms of high health and good condi- tion. AVIiencver you see an ox shifting his standing from one foot to another, he is foot-sore, and has been far driven. When you observe him hanging his head, and his eyes watering, he feels ill inwardly. When his coat stares, he has been overheated some time, and has become subsequently chilled. These latter symptoms will be much agirravated in cattle that have been fed tied to the stake. You may at once discover whether cattle have been fed at the stake, by observing a fretted and cal- lous mark occasioned by the rubbing of DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE. 149 the baikie or seal, figs. 75 ami 76, on the top of the neck, immediately behind the ears ; by the huofs being overgrown at the points ; by marks of dung and of much resting, upon the outside of the hams ; and also very frequently by the remains of lice upon the tail-head and the top of the shoulder, their scurf remaining, or the hair shorn bare from those parts. 3648. Steam conveyance by sea and land is now so common from all parts of the country, and from sea-ports, that fat cattle are not now travelled on foot to markets at great distances, as was wont to be the case some years ago ; still it is well for you to be made acquainted with the best method of driving cattle on the road, since most parts of the country at which cattle are fattened are situate at consider- able distances both from railway stations and shipping harbours. Fat cattle must still be driven to local fairs from short dis- tances, and in those short journeys they require to be as well guided as on long ones. 3649. The customs relating to the pur- chase and sale of cattle in fairs, and town markets, are precisely the same as tiiose connected with the disposal of sheep, (3.597.) 3650. On consigning fat cattle on your own account to London, eitlier by steam- boat or railroad, it is necessary beforehand to establish a correspondence with a re- spectable salesman. I say with a sales- man of established character, for that class of persons having the monopoly of the sale of stock at Smith field, some of them eftect sales for their customers in a question- able manner. It has been alleged, for example, that " each salesman receives consignments of stock from several graziers, and it frequently happens that when a sale is effected, say of 100 cattle or sneep, composed of perhaps 10 from one grazier, 20 from another, 30 from another, and so on ; they, of course, vary in quality and size; the 10 or 20 being perhaps far supe- rior to those with which they are sold ; but it often happens that one general ave- rage price is fixed for the whole : thus it occurs that tlie judgment of the salesman is the only criterion of value, and the re- turns of the prices to the respective graziers must depend entirely on his discretion ; the apportioning of the money taking place in the money taker's office." Thus your good cattle may be slumped in price with the inferior ones of auother person. " Again, we will suppose a case of con- signment of 100 cattle or sheep by one person: these may be sold in one lot at an average price ; but in order to satisfy his principal, it is not unusual fur the sales- man to render a fictitious account, showing that the sale was effected by tens or twen- ties to different persons, and at prices varying, but making up the amount for which they were actually sold. The rea- son given for this proceeding is, that the salesman wishes to gain a name for mak- ing exertion to obtain the best prices, which might be questioned if the animals were returned as sold in one lot." * 3651. Besides this unfair mode of sale, the injuries probably to be sustained by the cattle or sheep you may consign to a salesman, on their way through the streets to Smithfield, are at times to a serious amount. " The loss to the grazier," says a writer, " is in the difference in value of his sheep or cattle, when they arrive in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, and wlien offered for sale in Smithfield after intense suflering from hard blows, driving over the stones, from hunger, tiiirst, fright, and the compresj-ed state in which tliey are constrained to be packed ; the sheep and beasts the whole time, from their raised temperature, clouding the atmos- phere of Smithfield with dense exhalations from their bodies. Tiie London butcher, carrying on a respectable trade, will at all times, Avhen he enters the market, reject such cattle or sheep as are what is termed in a mess ; that is, depressed, after excita- tion by being overlaid or overdriven, or such as have been more than usually troublesome in getting into tiie market, and, consequently, will be in a more wor- ried and exhausted condition. It is to be observed, that all animals brought into Smithfield, especially on the Monday's niarket-ilay, are more or less in the con- dition above described." This was the case when an inquiry was made into the Inquiry into the State of Smithfield Cattle Market In 1848, p. 6. 150 PRACTICE— SUMMER. state of tlie market in 1R2S ; and tlie in- loose from their fastenings, and, in Icnoclc- quirv institutcublic, is exclusive of th(tse jiarts of the animal which suffer most from the conduct of the drovers, namely, the head, especially the nasal organs, and concussions of the brain by blows on the horns, besides the more acute sufferinlan has the effect of overcrowding fat taken only at half-a-farthing j'cr pounh trade with the sister country. From the inferior port of Water- ford alone, the value of imported cattle and pro- Tisiuns amounted, in 1841, to nearly half a million Sterling.* Now all live animals are imported from all quarters of the globe into Britain free of duty. 3657. The numbers of cattle presented in each Oxen. Cows. Calves. In January, 15,589 480 770 ... February, 15,404 570 859 ... Marcli, . 15,407 601 1.122 ... Aiu-il, . 15,.'5-22 577 1,375 ... May, . 1(),541 491 2,087 ... June, 17,452 509 3,846 ... July, 16,878 495 4,033 ... August, . 17,975 497 3,840 ... September, 21^714 421 2,707 ... October, . 20,177 487 2,200 ... Novemb'T, 19,700 544 1,483 ... December, 19,855 620 1,263 212,014 6,292 25,585 Total number of cattle, . 243,891 In regard to these numbers, it should be borne in mind that they represent the total numbers ex- hibited in each month ; but a deduction should be made for the cattle turned out unsold in one market day, and which make their appearance in another. It has been estimated that about 25,000 cattle reappear in the course of a year. 3658. It is interesting to observe the propor- tions in which the oxen from the dififerent districts of the kingdom found their way to London in the aud ; of 1848, for sale in Smithfield market, different months i of the year : in 184: m, were as follows : — 1848 : — W. and Mid- Other parts of Eng- N. Districts. E. Districts. land Dis- land with Ire- Scotland. tricts. land. In January, . 4,150 2,200 2,000 2,900 790 ... February, 3,000 4,200 1,800 2,700 610 ... March, 2,000 4,500 2.300 1,600 850 ... April, 1,000 5,400 2,500 1,350 840 ... May, 500 5,900 2,800 2,100 2,5(;0 ... June, 6,300 3,000 1,900 3,180 ... July. 900 5,000 3,800 2,250 790 ... August, 3,f:oo 8,000 1,480 l,.9!i0 960 ... September, 5,000 2,000 2,600 3,450 572 ... October, . 7,200 800 4,550 1,810 910 ... November, 6,300 1,.500 2,(i00 3,350 400 ... December, In 1847, 6,000 2,500 4,000 32,830 3,900 290 39,650 48,300 29,270 12,752 47,870 48,700 27,800 2(1, 150 8,725 A few deductions may be drawn from the numbers of this statement. From th.e northern districts the chief supplies are in the beginning and end of the year, indicating there the preva- lence of arable husbandry, and fattening with turnips, and little grazing. The same remark applies to other parts of England with Ireland ; but, from these districts, the supply is more uniform than from the northern districts. From the eastern districts the supply is scanty in win- ter, the fattening on turnips being evidently limited, while the grazing in summer is carried on to a large extent. Tlie supply from the western and midland districts is more regular thronglidiit the year than from any other dis- trict, while it rather increases in winter, indi- cating fattening for a short time on turnips from the grass in autumn. The grazing beasts are largely supplied from the north of Scotland in the early summer months. On comparing the numbers of 1848 with 1847, we find a falling off of the Short-horns from the northern districts, * Haydn's Dictionary and an increase of the Devons and Herefords from the we^tern and midland districts, while the supply from the eastern districts is about the same. From Scotland, the increase in 1848 is very marked, owing, no doubt, to the accommodation of direct conveyances on the rail- ways from Scotland to London. 3659. The number of oxen presented at Smith- field for the last 8 years was as follows: — 0\en. In 1841, . . 194,298 ... 1842, . . 210,723 ... 1843, . . 207,195 ... 1844, . . 216,848 ... 1845, . . 222,822 ... 1846, , . 233,402 ... 1847, . . 216,180 ... 1848, . . 212,014 1,713,582 Average of the 8 years, 214,197 of Dates — art. Cattle. 162 PRACTICE— SUMMER. 3660. Mr M'Q,ueen, in 1836, estimated the number of cattle in the United Kiiigdum at 15,400,000, divided thus: — Bulls, young and old, . . . ."iOO.OOO Cows, 7,000,000 Oxen, fat, to kill, . . . 2,00(1,000 ... growing up to fatten, . . 4,000,000 used to work, . . . 500.000 ... to replace waste, . . . 1,400,000 Or thus : Permanent stock. To replace waste, one-tenth, 15,400,000 14,000,000 1,400,000 15,4 00,000" 3661. The cattle and calves imported duty free, from the Continent into London, in each month of the year 1848, were as follows : — Cattle. Calves. In January, . 720 110 ... February, 852 103 ... March, , . 1,146- 434 ... April, . 2,456 466 ... May, , . 2,197 fi.OS ... June, . 2,044 1,6!)2 ... July, . . ]fi66 1,706 ... August, . . 2,5-26 2,135 ... September, . 4,301 l,(;-.'5 ... October, . 2,%2 803 ... November, . 3,488 669 ... December, . 2,401 26,759 492 11,133 In 1847, 32,968 8,433t 3662. The total numbers of cattle imported, duty free, into the United Kingdom, in the course of 1847 and 1848, were as follows : — 1847. 1S48. Oxen and bulls, , 27,831 24,591 Cows, . . . 35.480 2-2,510 Calves, . . . 12,406 15,642 Total of cattle imported, 75,717 62,743] 3663. Cows are chiefly imported from Holland, and calves from Holland and Belgium, whilst the oxen mostly come from Holstein. Dutch cows are good. The Dutch and Belgians feed calves well. The pastures of Holstein afford the best oxen of any imported. 3664. At the end of the season of fattening the cattle, it is profitable to hear the conclusions arrived at by so acute and scientific an expe- rimenter and philosopher as M. Boussingault, on the experiments made by Mr Robert Stephen- son, Whitelavv, East Lothian, an abstract of which is given from (1342) to (1350.) " In a series of experiments which he undertook," says M. Boussiiigault, " Mr Robert Stephenson pro- posed to compare the progress of the increase in weight of oxen upon different alimentary regi- mens. Starting upon the principle which we have already established — that animals consume a quan- tity of food in proportion to their weight and size, when they are under the same conditions — he had, of course, to divide his stock into several lots, each made up of animals of as nearly as possible the same weight. Oxen of two years old, brought up on the same farm, and kept in the same manner, were the subjects of experi- ments. I shall select one experiment, in which the observations were made upon three lots of six beasts each. The live weight of each Jot was ascertained before and after the experiment, which was carried on for 119 days, 1. The first lot was put upon white turnips, linseed oilcake, beans, and oats ; and, for the last 24 days, each beast had 20 lb. of potatoes every day in addi- tion. 2. The second lot was fed like the first, with this difference, that it had no cake ; and that, during the last 24 days, the quantity of potatoes allowed was but 1 0 lb. a-day. 3. The third lot had no other provender than turnips. 3665. " Here are the weights and nature of the provender consumed by the animals during the 119 days, with a column added, containing the equivalent in hay corresponding to each article consumed: — Provender. Lot 1 Lor 2. Lot 3. Weight. ^5-™;-;"' Weight. ^?;j'^^^."' Weight. ^^f„"^j"_' KquiTalent ill ha.v assumt'd. Wliite turnips Swedes Beans, Oik-ake Oats Potatoes Riition expressed in h.av, Ha.v consumed per head per dav, Hay per 100 lb. of tlie live-weiglit, lb. lb. 1,51S0 171-6 13.3:i(;0 1973-4 3.")S(» 1.559-8 3S|»() 17(iH-0 173-0 279-0 479 0 151-0 lb. lb. l,fi2S-0 184-8 13,384-8 1980-0 538-0 15590 173-0 279-0 239-8 77-0 lb. lb. 1,1220 127-0 12,012-0 1777-6 lb. 385 676 23 22 62 315 5,902-8 4i)-7 401 4079-8 34-3 303 1904-6 Ki-O 2-0 It therefore plainly appears that the lot which had the largest allowance of provender, the food which contained the greatest quantity of azotised principles .oi' flesh, in fact produced the largest amount of dead-weight in a given time; and that the lot which had the shortest allowance in- creased in the smallest measure, both in flesh and fat — results which might have been readily foreseen. 3666. " It is also apparent, from the table, that, in proportion to the nutritive value of the * M'Q,neen's Statistics of the British Empire, p. 18. t Bell's Weekly Messenger, January 1849. :;: rarliamentary Return, 26th February 1849. MARES FOALING. 153 articles consumed by each lot, the increase in carcass-weight was greatest in that which re- ceived its allowance in the least bulk. Thus reducing the different rations to a standard for- age, we find that in the first lot, which was plentifully supplied, 100 lb. of hay gained 4'2 lb. of increased weiglit, whilst the same allowance of hay produced G lb. in the third lot, which was fed most parsimoniously. The fact is most readily explained ; over a certain limit, the more food an animal receives, the smaller is the frac- tion which is assimilated and turned to use in the body. Breeders have consequently discovered, that it is by no means generally advantageous to push animals beyond a certain point of fatness. The excess of weight which is obtained with the assistance of the quantities of food exaggerated as it were, no longer compensates for the addi- tional expense incurred. This is a circumstance which Mr Stephenson's experiments also illus- trate; and, indeed, they led him to the conclusion which has just been stated. 3667. " Judging by the market price of the several articles of provender employed by this distinguished breeder, the first lot appears to be the one the fattening of which turned out the least advantageously ; whilst each pound weight of flesh produced here cost about 5d., the price of production in the second lot did not much exceed 4d., (4 id.) ; and in the third it was a little more, 4|d. 3668. " With these observations of Mr Ste- phenson, we find the following numbers to ex- press the daily increase in weight of the cattle during the period of fattening : — Average weight Hay consumed Increase per Increase of the oxen be- per day per head in 119 per day, fore fattening. head. days- and per head. First lot, 1115-0 49-7 247-5 2-0 Second lot, l()16-0 34-3 231-6 1-9 Third lot, 794-0 16-0 11-2-6 0-9 3669. "The weight of the several animals must also be taken into account, in seeking to estimate the increase realised upon every 100 lb. of live- weight during the fattening: — In the first lot, 100 lb. of live-weight, in 119 days gained . 22-2 lb. ... second, ... ... ... 22-8 ... ... third, 14-2 ..."* ON MARES FOALING. 3670. May is the usual month in which draught-mares foah They continue to work until the immediate symptoms of foaling are observed. These are, great loosening of the ligatures on each side of the root of the tail, and the appearance of a waxy-lilce matter projecting from the point of the teats. The period of gesta- tion is from 333 to 346 days. 3G71. As it is impossible to predict a mare's foaling within a few hours, it is proper to put lier into a loose-box by her- self, and to watch her every night, as in u in the work-horse stable 0, or in the out- house y, Plate II. Too many farmers neglect and even contemn such precau- tions, and allow their mares to foal in the stall in the stable, at the risk of having both them and their foals injured. The late Mr Airth, Mains of Dun, Forfarshire, told me tliat a mare of his, having been neglected to be watched at night, or even removed from the stable, was found in the morning lying on the floor with her womb protruded, and the foal smothered in it. The mare shortly after died in great agony. It is a remarkable fact, that few people have observed mares to foal, even though watching for the purpose, for somehow they contrive to foal when left by them- selves for even a few moments. I have endeavoured for successive years to wit- ness the foaling both of blood and draught- mares, and was always disappointed. 367'2. A mare will eat with heartiness until the pains of labour seize her, when she suddenly lies down, foals easily, quickly, forcibly, requiring no assistance, starts to her feet almost immediately after parturition, takes up with, though licks but little at, her foal, and soon begins again to eat. 3G73. The foal is not long of gaining its feet after a few staggering attempts on its long spindled shanks, but some time elapses before it can steady itself, in walk- ing, or to lay hold of the teat. It should be assisted in its first attempt, to get filled with milk, after which it will lie down and sleep amongst straw, now replenished clean, until it becomes dry. The placenta soon drops from the mare, and should be immediately removed. The thin pellicle which covers the foal, is, when dried, like the finest gut-skin used by the gold- beaters ; and it forms a good protection from the air, when applied as a plaster over the surface of a recent wound. Boussingault's Rural Economy — Law's translation, p. 615-17. 154 PRACTICE— SUMMER. 3674. The mare should have a drink of lukewarm water and oatmeal, and a few bandfuls of corn, after parturition, and then left with the foal ; and the warm drink should be given her fur a day or two. For the sake of increasing her milk, she should be put to grass immediately after foaling, if not already on it ; and should she foal before the grass is as far advanced as to support het well, she should have boiled turnips, or carrots and corn for a mess at night, and warm bran mashes during the day, (1444.) 367"'. She should remain on grass with- out working at least for a month ; by which time her body will have sufficiently recovered to bear the fatigue of labour. The work which a mare with a foal should do should interfere sliahtly with the im- portant operations of the farm ; having to suckle the foal every half-yoking, she should be employed singly, such as at sow- ing, and scuffling turnips and potatoes, and leading grass or other foraire to the stead- ing, and worked gently. When she works, the foal should be left by itself in the out- house, well-littered, until it become ac- customed to be alone, rather than in a court or hammel, out of which it may attempt to escape and injure itself, as at first it almost goes distracted on being separated from its mother; and she also evinces great uneasiness for it for the first few davs. Should there be two mares with foals, both should be Avorked together: the treatment of both being alike, little inconvenience will arise to work, from being taken out of yoke together to their foals; or one of them might be worked in the forenoon, and the other in the after- noon. A stout mare will be able to per- form her own share of summer work, and bring up a foal at the same time ; but should she be in a weakly state, which she will be when becoming old, or is over- worked, she should be put either to very gentle work, in half-yokiugs, or one yok- ing a-da}', or be set idle altogether, and be constantly with her foal. She should not be neglected of corn, though idle at grass with her foal. Seldom any illness attacks a draught-mare while bringing up a foal, and as seldom anything is the mat- ter with a foal. I had one work-foal, however, which, though safelv and easily foaled, and seemed lively enough, could never stand upon its feet, or suck a teat, and it died in the course of the day after it was foaled, though fed on cows' milk. A mare when thus deprived of her foal, should be occasionally milked, and kept on dry food for a few days, until the ten- dency of the milk to secrete subsides. When a mare dies in foaling, the foal may be well brought up by hand on cow's milk. 3676. The mare will be ready to receive the horse in 3 or 4 weeks at farthe.-t after parturition. The first symptoms of heat is frequent convulsive opening of the vulva, and emission of a clear fluid. When a mare is touched in this state, she immedi- ately presses towards the object that touches her. 3677. In presenting a mare to the stal- lion, caution is required to prevent her striking him with her heels should she re- fuse his attentions ; and this consists simply in holding her by the head with a bridle across the outside of the stable door, while the stallion is kept within, and only al- lowed to snufl' and pinch her flank. If she takes his teasing kindly, presses closer towards him, twitches the vulva, and emits, she is in proper season ; but if she squeal and kick and make water, whenever he touches her, she is in an unfit state for him : but the tickling of the horse for a time not unfrequently confirnis the season of the mare, though at first it may evince a doubtful issue. If in season, she should be taken to an open piece of level ground, and held by the head as long as the horse covers her, and the time occupied by a stallion in covering is considerable. A horse safe to use requires no encourage- ment from his leader to leap on the mare. Making a mare stand to the horse with a twitch on her nose is an unnecessary act of cruelty; for. if she will not A-olnntarily receive him, she will not become impreg- nated in an involuntary embrace ; but many horses need assistance, which his keeper knows how to afford. One cover is quite suHicient at a time. 367H. In about 3 weeks it will he seen whether the mare has hehl to the horse; and should she again exhibit sympumis of season, simple and safe expedients may be used to secure her holding, such as throw- MARES FOALING. 155 ing a bucket of cold water upon her rump the moment the horse leaves her; or draw- ing blood from her neck vein while the horse is in the act of covering ; or, what is better than these, unless the season is going rapidly off her, retaining the horse all niglit, and olfering her a fresh cover in the morning; or, to adopt a dif- ferent plan altogetlier, covering her with another horse, or another kind of horse — one or other of which expedients gene- rally secures the holding, unless the mare is past bearing. I was told by a man who led stallions for many years, that the drawing of a long sigh, from both horse and mare, immediately after an embrace, is an infallible sign of the mare proving in foal. 3679. The circumstances that militate against a mare's holding in foal is too high and too low condition. Whenever a mare is seen to eject the semen as soon as the horse has left her, she will certainly not hold. Sometimes the fault is as much his as the mare's, when he is subjected to much travelling ; and when he is not a good traveller, and has undertaken more service than he can easily overtake, he is often so much fatigued when brought to a mare, especially in the evening, as to be quite unfit for effective service. When the hoi'se is observed to be in a state of lassitude, the best policy for the farmer is to give him and his leader a night's quar- ters, and to let him cover the mure in the morning, when he is comparatively fresh. Many farmers grudge maintaining a horse and a man all night, but much better in- cur that small expense than run the risk of a mare proving barren.' Wlien a mare has been covered three separate periods without success, it is needless to persevere with her for that year, as the foal will come too late next season, and a late foal is as objectionable to bring up as a late calf. 36'80. The becoming barren is a casu- alty which belals mares at very different ages. Some will continue to bear until after twenty years of age, whilst others cease at the age of ten. I had a powerful and handsome draught mare, which was put to the horse at five years old, with the view of j)roducing a large number of valu- able foals. She was put to the best horses that could be procured, and she produced four very fine and valuable foals; but after attaining ten years of age she became bar- ren, and no art that could be devised could bring her again into foal. 3681. Now that we have considered and de- scribed all the phenomena attending the parturi- tion of all the domesticated animals of the farm, a few remarks on the nature of labour, as consti- tuting the premonitory symptoms of parturition, may enable you to understand more clearly the rationale on which that important process de- pends. This is a subject with which shepherds and cattlemen ought to be well acquainted; and so ought the farmer, in order to perceive whether or not his servants understand their duty. 3682. The foetus in the uterus of the female is producad by the impregnation of an ovum by the semen of the male. The period of gestation differs in different kinds of animals. The mare goes 11 months wiih young, the cow 9 months, the ewe 6 months, and the sow 4 months. And attention is required to be directed to these periods, wliich are natural, and cannot be altered to suit the convenienceof man, that the young may not be produced in the cold and unpropitious season of winter, but in the milder and more favourable season of spring and early summer, inasmuch as those seasons present an abundance of grass, the most natural of all food for animals. 3683. At the termination of the period re- quired for the complete development of the ovum, a new series of operations are entered on, for the purpose of giving birth to the foetus which has been matured ; these are included under the term labour. It usually commences at the com- pletion of the determinate period of gestation; in some instances it occurs before that time, when it is called premature labour. In the comprehen- sive sense, therefore, we would define parturi- tion to 1)6, as observed by Dr Murphy — the action of the uterus to expel its contents whin the foetus is siifficieritty mature to sustain respirator i/ life. 3681. There are many circumstances, depend- ing either upon constitutional peculiarities, irre- gular forniation, or upon accident, which may damage parturition or render it danyerous ; hence hibours have been divided and subdivided to meet those difficult conditions. Some adopt only two divisions. The first includes those labours wliii-h proceed regularly to their termina- tion without interruption. The second embraces those who do not do so. The one is the rule, the other the exception ; but as the exceptional includes several varieties, this second class is subdivided into corresponding heads. Dennian's division is sufficient for our purpose, under the several heads of natural, difficult, preternatural, complex. 3685. Denman defines labour to be natural, " if the head of the foetus is present; if the labour 156 PRACTICE— SUMMER. be completed in 24 hours ; and if artificial assis- tance be not required." Labour is called pre- Itrnatural when some other part than the head of the foetus presents. It is called dijicu/l labour when it exceeds 24 hours. It is complex labour when some accidental cause of danger occurs, which may render interference necessary. 368G. Applying these definitions to the ordi- nary cases of labour among the animals of the farm, I should say that natural labour is rare in short-horned cows and Leicester ewes, since both classes of animals usually require artificial assistance. Most other breeds of cattle and sheep, not requiring assistance, may be said to produce their young by means of natural labour. The mare may be said to be always delivered by means of natural labour. 3687. Short-horn cows and Leicester ewes are seldom overtaken with preteniatxral labour, since the head of the foetus most commonly pre- sents ; and so it is with the other breeds. 3688. Short-horn cows are frequently Bubjected to difficult labour, since more than 24 hours elapse before they are delivered of tlie foetus, from the time the premonitory symptoms of parturi- tion present tliemselves. Neither Leicester ewes nor the females of the other breeds of stock are subject to difficult labour. 3689. Every breed of stock is at times sub- ject to complex labour, since accidental circum- Etances occur every year to render interference necessary in cases of parturition. 3690. It is of importance that you should have a clear view of the whole series of phenomena which constitute parturition ; for unless you per- fectly comprehend the changes which are going forward in the womb, and have an accurate knowledge of the means adopted by nature to accomplish her purpose, you can never under- stand the principles of midwifery ; your practice must be empirical ; and, however indebted to chance you may be for success, you will always be exposed to the risk of committing some fatal mistake. In order to study parturition suffici- ently, it is necessary to divide it into certain stages. The means by which the womb is opened is not the same as tliat by which the foetus is forced through the pelvis; and the manner in which the placenta is separated and expelled is difiFerent from either ; hence labour has been divided into three stages by Denman. 3691. The/rst statje is dated from the opening of the mouth of the womb to its complete dilata- tion. 'J'he si'cond stai/e commences when the mouth of the womb is perfectly dilated, and ter- minates in the expulsio.i of the foetus. The third strtije is occupied with the expulsion of the pla- centa. 3692. For the purpose of opening the mouth of the womb to its complete dilatation, the exter- nal muscular layer of the womb slowly contracts for some time before labour has actually com- menced, and draws the womb gradually to the pelvis. By this means also the bottom of the womb is maintained in its proper direction, and prevented from inclining too much to either side. This gradual contraction is unaccompanied by pain, and therefore is not taken notice of ; but its effect in altering the size of the abdomen, and making it less prominent, has always been observed and noted as a premonitory sign of labour. The fibres of the womb also serve a use- ful purpose when the dilatation of its mouth commences : the bottom of the womb thus sup- ported, the fibres on tlie internal surface contract more efficiently. It is the muscles at the bottom of the. womb which chiefly eflect the dilatation of the mouth of the womb and the expulsion of the foetus — the fibres of the body and of the head of the womb remaining comparatively passive ; and their united action is in the direction of the mouth of the womb; but there is still a necessity for the means by which the result of that action should be perfectly conveyed to it. This is accom- plished by the fluid enclosed within the am- nion, which acts with a distending power upon^the mouth of the womb, exactly equal to the com- bined forces of the muscles. The muscular bands must also have the effect of expanding the mouth of the womb, by drawing it upwards. The circular fibres of the body and the head of the womb resist the efiects of the bottom of the womb to distend them ; and the force of their resis- tance is also communicated to the contained fluid. This force is therefore, a? it were, reflect- ed upon the mouth ■ of the womb, so that the whole womb might be said to act as one muscle in dilating its mouth. In ordiiiary cases dila- tation occupies a certain period of labour, (often a very lengthened one.) and the mouth of the womb yields very gradually to the power em- ployed. 3693. Here nature interposes a means by which the danger attending the action of this power may be met and modified. If the womb exerted its full power upon itsundilated mouth, and if the unyielding head of the foetus were driven forcibly against it, the almost certain con- sequence would be, that the irritation would ex- cite increased resi^tance, and ultimately termi- nate in inflammation of the month of the womb. To obviate such an effect, nature "niposes a jiitid medium between the power and the resistance. The liquor amnii, contained within the mem- branes, occupies the cavity of the womb, and when its parietes contract upon it, the force exerted (as explained above) by this means, ia accurately conveyed to the mouth of the womb. When the latter dilates in the slightest degree, the fluid insinuates itself within the smallest opening, and expands it by a direct lateral pres- sure against its edges. The power of the womb is thus made to act in the most favourable man- ner for distending its mouth. 3694. The importance of the action of the liquor amnii depends on the well-known hydro- static law, that the force conveyed by a fluid does not act in one direction only, but is distributed to every part of the surface to which the fluid MARES FOALING. 157 is applied, and it may be observed in the charac- ter of the pains during this stage of the labour. You will find that, however severely they may commence, they last but a short time, and the effect on the mouth of the womb is compara- tively slight. ]f these short, though severe pains, be contrasted with the long-conlinued and powerful pains which follow them, after the liquor amnii, or water, is discharged, and the mouth of the womb is dilated, the difference in the effect will be sufficiently obvious. 3635. In regard to the order observed by the womb in the contractions which take place, and which may easily be ascertained experimentally. Thus : when the hand is passed into the womb after delivery, to remove the placenta, when necessary, we find that it may remain for some time in the cavity, without exciting its contrac- tion, but the moment the hand is being with- drawn, the bottom of the womb instantly con- tracts, and as the hand passes along the va- gina, the contractions are continued from above downwards ; so also, in other instances, when the mouth of the womb is only irritated by the finger of the hand introduced into the vagina, and an attempt is made to dilate it, the bottom of the womb contracts, not the mouth. You have thus a very favourable illustration of the reflex nervous function. Hence, we infer that the order of interior contractions is from the farther end of the womb downwards, and that the action commences there. 3696. The dilatable condition of the month may be ascertained, if the fingers be passed within the mouth of the womb and separated. The edges yield readily to a moderate pressure; there is a very slight increase of temperature; and there is no tenderness or pain produced when the mouth of the womb is touched. 3697. But care should be taken that rigidity he not induced by too much meddling, making too frequent examinations, and attempting to dilate the mouth of the womb artificially. Some shep- herds are too fond of showing their skill by too frequent displays of examination into the state of the mouth of the womb. The danger is that the mouth of the womb becomes inflamed and rigid, and the os tiiicse grows hot and tender, is swollen, and also becomes rigid. Rigidity of the mouth of the womb may be natural, as in the case of the first preguancy of the gimmer and the quey, which, however, gives way in repeated parturitions in future years. But sometimes the structuie of the mouth of the womb is tough, which only gives way reluctantly; and it may even be cartilaginous, the edge perfectly unyield- ing from thickened contraction; and even when thin the resistance may be the same, and is to the touch like a hole made in parchment. Such cases requires great attention and constant watching on the part of the attendants. 3698. The womb acts difi'erently when it has to overcome unusual opposition occasioned by rigidity. The contraction takes place continu- ously for a certain time; but when the period which is usual to efiect dilatation is exceeded, or when the mouth of the womb becomes irritated, the pains grow feeble, and the womb often sus- pends its action altogether. By this means an interval of rest is gained, when the irritation may subside, and the patient recovers from fatigue, which otherwise might end in exliaustion. When the action of the womb is renewed, after a sus- pension of this kind, the dilatation is often rapidly completed. Much confusion has arisen as to the duration of labour, in consequence of neglecting this fact. Tlie commencement, how- ever, is generally dated from the sanguineous discharge, which marks the first opening of the mouth of the womb; and all suspensions after this, occasioned by whatever causes, should be regarded as irregularities in the action of the womb, and not as indicative of the commence- ment of the continuous labour, which may be of very short duration previous to parturition. 3699. " It affords," concludes Dr Murphy, "an additional illustration of the principle wliich nature seems to observe in the dilatation of the month of the womb — to do iwthlnnt on the best pasture to nj)hol(l the con(liti are sold off every year. Some retain a few ewe-lambs to maintain the character of the ewe stock, whilst others purchase threat ewes — that is, ewes in lamb — in lieu of the draft ewes they sell. Hard land bears scanty pasture, which, although sufficient and wholesome for breeding ewes, is unfit to support yonng sheep in condition, or to rear them to a proper size. 3723. Soft land is best suited to lambs. The wether-lambs purchased are reared until they become wethers, when they are sold in autumn to farmers who raise turnips to feed the sheep they do not breed themselves, or to Engli>h graziers, who fatten them upon grass. The ewe- lambs also purchased are reared until they are tupped, and then sold as (jreat ewes to breeders, who purchase them to the extent of the old ewes they draft in autumn. Ewe-lambs are also pur- chased to convert into ewes, and after taking a few crops of lambs from them, are sold while yet young to be fed off on turnips in winter. Soft land will also put old sheep into good condition, but it is unsuited to ewes, because they become too high conditioned for a permanent stock, and are besides liable to be seized with the rot, on such pasture, in wet seasons. 3724. It is dangerous to change the ewe stock on some lands, because new ewes become dis- eased on new ground ; and the fear of disease is so strongly felt that many proprietors will not allow the breeding ewes to be changed upon them, the incoming tenant being bound to take the standing breeding stock at a valuation. 3725. These various modes of regulating the pasturing of hill-sheep have probably originated from local circumstances, which cannot now per- haps be traced; but the rot has made such fear- ful havoc upon hill-sheep, and especially upon ewes, that every means have been devised to avert its occurrence, and a store-master is justi- fied in trying them all to prevent so great a calamity. Other circumstances may have had the effect of introducing practices which other- wise appear questionable. For example, — Land may support ewes in keeping condition, which could not fatten wethers; and land may support lambs well, though not wethers. Young sheep may pine on land that supports wethers, because • its elevation and steepness may fatigue them to travel over it, and its herbage may be too hard for them. Circumstances such as these affect the practice of different grazings, as well as the dread of the rot. If this view be correct, more general draining on hill-farms would render both pastures and practice uniform in similar locali- ties. At all events, draining would give farmers liberty to follow their own plans, whereas, at present, they are under the control, not only of the seasons, but of the state of the soil. Let wet pasturage be dried, and rot will be subdued, whilst the mind, emancipated from dread, would then adopt a general system of pasturing hill- flocks in accordance with sound principles. 3726. The brats or jackets should be removed from the sheep at the end of April, or beginning of May, according to the state of the weather, (1038.) E.\perience every year corroborates the use expressed of the brat in (1040.) not only in maintainingthe condition ofthe sheep by its warm covering, but also in protecting the wool from being washed by the weather, and in retaining the yolk, which is so essential to its preservation. 3727. Sheep on hill-pastnre delight in summer to spread themselves over, and go to the highest point of their range. Ewes are restricted in their range by the lambs, which, when young, show little inclination to wander, and would rather lie down and sleep after being sati.-fied with milk. Hoggs keep much together, and do not wander far from their morning lair, where- ever that may have been. Wethers go to the height of their pasturage at an early period of the day, and remain till dusk. Thus, when sheep of different ages are brought up together, how use- fully they distribute themselves over their entire pasture; and where only one class of sheep are reared, they extend their range as their age in- creases, or food becomes scarce. 3728. On contiguous estates, where no march- wall defines the common boundary, the flock of one property may occasionally trespass on the pasture of another. Should this happen in the early part of the day, the shepherds should not dog oft' the strange sheep, as that will make them restless for days, but to wait till nightfall, and then point them gently over the march to their own ground, where they will take to their own lair. Sheep usually select a spot for rest- ing at night, and it will mostly be the safest one for them, especially if they are aged sheep, and well acquainted with the ground. In fine weather they should not be disturbed in select- ing their lairs; but in case of threatening storm, they should be directed to the sheltered side of the pasture, or even to the stells. With inclosed fields, sheep cannot go wrong in summer in select- ing their lairs for the night. 3729. The uppermost parts of our mountain pastures, as well as many portions of lower elevation, consist of a soil very different in its nature from what is found in the valleys. This is peat-earth — not the soft peat of bogs, but the hard peat-earth which covers the mountains. The natural produce of this peat-earth is heath, consisting usually of 3 kinds, the Calhiiia rulgaris, common ling, the Krica tetral'ii, cross-leaved heath, and the Erica cenerea, fine-leaved heath. Peat-earth is only found in the colder portions of the temperate zone, and it was no doubt formed from the partial decomposition of several crypto- ganiic plants. Professor Jameson of Edinburgh was the first to propound the theory of the for- mation of peat-earth.* The pasturage on peat- earth would be greatly improved by draining. * Jameson's Mineralogy ofthe Scottish Isles, vol. ii. p. 120-57. PASTURING SHEEP. 161 3730. It has long been observed that the ap- plication of lime on peat-earth produces abundance of white clover, Trifolium repens. The seeds must have lain in the soil in a dormant state, and their existence in elevated situations would imply that the pastures of our hills had been at one time better than they now are. Probably the woods which, it is known, once covered the greater part of our mountains, had sheltered the valleys near them as much as to allow the growth of the clover; and their subsequent destruction may have exposed the ground to the cold, to the destruction of the pasture, and to the formation of peat-earth. 3731. The top-dressing of mountain pasture with lime has been attended with success wherever it has been done. Pounded limestone would answer the purpose as well as slaked or quick lime, and it would be more enduring in its action. Mills for pounding it were erected about the beginning of the century on the estate of Struan, in Rannoch, Perthshire. After being pounded, the limestone was carried by a run of water to 3 different ponds, one above the other. The upper pond contained the grossest particles, and the lowest the finest part of the limestone, which there resembled clay or marl from its smoothness. On being put on the land at Struan, its effects were visible and much approved of.* There is no use of putting the pounded lime- stone in water, and it should be applied in the state of powder upon the surface, and harrowed into the grass or pasture with a bush-harrow. 3732. A bush-harrow is easily constructed. It consists of a frame of wood having two longitu- dinal side-bars, a a, fig. 304, two cross-bars, and Fig. 304. t favourable time for receiving the dis- ease, and not to run the risk of their getting the disease naturally just previous to lambing. It is quite a mistake to suppose that the risk of spreading tlie infection is increased by inocula- tion— in fact it is lessened, for the disease be- comes milder, having a mortality ranging from 2 to 10 per cent. It is also circumscribed, and ne- cessarily entails the utmost vigilance, and pre- vents tlie sale of sheep from the flock for a given period of twenty-one days."* 374.0. The only means of avoiding being con- tinually annoyed with this disease, and of pre- venting its circulation, is the prevention of the importation of diseased sheep from abroad, and Gardeners' Chronicle for April 14, 1849. PASTURING SHEEP. 165 the prohibition of the sale of infected animals in the country, as well as those actually labouring under the disease. The former means might be used in ourinsular position by strict surveillance, but the latter could scarcely be made available without inquisitorial inspection of the flocks in the possession of both breeders and dealers. 3750. Two acts connected with this subject were passed by parliament, which i-eceived the royal assent on the 4th of September 1 840, and are to continue in force only for two years, from 1st September 1848 to 1st September 1850. One act prohibits the importation of sheep, cattle, horses, &c., affected by the disease; the other imposes certain specified penalties on those who should expose for sale any stock suspected to be infected with any contagious disease. The pen- alty is £20 for every offence of exposing such stock for sale, knowing them to be diseased, and a penalty of £5 for each offence in obstructing persons in the execution of this latter act.* 3751. Scalded heads. — Sheep are much infested in summer with flies. As a protection to the head against them, the simple cap, or hood, fig. 305, is effectual. It may be made of stout linen, Fig. 305. THE HEAD-CAP, OR HOOD, FITTED ON THE SHEEP. and fastened with 4 tapes tied crosswise under the chin, or of leather, and buckled at the same place. Leicester tups should not be without these caps in summer, especially when grazing near woods; and as tups are occasionally fond of boxing each other, any skin that may thereby be abraded on the head will receive immediate and effectual pro- Fig. 306. tection, from the air and flies, by the cap. 3752. Bots. — Sheep are troubled with bots as well as cattle. The fly is called Oestrus ovis, the sheep bot-fly, fig. 306. It is a small- er species than the cattle-bot, beini; about SHBEP BOT-FLY- (ESTRUS OVIS. 5 lines in length. It is supposed to deposit its eggs on the margin of the nostrils, and whenever it does so, the sheep lies down upon dusty bare spots, holding its head close to the ground, or, when a number are attacked at the same time, they form a dense phalanx, with their noses pushed towards each other. The warmth and humidity of the nostrils very soon bring the eggs to maturity, and the larva? find no difiiculty in gain- ing their way into the frontal maxillary, and other sinuses and cavities of the face. There they adhere by means of 2 hooks, the secretions Fis- 307 ^^ ^^^^ cavities constituting their food. In time they wriggle down the nose and fall on the ground, in which they undergo their future transformation. The larva, fig. 307, is flat on the under side, and convex above, of a delicate white colour, without spines of any kind, save the ter- minal hooks already mentioned. SHEEP BOT A series of black transverse spots LARVA — are visible on the under side, (ESTRus OVIS. covered with rough points. 3753. Keds. — The ked or Jceb, the sheep spider- fly, Mdophagus ovinus, is an insect so well- Fiff 300 known in its nature and habits, that a particular descrip- tion here seems un- necessary. It is mag- nified at a, fig. 308, the line h showing its natural size. It pe- netrates the skin and buries the anterior part of its body in the flesh or fat of the sheep, where it con- " tinues to subsist and SHEEP KED — MELOPHAGUs enlargen. Its tough OVINUS. skin renders it diffi- cult to be killed by pressure; and when its body is bisected by the shears, the buried part instant- ly emerges and runs about quickly in a manner almost incredible, but nevertheless it soon dies. Another remarkable circumstance attending the tribe of keds or ticks which belong to the family of Hippoboscida?, and are included among the dip- terous or 2-winged insects, though they are wing- less— is, that the young is retained in the body of the mother until it becomes a pupa, there being no other instance amongst other 2-winged flies of the period of gestation extending beyond the state of larva. This peculiarity has caused the Hippoboscidse to be termed nymphiparous or pupiparous insects. 3754. Blow-flies. — Much more dangerous tor- mentors of sheep are bluw-flies. When sheep are struck by the fly, the symptoms of disease can- not be easily misunderstood. They almost con- stantly hang down their heads, sometimes turn- ing them on one side as if listening ; sliake the tail with a quick jerking motion ; run rapidly * Journal of Agriculture for March 1849, p. 670. IGG PRACTICE— SUlSfMER. from one place to another, and, in doing so, at times stop suddenly and stamp with the fore-feet. The flies deposit their eggs on any bare skin they can find, and, failing that, on the wool on the rump, below the tail, and about the groins. If the larvfc are left undisturbed, when in large numbers, in two days they will destroy the sheep, having in that short time eaten the flesh into the very bones, and sometimes exposing the entrails! Warm moist weather, in fields enclosed by woods, and in the bottom of dells, are the circumstances and places most favourable to their attacks. The smell arising from excrementitious discharges, the glutinous matter left after milking ewes, and long wool, are all attractive objects to blow-flies. A shepherd ought to be able to detect sheep that have been struck by the fly the moment he enters the field. Dogs have been known to point them, as truly stated by Mr Price. " A looker's dog," he says, " when properly trained, the mo- ment he enters a field in which are any sheep struck by the fly, instantly singles out the dis- eased animals, and runs up to them, as much as to say they ought to be caught."* Dogs require little training to do this, partly because the symptoms which struck slieep exhibit are une- quivocal, but more probably from the peculiar smell which maggots doubtless emit ; or the sheep themselves may emit a peculiar odour after being struck. The Ettrick Shepherd is of opinion (and it is a probable one) that flies give a pre- ference to one sheep over another, probably on account of the selected sheep being either actually subjected to diarrhoea, or emitting such a peculiar flavour along with its perspiration, as to be at- tractive to flies, and which may be indicative of a predisposition to disease.+ It is culpable in a shepherd to allow any sheep to be dangerously injured by the fly. He cannot prevent their attack, but he should be able to detect it before it proves serious in its consequences. The sheep should be carefully observed one by one when the flies are active, and being gathered in a con- venient part of the field, the suspected ones should be caught with the crook, fig. '22i, and examined, and every maggot removed by the hand. As maggots are not killed by being thrown on the ground, they should be collected in some vessel, and destroyed either by being crushed by some hard substance, or by luving boiling water poured upon them. I have seen a shepherd fill his hat with maggots, in the course of an hour's search amongst a small flock of Leicester hoggs. Should the maggots have broken into the skin, rubbing the part with a strong solution of corrosive sublimate, or a strong decoction of tobacco-liquor and spirit of tar, will check a farther attack on that part ; and should the part affected be larger than is seen between the sheds of the fleece, the wool should be re- moved with the shears, and the corrosive subli- mate applied upon, and around, and rubbed into, the wound. Should the wound, on healing, in- dicate a dryness of the skin, in consequence of the application of the corrosive sublimate, an ointment of tar and hird will soften it, and keep " Price On Sheep, p. 472, note. X Prize Eifsays of the Highland and off" the flies. Mr George Mather, shepherd. New Scone, recommends a wash containing arsenic, which I have no doubt would prove efiectual ; but I have a great aversion to using arsenic in any shape on a farm, and cannot recommend it to be used in this case.t 3755. The most dangerous, perhaps, of all the flies is the checkered blow-fly, Sarcoyhar/a car- naria. It is somewhat larger and more elon- gated in shape than the common blue-bottle fly; general colour changeable gray; thorax with black longitudinal lines ; abdomen covered with black quadrate spots, which give it a tesselated appearance ; body pretty thickly beset with strong hairs. It produces its young a1 ire ; hence the appearance, so often considered unaccountable, of maggots in a short time after the sheep have been examined. " The larva, when full grown," says Mr Duncan, " is scarcely half an inch in length, as at a, fig. 309 ; the head b is small and mem- h Fie:. :i09. MAGGOT OF THE CHECICKKED BLOW-FLY — SARCO- I'HaGA CARXARIA. branous, having two fleshy prominences above, with a small nipple-shaped knob c c, so that they bear a perfect resemblance to small manimai?. Beneath these mammiferous protuberances are two strong black movable hooks d placed by the side of each other ; ? <; is the first segment of the body, and /one of the anterior stigmata. The principal use of these hooks is to tear off" and separate the fibres of the flesh on which the creature feeds. The last segment of the body g is, as it were, cut across. Two large air-vessels may be seen running along each side of the body, terminating at both ends in breathing-holes, h h and i i. 3756. The description of the maggot of this fly will serve for that of the other flies about to be mentioned. — ^litsca Caesar is readily known by its brilliant green hue, which has a silvery play of colour when seen in certain lights. — Mnsra ramitoria, common blue bottle-fly or blow- fly. This fly is well known in our houses, and may easily be identified by its buzzing noise when on the wing. " This is the species," ob- serves Mr Duncan, " of which Linnwns aflirmed that 3 individuals could devour the carcass of a t Hogg's Shepherd's Guide, p. 106. Agricultural Society, vol. x. p. 221. ^ PASTURING SHEEP. 167 horse as soon as a lion. There is no doubt that we must impute to it a large share of the injury our flocks sustain from this tribe of insects." — Anthomyia lardaria is rather more than lialf the size of the blue-bottle fly, and of a bluish-black colour ; thorax with longitudinal lines, and abdomen slightly tesselated. It is very common in low sheltered woods, and is doubtless often associated with the other in preying on living subjects.* It is said that the green-fly first at- tacks the sheep, and is succeeded by the more greedy blue-bottle fly, which, having made a suitable place, is, in its turn, succeeded by the checkered blow-fly. 3757. Sheep worried by dogs. — Sheep on pas- ture are sometimes worried by dogs, and the de- struction happens most frequently early in a summer morning. Experienced dogs go singly to do the mischief, and take care not to bark while engaged in it ; their only object seeming to obtain a feed of mutton. Dogs most addicted to the vice of worrying sheep are mastiffs, bull- dogs, bull-dog terriers, and lurchers bred from a coUey, and they are most prone to it when they escape from the chain, which detains them as watch-dogs. An old colley addicted to this vice practisea it with consummate art, and obtains mutton with the least trouble to himself, and commits the least extent of mischief. Pointers when hunting, and especially self-hunting, are very apt to chase sheep when running from them. The part of the sheep commonly seized by the dog is the throat, which he tears open, and eats the flesh to the neck-bone ; and were he to con- tent himself with this morsel, or to satisfy his appetite, the loss would not exceed the value of one sheep ; but the propensity to destroy seems only bounded by the number of the flock ; he worries some to death and bites a great many more. The destruction is probably aggravated by the conduct of the sheep themselves, which run away in a body from the dog ; and in fear of losing the rest whilst running down one, he leaves the wounded one on the ground and pursues the others, seizing the nearest him, one by the back, another by the throat, and a third by the haunch, until a great number are lamed by bites. It is rare that a dog feeds upon more than one sheep, as he is probably scared by some circumstance, before he has time to break into another. When a lamb is run after, it is so easily overtaken that tlie dog tears its neck open at once and satisfies himself upon it. I am not aware that a dog whicli worries sheep can be deterred from the practice by any means — certainly an old dog can- not— and the only fate that should befall so har- dened an offender is the rope or the gun. But a yuuiig dog, especially a pointer, may be deterred; and the most effectual way, I believe, of doing it, is to couple him for a few days to the carcass he has worried, and cause him to drag it about with him ; or, in a hill country, to couple him to a black-faced ram for some days, with a siifncient length of chain to allow the ram to turn about and butt him severely with its horns. In every attack of sheep by dogs there are comparatively few deaths to the number injured, and, were time afforded, most of the bitten sheep would most probably recover ; but the usual custom, in the excitement which such an occurrence creates, is to kill the sheep with the view of preventing the total loss of the mutton by the sheep dying — and were they to die in the blood, the mutton would be rendered unfit for use. There were once 9 of my Leicester ewes worried by a dog, from 3 of which the blood was drawn on the spot, and the shepherd would have bled other two had I al- lowed- him. From the recovery of these bad cases by the means used, I was persuaded that the 3 which were killed would have recovered had they been permitted to live. There is no doubt, however, that sheep which have been run and worried ever so little are a long time, if ever, of recovering their customary composure ; and on this account alone, the owner of a dog that runs other people's sheep should be severely fined over and above the value of the sheep actually injured. 3758. Besides the sheep, the pasture on which they feed is infested and injured with a host of insects. The grub of the meadow crane-fly, Ti/^aZa oleracea,&g. 223, destroys the roots of grass as well as of oats, (2504.) The year 1762 was called the wormy year, in consequence of the depredations occasioned by this grub in Selkirkshire. It again appeared in 1802, 1812, 1824, and 1826, and in Peeblesshire in ISSO.f 3759. The ear-beaked weevil, Otiorhyncus sid- catus, about 5 lines in length, of a brownish black colour, and incapable of flight, in consequence of the junction of the wing-cases, produces a larva nearly half an inch long of a whitish colour, thick and fleshy, and thinly beset with long bristles, which is for the most part subterranean, and lives indiscriminately on the roots of all gra- mineous plants. 3760. The common kinds of ants, Formica fusca and rufa, sometimes almost usurp the en- tire dry pasture; and it is difiicult to extirpate them. Perhaps as effectual a mode of doing so of any is to notch a piece with two cuts of the common spade, fig. 237, out of the top of each mound, in the beginning of winter, and expose its contents to the weather. 3761. The caterpillars of several butterflies also destroy pasture plants. The meadow brown- butterfly, JUpparchia janira, whose wings ex- pand nearly 2 inches, produces a light-green caterpillar, with a white line along each side, which prefers for its food the smooth-stalked meadow-grass, Poa pratensis, one of the most nutritious grasses for cattle ; and the caterpillar of the large heath butterfly, Hipparchia tithonus, considerably less than the preceding, is of a green colour, with a reddish line on each side, and a brown head, and feeds on the annual meadow- grass, Poa annua, which forms the chief cover- * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 58, 63. + Netv Statistical Account of Scotland — Selkirkshire — YaiTow, p. 41. 168 PRACTICE— SOIMER. ing of onr meadows and pastnre-lands. The caterpillar of the antler-moth,^ Viarrpa* ,)ra)ninis, is brown or blackish, with light-yellowish stripes along the back and sides, and attains about one inch in length. It lives under ground, and feeds on the roots of grass — and the injury it does to pasture-land in hills is sometimes very great — bnt it avoids low-lying damp meadows. The effects of its ravages are very similar to those produced by the burning of heath. 3762. But the greatest devastation of this kind is committed by the larvse of the common cock-chafer, Melolontha ru/garis, an insect but little known in Scotland, though sometimes ii occurs in countless myriads in England and Ire- land. There this beetle " wheels its droning flight " in the summer twilight. Fig. 310 repre- sents a female a, about an inch in length, ob- long and convex, the head reddish in front, the hinder part pitchy black. As soon as fecun- dated, the female makes holes in the ground Fig. 310, OOCK-CHAFERS — MELOLONTHA VULGARIS. about half a foot beneath the surface, and lays a cluster of white eggs t, tinged with dirty yellow at the bottom of each hole, and she lays a great many in all. The larvae c, which proceed from them, are of a dingy-white or yellowish colour,and soft and inactive. They are 1 h inch in length, and furnished with a pairof powerful mandibles. The perfect insect is short-lived, but the larvae survive for 3 years, passing into a state of per- fect repose in winter, and recovering their acti- vity in spring. So completely do they sever the pasture from the soil that the turf may be rolled up in large sheets. Another chafer, named ^»i^>Aiinfl//a folstltialis, produces a grub very similar in its habits to the one described, though smaller and more restricted in is distrL- bution.* 3763. Moles, Talpa Europea, often disfigure the face of the richest parts of pastures, not by feeding on the grass, as many insects do, bnt by throwing up mounds of earth upon it when digging their galleries under ground in pursuit of their favourite food, the earth-worm, and many of the larrsD of insects. They are thus useful and in- jurious at the same time — useful in devouring the larvae of insects on the surface of the ground at night, and which fall or go into their galleries in the day — and injurious in destroying the earth-worm, which is useful to the soil while alive, by keeping it open to the air and moisture, and when dead by manuring it with its body; and also injurious in covering the surface of the grass with earth — for, as to the value of the top- dressing which the grass receives in this way, it is received at the expense of the finer and richer part of the mould immediately under the grass plants, which, by its removal, are thus de- prived of nourishment at the roots, where it is of most use to them. We have only to look at the scorched appearance of the ground in dry weather along the lines of the galleries, and find ourselves sinking nearly ankle-deep in the ground undermined by moles, to be convinced that no top-dressing will ever compensate for the injury done to the pastures of low farms. " A course of thirty years' observation," says the Ettrick Shepherd, " over an extensive district of the south of Scotland, and hard-earned experience, have convinced me, long ago, of the pernicious effects of destroying the moles on sheep pasture, . . . . The most unnatural of all persecu- tions that ever was raised in a country is that against the mole, that innocent and blessed little pioneer who enriches our pastures annually with the first top-dressing, dug with great pains and labour from the fattest of the soil beneath. The advantages of this top-dressing are so apparent, and so manifest to the eyes of every unprejudiced person, that it is really amazing how our coun- trymen should have persisted, now nearly half a century, in the most manly and valiant endeavours to exterminate the moles from the face of the earth. If a 100 men and horses were employed on a common sized-pasture farm — say from 1500 to 2000 acres — in raising and driving manure for a top-dressrng of that farm, they could not do it so effectually, so neatly, or so equally, as the natural number of moles on that farm would do of themselves. That pasture land is benefited by a top-dressing, no man, I think, will attempt to deny. That the moles give it that top-dress- ing, as few will deny."t No one denies the benefit of top-dressing to pasture grass ; still, if its benefit is to be derived at the expense of the soil itself, many would question the prudence of permitting it, merely because it would give the farmer no trouble, and incur no cost. 3764. Moles are caught in traps expressly made to fit into their galleries, and persons make a profession of entrapping them in the summer season, who are called mole-catchers. Mole- catching is generally taken for the season by such persons, and the price on an extensive low- land farm is 53. the 100 acres. No endeavours QuarUrlif Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 565-5 < t Ibid. 640-41. PASTURING CATTLE. 169 should be made to extirpate the mole, but only to keep their numbers down to a moderate extent. A few mole-hills here and there do little harm, but acres of good soil converted into a burrow, as a preserve, for the pleasure of moles, is too much of a good thing. ON THE PASTURING OP CATTLE IN SUMMER. 3765. The cattle of all ages, as accom- modated in the steading in winter, (1082) to (1085,) remain there as we left them (1219,) until the grass is ready to re- ceive them, which, in ordinary seasons, is at the end of May or beginning of June; but, in late seasons, when the tur- nips are expended before the grass is sufficiently long to afford them a bite, cattle are put to grass before it is ready for them. In case of such an unto- ward event happening, it is the duty of the farmer to provide against it, by purchas- ing extraneous food for his cattle, such as oil-cake ; or giving them beans or oats ; or disposing of the fattening cattle in time to leave a sufficient quantity of turnips for the young cattle and cows until the grass is ready to receive them. In the state of confinement in the steading, cattle thrive better on a variety than on the same food; and yet when on grass they require no variety of food, and thrive the better the longer they live upon it, unless that a change of pasture is desirable when it be- comes bare. Grass is thus evidently the natural food of the ox, and his anatomi- cal structure is peculiarly adapted for that sort of food. Whatever kind of food he receives in winter partakes of an artificial character; and being only a succedaneuni for grass when it cannot be obtained, the artificial food should be made as palatable to him as circumstances will allow, whether by variety or superior quality. This consideration shows the propriety of M. Boussingault adopting grass, or rather hay — grass deprived of its water, as the standard for comparing the nutritive pro- perties of the different sorts of food given to stock on the farm. 8766. The fat cattle having been dis- posed of, (3609,) the pasture should be judiciously distributed amongst the re- maining stock of cows, year-olds, and calves; and first as to the cows. They should have the best pasture, the object of keeping them being to breed calves, and aftord plenty of milk to bring them up. The more milk they yield, there^fore, the better will the calves prove, and the more profitable will they themselves prove after the calves are weaned. Cows in summer are treated in an opposite manner by dif- ferent people, one taking them into the byre at night, and even at all times milk- ing them there, and another allowing them to lie out all night, and milking them in the field. Wliichever mode is adopted, it should be kept in mind that cows are pecu- liarly susceptible of sudden changes of temperature, especially from heat to cold, and from drought to rain; so that, when cold or rain, or both, come together, which is the common circumstance, they should be brought into the byre. For some time after they are first put out to grass, they should be housed in the byre at night, when they are milked there, and again in the morning before they are let go into the field; and when they are milked three times a-day, they should be milked in the field at mid-day. In dairy districts cows are milked twice a-day, morning and even- ing, and in breeding districts thrice a-day, morning, noon, and night. After the nights become warm, I have found it conducive to health, and it is both a rational and a natural custom, to let them lie in the field all night, and to milk them there also at stated hours — three times every day, the shepherd or cattle-man bringing them to the most convenient spot of the field to be milked. The lying out always in the field no doubt imposes more labour on the dairy- maid and her assistants, in carrying the milk to the calves, and to the dairy after the calves have been weaned ; but I am persuaded it is an excellent system for the health of the cows. The cows rise from their lair at daybreak, and feed while the dew is still on the grass, and by tlie time of milking arrives, say 6 o'clock, they have partially filled themselves with food, and stand contented, chewing the cud, while the milking proceeds. They then satiate themselves, and by 9 o'clock lie down in a sliadv ])art of the field, and chew their cud until milking time arrives at noon, when they are again brought to the same spot and milked. Feeding again, when the heat of the afternoon arrives, they stand in the coolest part of the field, whisking away 170 PRACTICE— SUMMER. the flies with their tail and ears. The evening milking takes place about 7, after which they feed industriously, and take up their lair about sunset, and chew their cud, and in the morning they rise and feed be- fore being milked. Apprehension exists that cows injure themselves by eating grass wet with dew ; but it is a fact, which is Dot so well known as it should be. that be- dewed grass before sunrise, and gra.ss after it is dried by the sun, are alike uninjurious to cows ; and it is only when the dew is in the act of being evaporated, immediately after sunrise, that grass proves injurious to them. Cows which lie out all night eat the grass while it is yet wet with dew ; whereas those kept in the byre, on being let out after being milked, are let out just at the time the dew is being evaporated by the sun, and when the grass is in the colde.'^t state. It is thus consonant with the fact, that the cows kept in the byre at night are alone affected with the grass when it is wet with dew ; and, being hungry, they eat the cold damp grass with avidity and much relish, while cows which lie out all night are not affected by the wet grass. Circumstances, however, should rule the custom of lying out or housing at night. In a cold upland district, or in exposed situations, devoid of shelter in the fields, so susceptible creatures as milk-cows should not lie out at night ; and as but very few nights are really warm in such situations, it is safer to put them into the byre, and ventilate it well in the warm nights that may occur. In favourable situati(ms, one circumstance is worthy of attention in determining the practice of lying out and housing, that the housing causesthe trouble of providing supi)er for the cows ; and this provision not only implies the cutting of the forage, whatever it is, but also preparation of the plant in the field. Excepting a change of pasture — and the change should always be for a better one — the treatment of the cows is the same throughout the summer, and even to the cool evenings at the end of autumn. As the milk falls off, the noon milking is drop- ped ; and, wiien the evenings become cool, the cows are brought into tiie byre at nigiit, milked there evening and morning, and graze during the day. When this takes place, sup[>er must be provided for them in the byre after the evening milking is over, and theyshouldalso be littered forthe night. When cows occupy the byre every night, litter should be provided for them ; and should the straw be all expende require bulls, which are generally fully employed in summer at home. 3837. Among the instances of extraordinary trials, those in which bulls were placed at the bar, convicted and sentenced, are not the least curious: — " In 1314, a bull having killed a man, by tossins him with his horns, was brought be- fore the judges in the province of Valois, and indicted as a criminal, and, after several witnesses had given evidence, it was condemned to be hanged. This sentence was confirmed by an order of the parliament, and carried into effect. And we are told that an unfortunate pig, which chanced to kill a child in Burgundy, was in like manner solemnly tried in court, and suffered the same punishment."* I have heard of a shepherd's dog having been condemned in Scotland along with his master, for assisting him in a very artful manner to steal sheep on many occasions. OX THE WEANIXG OF CALVES. 3838. We left the calves in the court k Plate II., receiving the treatment most proper for them, until the period should arrive for weanine them from milk and other food, and causing them to maintain themselves upon grass, (2288) and (2289.) That period having arrived, we must now proceed to the consideration of the best mode of weaning them. It should not exceed, in the latest case, one month after the cows have been on grass — that is, by the end of June ; for a calf later weaned than that period, has been too late brought into the world to be worth belonging to the standing stock of a farm. As cows increase in milk after the grass has safely passed through them, the latest calves should have as large an allowance of new milk, three times a day, as the small quan- tity reserved for the use of the house will allow. The eldest calves are otTthe sweet- milk by the time the cows go to grass, and receive skimmed-milk with lythax (2278) amongst it, and cut swedes and hay, until the grass be ready. The most convenient grass- field at first for calves is a contiguous paddock, from which they should be brought into the court for a few nights, and receive turnips and hay until the grass has safely passed through them, and the weather prove sufficiently mild and dry for them to lie out all night on the grass. The youngest calves now leave their cribs E, and pass a few days in the court k Plate II., until accustomed to the air and sun — the latter readily blistering their ears — before they are put into the paddock during the day, where they then receive their diets of milk, and are brought into the court at night until the tempe- rature permit them to lie out all night on the grass. In weaning the j-oungest calves, the milk should be gradually taken from them, without giving any other food but grass, until they entirely depend upon it. 3839. The older calves may be 4 months old before they are weaned ; but as the season of grass approaches, the younger ones may be weaned at an earlier age, being seldom indulged with milk for more than 13 weeks. But it should never be forgotten, that the first month's good milk to a calf is of much greater importance to its future growth and health, than at any period be- yond the 13 weeks, supported on a eliuted allowance of inferior milk, and the reason for the generous treatment is given below, where the functions of the calfs stomach is explained. 3840. There are parts of Ireland where calves are brought up on butter-milk and gruel, after the first 8 days they have re- ceived sweet milk, and it is alleged tliat they tlirive well on that beverage. This is possible, but they will thrive much better on sweet-milk. 3841. By the time all this has happen- ed, say by the middle of July, the pasture in the paddock will have become too bare, and the whole lot of calves should then be Forsyth's HorUruxus, p. 267. WEANING OF CALVES. 185 taken to good pasture, where they will have a full bite ; aud nothing can be more injurious to their future welfare than to allow them to fall away in condition im- mediately after weaning, which they will assuredly and rapidly do, if not put on the the best grass ; and from a loss of condition thus occasioned, it will be very difficult to recover them during the whole season. The best pasture for them is w^here the white clover most abounds. 8842. Calves may be grazed amongst cows, or young cattle. In their herding, those which have been brought up and weaned together, will be the chiefest com- panions for the greater part of the season. 3843. Calves which have been brought up at the pail, and in the earliest period of their exis- tence, are subject to a complaint called gasteritis, or inflammation of the stomach. Its symptoms are the distension of the paunch, the inner mucous lining of which is inflamed, and it mostly contains a quantity of dirty, yellow, offensive fluid, and whitish matter often larger than a person's fist, composed of the coagulated ingredients of the milk, the density of which is nearly equal to that of cheese. None of the cheesy matter is found in the intestines, and but rarely in any of the stomachs except the first or paunch. Loathing of the food ensues, and at last total suspension of the appetite. The animal prefers to stand, and when it lies down, it is on its right side, the left being swelled. Grating of the teeth aud eructa- tions ensue. The stools are mostly thin, of a whey-like appearance, and small in quantity. The animal shows uneasiness by looking round to the left side, and kicks at the belly with the hind legs. A stupor at last comes on the animal standing with its head in a corner, or pushing with it against the wall. 3844. The remedial measures will be best un- derstood after hearing the rationale of the dis- ease as explained by Mr Barlow, veterinary sur- geon in the Veterinary College of Edinburgh. — " In tlie adult ruminant," he observes, '' the first three stomachs are of great size, and serve to prepare the coarser particles of vegetable food for the action of the fourth or true digestive stomach. The young calf, however, is not physi- cally fitted for living on solid food ; but, like the young of other mammalia, is naturally nourished by milk, a fluid which needs not the action of the first three stomachs to render it fit for digestion and absorption. In the calf, at the birth, conse- quently, and for some time afterwards, these three first or preparatory stomachs are infinitely smaller in proportion to the fourth, than they are in more advanced life, being, in fact, as yet but rudimentary organs. The calf is also natu- rally adapted for taking in its food by sucking, a process by which the milk enters the alimentary canal so slowly as to allow it gradually to pass by the three first stomachs through a compara- tively narrow channel into the fourth stomach, which is the only one, as it were, necessary to perform the digestion required at this early age. If, however, as is sometimes customarj, a large quantity of milk is poured into the calf imme- di.'Ltely after birth, or if at once allowed to drink freely from the pail, which it very readily learns to do, then it will swallow as much in two minutes as would probably require 15 minutes to take in by the act of sucking. The consequence is, that the narrow sesophagal passage, leading through the three first stomachs, does not admit the milk as fast as it is swallowed, and that fluid is, from time to time, transmitted into the small rumen, which continues to descend according to the amount collected. The rumen, however, it is seen in so young an animal, is not fitted for very active functions, and the milk retained there, be- ing exposed to the warmth and motion of the organ, undergoes certain chemical changes, which end in the formation of its coagulable principle into the cheesy masses before noticed. These collections act as irritants to the parts containing them ; inflammation is the result, and the exten- sion of this, with its consequences, causes death." 3815. The obvious remedy is prevention. Give the young calf milk frequently, not less than thrice a-day, and in small quantities at a time, perhaps an imperial pint. Let it take time to drink it, and as the quantity should be small, it should be the richer, that is the pure milk. As the stomach increases in size the quantity of food should be increased; and in time other kinds of food should be added to the necessarily limited quantity of milk the calf gets to drink as it attains size and age.* 3846. Calves, after being weaned, are subject, towards the end of summer, to a disease com- monly called the joint-fdlon, which, when oxen take it upon the loins, is named the chinc-fdlon. It is nothing else than acute rheumatism, ending in a resolution to low fever; and so severe is it at times upon calves, that they cannot bear to be moved when lying stretched out all their length upon the ground. Were sheds erected in the fields for cattle to retire into, whenever a dash of rain comes in the evening of a cold day, even in summer, this disease would perhaps never occur. Its treatment is removal to the courts and sheds of the steading amongst straw, bleeding, mode- rate purging, with fomentation, aud embrocations of liquid blister, forcibly and long rubbed in, on the swelled joints. 3847. Another efi'ect of the same febrile affec- tion in calves in autumn is the quarter ill or etil. " Its characteristic symptoms are general dis- turbance of the circulation, and feeble, rapid pulse, weakness, prostration of strength; deter- mination of blood to particular, but in different instances and epidemics, very different, parts; producing pain, and manifesting a tendency to iuflammation, but of a degenerate kind, so that * North British Agriculturist for 2d July 1849. 186 PRACTICE— SUMMER. the yery texture of the tissue becomes disor- gMiised. The progress of the disease is often rapid, and the result very faul. In some cases the lungs or heart are attacked, in others the lirer, bowels, or even some estemal part of the body." Its immediate cause is plethora, or ful- ness of blood in the system, which shows its effects in this manner: — " When the supply of food is greater than the exigencies of the system require," as Professor Dick observes, " an ani- mal usually becomes fait, but still may be toler- ably healthy. When, however, a sudden change is made from poor to rich feeding, not fitness but plethora may be the consequence ; more blood is formed than the system can easily dispose of, and it becomes oppressed. The effect is often wit- nessed in cattle and sheep, which, after indulging for a time in luxuriant pasture, take what is called a thot of blood. All at once they become Tery ill; some part of the body swells, becomes puffy, as if containing air, and in two or three boors the animal is dead, from the quarUr-evil already described. Upon dissection, a large quantity of black and decomposed blood is found in the cellular membrane, which during life was distended."* This disease is of frequent occur- rence on farms where fine stock aie bred, and from the above description of its nature, there is no wonder that the best calves first fall victims to it. As its name implies, the disease attacks the hind-quarter, and its effects are as sudden as described. Since its cause is known, calves should not be put at once on strong rank foggage or aftermath — which is the renewed growth of grass after it had been cut for hay or forage — from a comparatively bare pasture; nor, for the same reason, should they, when in low condition, be put on rank foggage; the transition, both as regards the pasture and the state of the calves, should be gradual. 3S48. As a preventive, some farmers introdnce a seton into the dewlap of all their calves before putting them on foggage in autumn. The use of the seton is to produce counter-irritation. The seton consists of a piece of tape or soft cord passed under a portion of the skin by a seton- needle; the ends may be tied together, and the cord may be moved every other day from side to side, being previously lubricated with oil of turpen- tine or blister-plaster, and in this way the amount of irritation may be regulated. As to the cure, I believe every one is unavailing after the disease has been ohserrtd to e-zift ; but as a remedial measure applied by anticipation, large blood- letting with purging of repeated doses %vill reduce the plethoric tendency of the animal system. Perhaps a cribful of hay, with some salt, placed in a foggage field, would not be a bad alterative for calves to resort to at times, in order to modify the effects of the succulence of the rank after- math. But the best prtrentire is the administra- tion of oilcake. Mr John Wilson, Edington Mains, Berwickshire, gives his calves oilcake towards the middle and latter end of the grazing season, and before they are put on aftermath, and since he has followed this practice he has never lost a calf from this disease. The quantity given depends on the wetness or dryness of the seasun, and the strength of the calves. The drier the season, and the stronger the calves, the quantity is the greater. From 1 lb. to 2 lb. a-day to eack calf, as it increases in siie, will suffice. ON THE PASTURING OF FARM-HORSES IN SUMMER. 3849. From the time of the sowing of tlie oat seed until the completion of the turnip seed, the horses may be said to have enjoyed no rest ; and, in the long hours of labour in a period of not less than 1 4 or 1.5 weeks, the best food that can be devised to support them in strenirih and condition will not have prevented them falling off in condition. The time, how- ever, has now arrived when compara- tive leisure awaits them for a while — to enjoy for several weeks to come the food most congenial to their taste — the palatable green food and the much-loved pasture. 3850. The usual treatment of farm- horses in summer is to make them lie out in the pasture-field all night, and give them cut grass between the yokings in the stable. Forage is then supplied iliem, because the time is too short to fill them- selves with grass on pasture; but where the first yoking is over by 9 or 10 ocluck in the forenoon, as on the Borders, the horses are put on pasture until the after- noon yoking at 1 o'clock ; which jdau saves the trouble of cutting and reserving grass for them. The grass thus allotted to the horses is cut by the ploughmen, who each take the duty for a week by turns, and he quits the field-labour in time to cut the requisite quantity and cart it to the stable ; and the man who works the mare that has a foal is a very proper one to do this work. It is no part of his duty to supply the horses' racks in the stable with grass, except those of his own. The load of grass is usually emptied on the ground near tiie stable door, which is a dirty and slovenly practice. Xo doubt, it is better for the grass to keep it fresh in the oj)en air than to put it into a house ; but it might be emptied into a crib in a convenient shady place near the stable, or, what is best of all, allowed to remain in the cart * Dick's Manual of VeUrinary Science, p. 11 and 88. PASTURING FARM-HORSES. 187 that brought it, out of which the men can as easily take it as from any other place or receptacle. 3851. The stable is the usual place where horses receive their forage ; but a better place, in every respect, for room, air, and freedom, is the hammels M, Plate TI., and Plate I,, which are now un- occupied and cleared out of the manure, each hammel accommodating a pair of horses. Forage may here not only be given to horses between theyokings,but at nighty if desired; and little straw is required for litter, as the part only under the roof is occupied as the night apartment, although more litter will be required in the hammels when the horses are fed on cut grass than in the stable, when on corn and hay. 3852. From 3 to 3^ months, from the beginningof June to the middle of October, is as long time as farm-horses should lie out at night on pasture. Work-horses suffer much from chilly nights, and the cold then lays the foundation of diseases, such as rheumatism, costiveness, stiffness of the limbs. The aftermath may be good pasture after the middle of October fur the interval of work at noon, and the second cutting of ch>ver will last long enough for suppers until it is time to betake to the stable altogether. 3853. Young horses are put to pas- ture during the day as soon as they can obtain a bite, and should be brought, at night, into their hammels until the grass has passed completely through them; after which they should lie out all night in a field which offers them the protection of a shed. The work-horses don't care for a shed on pasture, being too much occupied with eating all night to mind it. But in rainy weather they should he kept in the hammel, on cut grass, rather than he ex- posed to the rain in the field all the night, as also on a rainy Sunday. 3854. A good watering-pool is essential to every pasture-field occu])ied by horses of every age, which are as fond as cattle are to stand in the water in the midst of a pool, to avoid the torment of flies, though they drink from a trough quite willingly. 3855. The farmer's saddle-horse should have grass in summer, as the best course of physic he can have ; but it is much more convenient to give him cut grass in a court or hammel than to send him to pasture, in which he will be with con- siderable difficulty caught when wanted when in company with young horses ; and if he is with the work-horses, he will feel lonely when they leave him dur- ing the day, and will hang about the gate of the field in their absence. 3856. It is surprising with what con- stancy a work-horse will eat at pasture. His stomach being very small in propor- tion to the bulk of. his body, the food re- quires to be well masticated before it is swallowed ; and as long as that process is proceeded with while the grass is cropped, no large quantity can pass into the sto- mach at a time. The horse, like all her- bivorous animals, grazes with a progressive motion onwards, and smells the grass be- fore he crops it. His mobile lips seize and gather the stem and leaves of the grass, which the incisors in both jaws bite through with the assistance of a lateral twitch of the head. When the grass is rank he crops the upper part of it first, and when short, bites very close to the ground. 3857. Horses should not graze amongst sheep, as both bite close to the ground ; but horses, particularly work ones, often injure the sheep that come in their way, either by a sly kick, or by seizing the wool with their teeth. 3858. During the hard work of the seed-time, farm horses are, in some seasons more than in others — tlie wet and warm seasons — subject to have galled shoulders and backs, which, when not atteiK'ed to, are apt to produce trouble- some sores. The skin not only becomes abraded by the cnllar and saddle, but the flesh irritated and inflamed; and if the irritation is kept up, an ichorous discharge takes place, which is difficult to Ileal witliout making the horse rest from work. When a saddle gall is observed, the harness should be looked to, and the pressing points which have caused the sore should be relieved. A lotion should then be used to anoint the bruised parts every night, after they have been washed with warm soap and water, and dried with a soft cloth. The lotion is made in this manner : Take hot lime shells of the bulk of 2 quarts, and pour upon them 2 quarts of cold water; and alter they have intimately com- bined, pour off the liquid into a dish. Add to the liquid 5 wine glassfuls of linseed oil, and 2 ounces of sugar of lead, dissolved in a little water. 188 PRACTICE— SUMMER. Stir them together, and then bottle and cork up the lotion for u5e. After the bruises have been washed in the evenings, anoint them with this liquid with a feather until the wounds heal. 385J). Work-horses, when on grass, are subject to few distempers, the principal being annoyance from a host of insects; and amongst these the common Horse-fly or Cleg, and the Bot-fly, are the most troublesome. The. clee same length from d to c fixes the point of the scythe, so that a d c forms an etjuilateral triangle ; the blade standing at an angle of (iO° with the sued. Theory would advise the placing of the plane of the blade parallel with the ground, when the scythe is held for cutting ; but practice requires the cutting edge io be a little elevated from the ground, and above the back of the blade which sweeps along the surface of the ground ; and the reason SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS. 193 Fig. 323. for keeping the edge elevated is, that it is apt to run into the ground when swung parallel with it, and the scythe is worked with greater labour, as the stems of the plants are cut by the blade at riglit angles against them ; whereas, on the edge being set upwards, it cuts the stems easily in an oblique direction. The blade is still fur- ther secured in its position by the grass- nail y, which is hooked by one end into a hole in the blade, and nailed through an eye by the other end to the sned ; the great use of this nail being to prevent the cut plants becoming entangled between the blade and the sned. The left- hand handle e is placed to suit the convenience of the work- man, the usual distance from the right hand one being the length of his arm from the elbow to the points of the fingers. 3880. Scythes are sharped with strickles and stones. The strickles, fig. 323, are made of fine sand embedded in an ad- hesive medium, spread on the surface of a piece of square or flat wood, 1 5 inches long, hav- ing a handle, and cost 6d. each. They are used to smoothen the edge after the stone, and serve of them- selves, for a time, to keep the edge keen ; and are always carried at the upper end of the sned at b, fig. 322, by a T-headed nail a, and spike b, fig. 323. . 3881. Scythe-stones, fig. 324, are 14 or A SCYTHE STRICKLE. Fig. 324. SCYTHE STONES. VOL. II. 1 5 inches long, taper- ing in shape, and of sutficient thickness to fill the grasp of the hand. They are either of a round form, a, or square, b, and are composed of the same sort of sandstone as grindstones are, and cost 4d. each. They are only occasionally used at the landings, to set a new edge on the blade. 3882. On using the scythe to cut a forage crop with the greatest ease to the workman, a narrow swathe should be taken at each stroke of the scythe, as also a short sweep. To meet both these condi- tions, the blade of the scythe should be short. 3883. Green forage should always, if possible, be cut in a dry state, and should not be long cut before being used, nor lie long in the field before it is carried home. When obliged to be cut in a damp state, it may lie a while in the swathe to let the water evaporate, which it will do in warm weather even in a damp day. 3884. Green forage is given to cattle and horses in the natural state, or mixed with straw or hay. When in a very damp state, a mixture of either will tend to pre- vent fermentation in the green food. When hay and forage are mixed together in equal parts, the mixture makes an excellent fodder for fattening cattle. Such a mix- ture is much used in Holland for horses, whether employed in the field or on the road. 3885. The clover crop growing closely together prevents the growth of weeds amongst it, an occasional field thistle only, or broad-leaved dock, maintaining its ex- istence. But one of that class of parasiti- cal pests, the dodders, sometimes annoys the crop to a considerable extent. The species which annoys the clover has been named the Cusciita Tri/olii, the clover dodder ; and its nature and habits are precisely the same as that which attacks the flax plant, as already described in (3117.) Professor Henslow well describes the clover dodder as resembling " fine closely-tangled wet catgut." Of the ef- fects of the Orohanche major and minor, the greater and less broom-rape, another parasitical pest to the clover in Flanders, Dr Radcliff'e says, " The moment it estab- lishes itself at the root, the stem and leaf of the clover, deprived of their circulating juices, fade into a sickly hue, which the farmer recognises, and, with true Flemish industry, roots up, and destroys the latent enemy. If this be done in time, and with great care, the crop is saved ; if not, the infected soil refuses to yield clover again N 194 PRACTICE— SlINCMER. for many years."* And such weeding requires very great care; for, if a part of a stem or one seed is left in the ground, the pest will rise again, and renew its de- structive attack. 3886. The crop of clover varies much, according to the nature of the season. In a wet warm one it is very bulky ; in a dry one much lighter, but more nutritious. A crop of clover is a great one if it yield 800 stones of hay, of 22 lb. each, equal to 2 tons 18 cwt. 104 lb. the acre; and as Dr R. D. Thomson states, that 100 of hay is equivalent to 387^ of grass,t it follows that such a crop of clover should weigh 8 tons, 16 cwt. 88 lb. the acre. The second cutting is seldom as Jieavy as the first, though in some seasons it is. and even heavier; but if we assume the two cuttings to yield 16 tons, the quantity will not be under the mark in most seasons. But in some seasons a third cutting is obtained; and when that is realised, it is very nutri- tious, though not so bulky as either of its predecessors. It is rare that three abun- dant crops of clover are obtained, and still more rare that they all fail. 3887. Clover will thrive in every kind of soil, and hence the general usefulness of the plant; but its favourite soil is a deep well-limed clay loam. 3888. *' In the management of the clorer crop," says Dr Eladcliffe, " the Flemings are most suc- cessful, especially in the division from Waer- eghem to Courtrai; indeed, upon the cultivation of this plant hinges apparently the whole of tbe farmers' prosperity ; it is here and everywhere, except where vetches are sown, the summer sup- port of all his stock. Here are very few pastures. The clover, cut and carried to well-littered stalls, becomes an abundant source of manure of two descriptions, and thus the cattle are made pro- fitably subservient to the production of their own nourishment. The luxuriance of the clover is surprising, but doubly so when you inquire the quantity of seed sown. In Ireland, for a soiling crop, we cannot be secure of a good one from less than 174 '^- to the statute acre ; but in Flanders, the usual quantity is 6^ lb. to the acre. Can it proceed from the reduced quantity of seed! Whence, then, the superiority of the crop? Mo — for if even by the reduced quantity upon our common culture, we shall fail — it is to be accounted fur in the fine preparation, and extra- ordinary cleanliness of the Flemi?h husbandry. The ground is repeatedly ploughed, and well- manured ; no weed is suffered to exist, and the clover plant can tiller uninterruptedly, and pos- sess itself of the entire surface." J 3889. It is a well-ascertained fact in hus- bandry, that when the clover plant hax been frequently cultivated on the same ground, it not only fails to produce as heavy a crop as it did before, but it ceases to appear. When a failure takes place, the land is said to be clover-tick, and explanations on scientific principles have been given of the phenomenon ;§ but the failure has evidently no connexion with the kind or quantity of manure employed, since it most sen- sibly occurs in the neighbourhood of large towns, where the four-course rotation is followed, where the land is heavily manured with extraneous matters in addition to the farmyard dung, and where bone-dust is but scantily applied as a manure. The crop has been recovered in some localities, as in the neighbourhood of Dundee, by extending the members of the rotation of cropping, and making the repetition of the clover less frequent along with the same kind and quan- tity of manures as were formerly employed. 3890. Mr Keene, in his pamphlet on the Forty Days' Maize, has this observation on the failure of the crimson clover in England : — " The reason," he says, " for its succeeding so rarely in Eng- land is, that the cleanttd teed only is tuvn ; whereas I sow it with the rough pellicle as gathered. This pellicle seems to act as a protec- tion to the young plant till it gets strength. The clean seed sometimes rises as well as the rough, but it invariably drops ofi" in strength, and very often tlie whole disappears as completely as though none had been put into the ground; whereas the same seed, not cleansed, sown along- side, has resisted the cold temperature of the soil, and turned out vigorous plants. ''H The rea- sons assigned by the writer may not account for the failure, but the fact that rough seeds never failed to grow is valuable, and may lead to the adoption of the practice of sowing the red clover in its rough capsule, and of thereby sav- ing the troublesome process of depriving it of its husk. The hint is worthy of a trial by all cultivators, but especially by those who raise clover seed. 3891. In regard to the value of green food to stock, Boussingault observes, that " breeders have long suspected that green fodder is more nutritious than dry; that grass, clover, &.C., lose nutritious matter by being made into hay. That the tiling is so in fact appears to have been de- monstrated by a skilful agriculturist, M. Perrault • Radcliffe's Agriculture of Flandcrf, p. 61. + Thomson's Besearchet in the Food of Animals, p. 71. I Radcliffe's Agriculture of Flandert, p. 59. Johnston's Leeturet on Agricultural Cketnistrj/, 2d edition, p. 85-8. ,i Fact* for Farmert. p. 9. SOILING STOCK OX FORAGE PLANTS. 195 de Jotemps, who found tliat 9 lb. of green lucerne were quite equal in foddering sheep to 3.3 lb. of the same forage made into hay; whilst he at the same time ascertained that 9 lb. of green lucerne would not, on an average, yield more than 2.02 lb. of hay. In allowing each sheep 3.3 lb. of lucerne hay as its ration, conse- quently, it was as if the animal had had 14.34, or more than 14| lb. of the green vegetable for its allowance. These practical facts are obviously of great importance : they prove beyond the shadow of doubt that the belief of agriculturists in general, as to the immense advantages of con- suming clover and lucerne as green meat, is well founded. Nor is this all; it is not merely the absolutely greater feeding value of the crop green, than of the crop dried and made into hay. There is further, the saving of expense in making the hay; and still further, the escape of all risk from lo.-^s through bad weather during the process, by wliich that which was valuable fodder but a few days before, may become fit only for the dunghill." * 3892. " A comparative experiment, made at Thorserg, on the relative advantages of grazing with the tether, and stall-feeding, gives," says Von Thaer, the following results : — Four cows, ita/^ /(?(/, during twelve days, gave 1110 lb. of milk; extent of land required, 4344 square yards; quantity consumed, 6144 lb. of clover ; which gives for one cow a-day, 23g lb. of milk; ib\ square fathoms; 90^ square yards; 128 lb. clover. Four cows, pastured by the tether, for twelve days, gave 950 1 lb. of milk; extent of land grazed, 3684 square yards; which gives for one cow a-day, 194| lb. milk; 77 5 square yards. Therefore the stall-feeding consumed the produce of 660 square yards more than the pasturage by tether, and, on the other hand, the quantity of milk was greater by 1591 lb. by the stall-feed- ing. On estimating the milk that would have been yielded by the same extent of land pastured as stall-fed, the result would he that no particu- lar advantage is gained by either side. The dung was more economised by the stall-feeding, but the mowing and carrying of the clover were saved by the pasturage. 3893. " I have never known cattle to be in- jured by young clover mown before flowering, when it was given to them in moderation," con- tinues Von Thaer. " But if it be given to them in very large quantities at a time, when they are very eager for green meat, or if they are allowed access to the place in which it is kept, it may undoubtedly produce indigestion, and its conse- quence, the horen or blown (1381.) Besides, it is most economical to mow the clover which has put forth its flowers, because in the week during which the flowers come out, the plant increases in volume more than it has done for the five weeks preceding. If a field of clover be mown once a fortnight during six weeks, and each crop yields 30 lb. of fodder, making 90 lb. in the whole. the same extent of ground will yield 600 lb., if the crop be mown only once during the six weeks: this has been positively demonstrated by a com- parative experiment expressly directed to this subject. This is one of the main causes which render the produce of a given extent of surface so much greater when the crop is mown than when fed otf, the plants not being allowed in the latter case to attain their full development. The question as to whether a cow yields a greater quantity of milk when pastured or stall-fed, leaving out of consideration the greater or less extent of ground employed in feeding her, can never be decided in a general manner. The same cow which a pasturage of good quality, but not extra- ordinary richness, will yield 10 quarts of milk a. day, may, when stall-fed, yield no more than 6 quarts, or as much as 14 quarts, according as her feed is scanty, or substantial and abundant. If, however, the pasturage be of the richest and most abundant description, so that the cattle are not able to consume the whole of it, I believe that a cow will produce more milk upon it than upon the most abundant supply of green food that can be given to her in the stall. Trustworthy persons assure us, that certain cows fed upon the best and most milk-produciug pastures of the low countries, have given from 90 lb. to 100 lb. of milk a-day, at the time of their greatest abund- ance; and I am not acquainted with any positive instance of stall-fed cows giving more than 60 lb. in the same time."+ These observations of M. Boussingault and Von Thaer are valuable, inasmuch as no definite data exist on kindred subjects in the experience of our farmers. 3894. A weevil named Apion flatipes, about Ij inch in length, with a black shining body, atr tacks the Dutch or white clover plant, Trifolium repens ; and as this insect is very common, the cultivators of white clover would require to be on their guard against it. J 3895. Slugs — Limax cinereus — devour the broad leaves of red clover, Trifolium pratense, particularly in damp weather. 3896. The composition of the green stems of red and white clover, is as follows : — Red clover. Wliite clover. Water, 76-0 800 Starch, 1-4 10 Woody fibre, 13-9 11-5 Suirar, 2-1 1-5 Albumen, . 2-0 1-5 Extractive matter and gum, 3-5 3-4 Fatty n-atter. 0-1 0-2 Phosphate of lime, I.O 0-8 1000 99-9 3897. The composition of the ash of red and white clover, rye-grass, and Italian rye-grass seeds is as f Hows, and ought to have been given after (2684.) :— * Boussingault's Rural Econom;/ — Law's translation, p. 526. + Thaer's Principles 0/ Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 710 and 720 — Shaw and Johnson's translation. Z Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, yol.ix. ^. IS. 196 PRACTICE— SUMMER. Clover. Red clover. White clover. n.ve grass. Itali ian rje { BOUSSIVOAULT. SPRENOEL. THOMSO.W. WAY AND OC Potash, . 3.5-47 2()-70 34-00 803 J -2-45 Soda, 0-(J7 7-07 e.34 2-17 3-.08 Lime, . . 3i'H0 3709 25-72 6.50 9-95 Magnesia, !!-40 4-4.5 3-34 4-01 2-23 Oxide of iron, alumina, &c., 0-40 0--2() 2-77 0-36 0-78 Pliosphoric acid. !i-40 8-80 5-53 12-51 6-34 Sulpliuric acid. ;5-3:i 5-98 3-86 282 Chlorine, 3-47 4-86 2-31 227 Silica, . 706 4-85 16-13 64-67 59-18 100-00 10000 Percentage of ash in the dry state, 7 '70 7-48 100-00 9-13' 98-05 5-89 1 100-00 6-.97 3898. The clover, or trefoil, is cultivated in China. " After the last crop of rice has been gathered in," says Mr Fortune, " the ground is immediately ploughed up and prepared to receive certain hardy green crops, such as clover, the oil- plant, and other varieties of the cabbage tribe. The trefoil, or clover, is sown in ridges to keep it above the level of the water, which often covers the valleys during the winter months. When I first went to Chusan, and saw this plant culti- vated so extensively in the fields, I was at a loss to know the use to which it was applied, for the Chinese have few cattle to feed, and tliose are easily supplied from the road-sides, and unculti- vated parts of the hills. On inquiry, 1 was in- formed that the crop was cultivated almost ex- clusively for manure. The large fresh leaves of the trefoil are also picked, and used as a vege- table by the natives." § 3899. The method of a part of the manufacture of scythes, is so curious tliat I cannot forbear mentioning it. " In the manufacture of scythes, the length of the blade renders it necessary that the workman should move readily, so as to hring every part on the anvil in quick succession. This is effected by placing him in a seat suspend- ed by ropes from the ceiling, so that he is en- abled, with little bodily exercise, by pressing his feet against the block which supports the anvil, to vary his distance to any required extent."^ ON THE WASHING OF SHEEP. 3900. On the weather becoming mild, and on the likelihood of its continuing so, a pool should be made in which to wash the sheep, preparatory to their fleeces being shorn. The pool should be made in a convenient place in a natural rivulet; and the convenience consists in tlie banks of the rivulet shelving, so as to admit the sheep being put into the water with little effort on the one side, and on their walking out of it by themselves on the other. Should the side from which they are put into the water be a little steep, it is less objection- able than having a steep slope for their exit from the water on the other side ; for in the sheep struggling to get upon the bank, even with assistance, when their wool is loaded with water and a certain degree of terror affects them, their wool will become inevitably soiled, and discom- posed against the earthy bank. When a natural rivulet is awanting, a pool should be constructed in a large ditch, and in either case the banks should be covered with clean sward. 3901. The next step is to form a dam- ming across the rivulet or ditch, if it have not naturally a sufficient depth of water to conduct the operation of washing. It is better, however, to make a pool than to use a naturally deep pool, as the water will flow from it quicker than the natural current of a deep pool will. The bottom of the river or ditch should be hard and gravelly, anense of the personal ease of the animal ; for the hand can tighten the skin as well, as shown in all the figures, at b and e; whilst the bowing down so low, and as long, until he clips the entire side, cannot fail to pain the back of the clipper. The third jiosition is nearly the same in both plans, with the diU'erence in the common one, which keeps the left leg bent, resting on its foot — a much more irksome position than kneeling on both knees. 392.';. All the fleeces are not in the same state for being clipped. Thin watery wool is aj»t to be clipped in too broad courses — the shears passing through it • The artist has erroneously represented the sheep lying upon its/ar side, and the clipping to pro- ceed from the belly to the back-bone, which is the proper posture for the second position, as also the keeping the head of the sheep down with the left leg a, whereas the sheep should have lain upon its near aide, the wool been shorn from the back-bone to the belly, and the head d kept down with the right leg, as described above. SHEARING SHEEP. 205 quickly induces the clipper to take more into the clip, in order to withstand tlie force of his hand. Thick wool requires the shears to be employed more at the points, as these cannot penetrate it so far in advance of the blades as wool in the ordinary state. Certain fleeces become so thick as to be coated — that is, felted on the sheep's back ; and these can only be taken off with the points of the shears in minute clips, and take longer time in being re- moved than their value is worth. Such fleeces can scarcely be clipped at all, until a fresh growth of the wool has taken place after the washing. 89 2G. To shear 20 sheep a-day is con- sidered a good day's work for any clipper, though there are shepherds who can do more. A fat sheep is more easily and bet- ter clipped than a lean one. 3927- Immediately that one lot of sheep in the barn is clipped another is brought into it from the field, to be ready to com- mence the next morning's work. How- ever little it may injure hoggs to be kept in the barn all night, it is not good treat- ment to ewes and lambs ; and in order to dispense with it, the shepherd should bring in a few ewes during the day when their wool is dry, to clip while the hoggs are clipping ; in which way the first shorn ewes would be but a short time confined, whilst fewer ewes would be long confined when the last of the flock to be clipped consisted entirely of them. 3928. A new clipped sheep should have the appearance of fig. 330, where the shear-marks are seen to run in parallel bands round the body, from the neck and counter a, along the ribs 5, to the rump, A NEW CLIPPED SHEEP. and down the hind-leg c. When pains are taken to round the shearmarks on the back of the neck down by^ ; to fill up the space in the change of the rings between those of the counter and of the body above e; to bring the marks down from c to/ to the shape of the leg, as far as the wool reaches ; to make them run straight down the tail, and to have them coinciding across the back from each side — a sheep in good condition so clipped forms a beautiful object. A sheep clipped to perfection should have no marks at all, which are formed of small ridglets of wool left between each course taken by the shears ; but such extreme nicety in clipping is scarcely attainable, and certainly not worth being attained by the sacrifice of the time occupied in doing it. It should be borne in mind, how- ever, that the closer the wool is clipped to the skin it is the better clipped, and is in a better state for growing the next year's fleece ; and what is more, a larger and heavier fleece is obtained from each sheep. 206 PRACTICE— SUMMER. 3929. Clipping makes so great a clianfre on the aj>pcarance of sheep, that many lambs have difficulty at first iu recognising their mothers, whilst a few forget them alto- gether, and wean themselves, however de- sirous their mothers may l>e to suckle them ; and as the ewe is content with one lamb, many a twin which does not follow her is weaned on this occasion. It should be the shepherd's particidar care to mother the lambs frequently after clipping; but the ditticultv of bringing an old lamb and ewe together, without much disturbance to the rest of the flock is great ; and besides, the shepherd cannot constantly attend en the clipped portion of his flock while en- gaged with clipping, and this is one of the reasons why ewes should be last clipped. 3930. Sheep-shearing is a joyous sea- son— a sort of harvest — in which a liberal allowance of beef and broth and ale is dis- pensed to the clippers engaged in the labo- rious but important work. 3931. No sheep-shearing takes place in corse farms, or dairv farms, or on farms in the ricinity o/towHS. Tlie clipping of sheep in most f^»istoral districts is conducted in a most slovenly manner. The old-fashioned practice of tying the legs of the sheep together, on the grass sward in the open air, is still practised in most parts of the Highlands; and after the creature is thus placed in a helpless state between the legs of t)ie clip- per, who sits on the grass with the head of the sheep towards him, the shears are made to ply, from the neck to the tail, in irregular long slashes, so that the fleece may be said to be snatched off in the shortest time. The legs are then loosened and the sheep set at liberty. Women are frequently employed at this work, to which there is no objection, provided they do it properly ; but the result is, that a considerable proportion of the wool is left on the sheep, and their appearance, as a piece of work, is most disgraceful. The entire proceeding is the less justifiable, that the proper way can be done as expeditiously in the hands of dexterous people aa any slovenly method. If hill-herds cannot clip in any other way, let them go and learn it in places where it is better done. 3932. An improvement has been effected on the mode of clipping sheep in one pastoral district by Mr Colin Sluuro, Dnigwall. It consists of erecting an awning of canvass, fastened to stobs driven into the ground at stated distances, and of appropriate heights, along the side of a wall. This tent, as it may be called, is suflacient to hold as many sheep as is desired, by making it large enough; it protects them from rain, allows the clipping to proceed uninterruptedly, and screens the workers from the heat of the snn. If the part of the ground occupied by the clippers were covered with barn sheets, the wool would be kept clean. A tent of this sort can be erected at little cost, and would last many seasons. Still no pastoral farm should be without a steading, and a part of it should be made suited for so necessary a process in a sheep-farm, such as the straw-bam e fig. 55. 3933. The deprivation of wool before the warm weather has appeared, induces diseases in sheep. It is seldom that a flock-master errs in this re- spect, tliough cold nights do sometimes occur after the shearing of the tups in cases where their owners are desirous of clipping early, that the wool may have the longer time to grow be- fore the season arrives when tups are sold or let on hire. But the practice of shearing fat sheep early, before they are sent to market, is thus very properly deprecated by Mr Youatt. '• There is scarcely a Smithfield cattle show in which, in the dead of winter, two or three sheep just shorn — certainly in a very neat and tasteful way, and every excellent point of the animal displayed — are not exhibited. Some excuse may be made for this, for the sheep are brought to the metro- polis in closed carts, and are shown in a place where the winds of heaven cannot visit them too roughly ; but what shall be said of a drove of naked sheep going to market in the early 'part of March — the east wind cutting like ice, and their eyes and noses nearly closed with mucous ? This is done for the sake of the little additional profit to be derived from the wool. Is that profit really derived \ Has not the unfeeling owner miscalculated the matter ? Let him, or let any thinking or humane man, compare two pairs of sheep close by each other. In the one the animalsretain their natural coveringjand they are full of health and vigour; the inhabitants of the other hang their heads with cold and disease, an unpleasant streatn is discharged from their nostrils, and the eye of the sheep that never de- ceives when the question of health is to be de- cided, tells tales, tar too intelligibly, of pulmo- nary diseases, and of constitution underijiined, and of everything to disgust rather than attract. Has not the unfeeling owner miscalculated the matter ! He will say, perhaps, that the sheep will not well travel in their fleeces. In the heat of summer they will not; but when the winds blow chilly, no i-ystem can so surely promote the health of the auiiual as that which secures to him the feeling of comfort.'* ON THE RGLLI.NG OF FLEECES, AND ON THE Ql ALITY OF WOOL. 3.^34. Wherever the sheep are shorn, whether in the straw barn or in a shed, a board is erected, for rolling the fleeces upon as they are shorn. A smooth plain deal painted door makes a useful and good board Youatt On Shetp, p. 548. ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL. 207. for winding fleeces upon, and it should be supported on tressels about 2 feet above the ground, and 2 or 3 feet from a side- wall, near the c]ii»pers. A chaff-sheet (1749) should be spread on the floor close to the same wall, to pile the rolled fleeces upon until they are taken to the wool-room, at the end of the day's work. 3935. The person appointed to roll the fleeces is one of the field-workers who has been accustomed to the work, and she, whenever a fleece is separated from the sheep, lifts it carefully and unbroken from the sliearing cloth, and spreads it upon the board upon its clipped side, with the neck end farthest from her. She exa- mines the fleece carefully, that it be quite free of extraneous substances, such as straws, bits of thorn, of whins, or burs, and removes them; and she also pulls, not clips ofl"", all locks having lumps of dung adhering to them, which may liaA'e escaped the notice of the sheep-washers. Fig. 331 shows the mode of rolling a fleece Fig. 331. THE ROLLING OF A FLEECE OF WOOL. where a is the board supported on the tressels h and c, and d is the field-worker in the act of winding the fleece e, placed as above described. 3936. The farmer should be very par- ticular in giving instructions to have every fleece as clean as possible, as the purchaser cannot unloose every fleece he buys ; and should he find as much filth in the fleeces, after purchasing them, as to warrant the belief that it had been purposely left there, he may either relinquish his bargain, or make a large deduction from the price — in the former case implying fraud on the part of the farmer, and in the latter dimi- nishing his profits. Besides the disgrace of the attempt to commit such a fraud, the farmer is amenable to a criminal charge of fraud and imposition by the common law of Scotland. 3937. The winder being satisfied of the purity of the fleece, folds in both its sides, putting the loose locks into the middle, and making the breadth of the folded fleece from 24 to 30 inches, according to its size. She then rolls the fleece from the tail to- wards the neck, tightly and neatly ; and when arrived at the neck, puts a knee upon the fleece, while she draws out the wool of it, twisting it in the form of a rope with both hands, as far until it will go round the fleece ; and then holding the fleece tight at the lower end of the rope thus made, with one hand, removes the knee, and still holding the point of the rope in the other hand, she winds the rope tight round the fleece, making it fast under the rope. The fleece, as a bundle, is easily carried about, having the clij)ped surface outside, which, being composed of white wool saturated with yolk, exhibits a shining silvery lustre. Fig. 332 represents a fleece Fig. 332. "%. 52. § Parliamentary Return, Feb. 26, 1849. ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL. 215 3972. To show the importance of the home market to the woollen maimfactures, I shall state, keeping the amount of exports as above in view, that in the committee of the House of Comniousin 18"28, it was stated by MrT. Elworth that four-fifths of the woollen goods made were worn at home; by Mr Henry Hughes, that three- fourths were worn at home ; by Mr G. B. Hall, that ia washing wool loses 10 lb. in 20 lb. — that it takes 4 lb. of unwashed wool to make one yard of broad cloth, price 18s.; by Mr J. C. Francis, that it requires 2| lb. of wool to make one yard of cloth, value 10s. — that the manufacturing costs 5s. the yard; and by Mr Benjamin Gott, that the price of manufacturing a yard of cloth was equal to the value of the wool.* 3973. " A curious trade," observes Mr Porter, "has of late years been introduced — that of im- porting foreign woollen rags into England for the purpose of re-uianufacture. These are assorted, torn up, and mixed with English, or more com- monly with Scotch wool of low quality, and infe- rior cloth is made from the mixture, at a price sufficiently moderate to command a sale for ex- portation. By this means a market is obtained for wool of a very low quality, which might other- wise be left on the hands of the grower.""t- 3974. When the skins of the Cape sheep are properly dressed and cleaned, and a number of them sewed together, they form a much warmer covering than could be made from any other materials. The richer inhabitants, and those of Cape Town, who can afford themselves more ex- pensive coverings, affect to dislike this cheap article, because they say it smells of mutton; but the boor, the Cape farmer, is enabled by his im- mense flocks to select such only as have a smooth fur, and so he obtains a handsome coverlet, so unlike what a European could imagine, from sheep's skins, that it may be doubted whether many persons could even guess from what animal it was made. Those that have been brought to Europe, have been viewed as the skin of some unknown quadruped. Few furs can be more beautiful than the selected skins of lambs thus prepared. J 3975. The term merino, denominative of a par- ticular breed of sheep and kind of wool, is of ob- scure origin. Mr Southey informs us, that " Merino is an old Leonese title, still preserved in Portugal, though long since obsolete in the other kingdom of Spain. Perhaps it is a mon- grel diminutive of the Arabic title mir or emir, likely enough to have been formed when the two languages, .Spanish and Moorish, were, as it were, running into each other. Mirqueh'tr, the augmented title, was in use at Orniuz. 3[erino would be sufficiently explained by supposing it a diminutive grade. The old laws of Spain de- fine it thus : — ' He is a man who has authority to administer justice within a certain district.' The first mention of this office is in the reign of Ber- mudo II. The Merinos then commanded the troops of their respective provinces in war ; but, before the time of Henrique II., it was become wholly a civil ofiice, and the title was gradually giving place to that of Alguacil, (mayor.) Most probably the judge of the shepherds was called the merino, and hence the appellation extended to the flocks under his care." 3976. It is the common opinion that merino sheep came to this country from Spain, and se they did in the end of the last century, but it appears that fine-xcoolled sheep wer* sent from England to Spain a much longer time ago. That sheep were sent from England to Spain at a known period is certain, forMr Youatt quotes from the Chronicles of Stowe, that " this yere (1464) King Edward IV. gave a license to pass over certain Cvttestrolde sheep into Spain ;" and he quotes Baker also, who says, " King Edward IV. enters into a league with John, King of Arragon, to whom he sent a score of Costal ewes and four rams — a small present in show, but great in the event, for it proved of more benefit to Spain, and more detrimental to England, than could at first have been imagined." The wool of the Cotteswolde sheep of the present day is long, and not remarkable for fineness. Perhaps the old Cotteswolde w'ool was finer than that of the present period, because that breed of sheep has been much crossed with the Leicester. But if the old Cotteswolde conferred so much benefit on Spain, it may be fairly inferred that the wool of Spain was not so fine as that of England at the time. But sheep were exported from England to Spain prior to the reign of Edward IV., as Mr Southey intimates, that " Fernan Gomez de Cib- dareal, in one of his letters. (Epist. 73,) mentions a dispute between two Spaniards concerning rank in the presence of Juan II., 1437. It was ob- jected tauntingly to one of them, that he was descended from a judge of the shepherds, that is, from a merino. The reply was, that this office had always been held by liidalgos of great honour, and that ' King D. Alfonso had instituted it in the person of Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, vhcn the Englhh sheep iFere first hrouqht oter to S/>aiii.'" This dispute occurring in 1437, and referring to an ancient title of honour, which had been con- ferred as far back as the time of the introduction of English sheep into Spain, and a taunt being then also given to a descendant of a Merino, it is clear that the English sheep referred to could not have been the Cotteswoldes exported in 1464, as mentioned by Stowe. " How long was it before the merino fleece became finer than that of the original stock ?" asks Mr Southey; and he replies, "Brito,who wrote towards the close of the sixteenth century, says in praiseof the wool ijrown about Santareni, it is so fine that it viay rie with that of Enijland, {Monarchia Lusitania, f. i. p. .03.) If the Spanish wool had been as fine then as it is now, he would hardly have drawn his comparison from the English." 3977. While these facts are recorded in Spanish literature, regarding the origin and ancient quality ♦ M'Queen's Statistics of the British Empire, p. 54. + Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 177- + Bischoff's History vf Woollen Manufactures, vol. ii. p. 292. 216 PRACTICE— SUMMER. of Uie wool of Spain, the opinion of Mr Yonatt ■eeras much too strongly expressed, when he says, that " Europe and the world are orijinaily imd<^t:d to Spain for tlie most valuable material in the mauutacture of cloth." And again, " The chanahs, therefore, may be descendants of the English sheep," namely, those sent to Spain in 1464, •* mixed with the common breed of the country; but farther than this England cannot, with any degree of justice, urge the claim which some have done, of being instrumental in pro- ducing the invaluable Spanish wool." * And yet, as we have seen, sheep were probably sent from England to Spain long before that date, or even long before 1437; for if the King .\lphonso men- tioned above, as having instituted the order of judge of the shepherds, be Alfonso the Wise, king of Leon and Castile, who is stated to " have digested a code of excellent laws, and rendered his name famous in history by his patronage of the arts and sciences,"t he reigned at the early period from 1'252 to 1284. Anotlier fact men- tioned by Mr Southey is, that when Catharine, daughter of John of Gaunt, was espoased to Henrique III., she took English sheep with her as her dowery, which fixes another exportation of sheep to Spain about 1390 — a considerable time prior to the Cotteswolde exportation of 1 464 ; and if the English sheep had been of an inferior de- scription to those of Spain, it is not likely that the future Queen of Castile would have taken them with her for her own dowery. 3978. Mr Southey puts the query : " Can there possibly be any trith in the remark of Yepes (t. 7,§ 134,) who says, ' Dailp fjcper'uiue shotr$ us, that if a lamb is suckled by a goat, the wool be- comes hard and hairy; and, on the contrary, if a kid is suckled by a ewe, the hair becomes ON THE SUMMER CCLTCRE OF BEANS. 3979. The state we left the bean crop in spring, in (2443,) was immeJiately after the drills had been harrowed down on the crowns with the drill-harrow, fig. 220, about a fortnight after the crop had been sown. So soon as the young plants growing on raised drills (2432) have attained two or three inches in height, the scuffler, fig. 262, should remove all the weeds that may have appeared between the drills in the interval of time since the drill harrowing; and the scuffling will also reduce some of the clods, where the land is naturally tender. The field workers follow tiie scuf- fler with the hand-hoe, fig. 2G6, and re- move all the weeds growing alons each (ride of the plants, and pull those by the • Youatt On Sherp. p hand growing between them, and displace such clods as are seen to interfere with the proper growth of the plants. The workers should be careful in using the hoe amongst bean plants, as they are very tender and easily bruised andcut over. Afterthe plants have risen about a foot in height, which they will soon do in favourable weather, the blossom will begin to appear ; and its appearance should be the signal to finish the work amongst this crop as soon as possible. Time may be found to drill- grub, fig. 264, the space between the drills, and hoe the sides of the drill along the plants ; but if not, the double-mould-board plough, fig. 214, should at all events, as the last (^eration, set the earth well up to the root* of the plants, in order to give them a firm footing on the top of the drill against the power of the wind. 3980. The summer culture of beans growing on the flat ground in rows (2431) is the same, in as far as the scuffling, hoe- ing, and drill-grubbing tlie ground are concerned, as on the drill ; but the land is not set up with the double-mould-board plough, the drill-grubbing finishing the operation. 3981. When beans are grown broad- cast, (2414,) no implement but the hand- hoe is of any avail in clearing the ground of weeds ; and as the hand-hoeing would retjuire to be performed much oftcner than time will allow, to keep the ground as cleafi as it should be, the inevitable consequence is that a crop of broadcast beans is always a foul one, unless the weather is so favourable, from the earliest part of the season, as to push the bean plants as far forward as to smother the weeds by overgrowing them. 3982. In England, the youngbean plants are subject to be eaten down in moist weather by the common field slug, Liinax alesome to them ; and for this purpose theyslmuld be caught occasionally, and the milk taken from them, until the general weaning takes place. The ewes, when separated from their lambs, should be kept in a field of rather bare eaten pas- ture, until their milk be dried up. They must be milked by the hand, for a few times till the secretion ceases — once, 24 hours after the lambs are taken away — again, 36 hours thereafter — and the third time I)erhaps 2 days after that. Even beyond that time a few may feel distressed by milk, which the shepherd should relieve at intervals until the udders become dry. Milking them after the weaning of the lambs is essential to the safety of the ewes, and I fear that it is not so effectually per- formed as it should be until the udders become dry. The danger to be appre- hended from its neglect is the plugging up of the teats with caseous matter, deposited therein by the milk which should have been drawn away ; and which plugging, in the next lambing-season, will probablyprevent the natural flow of the new milk ; and the consequence will be, that inflammation will be set up in the udder, and the ewe either take puerperal fever, that is, udder- clap or garget, (2596,) and die, or her lambs be so restricted of milk as to be half starved. 3996. Ewes are milked in a very dif- ferent manner from cows. A long nar- row bught, a a fig. 338, formed of hurdles, fig. 40, on both sides, when the fence of the field is a hedge, and only on one side when it is a stone wall, as in the figure, is erected along the fence close to the gate of a field near the steading; and it should be no larger than to contain all the ewes in a crowded state. The ewes beingdriven into it Lead iuwards, women proceesed salad, and cucumber, even in the hottest period of the dog- days, when the very sight of any other sort of meat would cloy the appetite ? A sheep's haggis has been lauded by poet and peasant, and though classed by the former amongst the '' pud- din' race," must be regarded as too substantial a dish for summer, but a lamb-haggis is a deli- cacy even in that season. A lamb's head and lamb's fry make sweet and savoury dishes. Thus every part of the lamb is eminently useful for the farmer's table. 4005. Fining. — The rationale and cure of this fata! disease is thus attempted to be given by a writer : — " The disease called pining, seems to arise from an enervated and costive habit of the animal, which may be produced by a want of proper exercise, in conjunction with feeding in pastures of an astringent nature. The principal districts in which this disease is found to prevail, are the green pastures of the Cheviot mountains, the chain of hills running through the S.W. parts of R ixburghshire, the pastoral districts of Sel- kirk and Peebles shires, and some other districts of Scotland, as Galloway. Under the old prac- tice of keeping the sheep in flucks, as they are termed Air*e/.«, of weaning the lanibs in the months of July or August, and afterwards of milking the ewes for 8 or 10 weeks, the pining was unknown in most of tlie^e districts; but under this mode of treatment, the sheep were frequently subject to diarrlioea — a di:^ease diametrically oppo.-ed to pining. The farmers of those pastoral di-tricts have generally improved upon the older methods of keeping their siieep. They find it to be more profitable to allow tke whole flocks to pasture together indiscriminately and undisturbed. The lanibs remain unweaneJ, until tliey wean them- selves, which generally does not take place till the month of December. By this mode of manage- ment, the ewes and lambs are found to be of a higher comparative value than all the sum rea- lised by the sale of cheese made from the milk of the ew*s; besides, the ewes are not subject to the various accidents arising from so Irequently col- lecting them together for the purpose of milking. But under this undisturbed state of management, in all cases where dry astringent pastures are produced, such as on the syenitic porphyry of the Cheviot range, the pining made its appearance. That such pasture promotes this disease, is further strengthened by the fact, that it is more common in dry than in wet seasons; and most so at that season of the year when, by the influence of the sun, the plants are less juicy; or early in Little On ike Mountain Sheep, p. 63-5. DRAFTING EWES AND GIMMERS. 228 autumn, when the grasses which have pushed to seed become less succulent. This disease is not known on the whole of the grey wucke range of the Laniinermoor Hills, where heath prevails, occa- sionally interspersed with green pastures, and where the hirsding practice is pursued. Nor is it known to exist in general on green succulent pastures, or even heaths, growing on calcareous or sandstone grounds, where the nature of the food, and the exertion of the animal in procuring it, appears to counteract the progress of the dis- ease, arising from the inactivity of the digestive function. If we suppose these to be the predis- posing causes of this disease, the prevention or remedy will suggest itself, either under the head of food or treatment. Should it be deemed inex- pedient to adopt the mode of keeping the flocks in hirsels, a change of place, and, consequently, of food, is necessary to accomplish this purpose. The salutary effects of a variety of food on the animal system are well known. When sheep affected with this disease are put upon a heath, it has frequently the desired effect; but when the animal is much overcome with the disease, its state of languidness may prevent it from taking such a quantity of food as to produce a reaction upon the animal functions. The most effectual cure, therefore, in all caS3s, is a change to a more rich and succulent pasture."* 4006. When lambs require to be bled, it is best done by opening the vein below the eye with a lancet, and the wound should afterwards be auoiuted with camphorated oil. ON THE DRAFTING OF EWES AND GIMMERS. 4007. Immediately on the lambs being weaned, tlie drafting of ewes and gimmers, tliat is, separating those of them to be dis- posed of from those to be kept, may be con- veniently done. Drafting only applies to a standing flock of ewes — a flying stock requiring no drafting, since, where all are disposed of, none obtain the preference of being kept. 4008. There are many marks of deterio- ration which determine the draftin"- of eices. Bareness of hair on the croicn of the head, which makes them obnoxious to the attacks of fly in summer — deficiency in eye-sight, which prevents them keeping with the flock, and choosing the best parts of pasture, and the best points of shelter — • ill-shaped teeth and jaws, which disable them from masticating their food so well as they should — icant of teeth, from old age, when, of course, they cannot crop suf- ficient food to support their lambs — hollow neck, which indicates breeding too near akin — hollow back, which implies weak- ness in the vertebral column, thereby ren- dering them unfit to bear lambs to advan- tage—;//«; ribs, which confine the space for the foetus within the abdominal region — a drooping tail-head, which aff'ects the length of the hind-quarter, a space occu- pied by superior fles^h — bad feet, which prevent travelling with ease along with the flock — round and coarse bone, which indicates coarseness of flesh — thin or short coat of wool, which lessens the clip and the profit from it — diseased teat or udder^ which diminishes the supply of milk for the future piogeny — scarcity of milk, by which lambs, not obtaining sufficient nou- rishment in the early period of their exis- tence, are stinted ingrowth, and weakened iii constitution — carelessness of disposition^ which induces neglect of the lamb, parti- cularly one of twins, which is in conse- quence ill nursed — producing worthless la)nb,hy which profits are much diminish- ed— missing being in lamb, a failing which is apt to recur in every future year — casting lamb, a propensity likely to recur annually — rottenness, which is, of course, objection- able in everyanimal tliatproduces young — shortness of breath, which prevents them seeking their food, and eating as much of it as they should — tendency to scouring, or the opposite, the former imposing weak- ness, the latter inducing inflammation — delicacy of constitution, which disables them from withstanding the ordinary changes of the weather — diminutive sta- ture, or inordinate size, which spoils the uniformity of the flock. Such is a long list of faults incidental to ewes, which may all be observed in the same flock, and which every .breeder is desirous to get rid of. 4009. It is not at all probable that any flock of ewes presents all these objection- able qualities in one season ; but, notwith- standing this circumstance, it is not in the power of the breeder to draft every ewe having an objectionable property every year, since the farm supjiorting a deter- minate flock, the extent of the draft de- pends in a great measure upon the number of good substitutes which the gimmers maysupjdy; audit is evident that no good object is attained by drafting a bad ewe, * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 797. 224 PRACTICE— SUMMER. ami taking in its stead a bad gimnier. Tlio nmiibcr of giinincrs fit to be trans- ferred to tbe ewe flock, sbonld therefore be, in the first instance, ascertained, and tben a corresponding number of the worst ewes should be drafted. 4010. In drafting ghnmers, many of tlie above faults may be observed in them, although those arising from lamb-bearing cannot possibly affect young sheep. The faults incidental to gimmers are, bareness of hair on the crown of the head, ill-shaped teeth and jaws, hollow neck, hollow back, flat rib, low tail-head, bad feet, round coarse bone, thin and short fleece, rotten- ness, shortness of breath, tendency to •scouring or otherwise, delicacy of constitu- tion, diminutiveness of stature, and inor- dinate size. These faults are numerous enough, but not likely to be all observed in the same year, and less likely in the same individual. Most of them may be got rid of by rejecting females which have more than one of them, and by employing tups free of them all. When the external form is improved, the constitution is also strengthened. Gimmers, when they be- come ewes of the first season, are likely to be deficient in milk, careless of their young, and produce small lamb; but these faults may disappear in the succeeding year ; and should this not be the case, the ewe, though young, healthy, and fresh, should be drafted. Ample drafting alone, both of gimmers and ewes, can insure a Sound, healthy, well-formed, young, and stron<'-constitutioned flock of ewes. them fresh, but will cause the season to come on them more strongly and equally than without such .issistance. Poppy-cake bruised and served in troughs, fig. 52, answers this purpose well. 4012. The dra/t-cwes and drnft-ffim- mers should be put on the best giass the farm affords, immediately after lieing draft- etl, to fatten as soon as possible, as they are usually sold before the time arrives for putting lean sheep on turnips The ewes which have missed lamb, called ttip-e'ild eires^ having had no lamb to rear, will be fat in the early ])artof summer; and when kept to the end of autumn become very fat, not less than 30 lb. jjer quarter, if of the Leicester breed. The draft-gimmers, and the draft- ewes which have borne lamb, may reach, by the latter period, 20 lb. per quarter. The gimmers should fetch the highest price, the tup-eild ewes should also yield good mutton, but that of old ewes is always dry. Drafts arc ready for sale in September. St Ninian's fair in Northumberland is held on the 28th Sep- tember for the sale of draft-ewes, and I have seen as many as 70,000 in it, fat and lean. 4013. Ewes and gimmers on pastoral farms are drafted on the same principles and for the same reasons as those on low- land farms. 4014. I have mentioned the use of poppy-cake for ewes (4011.) As the oil of one species of poppy, J'itfxircr sonmi/erum, of which it yields from 3(5 to 63 per cent, is used as an article of food in Trance and Germany,* the cake left after the expres-sion of the oil is no doubt derived from those countries. I am not aware of any chemical analysis having yet been made of this cake, but Professor Johnston gives the analysis, by Ruling, of the ash of the common celandine, Chtruioniitm vittjus, probably a cultivated poppy got wild, which is this : — 4011. The Jlock-ewes a,ndJlock-gimmers may be j)ut together, or kept separate, as circumstances may determine. If tupped together, they may go together all the season ; but if not, which is always the case on large farms where more than one tup is employed, they should be grazed separately, to save the trouble of sepa- rating them afterwards. Both should be kcjjt on moderate pasture, to prevent at- taining too great fatness before the tupping season, which commences the second week of October ; but good fresh aftermath of grass, or, what is still better, rape, for a'bout two or three weeks before the tups are put amongst them, will not only make * Thomson's Organic Cliemlstry — Vegetable?, p. 430. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricidtural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 401 Potash. •in-72 Chloride of potassium, 3\08 Lime, 27-33 Mufjtu'sia, . 5-<»2 riui.s|ili:ite of iron. 210 i'lio.-pliuric acid, 17-67 Sulphuric acid, . 2-6» Silica, of ash. 1-65 100-00 Percentage 6-85i MARKING SHEEP. 225 ON THE MARKING OF SHEEP. 4015. When lambs cease to bleat for their mothers, they should be marked and buisted, not only to identify tliem with the flock of the farm on which they are bred, but as a record of the particular blood from which they are descended. The markings are confined to the ears, and consist of small pieces cut out of the fore or back margin, or a slit in the tip, with a sharp knife, or of holes punched through with punching-nippers, or of a combination of both sorts of marks. The female stock are always marked on the 7iear ear, and the male on the far one. Thus, a single round hole is punched through the near ear of all the ewe-larabs, and a similar hole through the far ear of the wether lambs ; and should any of the ewe-lambs be con- sidered fit for breeding tups, they either receive an additional hole through the near ear, or a bit cut out from either margin of either ear, corresponding to a similar mark on their dams or sires, to distinguish their particular descent in blood. Twin ewe-lambs receive a hole through both ears. Tup-lambs receive no ear marks, their long tail serving the purpose till they are weaned, when they are at once trans- ferred to the tup flock. Individual tups are so easily identified, and their descent so well known by the shepherd, that they require no marking ; but where a large number of tups are bred, a distinguishing mark is always satisfactory. 4016. Fig. 339 are the punching-nip- pers^ of which the inverted hollow cone a, Fig. 339. THE PUNCHING-NIPPERS. having its small end sharpened to an edge, is employed to cut the hole — of any form, round, square, or triangular — out of the ears ; and, to save the ears from being bruised in the punching, a pad of horn b is VOL. II. Fig. 340. inserted into the straight under-arm of the nippers, the pieces nipped out rising out of the orifice c. The figure at once shows how the instrument is used, being similar to the one used by shoemakers to punch holes into the lappets of shoes, through which the shoe-strings are passed. It costs 2s. 9d. 4017. Besides marks in the ears, letters are imprinted on the body with an instru- ment called a huisting-iron. 4018. Buisting consists simply of stamping a letter or letters, expressive of the initials of the name of the owner or of the farm, or of both, on diffe- rent parts of the body. The buist or mark is efi"ected by a simple instrument, fig. 340, consistingof a wooden handle, an iron shank, and a capital letter, such as S. The letter is made of hammered iron, thin, and even, to the centre of which is aflaxed by one end, perpendicularly, an iron rod, driven at the other end into a wooden helve, through a ferule. The length of the instrument is about two feet. Its mark is made on the same principle as those on the ears, the near side indicating the THE BuisTiNG- fcmalo, and the far side the IRON FOR sHEEP.niale sheep. It costs 3s. 4019. The material of which the mark is made is tar, made viscid by a little pitch, both being boiled together in a metal pot. 4020. The sheep to be buisted are put into a convenient apartment of the stead- ing, and handed out of a door, one by one, by one man, and kept steady by another holding the head and rump with his hands, and bulging out the side to be marked, the one opposite to himself, by.pressure against his knee. The buisting-iron is then dipped by a third person lightly into the melted tar in the pot, to prevent dripping ; and to make the mark vivid, the buist should be applied with a degree of pres- sure upon the entire surface at once, to compress the wool equally, and then withdrawn quickly. The wool must be quite dry, or the tar will not adhere to it. 226 PRACTICE— SUMMER. All new clipped sheep are buisted in this manner, and tliougli but a temporary mark, being in time obliterated, even ou short wool, it answers the present purpose well. To my ta^ite, the mark looks best on that point which is the roundest part of the rib, but others prefer it on the shoul- der, tlie rump, or the loins. To save twice handling of the lambs, they should be marked and buisted at the same time, one person making the marks, another apply- ing the buisting-iron. 4021. To save frequent catching, hill-lambs are marked in the ears with the peculiar mark of the farm, with the punching-nippers or knife, when thev are castrated. Fig. 341. THE BRAND- INU-IROV FOR SHKEP AND CATTLE. 4022. Fig. 341 is an instrument for marking horned sheep and cattle. It is made wholly of iron, and on the upper face of the block is cut out as a die the capital letter to be used, such as S. The length of the instrument is about eighteen inches. It is heated in the fire", and the letter burns its form on the hair of the face, on the horns of the Blackfaced sheep, and on the horns of cattle. If heated high it may brand several sheep before it cools, but the most uniform brand is made when the iron is heated for every sheep ; and, to carry on the work expeditiously, two brands at least should be used — one to be in use while the other is heating in a fire hard by, to and from which a person should carry the brands for the operator. Branding is done on the same principle as buist- ing(4015.) ON HAY-MAKING. 4023. It has often been alleged, that Scottish farmers have always shown little skill in the making of hay. Ready as I am to vindicate the general excel- lence of Scottish husbandry, I must own that the allegation is well-founded. Hay- making, as usually performed in Scot- land, would induce one to believe that the period of conducting it had arrived unex- pectedly, and the time spent upon it was thrown away. 4024. The practice commented on, de- lays the cutting down of the grass until it has passed its most succulent period — allows it to lie on the ground when cut till it is bleached by the rain, scorched by the sun, or rotted by the growth of the after- math penetrating thronj;h the swathes — puts the weather-beatenswathes together as fast as possible, into as large ricks as will keep the hay without heating — and jK'rmits the ricks to stind on the ground till the grass under them is destroyed. The grass thus treated is expected to make <^ood bay! 4025. If it were desired to contrive a plan to make bad hay, the one just de- scribed seems to be the best suited for the purpose. The practice, however, is not unreasonable, for reasons, in explanation, though not in vindication, can be given, and they are these: — An economical de- sire exists amongst farmers to save as much rye-grass seed as will sow the land tobe laid down to grassthe next year, which comprehends the fourth, fifth, or sixth part of the farm, according to the rotation of the crops practised upon it. To attain this object, it is necessary to allow the rye- grass to nearly ripen its seed before it is cut down ; and the easiest test to ascer- tain its ripeness, is, to sweep the hat smartly along the heads of the plants, and see whether it has caught any seeds. When rye-grass has attained this degree of maturity, the clover has passed its most succulent state, so that the crop is altogether too old to make good hay before it is cut down. To give time to the rye-grass seed to won, the swathes are allowed to lie for some days before being gathered into ricks. Hay-making arriving at the same time as the singling of turnips, it receives the less attention on that account. 4026. These reasons are suflBcient to explain the object and the circumstances, but they offer no justification for pursuing a slovenly mode of making hay, since the object CAXx be attained by a different and better procedure, which is this : — The quantity of rye-grass seed usually required is 1 bushel per imperial acre; and as a crop of mixed clover and rye -grass varies in yield from 25 to 40 bushels of rye -grass seed per acre, an extent of crop appor- tioned to yield the quantity wanted, would surely be a more rational proceeding than injuring a whf>le crop of hay for the sake of preserving a few bushels of rye-grass seed. HAY-MAKING. But after the crop has thus been injured, the best of the rye-grass seed is allowed to be ehed upon the ground by the dilatory mode of making hay usually pursued. As for the interference of turnip-singling with hay- making, it is evident that if the grass were earlier cut for hay than it is. the hay might be secured past danger before the turuips were ready for singling. 4027. Hay is made both of sown and of natural meadow-grasses. The grasses sown in Scotland for hay consist of red clover, Trif oliiun pratense, aud rye-grass, Lolium perenne ; for although the white- clover, Trifolium repnns^ is sown along ■with these two seeds, (2633,) it forms no sensible part of the first year's crop, and therefore constitutes no portion of the hay. As hay is thus made from the first year's grass, it matters not whether the rye- grass is annual or perennial. The annual yields the heavier crop, but the perennial makes the finer quality of hay. The natural grasses constitute the hay of Eng- land and Ireland. The hay of the sown and of the natural grasses are certainly very different in appearnace — the former is composed of the strong and stiff stems of the red clover and rye-grass, while the latter feels soft and woolly, and more odorous, on account of the sweet-scented vernal-grass, Anihoxanthum odoratum^ always forming a component part. If both are equally well made, there is pro- bably no material difference in their nutri- tive properties ; but this fact has been established in Scotland, that the sown grasses are more nutritive for young stock, both sheep and cattle, than natural ones, and hence we may hold as true, that, made into hay, they will also be more nutritive for them. Natural grasses on the other hand are more nourishing to old stock than sown ones ; and hence natural hay is best for cows and horses. 4028. I have heard farmers express the opinion that sown grasses require a differ- ent treatment to be made into hay than natural ones. If the object is to obtain rye-grass seed, the two processes should be different; but if it be to make the best hay, I cannot see why the treatment should be different. The nature of the plants employed is the same, and similar treat- ment should produce similar results in them ; and as the art of hay-making 18 merely to expel the water from the plants without injury to their texture, the only danger to be apprehended is excessive fer- mentation, which is easily excited in warm weather, and will proceed to a destructive extent, if not controlled ; and when plants are allowed to lie on the ground until they are bleached, the art of making them into hay is virtually abandoned. Still hay-mak- ing is modified according as manual labour or mechanical assistance is employed. 4029. The hay crop is cut down either by hired labourers by the piece, or by the ploughmen of the farm. The grass is better and more expeditiously cut down by the piece, as contractors exert themselves more and work more hours than ploughmen, who have the charge of horses, can be expected to do. The usual cost of cutting grass for hay is 2s. 6d. or 3s. the imperial acre. I once let a small patch of 6 acres of clover, to be cut for hay, to a strong man, who undertook to do it for 2s. 6d. the acre, but, after the first half- day's work, he relinquished the agreement as being too low for him. And so it really proved ; for on examination the clover was found so luxuriant that it was kneed down, that is, its lower part was lying upon the ground, while its upper part only seemingly formed the growing crop. He agreed to take 2s. 6d. a-day, the usual wages at cutting grass for hay, and after toiling hard for his money, the cutting cost me 5s. the acre. 4030. The implement used for cutting grass for hay is the same as that for cut- ting grass for forage — the common scythe, fig. 322, mounted with a bent or straight sued. He is the best scythe-man who keeps the keenest edge on his scythe, as he will not only do more work, but that more easily for himself. The edge of the blade is first formed by using one of two forms of scythe-stones, the round a and the square b, fig. 324, and then maintained by the use of the strickle, fig. 323. Of the two scythe-stones I prefer the round one, as the circumference of the circle affecting a smaller space of the scj'the at a time in sharpening the edge, the stone is more easily drawn across the blade, and greater effect produced by the operator on any particular part of its edge. In sharpening 228 PRACTICE— SUMMER. the scythe, it is placed on the left side of the mower, with the point of the hlade restiiiiron a small flat stone on the ground, the heel of the blade and sned being sup- ported by the left hand. The scythe- stone, which is about 14 inches long, is grasped by one end in the right hand, which it fills, and is thus used : — The sharpening is produced by making sliding downward strokes along the stone on each side of the blade alternately. This mwle of sharpening is based on the principle, that the scythe cuts after the manner of a fine saw, with the teeth set towards the point of the blade, and against the direction of it- motion when cutting. The stone can- not conveniently be carried over the whole length of the blade at one sweep of the hand, so that only portions of it are sharp- ened at one time, and hence the sharpening begins at the heel, and proceeds downwards to the point. A few inches at the point are left untouched, and to reach these, the Hiower lifts up the blade, and holds it in the middle with the left hand, bringing it into a horizontal position, with the sned still resting on its end on the ground, and leaning against his rump to steady it while he completes the process by sharpening the point in the same manner as he did the blade, but with shorter strokes. Through- out this operation, the stone must always be held flat upon both sides of the blade, *nd if this be not attended to, the edge will either not be touched, or it will be too much rubbed and be rounded off: the consequence in either case will be, to render the scythe speedily unfit for cut- ting until it be re-ground upon the grind- stone. It is this operation which tries the skill of the mower, in the same manner as the skill of the joiner is tested by his ability to keep a fine edge on bis tools. 4031. Besides the stones and strickle, the mower should be provided with bits of thin leather to lay between the head of the blade and the sned, a few short broad- headed nails in case the grass-nail should come off, and a hammer to unloose and fasten the wedges used in the ring and handles. 4032. The instruments being prepared, the mowers are ready to commence the cutting. Two or three men form a gang or head of mowers, and two gangs of two men each form a convenient division of mowers when the extent of ground to be mown is considerable. On a 500 acres farm under a five-course rotation, perhaps 20 acres of the 100 acres of new grass may be made into hay. It is fair work for a man to mow an acre of good grass daily, and when he goes over more ground, it is no good sign of the crop. On choosing the side of the field to make the beginning, the direction from which the clover leans, and, when it is scanty and the ryegrass thin and upright, the point from which the wind blows, which always determines tlie lean of a thin crop — should be chosen for the direction of the mowing, which should be conducted if possible across the ridges. 4033. Of the two methods of making hay — the English with the natural grasses, and the Scotch with the sown ones — I shall first describe the English method; and then it will be seen whether or not it cannot be used in Scotland with the sown grasses. It is a convenient beginning for hay-cutting to commence in the afternoon, as by the next forenoon the grass that has been cut will be tedded while the mowers are proceeding with their work for the day. The grass, however, should never be cut when rain falls, nor should any other operation connected with hay-mak- ing be then conducted. 4034. Xext morning, if the grass be free of dew, and if not, in the forenoon after it is dry, the tedding machine is yoked to scatter the swathes of grass abroad to win, which the mowers had cut on the previous afternoon, as also that cut up to dinner-time of the present day, if the weather is likely to continue fair until evening. The English tediling-machine, which is represented in perspective in fig. 342, consists of a skeleton carriage, hav- ing a series of revolving rakes occupying the place of the body. The carriage is composed of the transverse bar a, with the horse-.«liafts h b. An iron stay-bar c on each side connects and supports the shafts. The ratchet-wheel e, attached to the nave of the carriaire-wheel d, takes hold of the spur-wheel /'by means of a pall, and car- ries it round when the machine advances, but slips hold on backing or turning. The spur-wheel / works into a pinion, which HAY-MAKING. 229 is mounted on the end of the hollow shaft h ; and though in the figure, for the sake of distinctness, the spur-wheel and ])ini(in are exposed to view, they are in the machine closely boxed up to prevent entanglement from the hay falling between the wheel Fiff. 342. THE ENGLISH HAY TEDDING-MAPHINE. and pinion. The two rake-wheels i i are of very light constniciion, and are fixed dead upon the shaft h, and armed with the eight rakes k k. The rakes are attached to the wheels by tunibliiig-jointsm m, and are held to the work by the springs I only; by which arrangement, when any undue resistance is opposed to a rake, such as a stone or other obstruction, the rake falls back till the obstruction has been passed, when the springs innneiliately return it to its working position. Besides the capa- bility of backing, without turning the rakes, there is provision for disengaging them when the machine is advancing. The machine is also furnished with the means of elevating and depressing the centre of the revolving rakes, and in con- sequence of bringing the rake-teeth nearer to, or farther from the ground. 403.5. When in operation the machine is drawn by one horse, or sometimes two horses, and the result of the combination of the gearing is, that the revolving rake makes 4| revolutions for one of tlie car- riage-wheel. The latter being 3 feet 10 inches diameter, will pass over 1 2 feet or thereby in one revolution, and the rakes being 4 feet 6 inches diameter over the extreme points of the teeth, will describe a circle of about 14 feet in circumference, and this revolving 4^ times for one of the other, the points of the teeth will pass through QS feet while the carriage has moved over 12 feet, and as there are 8 rake-heads, there will be 8 x4-5=3G con- tacts with the substance which is to be lifted in a space of 1 2 feet, or one at every 4 inches. From this calculation it will be seen that the' hay under the operation of this machine will undergo a process of teazling or tedding of the most perfect description; it will be separated and tossed about until no two stems of the plants will be left in contact, and by this expo- sure the drying })rocess is effected in a period greatly shorter and more eftectually than could be done by any number of hands. Thus, if suppose tiie horse to walk 2^ miles per hour, and the machine to cover 6 feet in breadth, we have a sur- face of U acres nearly covered in an hour. There are some variations in the mode of constructing this hay- tedder, but not dif- fering essentially from the one here figur- ed, which has been drawn from those manufactured by Mr Slight of Edinburgh, where the price is £14. 4036. Where there is no tedding-ma- chine, the grass-swathes are tedded with the hand or with forks, fig. 110, care be- ing taken to shake and separate the grass effectually. 4037. In the afternoon the tedded grass is raked together with the horse-rake. One of the n)ost common forms is repre- sented, in perspective, by fig. 343. The 280 PRACTICE— SUMMER. badv of the machine consists of a main beam, a a, and of a swing-bar, b l>, oi' equal len"th, and these are bolted together upon two side bars, c c, as also to the interme- diate bars d d. The handles, e e, are jointed upon a bolt in n and are also Fig. 343. THK HAY HORSE-RAKK. bolted to the lifting-bar/, which rest by when thus filled, the driver, bj lifting the noggs on the bars c c. The axles // are handles, causes the tines to be drawn up- kneed. The wheels /< are of ligl4 make ward through amongst the iron bent in cast-iron, and tlie horse shafts i i, work- ed to such a curvature that they shall bo of the ])ro|)er height for the horses' shoul- ders, when the body of the inijilenient stands level, are bolted to the main beam and intermediate bars at k; and arc like- wise supported by the iron stays /. One horse-shaft is broken off for want of space. The machine is armed w'th 20 tines or teeth 111 m, iSjc., which are each fixed into stripping-rods, which discharge the con- tents of tlie rake upon the ground; the handles are immediately let down to the working position, and the work proceeds as before. The usual price of this rake is from .4^3, lOs. to £3, \')S. Many varieties of this implement have been patented ; but all the essential working parts of them are taken precisely from the earlier niachiiK's, similar to what is here describ- a separate head m, while at the point they cd, and tiiey are comparatively expensive, are bent forward and sharpened, but are the price of the best being from £6 to £9. adjusted so as not to run into the ground. Eacii of the rake-heads ii is attached to 4038. While the grass that was first the lifting-bar/by means of a short chain, cut is being raked with this maciiine across whereby, when the hnntlles e qre lifted, four ridges on to the fifth, the field-workera the bar/ and all the rake-tines are lif{ee rick- cloth, the sides and ends of the stack are neatly trimmed from angle to angle, with a small increase of breadth to the eaves. This operation simply consists of pulling out the straggling ends of the hay, whicl) give a rough appearance to the sides and ends, in order to render them smooth ; and its use is twofold — to ])reserve the hay pulled out, which would otherwise be bleaclied useless by exposure to rain, and to prevent damp hanging about the stack. 4049. The heading or thatchini: is done with straw ane stated from the tramp-rick at ltd. per stone of 22 lb. I have seen it as low as 4d. and as high as Is. 4d. per stone ; but when the price is high, the crop is deficient, and the quality bad. The heaviest crop of 300 stones at lid. yields £10 the acre, but 220 stones is nearer the average pro- duce; but grass lets for cutting £12 or £14 the acre in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, without incurring any trouble to the farmer. 4071. As to farms of mired A««6an<£ry, I have often thought it a loss to the farmer to make his grass into hay. The grass would pay b«tter to be soiled, and the land would be retained in bet- ter heart. I am sure if half the labour were be- stowed in winter, in cooking food for horses and cows as in making hay, even in the slovenly manner it is usually done, it would better ferti- lise the land. 4072. A crop of hay varies from 150 to 300 stones per acre, according to the season and the nature of the soil. On light gravelly soils the crop is of the former number, and its quality is generally fine; and on good clay it is usually the latter, and the plants large and strong, the clover predominating. For producing quantity and quality of hay combined, a deep mellow clay loam may be regarded as the best texture of soil. On thin clay, and on thin light soil resting on retentive clay, the clover is frequently thrown out by frost in spring, and the hay then consists chiefly of rye-grass, and on the same soils a similar effect is produced by severe drought in May, (3094 and 3095.) Grass usually loses two-thirds of its weight on being made into hay. 4073. Of the two methods of making hay, it is generally admitted that the English afi^ords the best hay; and one of its chiefest recommen- dations is, the quickness with which all parts of the process is conducted. If we attend to the changes effected in the grasses after they are mown, we shall see that the quicker hay is made the better it will be. " When green grass or clover approaching to .maturity is first cut down," observes Professor Johnston, " it contains a considerable proportion of starch, sugar, and gum, still unchanged into woody fibre, as it would mo.-tly be were the plant allowed to become fully ripe." But even when succulent grass is " left, to dry in the open air, the circu- lation proceeds to a certain exent, and, under the influence of light, woody fibre continues to be formed in the upper part of each stem, until it becomes completely dry." And " it may even be a matter of doubt whether the process of change does not often proceed after the hay has been carried off the field and stacked.'" These facts tend to prove that the longer grass is Tranmctiont of the Highland and Agricultural Sueicty for October 1843, p. 59. HAY-MAKING. 241 allowed to stand after the plant has attained its full stature, the less digestible and nutritious the hay becomes ; and the longer the process of making the grass into hay is delayed, the more woody and less nutritious the hay will be. Every quick process of converting grass into hay is, therefore, better than any slow one. 4074. A very quick mode of making hay is practised in Saxony; and it is this : — The grass that has been cut down during tlie day is put into large cocks late in the afternoon. A strong fermentation soon ensues, which continues all night until the morning, when the work-people return to the field, by which time the cocks have contracted very much in bulk, and the steam rises briskly from them. They are then scattered upon the ground, and allowed to remain all day exposed to the sun and air, and by the afternoon the grass has become so dry and won into hay as to be fit to be stacked, for which purpose it is gathered from the ground and carried home. The new-mown grass of the day is put into large cocks in the evening, and treated the next day in a similar manner. This mode of hay-making might be followed in this country, provided we could trust our climate, as the Saxons do theirs ; but here the next morning may prove rainy or even damp, and the fermented contents of the cocks would inevitably be rotted. 4075. The use of rick-cloths undoubtedly ex- pedites the making of hay, and in the variable climate of Britain they ought to be much more generally used than they are; but where timber is cheap, a permanent shed might be erected in the stack-yard for containing the hay stack, under the cover of which it could require no thatching. In pastoral, as well as dairy farms, such an accommodation would be highly useful, Mr James Little, Carlesgill, Dumfriesshire, has given an estimate of what ashed for that purpose might cost, of 45 feet in length, 16 feet in width, and 12 feet in height, inside measure. These dimensions contain 7800 cubic feet, or 290 cubic yards, which, at 7 imperial stones the yard, is capable of containing 2030 stones imperial of hay, or 1292 stones of hay weight of 22 lb. to the stone. The shed consists of the foUovfing parti- culars, and their cost : — 14 posts 5 feet each, = 70 feet, at Is. .Id. per foot, of larch trees 9 inches in diameter, . £4 7 6 90 feet of wall-plate, 9inches wide, and 2J: inches thick, = 67J cubic feet, at SJd. per foot, 0 18 3J 363.7 feet of 2i inch planking for roof at 3i per foot 4 18 5^ 1312 feet of J inch boarding for covering the planking, at Ijd. per foot, . . . 8 4 0 Nails, . ' 10 0 Carpenters' labour for putting up the shed, 2 10 0 Levelling, sinking, and ch.arring posts, . 0 16 8 28 gallons coal-tar, at 4d. per gallon, . 0 9 4 Putting ditto on the roof 2 days, at 23. per day, 0 4 0 This is exclusive of carriage from the wood to the saw-mill, and thence to the stead- ing. If covered with " double slate," instead of boards, the cost would be, . . . £25 10 lOJ If with "second" Lancashire sl.ite, the cost would be, 31 15 10 Exclusive of sinking the posts, the value of the coal-tar, and the cost of putting it on. To save warping, the boarding is fastened with T-headed nails driven in the joinings, the cross-head of the nails overlapping the boards ^ inch, which allows for their expansion and con- traction. Parallel to the joinings, and ^ inch from it, a groove of \ inch deep is cut along the upper surface of each plank to form a channel for rain. Cost of thatching a 9-fathom rick with sprits and coarse grass is : — Mowing thatch — drawing it in bundles — carting — and laying it on, . . . £0 4 11 Ropes making and putting on, . . 0 1 10 Material for thatch and ropes, . . 0 5 0 j£0 11 9* £23 8 3 The building of the stack is the same in every case, and these items of the cost of materials, when they are used, should, I think, be left out, as the manure afforded by them will repay their cost, 4076. The rule for ascertaining the number of stones of hay in oblong stacks, is simple : — To the height from the ground to the eaves add one- half of the height of the top above the eaves, for the mean height; then multiply the mean height by the breadth, and multiply their products by the length. Divide the gross product by 27, and the dividend will give the number of cubic yards in the stack, and that number of yards, multiplied by the number of stones of hay in a cubic yard, will give the weight of the stack in stones impe- rial. It is not easy to state the exact number of stones of hay in a cubic yard, as they must vary according to the compressed state of the hay in the stack, the age and size and part from which the hay is taken determining the degree of com- pression, which varies as much as from 5 to 9 stones; but perhaps 6 stones may be near the mark in a new stack, 7 stones in one which has stood for some months, and 8 stones in one a year or two old. 4077. The contents of a round stack with a conical top is more difficult to measure, but it may be ascertained in this way : — Take the height of the round part from the ground to the eaves, and add to it one-third of the perpendi- cular height of the conical top above the eaves, for the mean height of the stack. Take then the mean girth, which, if the stack is wider at the eaves than at the ground, is ascertained by tak- ing the girth at the eaves, and also at the ground, an'd dividing their sum by two. Square the mean girth, and multiply the product by the decimal "0795, which will give the area of the base of the stack. Then multiply this area by the mean height, which will give the contents of the stack in cubic feet, divide the contents by 27, which will reduce them to cubic yards, and multiply these by the number of stones in the yard, according to either of the above supposi- VOL. II Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol, xiv, p, 758-60. S42 PRACTICE— SUMMER. tions, and tlie capacity of tlie stack will be found in imperial btoiivd. 4078. To know the contents of a conical rick or coll, take the girth at the ground in feet, find the area of the circle by the above method, and multiply the area by one-third of the height. The contents thus found in feet reduce to yards, and then multiply by the number of stones in a cubic yard. But the simplest plan, in all such cases, is to use any of the tables published for the purpose of saving tedious calculations, such as those of Ainslie or Strachan, the latter, liow- ever, are not sufficiently extended to comprehend stacks of the largest dimensions. 4079. When seed is desired to be obtained from rye-grass, it is better for the hay, as well as for the land, that four acres of the part of the crop where rye-grass most abounds should be al- lowed to remain a while uatil the seed is ready for mowing, than that the whole crop should be injured by .-tandiug too long for the sake of the seed ; and even the part which is to afford the seed should not be allowed to stand until the seed is ripe, because rye-grass seed is very easily shaken from its stalk. As it is mown, it ^hould belied in sheaves with thumb-made straw-ropes and set in stooks for a few days to win. After that the sheaves are built in hand-cock^, and, when these are ready, they are either taken to the stack-yard to be threshed by the thre!-hing-ma- chine, or are tlireshed on the ground. In using the threshing-machine for this purpose, it is troublesome to clean it, so I think the better plan is to thresh the crop in the field with the flail. This may be done, it is true, ia the stack-yard, but it gets quit of the business most quickly when done in the field ; and in any way, a favourable day as to weather should be cliosen for the operation. Fig. '649 represents the particulars of the operation in a graphic THE THhK.MIlM. ni lUB-GRASS SEED IN THE I UI.li picture. An outside door answers well for the threshing-floor ; and it is set upon two cushions of hay, which afford sufficient elasticity to the stroke of the flail. A field-gate is placed lengthways in continuation of the door, and the large barn-sheet (1740) is spread under the gate to receive the seed. The hand-cocks containing the sheaves, are brought to the threshing-floor by a horse a, which is yoked by the haims by means of a cart-rope passing round the base of the cock. When the horse pulls, the cock slides upon the ground to its place of destination. A field-worker, 6, rakes the rick stands clean, while another, c, loosens the sheaves, and pitches them upon the floor with a fork, with the seed end towards herself. Two men, d and e, one on each side of the floor, use the flail. Another field-worker, /, at the junction of the floor and field-gate, pulls the threshed hny with a long fork towards herself upon the field-gate, over which she shakes and tosses it, and another field-worker, (/, removes it with a fork from the gate to the ground h. The threshers occasionally clear the door of seed with their flails upon the gate, throuf;h the spars of which it collects on the barn-sheet below. When the spars are filled up with seed, it is carried to one side at I, and riddled by a field-worker jfc, upon a sheet, preparatory to its being put into sacks m, to be carried to the corn-barn and win- HAY-MAKING. 243 no wed. The threshed hay h, is forked by a man to a field-worker, t, upon the rick, which slie is in the act of building of the form of the others on ; p \s a, ladder to come down from the rick, and r is a spare rake ; tlie basket at s indicates that a drink of beer is now acceptable to the workers. Thus, if one part of this busy band of workers supplies the other with sufficient ma- terials, the work goes on pleasantly and without collision. The seed will more quickly part with its impurities in the winnowing, after it has lain to dry and win on the barn-floor for some days. After it is winnowed, it should be stored in the granary to win. When sufficiently dry, it should be winnowed in the granary, heaped-nieasured, and laid thicker together ; and in spring, it should again be winnowed, and freed from the many fresh impurities which will have found their way into it during the winter, such as cats' and vermin's dung, cobwebs from the roof, and dust. Whatever proportion of the seed is not re- quired for the use of the farm may be disposed of to a seed-merchant or farmer. A fair crop of rye- grass, even when not too much ripened, should yield about 26 bushels of seed to the imperial acre, when thus treated. 4080. The flail consists of two parts, the hand- stafi" or helve a b, fig. 350, and the supple or beater b c. The first is a light rod of ash about 6 feet in length, slightly increased in breadth at the lower extremity, where it is perforated for the passage of the thongs that bind the beater to it. The beater is a rod of from 30 to 36 inches in length, frequently also made of ash, though a more compact wood, such as thorn, is better adapted for it. If not properly applied, the ash beater will very soon separate into thin plates, which are portions of the concentric layers of the wood, and their separation arises from the beater falling upon the flat or convex side of these annular layers — or the reed of the wood, as commonly called. To prevent this dis- integration of the wood, the beater should be con-tructed to fall upon the ed(/e of the segmental portions of the reed, which is easily accomplished in its formation. The usual form of the beater is cylindrical, but frequently thickened a little to- wards the extreme end, the diameter being from li to U inch. For the most part it is attached to the hand-staff by a strap of leather, or more frequently of hide untanned ; when mounted in this mmner, the beater is formed with two pro- jecting ears, standing at right angles to the side on which it is intended to fall, and about IJ inch from the end by which it is attached, serv- ing the purpose of retaining the end of the beater within the strap. The strap is about 8 inches long and 1 }j inch broad ; it is bent over the end of the beater, and the tails brought to embrace the sides of it beyond the ears. The strap being previously perforated with four holes ill each tail, it is bound by a thong of leather laced through the holes and round the neck of the beater ; the upper turn of the lacing thong catching the ears, prevents the strap from slipping off. The strap, thus applied, forms a loop standing about 1 inch beyond the end of the beater ; and through that, and the perforation in the end of the hand-staff, another and a stronger thong is passed several turns and secured, form- ing thus a kind of loose swing-joint that allows free action to the beater in its gyration round Fig. 350. THE HAND FLAIL. the head of the thresher, and its descents upon the threshing-floor. Another mode of mounting the beater is by applying a strap of iron in place of leather, which is fixed to the wood by rivettiug, leaving a loop as before, which must be nicely rounded and smooth, to prevent the too rapid chafing of the thong by which it is bound to the hand-staff, in the same manner as described above. The figure here descried exhibits the iron strap. 4081. In constructing a flail, a very general practice prevails, which is to have the beater club-shaped, or thickest at the furthest extremity c, intended, no doubt, to give the better effect to the blows ; but when wc consider the effects arising from the manner of wielding the instru- ment, any additional weight at the extremity seems misapplied. The greatest amount of use- ful effect will be produced by the beater when every point in its length strikes the floor with an equal amount of momentum or force ; but there will be a constant tendency to a larger 244 PRACTICE— SUMMER. amount of momentum at tlie extremity c tlian at any other point, and a club-shaped beater will always auj^nient this tendency for the greater Telocity of the extreme end, during the gyration of the instrument, multi('lied by its greater weight, must give an undue preponderance of effect to that part of the beater, thereby lessen- ing the general effect upon the work under per- formance. The opposite mode, wiiich is also practised, to make the beater thinner towards the extremity, as exhibited in the figure, is more consonant to the laws of dynamics, and there can be no doubt that its practical effects will be equally favourable as compared with those of the club-shaped beater. 4082. The beater of the flail used in the United States of America revolves in swivel fashion around the end of the staff. In Holland and Belgium the beaters are short, thick, and heavy. In Switzerland flails are diminutive in size com- pared to those I have referred to ; and, in using them, four or five wonieti range ihem.-^elves in a circle on the threshing-floor upon their knee?, and beat out the grain from the straw in short sharp strokes, following one another in rapid succession around the circle of threshers. 4083. The flail as a thresher out of grain is still very much in use in England; but a de.-ire for threshing-machines is now, without doubt, strongly evinced in several counties ; and ere long flails will there, as in Scotland already, only be seen in the possession of small farmers, who have not the means of procuring threshing-ma- chines, or have no accommodation for them in their steadings. 4084. A peculiar form of hay-rake bas been introduced into this country from America. It is represented in perspective in fig. 351, and lying in the working position. It consists of a 351. THK AMERICAN HAY-RAKE. head a a, perforated with 18 transverse teeth b b, 0 c, &.C., which are firmly fixed. These teeth are alightly tapering to each end, where they are rounded off to a blunt point, but chiefly upon that side which is to lie next the ground. It is drawn by a horse yoked to the draught-frame d e, at whose butts the head a a is dressed into a cylindrical journal, and each bar, d and e, is secured to it by a strap of iron passing round each, and leaving it freedom to traverse upon the journal. The handle-frame by which the imple- ment is guided has the two bars <; and h attached to the head a a, in the same manner as described for d e. Upon the lower stretclier of <) h is ap- pended the light movable frame i, jointed to swing freely on the stretcher. The bar i of this frame is put in connexion with the draught- frame /, by means of the connecting-rod i k, which is jointed movable at both ends on round journals, and strapped as before. The stretclier on which the frame i is appended, is prolonged at each end to receive the catch-bars /, on the out- side of the frame g h, one of which bars is seen at /, jointed on the prolonged stretcher, and serving an essential purpose in the management of the implement. 4085. In the working of this rake, it lies nearly flat to the ground ; and wlien the draught- frame is at its proper height, the connecting-rod i k keeps the hanging frame just within the ex- tremity of the teeth that are then behind, and nearly bearing upon them. In this position also, the point of the catch-bars / is quite free of the studs of the head, and, by pressing down the handle-frame, the pendant i will come down upon and depress the teeth that are looking back- ward, raising at the same time those in front, such as for the purpose of passing over any ob- struction. When, on the contrary, it is wished to depress the front teeth, the handle-frame is raised till the points of the catch-bars press against their studs, which will depress the front teeth; and by continuing to elevate the handle- franjc, the connecting-rod, from change of posi- tion in the bars i k, i I, and //, will push the pen- dant i beyond the extremity of the teeth behind, when the front teeth taking the ground, and nothing to resist the rising of those behind, the rake will immediately tilt over, the fore and hind teeth changing places; but, in other respects, everything will be the same as before. The effects of the motion and tilting, it is evident, will be, that in the progressive state the rake collects the hay upon it chiefly in the front part; and when the attendant sees that the rake is filled, he raises the handles and tilts the rake as above described, leaving the collected mass at the spot where the tilt occurs. 4086. A slight consideration of this implement will show the effectual and convenient manner in which its work is performed ; but for progres- sive motion, it is by no means so well adapted as SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT. 246 for collecting and depositing the products. The heavy head a a is drawn forward in the worst possible position, or what is called broad-side on; but this defect could be removed by simply apply- ing a pair of low light wheels to the ends of the head. Perhaps it may be owing to this defect that the American hay-rake has of late years not been in such high repute as formerly. 4087. The hand hay-rake used in the United States of America seems a well-made implement. Its head is thicker and shorter than in fig. 347 and 348. The teeth are 4 inches clear of the head, and are turned and fitted into their places by machinery, besides being wedged and pinned. The shaft is curyed for the last foot of its length, and is reduced in size before it reaches the Ik ad. It is furnished with two or three bows which pass through it and enter the head; and they are of use in enabling the raker to gather up a large quantity of hay at a single stroke. Every part being turned to fit exactly, these rakes are not only light, but are said to be remarkably strong and durable, seldom if ever breaking at the head or where the bows are inserted. 4088. A curious mode of preserving grass for forage, instead of making it into hay, has been tried in Germany, in East Prussia, and it is this : ■ — Pits are dug in the earth 10 or 12 feet square, and as many deep. They are puddled with clay, and lined with wood or brick. Into these pits 4 or 5 cwt. of grass, as it is cut, are put in a layer at a time, sprinkled with salt, at the rate of 1 lb. to 1 cwt.; and if the grass is dry, that is, free of rain or dew, two or three quarts of water are sprinkled over the layer. Each layer is trodden down by 5 or 6 men, and rammed firm, especi- ally round the edges, with wooden rammers, the object of which is the exclusion of air. A little Btraw is then scattered over the layer, to mark its dimensions afterwards. Layer is placed above layer until the pit is filled to the top, when the topmost layer is well salted, and the pit covered with boards or a well-fitted lid, upon which is put a covering of earth of 1 \ foot in thickness. Such a pit will contain 5 layers of grass, and should be filled in 2 days. The grass soon fer- ments, and in about 6 days subsides to half its original bulk. The lid is exaiuined every day, and every crack iu the earth filled up, to exclude the air, which, if allowed to enter, would pro- mote the putrefactive fermentation in the grass. When the first fermentation has ceased, the lid is taken off, and fresh grass put in, trodden down, and salted as before. The pit will now contain about 10 tons of grass, equal to 2 or 3 tons of hay. The pits should remain shut for 6 weeks before being used, and then are used in succession. The grass thus treated has the appearance of having been boiled, and its sharp acid taste is very agreeable to cattle; and 20 lb. a-day with chopped straw will keep a cow in good condition all winter, and 28 lb. will cause a cow to give a rich and well-tasted milk.* ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OP WHEAT. 4089. The wheat crop in summer is in two states, when spring wheat is sown after turnips, (2302 ;) and when no spring wheat is sown the autumn wheat only exists which was sown after bare fallow, beans, and potatoes. 40!»0. The state of the autumn-sown wheat in summer depends entirely on the sort of weather in winter and spring, and on the nature and condition of the soil upon which it was sown. Mild wear- ther will cause it to grow luxuriantly ; and if it continue so for some time in winter, the plants will probably become so luxu- riant as to lie down in spring, and be- come blanched and rotted at the roots, (2660.) In the earlier part of the winter, as long as the ground is dry, sheep may safely be put upon the land, to eat down the wheat to a considerable degree. Should the weather be wet, and the land soft, the sheep will poach the ground ; but, even under such a risk, they will do much good to the crop when allowed, for a limited time, to eat off the tops of the plants twice a-day, when hungry, and to make their lair on an adjoining grass field. But the winter luxuriance is not unfrequently checked, and even the plants destroyed, by the severe frosts at night, and the bright sun- shine during the day in March, (2660.) 4091. Besides over-luxuriance, early sown wheat is apt to be affected by slugs, Limax cinereus, in damp weather in autumn. Mr Wentworth of Harlow gives a recipe for destroying the slugs. " Provide, fresh from the 4viln, as much lime as will allow five bushels to the acre. Slake it two days before sow- ing ; choose a calm and mild morn- ing ; commence sowing early enough to finish before daylight ; and one man can sow an acre an hour, sowing two yards at a cast." Turnip-leaves have been re- commended to be laid upon wheat, to in- duce the slugs to take shelter under tliem, which they readily do, and they are then collected from the leaves and destroyed. Of these two modes of destruction, I should conceive the quicklime to be the more effi- cacious, on a large scale, in moist weather. * Verkandlung des Baltischen Vereinsfilr Fordervng des Landwirthschaft. Greisswald, 1842, p. 33. 246 PRACTICE-SUMMER. 4092. Should the winter luxuriance continue on the wlieat until spring, fheep will not then crop it in a uniform or suffi- cient degree. If the luxuriance has only commenced in spring, sheep will restrain it then as well as in winter. The win- ter luxuriance can only he restrained in spring bv mechanical means, such as the field-workers cutting oft' the tops w ith the common reaping-hook ; and this operation may be safely performed until the plant puts forth the shoot-blade, perhaps as late as the end of April. The scythe, fig. 322, may also be employed to mow <«ft' the luxuriant leaves, which should be done at the place they bend over. Before commenc- ing the cutting either with the hook or the scythe, one of the most forward plants should be cut open, and the position and length . The weeding of the cereal crops in summer is an iiidispensal)le o))cration for their welfare. It may be conducted solely with manual implements, or with both manual and horse implements. Among broailcast grain the weeding must be per- Kig. ;;5-J. foniied entirely vvith manual » implements, and the most cfVec- tive one for the purpose is the simple treed -hoi>k\ fig. 3.r2. It consists of an acute hook of iron, flattened, of the form at n, with the two inner edges as far set asunder as to eud)race the stem of succulent herbaceous ])lants, and made as sharp as easily to cut through them. The cutting hook is attached to a neck of iron, which is forged at the other extremity into the form of a socket, to take in the end of a light wooden handle about four feet in length, to which it is fas- tened by means of a nail or screw. The neck is bent in the form that, when the under sur- face of the hook rests upon the ground, the handle shall be s<* inclined as to suit the hand of (he worker. The weed-ho,. jn .„, incliiictl position to- "°"'^- wards the ground. The cost of this implement is 4d. for the hook, and 2tl. for the handle. I have seen a weed- hook with its outer edge also sharpeneil, for cutting weeds with a ]>ush forwards; but such a one cannot be used amonirst stamlini: corn, since its sharp outer edge would inevitably cut their stems. 4097- The ordinary way for field-work- ers to arrange themselves, when weeding broadcast corn, is for two to (>ccupy the breadth of a single ridge, each taking the charge etpiivalent to a half ridge from the open furrow to the crown. On weeding amongst corn, the point of the weed-hook is insinuated between the stems of corn towards the weed to be cut. and on its stem being taken into the cleft of the hook, it is severed by a slanting cut upwards, by an easy draw of the hand towards the worker. The woods, thus cut over are left on the ground to decay. 4098. The principal weed which infests wheat is the corn-cockle or popple, Apro- SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT. 24T stemma pithago. Having a woody stem, it is not cut with the wecil-hook, but pull- ed by hand ; and it is easily distinguished by its bell-shaped upright pink flowers. Its seed is black, rough, and round, and is much objected to in samples of wheat by bakers and corn-dealers, though, the kernel being white, its flour is not distinguishable from wheat-flour, and is reported to be in- jurious to it. In dry ground is found the long prickly-headed poppy, Papaver arge- mone ; and in strong ground the hairy tare, Ervuin hirsiitum^ though a low insignifi- cant plant, yields a hard heavy seed, difficult to winnow from wheat. The blue-bottle, Centaurea cgavus ; smooth rye -brome grass, Bromus sccalinus ; the corn and common sow-tiiistles, Sonchus arvensis and S. oleraceit.i ; the corn grom- well, Lit/ioftpermum arvensi\ the seeds of which contain a large proportion of silice- ous matter ; the bearded darnel, Loluim te/nulentum^ which is now rare, are all found among wheat. The cleavers, or sticking grass, Galium aparine ; and the common hemp-nettle, Galeopsis tetrahit, and G. versicolor, large-flowered hemp- nettle, are also found among wheat. Any of the natural grasses do no harm amongst corn ; their seeds, being light, are easily blown away in the process of winnowing, or even of threshing ; but the plants for- merly named all bear seeds as heavy as cannot be easily got quit of in threshing and winnowing, and are therefore trouble- some in the barn, and injurious to the sample. Theconmion reed, Aritndo pkrag- miUs, is not uncommon in corn-fields on carse-land, and, when not too plentiful, is not disliked, as it serves to keep the corn open in the stook and in the stack. 4099. Wiieat sown in rows is weeded Avith tlie hand hoe, fig. 2G6, and also with horse-hoes. The hand-hoe is used by field -workers, who each take a drill and hoe the ground between the rosvs, as also between the plants in the rows, which is not so easily done as when the rowsaro dibbled, fig. 290, and must be done by the hand. In weeding rowed corn it is neces- sary for the field-workers each to occupy a row ; and to prevent their jostling one another, the one in the centre of the band takes the lead in an advanced position, while the others range themselves on each side in echelon. Where the extent of drilled crops is considerable, hand-hoers are unable to clear the ground of weeds before the crops advance to a state in which it is improper to go amongst them. Hence the need of assistance from the more expeditious horse-hoe. 4100. There are many forms of horse- hoes for cleaning the ground between the rows of corn, and perhaps not one dis- plays so muph ingenuity of construction as that of Messrs Garrett & Sons, Leiston Works, SuS"oIk ; but as its construc- tion necessarily enhances its price, I have seen no cheap one please me so much aa the steerage horse-hoe contrived by Mr William Smith, Northampton. It is shown in perspective in fig. 353, where a a is the framing, which also constitutes the horse shafts, supported on iron brackets, which in their turn are supported on an iron axle, b, as hi^^h as to permit the crop hoed to pass under it. The axle, bent down at both ends, works in^the wlieels. c c. These form the carriage portion of the machine. The hoe consists of a bar d. SMITH S STEERAGE HORSE-HOE. 248 PRACTICE— SU^LMER. which bears the shanks e, of six trian- gular duck-footed hoes, or shares, made to enihrace as many rows of corn, at the ordinary breadth of 7 inches asunder. The handles, //', by which the driver guides the hoes along the centres of the rows, are attached to the bar d. The carriage and hoe are connected by means of the rods y y, which, at one end, are attached to the handles /, and at the other linked on by eyes to hooks in the hind part of the brackets, which support the framing or shafts a a. The rods g are strength- ened by others, passing under the bar pase9 of the wheat, and " the only truth-like solution of their SKurce," as Mr Sidney observes, ''is the almost universal diffusion of their inconceivably small sporules, which are so nnmerous and minute that it is not easy to conceive any place where they may not abound. They are ever at hand, only awaiting suitable conditions for springing into existence They gene- rally appear iu patches, consisting of multi- tudes of spores, that form frequently so many cases enclo>ing the reproductive sporules which float in the atmosphere around us, until they light on some place adapted to their growth. Their extreme minuteness allows of their being introduced into the substance of the tissues of plants or beneath the epidermis. As they grow on the leaves or straw of corn plants, they raise the epidermis into curious puffy blisters, which they subsequently rupture. These patches are of different colours, but most commonly either deep yellow, brown, or black. The several parts of the wheat-plant are attacked by these para- sitic pests, winch are quite distinct from each other, having nothing in common except that they germinate within the tissues." f 4114. Mildev. — Mildew or blight, Puccinia gramihis, forms blackish-brown parallel lines uj)on the straw, and seems to affect the entire plant ; so that, when it is generally diffused over it, it deprives the sap of the power to form seed in a healthy state, and hence the grain is either very much shrivelled when it is formed, or no grain is formed at all. So generally did this dis- ease affect the wheat crop of Berwick.-liire iu three successive years, 1810, 1811, and 1812, when the price of wheat was at the highest rate during the war, that in many instances it was not considered worth while to thrash it. The method by which the spores of the puccinia inter the tissues of the straw of the wheat, is by its stomata or breathing pores, which are numerous. These are closed in dry weather, but are opened to re- ceive the moisture in wet or even damp weather; and it is at this time, it is supposed, that the fun- gal spores enter into the plant by the stomata. It is certain, at all events, that the mildew only makes its appearance in moist warm weather, damp situation;, and on over-manured laud. 4115. A notion prevails in England that the berberry bush, lierberis ru/garis, has the power of causing the mildew iu wheat, probably from the well-known circumstance that the berberry is itself very subject to mildew : but its mildew is occasioned by the Erysiphe lerlierldes, whereas that of the wheat arises, as we have seen, from a Puccinia, and no possibility exists of trans- forming the one kind of fungus into the other. 4116. i?l^<^ — One species of rust is found scattered over the inner surface of the outer chaff scales, the skin of which is rai>ed into blisters, mostly of an oval form. It is occasioned by the Uredo ruhiijo, and is of an orange yellow colour, and is the worst species of rust, as it may affect the produce, if moist a))d cloudy weather continue for some time. The rust which affects the straw originates in the Uredo Itnroris; and when it disappears, the straw is not materially Ellis' Modern Ihifbandwan, for August 1745, p. 129. t Sidney's Blights vf the Wheat, p. 15 and 29. SUxMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT. 251 injured, and the arrival of bright warm weather Boon dissipates the evil. The genial beams of the sun completely vanquish both, so that they disappear in a surprising manner, and a healthy greenness speedily succeeds to the yellow tints that have disheartened the farmer. I have seen the leaves of wheat so much affected with yellow rust, at the time of weeding, before the ear had shot out, tliat the nether garments of the field- workers, who weeded the crops, were covered with orange dust. The rust on the leaves dis- appears in its worst form, before that on the chaff scales appears at all. 4117. Simd or Bunt.— The disease called in Scotland smut, is named bunt in England, and the smut of England is the black ear of Scot- land. Smut, Uredo caries, is so well understood in its appearance and character, that it requires no particular description farther than that it is a brownish black, greasy fetid powder taking the place of the kernel of wheat. Mr Lawson of Elgin examined the structure of the smut-ball in comparison with sound wheat, and the differences in their appearances are shown in fig. 356, where Fig. 356. THK STRUCTURE OFSOUXn WHEAT AND OF SMUT- BALL COMPARED. s is a longitudinal section of a sound grain of wheat, in its progress towards development, when the anthers have just protruded beyond the corolla ; e is an empty space lined internally with a greenish border ti n n. As the grain ad- vances, the space e contracts, and its substance h b, lying between the green border n and the outer green cuticle a, becomes filled with milky juice : « is a longitudinal section of a smut-ball taken wlien the stamens are fully formed within the corolla, for the anthers never protrude beyond the corolla when the grain is affected with smut; c is an empty space surrounded by a dark green substance, ooo which extends to the outer cuticle. In a very short time the whole interior of the smut-ball changes from green to white, as at w, the outer cuticle continuing green. The white substance soon has a black speck in its centre, as at X, which gradually spreads through the ball, as at y ; and as the ball still advances to matu- rity, the dark green cuticle changes to brown, as at z. The green substance occupying the place of the milky juice, at once explains the differ- ence betwixt a smut-ball and a sound grain.* 4118. Black ^-ars.— Wheat, barley, and oats sometimes seem to have their young ears coated as if with soot, adhering by some gummy substance to them. Its effect is completely to destroy the grain, from the first ini^tant it emerges from the hose. It is produced by the Urcdo segetum, in hot blinks of sunshine in showery weather, when the ears are appearing out of their sheaths. The spores of this fungus are so small, that M. Bauer counted 49 on the hun- dred and sixty thousandth part of a square inch. Hence, a square inch could contain 7,840,000 of them; and if the spores are so small, what must the dimensions of the spornles be ? The highest imaginable power of a microscope could only be expected to exhibit them aa a vapoury cloud. 4119. Ed of the «•/^^a^— " This is one of the most singular of living creatures," observes Mr Sidney; "and were its habits not thoroughly in- vestigated and proved, they would seem almost incredible. Its attacks are confined to the fari- naceous portion of the gniin, which it destroys and replaces, producing the disease known by the name of ear-cockle, pepper-corn, or pimples. A grain of wheat, infected by this blight, as- sumes the appearance of a black pepjier-corn. The vvhule ear is altered in appearance; the chaff husks open, and the awns become curiously twisted, so that the ears are easily distinguished from a healthy crop. The grains"first turn dark green, and then black. If one of tlieiu is divided into two with a penknife, it will be completely filled with a dense, white cottony nKiss, occupy- ing the place of the flour, and leaving merely a little glutinous matter. Tiiese contents seem to the eye like a quantity of fibres, closely packed together in parallel directions ; but if a little morsel is taken on the end of a pin, and put on a slip of glass and moistened, it will soon be seen to divide and give a milky appearance to the water. But in submitting it to a powerful Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 269-72. 252 PRACTICE— SUMMER. microscope, the astonished observer will soon discover tliattlic cottony mass is a dense body of living, eei-sliaped animalcule, whicli often wrigj^le about with great vivacity. ArconliiiL'ly, the name given to tiie disease is Vibrio tritici, tiie eel of the wheat."* I have never seen an in- stance of this remarkable creature. It is an in- fusorial animal. From the investigations of ISI. Bauer, it appears that, after laying all their eggs, the parents soon die; but such is not the e^se at an earlier period of life, for after being dried and appearing quite dead, on the application of mois- ainonirst barley, from which it is difficult to remove them, ami, even after under- going boiling along with put-barley, they retain tlieir hardness. 4122. When the barley is drilled or dibbled in rows, the horse-hoe, fig. 353, is employed to remove the weeds, and is a more economical imj)lementthan the hand- hoe, fig. 2(56. Still the weeds amongst ture they become as lively as they were at first, the rows of grain must be removed by the hand or hoe. When the charlock and poppy are abundant, the horse-hoe is an unsuit- able implement to remove them, since, on accumulating between the hoes, the bundles of weeds will be apt to be thrown upon the rows of grain. When the horse or hand-hoe is to be used among barley, that and this after a period of six years and one month. It seems probable that the glutinous substance in which they are enveloped preserves their vitality .f ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OP BARLEY. 4120. We left the barley in spring to its fate, immediately after the grass-seeds is, when barley is sown in rows, it is need- were sown and harrowed amongst it, and less to roll the ground after the grass-seeds the land rolled, (2G97.) Barley seed soon are sown amongst it in spring, (2697.) 8i)rings, in favourable weather, and eends the germ above ground, in some 4123. Barley may be top-dressed with years, in nine days after sowing. Nothing 2 or 3 cwt. .)f Per.ivian guano to the acre, is done with the crop until the period amongst the growing crop, and not upon arrives for weeding it, and in the broad- the land at the time of sowing the seed, for cast crop the weeds are removed witii the the reasons given above in regard to top- hand weed-hook, fig. 352, or by the hand, dressing the wheat crop, (4105.) Sulphat- the field-workers being arranged in the ed bones, (3233 ) to the extent of 2 cwt. to same manner as has been jxiinted out for the acre, may also be ai)j)lied in a similar the weeding of wheat in (4097-) manner. Of the sjKicial manures, 200 lbs. of the nitrate of potash to the acre had given a favourable result. 4124. When barley is not sown down with gras.s-secds, sainfoin may be sown 4121. The weeds that most infest the barley crop are the creeping plume thistle, Cnicus arvcnsis, though not to the .same degree as it does oats. The charlock, Sinapis arvenfiis, frequently takes pos- amongst it, in calcareous soils, in Ajjril; and cession of the barley crop in tlie neigh- it will he fit for cutting as a forage crop bourhood of large towns, the seeds of which for cows in Mi\y or June the next year, are supposed to be derived from the street manure, so largely used in such localities. 412.5. Barley is not much aflfected by When this weed is abundant, the most the state of the weather in the flowering effectual way of getting rid of it is to ])ull season, since that season is so much later it up by hand and carry it off tiie field, than that of wiieat, that the weather is Another weed, v.hich sometimes appears seldom stormy for many days together — in great (juantities in light soils, is the com- that is, much rain and strong wind at the nion retl l»li 4.75 458 6 76 Miignesia, l.(a 1.47 4.51 3.10 2.94 Oxide of iron. 0.55 0.62 1.02 1.60 0.35 Sulphuric acid, 1.3.(»3 7.84 27.94 9.90 16.42 Phosphoric acid, . 2.»1 6.31 9.03 7.25 15.19 Silica, .... 58.22 34.85 13.23 56.3S 26.05 100.14 1102.10 100.29 jlOV. 12 99.65 On the 16tli July the plant was in the midst of its most rapid growth, and just half way between the time when it ai)peared above ground in June, and wlieu it was cut on the 3d September. 4139. Dr Fromberg determined the nitrogen in the unripe oat, at six periods of its growth, as follows : — rSKCKKTAOK Or NITROOEM. repared in spring, there is not sufficient time to rnde'p"d to bring u"©^ "'m i7ch differe'nce" of opin- destroy couch-grass, and the oat-J^ike grass, ion exists as to the abortive powers of this sub- ' " ^ ' rr,- stance : some regard it as only acting on the uterus by the production of great constitutional injury, and that its effect is simply to accelerate but not to induce labour. In many instances it has been found to bring on a violent action of the commonly called knot-grass. The weeds that frequent the potato ground are pretty numerous, because the stems of the potato plant, permitting the air to pass between them, and the ground being usually in uterus at an advanced stage of gestation, or good heart, and there being plenty of when efforts at parturition had already com- j.^^^^ between the rows of plants, w'eeda menced. The results of experiments on animals ^^^^^ ^j^^ operations of the plou-h lead decidedly to the conclusion that ergot exerts » r i i a a specific effect on the uterus, and the observa- have ceased, and they are usually these : tions of Mr Youatt fully corroborate this view. — white goose-foot, Chcnopodiuui albmn ; The conclusion appears tome to be, that, although common fumitory, Fumaria offic'inalig ; in some instances ergot, even in large doses, may niugwort, Artemisia rulqaris ; chicken- fail to excite uterine action yet that ;n other Stdlaria media ; nipple wort. Lap- cases It appears to act decidedly as an abortne, ' . . . li r< and to originate this action." ' Ergot e.xercises fana communis; sliepherds purse, C ap- frequently a fatal action on the heart of the tella bursa-pastoris ; ivy-leaved s]ieed- foetus. In a summary of cases given by Dr weU, Veronica hedcrifolia ; small annual Hardy, it appears that in 48 cases, when ergot of rye had been given, 34 children were still-born If Ergot should therefore be very cautiously given to any animal in labour. nettle, Urticaurens ; all on their respec- tive soils. 4151. Another hand-hoeing is given to remove the weeds between the plants, but chiefly with the view of stirring the ground well around them. As to the set- ting up of potatoes with the double-mould board plough, fig. 209, they require to be ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES. 4148. The harrowing of the tops of the drills of potatoes, witli the drill-harrow, fig. 220, giving liberty to the potato gernis set up in all soils, because, being tubers to penetrate the ground in an upright di- occupying the ground bchtw the surface, rection, (2790,) the germs may be expected the earth should be loosened and heaped to ajijiear above ground in a fortnight or about them ; and as potatoes grow in three week.s afier being planted, according clusters around the stem near the surface as the state of the weather had been of the ground, and even above it, it is re- favourable to vegetation or otherwise, and quisite to cover these, as they would be too according to the early or late period of the much exposed to the air, and become season in which they were planted; the green and bitter; but it is possible to set later the season, the quicker the vegcta- up potatoes so as to injure them, which is tion. always the case when the earth is not put • Taylor On Poisons, p. .537-40. + Murphy On Natvral and Difficult Parturition, p. 141. SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES. 257 on the top of the drill, and when the plough goes deeper than the dung in the drill. On light land the last practice is useless, and on damp heavy land, it has the effect of enclosing the tubers in encrusted drills. An interesting experiment on the depth to which potatoes should be earthed, was made by Mr Peter Mackenzie, Plean, near Stirling. " On well-drained land," he says, on describing the results of the ex- periment, " three modes of cultivating the potato were tried; the dung used being what is called well-made farm-yard manure. The first was similar to the plan usually adopted — namely, earthing up the crop, until the interval between the rows was 2 or 3 inches deeper than the roots and dung. The second plan differed only from the first in being less earthed, or what may be called by some a half setting up. The third mode had no earth drawn to the stems of the plants, and the earth was only hoed between the rows. The dunging of the crop and the distance between the rows were equal. When the potatoes were dug, the advantage of the second mode of culture over the first was fully more than one-third part of the increase, and better in quality ; for the potatoes grown by the first plan would not bring the same price in the market which the second did. The produce of the third plan was nearly equal in bulk with the second, but rather inferior in quality, many of the potatoes having their sides greened by being exposed to light. While growing, the second and third lots had a much more healthy appearance than the first; and when dug, what remained of the dung that was used was well mixed with the soil ; while the dung of the first lot was dry and little decomposed, clinging in clusters to the roots of the potato plants when they were dug. It would be little trouble for farmers and others who grow the potato,'' advises Mr Mackenzie, " to try the expe- riment on land that has been well drained ; for it would certainly be a great advantage to themselves if they could increase their potato crop one-third more than is usually grown on the same extent of ground, and with less labour to themselves and horses. When we bear in mind the number of acres still planted with potatoes, it must greatly increase the food of the country, both for man and beast, if 120 or 180 bushels were added to every acre in the produce of that essential article of food ; when we re- member the number of square feet in an acre, and if, upon every square foot, an extra potato were raised, weighing only a quarter of a pound, more than 4 tons would be added to the crop on every acre." * It stands to reason that the moderate method of earthing up potatoes is preferable to the very deep one usually practised in the country. For this purpose, the setting up double-mould-board plough, fig. 214, would be better than the common double- mould-board plough, fig. 209, its mould- boards being cut away below. The earth- ing up is frequently too long delayed, even after the plants have nearly met across the drills: it should be finished before the plants have[advanced so far ingrowth; but still it should not be begun until they carry their stems and leaves to some height above the ground. 4 J 52. A top-dressing of 2 cwt. of Peru- vian guano to the acre, in damp weather, applied by hand by field-workers near the plants, after the earthing up of the crop has been finished, will greatly increase the pro- duce ; 48 bushyls of soot to the acre have also been found of service ; and of special manures, 1 cwt of thesulphateofsodaandof the nitrate of sida each, has had good effect. 4153. It has frequently been alleged that when the blossoms of the potato plant are removed, the potato crop is increased. The late Mr Knight says, that there are facts " sufficient to prove that the same fluid, or sap, gives existence alike to the tuber and the blossom and seeds, and that whenever a plant of the potato affords either seeds or blossoms, a diminution of the crop of tubers, or an increased expen- diture of the riches of the soil, must neces- sarily take place. It has been proved by others, as well as myself, that the crop of tubers is increased by destroying the friiit stalks and immature blossoms as soon as they appear." As a recent instance of such proof, Mr W. H. Tighe, Woodstock, Inistiogue, cut the blossoms off one drill of strawberry red potatoes, and left them on on anotlier drill, hard by, and the results, on the 13th of October 1849, were, that VOL. II. * Quart€rly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 363. 258 PRACTICE— SUMMER. from a perch of the drill from which the blossoms were cut, he received 2 stones 5 lb. of potatoes, which were all good, while from the perch of the other drill on which the blossoms were left, the produce was only \ stone 9 lb., a few of which were bad.* Since the sap which forms the tubers and blossoms is derived from the same source, " the cause why early varieties of the potato do not afford blossoms is the preternaturally early disposition of tlie plant to generate its tuberous roots."t Since the time the potato disease has established itself in this country, it has been observed that the potato plant puts out blossoms less plentifully than it did before. The scarceness of the blossoming has not been found to be accompanied with any increase of produce; and the result is not surprising, since plants that put out weak tubers must put out weak blossoms, or fail to put out any at all. 4154. Professor Johnston states, that " by taking oflF the blossoms of potatoes — besides the usual increase of crop — the tops keep green till the potatoes are lifted. Thus much green matter is obtained; and if this be made into manure, and applied to the next potato crop, it is said to raise the largest produce of tiibers."X " By every ton of potato-tops," says Dr Fromberg, " we add to the land about 50 lb. of inor- ganic salts and a quantity of organic mat- ter, containing 20 lb. of nitrogen, or about 23 lb. of ammonia ; this being probably the form under which the nitrogen is gra- dually discharged in the decomposition of organic matter." 4155. I have already alluded to the baffling nature of the potato disease, and of the many opposite expedients which have been tried simultaneously in difFerent parts of the country to evade its attack, without success, from (2778 to 2781.) In the present uncertain state of the culture of the potato, one is justified in trying every plan, whether suggested by practi- cal or non-practical men, particularly by the former, which has been said to have succeeded, or is likely to succeed. Two new plans of culture have been suggested in 1849, one by a Scotchman, another by a Belgian. 4156. The first was suggested by Mr David Martin, Muirhead of Liff, near Dundee, who recommends the seed potato to be cut lengthways, pot across, that some of the eyes of the rose end may be in every set ; that the drills be fully one yard wide, to allow of the future culture being conducted in the best manner ; that, as soon as potatoes are formed, the shaws or stems should be bent down over one side of the drill, and the earth brought over the shaws on the other side, as high as until the drill is like the roof of a house with the shaws growing out of one side of it ; that when the shaws are in this position, the rain is not conducted to the potato, but to the bottom of the drill. The cost of the earthing up does not exceed above one penny the perch. Mr Martin says that he has tried this plan for three years with perfect success, not having a diseased potato all the time. In 1 848 he tried alter- nate drills of his plan with the ordinary one, and in every case his plan aft'orded sound, while the common one gave nothing but diseased potatoes.§ The success of this plan has been corroborated by a cor- respondent of the Gardeners' Chronicle ol the 8th September 1849. 4157. The Belgian plan was suggested by a farmer, M. Tombelle Lomba of Nanmr, and it consists in cuttinp ojf i\\Q stems as near the ground as possible, after the flowering is over, with a sharp instru- ment, such as a sickle, so as not to disturb in the least the potatoes in their bed, and then to cover up the incised stumps of the stems with at least half an incli thick of earth, to perhaps two inches thick. The rationale of tiiis process, as explained by Dr Lindley, is, that it may be that potato- tubers, after having arrived at a certain condition, possess the power of continuing their growth by their own proper and un- assisted vitality ; and this is rendered the more probable by the well-known fact that the flour which gives them their princijtal value does not descend directly from the leaves as flour, but is in the first * Gardener's ChronicU, 13th October 1849. t Knight's Horticultural Papers, p. 1-33 and 321. Johnston's Elements of Agricultural Chemistri/, 5th edition, p. 161. Note. § Dundee Courier, 28th February 1849. I SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES. instance of the nature of gum, or some other fluid orga; isable matter formed in the leaves, and sent downwards into the tubers. Having reached the tubers, it undergoes its final change, and from a sohible substance is gradually converted by their vital force into insoluble flour. To that final operation we have no reason to suppose that the leaves contribute ; all that tliey do is to produce the matter out of which the tubers generate the flour. It must be obs^erved tliat Mr Tombelle Lomba does not cut off the stems till after flower- ing. It is possible that at tbat time the leaves of the potato have done tbeir work, as far as the tubers are concerned, and tbat their farther duty is to nourish the tubers. If so, we have an explanation of the result of which M. Lomba so positively speaks. This plan was tried by Mr H. Dooville, Alphington, near Exeter, in 1849, and related by him in the Garden- ers' Chronicle of the I. 0th September 1849, by which it seems he succeeded in securing the potatoes in a sound state, even after the leaves had indicated symptoms of the disease ; whilst those in the adjoining rows, left untouched, presented a consider- able proportion of disease. 4158. But the part of M. Lomba'splan which is remarkable, is " that when the potato stems are cut off with a sickle pro- perly sharpened," to use his own words, " the tubers are not at all interrupted in their growth ; tbat they remain attached to the stem until they are ripe, just as if the haulm had not been removed ; and that they acquire as large a relative size as potatoes which have not undergone the operation. I have so often observed this continuation of growth, that I can speak positively to its going on without the least interruption, and that the treatment which I have recommended is not attended by any loss whatever of size or quality. I can offer the most positive assurances as to this." It would appear, then, that the leaves are not necessary for the growth of the potato after the plant has done flower- ing. Mr Dooville's experiments were not so successful in establishing this point as of that of tlie soundness, for, in taking up two rows, the stems of which had been cut off, he obtained 83 lb. of potatoes in 5 j feet length of the rows ; on two ad- joining rows, of which the stems had not been taken away, he obtained 129^ lb. of potatoes in the same length of rows ; and at Lodsworth an experimenter obtained, under the same circumstances, 88 lb. of potatoes from plants whose haulms had been retained, while from those whose haulms had been cut off he only received 68 lb. Whatever may have been the cause which produced these unfavourable results, it seems certain that, to produce results similar to those afiirmed by M. Lomba, some peculiar management in the culture is required ; and the point to be attended to seems to be, that the haulms should not be removed until after the plants shall liave produced their flowers. If Mr Knight's views in regard to the effects of removing tlie flowers from potato plants, be correct, (4153,) M. Lomba's plan must have the effect of preventing the increase of tlie crop as far as the removal of the flowers gives it a tendency to increase. 4159. The composition of the ash of the potato leaves and stems is as follows, according to Dr Fromberg : — White Buffe. Bed Bufls. stems. Leaves. Stems. Leaves. Potash, 31.1.5 17.27 33.32 18.63 Soda 5.80 3.78 4.58 Chloride of potassium, 4.98 19.72 . ,, sudium, 21.60 14.85 21.03 2.39 Lime, .... 19.13 2(i.98 20.-4 £6.(19 Magnesia, . 5.09 6.04 4.39 4.59 Oxide of iron, 1.43 3.70 1.34 3..50 Sulphuric acid, . 5.56 5.76 6.02 7.t;9 Pliosphoric acid, . 6.90 14.94 551 9.1:9 Silica, 3.34 5.48 2.37 3.22 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00* 4160. Professor Johnston came to these con- clusions : — That in the leaves the proportion of ash diminished as the plant grew, while in the stem it increased; that tlie proportion of phos- phates and of silica in the ash of the leaf was much greater than in that of the stem ; that the proportion of alkaline matter in the ash of the leaf remained nearly stationary, while in the stem it diminished as the plant grew; that in both the proportion of silica diminished, while that of lime and magnesia increased .f 4161. No one has yet succeeded in explaining the origin of the potato disease, or even what it really is. Amongst other endeavours at explana- Transactions of the Hljhland and AqricuJtural Society, March 1847, p. 688. t Juhnstou's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, ■2d edition, p. 435. seo PRACTICE— SUMMER. tion of this mysterious subject, the interference of that singular class of beings— the fungi— lias been pressed into the service, but with as little success as the more obvious intenneddling of in- sects. That innumerable myriads of the sporules of fungi are constantly afloat in the air is most certain; but unless they find suitable matrices of growth, they cannot vegetate and produce fungi. Is the potato, prior to disease, a suitable matrix ? Of the kinds of fungi most common in organic matter, the Jiutri/tis is tlie most remark- able; and the singular connexion of the Botri/tis infegtans with the potato disease of 18-1 •") and 1846, will render it ever memorable. " To say that the disease was cavsed by this fungus," as has been observed by Mr Sidney, " would be contrary to the best evidence; but that it attends and accelerates it is unquestionable. True it is that whole fields, in a sad condition of disease, were seen without a trace of botrytis; but in all con- tagion, infection, and inoculation, anomalies con- stantly occur. In most cases, the botrytis was entirely connected with the disease, and a descrip- tion of its growth will be interesting to every reader. The threads of mycelium interwove themselves amongst the cellular tissue. They ran through the loose interccllar passages of the lower surface of the leaf with great ease, and the fungi emerged through the stomata. It is a remarkable circumstance, however, that this botrytis was found to grow with greater luxuri- ance on the diseased tubers, where the tissue is far more dense than in the stems and leaves. That the mycelium of the fungus was contained in the diseased potatoes, may be proved from the following singular circumstance: — A quantity of silk was, during the early i>art of the summer of this year (1846,) perceived to be greatly damaged by a white mould. On submitting a portion of it for examination, to an individual eminent for a knowledge of fungi, it was at once pronounced to be the Botrytis infestans, or mould of the diseased potato. The mystery was soon cleared up; for the silk had been dressed with starch from potatoes, and proved a favourable situation for the development of the fungus from tlie spawn that was in it. Growth in such cases is ex- tremely rapid; and when a potato plant is at- tacked by the botrytis, of course the juices are consumed by it: the elaboration of sap in the leaves cannot go on, nor, from the stoppage of the stomata by its threads, can admission of air, ©remission of any gas or fluid, take place. It is certain that the disease which destroyed such quantities of the potatoes in America, Great Bri- tain, and over the continent of Europe, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. Further re- searches, in plants more recently infected, may throw additional light on the important subject. Undoubtedly, in most instances the fungus ap- peared ; and where it was not actually seen externally on the leaves, it seems to have exer- cised an influence on the tubers, which are, in fact, branches or stems under ground, as every botanist knows."* 4162. Yet positirely as Mr Sidney affirms that the mould cannot be the cause of the disease in the potato, the Rev. Mr Berkeley, than whom no higlu-r authority exists in this country on the nature of that mysterious class of plants — the fungi — expresses his belief in these words, of mould being the cause of the disease: — "The de- cay " [in the potato,] writes Mr Berkeley, " is the consequence of the presence of the mould, and not the mould of the decay. It is not the habit of the allied species to prey on decayed or decaying mat- ter, but to produce decay — a fact which is of the first importance. Though so many other species have this habit, these have not. The plant then becomes unhealthy in consequence of the presence of the mould, which feeds upon its juices and prevents the elaboration of nutritive sap in the leaves, while it obstructs the admission of air and the emission of perspiration. The stem is thus overcharged with moisture, and eventually rots, while every source of nutriment is cut off from the half- ripe tubers. It would be as reasonable to say, with our knowledge of the nature and habits of the cereal fungi, that bunt, or mildew, or the other allied diseases which aff'ect corn, an' the consequence and not the causes of disease. In favourable seasons they are not developed; in unfavourable seasons they spread like wildfire; in one sense, therefore, the atmospheric condi tions are the cause, but merely as they stimulat* into action the latent pest. The immediate cause of disease is the fungus which preys upon the tissues of the corn. So exactly, in the present instance, as far at least as the atjrial portions ol the plant are concerned, the botrytis is the immediate cause of destruction. In some in- stances it may have been aided by unseasonable frost, but this has certainly not always been the case. Tlie mould indeed would not have spread, but from peculiar atmospheric conditions favour- able to its growth. What these are it may be impossible to say ; but it is a fact well known to every student of the extensive tribe of fungi, that their growth, and especially their numbers, depend more than all other vegetables on atmo- spherical conditions, or what Fries has happily called ' cosmica momenta.' Even the peasant knows this to be the case with mushrooms. Dry and wet summers occur, and both are equally barren ; while in other seasons, apparently but little dissimilar, they occur in the utmost pro- fusion. A species will be most abundant for a year or two, and then for a period vanish en- tirely. It is notorious that this is the case in other parts of the creation, especially amongst insects, peculiar species of which sometimes swarm to such an extent as to baffle the naturalist. In the summer of 1826, for instance, Vanessa cardui existed in the greatest profusion in Eng- land, and it was traced by Mr Way from England to Nice. The species of late years has been comparatively rare. There is nothing sur- prising, then, in the fact of the immense preTa- lence of a parasitic mould. No one wonders when the hop grounds are ravaged by their pecu- liar mildew, because the cultivation of hops is so limited; but if it were as universal, and of as much importance as potatoes, the ravages would Sidney's Blightt of the Wheat, 145-8. SUMMER-FALLOW. 261 equally excite attention. It is by these instru- ments, contemptible in the sight of man, that the Almighty is pleased sometimes to accomplish his ends. Instances, like that of the Hessian fly, will readily occur of the immense disproportion between the means and the end." * 4163. Although the potato plant, like the other cultivated plants, is the abode of many kinds of insects, yet it is perhaps less injured by them than those plants; and I express my- self thus in perfect recollection of the sensation endeavoured to be raised by Mr Smee, a few years ago, against the Aphis vastator as the originator of the potato disease; but the truth is, that in no instance has the aphis been seen on the potato plant in sufficient numbers to injure the produce, far less to destroy the crop. The larva of the heart-and-dart moth, Noctua exclama- tionis, eats the haulm through just beneath the earth, and the plant in consequence fades. It also attacks the potato itself; and so insensible is it of cold, that so late as the 20th November it has been taken out of potatoes quite alive. When potatoes are left in the ground all winter, they will attract all the wire-worms, fig. 253, in the neighbourhood towards them, and of course suffer damage. When potatoes become decayed under ground, scolopendrse, Lithobius forficatus, and rove-beetles, Oxytelus nitidalus, subsist upon the corrupting mass; and when they are affected by any fungus, the kind of mite called Oribates castaneus will surely congregate for the sake of feeding upon the botrytis and other fungi. A rotten potato seems to be a favourite recep- tacle for very many insects. " I may mention," Bays Mr Curtis, " that from one growing and partially rotten potato, I bred, in August 1845, 128 flies, independent of many more which had died in the pupa state, or IJeen destroyed by damp and mites, before I discovered them in the vessel in which the tuber was placed, as well as a multitude of smaller flies." i- ON SUMMER-FALLOW. 4164. Summer-fallowing is the opera- tion of cleaning that part of the land which does not bear a crop in tlie season it is cleansed, and the summer-fallow is the land so cleansed. Although summer- fallow occupies the same division of the farm as green crops — turnips, potatoes, tares — yet it may most characteristically be regarded as the first preparation for the crop of the following year; it is a trans- ference of a portion of the land, with the labour bestowed upon it, from one year to another; it forms the connecting link between one season and crop and another. for a part of the crop of two consecutive years, is conducted simultaneously on the fallow-break, yet the crops which occupy the soil thus simultaneously prepared, are committed to it at very different periods, the green fallow-crops being sown early in summer, while the sowing of the bare- fallow crop is delayed till autumn ; so that, before the latter makes its appearance above ground, the former have almost ad- vanced to maturity. Since the crop on the bare-fallow is delayed until autumn — till the eve of commencing another agricul- tural year — the practical effect of the de- lay is to dispense with a crop for a whole year on the bare-fallow-break, and it is on this account that such a fallowing is called a bare-inWow. As an entire crop is dispensed with in bare-fallowing, it should impart such advantages to the land as to compensate for the rest and indul- gence which it receives — and such are the advantages felt from it on some sorts of soils : and the reason that the land receives such indulgence is, that it cannot carry a green or summer crop; and if it cannot bear them, it must be operated on so as to bear a crop that will come to perfection, and pay the expense of the fallowing. The sort of soils bare-fallowed are heavy clays; and why will the?/ not bear green summer-crops ? A satisfactory reason cannot be given ; but experience proves that their nature is unkindly to the growth of bulbous plants used in a green state; and their heavy, wet, and obdurate nature prevents them, at any rate, from being pre- pared in time for sowing such plants. Could clays be altered in their nature by any means, they might be employed in rais- ing summer-crops as well as the natu- rally more kindly soils ; and such a change has been effected on many clay soils which were formerly incapable of rearing green- crops, by thorough-draining, skilful tillage, and liberal manuring and liming. In this way the bounds of bare-fallow have been much circumscribed, and those of green crops as much extended. Still the heavier class of clays — the deep alluvial ones — have not yet been ameliorated to tlie degree of bearing green-crops profitably, so they must continue to be bare-fal- lowed; but part of even the ameliorated soil of almost every farm is necessitated But although the preparation of the soil, * Jovrnal of the Horticultural Society, vol. i. p 23. t Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. x. p 102. 262 PRACTICE— SUMMER. to be bare-fallowed, for want of an ade- quate su[>[)lv of farm-yard manure. Farms in tlie vicinity of large towns may be amply supplied with extraneous manure, to make up for tlie deficiencies of the farm-yard ; but a^ most farms are be- yond the reach of such assistance, it may be alleged that bare-fallowing, to some extent, must be practised every year upon every farm : though the limits of compulsory fallowing have been much circumscribed, of late years, by the pur- chase of extraneous manure from distant sources, as guano and bone-dust, and sulphated bones, which are easily con- veyed, and sold at prices that afford a profit. These manures, superadded to draining and deep-ploughing, haveafforded the power to cultivate green-crops upon soils which were naturally unfit for tiiem ; and, without such auxiliaries, soils even suitable for their growth would have been obliged to be bare-fallowed, to allow time to collect the requisite quantity of manure. Until manure, -which is now procurable, is procured in sufficient quantity, bare- fallow must exist ; and wherever that shall be accomplished, bare-fallow will be dispensed with altogether. But a natural obstacle exists against the increase of manure on farms themselves ; for it so hap- pens, that the largest quantity of sraw, which is one great domestic source of fer- tilising manure, is afforded by land the least fitted for green crops ; and the land best fitted for them affords the smallest quantity. Turnip-soils cannot supply as much straw in the state of manure fit to be applied to green crops, for little more than one-half of the fallow-break ; where- as clay soils afford as much of it in tiie state in which the manure niay be ap])lied to bare-fallow, as sufficiently to manure the fallow-break. 4165. The land to be bare-fallowed should be the strongest on the farm, be foulest of weeds, if any there be, and be situate farthest from the steading, that the carriage of the green-crops to it may be the shortest distance practicable. The fal- low land is the last ploughed in winter, and it should 1)0 so the sanie as for potatoes (•iT-j.i) and (-iT-M.) If one furrow — that of two out-and-two-in, (7(H) ) fig. 2). — has been given to tlie fallow-break after crosi ploughing, ('ifilG.) it will he as much as time will afford Jrom working the potato and turnip land ; and should the fallow- break not likely be worked for some time, it is belter to let it lie in the rough state from the plough, than to harrow it smooth; because, dry weather ensuing, will more easily ameliorate rough than smooth land ; wet weather will render rough laml less tough to work than when it is compact and smooth. When leisure from the turnip- land permits attention to be paid to the fallo\t-hreak, its state should be particu- larly examined. Should the weeds in the soil consist ])rincii)ally of fihrous and fusiform-rooted plants, they will be easily sha)ien out hy the harrows in dry weather ; but should the roots thread themselves through the hard round clods, they will not be easily detached, and will require considerable skill and labour to do it. Inattention to the state of the weeds causes much unnecessary work in the subsequent part of summer- fallowing. If clods, containing portions of running roots, are knocked about in dry weather, they may be broken into smallei ones ; but so will the roots in them, and the land be as fiir as ever from being clean. In a case of such frequent (;ccur- rence on strong land, the best plan is to allow the roots to grow for a time, and the force of vegetation will break the clods, or render them easily so by a clod- crusher, after a shower of rain shall have nearly j)enetrated them. A caution in the use of the roller should here be given. If the soil is in fine mould, rolling the hard clods will only bury, not break them. If the soil is not firm, harrowing the clods two or three times will break them better than rolling; but after a long rest, the soil is not likely to be too soft at this time for the roller. After a good clod-crush- ing, the land should be harrowed a double tine, first one wav, and then across that. The weeds may then be picked from the surface. It is not expedient to gather them immediately, as a gootl deal of fresh soil ahment and luxuriance of a new generation of plants Fallow, in its most ex- tended sense, means that period of culture dur- ing which a soil is exposed to the action of the weather, for the purpose of enriching it in certain soluble ingredients. Iu a more confined >ense, the time of fallow may be limited to the intervals iu the cultivation of cereal plants ; for a maga- SUMMER-FALLOW. 265 rine of soluble silicates and of alkalies is an essential condition to the assistance of such plants. The cultivation of potatoes or of turnips during the interval, will not impair the fertility of the field for the cereals vrhich are to succeed, because the former plants do not require any of the silica necessary for the latter. It follows, from the preceding observations, that the mechani- cal operations in the field are the simplest and most economical means of rendering accessible to plants the nutritious matters in the soil." * 4177. Numerous weeds lurk about the margins of fields, rendering the cultivated ground near them foul. Most farmers allow them to grow without molestation in the ground not touched by the plough, which is the narrow space along the fences, and the triangular space in the four corners of every field. This waste ground being well sheltered, and its soil being as good as that of the field in which it is situate, and unexhausted by cropping, grows weeds easily and luxuriantly. Instead of allowing it to be waste ground, the plough should turn over the soil either towards the foot of the stone fence-wall, the root of the hedge, or the lip of the ditch, or from these objects, and in either case, the distance from them and the plough need not exceed 9 inches, by putting the horses atrip, — that is, one before the other in the plough, and giving the bridle of the plough more land. The corners where the plough cannot possibly reach, should be dug with the jpade by the hedger. But independent of the consideration of the waste land lessening the ex- tent of every field, the weeds which grow upon it (Should be cut down by the field-workers in all the fields, whether bearing green or grain crops, at intervals of time during summer and autumn. Besides the slovenliness exhibited in neglecting to weed such places, loss is incurred elsewhere, by allowing the seeds of syngenesious plants to be carried about by the wind. Besides thistles, ragweed, dock, whin, and broom, other weeds are found in those waste places, such as the com- mon burdock, Arctium lappa, which is not the least formidable ; the hemlock, Conium macu- latum, a well-known poisonous plant; the purple fox-glove. Digitalis purpurea ; the annoying dandelion, Leontodon taraxacum ; and the great nettle, Urtica dioica. In damp situations, jEn- anthe o-ocaia, water sap-wort grows; and what is remarkable in this plant, is the fact of its being poisonous in England, but innocuous in Scotland. 4178. The couch-grass, Triticum repens, is not despised everywhere, as it is gathered from the land and washed, and sold in the markets of the south of Europe in bundles, of the size a small hay-fork would take up, for 3d. or 4d. each; and the horses and mules of those countries seem to relish it as much as the boys do a stick of liquorice. 4179. As fallowed land is usually manured along the feered ridges, by depo>iting the loads in heaps, I might here give a table showing the number of heaps each cart should afford in man- uring an acre with a given number of cart-loads; but as heaps of manure are an indefinite stand- ard of measure, such a table would practically prove of little service. A much more accurate plan is to number the ridges in an acre in each field, and at every part of a field where the ridges are of different lengths, as I have recom- mended in (573,) and lay down the dung on the first ridge in the proportion it is proposed to manure the acre, and by the time the second ridge is manured, the man who hawks out the dung will have found out how close the hawkfuls should be laid down, or how large the heaps should be made, (4171.) 4180. Green weed of very delicate texture, "found alone in protected situations in the estu- aries of our rivers, is used in the upper parts of the Forth, and still more so in the Eden in Fife- shire. Mr Meldrum of Bloomhill, near St Andrews, besides collecting the weed on his own shore, rents that of his neighbours. He frequently applies from 300 to 400 cart-loads in a single year, and reckons 10 cart-loads good, and 15 heavy manuring. When laid on in winter, and ploughed into the fallow ground, it produces a fine pulverising effect. With this alone a wheat crop of 6 quarters an acre has been produced, with a heavy crop of beans the year after with- out additional dung."t Such green weed can as well be laid on fallowed ground in summer, as on stubble in winter. 4181. On the varieties of green manures, and of their action on the soil. Professor Johnston has the following observations : — " The practice of green manuring has been in use from very early periods. The second or third crop of lucerne was ploughed in by the ancient Romans — as it still is by the modern Italians. In Tuscany, the white lupin is ploughed in — in Germany, borage —and in Holstein, spurry. The Madia satita has lately been tried as a green manure in Sile- sia. In French Flanders, two crops of clover are cut and the third ploughed in." We have seen, from what Mr Fortune has observed, that the red clover is grown in China entirely for the purpose of being ploughed in (3898.) " In some parts of the United States, the clover is never cut, but is ploughed in as the only manure ; in other parts, the first crop is cut and the second ploughed in. In some of the northern states, Indian corn is sown on poor lands, sometimes two or three times, and turned in during the summer. In north-eastern China, a species of coronilla and a trefoil are specially sown and grov^n in ridges, as a manure for the rice crop. . . Since the time of the Romans, it has been the custom to bury the cuttings of the vine stocks at the roots of the vines themselves ; and many vineyards flourish for a succession of years without any other manuring. In the Weald of Kent, the primings of the hop bine, chopped and dug in, or made into a compost and applied to the roots of the ]iop,give a larger crop, and with half the manure, tliau when they are burned or * Liebig's Chemistry in its Applicition to Agriculture, 3d edition, p. 130-3. + Quarterltf Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 308. 266 PRACTICE— SUMMER. thrown away, as is usually done. Buck-wheat, rye, winter-tares, clover, and rape, are all occa- sionally sown in this country for the purpose of being ploughed in. This should be dune vhen the Jluirer has jnU bf./un to open. aiid. if possible, at a season when the warmth <>f the air and the dryness of the soil are such as to facilitate decomposition. 4182. " That the soil should be richer in vege- table matter, after this burial of a crop, than it was before the seed of that crop was sown, and should also be otherwise benefited, will be understood by recollecting that perhaps three- fourths of the whole organic matter we bury has been derived from the air — that by this process of ploughing in, the vegetable matter is more equally diffused through the whole soil, than it could ever be by any merely mechanical means — and that by the natural decay of this vege- table matter, ammonia and nitric acid are, to a greater extent, produced in the soil, and its agri- cultural capabilities in consequence materially increased. Indeed, a bandry on a scale commensurate with ordinary farming in Scotland, is Mr Archibald Scott, Sjuthfield, East Lothian. "In 1831," says Mr Scott, ** I determined to ascertain the difference of the expense and produce between trenching land with the spade, and summer-fallowing with the plough in the usual way. I therefore trenched 13 acres of ray summer-fallow break in the months of June and July. I found the soil about 14 inches deep ; and I turned it com- pletely over, whereby putting up a clean fresh soil in the room of the foul and exliausted mould, which I was careful "to put at the bottom of the trench; and this operation, I found, cost about £3, 12s. per imperial acre, paying my labourers with Is. 6d. per day. The rest of the field, con- sisting of about 11 acres,! wTought with the plough in the usual w-ay, giving it 6 furrows, with the suitable harrowing : I manured the field in August; the trenched got 7 cart-loads per acre, the ploughed land 14. The field was sown in the middle of September, and the whole turned out a bulky crop as to straw, particularly the trenched portion, which was very much lodged. On threshing out both, I found them to stand as under : By frmcAfd wheat, 42 bushels per acre, at 6s. 9d. £14 3 5 To 2 years' rent, at 40s. per annum, £4 0 0 ,, expense cif trenchiiiB, - - 3 12 0 ,, fieed, 2^ bushels, at (i-i.Sd. per bushel, 0 16 10 ,, 7 cart-liKids of manure, at 3s.i>d. per load, 16 3 ,, expense of Imr^'esting, tlireshioK and marketing, - - - - 14 0 lf> 19 1 Profit, - £3 4 4 Bv plouchtd wheat, 34 bushels per acre, at 6s 9d. per bushel, - - £11 9 To 2 years" rent, at 40s. per annum, £4 0 0 ,, 6 plotiKhinps and liiirrowinfrs. at 8s., 2 8 0 ,, «eed,'J*bu>lieIsat 6s.9d.perbudiel, 0 16 10 ,, 14 cart-loads of manure, at 3s. M. per loiid, - - - - 2 12 ,, expense of harvesting, tbresliing and marketing, - - - - 14 0 11 1 4 Profit, £0 H 2" This was but an experimental trial, and the re- sult was certainly an encouragement to perseve- rance; but it only proved that trenching land with the spade might be a substitute for bare-fal- lowing, it did not prove that summer-fall'wing might be dispensed tcith, so another ex]:erimeut * Johnston's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, 5th edition, p. 160-2. REAPING OF TURNIP SEED. 267 was worth the trial, to ascertaia this important point. Accordingly, Mr Scott " now saw, that though it might be profitable to trench over the fallow-break during the summer months, it was by no means making the most of the system, as the operation was not only more expensive, owing to the land being hard and dry in summer, but that it was a useless waste of time to take a whole year to perform an operation that could as well be done in a few weeks, provided labourers could be had; and as, in all agricultural opera- tions, losing time is losing money; as the rent must be paid whether the land is carrying a crop or not, so that in taking one year to fallow the laud, and another to grow the crop, two gears' rent must be charged against the crop, or at least there must be a rent charged against the rota- tion of crops for the year the land was fallowed; as I felt satisfied, that, by trenching with the spade, the land would derire all the ndrantaije of a summer-fallowing, and aro'id all the disadvan- tages attending it, 1 determined on trenching about 40 acres of my fallow-break, immediately on the crop being removed from the ground, and had it sown with wheat by the middle of November 1832, and I did not apply any manure, as I thought the former crop was injured by being too bulky. As the crop is now threshed and disposed of, it stands per acre as follows : — By average of 40 acres, 33 bushels, at 7s. per bushel, . . £12 12 0 To rent of land per acre, £2 0 0 „ expense of trenching, 3 4 0 „ seed, . . . 0 16 0 „ harvesting, threshing, and marketing, . 14 0 7 4 0 Profit, £5 8 0' This trial was also satisfactory, because it not only proved that trenching with the spade might be substituted for summer-fallowing, but that summer-fallowing might be profitably dispensed with altogether ; but it must be owned to be rather sharp practice to make the same depth of soil, altliough its component parts were not in the same relation to one another, bear one crop im- medhady after having borne another, and that vithout manure, and at a period of the rotation when manure is usually given to land. Mr Scott seems satisfied with the system ; but it may be asked. How long will land bear this sys- tem of trench-fallowing with impunity \ " The advantages of trenching over summer-fallow are, in my opinion," says Mr Scott, " very decided, as it is not only cheaper, but, as far as I can yet judge, much mure effectual. I am so satisfied of this, not only from the experiments above noticed, but from the apparent condition of the land after it has carried the crop, that I have this autumn cultivated about 120 acres with the spade, and the crops are at present, 1834, very promising. When 1 first commenced I was laughed at by my neighbours; but now, when they see me persevering in what they considered a yery chimerical project, they suspend their judgment, and several of them have made con- siderable experiments this year. I should think there are at least 300 acres under crop cultiva- tion in this way this season in East Lothian, while in 1831, when I commenced, there was not a single acre. I have, therefore, the satisfaction of knowing, that I have been the means of caus- ing £1000 to be spent this year amongst the labouring classes in my immediate neighbour- hood; and I feel confident, that should the sea- son turn out favourable for the wheat crop, and fair prices be obtained, their employers will be handsomely remunerated for their outlay. I do not mean to say that this system will succeed on every description of soil, as it must necessarily be of some depth to admit of the operation; but there are few districts where such soil will not be found in sufficient abundance to give employment to the population of the neighbourhood.*" I believe the adoption of this mode of fallowing land was made a question between landlord and tenant, and since the question was decided against the tenant, I have not heard of any instance of the process being persevered in. I should like to see trenching established generally as a substitute for summer- fallowing, and also to see the effect of trenching on land intended for green crops; but in neither case ought the land to be taken advantage of to bear a crop without manure at the ordinary period of the rotation, and it would be better to apply a special manure which would check exu- berant growth in the straw, than not to apply manure to the soil. ON THE KEAPING OP TURNIP SEED. 4186. While the turnip plant is grow- ing it is subject to several casualties from insects and birds. Of the insects the Cetonia aurata^ green rosechafer, is found on the flowers, and renders tbeni abortive. It is one of the most beautiful of our insects, having a brilliant metallic green, often with a golden or copper hue. Its length is three quarters of an inch. It is found in numbers in England, but has only been observed one, two, or three times in Scotland. The larva commits a good deal of damage where it prevails, by feed- ing in the same way as other chafers. The flower of the turnip seed is also infested by one of those universal pests, the apliides. Fig. 360 repre.-ents the winged male of the plant-louse. Aphis Jioris-rapa'. which attacks tlie flowers of the turnip plant, when raised fur the seed. It is dull pale green, dusted with white; eyes, head, disc of the thorax and abdomen varied with black; feet black. Fig. 361 represents the wingless * Mr Scott's Letter to the Ret. C. Gardner, 8th March 1834. S68 PRACTICE— SUMMER. female of the same plant-louse. It is dull pale green, powdered with white ; eyes Fig. 360. WINGED MALE OF THB TURNIP-FLOWER PLANT- LOL'SK — APHIS FLORIS-RAP.E. black; feet black. Fig. 361. " Towards the end of July," says Mr Cur- tis, "I found a multi- tude of these aphides secreted amongst the short flower- stalks of the early white turnip, when a few only of the flowers were open. They were of vari- UriNGLESS FEMALE OF '' ■ 1 i II THE TCRNIP-FLGWER ^US SlZCS, but all PLANT-LOUSE — APHIS aptei'ous at that pe- FLORIS-RAP.E. ri„j . i)y the middle of August, however, they had increased to very large companies, with a few winged epecimens." * 4187. The turnip seed, when growing, is seriously injured by the weevil named CVm- ^eroA^/ic/iMsassrwjV/s, referred to in (3299.) As weevils are so sensitive as to fall down, if suddenly approached, they may be easily collected when they abound in the turnip- flowers left for seed, by shaking the stalks over a bag-net or cloth ; and being so hard that they cannot be destroyed by stamp- ing upon them, they must be killed, when collected, with boiling water in a pail. 4188. Long before the seed is ripe, small birds are busy in shelling it out of the husk; and were they to destroy only what they consumed, the loss, perhaps, would not be great; but as they spill a great deal more thanthey consume,a\vhole pod is destroyed for the sake of one seed. In thi« depredation none are so active as the Livaria cannobina, variously deno- minated grey, brown, or rose linnet, or rose-lintie, one of the sweetest warblers of our woods. There is no way of evading the attacks of these active marauders but by constant watching from dawn to eve; and the watching will be rendered more eflectual by alleys being left crossing each other when the bulbs are transplanted, to allow the watchers to pass at pleasure in various directions through the plot. (2479.) 4189. The crop should be cut down with the sickle before it is ripe, as the seed is very apt to shake out ; and the best mode of preserving and winning the seed is to place the stems in frames of wood having a hollow along their length, to allow the air to pass along; and the stems placed on it as u])right as that their butt- ends shall j)roject over the lower laths of the frame, and above one another, so as to formasort of thatching of steins. The upper part of the thatching is filled up and rounded with the smaller stems of seed, cut oflT from the larger, and the whole is covered with straw, and bound down with straw- ropes. When this plan is not adopted, the stems are bound in sheaves, set up in stocks and watched for some days, and then built in a stack, which is thatched with straw bound down with straw ropes. The seed is threshed out by the flail, fig. 350, when wished to be disposed of or used. 4190. A crop of Swedish turnip-seed, when grown from the seed, is considered good when it yields 28 bushels per imperial acre; of yellow turnips, 20 bushels; and of globes, 24 bushels. When transplanted, the yield will perhaps double these quan- tities. ON MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 411*1. The dairy operations of a farm of mixed husbandry are limited, both in re- gard to the season in which, and the quan- tity of materials by which, they can be prosecuted. Until the calves are all weaned, which can scarcely be before the end of June, (3838.) there is no milk to sjiarc to make into butter and cheese, but what should suHice fur the inmates of the Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. iii. p. 55. MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 269 farm-house ; and as some of the cows, at least, will have calved 4 months before the remainder are at liberty to yield milk for the dairy, a quantity of milk cannot be expected from them, even when entirely supported on grass. But though thus limited, both in regard to time and milk, ample opportunity is nevertheless afibrded for every dairy operation, according to the taste and skill of the dairy-maid. Thus, butter may be made from cream, or from the entire milk. It may be made up fresh for market, or salted in kits for families or dealers. Cheese may also be made from sweet and skimmed milk, for the market; and any variety of fancy cheese may be made at a time, such as cream-cheese, Stilton, Gloucester, North Wilts. With all these means at command, to a moderate extent, it is quite possible for the dairy- maid to display as much skill and taste in her art, on a farm of mixed husbandry, as on a dairy farm ; and not only in all these respects, but in the many forms in which milk may be served on the table of the fanner. The only difference in the opera- tions of a dairy farm, from one of mixed husbandry, is, that all its dairy operations are conducted on a much larger scale. 4192. The milk-house and cheese-room in a farm-house ought to be cool and roomy. To obtain the former requisite, tliey should, if possible, be exposed to the N., from which the air should be of the purest description ; but should any obstruc- tion exist against that, the rooms may face to the E., which only admits the sun's rays early in the morning, when they are com- paratively weak. Besides being so ex- posed, to be always kept cool, the rooms should be situated in a back jamb, and not in the body of the house. In fig. 362, I have endeavoured to arrange the milk-house and kitchen pantry, so as to stand convenientlyin relation tothekitclien and scullery, where a is the kitchen, d the back kitclienor scullery, in which are erect- ed a boiler (!, fur heating water to scald the dairy utensils, a force pump to supply cold water, and /a sink to remove the dirty water ; k, the kitchen pantry, disconnected from the kitchen by a passage and door; in, the milk-kouse, having two windows facing to the N. or E. ; a lock-up closet n ; Bbelving o, of stone around ; and the di- mensions 18| feet in length, 12 feet in breadth, and 10 feet in height, with the walls and ceiling lathed and plastered, to Fig. 362. GRUlND PLAN OF A IMILK-HOVSE IN RELATION TO THE KITCHEN, IN A FARM-HOUSE. keep the room cool and free of damp, that no mouldiness be generated— the bane of a milk-house, certain to contaminate the flavour of milk ; and the floor laid with polished pavement, in order to allow it to be easily and quickly washed clean, and as quickly dried. 4193. Fig. 363 is the plan of the cheese- room, situated immediately above the milk-house and kitchen-pantry in fig. 362, and in which k is the stair from the Fig. 363. PLAN OF CHBESK-ROOM, &C., FOR A FARM-HOUSE. 270 PRACTICE— SUMMER. kitchen to tlie passage ^, from wliicli the cheesc-rooin h is entereil. This room is pro- vided with three windows, facini,' either X. or E., with broad wood shelving' m, all round, for theacconiniodation of thecheeses in their various stages to maturity, in which tlie wood-flooring should be made to assist. The walls and ceiling should be latlied and plastered. The lower halves of the windows should be proviiled with Venetian shutters outside of the glass- sashes, to regulate the air into the room when the windows are o[)ened. This cheese-room is 29 feet in length, 12 feet in width, and 9 feet in height. The letter I indicates a stair to a garret above, for containing lumber; but should it be desired to give a loftier height than 9 feet to the ceiling, the part of the garret above the cheese-room might be dispensed with, and a lathed and plastered ceiling carried up to the roof of the house. 4104. The utensils with which a dairy should be supplied comprise a large num- ber of articles of simple construction. The milk-dislws are composed of stoneware, glass, wood, metal, and stone. The stone- ware consists of common ware and Wedge- wood ; the wooden of cooper-work ; the metal of block-tin and of zinc ; the stone of sandstone, pavement, and marble po- lished. Besides these simple elements, a combination of materials are used, as, wooden vessels lined with block-tin and zinc, and German cast-iron lined with porcelain. Of all these, the stone and wooden ones lined with metal are station- ary, and the others movable. The form of •ill milk-dishes should be broad and shal- low, for the j>urpose of exposing a large surface with a shallow depth of milk, to facilitate the disengagement of its several parts. A diflerence in opinion exists, which of those substances have the great- est influence in disengaging the largest quantity of cream from the milk. But, indeiioiidcntly of the quantity of cream, other circumstances determine the choice of milk-dishes. Wooden ones retpiire much labour to keep them thoroughly clean, and are the least liable to be injured in the use. Metal ones also require much cleansing, and are liable to be bruised. Stoneware is easily frangible, though very easily cleansed. CJlass is as easily cleansed,and perhaps more frangible. 4195. Common stoneware milk-dishes are brown outside and glazed yelh>w in- side, of ro\ind form, tapering to the bot- tom, and without a mouth to pour the milk by. When 15 inches in diameter, and 4 inches deep, inside measure, they cost 9d, each. They are easily cleaned and broken, and the glazing is not durable. 4196. Fig. 364 represents a milk-dish Fig. 364. WEDGEWOOD-WARK MILK-DISH. of white Wedge wood ware, of an oval form, 16 inches long, and 3 inches deep, inside measure, with a mouth. This ware is hard, not easily broken, the glazing durable, and easily cleaned. A dish of this size costs 6s. Wedgewood, or white ware, is also made of the form of the wooden one of cooper- work, fig. 366, with the adilition of two handles to lift the vessel by. 4197. Fig. 365 represents a milk-dish Fig. 365. ORL£.:-< v.L.i.-.^ .uii.K-j.iMi. made of light green-coloured glass, of a circular form, 16 inches in diameter, and 4 inches deep, and with a mouth. It is easily cleaned, and easily broken, if care- lessly handled. The cost of a dish of this size is 4s. 6d. Glass milk-dishes were first introduced to public notice a few years ago. by the celebrated glass manufacturer, Mr Pellat, of London, and are now manu- factured by various makers. MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 271 4198. Fig. 366 represents tlie common tain from 2 to 3 inches of milk. When wooden milk-dish, made of cooper-work, made of wood lined with zinc, block-tin. Fig. 366. Fig. 368. WOODEN MILK-DISH. composed of staves of oak and flat hoops of iron, and without a mouth. It is made 16 inches in diameter, and 4 inches deep, inside measure; and costs 2s. each. This is the most durable of milk-dishes, though it requires much scrubbing when in use to keep it clean, and the iron hoops bright, which they should always be. 4199. Fig. 367 represents a milk-dish made of zinc, of a circular form, 18 inches Fig. 367. ZINC MILK-DISH. in diameter, and 3 inches deep, provided with a mouth, and costs, of this size, 2s. each, the price varying 3d., more or less, for every inch in the diameter. It requires much cleansing, and is apt to be bruised, though not easily broken. 4200. These are all movable dishes : a fixed one is represented by fig. 368, made of stone— sandstone, slate, or marble — the last being the best material, being cool, cleanly, and handsome. An orifice is made in the bottom, at the near side, through which the milk runs out of the cooler, as also the water which has been used to wash it clean. The dimensions may be made at pleasure, 3 feet lono- and 2 feet broad being a good size ; but the depth should not exceed 4 inches, to cou- A FIXED MILK-COOLER OF MARBLE, OR OF WOOD LINED WITH METAL. tin, or lead, the form is the same as this. The sandstone and marble ones, as a, fig. 368, are each hewn out of single blocks and polished, and placed upon upright slabs ; and the wooden ones, which support the metallic lining, are framed along the walls of the milk-house, and subdivided into separate coolers. It is only in large dairies that these fixed coolers are used. 4201. Dr Taylor has these observations in regard to the use of vessels made of zinc for dairy purposes : — •' Zinc has been lately used in making utensils for holding milk during the separation of cream. It is pro- bable that some of the lactate of zinc is here formed, as well as a combination of the oxide of zinc with casein. I have been informed that milk and cream, which were allowed to stand in such vessels, have given rise to nausea and vomiting. This practice would not be allowed under a pro- per system of medical police. When an acid liquid has been placed in a zinc vessel, there is a strong chemical action, and the liquid becomes invariably impregnated with a salt of zinc. A cider merchant kept for three months a quantity of cider in vessels made of zinc. It was observed that the liquid had then acquired an acrid and styptic taste. On analysis, it was found to contain a large quantitv of acetate of zinc. It had, therefore, become de- cidedly poisonous.'' Milk kept in zinc vessels until it becomes sour, would, I have 272 PRACTICE— SOIMER. no floubt, produce a similar poison. "When milk is so delicate a fluid, and so easily aflTectod by any deleterious substances, great caution ought to be practised in using any metallic vessels in the dairy which might possibly injure its quality. 4202. Besides the substance of the ves- sels containing milk causing it injury by direct action, milk is aflected by the poisons taken by animals, being absorbed into their lacteal system. " It is generally admitted that milk may become poisoned when the cow feeds upoii kt/sop, Gratiola officinalis^ and spurge, Euphorbiiim peplus^ and other irritant vegetables ; and this form of poisoning is well known to occur in other cases in which the cause is not so apparent. A patient was advised by his medical attendant to drink the milk of a cow fed on hemlock, Coniiim macidatum. The animal became emaciated, lost its milk, and, fortunately for the patient, died from the effects of the poison, or it is not im- probable that he might have fallen a vic- tim to this plan of treatment. Milk also easily undergoes changes according to the food of the animal. It is ren- dered bitter when the cow feeds on worm- wood, Artemesia absinthium ; on sow- thistle, Sonchus alpinus; the leaves of the artichoke, Cynara scoh/mus ; and its taste is affected by the cabbage, carrot, and all strong smelling plants, and the effects ex- tend to butter, cheese, and all articles of food prepared with milk.'' 4203. But all the effects of poisoning may be produced by milk without the cow being apparently affected by the pas- ture. " In some extensive districts of North America, to the west of the Alle- ghanics, the herbage has no injurious effect upon the animals which are there pastured, but their milk and flesh, when used as food, are poisonous to man. The disease pro- duced by the use of the flesh and milk of animals fed in those districts, is known underthe nameof milk-sickness ortreniLlcs. On account of the prevalence of this malady in a particular locality, which is generally strictly circumscribed, the early emigrants were often compelled to seek another ; and those who now venture within the boundaries of an infected dis- trict are constrained, as a condition of their residence, to abstain from the flesh of the cattle living within the same limits, aa well as from the milk and its preparations. The inhabitants, with a recklessness of human life which seems incredible, carry the butter and cheese which thev them- selves dare not eat, to the markets of the towns west of the AUeghanies, and thus there are frequently produced symptoms of poisoning, and even death, for which the medical attendant cannot account. It is also stated that the cattle from these dis- tricts are sent for sale in great droves over the mountains ; but, in order to deceive the buyers as to the place whence they come, they bring them to Xew York by a south- ern route, and style them ' southern cattle.' The flesh of these animals produces, in those who make use of it, symptoms of aggravated cholera morbus. The viscera of the animals are often found diseased, and the livers almost universally so. Owing to the symptoms which have fol- lowed the use of the beef and cheese thus poisoned, the American government caused a medical inquiry to be instituted into the matter, with a view to prohibit the sale." 4204. But farther still, the milk of the mother may become a medium for the transmission of poison. " Two ewes were bitten by a rabid dog. Rabies aj)peared in them about six weeks after the bite, and they were killed. One had two lamb-s, the other one. At first they were i>er- mitted to suckle. The lambs were subse- quently attacked with rabies, and were then killed. It ai>j)ears highly j)robable that they received the poison through the milk, because they were removed from the ewes a month before these became affected ; there was no mark of their hsviug been bitten, nor is it j)roved that a sheep crin com- municate the poison by a bite, either before or after it has been attacked with rabies."* 420.'5. Another utensil required for the use of the milk is a milk sieve, fig. .3GJ>, which consists of a bowl of wood formed of plane-tree, having an orifice in the bot- tom, which is covered with wire gauze, in order to detain the hairs, on letting the milk pass through it, that may have fallen into the milking-pails from the cows in the act • Taylor On Poitom, p. 499,561, 563, and 823. MAIQNG BUTTER AND CHEESE. 278 of being milked, (2245.) The gauze is commonly made of brass-wire, and, when Fig. 369. THE MILK-SIEVE. keptbright,^swersthe purpose ; but silver wire is much less likely to become cor- roded by us^. Such a sieve, 9 inches in diameter, with brass wire gauze, costs Is. 3d. 4206. The creaming dish, fig. 370, made Fi?. 370. THE CREAM-SKIMMER. of stoneware, is called the skimmer or creamer, for taking the cream off the milk. It is thin, circular, broad and shallow, having on the near side a smooth edge to pass easily between the cream and the milk, and at the upper side, an indentation for the thumb of the right hand to rest in, and a mouth on the right side to pour out the cream by into any vessel. At the bottom are a number of small holes to. allow the milk to pass through and leave the cream pure and thick in the skimmer. Such a skimmer costs Is. 4207. The cream, until it is churned, is kept in a jar of stoneware, as in fig. 371, about 18 inches in height, and 10 inches in diameter, provided with a movable top, having an opening in its centre, covered VOL. II. with muslin to keep out dust and let in Fig. 371. air. Such a jar costs 8s. to 10s. 4208. Unless the milk-house is kept thoroiuildy clean, in its wails, floors, andshelves, > the milk will soon become tainted; and, to keep them clean, the floors and shelves should be made of mate- rials easily and quickly cleansed. Shelving is most- 3 ly made of wood, ^^^^ and flooring of pavement or brick. Wooden shelves THK CREAM-JAR. ^rc casily cleaned, but are too warm in summer. Stone ones are better, but must be polished^ otherwise they cannot be cleaned, without being rubbed with sandstone. Marble shelving is the best for coolness and clean- liness, and is not very expensive. Po- lished pavement makes a more durable, easier cleaned, and cooler floor than brick. Ample means of ventilation are required in a dairy ; the object, however, not being so much a constant change or a larger quantity of air, as an equality of temperature throughout summer and winter. To obtain this, the win- dows, which face N. or E., should not be opened when the temperature of the air is above or below the proper one, which may be stated at 50° Fahrenheit, and to ascertain which a thermometer ought always to be suspended within the milk-house. The milk-house should be thoroughly drr/; the least dampness in the walls and floor will emanate a heavy fungus-like odour, very detrimental to the flavour of milk and its preparations. All the utensils should be kept thoroughly clean, and exposed to and dried in the open air. Some dairymaids are so care- less in this respect, that I have seen seams of green and yellow rancid butter lurking in the corners and angles of churns, and a heavy smell of dirty woollen rags emanat- ing from the newly washed wooden utensils. 274 PRACTICE— SUMMER. However effectual woollen scrubbers may be in removing tlie grca.sines3 of milk arnl butter on wooden articles, tliey should never be employed in a dairy, and only coarse linens, wliicli should be washed clean in hot water without soap, and dried in the air. All the vessels should be quickly dried with linen cloths, that no feeling of clamminess be left on tlicm, and then exposed to the air. In washing stoneware dishes, they should not be dried at that time, but set past singly to drip and dry; and rubbed bright with a dry linen cloth when about to be used. If dried and set into one another, after being washed, they will become clammy. The great objection to using stone milk- coolers is the difticnlty of drying them thoroughly before being again used, an objection which does not apply to marble. No milk-house should be so situated as to admit the steam arising from the boiler, which supplies hot water for washing the various utensils; nor should the groiind before its windows contain receptacles for filth and dust, but be laid out in grass, with a few eA'ergreeus. It is said that the odour of the blossom of the common elder, Samhiicus nigra, keeps off flies in sum- mer; but I have also heard it stated, that the same powerful odour affects the taste of the milk. 4209. Milk. — The articles which engage the dairymaid's attention within the dairy are milk, butter, and cheese; and, first, as to milk. On treating the milking of cows, I have said that the milk is drawn from the cow into a pail (2245,) the most convenient form of which is given in fig. 197, and the size may suit the i)leasure of the dairymaid. The milk, on being drawn from the cows, is put into a tub, and left to cool ; but not to become so cold or stand so long as to separate the cream. The tub should be placed in the air, and out of reach of animals, such as cats and dogs. After it has cooled, the milk is passed through the milk-sieve, fig. 3G9, into the milk-dishes, and as much only is put into each dish as not to exceed 2 inches in depth. To know at once the ago of milk in the dishes, one mark or score should be made with chalk on the dishes just filled, to show that they contain the last drawn milk ; a second mark is made, at the same time, on the dishes containing the milking before this; and a third put on the dishes containing the milk drawn before the second milking, and which contain the third milking, or oldest milk. If the cows are milked three times a-day, when the first mark is put on the dishes of the evening milking, those containing the morning milking of the same day will have 3 marks, to indicate that the milk was from the third milking previous, and the dishes of the mid-day or second milk- ing will have 2 marks. At every milking every utensil used should be thoroughly cleaned, and set past dry, ready for use when required. 4210. It is always satisfactory to know the quantity of milk obtained from each milking of the cows. When the number of cows is large, it may be troublesome to measure all the milk with a small mea- sure, such as a quart; and when much trouble is imposed on the dairymaid, the probability is that the ascertaining of the quantity will be regarded a trifling matter, and the quantity will be gues.'-ed. A rapid way of ascertaining the quantity in any commonly ut^ed vessel, is to have a stick with marks upon it, each indicative of a quart, in the depth of the vessel used. When the vessel is a tub, the contents may thus be very easily ascertained by gauging it with the stick, and a stick may also be made to gauge the contents in quart of any irregularly shaped vessel, by ha> ing the marks on it placed nearer or farther asunder, according to the form of the vessel. 4211. The next business of the dairy- maid, as regards the milk, is to take the creinii oft' it. In ordinary weather in summer, the cream should not be allow- ed to remain longer on the milk than 3 milkings ; that is, when a fresh milking is brought in, the cream should be taken off the dishes which already have 3 marks, when the milk will be 20 or 22 hours old. But should the weather be unusually warm, the milk should not be allowed to be more than 18 hours old — that is, in the dishes having 2 marks — before the cream is taken oft' it. As an example of ordinary routine, the cream of the previous mid- day's milk should be taken ofl" in the morning, and at mid-day the milk of the previous evening should be creamed, and MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 275 so on ; but when the weatlier proves very warm, the creaming should be anticipated by one meal, and taken off the two oldest meals at onetime; and in tliis way all the cream that can be got is taken off every 18 hours. The reason for using this anti- cipation in taking off the cream is, that the milk should on no account be allowed to t-urn sour before the cream is taken off, because the cream off sour milk always makes bad butter. Let sweet cream be- come ever so sour after having been taken off sweet milk, and no harm will accrue to the butter. Not that sour cream off sour milk is useless, or really deleterious, as it may be eaten with relish by itself, as a dessert, or with oatmeal porridge. The cream is skimmed oft' milk with the skimmer or creamer, fig. 370. There is no other way of taking cream off dishes but with a skimmer; but in stationary coolers of metal or of stone, a spigot is drawn half out from a hole in the bottom, on the near side, throHirh which the milk runs slowly into a vessel below, and leaves the cream on the bottom of the cooler — and this manner of separating the cream from the milk is quite effectual ; but, of course, the skimmer may he used for cream- ing the milk in coolers, as well as in dishes. The cream when taken off the milk is put into the cream jar, fig. 371, in which it nccumulates until churned into butter. Every time a new portion of cream is put into the jar, its entire contents should be stirred, in order to mix the difierent por- tions of cream into a uniform mass. The stirring is usually done with a stick kept for the purpose, but spoons of Wedgewood ware or of wood, or of bone, are made for doing it. The cream soon becomes sour in the jar, and it should not be kept too long, as it is apt to contract a bitter taste. Twice a-week the contents of the jar should be made into butter, however little the quantity may be at a time. The skimmed milk is put into a tub and made into cheese ; but if a cheese is only made at every other churning, the skimmed milk to be kept for the cheese should be scalded on the fire before it is put into the tub. 4212. Churns. — The various forms of churns may be classed under four kinds : — Those in which both the fluid and the containing vessel, with its agitators, are iu rotative motion ; those in which the containing vessel is at rest, and the agita- tors in rotative motion horiz(mtally ; those in which the containing vessel is at rest, and the agitators in rotative motion verti- cally; and those wherein the containing vessel is at rest, and the agitator having a rectilineal vertical motion. 4213. Of the varieties of churns, it is only necessary to mention those in most common use. The old-fashioned upright plunge churn, belonging to the fourth of the classes mentioned above, when worked by the hand, is now chiefly confined to the use of small farmers and cottars; but when inanimate power is employed to move it, it is used by many extensive dairy far- mers. The barrel-churn, which belongs to the fir.st class referred to above, and which was so much in vogue upwards of twenty years ago, is now disused. It has been superseded by the box-churn, whose agitators move vertically, and which be- longs to the third class mentioned above. One seldom sees the box-churn with hori- zontal agitators, which belongs to the se- cond class referred to above — and it may be concluded that it is not convenient for use by the hand; and when used at all, it is so in town-dairies, where it isdriven by power. 4214. Tahle-churn. — In the class just mentioned stands the table-churn, remark- able for its elegance and cleanliness; and, being adapted for the lighter purposes of the butter-daiiy, I have considered it as deserving a place here. This uten- sil is represented in fig. 372, in per- spective, in the most improved form, with outer case to contain hot or cold water. The chief part of this utensil is the Wedgewood receptacle a, formed of the finest and strongest white glazed ware of that manufacture: they are of various sizes, from 1 to 4 gallons capacity; it is furnished with a varnished wooden cover b. The outer case c is made of sheet zinc or of tin plate: it is 2 inches wider than the churn, furnished with handles c, and two ears to which the iron cross-bar e is attached by two thumb-screws e and eon made to substitute for it, the common winch - handle turning vertically. This arranirement is exhibited in fii'. 372, where /i is a tootii-bevelled wheel, on the axle of wliich the handle i is fixed ; and it works into the bevelled wheel p fixed on the top of the agitator spindle /, in the place formerly oc- cupied by the pulley : the two standards / / being fixed on the cover I, to carry the axle of the wlicel h. By this ar- rangement, two turns of the handle i pro- duces the same result in the agitator as was done by one stroke of the bow ; and the motion of the handle being reversed at every second revolution, the ultimate effect is the same as before, and the manual ope- ration is more easily eftectetl in the one case than in the other. On being used, all the parts of the churn should be taken asunder and cleansed. 4215. It is well known that a certain elevation of temperature is acquired by the fluid in the process of butter-making, and that the process is accelerated by pro- ducing this temjierature artificially, from the application of heated water. For this purpose water is applied externally to the vessels ccmtaining the milk and cream, and not in mixture with them. Fig. 372 exhibits the application of this process to the utensil now under consideration, where c is the water-case formetl of tin-plate, zinc, or of wood, at the bottom of which is fixed a circular stand to place the re- cej)tacle a upon, that the water may be under as well as around the receptacle. Wood, from its non-conducting quality, is perhaps better adapted than any metal for a water-case. Water brought to the pro- per temperature is poured into the epace between the case and the retaining vessel, and if found necessary to increase or di- minish the temperature, part of the con- tained water is drawn ofl' below by a spigot, and hot or cold added to restore the requi- site degree of heat. Experience seems to point out, that, in operating on the large MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 277 scale in wooden vessels, no extraneous heat is required, the naturally acquired heat appears to be sufficient; especially if aided in winter by the admixture of a small quantity of moderately heated water, and the non-conducting quality of the wooden vessel retains it ; whereas the stoneware vessel will be continually abstracting heat, and giving it oft' by radiation, if not sur- rounded by a medium of equal temperature. 4216. Box hand-churn. — Fig. 374 re- presents one 18 inches in length, 11 inches Fig. 374. THE BOX HAND-CHURN. in width, and 20 inches in depth, inside measure. Birch or plane-tree are the best materials for the purpose, and it requires to be very carefully joined so as to be water- tight. It is of very small moment whether the bottom is formed to the circle of the agitator, or remains flat in as far as the production of butter is to be considered ; but for the process of cleansing, the curved bottom will present some advantages. A cover of the same material is fitted Fig. 375. THE AGITATOR OF THE BOX HAND-CHURN. close in the top of the box, with conve- nient handles. The agitator, fig. 375, is of the usual form: the dimensions of its parts are unimportant, except that they have suffi- cient strength, and present sufficient surface to produce the requisite degree of agitation in the fluid. The two pairs of arms are half-lapped at the centre, and the cross-bars mortised into them; the dimensions in length and breadth being such as to allow it to move with freedom Avithin the box. At the centre, a perfora- tion is made through the sides to admit the iron spindle, Avhich, at this part, is a square bar, fitting neatly into socket-plates of iron let into the agitator on each side, as seen in the figure at a. The winch- handle/, fig. 37.5, is shipped, when in work, on the near end of the spindle u])on a square stud. In rigging this apparatus, the agitator is placed within the box, and the spindle is pushed through the outer bush and the agitator, until its two jour- nals rest in the bushes; a coupling-ring is then screwed on to the outer bush, until the spindle with the agitator just turns round with freedom in the bushes. To prevent the ring from turning round by the motion of the spindle, a smooth ring or washer of steel may be interposed be- tween the collar and the brass ring. Vari- ous other modes of securing the spindle are employed, but in all the object is to prevent leakage at the bush. To prevent taint from galvanic influence, also, it is not uncommon to apply bone or other animal substance for the bushes. This form of churn may be enlarged to any dimensions to suit hand labour or power; and the only modification I have seen of its construc- tion, when on a large scale, is the inser- tion of the bars of one of the pairs of arms along instead of across the arms. 4217. Butter. — On converting cream into butter, the first act is to put the churn into a proper state. It is assumed that the churn, when last used, was put aside in a thoroughly clean and dry state. This being the case, a little hot water, about 2 quarts, should be poured into it to scald and rinse it. In summer it should be rinsed with cold water after the hot, but not in winter. Some people sprinkle a little salt in the churn before the cream is put into it ; but whether it does any good or not I cannot say. The churn being thus prepared, the cream is strain- ed into it through a bag of coarse linen cloth, well known under the name of cheese-cloth. This cloth is always washed without soap, and kept sweet by exposure 278 PRACTICE— SUMMER. to the air. It is dipped in water, and tlieii held over the churn ; and on tlie cream being slowly ponretl into it from the jar, the liquid part will run through into the chum: but the clotted part — which will contain in it dust, drowned flies, mollis, and other impurities, which it is impossible to keep out of a cream-jar, which is opened every day — thecl()th will keep back, on being gently jirossed. The temperature at which cream is put into the churn has a considerable influence on the time which the butter will take to make, and also on the weight of butter obtained from a given (piantity of cream. It has been found that 55° Fahrenheit is the temperature which best attains these ends; and it is one easily attained in a cool apartment early of a summer's morning. The churning should be done slowly at first, until the cream has been completely broken — that is, rendered a uniform mass, when it becomes thinner, and the churn- ing is felt to be easier. Durinir the break- ing of the cream, a good deal of gas is evolved, which escapes from under the cover. When the motion of churning is rotatory, in a large churn, it is continued in the same direction, and not changed backward and forward. I am not sure that a satisfactory reason can be given for making the motion imif )rm, except that the agitation is suflicient for the making of butter; but the opinion is, that the entire butter is formed more simultaneous- ly ; and that the backward and forward motions make the butter soft. In the table churn described above in fig. 372, the mo- tion is reversed, because the cream would nut be sufticiently agitated in a churn of cylindrical form, the cream acquiiing the motion and velocity of the v^nes of the agitator. After the cream has been broken, the motion may be a little increased, and continued until a change is heard in the sound within the chum, fnnu a low smooth to a harsh tone, and until an unecpial re- sistance is felt to be given to the agitators. The butter may soon be expected to form after this, and, by increasing the motiim a little more, it will form the sooner; and, the moment it becomes firui and the agi- tators are felt to l)e impodeil, the motion should cense. The rates of uiotion in churning butter at dittVrent times are of some im])ortance, for, when performed too slow, a longer time is spent in churning than is necessary, and the butter will be strong tasted ; and, when the motion ia too rapid, the butter will be soft and frothy, and is said to have burst. In very warm weather, or when the cream is put in too warm, that is, much above 55° Fahrenheit, the churning is liable to burst with any degree of fast motion, and then the judg- ment is specially required to regulate the motion. 1 suppose that the most proper motion in churiiing, at the respective periods of the changes undergoing in the cream, has never been ascertained by ex- periment, but to determine which, though tedious, would be important. When but- ter forms from cream in churning three quarters to one hour, it is satisfactory work ; when it comes much sooner it is soft, and when much later it is strong- tasted. The temperature of the cream by agitation, during churning, rises 3° or 4°. 421 S. The utensils required for the use of butterare — asmalltubfor puttingthebutter in from the churn ; a wooden flat slinllow kit of the form of fig. 36<), and 20 inches diameter, to wa^-h the butter in ; scales and weights for weighing the butter before beiug made up in pounds and half-pounds; a stoneware jar for keeping salt dry, stoneware jars or wooden firkins for pack- ing salted butter in ; moulds for stamping prints on butter made up for the table oi market ; and covered dishes of glass oi stose. Cold water is tiien put into the flat kit, which is set in an inclined position, and the butter is washed by being kneaded out ami rolled up several times on the bottom of the kit, amongst the water; and then lumps of it are taken in hand, and beaten with the ]ialms of the hand alternately, in order to deprive it of every particle of the butter-milk, the least portion of which would soon render it rancid. The milky water is poured off" and fresh poured in, and the butter isagain washed and worked as often as the water becomes milky. If intendeil to be kept or disposed of in a fresh state, the wa.-hed lump is divided into ])ound or half-pound lumps each, weighed in the scales, and placed in sepa- MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 279 rate lumps in the tub amongst water. Each of these lumps is then clapped firmly by the hand, and moulded into the usual form in which pounds and iialf-pounds of butter are disposed of in the part of tlie country in which your farm is situate. When sold in whole pounds the form is usually cylindrical, of about 8 inches in length ; and when in half-pounds in round flat prints bearing a device, such as a rose, a thistle, a stag, a swan, or the name of the dairy. For the table, any requisite number of the pounds should now be moulded from the lump into small prints bearing diflerent devices, or rolled into diflerent forms of balls and cylinders, with small wooden hands, figured on tiie face. This made-up butter is floated in jars with covers, in a clear strong brine of salt and •water, made as strong as to float an egg. 4220. Fig. 376, represents a stamp 1| inch diameter, for small prints of butter used at table ; as ulso a couple of hands, Fig. 376. figured with longitudinal parallel rid- ged lines on the face, for forming small figur- ed balls and rolls of but- ter, also for -— '/£^ the table. *^^='-'*^^^ The hands THE BUTTER PRINT-MOULD AND are 6 iuches HANDS. 1 1 4 long and 4 inches broad in the face, and 4 inches long in the handles. 4221. Objections have been urged against the use of the hand in making up butter, and small wooden spades recom- mended to be employed for the purpose ; and the use of water has also been objected to, as it is said to deprive the butter of its pleasing aroma. A woman who has hot clammy hands shonld never be a dairy- maid, as l)Utter is very susceptible of taint, and its flavour will doubtless he injured hy the heavy smell of sweaty handb ; but naturally cool hands — made clean by wash- ing in warm water and oatmeal, not soap., and then rinsed and steeped in cold water, will make up butter freer of hutter-niiik, and more solid than any instrument whether of wood or of any other material. As to cold water injuring butter, there be- ing no aflinity between fatty matter and cold water, the latter cannot dissolve any essential ingredient out of the former ; at any rate, water will more effectually unite with, and thereby take away the milky substance from butter than any instru- ment manipulated dryly with all the art the hand alone can use. Let the trial be made both ways, and their comparative efficacy tested by the butter keeping longest street. But less handling may be given to butter with the partial use of the spade, which may be employed in the first process of the washing, by dividing and rubbing, and rolling it amongst the water on the bottom of the flat tube^ before it is beaten with the hands; and it is this process which expels the remnants of the butter-milk which cannot be farther reached by the water, and which, if left, would spoil the taste of the butter in a very few days. Fig. 377 represents a Fig. 377. butter spade of a shape long used in a dairy, the face being 4 iuches square, and the handle 4 inches long. The lower side of the face is thinned away to a sharp edge. That such a spade may last in use, and not warp, being thin, it should be made of hard wood, and that THE BUTTER-SPADE, of the applc-treo is found to be the most tenacious. The Dutch use an implement for washing butter with- out the immediate contact of the hand, which is much more effective than this spade. It consists of a board of wood about one foot in length and 4 inches in breadth, grooved longitudinally. Another board, of similar constructiipu and dimensions, is hinged upon one end of the former, and terminates in a handle, which is held by the hand of the dairymaid. The instru- ment is placed in a flat kit, with water. While the butter is placed by one hand at (juick intervals of time, with such a spade as fig. 377, upon the lower hoard, placed in the water in the vessel, the other hand moves the upper board up and down in repeated action upon the butter, which is alternately and successively divided by 280 PRACTICE— SUMMER. the irrooves passing between each other, and kneadctl thin bv the frequent contact of the area of tlic boards, liy repeated openitions in tliis manner the butter is considered to be freed entirely of the butter-milk. Still the most exjjert mana- ger of this |)roce.ss cannot free the butter of butter-milk so completely as the mani- pulation of a pair of cool active hands. 4222. Butter assumes a texture accord- ing as it has been treated. When burst in the churning, it is not only soft but frothy, and, on being cut with a knife, eticks to it, and seems as if it could bo compressed into much smaller bulk. When churned too rapidly, particularly in warm weather, the butter may not be agitated to the state of bursting, but it will con- tinue soft, and never become linn, though worked up with ever so much care, and in the coolest manner; and when a lump is drawn asunder in two pieces, they each present a jagged surface, and also stick to the knife that cuts it. Butter, in either of those states of softness, will not keep long, whether salted or fresh. When over-churned — that is, when the churning has been continued after the butter has been formed — the butter becomes soft, not unlike the state when it is too rapidly churned. When properly churned, both in regard to time and teuij)erature, butler becomes firm with very little working, and is tenacious ; but its most desirable etate is that of waxy, when it is easily moulded into any shape, and may be drawn out a considerable length before breaking. It is only in this state that butter possesses that rich nutty flavour and smell, which impart so high a de- gree of pleasure in eating it, and which enhance its value manifold. It is not necessary to taste butter on judging of it; the smooth unctuous feel, on rubbing a little between the finger and thumb, ex- presses at once its richness of (juality; the nutty smell indicates a similar taste ; and the bright, glistening, cream-coloured surface, shows its high state of cleanliness. 4223. What I have stated in reference to the making of butter, applies particu- larly to that obtained from cream alone, and from cream in the usual state for butter — namely, after it has become sour by keeping ; but butter can be obtained from sweet cream, though churning ren- ders its butter-milk as sour as that from sour cream. To have butter in per- fection from sweet cream, it should be churned every day; and as a daily suj)ply of cream nmst be small, a small churn must be used, to have butter fresh made every day. The table-churn, fig. ,'J72, becomes useful for this purjmse. I see it alleged, in" advertisements of table-churns, that butter may be made in them from cream in 10 or 12 minutes. I have made several experiments with such a table- churn, in churning cream at diff'erent tem- peratures, and with different velocities, but never obtained good butter in less than 30 minutes ; and when formed so quickly as in 15 minutes, the butter was soft and frothy. I have heard it alleged that butter of the finest quality cannot be obtained from sweet cream; but I know from experience that butter of the richest quality, flavour, and appearance, can be made from sweet cream. Were such butter not superexcellent, would noblemen have it on their tables every morning? I consider butter out of the churn, and before it is washed, most delicious. It is true that sweet cream requires longer churning than sour; still butter is obtained from it in from 30 to 40 minutes. For my own use, I would never desire better butter, all the year round, than that churned every morning in a small churn from sweet cream. Such butter, on cool new- baked oat-cake, overlaid with flower virgin honey, accompanied with a cup of hot strong coffee, mollified with crystal- lised sugar anass between them when the latter is in motion. 4237. On using this machine, the cunl cut in slices is placed in small tubs on the boards d d ; and on a slice being put into the hopfter, the winch-handle is moved round, and the curd is cut in pieces by the teeth, not exceeding a quarter of an inch in size. A tub is placed below the hopper, to receive the cut curd as it descends from it. In this way one person may feed the slices into the hopper and drive the ma- chine ; but the process of curd-cutting is much expedited by one person feeding the hopper with slices, while another drives the handle of the machine. 4238. The machine is taken to pieces to be cleaned by unscrewing the pin I/, when the axle may be drawn out ot" the cylin- der with the large wheel <*, the cylinder taken out, and the hopper h removed from its seat, by turning the thumb-catches which connect it below with the framing a a. The small pinion and the winch- handle remain. 4239. The curd, being made small enough, is salted to please the taste with salt ground fine. In some parts, as Che- shire and Holland, cheeses are salted by being floated in a strong solution of salt in water, when the brine penetrates the new- made cheese ; but this seems an uncertain mode of giving a desired degree of salt- ness. After being salted, the curd is put into a cheese-cloth, spread over a cheese- vat, and firmly packed into the vat higher than its edge; and on the curd being cover- ed witli the remainder of the same cloth, the vat is placed in the cheese-press and subjected to pressure, upon which a (juan- tity of whey exude^j by the holes in the bottom of the vat. In a ^hort lapse of time, 2 hours or more, the cheese is turned out of the vat, a clean and dry cheese- cloth put in, the cheese replaced into it upside down, and again subjected to in- creased pressure in the press. Should whey continue to exude, the cheese must again be taken out of the vat, and a clean cloth substituted — in short, a clean cloth should be renewed, and the pressure increased, as long as any whey exudes ; but if the pre- vious ojKjrations have been properly per- formed, the exudation should cease in about 12 hours, after which the pressure is continued until the press is wanted for a new cheese on the second day. 4240. Fig. 380 shows the common cheese- vat or chessart, as it is called, the form being varied according to that adopt- ed for tlie cheese. The vat is built of elm staves, as being least liable to burst with MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 285 pressure, and strongly hooped with iron, the bottom being strong and pierced with holes, to allow the whey expressed to flow away, and the woodea cover is made Fig. 380. THE CHEESK-VAT. Strong by be- ing cross- doubled. It is of advantage that the cover tit tl)e vat ex- actly, and that the vat be as cylindrical as possible in the interior. In Cheshire the cheese-vats are made of tin, pierced with holes in the bottom aud side. 4241. Of tlie cheese-press the varieties are very numerous, though those in most common use may be classed under two kinds, namely, the common old stone press; and the combined lever-press, of which last the varieties are the most numerous, pass- ing from the single lever, through the various combinations of simple levers, to the more elaborate one of the rack and levers. An essential characteristic of these last presses is, that the load, in whatever way produced, shall, when left to itself, have the power to descend after the cheese which is pressed, and which sinks as the whey from the curd is expressed. 4242. The common stone cheese-press is shown in fig. 381 ; it consists of a strong frame of wood, of which a is the sill, two uprights bb morti&ed or dovetailed into it; and these are connected at top by the cross- head c mortised upon the posts. A cubical block of stone d e\s squared to pass freely between the posts ; an iron stem of one inch diameter is fixed into the upper surface of the block, and the upper end of it being screwed, is passed through the centre of the t()])-bar, and the lever-nut/ is applied to it for raising or lowering the block. In each end of the block a vertical groove is cut, corresponding to the middle of the posts ; and a baton of wood is nailed upon the latter, in such form and position as will admit the block to rise and fall freely, while it is prevented falling to either side. ^yhen put in operation, the block is raised by means of the screw, until the vat with its contents can be placed upon the sill a under the block. This being done, the nut is screwed backward till the block rests lightly on the cover of the vat : it is let Fig. 381. THE STONE CHEESE-I*RESS. down by small additions, as the curd con- solidates, until it is thought safe to let the entire weight press upon the mould, which is done by w itlidrawing the nut/. Instead of the solid block of stone d e^ which, when left to itself, will always produce the same pressure, it is better to have one block d g into which the suspending bolt is fixed, and the remainder of the mass made up of smaller pieces, as shown in the figure, by which means the amount of free pressure can be regulated to the particular size and state of the clieese ; or blocks of cast-iron are sometimes used in the form last de- scribed, which are more commodious, and less liable to be broken. In Cheshire, where cheese-presses of this sort are used, the cheese is subject to threedegreesof pressure, the first being a quarter of a ton, the second half a ton, and the third and last one ton. 4243. The combined lever cheese-press of iron is represented in the perspective view, fig. 382, and is constructed in the following manner : — a a are a pair of cast- iron feet, on which the machine is sup- 286 PRACTICE— SUMMER. porteil : tliev liave a socket formed at the crown to receive the malleable iron pillars Fig. 38-'. THE COMBINED LEVER CHEESE-PRESS. b h. The sill-plate c, 18 inches in diame- ter, is cast with two perforated ears, throngh wliicii the feet of the pillars b b also pass, and secure the sill to the feet, — the cross lines in the sill indicate chan- nels for the escape of the expressed whey. The movable sill d is of the same size as the one below, with corresponding ears perforated and fitted to slide on the ])illars, and having the rack-bar / fixed in its centre. A top frame e is seated upon the top of the pillars, and adapted to carry the gearing of the machine. The action of the rack and its sill is efTected in the following manner: — The ratchet wheel .. 424.5. After the cheese is sufficiently pres.^ed, it is taken out of the vat, and put into the cheese-room ^, fig. 3G3, and not exposed to much heat, drought, or damp at first, as heat makes new ciiees^es sweat; drought re;i:naiit, a portion of tlie secretion which supplies tlie riclier milk being, no doubt, withdrawn to support the foetus. A veil-formed cow will generally give more and better milk than an ill-formed one. Old pasture will produce richer butter than new. Cows kept conttanlli/ in thebijre are said to give richer milk than those allowed to go at large at pasture, but the latter are supposed to yield more cheese, — the exercise, perhaps, preventing thelargerdeposi- tion of the richer secretion, .^l;^ny other circum- Btances may be known in different localities to affect the quantity and quality of the milk of cows; but a sufficient number have been here related to show how varied are the circumstances whicli affect the produce of the dairy, and how perplexing it must be to conduct it in the most profitable way. 4261. Milk. — The phenomena accompanying the changes in milk are well known to every dairy- maid, but few of them know that the constituent parts of milk are only mechanically commixed; and this must be the case even in the udder of the cow, otherwise the afterings, which had occupied the upper part of the udder, would not be the richest portion of the milk, nor the first-drawn the poorest. All, therefore, that is required to separate the different parts of milk is rest and time. The cream or fatty part floats to the .sur- face in the course of a few hours; in a little longer time, according to the state of the tempe- rature, the caseous portion becomes sour; and in a greater length of time the acidity becomes so powerful as to coagulate the milk in one mass, and in a still greater la])se of time the coagulated mass separates into two parts, one becoming firmer, or cheese, the other again fluid, or whey. The rationale of this naturiil process is thus well given by M. Raspail : — " Milk, when viewed by the microscope with a power of only 100 diame- ters, exhibits spherical globules, the largest of which are not more than '0004 of an inch in dia- meter, and which, from their smallness, appear of a deep black at the edges. These globules dis- appear on the addition of an alkali, such as am- monia, and the milk then becomes transparent. If the proportional quality of milk be more con- siderable, it forms a coagulum of a beautiful white colour, on the addition of concentrated sul- phuric acid. This coagulum does not arise sim- ply from the adhesion of the globules to each other, but it may be plainly seen by the micro- scope, that the globules are evolved in a transpa- rent albuminous membrane, which has no appear- ance of a granular structure. Milk, then, is a watery fluid, holding in solution albumen and oil, by the agency of an alkaline salt or a pure alkali, and having suspended in it an immense number of globules, which are in part albuminous and in part oily. The albuminous globules must tend to subside slowly to the bottom of the vessel by their specific gravity, while the oily globules must have a tendency to rise to the surface. But the oily globules being dispersed in myriads amidst equally numerous albuminous globules, they cannot rise to the surface without taking with them a greater or less number of the globules of albumen. Hence, at the end of twenty-four hours, we find on the surface of the milk a crust composed of two layers, the upper one of which contains more butter than milk, while the lower contains more milk than butter. The separation will take place equally with or without the con- tact of the air. The liquid part which lies under the crust contains the dissolved albumen and oil, with a portion of the sugar, the soluble salts, and a certain quantity of the albumen and oily glo- bules."* 4262. Milk consists, besides water, of organic substances destitute of nitrogen — sugar and but- ter; of an organic substance containing nitrogen in considerable quantity — curd or casein; and of inorganic or saline matter, partly soluble and partly insoluble in water. This is the composi- tion of cows' and ewes' milk, according to Henri and Chevalier; and of mares' milk, according to Luiescius and Bondt: — Casein, . Mucus, . Butter, . Sugar of milk, S:.lt3, Water, . Cow. BcUtTn. Milk. Ewe. M*re. 20.0 2o".0 trace 44.8 45.0 16.2 31.3 42.0 47.7 60.0 (!.0 6.8 J 835 3 trace 87.5 803.3 870.2 856. 1000.0 1000.0 1000.0 1000.0 Butter gives its richness to milk, sugar its sweet- ness, casein its thickness, water its refreshing property as a drink, and salts its peculiar fla- vour. Of the different kinds of milk enumerated, the superior sweetness and thinness of mares' milk are accounted for by the large proportion of sugar and the small quantity of casein it con- tains. It appears that beistyn contains nearly three times more casein than milk, and only a trace of sugar of milk, no salts, and a large pro- portion of mucus ; and nine times more casein than mare's milk. 4263. Milk boils and freezes about the same temperature as water. Milk may be prevented becoming sour by being kept in a low tempera- ture; in a high temperature, on the other hand, it rapidly becomes sour, and, at the boiling point, it curdles immediately. The acid of milk is called the lactic acid, which in its nature resembles acetic acid, the acid of vinegar. "The change which takes place when milk becomes sour is easily understood," as is well observed by Profes.^or Johnston. " Under the influence of the casein, the elements of a portion of the milk-sugar are made to assume a new arrangement, and the sour lactic acid is the result. There is no loss of matter, no new elements are called into play, nothing is absorbed from the air, or given off into it; but a simple transposition of the elements of the sugar takes place, and the new acid com- pound is produced. These changes appear very simple, and yet how difficult it is to conceive by what mysterious influence the mere contact of • Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 380-2. MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 293 this decaying membrane, or of the casein of the milk, can cause the elements of the sugar to break up their old connexion, and to arrange them- selves anew in a.noiher prescribed order, so as to form a compound endowed with properties so very different as those of lactic acid."* 4264. The composition of the ash of milk is as follows, according to the analyses of 1000 lb. of milk each of two cows, by Haidlen : — Phosphate of lime, . . 2-31 lb. Phosphate of magnesia, . 0.42 „ Phosphate of peroxide of iron, 0'07 „ Chloride of potassium, . 1"44 „ Chloride of sodium, . . 0-24 „ Free soda, . . . 0-42 „ 3-44 lb. 0-64 „ 0.07 „ 1-83 „ 0-34 „ 0-45 „ 4-90 lb. 6-77 lb. 4265. Lassaigne obtained some curious results on observing the composition of the milk of a cow, which he examined at ten different periods, four of these before and six after parturition. The milk examined during the first three of the former periods, namely, 42 days, 32 days, and 21 days be/ore parturition, contained no casein at all, but in place of it albumen; no sugar of milk and no lactic acid, but a sensible quantity of uncombined soda. The milk examined eleven days before and just after parturition, contained both albumen and casein ; while milk eleven days before parturition, and always after it, con- tained free lactic acid and sugar of milk, but no free soda. The milks examined 4 days, 6 days, 20 days, 21 days, and 30 days after partu- rition, contained casein and no albumen. It would appear from these observations that the milk of the cow is at first very similar to the serum of blood; and that the casein, sugar of milk, and lactic acid, to which it owes much of its distinguishing characteristics, begin first to make their appearance in it about eleven days before parturition. 4266. Brisson states the specific gravity of various milks: but it is important to remark, that it varies so much, even in the milk from the same animal, that it is impossible to give a correct mean. The specific gravity of cows' milk is low, being 1'0324; its whey is, of course, still lower, r0193; and that of ewes' milk is the high- est, being 1 '0409. Lassaigne examined the spe- cific gravity of cows' milk at various distances of time before and after parturition, at a tempera- ture of 46° Fahrenheit, and the results were generally, that at 21 days before parturition it was highest, being 1"064; and lowest at 6 days after parturition, being 1033. facilitated by a rise, and retarded by a depres- sion of temperature. At the usual temperature of the dairy at 50° Fahrenheit, all the cream will probably rise in thirty-six hours, and at 70° it will perhaps all rise in half that time ; and when the milk is kept near the freezing point the cream will rise very slowly, because it becomes partially solidified. Lassaigne found no difference in the ratio between the bulks of cream and whey from the same cow, fed on beet-root, hay, and straw, from 42 days before to 4 days after parturition, when the quantities were 200 volumes of cream to 800 of whey; but by 30 days after par- turition the volume of cream had decreased to 64, and that of whey had increased to 936, and by that time the water in 100 parts of milk had also increased to 90- 4268. " Cream does not consist wholly of fatty matter, (butter,)" observes Professor Johnston, " but the globules of fat, as they rise, bring up with them a variable proportion of the casein or curd of the milk, and also some of the milk- sugar. It is owing to the presence of sugar that cream is capable of becoming sour, while the casein gives it the property of curdling when mixed with acid liquids, or with acid fruits. The proportion of cheesy matter in cream depends upon the richness of the milk, and upon the tem- perature at which the milk is kept during the rising of the cream. In cool weather the fatty matter will bring up with it a larger quantity of the curd, and form a thicker cream, containing a greater proportion of cheesy matter. The com- position of cream, therefore, is very variable — much more so than that of milk — and depends very much upon the mode in which it is col- lected." In warm weather, therefore, the cream should be rich, though thin. Cream, at a specific gravity of 1'0244, according to the analysis of Berzelius, consists of — Butter, separated by.nKitation, . . 4'5 Curd, separated by coagulating the butter-milk, 3'5 Whey 920 100-0 4269. The quantity of cream which any given milk contains can be easily measured by the grt/ac- tometer, which consists of a narrow tube of glass not more than 5 inches in length, 3 of which is divided into 100 parts, and ou being filled with milk to the top of the graduated scale, whatever number of degrees the thickness of the cream embraces, will be the percentage of the cream yielded by the milk. For example, if the cream covers 4 lines of the scale, it is 4 per cent ; if 8 lines, 8 per cent. 4267. Cream. — Cream cannot rise through a great depth of milk. If milk is therefore desired to retain its cream for a time, it should be put into a deep narrow dish; and, if it be desired to free it most completely of its cream, it should be poured into a broad flat dish, not much exceeding one inch in depth. The evolution of cream is * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2A edition, p. 1007. t Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 385. 4270. M. Raspail alleges that the dairymen in the neighbourhood of Paris take off the cream from their milk, and siipiilv its place with raw sugar, and an emulsion either of sweet almonds or hemp-seed. Milk is sometimes adulterated by the addition of starch, and sometimes a por- tion of carbonate of pota.sh is added to it to pre- vent it from curdling. f I have detected magnesia 294 PRACTICE— SUMMER. in cream in Holland, put in to thicken it. In Londoii, the milk is so adulterated with water, that some dairymen have adopted the practice of driTin^ their cow-; along the streets, and supplying it to their cu-:tomers direct from the cow. Both the milk and cream obtained from the dairies in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh are generally free from adulteration. The worst material put into the milk in the public dairies of Scotland is water. 4271. It has been observed that the Equisetum Jiuriatile, the great water horse-tail, gives the milk a leaden or bluish colour, and deprives it of its cream. It is believed that the leaves of the bulbous buttercup, Jiitiiunciilus bulbosus, is per- nicious to the milk, but there is no sufficient foundation for the assertion, as cows will not eat the plant ; but it is known that the broad-leaved wild garlic, Allium urslnuvi, is eaten by cows, and gives a most oftL-nsive flavour of- garlic to milk and cream. This is an annoyance to which the settlers in some parts of Canada are pecu- liarly subjected. 4272. Skimmed vtilk. — The constituents of dcivimed milk, according to the analysis of Ber- zelius in 1808, are — Water 92875 Curd, not free from butter, .... 2-80;» Sugjir of milk 3 .5ii0 I.actic acid, and the lactate of potash, . O^JOO, Cliloride of potassium, 0'170 Phospliate of potash 0-u2o Phosphate of lime and magnesia, with a trace of iron 0-030 lOO-OUO 4273. "Natural emulsions," chserves Professor Johnston, "such as the substance of the nerves and brain, are considered by Mulder to contain a species of chemical compound of the fatty mat- ter with albumen, which has tlie property of mixing with water. In the nerves of a dead animal, this compound begins immediately to decompose, the fat retreating inwards, and form- ing a transparent a.xis, the albumen gathering iteelf towards the exterior of the fibre. Is milk, then, a natural emulsion, which, while in the udder of the cow, is under the secret influence of the vital power, and which, when drawn from it, begins immediately to decompose, like the substance of the nerves and brain, because the influence of life is no longer exercised upon it ?" 4274. Butter.—" Butter," says Professor John- ston," prepared by any of the usual methods, con- tains more or less of all the ingredients which exist in milk. It consists, however, tssentialiy of the fat of milk, intimately mixed with a more or less considerable proportion of casein and water, and with a small quantity of sugar of milk. Fresh butter is said to contain about one-sixth of its weight (16 per cent) of these latter substances, and five-sixths of pure fat, according to Chevreul. How much of the 16 per cent usually consists of cheesy matter may be seen by this statement: — two samples of fresh-butter, from creum, exa- mined in my laboratory, have yielded only 0"5 and 07 per cent cheesy matter respectively. This is certainly a much smaller quantity than I had expected. Does butter from the vboU milk con- tain more ? " * 4275. The proportions of butter yielded bj milk varies considerably, from 1 lb. of butter from 15 quarts of milk, as in Holstein, to 1 lb. from 8 quarts of milk of the Kerry cow.f It is a good cow which gives 1 lb. of butter a-day during the season ; and perhaps 8 or 9 ounces a-day would be nearer the mark, as the quantity given by the general run of cows over the king- dom. 4276. The changes induced in milk and cream to the production of butter by agitation in a churn, are not yet well understood. It appears certain that the presence of air is not necessary to the conversion of a part of the milk into but- ter, since a close barrel-churn produces butter as well as an open one. The formation of butter, therefore, must be purely a chemical process, and it becomes the chemist's office to explain the sensible changes which always accompany the churning of milk. These sensible changes are, the milk becoming sour, and the butter being separated from it in a solid form. The sourness of the milk is explained by the change of the sugar of milk into lactic acid, effected simply by a new arrangement of constituents. The separa- tion of the butter from the sour milk, in a solid form, is owing to the breaking up of the enve- lops of the globules of fat, and the mutual adhe- sion of these globules when they come into con- tact with each other. It is evident that this is entirely a mechanical effect, but it is probably facilitated by the action of the acid thinning away the envelops of the globules of the fat, when they begin to burst. 4277. Butter consists of two elements, in as far as its fatty matter is concerned — margarin and elain, (16.'U,) the former giving it hard- ness, and the latter softness. In winter, the margarin is in greater proportion in butter than in summer, and in cool weather than in warm ; for it is possible, chemically, for elain to be par- tially transformed to margarin, by 1 part of liquid elaic acid absorbing from the air, or from any other source, 4 |)arts of oxygen, giving off 2 parts of carbonic acid, and becoming transferred to mar- garic acid.ij: Such a transference is probable in churning in the open air, but it does not ex- plain the obtaining of firm butter in all circum- stances, since as firm butter can be made in a close barrel-churn as in any open one. 4278. Butter-milk. — Butter-milk is the portion of the milk or cream which is left by the butter, after the process of churning is finished. It is * Johnston's Lectures on AijricuUiiral Cliemistry. p. 807. + Journal of the Agricultural Sociefi/ <•/ Eni)land,vo]. i. p. 386. 1 Transactions oj'the Highland and Agricultural Huciety, July 1847, p. 62. MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 295 sour to the taste, thick, and consists of butter, curd, and water. When fresli, it is a pleasant beverage, and the working classes relish it much as an article of diet at breakfast. When allowed to stand, it becomes sourer and bitter, and is fit only to be given to the pigs, which relish it much as an article of food. 4279. Curd. — " The casein of milk," says Professor Johnston, " is similar in composition to the fibrin of wheat, the legumin of the pea and bean, and the albumen of the egg, or of vegetable substances. Hence the opinion first suggested by Mulder has been pretty generally received, that the cheesy matter contained in an animal's milk is derived directly, and without any re- markable change, from the food on which it lives. ... It appears that, in the presence of sugar, casein is capable of changing or decom- posing the fatty bodies also, and of giving birth to oily acids of various kinds. Now, in milk, in cream, and in butter, the casein is mixed with the sugar of the milk and the fats of the butter, and thus is in a condition for changing, at one and the same time, both the sugar into lactic acid, or butryic acid, and the butter into other acids of a fatty kind. Among those acids into which the butter oil is convertible, are capric and caproic acids, which are still more unplea- sant to the smell and taste than the butryic acid, and which are known to be present in ran- cid butter." * 4280. Exact and repeated trials have shown that about 15 gallons of milk are necessary for making about 11 lb. of two-meal cheese, and that 1 lb. of curd is produced from 1 gallon of new milk. 4281. Whey. — Whey is the watery substance of milk let loose after tlie formation of the curd by earning. It has a yellowish-green colour, and an agreeable sweetish taste, in which the flavour of milk may be distinguished. The last portion of the whey squeezed out of the curd is whitish in colour, and contains both curd and butter. Almost the whole of the curd may be separated, by keeping the whey for some time at a boiling temperature. By evaporation, whey de- posits a number of crystals of sugar of milk, which constitutes about two-ninths of a per-cent of the whey, the water forming 93'3 parts out of the 100. 4282. Whey is an excellent food and drink for pigs in summer, and particularly for a brood- sow, when suckling pigs. It forms a safe aperient for dogs — no better medicine can be given daily to a pack of fox-hounds out of the hunting season. 4283. From 100 gallons of the whey obtained from sweet milk curd, 10 or 12 gallons of cream may be obtained, from which 3 lb. or 4 lb. of butter may be made in the ordinary manner. 4284. Rennet. — The action of rennet consists simply in the rapid conversion of a portion of the sugar of milk into lactic acid, which acid, like vinegar, has the property of curdling milk. Many substances are recommended to be used as rennet besides the pig's stomach, such as pure curd, agreeable old cheese, the natural fluids of the stomach, the first extract of malt, and sour leaven, .\fter suggesting these, Professor John- ston " particularly recommends trials to be made of the pure prepared curd. If we are able to rescue the manufacture of rennet out of the mys- terious and empirical hands of the skilled dairy- maid, and by the use of a simple, abundant, easily prepared and pure rennet, can command at once a ready coagulation of the milk, and a curd na- turally sweet, or of aflavour which we had fore- seen and commended, we shall have made a considerable step towards the perfection of the art of cheese-making."+ 4285. Curd for rennet may be prepared in this way : " Heat a quantity of milk which has stood for 5 or 6 hours, let it cool, and separate the cream completely. Add now to the milk a little vinegar, and heat it gently. The whole will coagulate, and the curd will separate. Pour oiF the whey, and wash the curd well by knead- ing it with repeated portions of water. When pressed and dried, this will be casein sufiiciently pure for ordinary purposes. It may be made still more pure by dissolving it in a weak solu- tion of carbonate of soda, allowing the solution to stand for 12 hours in a shallow vessel, sepa- rating any cream that may rise to the surface, again throwing down the curd by vinegar, wash- ing it frequently, and occasionally boiling it with pure water. By repeating this process three or four times, it may be obtained almost entirely free from the fatty and saline matters of the milk." + 4286. Cheese. — As the food afforded from 2| to 34 acres of land is commonly supposed suffi- cient for the support of one cow the year round, by taking the medium of 355 lb. of cheese for each cow, the quantity of cheese produced by one acre will be 118 lb., which is supported by the authority of many statements. But during the summer season, cows will afi"ord from 14 lb. to 20 lb. of cheese, or more, in the week, when no butter is made." § 4287. The composition of cheese is as fol- lows : — Water, Casein, Butler, Ash or Saline matter ..} Skiin Milk. 4.3-82 45-04 5-98 5-18 100-02 Sunlop. 38-46 2o-^7 31-86 3-81 10000 Cheddar. 3604 28.98 30-40 4-58 Ewe Milk. 40-13 33-48 19-80 6-59 100-00 10000 The quantity of butter in the Dunlop and Ched- dar cheeses is great, and it is it which establishes their rich character. * Johnston's Lectures on Aijricu/tural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 970-3. t Transactions of the Highland and Airicultnral Society, July 1847, p. 65. J Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chtmistry, 2d edition, p. 969. § Dickson On Lice Stock, vol. i. p. 237. 296 PRACTICE— SUMMER. 4288. " The saline matter of cheese U only derived in part from the milk. The phosphates of lime and mafjiiCHia attach tlieinselves to the card in the making of cheese, while the soluble salts remain for the most part in the whey. But the cheese is cured with salt, and the quantity added varies with many circumstances. Hence the ash of cheese consists chiefly of the earthy phosphates, mixed with common salt, and with a very small proportion of chloride of potassium. Dunlop. Skim Milk. R.artliy phosphates in a 100 of ash, . . 53-38 52-61 cheese, . . 2-03 2-58 Common salt in a lUO of the .ish, . . 32','i7 42-13 dieese, . . 1-23 206 " The most practically useful result exhibited in the above table is, that every 100 lb. of cheese contain, and therefore carry away from the land, 24 lbs of earthy phosphates. A ton of cheese, therefore, takes away about GO lbs." * 4289. Tiie form of the cheese, as indicative of the kind or of the country in which it is made, is not attended to in Scotland. In England, the double and single Gloucester, the North Wilts, the Cheddar, the Stilton, and the Cheshire cheeses, are recognised at a glance; and so are those of Gouda, Kanter, and Edam in Holland, as also the Parmesan of Italy, and the Schap- zieger and Gruyere of Switzerland. The only determinate form of cheese I know of in Scotland is the brick cheese of Lanarkshire, which has been introduced to public notice in the last few years. The neglect of a marked form of cheese, in the Scottish dairies, implies a want of status for their cheeses in the cheese market; and until this condition is complied with, the Scottish cheese will not take its rank amongst the well recog- nised cheeses of other countries — it will not pass current in commerce without suspicion and chal- lenge of an assumed character. 4290. Cheese may be made from the curd ob- tained in heating whey, in the same manner as from the ordinary curd, if the whey is not desired to be given to the pigs in its pure and nourishing state. Tlie curd thus obtained from whey, if not made into cheese, may be usefully employed in feeding poultry, which will willingly pick it up if thrown down to them in pellets. 4291. Cheese is made from butter milk. This is a recipe for making it by Miss Neilson of Kirkintilloch : — " The contents of my churn I put into a pot which I hang over a slow fire. The butter milk curdles, and the curd sinks to the bottom of the pot. I then pour off the whey, and work the curd as I would do that of other cheese, giving it salt to the taste, which is about half the quantity given to skim milk curd. The curd is then put into a clean coarse linen cloth, tied tight, and hung from the ceiling to dry for a few weeks, when the cheese is fit for use. The linen cloth, when hung in a net, gives a neatness to the appearance of the cheese. If a little bit of butter be worked into the curd, and the cheese kept for three or four months, it will then be very good — at least it will taste like ewe-milk cheese. Cheese can thus be made on a small scale, even from the produce of one cow." + 4292. Cheese, of good quality, it is said, is made from potatoes in Thuringia and Saxony in this manner : — After having collected a quantity of potatoes of good quality, giving the preference to a large white kind, they are boiled in a caul- dron, and, after becoming cool, they are peeled and reduced to a pulp, either by means of a grater or mortar. To 5 lb. of this pulp, which ought to be as equal as possible, is added one pound of sour milk, and the necessary quantity of salt. The whole is kneaded together, and the mixture covered up, and allowed to lie for 3 or 4 days, according to the season. At the end of this time it is kneaded anew, and the cheeses are placed in little baskets, when the superfluous moisture is allowed to escape. They are then allowed to dry in the shade, and placed in lay- ers in large vessels, where they must remain for 15 days. The older these cheeses are the more their quality improves. Three kinds of them are made. The first, which is the most common, is made according to the proportions just given : the second, with 4 parts of potatoes and 2 parts of curdled milk : the third, ivith 2 parts of pota- toes, and 4 parts of cow or ewe milk. These cheeses have this advantage over other kinds, that they do not engender worms, and keep fresh for a number of years, ]irovided they are placed in a dry situation, and in well-closed vessels.":}: 4293. The country between Cremona and Lodi comprises the richest part of the Milanese. In Como the cows number 67,000, and at Cremona, 9,700. The grass is cut four times a-year as fodder for the cows, from whose milk is made the well-known cheese called Parmesan. The cows, which are kept in the stall nearly all the year round, are fed during summer on two or three crops of grass or clover, which are cut green; and in the winter in the other two, which are hayed. " The cows are generally bought in Switzerland, where they are generally reared at less expense. The calves are killed for meat. The cheese known by the name of Parmesan, is made chiefly in the country extending from Milan to Pavia and Lodi, and from Abbiategrano on the Ticino to Codagno near the Adda. The value of the cheese annually made, on an average, amounts to 37i millions of lire."§ The farms are small, not exceeding (iO acres, and the cheeses very large; so that at least the milk of 50 cows is required to make one cheese, and more fre- quently that of from 60 to 100 cows are put into a cheese. To attain this end, the farmers club together, and lend their milk to each other in rotation to the one who is making a cheese. Parmesan cheese is made of skimmed milk, which Johnston's Lectures on j4m a third a purulent milk with a horribly fetid odour. This proves the independence of the sources of the physiological functions of the four simple quar- ters of the udder, though intimately bound by approximation in one udder."* 4305. It is in the power of every farmer, what- ever may be the kind of farming he pursues, to furnish his table at all seasons, and particularly in summer, with many pleasant and wholesome dishes from his dairy. I shall shortly enumerate a number of those dishes. 4306. Curds are obtained by simply earning a dishful of new milk. It may be served up simply in the dish in which it has been made, or with grated loaf-sugar sprinkled over the curd deprived of whey, which gives it the appearance of a prepared dish, and is eaten with sugar and cream. 4307. A soar cog is a dish of milk allowed to stand with its cream until the milk becomes thoroughly coagulated by sourness, and the sour cream aud milk are eaten together wither without sugar. It is served in the dish in which it is made. 4308. Plain cream, whether sweet or sour, is an excellent accompaniment to oatmeal or barley- meal porridge, (1931,) or to sowens. Without cream, tea and cofiFee would lose much of their relish; and so would pastry and jellies and pre- served fruits. Flour-bread, eaten with cream, makes a nice dessert. 4309. The clouted cream of Devonshire is pre- pared by straining the new-milk into a shallow dish, into which a little warm water has been previously put; and after allowing it to stand from 6 to 1"2 hours, it is carefully heated over a slow fire or hot plate till the milk approaches to the boiling point; but it must not actually boil, or the skin of cream will be broken. The dish is then removed to the dairy, and the cream al- lowed to cool, when it may be used as cream or made into butter. 4310. 2Iilk oatmeal porridge is more agreeable to the palate than water porridge, and when eaten with cream forms a rich diet. 4311. Half-churned cream is a better accom- paniment to oatmeal porridge than plain cream, the slight acidity imparting a pleasant taste. 4312. Cream may be used as an emulsion with all sorts of preserved fruits, of wliich it enhances the flavour ; and perhaps no form of cre:nn is more agreeable or more generally admired than blancmange flavoured with almonds. 4313. Iced-cream, flavoured with pine-apple or vanilla, tastes rich and cool in warm weather. 4314. Cream-cheese. " One pint of cream being mixed with 12 pints of noon-day milk, warm from the cow, a little rennet is added, and when the curd is come, the whey is poured out gently, so as to break the curd as little as possible. It is then laid in a cloth, and put into a small sieve; the cloth is changed every hour during the day, and in 24 hours it will be fit for ust. It may be served on a breakfast plate with vine leaves under it, and it will keep perfectly good only one day." t A simpler mode is to put rit-h cream in muslin cloth, and change the cloth until the cream comes to the consistency of taking the form of a mould, when serve on vine leaves or green rushes. 4315. New churned ■unwashed butter is a great treat to breakfast. , 4316. Hatted kit is one of the pleasantest pre- parations of milk. Make 2 quarts of new milk scalding hot, and pour upon it quickly 4 quarts of fresh butter-milk; let it stand, without stirring, till it becomes cold and firm; then take off the hat or upper part, drain it in a hair-sieve, put it into a shape for half an hour, turn it into a dish, and serve with cream and sugar. The slight acidity of this dish, with the richness of the cream, and the sweetness of the sugar, combine to make it a very delicious dessert. 4317. i^^ai-tr/ieji/is another preparation equally good as hatted kit, and more delicate. Pour in all the whey drained from the new-milk cheese that has just been made, into a small furnace-pot; apply a slow fire, and raise the whey near the boiling point, but not to let it boil, else the curd will fall to the bottom. During the heating, a scum of curd forms upon the surface of the whey. Take then one quart of fresh butter-milk, aud pour it gently over the scum, and as much as until the scum has attained some thickness and consistency. After pouring in some cold water to lower the temperature of the whey, thereby rendering the scum more consistent, skim off the scum upon a hair-sieve, put it into a mould, and on turning it out a short time after, serve with sugar and cream. 4318. To make Irish two-milk vhey, put two-thirds of sweet-milk into a saucepan, and make it boiling hot; then pour in one-third of butter-milk, gently stirring it round the edges of the pan. Let the whole come to a boil; take it off the fire, let it settle, and strain off the whey, which makes an excellent drink in fever. Turpin, En Memoires de Vjicademie Royale des Sciences, torn. xvii. p. 214 and 239. + Dalgairn's Practice of Cookery, p. 467. PRACTICE— AUTUMN. AUTUMN. SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OP TDE WEATHER IN AUTUMN. 4319. In taking a retrospect of the different seasons, we liave seen Winter the season of dormancy/, in wliich all na- ture desires to be in a state of repose, — Spring, the season of retital, in which the returning power of nature inspires every created being with new vigour, — Summer, the season of progress, in which nature puts forth all her energies, to increase and multiply her various productions, — and now we contemplate Autumn, the season of fruition, in which nature, in bring- ing the individual to perfection, makes provision therein for the future preser- vation of its kind. While, however, the natural action of spring and summer is single, that of autumn has a compound character. " Tims, if we follow out the study of the autumn in a proper manner, it leads us to all the revolutions that have taken place in the surface of our planet ; and in this way, a plant of which we can, in a few months, see the begin- ning, the perfection, and the decay, be- comes to us an epitome of the system of growing nature in its widest extent, and through its most prolonged duraticm. This is the grand advantage which study- ing the productions of nature in their connexion, and the events and occur- rences of nature in their succession, has over the mere observations of the indivi- dual substance and the passing moment ; and it is this which gives to the law of the seasons so high a value above all the beauties of the seasons taken in their indi- vidual character." 4320. Autumn matures its products, in which the toiling labours of the husband- man, for the preceding twelve months, find their reward. In it, h(»pe is lost in the possession of the thing hoped for ; and because it yields a plentiful harvest, it is also the season for gratitude and joy. " It is this which makes the principles of sea- sonal action thicken upon us as the year advances, and the autumn to become the harvest of knowledge, as well as of the fruits of the earth. Nor can one help admiring that bountiful and beautiful wisdom which has laid the elements of instruction most abundantly in the grand season of plenty and gratitude." But grateful as the hus- bandman must always feel for the boun- ties of Providence, so much labour is bestowed, so much anxiety is felt by him, as regards the effects of the vicissitudes of the seaauns, before "he gathers his wheat into the garner," that the reflections to which the consummation of harvest is calculated to give rise are, I fear, con- strained, and even selfish. "For as the annual harvest which we obtain from the earth, is received by us as resulting from that in which we have a right of projierty, a merit in labour, or both united, we are apt to forget the part which Nature has in the productiveness of the year, and look upon the whole produce as the return of our own capital and our own skill, just as we do in any mechanical work, or mercan- tile speculation. That this is the true state of the case, is proved by the habitually proverbial fact, tliat the cultivators of the ground, fcjr what purpose soever they may cultivate, are always conij)laining of the weather, as the gnind enemy by which all their labours are frustrated, and all their products diminished. They are nowise at fault themselves, but the ' weary weather' never will be obedient to their dictates. What with rain, what with drought, what with heat, what with cold, each thrusting itself forward at the time when its oppo- site would have been by far the more beneficial, the crop they get is always ' below a fair average ;' and what they do get, is gotten in spite of the weather, and not by means of its co-operation. It is in vain that the fable of the farmer — into whose hands Jupiter gave the manage- ment of the weather, and who, by having SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. 301 rain, and drought, and sunsliine, and snow, when and where he wished, hroiiglit his land into a state of such utter sterility, that he was fain to plead more earnestly than ever, that so dangerous a power might be taken out of his hands — has stood on the record against them from remote anti- quity; for the majority contend stubbornly, that all the merit is their own, and that all the blame falls upon the weather, which, notwithstanding all the examples which have been set before it, and all the expe- rience it must have hatl, ' will not under- stand and obey the rules of good husban- dry.'"* 4321. The temperature of autumn is high, — August in Scotland, affording the highest average of the year, on account of the warmth of the night as well as of the day, though the sun is not more hours above the horizon than in March, — but Autumn follows the radiance of Summer, while Spring just escapes from the frigidity of Winter. Such is the heat, that it is no uncommon occurrence for reapers to be seriously affected by it in the harvest- field. 4322. Aneroid barometer. This new instrument has lately been invented by M. Vidi of Paris, for ascertaining the varia- tions of the atmosphere. Its action de- pends on the effect produced by the pres- sure of the atmosphere on a metallic box, from which the air has been exhausted and then hermetically sealed. The instrument is so constructed that, as the weight of the atmosphere is increased or diminished, so is the surface of the corrugated elastic box depressed or elevated, as is also at the same time the spiral spring upon which the principal lever rests ; and this motion is communicated through the levers to the arbour of the hand. The tension of the box in its construction is equal to 44 lb. At the back of the instrument, which in size is like a large chronometer, is a screw to adjust the hand to the height of any standard mercurial barometer. For com- parative observation, the aneroid must be placed in the position for which the ad- justment is made. 4323. Mr Belville, of the Royal Ob- servatory, Greenwich, made simultaneous observations with the aneroid, and a, com- mon standard barometer, during the whole of March 1848, at nine in the foi-enoon and three in the afternoon, and the devia- tions were very trifling, at least for pojjular use ; and it is his opinion, that, had the mercurial barometer been subjected to the same range of temperature, from 28° to 8U°, it would have been equally affected. He finds the movements of the aneroid always consistent. It is a delightful companion, may be carried in the pocket, in a steam- boat, a carriage, in the hand in mounting elevations, without the chance of being injuriously affected. It is therefore highly useful, its indications preventing many an excursion which would have ended in disap- pointment. The tourist should never travel without it ; and the seaman will find it a safe guide when the motion of the mer- curial column renders the marine barome- ter almost useless. In all cases, Mr Bel- ville affirms, in his short but interesting memoir on meteorological phenomena, that he " has used the aneroid as its inventor intended it should be used ; and its move- ments are so far perfect that they merit the calm and impartial investigation of the true philosopher, whose vocation is to aid the development of ingenuity, and not to crush its efforts because they are not per- fection." + This instrument is extremely delicate in its indications. On this point Captain Mangles relates, that, " for the last twelve years I have used one mercurial barometer, two sympiesometers with oil in the tube, and two more with a mineral solution in the tube: all these I register at ten at night and seven in the morning, and I regularly insert their movements in a diarv. For the aneroid, at the beirinninof _.< "Oct of this year, 1849, I had a fresh column ruled ; and by this arrangement I soon per- ceived the forewarning properties, and consequently greater value as a weather guide., of the aneroid, as compared with the five rivals. I could cite various in- stances of this superior sensitiveness, but that of Saturday morning. May 5, 1849, was most remarkable. I was much struck, on coming down at 8, while the sun was shining bright, and there was every ap- pearance of a fine day, to find that my instruments stood thus: — * Mudie's ylutumn, p. 25-7. •f" Belville's Description of the Aneroid Barometer, p. 48. \ 802 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. M»y 4, 10 p.m. ... 5, 8 A.M. Difference. Barometer. 0.1 d>mpkto- meter. Mineral Sjmpleao- meter. 29-8-2 — 82 29-67h\ ■29-7H -•ii-2l --78 29-7.5 -75 U 5 0 0 Here we have tlie aneroid in full sunsliine, with a bright sky, and every appearance of a lovely day, still uncomfortable and in doubt as to what is forthcoming, while his companions say nothing. I confess that, looking at appearances, while I wrote down my register, I almost doubted whether t/iis time the aneroid could be right, but at 1 p. M. I became convinced that there was no mistake. Let me add, that at least four or five times since January 1, 1849, this instrument has given me similar evidence of its superio- rity as a foretcarner." * On the day alluded to, a flower-show took place in the Chiswick gardens, and in the afternoon a very heavy rain fell. The aneroid, as a forewanier of weather, thus seems an ex- cellent instrument for the farmer to possess. 4324. In bringing our meteorological observations to a conclusion, I shall con- fine myself to giving a few results of a general nature. The mean height of the barometer for every month of the j'ear, at Greenwich Observatory for thirty years, from 181.3 to 1844, was as follows, accord- ing to the seasons as we have all along divided them : — Avera)^ of each Month, j- November, 29-801 Winter, < December, 29-!184 (January, . 29-909 Average of each Season. 29-864 29-f!59 .57 865 (February, . 1'9-f! Spring, < .March, . . 29)1 (April, . . 29-8 (May, Summer, < June, (July, 29-884 29-910 29-894 (August, . 29-890 Autumn, < September, 29-872 (October, . 29-8J1 29-857 29-896 29-871 Average of the year, 29 872 It seems the greatest daily mean pressure for the year occurs about tlie 9th January, and the minimum daily mean de})ression towards the end of November. It is a remarkable coincidence that the lowest dn'xljf mean temperature, for 30 years, occurs on the 8th and 9th of January. The greatest monlhh/ mean pressure occurs in June, and the lowest in November. From June the monthly mean pressure decline.s till November, when it again rises and attains a second maximum in January ; and, again falling, comes to its second minimum in March. During 38 years, the greatest altitude attained by the barometer was in 1825, when it was 30"8D inches ; and the greatest depression observed waa in 1821, when it was only 27 99 inches. 4325. The phenomena accompanying the oscillations of the barometer of a gene- ral character, applicable to all seasons, are these: — A fall of the mercury with a S. wind is invariably followed by rain in greater or less quantities. Great depres- sions are followed by change of wind, and afterwards by much rain. If the mercury rise with the wind at S. W., 8.. or even S. E., the temjterature is generally hiirh. A rising barometer with a S. wind is usually followed by fair weather. Such a rise, however, is of rare occurrence. Storms of wind, especially when accompanied with much rain, produce the greatest depres- sion of the mercury. No great storm ever sets in with a steady rising barome- ter. If, after a storm of wind ami rain, the mercury remain steady at the point to which it had fallen, serene weather may follow without a change of wind ; but, on the rising of the mercury, rain and a change of wind may be expected. 432fi. If the weather, during harvest- time, has been generally fine, and a fall of the mercury, with a shower, occur — if the wind turn a few points to the N., and the barometer risesabove 30 inches, the weather may be exj)ected to be fair for some days. 4'>27. Wimls. — In England, the winds which blow for the greatest number of days together, without intermission, are the W. and W. S. W. They blew strongly for five con.secutive days in 1849. The E. and E.N. E. are the winds next most prevalent. The W. winds surge mostly by night, and their average force is twice that of the E. winds. The E. winds are generally calm at night, but blow with some power during the day. On an Gardener's Chronicle, May 1849. SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. 303 average, sunrise and sunset are the periods of ilie twenty-four hours in which there is the least wind. An hour or two after noon is the period when tlie wind is the highest. As a general rule, when the ■wind turns against the sun, from W. to S., it is attended with a falliui^ mercury; when it goes in the same direction as the 6un, or turns direct from \V. to N., the mercury rises, and there is a prohability of fine weather. In high pressures the ■u^joer current usually sets from the N. ; in low pressures it sets from the S. and S.W. 4328. Rain. — The following is the quantity of rain that fell in each month at Greenwich, in an average of 25 consecutive years, from 1815 to 1839, arranged ac- cording to our division of the year : — Average of each Average of each Month. Season. (November, 249 inches. Winter, ^ December, 2-25 .. (^ January, 1-57 2-10 inches. (■February, 1"56 Spring, <^ March, . 1-71 .. t April, . 1-83 .. 1-70 CMay, . . 201 .. 1 1 \j ... Summer, <^June, . 1-91 .. (July, . 2-41 .. J" August, . 2vS3 Autumn, < September, 2-50 (October, 2-52 2-11 2-45 Average of the year, 2'09 It appears that the greatest average quan- tity of rain falls in October, and the least in February. The heaviest rains, or those which yield the greatest quantity in the gauge, come down in the summer and early autumnal months. In the summer, 1| inch will sometimes fall in less than an hour in short but impetuous torrents; in autumn the same quantity will occupy many hours in falling.* 4329. The quantity of rain that falls in the autumnal months as we have divided them, taking the mean as 1, is, according to M. Flagergues, in August, September, October, 0-0f;79 01236 0-1370 0-3285 4330. According to the same authority, the number of rainy days in the same period is as follows : — August, September, October, 16*3 days. 12-3 ... 16-2 ... 44'8 days. 4331. According to Kirwan, after 41 years' observations, in the beginning of every year, the probability of a dry autumn occurring is as 11 to 41 ; of a wet one as 11 to 41 ; and of a variable one, as 19 to 41. 4332. Clouds. — The cirrus cloud is seen at all seasons of the year, and at all heights of the barometer. If the mercury be falling its changes are rapid, and, on the approach of rain its delicate texture be- comes confused, and is ultimately lost in one dusky mass, TesemhVing (/rou7id ff lass. 4333. The cirro-stratus is also seen at all seasons of the year; and is the imme- diate precursor of rain or wind, and of a falling barometer. It is in this cloud that kalos, parhelia, &c. are formed. 4334. The cirro-cumulus attends aris- ing barometer. Coloured coronce have their origin in this cloud. 4335. The cumulus frequently attends a rising barometer. If, during a fine morning, this cloud suddenly disappear, and it be folio wed by thecirro-s^j'rt^izs cloud, with the wind tacking to the S., the mer- cury falls and rain soon follows. The cumulus usually evaporates an hour or two before ; but when it increases after sunset, and shines with a ruddy copper-coloured light, it denotes a thunder-storm. 4336. The effect of the cuimilo -stratus cloud on the mercury appears to be to give it a tendency to rise. It indicates thunder- gnsts, showers of hail, and sudden changes of the wind. It is the densest modification of cloud, and, as it passes overhead, it causes a reduction of temperature. 4337. The nimbus is never seen with the barometer at great elevations. The Belville's Manual of the Barometer, p. 16 to 33. 304 PR A CTICE— AUTUMN. rainbow is the lovely attendant of tlic intensely as lie can depicture exquisitely, nimbus only. 4338. The stratus is the cloud nearest the ((round. Calm weather is essential to the formation of the stratus. It is frequent in fine autumnal nights and mornings, sometimes resting on the ground, some- times hovering some hundred feet above it. It obscures the sun until his rays have raised the temperature of the air sufli- ciently to evaporate it, when it gradually disappears and leaves a clear blue skv. The stratus deposits moisture. It is called the night cloud, and is most frequent from September till January. It has no sensible effect on the barometer. 4339. In hot sultry weather, especially seem to supply the moral to the sentiments just expressed : — " A cloud lay cradled near the setting fun: A gle.im of crimson tinged its liraidvd >now. Long had I watched the glory movini^ on O'er the soft radiance of the lake below. Tranquil its spirit seemed, and floated tlow; E'en in its very motion there was rest ; While every breath of eve, that chanced to blow, Wafted the traveller to the beauteous west. Emblem, mcthought, of the departed soul. To whose white robe the gleam of light is given ; And, by the breath of mercy, made to roll Right onward to the golden gates of heaven, Where to the eye of faith it peaceful lies, And toll to man his glorious destinies." WliSON. 4341. Objects in the horizon — trees, houses, and ruins — are projected in bold relief atrainst the clear cool sky of a .•scene as this — if gemmed, moreover, with the radiant and lustrous evening-star — directs the mind to thoughtful medita- tion, deeply tinged with melancholy. Who would disturb the holy aspiration ? 434 '2. The tension of vapour in the autumnal and winter months, according to our division of the year, is as fol- lows : — after a slight fall of the mercury, small calm autumnal evening at sunset. Such a clouds sometimes suddenly form in a clear blue sky, and as suddenly vanish : this is a sure sign of electricity. If the clouds are without any progressive motion, and increase rapidly, a storm, in all i)robabi- lity, will be in the vicinity; but if they move hurriedly towards any particular quarter of the heavens, the storm will be in the direction whither the clouds are seen to hasten : these signs of thunder are seen, though the storm may be l.OO miles distant. In certain states of the atmosphere, when the clouds rise confus- edly, and change their forms abruptly, it is difficult for tiie inexperienced to class them ; the prevailing modification of the day, in connexion with the movement of the barometer, is, however sufficient to establish the character of the weather. 4340. "The splendid crimson," observes Mr Belville, " contrasting with the deli- At the approach of winter, when the heat cate azure of a fine autumnal sunset, and diminishes, the quantity of water precipi- the golden flood encroaching upon the tated in the form of rain, dew, and hoar- deep lihie of a summer's sunrise, are chiefly frost, greatly exceeds that which passes referable to the lofty cirrus and cirro- into the state of vapour. The quantity cumulus c\ouds. Perha])s no climate in the of vapour goes on diminishing, while the temperate zone can boast, during the fine humidity is continually increasing, and period of the year, of clouds of so many is greater in November and December beautiful and so varied forms as Great than in the month of January. This is the Britain. They are the productions of origin of the damp cold which characterises Great Nature's hand, and are anticipated those two months. t with equal delight by the i)ainter, the me- teorologist, and the contemplative mind."* 4343. Prognostics. — The autumnal flora The following lines of a poet, who can feel consists of Michaelmas daisies, starworta, • Belville's Manual of the Barometer, p. 28-3-2. t Kaemtz's Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 92. In August, it is „ September, „ October, 10-701 9-560 7-868 Their sum, 28-129 In November, it is, „ December, „ January, 5644 6-599 4-509 Their sum, 15'752 APPENDIX TO SUMMER. BY JOIM P. NORTON, M.A. PROFESSOR OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE IN TALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN. ^i>« ar The general cliaracteristic of this season in the Northern States, is extreme heat, varied now and then by a cool showery day. The thermometer even in the shade oc- casionally rises to nearly 100 degs. When the extn^me sultriness of the atmosphere has become almost unendurable, it is usually relieved by thunder showers, which come up with great rapidity, and rage with a degree of violence such as is seldom, if ever, seen in Europe. The thermometer, above 90 degs. before one of these showers, frequently tails to below 70 in the course of a few hours; such extreme changes, though in this case delightfal as to the bodily sensations produced, are some- what dangerous to health, and require care in guarding against evil effects. In June sunshine and showers alternate, but in July and August there .are ordinarily from four to six weeks of tine clear sky and warm sun. This whole period not unfrc- quently passes without a single instance of heavy rain, and sometimes without a drop; although in most years there are passing showers and thunder storms, breaking off for a few hours the harvesters and haymakers. The dews on clear nights are extremely heavy, and are absolutely necessary for the refreshment of the soil, and of the plants, parched by a burning sun. Hail storms are not uncommon, and are occasionally of extreme violence, the stones being so large in many cases as to fracture panes of glass, and so abundant as to cover the ground for several hours. The cumulus cloud is far more abundant than any other at this season, and the sun usually goes down quite clear, without the smoky haze Avhich gathers around an autumnal sunset. Light westerly winds continue for many days at a time, veering a little now and then to the north or south, but always preservinT a westerly direction. A change of wind to the eastward at this season is considered an .almost invariable pre- cursor of rain ; such a change is of itself apt to arrest the progress of haymaking, and to cause preparations for an expected storm. 3000. I suppose that the phenomenon of M3t>r hail falling in the hottest weather is usually explained by the supposition that a current of warm air, highly charged with vapor, is suddenly mixed with a very cold current, perhaps from the regions of perpetual con- gelation above ; the consequence is the immediate precipitation of a large quantity of water, which, if the temperature be low enough, is suddenly frozen into drops on its way to the earth, the large lumps being formed by a number of drops united. We usually see in hajl storms a whirling motion of the clouds, which may very probably be instrumental in bringing cold currents from the higher regions of the atmosphere, or in carrying warm currents upwards. I merely give this as the commonly received hypothesis, aware that there are other views which maybe strongly advocated. The facts noted in par. 3006 confirm what I have already stated as to whirlwinds. These ashes and bits of straw must evidently have been taken from the surface of the earth, and borne up ir.to the higher currents, where they were frozen into the drops of water, and fell again with that water, enveloped in its congealed masses. I shall not .attempt any additions to the weather wisdom contained in paragraphs 3034 to 3084 inclusive. In every village there may be found old prognosticators who will add numerous maxims even to this collection. 3085. The observations under this head are curious, as showing the different positions which Iiay holds as food for animals, in Great Britain and in this country. Here, durino- the winter, it is a main dependence for every variety of stock ; there, it is only fed when straw of certain kinds begins to fail; even then, in Scotland, it is given to tlie working horses alone, and seldom to them before spring. Hay in England is kept for a long time in the stack — several years is not un° common ; and the opinion seems to be that it improves by age. It will be noticed th.at Mr. Stephens itiUicizes the words '^good old" hay. I do not know of any direct experi- ments that seem to prove this opinion correct, and am not able at present to see why there 41 43 AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. should be any such improvement in the quality of liay from kei-pinjr. 3096. Flax is not so largely grown in this count rv a.>< liemp. indeed it has almost entirely disappeared from New England. It is eom- raon, liowever, in Ohio and other western states. Deep ploughing upon mellow soil is essential to the success of this crop, and also u smooth surface after it is sown. Crosskill's Clod Crusher, Fig. 243, is a most etTective implement for pulverizing and reducing obstinate soils. The numerous toothed wheels, each playing separately from the otiiers, give a grinding motion lliat cainiot be attained by any solid roller armed with teeth, such as I have sometimes seen in this country. These hist, too, are liable to clog whenever the soil is a little damp; but in this implement the free motion of the several wheels prevents any very extensive clogging, unless the soil is absolutely wet and sticky. The price, between $80 and $90, is an obstacle to their introduction here, but they may very probably be afforded much cheaper Boon. The Norwegian Harrows, Fig. 246, t have never seen in operation, but liear that they work well. Tiiese, too, I should judge, must be verv expensive, and they do not combine the goiid eifects of roiling with tiieir pulveriz- ing action, as Cross^kills Clod Cruslu-r does. I do not doubt but that, if the fanners demand it, some implement of this description may be got up by our ingenious mechanics at half the prices mentioned here. Where the linseed is taken from the soil, that is, when the pressed cake is not returned in some form, this is an exhausting crop. To keep the land up, manure may be applied either to the preceding crop, or according to some of the metiiods huiicated in par. 3il4. The quantity of seed used in this country is from two to three and a half busiiels per acre, a larger allowance than is sown ab^o.^d. As the plant is quite hardy when compared with hemp, it may be safely sown by the middle of April. 3131. The culture of hemp, in our middle and western stati's, seems to be gradually increasing. Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Indiana, are the gre^ntcst producers. The first named state furnishes from 15,000 to 20,000 tons per annum. Deep nu-linw soils are selected for this crop; and when all of the operations con- nected with its preparation for market are conducted upon the soil where it grew, so much is returned that it cannot be considered very exhausting. Anu'rican hemp was formerly nearly all dew rotted, and was hence di.scolored and inferior in quality, being principally used for bagging, bale rope, twine, &c. Of late, water rotting, together with greatly improved methods of breaking and cleaning, have elevated its character; it is now coming into extensive employment for naval purposes, preference being given fur our navy when- ever the quality of the article will warrant iL Comparative trials, carefully instituted, be- tween American and the best Russian hemp, have generally, though not by any means invaritibly, resulted in favor of tlie former, as superior in strength. Experience in this country accords with Mr. Stephens' advice, relative to deep and thorough ploughing for this crop. Subsoil- ing may also be tried with every prospect of advantage. Cattle should be kept from poaciiing the fields where it is sown during the winter, and if not quite friable in the spring, they should be ploughed twice and harrowed. Not being remarkably hardy, or well able to bear sudden and excessive changes, it should not be sown until all danger of severe frosts may be considered over. From the 1st to the 15th of M.'iy, is usually thought the best time in the middle states. Seed grown the year before should be used, as, if kept longer than that, it does not vegetixte with certainty. From five pecks to two bushels per acre arc recommended. Mr. Stephen.s, it will be observed, mentions a larger quantity than this. The sowing is generally done broad- cast, but drill machines are gradually coming into use, and are found to do the work iu a far superior n)anner. The roller is a particularly valuable imple- ment for this crop, used after the seea is sown. It causes a more genenil and even vegetation than would otlierwise result, and, at the time of cutting, permits the stalks to be cut quite close to the ground, whereby a great saving, both in quantity and quality, is et^eeted, the lint being heaviest near the root It is said that an inch here is worth two towards the upper part of the sUilk. When the seed has been covered and rolled, there is usually in this country no after cultivation. When the drill machine comes into extensive use, cultivation in the early stages of growth will be quite prac- ticable, wherever the land has not been well cleared before sowing. As the plant is brittle, and liable to be broken, it is probably the best plan to free the land carefully from weeds, by ploughing and harrowing in advance. 3145. The culture of the hop, on the scale described here, is, I believe, entirely unknown in this countrv'. In England, large portions of some counties, as Kent and Sussex, are devoted to this plant, and it is the main dependence of many farmers. Here the hop is seldom seen at all, and then only in sm.iU patches. This cultivation is more expensive AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. 43 than any other, and requires a large capital to engage in it extensively ; on the other hand, the profit is great in favorable seasons. The Trenching Forks, Figs. 248 and 249, when properly used, are the most efficient implements known for thoroughly stirring the soil to a great depth, without bringing the lower soil to the surface. The great cost of this operation, however, is a bar to its employment even in England, unless in especial cases, and will effectually prevent its introduction here, except for gardens, and, on a small scale, in situations where immediate profit is not an oljject. 3204. The subject of the sowing and the summer culture of turnips is so fully explained and illustrated under this head, that there seems little left for me to say. Our farmers may study with much advantage the various forms of drill barrows here described and figured, and also the machines for sowing portable manures at the same time with the seed. The turnip crop is as yet one of compara- tively trifling importance in this country, and I do not think that its culture is rapidly increasing. I know that in many districts there are now scarcely any Swedes grown, and but few of the common white turnips, these last chiefly for the table. One great source of difficulty is to be found in that imperfect preparation of the land to which I have alluded as an obstacle in the cultiva- tion of drill crops ; when I say imperfect, I mean so far as thorough pulverization and finish are concerned. In many sections, however, the soil is naturally tine and mellow enough ; but here we find a fiesh obstacle in the awkwardness of laborers unaccnstomed to this occupation. As no women work in the field, men must be employed at high wages; they invariably dislike the work, and from want of habit progress very slowly. Then also the time for hoeing generally comes, when all of the men are wanted in the hay field ; and after the weeds have once the advantage, it is difficult to recover the smothered crop. But supposing all of these difficulties to be overcome, there is still another of much im- portance, in the character of our climate. Its intense heat, and the frequent continuance of dry weather in summer, are all unfavorable to this crop. Many of the plants die, others become stinted, the early growth of all is apt to be slow, and they are thus the longer exposed to the attacks of insects. It is true that they a/e not always destroyed, and that we have many instances of fine crops ; those, in fact, are not wanting who even assert that our climate is better adapted to the turnip than that of England ; but in my opinion the weight of evidence and experience, in most districts, preponderates heavily against them. One of the most effective remedies for these evil influences would, I am persuaded, be found in such machines as Figs. 259 and 261, for sowing bone dust, and other manures of that class, with the seed. A supply of food is thus deposited immediately within the reach of the young plant, and not spread about for the encouragement of weeds ; the first growth is consequently strong and vigorous, and it is much more likely to overcome insect enemies, weeds, and all disadvantages of climate. 3236. The method of reducing bones, here described, might prove a good one for the purpose of afterwards dissolving them in sul- phuric acid ; a small quantity of acid would finish the operation, when they were already in this way so far powdered. The addition of the sulphuric acid is not, as seems to be implied in par. 3237, simply a method for dissolving the bones; the acid in itself adds much to the value of the manure. It has been found a good application alone on many soils, when largely diluted. It will be perceived that the hor.se hoes, grubbers, &c., Figs. 263, 264, and 265, are somewhat like our Cultivators, though I think that for the purpose of merely stirring the surface and destroying weeds ours are supe- rior, being lighter, and less expensive. Fig. 264 approaches more nearly to the American Cultivator, but the tines, or rather the shares on their points, are not of so good a shape as in our latest models. 3257 to 3263. Here is described the opera- tion of hoeing, which I have mentioned as so very troublesome to our workmen. These paragraphs are \^Jorthy of study by all culti- vators of turnips, in order that they may know how to give proper directions to their workmen. Haxing once learned the right way, they will speedily acquire dexterity. It is astonishing to see how rapidly an expert worker performs this operation. This is shown by the loVv prices paid for this work in Scotland, from' 25 to 50 cents per acre for the singling, or first hoeing of the turnips. 2390. Turnips in this country, in addition to all their other trials, are also exposed to the attacks of insects. The most conspicuous of these is the fly, or striped flea beetle {Hal- fica Slriolata), belonging to the same family which has been so destructive in Europe, one of which (Haltica nemorum) is mentioned by Mr. Stephens. It appears in May, and con- tinues more or less abundant during the sea- son, frequently destroying a great portion of the crop. There is a small black bug, described as being extremely destructive in some sections, but I have never seen it, and cannot give its name. It may be another member of the above mentioned family. The pale green caterpillar of a certain white butterfly {Pontia oleracea) is also a 44 AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUiiMER. serious pest in some seasons. It commences OB the under sMe of the leaf, and eats vi^or- otolv until it is ready to change into the chn'Siilis state. The remedies or preventatives against insects reoommended in England have been i4ao, to a considerable extent, employed in this countn'. Lime has been used freely, and alkaline solutions. One writer, in an agricultural paper, recommends very strongly to soak the seed in the most offensive tanner's oil, for two or three days previous to sowing. The first leaves, which are always most ex- posed to entire destruction by insect.s, are saturated with the smell and taste of this oil, 80 that their enemies will not touch them ; it also acts as an excellent manure. A steep of phosphoric acid in two parts w.iter is said to produce a very wonderful etfect in accelerat- ingthe growth of the youngplants. Sprinkling with the stale liquid from a tanner's lime-pit. or with urine from a tank, has a protective effect at a more advanced state of growth. Unle.iched ashes, or soot, sown broadcast after a shower, are also good applicitions. In conjunction with all these remedies.it is to K» remembered that the soil must be mel- low and rich, so as to force the young pl.ints quioklv forward through the dangerous period. The seed should be sown abundantly, so that some plants mav well be spared to the insf-cts, as all remedies will probably fail to keep them off entirely. Wliile we can grow Indian com at the north in such abundance, and with compara- tively so little trouble, tliat crop will doubt- leas maintain its superiority for feeding pur- poses over all others. This will be p-ortly because of iu* value, and partly on account of our severe winters, which render it impos- sible to feed off turnips in the fieliL 3323. I am happy to find that bones are at last coming into use in this countr}'. and that A few mills are .ilre.ady at work grinding them. The want of sueh mills has been a most serious hindrance to tlieir use. as the quantity required of the whole bones when they are used must be so very large, in order to prtKiuce muih effect. Cracking thi-m by hand is both a tedious inefficient, and expensive process. So far as I know, the mills now established are doing an excellent business, seUing all of the bone dust that they can make at good prices. I have no doubt but others would do well in all of our best districts. A large por- tion of the Kind in the eastern and older states having been cropped with corn .and various other grain crops for a long succession of years, and only having been kept up by ordinary yard manure, is exactly in the condition to be benefited by bones. The phosphoric acid, which they are shown to contain so l.irgely by the analysis cited under this head, is the very substance to supply that which has been taken from the land by the grain. Henee their effect upon such land is very marked and deci^Mve. In the State of (,"onnecticnt> Middlesex Co., much bone dust has been used of late, and the farmers find that their worn out land is brought up by it at once. This beneficial action will continue, if they are careful to keep up the t-upply of other manures at the same time, so as to be sure tJiat none of the other substances shall be- come exhausted in their turn. 3331. Much attention has been drawn to the method of steaming bones, here alluded to. It seems that they are thus reduced to ft state of extreme fineness, and for this reason produce a most remarkable effect when applied to the soil. Two or three bushels per acre are said to be sufficient. If, however, so great a loss of organic matter occurs as is here mentioned, the process would be sc^nrcely advisable. There might, on the other hand, be some method devised for collecting all of the escape steam and water, and in that case no loss could ensue. The cheapness of this process recommends it. 3332. I entirely agree with Mr. Stephens in the opinions expressed here. The organic part of bones undoubtedly constitutes a large proportion of their value, and should be pre- served with care. In the various methods of fermentation described in succeeiling para- graphs, it is the orgsinic part that suffers, in the partiiU decomposition which the dust undergoes. If this deeompisition is not cvried too far. it is of service, by softening the particles of bone, and rendering them more easily soluble. They therefore act more readily in the sustenance of the plants 3333. This paragraph shows in a striking manner tlie supiriority in phosphates which bones have over common yanl manure. Our bones in this *e are two evils; another one of great importance is, that such a crop, to be worth colleclinij, must be sown at such a period as to interfere with all culti- vation of the corn, except by the hand ho« alone — a must slow and uneconomical impl» ment. These reasons are suflieicnt to condemn this course, and I ujiglit adduce yet others; they lead us to prognosticate pretty certainly what usually happens in such cases, that the main crop is considerably diminished, for tlie .sake of obtaining a poor secondary crop, which does not repay the extra cost of its cultivation. The farmer has, at the same time, succeeded in exhausting his soil more than he would otherwise have done, and has finally ncjt made so much money as if he had devoted his attention to one crop. Mr. Keene's recommendation, to protract the tinnniiig until the stalks have attained a considerable size, is unwise in the extreme, as pulling one or two large plants from a hill, without disturbing and in every way interfering witii the growth of the others, would be quite impossible. The thiiniing should, according to the beat authorities, be done at the first hoeing, or in any event as soon as the plants have got beyond danger from the cut worm, an enemy which is quite destructive in some localities and seasons. 3489. The system of managing the maize crop in the latter part of the season, as detailed in this paragraph, does not corres- pond at all with the results at which Mr. Stephens would himself have speedily arrived, had he ever lived in a region where this crop was one of the staple productions. It has been well ascertained that the method of topping corn is defective in many ways ; the onlv advantage is, that the tops form an excellent article of fodder, the disadvantages being more numerous and considerable. The cutting of the top, it is true. i)revents all fur- ther nonri>hment from (lowing to the upper part, th.it is, supposing nourishment were at this period flowing in that direction at all. My own belief is, that bv the time at which corn is usually topped, all circulaticm is vir- tually over in the upper portion of the stalk, and that consequently no advantage is derived from the practice. But if the sialk be allowed to stand till it is lime to gather the grain, although the latter is heavy and good, the former is useless as an article of food. The true practice, as I conceive, lies in a mean between the two, which is to cut the sialk at the surface of the ground soon after the ears have glazed, and to cure the whole in small stooks. In this way is obtained a very great amount of fodder, which is considered by many expe- AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. 47 rienced farmers to be equal to hay when cut for their stock. But this is not all. We have a result analogous to what h.ns been found to take place in wheat and otiier grains, when cut just before they are ripe ; the kernels are heavier, plumper, and better in quality, than those from the topped corn. The same superiority, though in a less degree, has been repeatedly observed in the kernels from the corn which had been left to stand and ripen without cutting or topping. It may be suggested, as accounting partially at least for this diiierence, that the topping process interferes in a very hurtful degree with the natural ripening of the grain. When the top is cut oft', the sun and air obtain ready access of course, and exert an increased action upon the stump which remains, causing it to dry up and ripen very suddenly ; thus no fur- ther movement of consequence takes place among its juices, and the stores wliich would otherwise have gone into the ear are mostly converted into dry woody fibre. Now, in the corn left standing, or in that which slowly cures in the stook, this action is not so sud- denly arrested, and the result is, that the kernels fill out so as to be more plump and heavy. In all cases where corn is cut, and is found to ripen well, it siiows that, after a certain period, very little, if anything, comes from the soil ; the materials are already stored in the stalk, and we have only to decide what is, on the whole, the most advantageous way to obtain them for our use in the best form, both from the seed and the stalk. The explanation given above may be incor- rect, but that would not aftect the fact that the cutting system accomplishes both of these ends much better than any other. The same thing has for years been established in the case of wheat and many other grains, and the practice of cutting corn is gaining most rapidly among all of the best farmers. There are occasionally districts where the contrary practice still prevails, and it is not unusual to see in the midst of heavy stooks the topped field of some man who obstinately refuses to be guided by these new notions. My own observation has seldom failed to show me, that the farm of such a man aft'ords positive evidence that he is lagging behind in many other points, and that he is determinately opposed to book fiirming, or whatever has not the sanction of antiquity. 3494. I have given some ash analyses under another head, which tiie reader may compare with those in this paragraph. I must say that these analyses require explanation, both as to the manner in which the ash was obtained, and as to the parts of the plant that were burned. Tlie diflerences are so great that there must, I think, be something in the circumstances that would show them to be owing, in part at least, to accidental causes. 3496. On the Germination of Seeds. The observations of Mr. Stephens under this head, and the plates given in illustration, will be interesting to every intelligent farmer. They intimate much more as to the necessary condition of the soil than might be at first supposed. No one can doubt, after careful study of the facts here presented, that air, warmth, and moisture, are of vital importance in germination. The changes which they induce may be re-stated in few words, as follows : — The nitrogenous part of the grain, known in wheat, for instance, as gluten, is altered during germination into a substance called diastase. The nature of this is not as yet exactly known, but it has the power to transfer the starch of the grain from its insoluble state as starch, into a species of sugar ; this is perfectly soluble, of course, and is therefore capable of entering immediately into the substance of the young shoot, which must obviously depend for its sustenance upon the parent seed until leaves and a root are formed. The sweet taste of this sugar is actually perceptible to the taste in many young shoots; those of barley, as sprouted for malting purposes, are a well known example. This transformation, so necessary to the young shoot, so indispensable, I may rather say, cannot proceed if air be entirely ex- cluded, nor if the seed be perfectly dry; warmth also hastens it very materially. Too much water excludes both air and warmth ; too great a depth of planting does the same ; while, on the other hand, with a very light covering the seed becomes too dry, for lack of that very moisture of which an excess, in the first case, was also fatal. If placed upon the surface, and plenty of water supplied, light comes in to destroy it, with the injurious effects explained in par. 3513. The object, then, should be, to plant the seeds at a proper and uniform depth, in a well pulverized soil, that may be readily and en- tirely pervaded by air and warmth. Another important requisite, and one that will, if neglected, be in many cases very essential, is a proper degree of diryness. If the soil is naturally wet it must be drained, or the situation of the seed will be the same as is represented in Fig. 279. Changes no less singular and important occur in the inorganic part of the seed at the period of germination. One of these may be noticed as an instance. The silica in the grain previous to germination is nearly all insoluble, even in acids of great strength ; but now, under the influence of the vital principle, it too becomes soluble, and passes into the young shoot. The ashes of this part are found to contain quite a large proportion 48 AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. of silica, whirli has passed into it from the grain. Tlie forcjfoiiiff remarks, relative to the peculiar changes of frermination, and na to the circumstances of temperature, moisture, &c., tiiat are necessary to insure them, arc still more fully illustrated, and brourriit to a practical hcarin*,', by the cuts from Nos. 283 to 309. It is easy to see that seeds buritMl irrenrulariy, as in Fip^. 287, must be unequally situated as to the efl'ects of air, warmth, and moisture; that some will come up much before the others, makintj the crop uneven, and that many will not come up at all. The calculations made by Mr. Stephens, relative to the number of grains sown per acre, of wheat, barley, oats. &c., show most clearly that a remarkable proportion of every crop perishes. A larnd in lact must be a source of disadvantage, as the young shoot from the seed sown so deep would be a long time in reaching the surface. 3564. It is not necessary to pause upon the subject of transplanting wheat longer than to say, that in this country, at ouf present prices of labor, every grain of wheat saved in this way would be an illustration of the old maxim, '"penny wise and pound fooli.sh." 3566. On Repairing Fences, &c. I would call the attention of farmers to the remarks of Mr. Stephens on the necessity of lookuig carefully to fences before e^ittlc are turned into pjustures. When the fields of different owners join, it very often happens that one of them neglects his portion of the fence, and, in consequence, the other has either to suffer from stray cattle, to build the fence him.self, or go to law. This last alternative is a disagreeable one, and most men are pro- perly reluctant to excite the unpleasant feel- ing and enmities which almost always arise from it. Every farmer should therefore make the care of his fences a primary object. If he has not the projier and honorable feeling which would induce him to do this for his neighbor's sjikc, self-interest should lead him to it. If cattle or sheep are always confined by well constructed and firm fences, they never acquire a roving disposition ; but if they have once been tempted to escape through a weak place, they seldom forget the lesson of liberty they have learned, and AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. 49 make it a practice to deliberately try every available point, until they find an opportunity to break out again. Gates are becoming much more common than they once were, and are gradually replac- ing the inconvenient and troublesome bars. It must be admitted that bars are cheaper, and less liable to get out of order, than gates; but on the other hand is to be con- sidered the time occupied in taking them out and putting them in, and their liability to be left down by careless persons passing through them. The great obstacle in our northern climate to the general intruduction of gates is, the difficulty of setting the posts so that they will not sag with the weight of the gate. The frost goes so deep tiiat, unless the greatest caution is used in setting the posts, they soon get thrown out of the perpendicu- lar. By digging the holes deeper than is common, and by employing more care in filling them, I am inclined to think that a great part of the trouble would disappear. The plan recommended in par. 3575, and shown in Fig. 295, is a good one. I have also known of posts being set in 'a horizontal wooden framework, running with the fence. If all the parts of this framework are charred, or otliervvise protected from decay, such a post will stand firm for a long time. I might present many ingenious plans of gates and fastenings, but they abound in our agricultural papers already, and the farmer can easily make his selection therefrom. The wire gates now coming into vogue will, I think, be excellent for field purposes. They may be made with a good strong frame, and then, with the aid of perhaps two or three braces, would bear quite hard usage. 3576. in this country trees are almost always found to serve the purpose of rubbing posts ; where there are none in a lot, these may occasionally be necessary, but rail fences of almost any kind are equally convenient. 3577 to 3669. On the disposal of fat Sheep and Cattle. I suppose that many of the rules contained in these paragraplis, relative to judging of the condition of fattening stock, may be found very useful to the farmer who has not had much experience in such matters. They will enable him, after a little practice, to form as correct a judgment of his stock as the drover himself could do. There is one point, however, well worthy of attention from American farmers, which comes out distinctly in different parts of these paragraphs. It is the references to ftiirs and gatherings for the sale of cattle as of frequent occurrence, and as the markets to which every farmer looks. It seems to me that, in this respect, we might learn a good lesson from the English farmer. We have nothing analo- gous to the numerous county and village fiiirs which are held at stated periods in all parts of Great Britain. If a ftu-mer here wishes to buy a lot of sheep or cattle for fattening or other purposes, either in the fall or spring, he is obliged, after purchasing what he can advantageously in his own vicinity, to wait for a passing drove' from which to make a selection. This may not come at the right time, and may not suit him as to price or quality when it does come; he may, therefore, be either disappointed alto- gether, or forced to buy what does not exactly please. If he wishes a pair of working cattle, or a horse, he must leave his work, and drive about the country often for days, before find- ing anything fit for his purpose or within his means. I might go on to mention many otiier inconveniences connected with the present system, but every practical farmer knows them better than I. That there is a growing feeling on the subject, is proved by the numerous attempts now niaking in various parts of the country to connect sales of stock and of implements with the county and other fairs. This is an excellent way of making these fairs still more important, and more popular, than they have ever been. If they could be made places to which, at certain times, stock of all kinds will congregate for side as well as for exhibition, the interest of the masses in them would augment wonderfully. Buyers and drovers with stock would be drawn together, from a distance, more or less great according to the importance of the fair. By one influence or another, the people of a whole county or district would thus be gradually gathered in to take a part in the fair, if not lor the sake of improvement, at least as buyers or sellers. The farmers would then have the great advantage of a large market, and of knowing prevalent prices. They would not require to spend an occasional day or half day haggling with this drover or that, during the whole season, finally selling under the market, per- haps, from ignorance of its state ; but would finish all their business of this kind at a fixed time, and then could return to* their usual occupations, and be free from interruption. I am aware that this could not all be brought about at once. It would require time to convince people as to the advantages of such a system. Many would at first feel disposed to condemn it entirely, and refuse to countenance any of the fairs; but if they were continued, ail would gradually see the benefit of a fixed market, and be driven from their prejudices into cordial acqui- escence. It might even be found advantageous to carry this system still further, and have weekly, or monthly, or quarterly, grain and produce markets, such as are held in all parts of England. The circumstances of the locality 60 AMERICAN APPENDIX— SU.MMER. must decide this, but in inaiiy places such markets would bo of iiiuili service. Tiie sales are mostly riiadi- by sjimple, and then the f.irnK'r can make dolivtry at his own c(m- vcnience, within a certain period. It is evi- dent that in tiiis way uuu-h time would be saved, and the farmers thereby enabled to work more economically in the disjiosal of their crop.s. Accustoniineyi>nd the irritation and excitement which they cause in their ascent and descent of the nostrils. 3753. The sheep tick (MelophagusOvintis) is well known in this country, and occasion- ally becomes quite troublesome. When a flock is infested with them, they are sure to leave the old sheep soon after sheariiiff, and find their way to the Iambs. An etiectual method for driving Uiem from this refuge is, to dip the lambs into tobacco water, leaving only the nose and eyes above the surface, and allowing them to n'main immersed for a minute or two. Some cover the nose with the hand, and then dip them entirely. 3743. The sturdy, or turnsick, here spoken of, caused by hydatids, is little known on this side of the Atlantic, and some writers of emi- nence say that they have never yet seen a case ; others assert that tliey have known a few instances; it is evidently, however, not common. The scab caused by acari is a disease which seems also to be much less prevalent here than abroad. One reason for this may be, that short wool led sheep have been more common than long woolled, and it is the latter class that are said to be most liable to this disease. 3754. I cannot find that the blowflies, mentioned in this and succeeding paragraphs, have attracted much attention in this country, as being injurious to siieep. They are not mentioned by some of our best authors on the affections of she^p. Our diseases seem to be, in fact, as regards this animal, of a character differing considerably from those that prevail in Europe. 3757. The worrying of sheep by dogs has become such a serious matter in some of our states, that many farmers are prevented from keeping sheep, or have sold their flocks from this one ciuise ; not being willing to endure the trouble and vexation caused by the depre- dations of worthless curs, whose visits it is almost impossible to detect, so cunning do they grow in the practice of tlieir profession. Movements are making in many parts of the country for the passage of stringent laws be.iring upon the subject. A tax of some kind on all dogs in sheep districts would tend to reduce the number to those that are actually of service ; and heavy fines levied upon the owner of every dog proved to have killed a sheep, would still further mitigate the evil. 3761. The ravages of caterpillars on our grass lands do not in general seem to be extensive. In the eastern part of New Eng- land, a caterpillar of one of the arctians or tiger moths is sometimes very destructive on the salt marshes, but does not seem to go far inland. We have many varieties that are exceedingly injurious to trees. 3Hr2. The grub of the cockchafer, described and figured here, is of the same class as those of numerous Scarabajans that abound more or less in this country. They are occasionally very abundant in old grass fields, but I have never found them so numerous or so destruc* AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. 51 tive as they frequently are in England. Many of these are with us more to be dreaded in the perfect state than in any other. The rosebug or rosechafer (Meloloiitha subspi- nosa, Fab.) may be mentioned as one of the worst. Its ravages are spreading, and it no longer confines itself to the rose, as was the case at first, but attacks grape vines, destroy- ing even the grapes themselves, and is a source of very great annoyance to the gardener. Its eggs, according to Harris, are usually depo- sited from the first to the middle of July, and the perfect insect comes out from the earth early in June of tiie succeeding year. 3766. On the Pasturing of Cattle in Sum- mer. I do not know that I can add anything of importance to these remarks upon the summer keeping of stock. They are gene- rally practical, and are all adapted to this country, as well as to England. Our permanent pastures and meadows deserve more attention than they have ever had. It is not uncommon to see those of many years' standing wiiich scarcely produce enough to pay for the fencing of the land : they are in a state of almost entire exhaustion. Such pasture should either be ploughed and properly cultivated, or be brought up by top dressing. This last is perhaps the most expensive and tedious of the two, but I have seen it adopted with great success in situa- tions where it was not desirable to break up the turf Simple top dressing, if persevered in, will after a time extirpate many trouble- some weeds, and bring in good grasses. 3777. It is greatly preferred in this country to leave one or two trees in each field, for shade and shelter. A tree affords a cooler and more agreeable proteciion, during the heat of summer, than any ordinary sheil, and may be left standing in some posilion where it will not materially interfere with ploughing. 3S03. The bot fiie^ which lay their eggs upon ctxttle and horses, appear to be the same here as in England. The large spotted bot fly (Gasterophilus equi) is most common. There is also the small red tailed species (G. hcemorrhoidalis), and the brown farrier bot fly (G. veterinus). It is affirmed by some writers that the first named species lays its eggs on the knees and legs of the horse, the second on his hips, and the third upon the throat and breast. We have also the Oestrus Bovis, or ox bot fly, whose maggots live in holes on the backs of cattle, causing the warbles, as they are called in Scotland. The chief of our large horse flies appears to be Tabanus atratus, of Fabricius. It is black, with a whitish bloom on the back ; its body is often more than seven eighths of an inch in length, and the wings expand two inches. This fly is an object of terror to cattle, and renders them extremely uneasy when at work. It may be easily killed after it has fixed itself for its meal. The Tabanus cinctus, or orange belted horse fly, is smaller, and not so abundant as the larger variety. The most common of the smaller kinds is Tabanus lineola, named from a whitish line on the top of its body. Several other species of Tabanus appear at the end of June, and continue to torment both horses and cattle through the hot months. There are various kinds of golden eyed forest flies that become exceedingly trouble- some in the woods and thickets, during the months of June, July, and August. Their eyes are very brilliant, their bodies rather slender, and they have clouded or banded wings. They are much smaller than horse flics ; some are quite black in their bodies (Chrysops ferrugatus,Fab.), others are striped with black and yellow (Chrysops vittatus, Wiedemann). They issue from the bushes on a hot summer's day in such swarms, and bite so fiercely, as to render a horse, not thoroughly protected by nets, almost frantic, covering his neck and other defenceless parts with blood. Cattle are so annoyed by them, in many cases, as to be prevented from feed- ing quietly during a considerable part of the day. A wash made from a strong decoction of walnut leaves, applied daily to the back, neck, and ears, is said by some writers to be a protection. The greater part of the foregoing fjicts were obtained from a valuable work. On Insects Injurious to Vegetation, «Sz.c., by Dr. T. W. Harris, Librarian at Harvard College. 3869. I am disposed to agree with Mr. Stephens, that soiling on a large scale is only practicable under certain conditions, such as where the soil, situation, and climate, are all favorable to the production of an abundant growth of green fodder in the middle of sunmier, at a time when that essential article would ordinarily fail on most farms. In all other circumstances than tlie above, it would be necessary to sow some crop intended to come in at just about the period when the grasses commonly give out. Indian corn is probably the best crop for this purpose ; being equal to any in nutritive properties, and supe- rior to all in bulk. It should be sown broad- cast, or in drills very close together. This system does not seem to be exactly in accordance with nature, and it may well be questioned whether an animal, always cooped up in a stall, with but occasional visits to a confined yard, can be as healthy as one which, during the summer months at least, has its freedom, and constantly breathes the fresh air. There can be no doubt but a greater quantity of manure may be made in this man- ner, if due care is t^Uten to prevent evapora- tion and washing away, both of which causes exert a great influence upon manure dropped by the animal in the field. A considerable 6S AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. portion of this must always be lost, and on the spot .where it f'nIU so imich richness is concontnitcd, th.-it, for some moiitlis at k'ast, nothing docs will. TIk-sl- renurks relate to the solid manure. It seems obvious that a lartrer portion of the urine would be saved in anopen pasture, where it falls upon, and soaks directly into, the ground, than could be preserved with the utmost care by collecting in tanks. 3877. The scythes and snathes that are used in this country by far excel anything that I have ever seen in Enirlaiid or Scotland, both for convenience, elegance of form, and lightness. The best snathes, curved to suit the height of the workman, the handles fitted with screws, so that they can be adjusted to any angle or part, the convenient method of fastening and shifting the heel without the use of wedges, and the whole balancing of the implement, arC unapproached by any foreign article that I have ever seen or heard de-'cribed. The grass nail, shown at /in Fig. 322, is never used on our scythes, and would be considered a useless and troublesome appendage. A properly sha[)ed snathe does not catch grass at the heel, and, unless it may be in mowing among clover that is badly tjingled, never needs anything of this kind. 3900. Of the Washing and She^iring of Sheep. I find it diflicult to add much to the full details given under this laad. In this clipjate ^heep cannot ordinarily be sheared with safety much before June. The plan of washing recommeiuled, that of passing the sheep from one hand to another across the water, is evidently an excellent one. It is much better calculated to insure thorough work than wlien each man tikes and fini.shes a sheep. We have learned, however, in this country, that the bcttle figured in the corner is not a necessary accompaniment to sheep washing: and find that our men not only do not sutler for want of such a stimulant, but that, on the contrary, they are fur better with- out it. 3915. The methods of shearing, and the positions in which the sheep is held during the process, do not ditfer materially from those that we often see practised in this country. Some of the best flock masters, with a view to the ultimate character of the fleece, recom- mend washing the sheep in vats, having a fall of water upon them of ahout two feet in height. The vat is made large enough for three or four sheep to swim in. A platform is built under and around it, extending to clean grass. The washer stands upon this platform, and is not compelled to go into the water at any time. It is considered best by some to wet the sheep thoroughly in the vat, and then to restore it to the pen for an hour or two, before finishing the waf*hing. In this way it is said that a remarkably white and clean tleice is obtained. Many farmers take this opportunity to clip the hoofs of their flocks, while the horn is softened by the influence of tlie soaking in water wliich it has undergone. The shearing is unilbrmly done on the barn floor. Some shejirers use low tables, but the greater number prefer the level floor itself. It is considered a good day's work to shear twenty-five merinoes. There is no doubt that the neatness of this operation is often inter- fered with by carelessness, and the condition in which some flocks are turned out after clipping is lamentable. The hint conveyed in par. 2928 should be taken, that when the wool is very closely and smoothly sheared, the next year's fleece is the belter for it, and clips easier. The flock, driven into the shearing pen in the morning, should not be more than a half dav's work ; as the sheep are more easily and belter sheared when their stomachs are dis- tended, and full of food, than when they are empty and collapsed. 3934. Extra care and labor in tying up the fleece, in keeping it scrupulously clean, free from hurs, straws. «li:c., will always be well recompensed, by the advanced price which such wool brings. In place of forming a rope from the fleece itself, I have always seen com- mon cotton twine used lor tying. This seems a more convenient plan, and less calculated to injure any part of the fleece. A clean, tight, dry upper room, is preferred for the storing of wool : and il is much better if plastered, as more effectually excluding mice, insects, dust, &c. A very good way of p-icking wool is, to suspend the sack through a hole in the floor, or, if it be in a lower room, from a scaffold- ing. A man first descends into the sack, and an assistant piis^^'s the fleeces to him. He carefuHv arranges them in layers, and presses them firmly down with his feet, thus gradually filling the bag in a most regular and compact form. 3979 and 3987. On the summer culture of Beans and Peas. I have already mentioned that these crops are not of very great impor- tance among us, and consequently our expe- rience can add little to the directions here given for tlieir culture. It is said by Mr. Harris, that beans are liable in dry seasons to sufter from the attacks of one of the Tetti- goniada- or Leaf Hoppers. These little insects commence their attacks in June, and continue through July and August, till the vines or stalks, and the pods, become shri- velled and worthless. He calls this species (Tettigonia Fab«.) The pea weevil (Bruchus Pisi) is well known in tliis coxuitry, and indeed is said by AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. 53 some writers to have originated here, and to have been carried hence to Europe. Its attjieks are almost universal, and it is very seldom that a parcel of peas can be found without them. 3993. On the Weaning of Lambs, &.c. Ewe milk cheeses are almost unknown among us, and so, in my experience at least, are all of the precautions in n)ilking tiie ewes daily, for a time after the lambs are removed. In using tobacco water for driving away ticks, as I have before recommended, the lambs should be dipped in an oblong narrow trough, three or four feet in depth, and having on one side an inclined grating with a board under it. The dipped lamb is laid on this grating, and its wool [iressed with the hand ; the water is tiius squeezed out, and, fiilling through the grating upon the board, runs back into the trough, if the lambs are dipped every year, tliis remedy is said to be completely effectual in banishing ticks from the fiock. Five or six pounds of the cheapest plug tobacco, or excn of the steins, will make a decoction suf- ficient for 100 Iambs. 4015. On the Marking of Sheep. It is common to mark each sheep with the owner's stamp as soon as it leaves the hands of the shearer. If a hot pigment is used, it is kept ready at the exircmity of tlie iioor by which the sheep pass out. A mixture of tar and lampblack is much employed, and forms an exceedingly durable mark, but is only removed from the wool^it the factory with great ditii- culty : hence the manufacturer prefers to have oil and turpentine substituted for the tar. The mark is made either on the side or the rump, and it is customary to mark ewes and wethers on different sides. There are many ingenious systems of eat* marking in vogue among large owners, but it does not seem proper to occupy space here by undertaking their description. 4023. The farmers of New England, as a class, are certainly not liable to the imputa- tion here cast upon the Scotch farmers, of a lack of skill in haymaking. If there is any branch of their profession that they under- stand well, it is this. I have nowhere .seen so much hay of a uniformly first rate quality as in some districts of New England. In many parts of the State of New York they allow the grass to become almost dead ripe, so that in fine weather they can often .ut it and carry it to the barn on the same lay. This is doubtless a saving of labor, l>ut it is more than balanced by the loss of quality in the hay. During the ripening of grass, a very large portion of the sugar, and other kindred bodies which the green stalks contain, is converted into dry woody fibre ; at the same time, the fatty matters and nitrogenous substances, for the most part, go into the seeds. A large proportion of these seeds, and of the leaves also, is shaken off in the process of curing and transportation ; so that, with clover hay in p-'irticular, little else finally remains than a bundle of dried, indigestible, stick-like stalks. I am aware that in some districts farmers say that they are driven to this practice by the pressure of their grain harvest, which will not allow them time to cut their hay earlier. It seems to me that, by a little management and foresight, they might in some way contrive to obviate this difficulty, and so get hay of vastly improved quality. The cutting of the first crop of hay is almost entirely done in the months of July and August. The usual custom is to com- mence cutting in the morning, with all hands that are capable of wielding a scythe. Two or three boys follow the mowers, shaking the grass out of the swathes. When a.s much grass is cut as the company can take care of, the scythes are laid aside, and all join in spreading from the swathes any that may still remain. When this is done, it is usually time for lunch under some shady tree. All of the hay is then turned before dinner with forks or rakes. After dinner it is turned again, and by three o'clock rakin;z should begin. It is a great secret in haymaking to have the hay all raked in winrows and cocked before the dew begins to fall, which is soon after four o'clock. If put up warm and entirely dry, it cures in the cock during the night, and once turning in the morning after opening will, unless it has been very green when cut, render it fit for the barn. If, on the contrary, it has been damp in the cock, a much longer time is required for drying on the next day; and if rain comes on, it is far more likely to injure by standing. The raking was formerly all done by hand, and is still in many secluded districts ; but ob most farms we now appreciate that invaluable implement, the horse rake. Some rakes, much like Fig. 343, or modifications of the same form, have been introduced ; but the most common, and, as it seems to me, most advan- tageous form, is the ordinary revolving rake, Fig. 351. It is firm in all of its parts, not liable to break, easily worked, and very rapid in its operation. One horse and a man keep from six to ten men in active employment at cocking and raking between the cocks. The cross beam of the revolving rake being smooth, slides over the ground with great ease, so that the work is not hard upon the horse. It is a great resource when threatened by the sudden coming up of a shower, and the farmer who has one is able to proceed with confidence in the execution of far more work than he would otherwise dare to undertake. I am astonished to see from the directions given in paragraphs 4051 to 4058, that, in some parts of Great Britain at least, they have 54 AMERICAN APPENDIX— SUMMER. not as yet bcpun to understand the capabili- ties and Uie true usefulness of this imple- ment. If they had done so, we should never have been presented with such a plate as Fig. 347, where all hands are seen pushing the hay together with forks; while the horse rake seems to be considered at the top of its capa- city in raking between the winrows, as in Fig. 348. Its great value to us in siiving labor, consists in its power to rake the hay very rapidly into winrows. The iiay tedding machine, Fig. 342, is scarcely known in this country. I remember W seeing one several years ago in an old out-build- ing, where it had been laid a.side as useless, but know little of its operation. My im- pression is, that it is not adapted for our purposes, and would not do the work with sufticient rapidity. On the morning of the second day, the mowers do less work than on the first, because they have that which was mown on the day before to shake out of the cocks, to turn once or twice, and in the afternoon to carry to the barns. There is thus always a certain number of loads to carry away, and a certain nninber to cock. After a few days it is discovered how much the force can manage, and all goes on regularly. The chief points to be observed in the making of hay arc the.se : — 1. To cut the grass while a considerable portion of it is yet in flower. 2. To cut no more than can be properly attended to. 3. To commence the shaking out of the partially dry hay as soon as the dew is suffi- ciently dried oft' the ground. 4. To bi" .active in turning during the middle of the day, and to do it ihunmghly, leaving no locks unshaken. When the hay is nearly nftde, little shaking is necessary ; but when green it should be well shaken, and made to lie .as evenly as possible. 5. To commence the raking in good time, 80 that the cocks shall be put up before the hay begins to feel damp and flexible in the hand. If the carting and cocking be finished before night, the men will have leisure to grind their scythes for the next day's work, and often to do some mowing. The grass that is cut at this time is, of course, not shaken out, but lies in the swathe till morning. I have thus described the common mode of cutting grass, and of haymaking. Some farmers are now adopting a plan more nearly resembling the English. In place of employ- ing all of their hands at mowing, they engage one, two, three, or more, acconling to the scale (if their operations, to cut the whole of the grass at so much per acre. These men keep on ste.idiiy at their cutting, and a sufti- cient number of other hands take charsre of the haymaking and carting. Two or three men, working constantly in this way, will cut enough grass to enipluy seveml times their number of haymakers. If bad weather occurs for days in succes- sion, it is a part of the agreement that the mowers shall stop until it clears. There is always hoeing enough at this season to em- ploy them, when the weather is such as to admit of ouUdoor work. In managing on such a system, some caU culation is required to apportion Uie force rightly; so that the mowers shall not be able in good weather to overwhelm the haymakers, and, on the other hand, that the latter shall have an abundance of work. When so con- ducted, it is without doubt a most agreeable and economical plan. I have known instances where, by the adoption of this method, the whole cost of cutting, making, and storing, was but from $2 to ^2.50 per ton. Owing to an almrobably with the season of the year at which they are gathered. Another circumstance de- serving of notice is, that, by idiosyncrasy, some individuals are liable to be seriously affected even by those species which are commonly regarded as innocent. There do not appear to be any satisfactory rules for distinguishing the mushrooms which are wholesome from those which are poisonous. The best test is that assigned by DrChristison, namely, that the poison- ous vegetable has an astringent styptic taste ; and perhaps also a disagreeable, but certainly a pungent odour. All mush- rooms that are highly coloured, or grow in dark or shady places, are generally poisonous. t 4345. " Ketchup, a liquor made from mushrooms, has occasioned faintness, nau- sea, and severe pain in the abdomen, dis- appearing only after some hours. There are two ways of explaining this effect — either that the individual labours under idiosyncrasy with respect to mushrooms in general ; or that noxious fungi have been gathered, by mistake, for esculent mush- rooms. The poisonous principle contained in mushrooms is called /M«^i?i; it appears to be of a volatile nature, and soluble in water; for some varieties of noxious nuisli- rooms may be eaten with impunity, when they have been well boiled in water and afterwards pressed," t or pickled in salt and vinegar. 4346. It is in autumn that irregulari- ties in the functions of the digestive organs — such as cholera, diarrhcea — happen, be- sides the many diseases that in tropical climates acccmipany particular winds or weather. It is difficult, in certain states of the atmosphere, to regulate the bowels, either by medicine, diet, or exercise, so as to effect the desired changes in the animal economy. It is possible there may be different states of atmosphere which act as specific stimuli, and produce their corres- ponding peculiar, diseased, nervous actions, which are further varied by the particular state of constitution, and other circum- stances of the patient. There seems no * Lindley 's Vegetable Kingdom, t^. 37-9. VOL, [. t Taylor On Poisons, p. 768. u 306 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. other way of explaining either the recur- of Sky e ; the breaking of the baDnoclc, and the firing of a feu-de-joie in honour of the vanquisher of Lncifer and his host, by St Michael and his angela — an emblem of which, in the vane, surmounts the steeple of the town-house of Brussels," * 4349. An atmospherical delusion, occa- sioned by a cloud common in autumn, the stratus, is recorded as having happened some years ago at Florence. A stratus of shallow depth, but very intense where it prevailed, intercepted the view of the dome of one of the churches from the spec- tators in the streets, while the gilded imago at the top was left exposed to view. The con.'^equenco was, that the populace, seeing the bright form of an nvgcl through the mist, which just then began to be thin enough to admit of the image being seen, rence of the cholera in this country, from 1832 to 1849, or of its decided effects in one locality more than in another. 4347. There are four proverbs extant, connected with the months of autunm : — Dry August and warm, doth harreatno harm. If the twenty-fourth of August be fair and clear, Then hope for a prosperous autumn that year. September, blow soft, till the fruit's in the loft. Good October, a good blast, To blow the hog, acoru and mast. 4348. Of meteorological antiquities, " the feast of St Peter ad vincula, or Lammas day, 1 st August, is said to have been the first of the Egyptian year ; and old legends relate certain cures of disorders ascribed the aj>pearance to tlie real descent in the throat, made this day, by touching of some celestial being. Had tlie fog con- the chains of the saint. On the assump- tinned till night, there is no saying what tion of the Virgin Mary, August 15th, it new miracle might not have been recorded, was formerly the custom to im]>lore a as the testimony to the phenomenon was blessing upon herbs and plants of diverse both numerous and respectable, kinds, which, being afterwards burned, were esteemed a charm against witches. The 16th of August, dedicated to StRoch, was celebrated as a harvest home, a prac- tice still kept up in many countries. The quantity of knives given away at Croyiand Abbey, on St Bartholomew's day, 24tli of August, as noticed by Mr Richard Cough, originated probably in the story of the knife with which the apostle was flayed alive. The feast of the exaltation of the Holy Cro.ss, Sci)tember 14, can have no other connexion with the growth of nuts in the hedges, than that it is cele- brated at a time of the year when they abound ; yet an ancient custom prevailed of going a-nutting on holy-rood day, which it was esteemed quite unlucky to omit. The particular time of the 3'ear when nuts may be ripe has probably suggested this notion ; as also the flinging of apples and cabbages at one another, a custom practised at Kidderminster — a ceremony to commence which the bell in the turretof the town-house used to be rung. The 29th of September is the feast of St Michael and all Angels. Many customs remain in force on this day, as the eating of green geese ; the procession in the isle 4350. Mean of the atmospherical phe- nomena of autumn are as follows : — Mean of the barometer in England in — August, . 28"91 inches. September, 2iC92 _ October, . 2992 _ Mean of autumn, 2958 Jlean of the thermometer in England, in — Angu.st, 62°-20 September, be'-si October, S0°-55 Mean of autumn, 56°54 Tension of vapour for SG^.S-i = 22-09. Mean fall of rain in England, in — August, 2-06 inches. September, 2-67 _ October, 2-28 « Mean of autumn, 234 Prevailing winds in England, in — August. . SAV. to N.W. September, N.W. by S.W. to S. October, . W. by S.E. to N.E.f The number of storms in the west of Europe, in autumn, is 20 9 in 100. The number of hail-storms in England, in autumn, is 22 in 100. Forster'.s Rcsearchet into Atmospherical Phenomena, p. 299. t Whisllecraft's Climate of England, p. 54-222. ^^►- SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. Aurora borealis observed in — August, . 217 times. September, 405 October, . 497 ^ There are two maxima of aurora borealiu, one in March, another in October. Number of fire-balls seen in — August, . 69 September, 51 October, . 61 In August, when shooting-stars are common, then are also many fire-balls. 4351. The great event of autumn is the harvest, which engrosses the entire time anil attention of the farmer and all his assistants, until the crop is secured beyond danger in the stack-yard; and until it is secured, the farmer cannot rest in quietness. During tiiis eventful period, the farmer ought to look about him night and day, regarding the "face of the sky," and to act with circumspection. The results of the whole year of labour bein: of turnip-seetl, when he observes, " 1 luive fuuml, from several years' experience, tlial tliebetter tiie quality of the turnip the less is the (juuntity of the seed, and the worse it is to bring to maturity ; while with the stringy, spongy, long necks and bushy roots, a large quan- tity of seed may be saved with little trouble. 1 think farmers in general pay too little attention to the quality of the seed, if they can get a cheap article, or grow a large crop."* 4363. By much the largest proportion of the turnip seed raised in Scotland is so from the seed, and not from transplanted bulbs ; which being the case, we may doubt the genuineness and strength of the vita- lity of the seed so grown ; and, for all the seed the most extensive grower of turnips requires, it is in his power to raise as much as will supply his own wants from trans- planted bulbsin acomparativelysmallspace of ground. The crop sown from the -eed iu autumn will not mature its seed before the one transplanted from the bulb in spring. ON THE SOWING OF WINTER TARES. 4364. When tares are sown in autumn, to stand the winter, care should be taken to procure tlie proper seed ; there being two sorts of tares in the market, one called the whiter tare, which should only be sown in jiutumn, and the other the sprlnif tare, whicli would be destroyed in winter were it sown in autumn. No such botanical distinctions exist between the plants as to constitute a distinct species, the winter tare being only known by its smaller growth, and its seed-pods being niore smooth and cylindrical. Little ditierence is observable in tlie seeds, the winter variety being small and of uniform size; the spring varies in size, which characteristic has obtained for it the appellation of vetches^ while the smaller kind is called tares. The differ- enco of habit in the plants has arisen entirely from the circumstance of their having been continued for years to be sown in winter and spring respectively. 4365. The usual cultivation given to winter tares in England is one furrow from the stubble ; but if there is time between harvest and winter, and the weather at all favourable to field-work, the land should receive more labour than a single furrow, in justice both to itself and the crop. The stubble should at once be cross-ploughed, (2613) then harrowed, and then gathered up into ridges (74!J) before theseetl is sown on it. The winter tare is usually sown without dung, and on rich kindly clays the crop will be good without its assistance ; but land in poor condition, and naturally light soils, should be manured. When there is only time to give one furrow in autumn, the dung should be applied on the slublde ; but with two furrows, it should be applied in the second ploughing, when the land is ridged up. The reason for preferring the second ploughing in manuring the land is sufficiently m the plants, and then to sow such seed in suc- cessive generations for a few years, until the plant becomes naturalised to the cli- mate ; after which it might stand the win- ter and grow as a forage plant. 4376. The pecuniary advantages at- tending the cultivation of the crimson clover are thus summed up for the acre by Mr Foaker : — 1 »cre of food, cut green at £3, . .£300 1 hav, 2| tons, at £4 per ton, . 4 0 0 I Fee.1, 12 bu>lieU. a: 403. the bii5)iel,^ 24 0 0 3 loatb of threshed haulm at SOi. / 4 10 0 Value of 3 a-Tre*. . . 35 10 0 Deduct seed and laboar on do. , 1 14 0 Profit 33 16 0 Profit from one acre, II 5 4^ oy THE SOWING BOKHARA CLOVER. 4377. Having raised the Bokhara clover, MelUottis Lucantha major, for several years past, as an ornamental jilant, and having f und it to stand the winter and grow early in spring, I am induced to recommend it as a forage plant that may l>e sown early in autumn, and cut early in spring ; and also .sown in spring, in April or May, und ready to be cut in August, after the first cutting of the red clover is over, and before its second cutting, if there be any, is ready. If .sown after early potatoes in Scotland, and upon early stubble in England at the end of August, the plant will, I think, be so far advanced as to stand the winter — at least it has done so with me; and although its herbage is • Rham's Dictionary of the Farm — art. Goter. t Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual — Supplement, p. 47. Foaker's Obaertationt on the Cultivation vf bcarUt Trefoil, p. 16. SOWING RED CLOVER FOR SEED. 3t3 cut down by tlie frost, its roots send up shoots early in April. It should be cut when young and succulent, for after it has attained the height of above two feet, the stems become fibrous, and harsh to the taste. The best way of sowing it is in rows of 9 inches apart, tliat the land may receive a hoeing in spring to loosen it about the roots for the admission of air. It is a plant that bears much moisture in the earlier stage of its growth, and is all the more succulent for it. 4378. When allowed to grow up, in the second year, the plant being a biennial, it sends up six or eight stems, which easily attain the height of seven to ten feet, and throw out side branches. It becomes covered with a profusion of small, neatly formed white flowers, having a scent not unlike that of the sweet scented vernal grass, Anthoxanthum oderatum, when made into hay; or of the woodroof, Asperula oderata, when dried ; — the racemes grow- ing on and appearing in succession from June, until the frost in November or December cuts them down. The honey bee is very fond of its flowers, and on that account, as well as for its own beauty and statellness as a plant, it is deserving of a place in every farmer's and cottager's gar- den. It was introduced into this country in 1839, and at the time created a sensation from its luxuriant habit of growth. ON THE SOWING OP RED CLOVER FOR SEED. 4379. Red clover seed, Tri/olium pt^a- tense^ as you have seen in (2633,) is not sown alone among the grain crops in Scot- land, and cannot therefore be reserved for growing seed, though the climate would in some seasons allow it to be ripened. I have gathered its seeds in particular sea- eons as fine as any grown in England, 4380. In England, the rye-grass, Loli- um perenne^ is not in so great favour as a forage plant as in Scotland, so that crops of red clover without rye-grass are there more common than in the latter country, although not intended to bear seed. Where the red clover is raised for seed, the seed is sown without any admixture of white clover, Trifolium repens^ or of rye-grass. 4381. The soil best suited for raising seed from the red clover is described in (2671 ;) as a forage plant the red clover is mentioned in (3886;) it now only remains to relate how it should be managed as a seed-bearing plant. Were it allowed to stand for seed, at the first cutting, when the blossoms do not appear simultaneously, the seed of one plant would be matured, while that of another would be scarcely formed. At the second cutting the flow- ers blossom all at once, and the plants all attain about the same height ; and the crop then appears one of the richest descrip- tion in our fields, in a favourable season. Tiie second cutting of 1849 was a particu- larly fine one, and continued full until the early fi-ost of October injured it. The first cutting inordinary practice is delayed until the plant is iu full bloom, and some- times till after the bloom has begun to decay, so that no surprise need be excited when a full second cutting of clover is not obtained after such treatment. When the seed sown is imported direct from Holland or France, a full crop in the first cutting should only be expected, for a good second cutting from sucli seed is never obtained, as has been shown in (2671.) The loss of the second cutting may thus be accounted for in cases where foreign seed has been sown unknowingly by the farmer. To secure a good second cutting, the first crop should therefore be cut before the plant comes into bloom ; or sheep in adequate numbers should eat down the crop by the end of May or beginning of June ; and no foreign seed should be used. The second growth will then come away thick and with vigour. 4382. The red clover is injured by in- sects when in bloom. It is afiected by a weevil named Apion npricans, in length about 1| line, tiie colour of the body being black. By the time the heads of the red clover are ready to flower, the apion de- posits her eggs on the calyx of the florets. As soon as they are hatched, the larva, an extremely minute whitish worm, with a black head, eats its way through the base of the floret, and consumes the rudiments of the future seed. So extensive is the injury occasioned at times by this creature, that, in 1798, a crop of red clover covering 4| acres, producing 16f bushels of seed, was worth £41, 17s. 6d.; while the like fM PRACTICE— AUTUMN. extent of nrround in 1800, produced only 7] bushels, worth <€l8, 15s.; thus this little insect occasioned a loss of £23, 2s. 6d. on the produce of 4^ acres of land. See (3894.) 4383. When the blooms of the plants become withered and brown, the crop should be cut down, which may be done either by the hand with the sickle, or with the scythe; and it may be expected to be cut down in the cud of August or beginning of September. If put together in heaps on being cut, a slight degree of fermentation ensuing will cause the seed to leave the husk the more readily on beinc^ thrashed ; and on the fermented heaps being spread out to the sun, the crop will Boon be dry enough to lead home to the steading, to be thrashed with the flail or thrashing-machine. Should the weather be good, this plan may be adopted, but should it prove dump, the crop should be made into sheaves, and set into stooks to won, and afterwards carried to the stack- yard and built into stacks, to be thrashed at any convenient time. 4384. There is little danger of clover seed falling out from its husk, as it is rather difficult to thrash out; but the fer- mentation of the plant recouiinended above renders the husk brittle, and easily broken by any process of thrashing. Where a large quantity of clover is cultivated for seed, the thrashing-niacliine may be em- ployed to take out the secil; but of a small quantity a considerable proportion might be lost in the mill, so the flail, fig. 350, should then he used. The fanners, fig. 149, will blow away the husky liglit matter, while the heavy seed is falling down the corn-spout, from which it should be sifted through the sieve, fig. 162, t(j free it of dust and sand and blind husks, and then measurctl into the bushel, fig. KiS. 8h(»uld the farmer raise clover seeil only for his own use, he need not take the trouble to thrash the seed out of the husk, but sow it in the husk — which plan ha~! been sug- gested to prevent land becoming clover- sick, (3890.) 4385. The importation of foreign clover seeds was thus in — 1U7. IMS. £nt«r«l fur bom* 4386. The composition of the ash of clover seeds will be found in (3897.) ON THE SOWING OF ITALIAN RYE-GRASS IN ADTUAIN. 4387. In (2644) I gave it as my opinion, that Italian rye-grass, Lolium Italicum, growing rank and quick as it does, is not so well suited for sowing among a grain crop as by itself, when it is to be used as a forage crop. Its nature certainly indicates that it is much better adapted for a forage than a pasture plant. Viewing it in this light, it should be sown by itself in a portion of the dunged fallow land, in August or the middle of September at latest, that it may acquire sufficient strength to stand the winter. It may be sown broadcast, there being no use of drilling it, since it will grow as early in spring as any weed, and will outstrip it in growth. From its natural tendency to produce many stalks from the same root and its upright habit of growth, not form- ing a close turf, it should be sown thick, and particularly so when sown in autumn, to stand the winter. Three to four bushels of seeil to the acre will therefore be re- quired to have plants enough in spring for an early cutting. If the ground and weather are both dry in spring, the roller, fig. 222, should be pa-ssed over tlie crop to snioothen the surface. The crop will be ready for cutting in May, and may yield from three to five tons of forage to tiie acre. 438S. Mr Lawson says, that "the Italian rye- grass is syiioiiyinoiis with the LoNuin Jiourhi- anum of Kiiiith, who in his Aijrostoijrafihta thus describes it : ' Spikelets abuiit tluice as long as tlieir glumes, aiici eacli cnntaiiiing five t^ teii awned florets; root perennial; native of Italy.' And further, that *tliis species differs from Lolium pereniif in its florets being awneil." Like all other plants subjected to artificial culture, the Italian rye-grass is productive of nunier..us sub varieties, as a proof of wliich we received, in 18.'58, bpeciniens of no less than 50 distinct spikes, from Mr Riibert Arthur, which he collected in a field near North Berwick. In this country, no atten- tion has, however, as yet been devoted to the selection and cultivation of any variety possess- ing permanency and superiority of character." * • LawBon's AgricuUvritCt Manual — Supplenunt, p. 37. PICKING AND DRYING HOPS. m 4389. The composition of the ash of the seed of the Italian rye-grass was given in (3897,) and the pounds of ash in one ton of tlie plant in flower is as follows, according to the analysis of Professor Way and Mr Ogston : — Potash, . Soda, Chloride of sodium, Lime, Magnesia, Peroxide of iron, Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid. Silica, lb. 17.2 5.5 3.1 13.8 3.1 1.1 8.8 3.9 81.7 138.2 " The composition of the ash," observes Professor Way, "is but little altered by the presence of the seed; probably, because it is small in quan- tity. It is seen that Italian rye-grass is, like other cereals, a, siliceous plant; and indeed, in the quantity of silica it removes from the soil, it sur- passes even wheat-straw, which contains about 60 lb. in every ton weight. When, therefore, the use of liquid manure is able to produce many successive luxuriant crops of this plant, there can be no want of available silica in the soil for any crops." * stances, to pick a hop-garden, but the more usual time is three weeks. In picking, every leaf should be taken away, and all the inferior hops separated from the good. 4394. Hops, when picked, are either put in baskets containing 7 or 9 bushels each, or in bius on cloths made on purpose, laid over frames. One man takes charge of the bins, and every particular connected with every set of pickers — consisting of 8 or 10 grown-up persons, or of children capable of performing an equal amount of labour — and the ground is allotted to clear 100 hills by each set of pickers. 4395. Hops are picked by the bushel, and are measured into a basket containing 1 0 gallons imperial. The price paid varies with the plentifulness or scantiness of the crop, from 3 or 4 to 9 or 10 bushels to the shilling. About three-halfpence a bushel is the usual price paid for picking, and in fine weather, and with a good crop, a family of five will earn from 7s. to 10s. a-day at that rate. ON THE PICKING AND DRYING OF HOPS. 4390. We left the summer culture of the hop in (3183;) we have now to attend to the saving of the crop, which usually commences in the first week of September. 4391. Hops when ready to be picked become close and firm, and the seed hard and brown on the outside, with a general appearance of ripeness. 439 '2. Before picking commences, the bines are cut over at 3 ^f^et from the ground, and the poles raised out of the ground by means of a lever, and laid upon their side in a convenient place and posi- tion upon supports, that the pickers may reach the hops easily. 4393. The picking should commence where the crop is ripest, which is always round wliere the male plants grow. It is conducted by whole families, it being the interest of the hop-farmer to gather to- gether as many hands as he can, that the picking season may be as short as possible. One month will sufiice, under any circum- 4396. There being 1194 hills in the quincunx, and 1031 in the square mode of cultivation in the acre, (3160,) and al- lowing one peck of hops to every liijl, and 2 lb. to the bushel, the crop will not ex- ceed 5^ cwt. to the acre, which was the ascertained average of the prepared crops for 28 years, from 1807 to 1835 ; though the crop while green will weigh four times that weight. But the crop of hops is so precarious that, at Binstead in Hampshire, a farmer grew 4^ cwt. on 10 acres in 182.5, and 9 tons from the same land in 1826. The general average in 1825 was 108^ lb. the acre, and in 1826 it was 9 cwt. 105 lb. The attack of insects and of mould, (3 1 84) to (3192,) will make that diflerence in two consecutive years. The year 1848 proved a good year for the hop, while in 1849 the crop nearly failed. 4397. Immediately on being picked, hops are artificially dried, because they feel damp and clammy, in which state they would not keep, and would mould. They are dried in circular kilns, 16 or 18 feet in diameter, on haircloth, and heated by coal, coke, or charcoal. The kiln-floor Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ix. p. 144. 316 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. is situate at 10 or 11 feet above the fire, aud the heii^ht of the kiln is IS or 20 feet above the kilii-floo'r, suriiiounted wjtli a cap-cowl 7 or 8 feet in heiirht, and 3 or 4 feet (li:inieter at bottom, a free circiihition of air being kept up tiirouvdi the fire and boj>s to the top of the kiln. The hops require to be rapidly dried to keep the pickers in operation, and on that account the kilns ought to take on a bushel of green hops on every square foot of flooring, and to be filled twice a-day, giving 5 or 6 hours to each kilnful, so that from 200 to 250 bushels of lu»ps may be drying on each kiln at a time. For two kilns of these dimensions, a cioling room of 20 feet in width, and 40 feet long, is required on a level with the kiln-floor ; and another room of similar dimensions, under the cool- ing room, for stowing and weighing the bops in the bags. 4398. Great caution is required to re- gulate the fires of the kilns; for if too strong at first, when the bops are naturally moist, they will partake of the smell of fire, and be much deterinrated in quality. The fire may be increase\ lb., and costing fid. the yard ; ' and it liohhs 2 cwt. 2 qr., or 280 lb. gross, and 2.32 lb. nett, the law allowing a deduc- tion in the weight of hops weighed up, one pound for every 10 lb. gross weight. A Kent pocket is 3 feet wide, and 7^ feet long, to consist of 5 yards of clotli at 7d. the 3'ard, to weigh 5 lb., and to contain 1 cwt. 2 qr. 5 lb. gross weight of hops. The hops are tramped into these bags by a man, while a boy supplies him from a basket, and it will take him 3 or 4 hours to tramp each bag, and to tramp 4 bags at Od. each is a very good day's work for a man. In treading, the man becomes covered with yellow dust, to which powder Dr Ives ascribes the whole virtue of the plant. It nearly chokes the man, and he must be supplied with beer to keep his throat clear. Hops cannot be too firmly trod in, for the better to exclude the air, for which end the Bramah hydraulic press has been re- commended for jiressure, and also painting the outside of the bags. It is difficult, however, to exclude the air from hops, which makes them shrink in, and lo.«e from 5 lb. to 10 lb. the cwt., on which account old hops are not worth half the price of new. Those containing the most seed will retain their weight the longest, and therefore the plants which grow nearest the male produce the best hops for keeping. Damp ruins Lops, and those which absorbed most sul- phur and saltpetre in the drying keep the M'orst. * 4405. After being packed, and weighed by the excise, hops, after remaining 12 hours, may l>e removed anywhere for sale. The nominal duty on hops is 2d. j>er lb., but with the drawback on the weight of one pound in every 10 lb., the duty is 16s \)\*\. /, the cwt. instead of 18s. 8d., at 2d. jier lb. : this, with the additional 5 per cent duty, makes the entire duty pay- able i'l7, 12s. f),'^(l. the ton, or 17s. 8d. the cwt. Taking the crop of hops at the general average for a nundjer of years at 5\ cwt. the acre, and the duty with the deduction of the drawback of one pound in every 10 lb., the impost still amount* to the considerable sum of JtA, 1 26. 3d. the acre; and on the supjiosition that 53,816 acres are under the cultivation of hops, the average annual duty jwyable on them must amount to £248,226,' 6s. Why such a direct impost on the produce of the soil, as the duty on hops is, should be continued to be levied at a period of the history of the country when reductions on the importa- tion of foreign products of the soil seem the determined policy of government, requires a definite answer. It seems to me a mis- nomer to call that free-trade which relieves the foreigner from the interference of the customs, while our own people are sub- jected to the trammels of the excise. 4406. Whenever the bines are cleared of the hops, they ought to be taken off the poles, and the poles piled in a place of safety from wet. After the picking is all concluded, the poles are stacked up in the ground, to be near at hand when wanted. AVhen the culture is followed in the square form, as in fig. 250, they are put up in conical stack.s, with the sharped ends on the ground, having four legs striding over a hill which should be right under the centre of the stack. The triangular form of culture, fig. 251, admits of the stack being supj)orted with six legs, each leg in one of the six spaces around the centre of the hill, the ajiex of the stack being also right above that point. The stacks stand firmer on six than on four legs, and they also stand clearer of the hills, which is necessary, that every hill may be dug around. Each leg oi the stack should be bound round with three bines, deprived of their leaves and twisted into a rope, which binds the stack clo.^-eand compact, and pre- vents the poles being stolen, or a theft more easily discovered. The small refuse poles are bound together, separating those which may be used for the young bines of the first year, from those which may be burned into charcoal. 4407. The following is the cost of pick- inir, and the subsequent expense on a ton of hops per acre, averaging 1300 bushels of green hops to the ton, as calculated by Mr Rutley : — Lance's Hop-Farmer, p. 1 1 1-26. PICKING AND DRYING HOPS. 319 Picking 1300 bushels, at 8 bushels for Is., . £8 2 6 10 binmen at 23. 3d. eavli, over 10 bins com- panies, of 8 pickers each, ... 126 1 man to measure liops, .... 0 3 U 1 lad to tally and keep accounts, . . 0 3 0 Boy, van, and I horse to carry hops and baskets, 0 6 0 Fuel for drying hops 15 0 Carriaj^eof fuel, . . ... 050 Sulphur, Jcwt. toil ton ofhopsat 123. percwt, 0 9 0 65 yards of cloth for 13 pockets, at 7d. per yard, 1 17 11 Makingand marking 13 pockets, and uik, at 2d. each, 0 2 2 Treading and putting in 13 pockets, at lOd. each, 0 10 10 Driers, one at 6s., and an under one at 58. a-(lay, 0 11 0 6 gallons of beer for driers, treaders, <&c. , at Is. per gallon, . . . ' . . 0 5 0 Annual supply of new pokes, and tear and wear of old 0 6 0 Wear and tear of oast hairs, and hop bins, &c 0 5 0 Men to weigh hops, move loads, &c., . 0 6 0 Loss of time by weather, 3 days' work, £7, lis. 6d., say, 0 10 0 Wood lor fuel, and straw for stranger pickers, 0 10 0 Gift to each picker and biiinian, at Is. each, with beer 0 8 0 Carriage of 13 pockets to London, at 2s. each, 16 0 Factor's commission on 13 pockets, at 4s. each, 2 12 0 £21 6 11 Duty 17 12 9J £38 18 8* James I. This act was little attended to, and never having been repealed, is strongly con- trasted by the act of Anne, which inflicts a pen- alty of £20 on all brewers who shall use any other bitter than that of hops in their malt liquors. § 4409. Such has been the increase of the cul- ture of the hop since that period, that in 1835 the exportation to foreign countries amounted to 1,091,65!) lb. or 487 tons 6 cwt., of which only 29 J tons were of the growth of 1835, and 74^ tons of the year 1834 — the remaining quantity being made up of old ones, together with 2 tons of foreign. The returns of 1848 do not mention hops. II 4410. Hops may be used medicinally : a pillow of hops will insure sleep to a patient in delirious fever when every other expedient will prove ineffective. The imbricated scalesof thehop are scattered over with resinous spherical glands, which are easily rubbed off, and have a powerful agreeable odour and bitter taste, and their bitter principle has been named lupuline. By pressure hop-heads yield a green, light, acid oil, called oil of hops, to which the plant owes its peculiar aroma. The best hops are grown in England, and those of Kent afford the largest cones, and are most productive in useful secreted and soluble matters ; and those of Worcester have an agree- able mildness of flavour, greatly admired by many ale drinkers. Next to the English are the hops of Alost in Belgium. . 4411. "The best hops," says Dr Ure, " have a golden yellow colour, large cones, an agreeable aroma ; when rubbed between the hands, they leave yellow traces, powerfully odoriferous, with- out any broken portions of the plant, such as leaves, stems, and scaly fragments. When alcohol is digested in good hops, from 9 to 12 per cent of soluble yellow matter may be obtained by evaporating it to dryness. This is a good test of their quality." •[I 4412. The composition of the ash of the hop is as follows, according to Mr Nesbit : — " In blight ye3.rs,'' concludes Mr Rutley, "as iinich more per bushel is given for picking, and as there will not be so many Lops, it will cost more per ton to pull the poles ; and taking it in round numbers, if we were to average the cost of picking, and subsequent expenses, one year with another, at £iO the ton, 40s. the cwt., we should not be very wide of the mark.''* 4408. The hop is not a native of Britain, nor was it known in this country till the reign of Henry VIII., in 1524,t after the return of his expedition to the Netherlands against Tournay in that year. We therefore conclude that the art of using hops was learned during that eiiter- prise. It is probable that the Dutch gardeners, who came to England during Henry's reign, might have brought over some hop plants with other roots and seeds, and that we then availed ourselves of the manner of cultivating this bitter herb. From them we probably derived the name, which, in German, is hopfen; and hoppe, hop, and hopcruyt, in Dutch. It had not become a favourite with the people for many years after that period ; for Walter Blith records, in 1653, this remarkable popular error, that " It is not many years since the famous city of London petitioned the parliament of England against two nuisances, and these were Newcastle coals in regard to their stench, &c., and hops, in regard they would spoil the taste of drink, and endanger the people.":J: The use of hops was therefore forbidden by an act of parliament in the reign of • Journal of the Agricultural Society of Enijland, vol. ix. p. 566-82. t Beckraan's His'tory of Inventions, vol. iv. p. 339. + Blith's Improver Improved, p. 240. § Philips' History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. i. p. 240. || Lance's Hop-Farmer, p. 200. Tl Ure's Dtctionary of the Arts — art. Beer. Golding Hop. Yellow Grape Uop. Potash, 24-50 18-61 Lime, 15-56 23-75 Mas^nesa, 5-63 6-13 Pho.-iphate of iron, 7-26 6-79 Sulphuric acid. 5-27 4-16 Phosphoric acid, . 9-54 5-26 Carbonic acid, 2-61 3-36 Chloride of sodium, 7-05 3-18 Chloride of potassium, 1*63 2-21 Manganese, . 1-59 Silica, . 20-95 24-96 "100-00 • 100-00 Percentage of ash, 9-90 15-80 320 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. 4413. Weight of the rarious mineral ingre- dients, removed from an acre of land by the Golding hop, is aa follows: — ^* 3-2 MtNRRAL ^1 sf £l INORKOISNTS. i^ ^1 K lb. o«. Ik. OI. lb. OI. lb. OI. Potasti, . 11 3^ 2 lU 2 6 l(i 3i Soda, 0 1 0 1 Ijime, 7 li 8 10 3 13 19 8i Magnesia, 2 9 0 6 0 6i 3 5i l'l)08pliat« of iron, 3 5 0 10 0 OJ 3 151 Sulphuric acid. 2 6) 0 14 0 5V 3 10 I'liosplioric acid. 4 6 0 7 0 yi 5 Gk Clilnride of sodium. 3 3i 1 10 0 10 5 7| 1 IV Vo. of potassium. 0 12 0 15 SiUca. . y 9 2 3 0 H 12 4i 44 8 17 6 » 11 71 »i 4414. Weight of the various mineral ingre- dients removed from an acre of land by the Yellow Grape-hop, is as follows : — t "S . •3 ^l« MI.NBRAL ei fiS si -.H INGREDIE.VT9. g- sl &£! ^ XI lb. OI. lb. 01. lb. OI. lb. OI. Potash, 42 6i 4 4 6 15 53 9i Soda, . 1 14 1 4 3 2 Lime, . 64 li 28 U 9 4 90 04 Magnesia, 13 15 5 2 6 12 25 13 Phospliate of iron 15 7i 0 7 1 14 17 0 Do. alumina. 0 14 0 14 Sulphuric acid. 9 74 3 0 1 11 14 24 Phosphoric acid. 11 154 3 0 4 5i 19 5 Chloride of sodium 7 0 3 14 5 5 16 3 Do. pot.issium. 4 15 4 15 Man^nese, . 3 10 9 10 Silica, 56 14| 16 i4 3 0 76 121 • 219 13 65 2 40 8 325 7» 4415. The composition of the ash of the flower of the hop, according to the analysis of Mr Frederick Eggar, are as follows : — Potash, Golding Hop. •J4.88 Tellow Gr«pe Hop. l.'5.5fi in a Con of ilopa. lb. '29 5 Lime, 21.59 18.17 '27 5 Magnesia, Peroxide of iron, 4M9 1.75 5.-_'7 1.41 7 5 •2 4 Sulphuric acid, . Phosphoric acid, Carbonic acid, 7:27 14.47 •-'.17 ll.GI! 17..i8 4.54 I '2 3 25 2 Chloride of sodium. 3.4J 1.12 2 1 Chloride of potassium. Silica, . 19.71 4.34 9.9'J 4 r, 25 0 9!(.95 5.95 99.96 13G 1 Percentage of ash, \ calculated dry, ) 7.'21t 4416. As spent hops are used for mannre, the analy-'sis of their ash, by Mr Nesbit, may prove instructive : — PoUsh, 1.45 Lime, . . 23.70 Magnesia, 2.75 Pho»|.hate of iron. 2.50 Sulphuric acid, 3.05 Pliosphoric acid. 4.10 Carbonic acid. 9.00 Chloride of sodium 2..<)5 Chloride of potassium, 0.70 Silica (soluble) 27.10 Sund and charcoal, 21.80 Percentage of ash. 99.10 10.40+ 4417. The import duty on hops is £2,5s. theewt. ON THE SOWING OF WINTER BEANS. 4418. The common field horse-bean, fig. 189, it is well known, is nnable to with- stand the weather in winter. A new bean to tiie agriculture of this country was introduced into England in 182;"», and is found to stand the winter in the south of England with considerable certainty. It is doubtful whether it will bear a Scottish winter, as the few attemjits which have been made to grow it have been rather unsuccessful ; and unless the autumn is rery favourable to vegetation, it is believed that it will not prove jirofitable. 4419. This bean is called the winter, and sometimes the Russian, bean. It grows to the height of 3 or 4 feet ; is remark- ably hardy and prolific; the seed being small, heavy, and very plump, seldom having any depression in its sides. It is of the same colour of the common bean, with a f its bolls or soed-capsules by ripplinij, wliich consists of tlrawiu^ tbe stems of the plant tiirough t'.ie teetli of an iron comb 8 inches iu length, set upright apon a form, across which two men sit opposite each other, and ripple their hand- fuls alternately. The ripple is placed on a bam slieet, (1740.) The arrangement of labour should be such that the rippling should go on simultaneously with the pulling, and with as little loss of time as possible. The rippled plants should be tied in sheaves to be taken to the watering-poul to be steeped. Some steep the holh on the plants, bnt no good is attained thereby. 4428. Next comes the iterping, which is a most important process, and is the one least understood by the growers of flax in this country. The object of steeping the flax-plant is, that asthestemof flax consists of two parts, possessing very different pro- perties— one, the outer, fibrous, aff'ording tlie flax which is kept— the other, the inte- rior, pi thy, to be got rid of by fermentation in steeping and loosening its hold of the fibre. The adhesive substance betwixt the two is mucilage, and the sooner the flax is put into steep after being pulled, the more mucilage will be dissolved from it. If the steeping is as long continued as to aflfect the texture of tlie fibrous coating, the flax will be injured : and should it not be continued until the pithy mutter may be easily loosened, much labour will after- wards be retjuired to get rid of it. Pnij)er steeping, then, is n(»ae than crowded in the j^tond, and laid carefully straight and re;:ulur. Having an abundant supply of water, I dj; not let any into the pond till the first layer is first placed in it. I cover the flax with sods laid perfectly close, the shear of each fitting to the other. Thuj C4>vered, it never sinks to the bottom, nor floats above the water, nor is uff'ected by air or light. It is generally watered in 11 or 13 days. A gentle stream should, if p>8- sible, always pass slowly over the pond ; it carries off impurities, and does not at all impede due fermentation. Flood and impure water should be carefully kept off; and perhaf>a the best way to do this is to make a drain or ditch around the pond. The greatest cause of injury in steeping is exudation of water from the .«ottom, and filling the drains with tiles or stones. No other thing I know ui does so niach injury as this springing of water within the pond. The I)utch test of being suffi- ciently watered is certain and perfect ; at least, I never found it otherwise. It is tliis : — Try some stalks of average fineness iiy breaking the wixKly part in two places, about 3 inches apart, at the middle of the length ; catch the wood at the lower end, and if it will pull downwanl freely for those three inches, without breaking or tearing tlie fibre, it is ready to be taken out. This trial should be made every day after fermentation subsides, for some- tiuie* the change desired is rapid. Flax is more frequently injured by too little than too mudi of the water. Great care and neatness are necessarv in taking the flax out, as broken or crumpled flax will never reach the market. Set the sheaves on end PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING FLAX. 323 against one another as taken out of the pond, to drain the water otl" ibem tlie more quickly. Spread the flax on the same day it is taken out, unless it is happens to be heavy rain. Light rain does little harm ; but, in any case, spread the next day, for it will iieat in the pile, and that heating will be destructive." 4429. Flax " should be spread even, straight at its length, not too thick, and. well shaken, so that there shall be no clots ; indeed, if possible, no two stalks should adhere. I have ever found it in- jurious to keep it long on the grass : it is in the steep the wood is decomposed ; on the grass the fibre is softened and the wood little if at all aflfected. I rarely let it lie more than 5 days, sometimes only 3 : one year it had only 3 days, and I never had better flax. It should never, if possible, be spread upon the ground where it has grown — it claps down, and the clay and weeds discolour it : clean lea, or lately cut meadow, is the best ground." 4430. " Lifting, like all other opera- tions, requires care and neatness to keep the flax straight in its length, and even at the roots. This operation is too frequently hurried and coarsely done." 4431. "If the steeping and grassing have been perfect, flax should require no fire ; and to make it ready for breaking and scutching, exposure to the sun should be sutiicient ; but if the weather be damp, the flax tough, and must be wrought off, then it must be fire-dried. Such drying is always more or less injurious ; and if it be put on tlie kiln in a damp state, it is ruinous ; it is absolutely burnt before it is dry. All who can aiFord it should keep such flax over to the ensuing spring or summer, putting it dry into stacks, when it will work freely without fire-heat." 4432. In his concluding remarks, Mr Hen acres are re- quireci to fm iiish I ton of flax. Tlie return obtaincil is from £18 to X22 per acre, ex- clusive of the expense of preparing it by beetling, scutching, and hosited the pollen on the female flowers, and the female not for three or four week.-* thereafter. This difference of tinie rn arriving at maturity causes the in- convenience of reaping the crop at different times, which must be submitted to, al- though some farmers reap the entire crop at one time, to the injury of the fibre. 4444. When the male plant is rea. In commencing tbe harvest the male plants are selecte«l first, and thef are ea-ily kntiwn bv bfarir»g no see«l. The crop is reaped by pulling it up l»y iho roots like flax ; and care shouhl be exer- cised in the pulling, not to break the .-lem when taking a hold of the plant near the root. Before pulling each sieu), the leaves should be pinelieutting them amongst the water; but as the watering only removes the mucilaginone substance by which the fibre is attaL-hce, wl»en the stem i> green, than when it has become indurated by ilrying. The bun- dles should be put into the pool with the root end downwards, and laid against each other in a sloping direction, and kept under water by the pressure of green turf laid closely above them, to exclude the light. A fermentation ensues in the course of a few days, according 10 the state of the atmosphere, which has the effect of .sepa- rating the fibre from the stem. About three weeks will be required to effect this sepanitiuu entirely ; but in ca.se the fer- mentation shouhl be carried too far, and injury l>e done to the fibre — and the inju- rious effect runs its course very nii)idly after it has commenced — a biiutlle t^hould be examined at least every day after a fortnight, and the fact ascertained whetiier the fibre separates easily from the .'•tern, and whether the stem snaps easily asun- tler, which when it does, the bundles should be taken immediately out of the water. 4447. As the bundles arc taken < ut f)f the water, thev should be set up against eacli otiier, to drip the water from them as much as possible ; and when any of tiietn seems dirtied with mud or otherwise, they should be rinsed in the j»ool before being PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING HEMP. * 827 taken out. After dripping for a day, the bundles should be taken to an airy place to dry ; and the plants may either be spread singly upon a piece of bare grass, of, what is better, spread against a paling or wall having a drying exposure. Hurdles, such as fig. 40, set up with a considerable in- clination backwards, form a convenient erection for bearing hemp to be dried. 4448. Three weeks, and even five, ac- cording to the state of the weather, will be required to make the hemp completely dry ; after which it ought to be .again tied into bundles, and built in a stack and thatched, ready to be sold to the best purchaser. 4449. The water in the pool should be soft and clear. Some are of opinion that it should be soft and muddy, the mud pro- moting the fermentation. Mud may pro- mote putrefaction and heighten the dis- coloration of the fibre; but clear water is evidently the best means of dissolving the mucilage, and preserving the natural colour of the fibre. A gentle current sliould also pass over the water of the pool, to carry off the impurities thrown up to its surface by the process of fermenta- tion amongst the bundles, although some growers of hemp maintain that the water should be in a stagnant state ; but if a slight current is beneficial to the steeping of flax (4428,) there seems no reason whv it should not also confer the same benefit upon hemp, as the object of steeping both plants is identically the same. . 4450. By the time the male crop is ready to be taken out of the pool, the female one may be expected to be ready to be pulled. The process of pulling and bundling it is nearly the same as that of thrfmale plant, with the difference, that although the leaves are pinched, the tops are not cut off the female plants, but kept on, and the seed rippled out of them before the stems are ultimately bound up for the watering pool. The rippling of the seed will prevent the watering of the female plants until the day after the pulling. The processes of watering, drying, and stacking are the eame in both plants. 4451. I am of the same opinion, in regard to the culture of hemp, as of that of flax, that the farmer should have no- thing to do with its manufacture, and that all he should do after the pulling of the crop is to dry it and stack it in the best man- ner for the manufacturer to purchase. The steam process of Mr Schenck (4433,) or other means, the manufacturer, no doubt, possesses to render the crop available to himself, without the assistance of the farmer ; and by such a procedure the farmer will avoid all personal responsibility save in the growing of the crop. 4452. After the seeds have been rippled off, they should be dried and thoroughly won, with as much of the capsules as remain with them, to be given, after preparation, to the cattle in winter as part of their food. 4453. When the crop is raised for seed, the seeds when ripe easily come out of the capsule. When the crop has to be watered, the seed should be rippled off and dried and beaten out afterwards; but when the crop is to be dried without watering, the seed is beaten off' the stems after these have been dried for about a week, by being struck against-some object, as a stool placed upon a large barn sheet. The seed thus beaten out should be win- nowed, and laid in the granary to win. The produce may be expected to be from 2 to 3 quarters an acre, and at 38s. the quarter, the best price in 1850, will yield from £3., 16s. to £5, 14s. an acre. 4454. The produce of hemp is about 40 stones to an acre, the crop varying from 30 to 50 stones .an acre, according to the season and the soil. The hemp may be expected to leave a profit of from £5 to £8 an acre, exclusive of the seed obtained in the rippling off the capsules fur cattle food.* The best hemp, the Kiga Rhine, cost in 1850, from £'S2 to £35 the ton, so that an acre of 40 stones should realise from £8 to <£8, 15s. 4455. The principal use to which hemp i» applied is the making of cordage of all kinds, the fibre being both strong and durable. " By this cordage," says Coles quaintly, in his Paradhe of Plants, "ships are guided, bells are rung, beds are corded, and rogues kept in awe." A first- • Wisset's Treatise on Hemp, p. 93 to 220. 328 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. rate man-of-war is said to require 80 tons of rough hemp to supply her with necessary tackle. Taking iO btones the imperial acre as a good crop, 4 acres are required to raise one ton; »o that a man-of-war consumes one year's produce of 320 acres of hemp for an outlit of cordage ! Old cordage is converted into paper, and there- fore should never be destroyed. 4456. I am not aware of any analysis having been made of the ash of the hemp, but the com- ponent parts of the ash of American hemp scat- chings, by Professor Johnston, are as follows: — Alkaline salts, chiefly common salt, 1 j j.) and sulphate of soda, . . ) Phosphates of lime and magnesia, and ) \Q 15 a little of phosphate of lime, . ) Sulphate of lime (gypsum,) . . 3.-6 Carbonate of lime, .... 26.45 Carbonate of magnesia, . . . 2.80 Insoluble siliceous matter, . . . 45.0- Percentage of ash in the dry fibre. 100.00 14.43* 4457. The dried refuse of the stems of hemp, after the fibre has been separated, is used as fuel, and may be converted into charcoal fit for gunpowder. 4458. Dr Taylor says that " the inspesated resinous exudation of the leaves and stems of Indian hemp, known in the East as churrat and haschigok, has been introduced into the country as a substitute for opium. ... In a large dose Indian hemp produces a pleasant species of intoxication. The nervous system is also most singularly affected, while the intellectual powers remain unaltered. According to Mr Ley, the inebriation is of the most cheerful kind, causing the person to sing and dance,' and to eat food with great relish. It also excites aphrodisiac propensities. The intoxication, which lasts about three hours, and is sometimes attended with un- controllable laughter, is succeeded by sleep. There is no nau.sea, sickness, or diarrhoea; and the day following there may be sliglit giddiness, with vascularity of the eyes. If this drug should come into general use, it is not unlikely that it may give rise to serious accidents. It appears to be very uncertain in its eflFect8."t ON RF.AIMNO WIIKAT, BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE. 44.').0. In tlie case of reapinir, I pLice all tlie crop-s, which have occupied our attetition hitherto separately, together, as they are all reaped in the same manner, atid therefore subject to the same remarks. 4460. As harvest-work requires more labourers tlian usually live on the farm, s sufiicient number .should be engaged be- forehand, to assist tliose on the farm. • Farms in the immediate vicinity of large towns may obtain tlie recjuisite number of reapers daily, from the neare.st town, who will go home to their own ludgings at night ; and the convenience of ol»taitiing a day's work at good wages, witiiin a few minutes' walk of their own homes, induces most of the inhabitants of towns, who de- sire to harvest, to prefer engaging on farms near them ; and thus both parties accom- modate each other. Such reapers are usually paid their wages in money every evening. 4461. On farms at a distance from towns, no reliance can be placed on their inhabitants as reapers at harvest-work. Labourers must therefore be hired, t<» remain all the harvest along with the people on the farm. Such reapers receive their food daily as part of their wages, and their money wages are paid tliem at the termination of tiieir engagement, 4462. To obtain additional hands for a few days, when a large breadth of corn becomes suddenly ripe, in coni^cquence of the state of the weather, and to enable people to obtain harvest-work whose pre- vious engagements are finished, a hiring market is established in every country town early on Monday morning, where reapers and farmers form engagements for the week. 4463. The jieriod for collecting the reapers on the farm is when the grain is just ready to be cut down ; for if cut down too soon, or allowed to stand too late, loss will be incurred in both cases. Corn may thus be ascertained when fit to be cut duwn : — It may be laid down, as a general rule, that corn in a healthy state comes to maturity first in the ear, and then in the straw; and when the straw becomes matured first at the root, the grain suffers premature decay. When- ever the straw is observed to be first ri{>e at the root, the crop need not be allowed to $ stand longeron the ground, asitcan derive no more benefit from it; and its grain will win as readily in thestook as that unreaped; • Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistri/, 2d edition, p. 383. + Taylor On Poisons, p. 791. REAPING CORN CROPS. 329 and whenever the ear is sufficiently ripe, the crop should be cut down, as the straw will win more rapidly in the stook than standing on the ground. The most ready way of judging when the ear is ripe, in wheat and oats, is the state of the chaff in the ear, and of 2 or 3 inches of the top of the straw under the ear. If all these parts are of a uniform straw-yellow colour, and feel hard in the ear in the oat, and prickly to the hand in the wheat, on being grasped, they are ripe. On examining the grain itself, it should feel firm under pressure between the finger and thumb, when ready for reaping; or when the neck of the straw yields no juice on being twisted with the fingers and thumbs. Bar- ley should be of uniform yellow colour in the grain and awns, and the rachis some- what rigid ; and as long as the head moves freely by a shake of the hand, the grain is not sufficiently ripe, nor will the colour be uniform. \^'hen very ripe, wheat bends down its ear, opening the chaff, becoming stiff in the neck of the straw, and clearly indicating that nature intends that the grain shall fall out. Red wheat is less liable to be shaken than white: but any kind will shake out when too ripe, provided the plant is in good health, and the grain of good quality; for it is difficult to make immature grain leave the chaff even when hardened, and spelt wheat has so tenacious a hold of its chaff that it is difficult to dis- engage it even by the blows of the fiail, fig. 350. It might be supposed, that when the ear and the entire straw are of uniform yellow colour, the plant is no more than ripe; but by that time the straw has ripened to the root, and the ear has rigidly bent and is ready to cast its seeds with the slightest wind. The same rule will apply to barley as to wheat. When the neck of the straw is ripe, it is time to cut, and when too ripe the ear bends itself down, diverg- ing the outward row of awns nearly at right angles witii the rachis, and the entire head is then easily-snapped off by the wind. In regard to oats, the same rule applies to the straw ; and when over ripe the chafl" stands apart from the grain, which easily shakes out by the wind. 4464. It is not equally prudent to reap all sorts of grain at the same degree of maturity. When wheat is reaped too soon, it is apt to shrink, and have a bluish tint in the sample; and when too rijie, the chaff opens from the grain, which is apt to fall out on the least wind ; and some sorts of white wiieat are thus very subject to fall out, even before reaching tiie point of maturity. Barley, when reaped too soon, also shrinks, and assumes a bleached colour. Much less loss attends the reap- ing of oats too soon than the other grains. In every case, it is much better to reap the crop before it is ripe, than to allow it to stand until too ripe. 4465. As regards the ripening of oats in Fig. 390. particular, Mr Alex- ander Murray, Neth- \f er Mill of Cruden, in J^^ Aberdeenshire, made experiments to ascer- tain not merely the natural progress to- wards ripeness, but '^ ''^^^ the state of the grain at the different 1 stages of ripening. ^ lie couKl distinguish six stages. The first I stage was the lowest * r\ leaf a, fig. 3iJU, be- ^ ' ^ coming yellow; the second when the next leaf b became yel- low ; the third when ^hWi'^f!^ *'''® '^^^ '^ turned yel- 'T)!; f'Yr'N- ^^^^ ' ^''^ fourth when ;<-ji^'''^/> the uppermost leaf fi? was yellow; the fifth PROGRESS OF RIPENING gtatre waS wllCU the IN A STALK OF OATS. ° .• j i parts or the stem where the panicles ^.si.Ki.K. fiie-nittiug, the cutting being only on the lower sidej but wlieu the blade has been bent to the pro])er form, tempered, and ground on the smooth side, the scrratures are brought prominently out on the edge of the blade; and as the striking of the teeth is per- formed in a position oblique to the edge of the blade, at an angle of about 70°, the serratures on the edge acquire what is called a hook towards the helve, thus causing the instrument to cut keenly in that direction, when drawn through the standing corn. AVhen the blade has been thus finished, a wooden helve, of the sim- plest form, is fitted upon the pointed tine formed at its root for that purpose. The toothed sickle is made with various degrees of curvature and of weight, but chiefly as represented in the figure; and it has been the subject of several patents, chiefly de- pending on the formation of the blade. One of these is now of some years' stand- ing, and is an important one. Messrs Sorby and Son, of tShetiicld, are the paten- tees ; and the principle upon which their j>atent is based is a blade of rolled cast- b-teel swedgetl into a form that gives a sutticient degree of stiffness to the bhido, without the increase of weight that accom- panies the thick-backed or tiie other ])atent ribbed-back sickles. In the new jiatent, the advantage of a small quantity of the very best material — cast-steel — is com- bined with extreme lightness and a due degree of strength and stiffness, the latter arising from the swedged or moulded back. The toothed sickle cannot cut straw until the straw is held firm, either directly by the hand, or against a handful of cut corn. Its proper use, therefore, is to cut the corn in small portions at a time. It requires no 8harping,and occasions nocessation of work. It costs Gd. or 7d. each, according to size. 4460. In the formation of the sickle, the curvature of the blade is a {K)int of more importance than to a careless observer may api>ear ; and though the ordinary reaper is !-eldom qualified to judge in this matter, he may feel pleased to be informed, that there is a certain curvature that will give to the muscles of his right arm the least possible cause for exertion, while there are other curves that, if given to the blade of the sickle, would cause him to expend a great amount of unnecessary exertion in the arm, and a consequent un- necessary fatigue would follow. Fig. 392, Fig. 892. representing the large smooth- edged sickle, has a curvature ap- proaching verv near to that which, in this instrument, may be termed the curve of least exertion ; and throughout that portion of the sickle that per- forms the cut- THK 8MOOTH-E..OKD SICKLK. ^j^,^, ,„oceSS, it possesses this peculiar property, from the following circumstance, that lines diverging from the centreof the handle of the sickle at «, and intersecting the curve of the cuttiiig- e3, to the far ridge upon the middle of which they are all stocked. 4480. As every two sheaves are bound they are set up as an isosceles triangle J, fig. 393, and four or more sheaves thus set up take the form of the stook shown in fig. 395. All the kinds of grain are now Fig. 3f)5. When the weather is goo and its opposite, are set (m one side of a in a similar man- ner, independently of, and not leaning against them ; < tlior two, c and its oj^po- site, are placed in the same manner 0. Thravers who work by the day have their accounts cast up by the steward at the end of the ilay's work, and paid on the spot ; but they should be made to finish the reaping of every riilge entered before thev are paid, otherwise confusi(tn will ensue in the tlirave-bo(d<, by having the names of different individuals on the same ridge. If any individual thraver cannot conveniently finish his ridge, he must find some friend to do it for him, to avoid this confusion, or not be allowed to enter a new, long ridge at the end of the day, but may be placed on a short one. 44f)l. The simplest way of roapingcorn is by the thrave, and its advantages are, that the reapers are paid in money for what they cut down, and give no trouble in providing food for thom. Thravers cut corn low, and make a clean stubble, as it is their interest to make up the sheaf as soon as possible, so that tliey seldom require to Ik' reproveil for bad work. The system also alVords convenient occupation for the inhabitants of towns, who, by walking a little distance into the country everyday, may reap us much as they can, receive their earnings, and return home at night. It is also a convenient one for the young members of a family learning the art of reaping, under the example of a parent or friend. But it has disadvantage*, inasmuch as it ia the direct interest of tiie reaper to make very small sheaves, which materially augments the coat of reaping; and, when thravers bind and set tl>e com, strong temptation is jdaccd in their j«)wer to deceive their employer in the size of the sheaf. One check over such a practice is the appointment of a bandster to bind the sheaves and set the stooks ; and when he proves a sterling man, he will not bind a sheaf that is less than the ])roper size, and will place it before the reaper; but it is rare to find a bandster that will act in this manner, his sympathy l^eing easily excited to favour the " poor widow," " the lone woman," or " the helpless or- jdian."' There is inconvenience, too, in j)lacing a large numberof reaj»erson single ridges, inasmuch as, the different thravers having difl'erent powers ()f reaping, one cuts through the ridge far ahead of his next neighbour, whilst others may delay cutting out their ridges for seveml days. The party who passes the others are bound to clear both the furrows of the ridges. Xo inconsiderable trouble is im- posed on the steward in counting the thraves of every ridge, and marking them down in a book, and in calculating every day's reaping of those who are hired by the day. Tlie carting off the stooks from every ridge causes the horses to walk double the distance in clearing a field. 4492. The immediate effect of reaping with the sickle, on the state of the cut crop, particularly in thraving, is the pressing of the straw and of the sheaf together, and the loose and unconnected {)ositi«>n given to the cars, when the sheaves are bound too near the but-end, much against the stabi- lity of the stook and of its winning. 449.3. The jiowers of reaping by sinirlo individuals are l>est exhibited in thraving. I have seen more than one young woman cut twenty-f tur thraves of Oats a-dav ; and many that cut twenty thraves, all good sizable sheaves — for it is the old and infirm who practise tricks in filling their REAPING CORN CROPS. o37 sheaves. When I mention that from eight to twelve thrayes are considered a good day's work, such exertions will be better understood. In all great feats of thraving, I have found women superior to men, and more enduring for a length of time; and, with the exception of one tall blacksmith, who wielded with uncommon strength an extra-sized scythe-hook of his own making in his left hand, I never saw a man who cut the largest quantity mentioned above. 4494. Reaping with the sickle is exe- cuted in England in a manner technically named bagging^ which is performed in this manner in Buckinghamshire : — First make a band, as in fig. 394, and lay it down ; then, standing in the furrow with the left hand to the standing corn, cut a handful ; put the stubble ends of this handful all even, then grasp it in the left hand eight or ten inches from the end ; and with this assistant lay a little of the standing corn back, or from you, and with the scythe- hook, fig. 392, chop off, cutting inwards close to the ground, the corn so laid off"; move the left hand forward, lay back the corn as before, and make another cut, and so proceed — moving left hand, one foot, and the scythe-hook simultaneously — across the " land" or "ridge," or half way across it, if there are two persons on it : four to five yards being the usual breadth taken. Having reached the breadth in- tended to be taken, drop the corn which till now has been held in the left hand, among the cut corn which now leans against the standing corn, and commence collect- ing what has been cut. For this purpose, walk backwards over the same ground, or rather a little nearer the standing corn — use the left hand, the hook, and the right foot — roll over the cut corn with the hook, and at the same time cut some more with the point of it, and keep walking backwards and collecting all together till you reach the furrow from whence you started, when you will find you have got an armful. Lay this armful into the band, cut anotlier left-handful as at first, and again go on cutting inwards; returning with the armful, lay it in the same band, which is then enough for a sheaf. Make another band for another sheaf, and pro- ceed as before, cutting forward, and cut- ting and collecting backwards, clearing about one yard wide.* In Worcestershire, bagging is executed by a tool called a bean-hook, and the straw is cut by a stroke instead of a cut of the sickle, hold- ing or collecting the straw in the left hand. The best baggers use a wooden hook in the left hand, to collect and bring together the cut wheat in a bundle- like shape to the ground. Some reapers in Scotland practise the bagging mode of cutting corn, and use the left hand to steady the corn while it is in the act of being cut by the right. The mode is techni- cally named dinging-in, or cujfing. A man practised in it will do one-half more work than is usually done in the common way ; but the stubble is left less regular, and there is a want of tidiness in the work, even in the most expert hands. 4495. A mode of cutting corn with the sickle is practised in some parts of Eng- land by using the smooth-edged sickle, fig. 392, in cutting the straw so as to leave a high stubble, the corn being gathered under the hand, and the strokes of the sickle made as in bagging. The stubble is after- wards cut with the scythe, and carried to the stackyard. Probably this practice was originally adopted to avoid weeds being cut down along with the valuable portion of the crop, which would be the more easily win and sooner carried home without them ; and they were mown with the stubble, and sometimes the stubble and they were set on fire together. It is scarcely necessary to condemn a practice which causes two cuttings of the same crop ; and it is as unnecessary to observe, that the system of farming which permits the ground to be so foul with weeds as to occasion such two-handed work is repre- hensible. 4496. The Hainault or Flemish scythe may be regarded as an intermediate implement between the sickle and the cradle-scythe. It is held in the right hand by a handle fourteen inches long, supported by the forefinger, in a leather loop. The blade two feet three inches in length, is kept steady in a horizontal position, by a flat and projecting part of the handle 4^ inches long, acting as a shield against the lower part of the wrist. The point of the blade is a little raised, * Mark Lane Express, August 1841. VOL. II. 338 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. and the entire edge bevelled upwards to avoid striking the surface of the ground. On this account the sharping-stone is seldom used, the handle of the hook being of hard wood, used as a straik, fig. 323. Two men work best on the ridge, along a space of nine feet, which they cut down at seven or eight strokes each, and form into four sheaves. The reaping is done by pressing the back of the hook with the left hand, against the standing corn, in the direction of the wind, and by cutting with the scythe close to the ground against the standing corn, with a free swing of the rightarm — lessby force than by the impetus of the blade — till in three or more strokes, according to the thickness of the crop, a sufficiency is severed, which, when caught in the hook, with a portion of the standing corn against which it rests, is rolled into the form of a sheaf by the workman walk- ing backwards, and cutting any of the standing corn caught by the hook with the point of the scvthe, until he reaches the point he started from, where by gathering and keeping the heads in a line by means of the hook, closes together the but-end of the sheaf with the scythe, and then, with both, by a little adroitness, and the assistance of the foot, a perfect sheaf is lifted from the ground, and placed in the band ready for binding. It will be ob- served that this operation is very similar to that of the bagging executed in Buck- inghamshire, and described in (4494 ;) the Fig. 398. ESAPIMO WITH THB HAINAULT SCYTHE. hook, which is suspended to the wrist by a leather belt passed through a slit in the handle, acting for a similar purpose, but in a superior manner to the handful of straw held in the left hand.* By the ac- companying fig. 398, an idea of the form of the Hainault scythe and its hook, and of the mode of using them in reaping corn as described, may be formed. I accompanied the Flemish reapers, -Jean B. Dupre and Louis Catteau,tiirough Forfarshire in 1825, and drew up a report of their proceedings in that county for the Highland and Agricul- tural Society. The impression on the far- mers present was, that a saving of about one-fourth might be effected by the Hain- ault scythe in comparison with the common sickle ; but it has not at all made, nor will it make its way into this country, since it is not equal in its work to our cradle-scythe.t 4407- The other mode of cutting com is with the scythe. Scythes are mounted in various ways for the purpose, and for a considerable period has been mounted, in Banffshire or Aberdeenshire — where it is extensively used for reaping — in the form of the Cradle~scythe.% Of this form of mounting a reaping-scythe, there are many varieties ; but they all agree in one point, that of having two short helves, the one brandling out of the other, instead of the conmion long helve or sued. Fig. 399 is a view of the cradle-scythe in one of its Fig. 399. THE CRADLB-SCV'THE FOR REAPING. • Radcliff's Agrieulture of Flanden. p. 121. + Prize Effaytofthe Uiiihlandand Agricultural Society, vol. vii. p. 244. ^ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, toI. t. p. )06. REAPING CORN CROPS. 3S9 most approved forms, wherein a is the scythe-blade, three feet four inches to three feet six inches long ; h the principal helve, four feet in length, to which the blade is attached in the usual way, the hook of the tine being sunk into the wood, and an iron ferule brought down over the tine, binding it firmly to the wood ; but the blade is further supported by the addition of the light stay c, termed the grass-nail. The minor helve d, three feet in length, is tenoned into the former; and the two handles e/are adjusted by wedges in the usual way, to the height and mode of working of the mower, the distance be- tween the helves, at the handles, being twenty-four inches. The cradle or rake consists of a little wooden standard g, about eight inches high, jointed to the heel of the blade, so as to fold a little up or down across the blade. Into this is in- serted three slender teeth, following the direction of the blade, and may be from six to fifteen inches long : the head of the standard is supported by a slender rod of iron, which stretches about eighteen inches up the handle, where it is secured by a small screw-nut, capable of being shifted up or down to alter the position of the standard and its teeth to suit the lay of the corn. The standard or rake head was at one time recommended to be made in the segment of a circle,* for which there seems no good reason, either practical or philo- sophical ; but the idea was seized upon, and the cradle-scythe, mounted in that form, was widely distributed. But instead of this supposed improvement tending to increase the favourable opinion of scythe- reaping, the practice seems rather on the decline ; and there is good reason to be- lieve, that this malformation of the rake may have had no small share in producing a distaste for scythe-reaping as a practice; whereas, under proper management, and a judicious choice of implements, there can be no doubt of considerable advantages being attainable from scythe-reaping, as compared with the sickle. In setting the blade, the following rule is to be observed : — When the framed helves are laid flat on a level surface, the point of the blade should be from eighteen to twenty inches above that surface, and measuring from a point on the left helve, three feet distant from the heel of the blade, in a straight line, as at 5, the extremity of the blade should be also tliree feet distant from the point b. Iron has, in many cases, been substituted for wood in the construction of the helves ; but it does not, by any means, appear to be so well adapted to the pur- pose as the wooden helves. When con- structed of iron, if they are made suffi- ciently light, there is too much elasticity in the fabric, which is fatiguing to the workman, by reason of the tremor pro- duced at every stroke of the scythe. 4498. The common scythe with the straight sned, fig. 400, is mounted with a cradle for ^'^•^00. tije purpose of cutting grain, and so is the com- mon scythe with the bent sned, fig, 322. When any of the scythes are to be used in reaping, the straik, fig. 323, and the scythe- stone, fig. 324, are as much in re- THB COMMON BEAPING-SCVTHE. qUISltlOU aS when used for any other purpose. They should only be used as often as to keep a keen edge on the blade. 4499. Of all these varieties of form of the reaping-scythe, the cradle-scythe, fig, 399, is the greatest faA'ourite amongst mowers, because it is found to be most easily wielded by the arms, and it causes less twist in the lumbar region of the body, which last effect is the greatest objection to all the common scythes in use. Yet it is not easy t(t discover why the cradle- scythe, borne by the arms alone, in front of the body, and not admitting of being balanced in one hand, like the other scythes, should be less fatiguing to the workman ; but the fact is so, and in con- sequence more work is done with it than with any of the others. Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 30. 340 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. 4500. Tbe gleanings of the stubble is an object of consiflerable value in reaping; ♦and to secure it for the benefit of the far- mer different implements are employed. The principal, and the most effective of them, is the hay horse-rake, fig. 343 ; but as it can onlv be used in the harvest field after the crop has been carried away, and after the gleanings have become deterio- rated in value by exposure to the weather, the hand-rake is a more convenient imple- ment during the reaping. Fig. 401 is a representation of thia rake, which is of Fig. 401 THE HAND STUBBLE-RAKE. simple construction, the form being pre- cisely that of the hay-rake, fig. 345, but of enlarged dimensions. The head a b is five feet long, and should be made of good tough ash, two and a half by two inches ; the helve c d may be six feet in height, of the same material, and furnished with a handle e that can be fixed in any desired position, by means of a ferule and wedge. The helve is tenoned into the head, and supported by the iron brace /c ff. The teeth are of iron, seven inches in length, and set at four inches apart, but formed in the lower part so .that the bend rests on the ground, preventing the points of the teeth penetrating and mixing the earth with the gleanings. The best me- thod of fixing tbe teeth is by a screw-nut, as in the horse-rake, as they are thereby easily removed in the case of being broken, without risk of injuring the head. It is also advisable to have the ends of the bead hooped, to prevent splitting. 4501. Reaping with the scythe is best executed by the mowers being placed in heads — namely, a bead of three scythe- men, three gatherers, three bandsters, and one man-raker; or, what may be regarded a better arrangement, a head of two scvthe- men, two gatherers, two bandsters, and one woman-raker. A larger number of heads on the latter arrangement may be employed on a large farm, while a small farm may em- ploy one head on the former arrangement. 4502. The best beginning that can be made of a field for scythe-reaping is to mow along the ridge, parallel with the fence on the left hand, from the top to the bottom, or from the bottom to the top of the field, as the corn happens to lie; and if not laid, the inclination of the corn and the direction of the wind should both be from the right. While one head of mowers is opening up the side of the field, either from the bottom or the top, another mows either headridge at right angles to it, in the direction of the wind. Thus two sides of the field are opened up, leaving an angle of the standing corn to commence future ope- rations upon. 4503. The first head, which should be conducted by an experienced and steady mower, commences mowing at this angle, across the ridges, as the scythes move most easily over the open furrows in that direction, laying the corn in swaths at right angles to their line of motion, upon and towards the mown headridge — the straws of the swaths lying parallel with one another, over a distance of six ridges or thirty yards, which is as far as scythes will cut straw at one sharping. To main- tain the essential requisite of laying the swaths even, the mower should not swing his arms too much to the right in entering the blade of the scythe amongst the stand- ing corn, as he will not be able to turn far enough round to the left to lay the swath in the proi>er position, but will be short of the right angle. Nor should he bring his arms too far round to the left, as the swath will be laid beyond that angle : and in either case the straws will overlap each other, be difficult to separate, and their ends arranged in echelon order instead of a straight line. To lay the straw thus disarranged right in the sheaf, will waste much time and labour. He should proceed forward in a straight line, with a steady and regular motion of the arms and limbs, REAPING CORN CROPS. 341 bearing the greatest part of the weight of the body on the right leg, which is kept a little in advance. The length of the sweep, from the entrance of the point of the scythe into the corn until the exit of the head of the sned out of it, is from seven to seven and a half feet, and its breadth fourteen or fifteen inches. Beginners with the scythe soon learn to reap fast enough, but are defective in point of neatness; whereas, on the contrary, beginners with the sickle soon learn to reap neat enough, grasping every portion with the hand, but are defective in point of speed. 4.504. Fig. 402 shows tlie arrangement of the variou.s work-peo{)le engaged in scythe-reaping, tliree scythemen being in- troduced merely to show the forms of the different sorts of scythes, and where b b b Fig. 402. THE MOWING OF CORN WITH THE SCYTHE IN HEADS. are the three mowers forming a head, each with a different kind of scythe, laying over the corn in the beautifully squaie and even swaths a a a. The women- gatherers c c c, follow by each making a band, fig. 394, from the swath, and lay- ing as much of the swath upon it as will make a suitable sheaf, as d d — and so carefully as to leave the ends of the band free, for the bandster to take hold of easily and quickly. The gatherer requires to be an active ^lethodical person, otherwise she will make rough work. The bandster e follows her, and binds the sheaves in the manner described in (4479,) any two of the three bandsters// setting the stook (/ together ; and in crossing the ridges, they shouldall be set upon the same ridge, to give the people who remove them with the cart the least trouble. Last of all comes the raker h, who clears the ground between the stooks with his large hand stubble-rake t, of all loose straws, and brings them to a bandster, whobindsthem together by them- selves, and sets them in bundles at the side of a stook, and not at its end, to pre- vent the ventilation of the air through it. This is mucli better than putting the rak- ings into the heart of a sheaf, where they will not thrash clean v/ith the rest of the corn ; and as tiiey may contain earth and small stones, and inferior grain from straws which may have fallen down before the mowing, it is better to thrash the rakings by themselves. When the mowing and gathering are properly executed, the rak- ings should not exceed from four to five per cent of the crop, which is not more waste than in reaping with the smooth sickle. 4505. Every species of the cereal grains may be mown with the scythe. Many farmers still believe that the scythe is an unsuitable implement with which to mow wheat ; but T can assure them, from long experience and observation, that it is as suitable as the sickle, and that mown sheaves may be made to look well, pro- vided ti)e gatherers are proficients at their work. Doubtless mowincr wheat is severe 842 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. work, and so is reaping it. Oats are the most j)Iea.sant crop to mow, tlieir crisp straw being easily cut with tlie scythe ; and being smooth, and not too long, does not injure the hands in binding like wheat, and the sheaves are easily set in stook. Barley straw being covered with a gummy matter, svhich gives it a malty smell, soon takes the edge off the scythe, and being brittle, not hard, is easily broken in the binding. When much young grass is found among the barley straw when mown, it should be shaken out by the gatherers, while holding the straw by the corn end, as it will detain the crop too long a time in the field in winning; and rather tiian run that risk, it is better to incur the extra cost of getting rid of the grass by a little sacri- fice of time at reaping, or even by the en- gagement of extra hands. It is scarcely practicable to shake out grass from corn while reaping with the sickle, as the instru- mentwould constantlybe required to be laid aside, both hands being required in the ope- ration. To cut the stubble as high as the grass, would make the straw in the sheaf too short. 4506. A good mower will cut one acre of wheat, or perhaps rather more, a day. If a stroke of the scythe covers seven feet in length and fifteen inches in breadth, an area equal to 1260 square inches, it will take about 5000 such strokes to reap an acre. Two acres of oats may easily be mown in a day, thus indicating that a man will mow double the extent of oats he will do of wheat, or make about 10,000 strokes of the scythe in a day. Nearly two acres of barley may be mown in a day, time be- ing wasted in the extra sharping required in cutting barley straw. 4507. Mr John Taylor, steward at Cor- riestone, Aberdeenshire, jjives the follow- ing as his experience of the comparative quantities of ground reaped and mown by seven persons, on an average of ten hours' work : — Wheat. OatR and Barley. By Hie scjtlie. 2 3 0 4 0 20 Ily the smootii sickle, 1 1 18 2 2 10 By the tootlied sickle, 10 8 2 0 10 4508. And the average number of sheaves, of an average crop of oats and barley that one man can bind and stook in a (lay of ten hours, by the three modes of reaping, ho mentions as diflering thus — Of sheaves reaped by the scythe, . 15fi0 or Cy2h thraves. sii'iooth sickle, l2ii0..5o' toothed sickle, 1200 .. 50 The difference is accounted for by the bandster not having to go from ridge to ridge in following the scythe, but con- tinues at the same row of swath. In jn-actice, however, the bandster binds less in a day to the scythe than to the sickle, becaii.^e he binds but to one scythe, but to six reapers with the sickle, who reap more than one scythe — the time of the bandster being filled up in assisting the gatherers to make bands. Mr Tayli)r has bound and stodked 1G80 sheaves of oats, containing nineteen and a half quarters of grain cut by the scythe, and of sheaves cut by the sickle ard. Number of | Weight of l^Z'^U grains raised inj grain on an 1 , ,(. .. a square yard. | acre. ^^^ ^„; 26 49 75 120 7,500 11,700 5,400 Ibi 2724 3859 2118 5294 G8 96 53 132 In- crease in fold. 288 240 4540. Plants in a square yard. Number of grains raised in a square yard. Weight of grain on an acre. Number of bushels of ■10 lb. per acre. In- crease in fold. 1 32 53 78 94 140 208 1 7,500 7,900 5,G00 6,900 lb. 3025 3632 2420 3025 2875 2875 75 91 60 75 71 71 234 150 ' 72 i 73 ' 4541. BROADCAST, Plants V .- f in a Number of square .^^'"^ raised in yard, a square yard. ■Weight of grain on an acre. Number of bushels of 40 lb. per acre. In- crease in fold. 19 52 68 87 5,100 8,000 8,700 lb. 2117 3113 3632 3632 53 78 91 91 270 154 128 The largest return, 16^ quarters an acre, specified in these tables, is when 120 plants occupied the square yard from dib- bled seed; and the smallest return, 6^ quarters an acre, is also recorded with dibbled seed when 75 plants occupied the square yard— which last result is equalled from 19 plants occupying the square yard from seed sown broadcast: the 19 plants thus yielding four times in fold that the 75 did, as may be observed in comparing the columns of the increase in fold in both the cases. We cannot explain whence such discrepancies arise. The re- turns in general, exhibited in the tables, are greater than what is commonly received, as one might expect would be the case, where experiments are conducted with more care than ordinary culture, and all the produce is carefully preserved ; whereas much waste is occasioned from an ordinary crop passing from one hand and process to another, before the ultimate result is ascertained. Such comparisons, however, should inculcate carefulness in all the oi)erations connected with the field- culture of every crop. 4542. As regards these results, Mr M'Lagan truly remarks that they "are most capricious ;" and judiciously observes that "there is one thing that strikes me as curious and interesting — namely, the great preponderance of pickles reaped when only 2 pickles were put into the hole, compared to the result Mhen 3 were put in. One pickle in a hole gave a much better yield than three. Might we not argue from this, that, if dib- bling is to be much practised, it will be better to make more holes, and put fewer seeds into each hole ? There is some con- firmation of this from the results obtained from broadcast, where there is a gradual increase of produce according to the quan- tity sown — owing, I suppose, to the seeds being more equally distributed over the ground.'' 4543. "The rest of the field," con- tinues Mr M'Lagan, " not experimented on, was sown the same day as the parts on which the above observations were made at the rate of 41 bushels to the acre. It was in full ear on the 9th and 11th July, and was reaped on the 8th of September. Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 486-7 — Law's translation. 850 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. I also sowed some at the rate of 21 and 3i bushels to the acre. It was also a good crop, and was nearly as soon ready for reaping as the rest of the field. I made several observations about the time the corn came into ear, and found that it came into ear according to the thickness of sowing, the thickest sown being first in ear, and the drilled portion being always the most forward. The thinnest sown had strong straws and magnificent heads, but I was obliged to cut them before they were ripe. Although several parcels were cut on the same day they were not equally ripe, the thinnest sown always being greenest." 4544. In continuation of the experi- ments recorded of Mr Hay of Whiterigg, in (3533) and (3534,) he obtained the following results in yield of straw from dibbled and drilled grain respectively. Thus, from — WHEAT. Dibbled in one square yard. Average, Drilled in one square, mrd. Seeds Seeds Stalks stalks by sown. brairded. cut. tillering. 144 97 330 233 = 3-40 times. 432 296 439 143 = 1-48 . . 864 616 614 . . = none. . . 480 336 461 Drilled in one square yard. 144 105 343 238 ■= 326 432 327 507 180 = 1-55 864 652 680 28 = 104 Average, 4545. ATerage, Average, Dibbled in one square yard. 144 432 864 335 687 330 235 = 3-47 668 333 = 1-99 1002 315 = 1-44 294 = 1-79 Drilled in one square yard. 144 86 680 694 - 7-90 432 318 9.14 616 = 2-93 864 747 1225 478 = 1-64 384 563 = 2-46 4546. HOPETOUN OATS. Dibbled in one square yard. 144 129 588 4.59 - 4-55 432 403 806 403 - 200 864 8l»0 1092 2y2 = 136 Average, 4547. Average, Average, Seeds •own. Seeds brairded. sulks cut. Increase ot stalks bv tiUering. 144 432 864 139 408 798 678 854 1132 439 = 415 . . 440 = 2-09 . . 3;« =■ 1-41 . . 480 448 855 406 -^ 1-90 .. POTATO OATS, Dibbled in one square yard. 144 432 864 135 407 823 455 603 821 915 780 468 - 4-46 times. 414 = 201 . . 92 = 111 . . 480 345 = 1-71 . . Drilled in one : square yard. 144 432 864 137 407 795 540 711 798 403 =3-94 . . 304=1-74 .. 3 = 1-00 .. 480 446 683 237 = 1-53 . . Average, 480 444 4548. These figures instruct us that, where the seed is sown thin, the disposi- tion of the plant to tiller increases; which shows that the soil endeavours to supjiort a definite proportion of plants, according to its ability as regards its state of fertility. We see that, where the seed is supplied so scantily as 144 to the square yard, or 696*960 to the acre, which is about 1 bushel to the acre, (1856,) that the tiller- ing in the wheat plant takes place to the extent of about 3g times the plants brairded from the seed ; in the barley plant from 3J to 8 times ; and in the oat plant about 4^ times. At 2 bushels of seed to the acre, the tillering of wheat is H time more than the plants brairded; of barley from 2 to 3 times ; and of oafs about 2 times. With 3 bushels of seed to the acre, wheat tillers scarcely at all ; barley about 1;^ more tiian the plants brairded; and oats about 1^^ more than the braird. The average tillering in all the instances of wheat is about 1^ to the braird ; of barley about twice the braird; and of oats about 1| time more than the braird. If any conclusion can be drawn from the foregoing statements, it appears to be this, — that as thick sowing brings the crop sooner to maturity, it is best adapted for a cold, late season ; and as thin sow- ing retards tiie ripening of the crop, it is best suited to a fine sea.son. The charac- ter of the sea.son must be taken as that presented at the time of sowing, and the judicious farmer will proportion the quan- tity of seed to be sown accordingly. The REAPING CORN CROPS. 851 yield of grain in the above experiments were not ascertained, as both the wind and birds had destroyed a large number of the heads, and in consequence rendered the results uncertain. 4549. On the 28th of September 1849, Mr Hay manured an undrained cold clay field with 24 tons per acre of farmyard manure, and dibbled in on one part of it four tenths of a bushel of Hunter's Impe- rial Hopetoun wheat per acre upon ribs, at 4 seeds to the hole, at a cost of 5s. T^d. per acre ; and on another part of the same field, treated in the same manner, he sowed on the same day, broadcast, 1 bushel 5^ tenths of the same seed, at a cost of ii^l, Is. 6^d. per acre. On the 6th of June 1850, the dibbled wheat measured 3 feet 8 inches in height including the roots, and afibrded from 14 to 21 thick strong stalks from each hole. The broadcast measured 3 feet 4 inches of height, including the roots; the stalks were smaller ; and 21 of tliem weighed one eighth of an ounce less than the same number of the dibbled from one hole. On the loth of June, both lots of wheat were in the ear. 4550. A crop of wheat varies by soil, situation, and season, from 20 to 56 bushels an acre ; and the weight varies from the same causes from 59 lb. to 68 lb.* the bushel, (1856.) 4551. Barley varies in produce by the same circumstances, from 36 to 60 bushels an acre ; and its weight from 50 lb. to 59 lb. the bushel, (1911.) 4552. The yield of oats varies in similar circumstances even more tlian wheat or barley, from 30 to 90 bushels an acre ; and its weight from 38 lb. to 48 lb. the bushel, (1930.) 4553. It is as easy now, 1850, to raise 32 bushels of wheat on an acre, as it was 30 years ago to raise 24 bushels j to raise 54 bushels of barley as it was to raise 42 bushels ; and to raise 60 bushels of oats as it was to raise 48 bushels. 4554. In like manner, it is as easy to raise now, wheat of the weight of 65 lb. the bushel, as it was then to raise it at 63 lb.; barley now of 56 lb. the bushel aa it was then of 53 lb. ; and oats now of 43 lb. the bushel as it was then of 40 lb. 4555. These results have been realised in the course of years, not so much from the superior as from the inferior classes of soils. The latter have increased more in fertility in that time than the former, and they became so entirely from ordinary good farming, and before the introduction of the special manures. 4556. Farmers neglectful of weeding their corn give reapers much uneasiness, and waste much time, while getting rid of large weeds, some of which often injure the hands of both reapers and gatherers very seriously. Of these the corn dead- nettle, Galt'opsi.f tetrahit, is dangerous, causing swellings, heat, and pain in the hands ; as also the biennial spear-thistle, Cnicus lanceolatus, the spines of which breaking in the flesh, inflict acute pain when touched, and are exceedingly trouble- some to extract. The only safciruard against such accidents is the wearing of gloves made of sheep-skin, called shearers' gloves, which only cost Is. the pair; but it is more pleasant for the work-people when the corn is so free of weeds as to dis- pense with gloves. 4557. It is in reaping a field, as Id ploughing it, that short ridges waste much time in passing from one end of them to the other ; and frequently much time is also lost in going from one field to another. It tends to economise time, when an acre or so of a field happens to be left uncut, after all the band-wins have com- pleted their stented quantities, to take the troop of reapers at once to another field than remain in the one they are in to finish the small portion left, which can be cut up by the part of the hinds' families who cannot undertake regular harvest- work. Should such a portion be left at the end of a day's work, it is most economical to work a little longer and faster to com- plete the field before leaving it for the evening; hut if found impossible to com- plete it, the reapers should not return to it in the inorning, but proceed to a new fiehl, and leave the remnant to be reaped by the odd hands I have mentioned. 4558. Harvest generally commences 392 PRACTICE— AUTUMN". with the reaping of the winter wheats which may be expected to be effected by the end of July in England, and the mid- dle of August in Scotland. During my recollection the harvest commences earlier in Scotland than it did, when the begin-^ ning of September was the usual period. Beans are never ready for the sickle until all the cereal grains have been reaped. 4559. That one period of their age is better than another for reaping grain crops has been proved by careful experiments, made by Mr John Hannam, North Deighton, Yorkshire. Without entering into their details, I give only their results. Of wheat reaped at various ages, the following were the advantages and disadvantages derived : — No. 1, reaped quite preen on 12th August, and stacked 26th August, gave a return of L.ll, IJs, per acre. No. 2, reaped ^reen on 19th August, and stacked 31st August, returned L.13, 6s. No. 3, reaped raw on 26th August, and stacked 5th September, returned L.14, 18s. No. 4, reaped not quite so raw on 30th August^ and stacked 9th September, returned L.14, 17s. 4d. No. 5, reaped riipe on 9th September, and stacked 16th September, returned L.13, lis. 8d. per acre. Hence, — A \os» of f 1 14 8 per acre on No. 1 compared with No. 5. 0 5 8 . . No. 2 . . No. 5. A jain of 16 4 .. No. 3 No. 5. 15 8 . . No. 4 . . No. 5. 3 10 . . No. 3 No. 1. 4560. Wheat reaped a fortnight before it is ripe gives an advantage on every point, namely : — Id weight of gross produce, of . . 13^ per cent, equal measures, nearly . 4 • • equal number of grains, nearly 2^ In quality and value, above . . .^J . . In weight of straw, above . . . 5 . . Other advantages are, straw of better quality, a better chance of securing the crop, and a saving in securing it. 4561. On the other hand, wheat, reaped a month before it is ripe, gives an advantage of twenty-two per cent in weight of straw com- pared with the ripe, but suffers disadvantage in every other point, namely : — In weight of sToss produce, . . 11,\ per cent. . . equal measures, above . j . . equal number of grains, above 13^ In quality and quantity, above . . % .. 4562. Some of these may seem trivial advan- tages and disadvantages when confined to the area of a single acre; but when computed on the extent of ground under wheat culture in the kingdom, the results are striking, as exemplified by Mr Hannam,—" ^^^len we consider that there are in England and Scotland about 4,000,000 acres of wheat grown annually, producing 12,000,000 quarters of grain, of which three-fourths are allowed to become ripe; when we consider that by cutting this sooner we should produce an increase of 15} per cent of flour, and realise an increased Value of 7s. 6^d. upon every quarter produced ; and that we should produce food for 1.362,857 persons over and above what we now produce.and an extra annual income of L. 51 2,491, and when we consider that this increase would be so much added to the wealth of the country, that it is equal to the proceeds, at three per cent, of an estate worth L. 17,083,033; and that the increase of our population demands an in- creased supply of food, I would ask, what is our duty in this case 1" * 4563. Upon one occasion I cut down a few stocks of potato-oats when quite green, though full in the ear, to allow carts to pass to a place destined for the site of a hay-stack, and after standing till the rest of the field was brought in, they were thrashed with the flail by them- selves, and the sample produced was the most beautifully silvery grain I ever saw ; but not having made the experiment with any view to improving the crop, 1 pursued the investigation no farther, and cannot say what effect would have been produced upon the quality and quan- tity of the meal. 4564. There are various ways of stocking or shocking corn besides those represented in figs. 395 and 396. In Ireland, a safe plan against wind and rain is practised in clnstering the standing sheaves with their tops close together; and after placing two hood-sheaves almost in a perpendicular position, with the stubble end uppermost, these are lashed together by a wisp from one hood being passed under the band of the other. Stocks are also set, with the standing sheaves in the form of a cross, across an open furrow or sheugh, and covered with four hoods meeting with their but-ends in the middle. 4565. In Germany the rye is stooked in a sub- stantial and elegant form. The sheaves are all made as large as a man can only carry one. In forming the stock, one sheaf is set up having two bands, and around it in a circle, a little asunder, are placed eight sheaves with their heads meeting together, and one large sheaf acts as a hood to the others. The hood sheaf is pre- pared in this way : — It is placed on its but-end upon the ground, and the straw is broken down at the band from the outside of the sheaf to the centre, and arranged in a circular form, after which the sheaf is lifted by two men, who place the circularly spread out straws as a thatching over the heads of the standing sheaves, with its but-end projecting upwards. The straws are then neatly trimmed around the stook, making them cover every sheaf equally, and reaching nearly to the bands of the standing sheaves. Such a stook will ward off any quantity of rain, and resist any force of wind. In eight days the rye is ready to be carried, but it lies broad-band upon the ground several days before being thus bound into sheaves and stooked. * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xii. p. 22—37 ; and vol. xiii. p. 170—87. REAPIKG COR^ CROPS. 353 4566. An effectual way of keeping sheaves dry and exposing them to the air is practised in Fig. 404. Sweden, by thrusting the endofasniall pole six or seven feet long, a, fig. 404, into the ground; and after impal- ing one sheaf b upon the stake, with its but-end standing en the ground, others cc are spitted upon the stake at the bands, parallel to and above each other, till the stake is filled— the sheaves in- clining with their heads downwards, to throw off the rain. This plan has been tried in this country by Mr Bos- well Irvine of King- causie, in Kincardine- shire, with success ; and I should conceive, in fields surrounded with woods, and where larch weedings are abundant, the plan an excellent one for winning the corn well and fast. 4567. To instance an opposite extreme, the barley in the south of England is never stooked at all, but left on the ground as mown in swaths to win, and carted home to a lar^ie barn like hay — a more slovenly and objectionable mode cannot be imagined, of treating so delicate a grain for colour, and one so easy to germinate as barley. 4568. I shall not say much on reaping machines, as none have yet been generally used in this country. The first one was presented to public notice by the late Mr Smith of Deanston in 1814 or 1815, and afterwards exhibited in an improved form in 1837.* This machine cuts the grain by a circular disc, and gathers it in a continuous swath on the left hand with a revolving drum. It re- quires horse power, and a man to manage the horse and machine. 4569. The next one was produced by the Rev. Patrick Bell, present minister of the parish of THE SWEDISH STOOK. Carmylie, in Forfarshire, in 1827 or 1828. It clips the straw by a series of scissors, and places the cut straw upon an endless web, which deposits it on the right or left hand in a continu- ous swath. It also requires horse power and a man to manage. 4570. The next machine, as to its time of exhibition, in 1832, was that of Mr Josepli Mann, Raby, near Wigton, Cumberland. The cutter is a disc of a regular polygon of twelve sides, and the gatherer a revolving drum with rakes, from the teeth of which a comb strips the straw, which then drops at one point of the machine in a continuous swath. It requires horse power, and a man to guide. 4571. The country where the reaping machine is most in use is in the western counties of the United States of America. There the large fields of wheat, in the prairies, are obliged to be reaped with machines, manual labour being too scarce, and in consequence too dear to secure the harvest. The greatest varieties in the form of this machine may therefore be observed, and are in use, in that country. 4572. No doubt exists but that the reaping machine can cut down a grain crop at a cheaper rate per acre than any implement used by the hand of man ; but, beyond the mere cutting, the gathering, binding, and stooking will still have to be accomplished by labourers. Even includ- ing the binding and stooking, Bell's machine has proved that cum may be cut down by it for 3s, the acre. Such a machine is expensive to pur- chase—not less, perhaps, than L.30 — and more than one will be required on a large farm ; yet their original cost may beredeemed, by economy in time and labour, in the course of a few years. 4573. As to the extension of the use of the scythe, Mr Taylor is justified in believing that " the practice of mowing grain is slowly gaining ground, and will in all probability continue to do so until it be universally adopted. In the north-eastern districts of Scotland, the scythe has been in general use for upwards of twenty years; and numerous are the individuals of my acquain- tance who have had twenty harvests reaped by the sickle before the scythe was introduced, and who are now as clearly convinced that mowing is an improvement in reaping, as the wooden two-horse was an improvement on the twelve- oxeu plough of their fathers." 4574. A curious statement was made at the council meeting, in March 1850, of the English Agricultural Society, by Mr Dyer, to the intent that, for the last ten years, he had observed that a remarkable correspondence existed in his crops between the number of grains of wheat in the ear, and the number of bushels of wheat on the acre. Thus, in his crops the average num- ber of grains in the ear had been twenty-eight, while the bushels per acre produced had also been twenty-eight. He did not mean to express • Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x, p. xi. Preliminary Notice. VOL. II. Z 354 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. his belief that this was a general law, but merely referred to it as a curious circumstance occurring within his own observation. At the first consi- deration of this remarkable statement, general experience would seem to support it; for it is known that a thick crop produces small ears, and a tliin one large ears, and that the numbers uf the former make up for the size of the latter. Thus a thick crop might have forty ears on a given extent of ground, which, at thirty grains to the ear, would yield as much produce as a thin crop of thirty ears, on the same extent of ground, with forty grains in each ear. But, as Mr Baruch Alniack observed, if the ear alone were taken as the criterion of the crop, one of these crops would have ten bushels more of wheat upon it than the other, which would be an erroneous estimate, since both contained 1200 grains. The correct mode, therefore, he con- ceived, would be to count the average number of grains in the ear, and the number of ears in a given space. Mr Dyer had remarked that he sowed three bushels to the acre, consequently, in Mr Almaek's opinion, two remarkable facts were proved. First, That as he generally finds as many bushels per acre as there are grains in an average ear, it follows that he usually has about as many wheat ears per acre as there are grains in a bushel of wheat. Second, That as he only obtains as many ears of wlieat per acre as there are grains of wheat in a bushel, and as he sows three bushels on the acre, it follows that he sows three grains of wheat for each ear that he obtains. Hence it would seem that the rule would only hold good where the number of ears per acre are the same, or nearly so. 4575. In reference to the portion of the crop left in the soil after harvest, M. Boussingault observes, that " all the world acknowledges tliat the residue of the crops that enter into a rota- tion compensate, in greater or less degree, for what is carried away in the shape of harvest, and that in some cases they even add to the fertility of the soil, for in growing crops that leave a large quantity of residue, it is precisely as if a smaller quantity were taken from a given extent of sur- face."* ON REAPING BEANS, AND PEASE, AND TARES WHEN GROWN FOR SEED. 4576. The leguminous crops, having either stiff or trailing stems, are reaped in a somewliat different manner from the cereal. 4577. Whenever the stems and pods of leans become black, the crop is ready to be reaped. 457S. Beans, whether sown in drills, (3979,) or in rows on the flat, (3980,) or broadcast, (3981,) are only reaped with the sickle ; and the instrument is used in the same manner in each case — tiiat is, the stems are held steady by the left hand being pressed palnnvards against tliem, and, almost coming under the arm, are cut with tlie point of tiie sickle by the right hand, the reaper stepping backwards as the work proceeds. Thus, as each stem requires to be cut separately, the reaping does not proceed very quickly when the crop happens to be strong. 4579. Wlien the haulm is short and small, it is not unfrequently pulled up by the roots ; but as the barn is thereby made very filtliy with dust, pulling should never be practised. 4580. The scythe might be used in reaping beans, but the operation is so harsh to the arms that no reaper likes it; and, besides, the stems are difficult to be collected aright by the gatherer. 4581. When beans are sown by them- selves, straw-ropes are laid down on the ground for bands: when pease are sown with them, their haulm makes excellent bands. 4582. The stems, cut as directed, are then laid evenly upon the band, whether of straw-rope or of pea-haulm ; and the size of tlie sheaf very much depends on the length of tlie stems. Short stems will not bind together in a thick sheaf, nor will a thin sheaf of long stems stand well up- right upon the ground. 4583. Tiie bandster follows the reapers, and binds the sheaves in the manner he binds those of the cereal grains, and sets up the stooks in regular order in rows, composed of four or more sheaves, each pair set together on end. A beau-stook is never af.empted to be hooded. It is of importance to keep bean sheaves always on end, us they then resist most rain ; for if allowed to remain on their side, after being blown over by the wind, the least rain soaks them, and the succeeding drought causes the pods to burst and spill the beans upon the ground. 4584. Whenever the straw and pods of Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 478 — Law's translation. STACKING CORN. 355 pease become brown they are fit for reap- ing ; and in seasons wlien tlie straw grows very luxuriant, it is cut down whilst it retains much of its greenness. 4585. None but the sickle can be used in reaping pease, as the trailing stems of the plant would inevitably entangle themselves around the head of the scythe. The reaper pulls straight the lying stems with the left hand, while the point of the sickle is used by the right to sever the plants from the ground — the reaper step- ping backwards — most of the plants com- ing up by the root. 4586. Pease are not bound at first, but laid on the ground in separate bundles, where, after winning for some time accord- ing to the state of the weather, the bun- dles are rolled into an oblong form, and made firm by a wisp of its own straw acting as a binder round the middle. The bundles may be set together in pairs to form a sort of stook, or left singly over the surface of the field. Pea bundles are bound by women as well as men. 4587. Tares are most easily and quick- ly reaped by mowing with the scythe. They are separated in bundles after the mowers, by the gatherers, and placed asunder on the ground to win, and after- wards bound in a similar manner to the pea. 4588. Such is the diversity in the luxu- riance of the crop of beans in different seasons, that the cost of reaping them varies from 4s. to 7s. an acre. Pease cost 3s. 6d. an acre. Tares cost 2s. 6d. an acre. 4589. In some seasons, such as dry and warm ones, pease and tares may be as early harvested as the cereal grains ; but beans are always late, and sometimes not harvested until three weeks after all the other crops have been housed. ON THE CARRYING AND STACKING OP WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND PEASE. 4590. It is necessary that reaped corn remain for some time in the stook in the field, before it will keep in the large quantity composing a stack or in a barn. That time depends mostly on the state of the weatlier ; for if the air is dry, sharp, and windy, the corn will be ready in the shortest time ; while in close, misty, damp air it will require the longest time ; and it depends partly on the state of ripeness or condition of the corn when reaped. On an average, one week for wheat, and two weeks for barley and oats, will suffice to win them. In this respect mowing manifests a decided superiority over reaping, inas- much as mown wheat is ready for the stack in three to five days, and barley and oats in eight or ten — the chief cause of the difference being the loose and open state in which mowing places the straw, while the straw reaped by the sickle is much compressed in the lower part of the sheaf which most requires exposure. The celerity of winning is an important matter in efl'ecting the safety of the crop, as may be observed from an instance adduced by Mr John Taylor in the harvest of 1841. "On the 28-nth of September, I had 30 acres of oats carted and stacked, which had been cut by the scythe the preceding week. On the evening of the 29th it began to rain, and continued very rainy for twelve days, during which harvesting was at a stand-still ; and had the produce of those 30 acres been reaped by the sickle, it would unquestionably have been exposed to those twelve days' rain, and thereby much deteriorated." * I have myself observed many similar instances. 4591. Mere dryness to the feel does not constitute all the qualities requisite for making new cut corn keep in the stack. The natural sap of the plant must not only be eva[)orated from its outside, but also from its interior. The outside may feel quite dry, whilst the interior may be redolent of sap; and the knowledge of its condition constitutes the whole difficulty of judging whether or not corn will keep in the stack. One criterion exists by which it may be ascertained with cer- tainty, in the straws being loose in the sheaf, and easily yielding to the pressure of the fingers, and in the entire sheaf feeling light when lifted off the ground, by the hand thrust into its middle. • Transactiom of the Highland and Agricultural Society/, July 1844, p. 261. 856 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. beyond the band : for if tlie sheaf is dry and light in the heart, it must be so on the outside. In the winning, tiie sap of the straw of the cereal grains is no doubt con- verted into woody fibre, as thatof the grasses is on being converted into hay, (4073.) 4592. The winning of corn is compara- tively an easy matter when the weather is dry ; but in windy and showery weather, the stooks are apt to be blown down and become wet, and incur the trouble of setting up again at the first recurrence of calm. Wiien the air is calm, dull, damp, and warm, every si)ecies of grain is apt to sprout in the stook before it is ready for the stack. When much rain falls, accompanied with cold, the grain becomes sooner ready than the straw for the stack; and, to win tlie straw, the bands are not unfrequently obliged to be loosened, and the sheaf spread out to dry in the wind and sun ; and, in like man- ner, the sheaf should be spread out in dry weather, when a large projjortion of young grass is mixed amongst barley- straw. Corn wins in no way so quickly as in gaitins, fig 403. 45.03. While the first reaped corn is winning in the field, the stackyard should be put in order to receive the new crop, by removing everything that ought not to be in it, such as old decayed straw, which should have been used in time for litter : w^eeds, which in many instances are allowed to grow, and shed their seeds, and accumulate to a shameful degree during summer, such as strong burdocks, thick common docks, tall nettles, and rank grass of every kind: and the larger classes of implements too are there accom- modated, to be afterwards dispersed and exposed to the Meather, for want of sheds to keep them in. Where stathels, fig. 132, are used they should be put in repair. Loose clean straw should be built in a small stack on one of the stathels, or other place, to be ready to make the bot- tomings of stacks as wanted. Drawn straw should be ready in a stack for thatch- ing the stacks of barley as the}' are built, in case of wet weather occurring. Straw- ropes should be piled up in the hay-house, ready to be used in thatching. The tops or frames should be put on the tilt- oarts; the corn carts should be put on their wheels, and the axles greased ; and the ropes should be attached to the carts. The forks fit for pitching the corn in the field, and from the carts to the stacks, should be ready for use in the field and in the stackyard. Negligence and want of fore- sight in all these particulars indicate im- provident management in the farmer. 4594. The tops or frames for placing on the tilt-carts, fig. 175, are a light rectan- gular piece of frame-work represented in fig. 405, where o, b are the two main bearers, fitted to lie across the shelve- ments of the cart. The foremost one a is slightly notched at a and b, fig. 4UG ; and the hind one rests against the back- board of the cart, its top sides e, fig. 175, being first taken off. A pair of slight side-rails c and c, fig. 405, are ap- Fig. 405. ja Li P THE CORN AND HAY FRAMB. plied on each side, crossing the bearers, and notched upon and bolted to them with screw-bolts. These are again crossed by two rails d liehind, and by three more r, e in front; and as these last project over the back of the horse, they are made in arch form as seen by c d c, fig. 400, to give Fig. 40h\ TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE FR.AME. freedom to his motions. The extreme STACKING CORN. 9^ length, from outside to outside of the front and back rails, is usually about 10^ feet, aud the breadth in the same manner is about 7j feet, affording a superficial area for the support of the sheaves of corn of 76 square feet. A simple and efiective method of securing the frame to the cart is by means of the bolts,//, figs. 405 and 406, in the bearers, the front ones passing through the head-rail of the front of the cart, and the hind one through the top-rail of the tail-board. Fig 4595. But the common corn or hay cart is a more convenient and efficient vehicle for carrying the grain crops into the stack- yard than the tilt-cart with the frau)e, in- asmuch as the load is more on a level with the horse draught, and, the body being dormant, the load is not liable to shake with the motion of the horse. Fig. 407 is a perspective view of such a cart. Light- ness being an object in its construction, the shafts a a are usually made of Baltic fir, and are about 17 feet in length, of 407. THE CORN AND HAY CART. which 6^ feet go for the horse yoke and 10| feet for the body, measuring over the cross-heads l> b. These are secured to the shafts by the iron standards passing through them and the shafts. Their sides are supported by oak standards c c ; and these in their turn, along with the iron standards, support the inner top rails d J, dd,\2 feet in length, and the load-tree or rail e. The outer rails////, also 12 feet long, are supported by iron standards resting on the extremities of the cross heads b b, and also by those of the broad load-rail e. The extreme breadth of the outer rails is 7 feet, and as the outer rails support thesheaves of corn over the wheels, and are 12 feet in length, it will be seen that the superficial area of the cart for the load is 84 square feet, which is greater than that of the top-frame of fig. 405. The two front cross-rails / / over the horse's rump are arched, to give him free- dom of motion. The body is usually close-floored, besides having a low ledge- board running inside the standards c c to keep in the corn that may have shaken out of the sheaves. Corn carts are not furnished with wheels of their own, the body being set upon those belonging to the tilt-carts. The load-rail, 9 inches broad, is convenient to sit upon in driving, and to stand upon when forking the sheaves in unloading. This cart is easily converted into a dray-cart by simjily removing the framework, which should then have the standards c c based upon two longitudinal rails, instead of being mortised into the shafts. In such a form it is eminently useful in carrying largo tim- ber. It weighs 8 cwt. 459G. A corn and hay cart, sinijile in construction, but possessing complete effi- ciency, and greater safety from up.•^ettinl; tlian the former, v\ as contrived by a larm- servant, Robert Robertson, and was intro- duced in 1832 in the west of Fifeshire, and of which fig. 408 is a view in perspec- tive, with its wheels and axle in full working order. The shafts and body- frame of this cart may be considered as identical with the one just described, which, without the upper works, is the simple dray-cart. Upon this body- frame is placed the fore and back cross- heads a a and i, projecting beyond the body, their 958 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. extreme length being 7^ feet. The other and lighter cross-rails areapplied one before and another immediately behind the wheels, and the whole bolted to the shafts. Upon these are laid a hmgitudinal rail on each side, and two similar portions of longitu- dinal rails are also laid on each side, extending from the fore and back cross- Fig. 40«. Robertson's improved head to the wheel-rails; over these longi- tudinal rails is laid another light cross- rail behind, and the parts all secured with bolts. A light frame d d is raised upon the fore cross-head a a to a height of two feet, with two iron stanchion rods at each, and these surmounted by an arched rail, which is supported against the pressure of tlie load by two iron stays from the shafts. The outer longitudinal rails, being cut by the wheels as above described, are con- nected again by the arched iron bars e and e, wiiich are bolted at the ends to their respective rails ; and these are connected by the broad load-rail/, the arches rising sufficiently high to allow the wheels to have freedom to turn below the load-rail /". A side-board y is also raised on each side upon the body-frame, and under the load- rail, extending a little before and behind the wheels, thus preventing the sheaves from coming in contact with the wheels. The body-frame is floored over in the usual manner, and the space between the body and the inner longitudinal rails is filled up with narrow hinged flap-boards, which pre- vent the loss of the graiu that may have been shaken out of the sheaves into the cart. 45.97. Carts of this construction possess several advantages : from their simplicity is derived cheapness ; and from the load assuming its full breadth over nearly the whole floor of the cart, at the lowest pos- sible position, the centre of gravity of the whole load will be very ccmsiderably lower than in that of the formerly described cart, and still more so than on the top-frame. This last quality produces greater stabi- lity, and reduces the risk of upsetting, besides aflTordiug a greater facility of load- CORN AND HAY CART. ing. There is also the advantage of its easy conversion into an open dray-cart, fbr carrying timber or the like, by removing the upper framework. It weighs 7 cwt. 4.598. The forks already described in (1420) are only fitted to be used among loose straw. Those used in the loading of corn require to have long shafts, not less than six feet, and small prongs. Such a length of shaft is required to lift the sheaf from the ground to the top of a loaded cart, or from the load-rail of the cart to the top of a stack. The fork used in the field should have a strong stiff shaft, as the load on the cart is at no great eleva- tion. That for unloading the cart to the stack should be slender and elastic, as many of the sheaves \\u\e to be thrown a Considerable height above the lieatJ. The pnmgs, being small, just retain hold of the sheaf, witliout being so deeply pierced into the band as to be withdrawn from it with ditficulty. A deep and firm hold with long prongs renders the pitching (;f a sheaf a difficult n)atter ; and if one of the prongs hapj)ens to be bent, or a little turned up at the point, the difficulty is much increased. The best fork for the person on the top of the stack to use, in assisting the builder, is the short stable-fork, of the form, but of shorter prongs than fig. 110. 45.99. The loads of corn and hay on the carts are fastened with 7'opes, which should be made of the best hemp, soft and j)Iiable. They cost 4^d. per lb. Ropes are either single or double, and both are required on the farm. Double cart-ropes are froiii 30 to 24 yards long and single ones half tiiose lengths. The longest double rope weighs STACKING CORN. 359 rather more than 11 lbs., and costs 5s. The single ones are used on ordinary occa- sions, when a small load of straw or other bulky article is carted to short distances on the farm ; but in harvest and hay time, double ropes are always used fur security to the load. The double rope is made fast to the corn-cart by first doubling it, and then measuring its middle from the centre of the cross-head of the hind part of the body of the cart to its extremity on both sides, where a turn or two are taken round the iron standards and the cross-head by each division of the rope, the ends of which are then passed in the inside of the upper cross-heads, and brought over them to the outside. Each divisicm is coiled up by holding the rope in the left hand at about two yards from the cart, and handing the remainder in coils with the right hand until the end of the rope is gained, wiien the coil is made to take a turn along the loose part of the rope in its middle, and then the loose part still remaining is slipped through one loop of tlie coil and passed over it so as to make a loop knot, which holds the coil sus- pended from the cart about three feet from the ground. Fig. 409 represents the rope Fig. 409. COILED UP CART-ROPE. coiled and suspended, when not in use. When a ring is fastened in the cross-head of the cart, the middle of the rope is passed through the ring, and a turn taken round the extremity of the cross-head on each side of the cart, as above. Cart-ropes last according to the care bestowed on them. When used with the corn-cart they should never be allowed to touch the Fig. 410. ground, as earthy matter, of whatever kind, soon causes them to rot. When Metted by rain they should be spread out in the air to dry. On being loosened when the load of corn is to be delivered to the stacker, they should be coiled up before the load is disposed of, and not allowed to lie on the ground till the cart is unloaded, A soft rope holds more firmly, is more easily handled, and far less apt to cut than a hard one. 4600. Straw-ropes are made by means of the implement named the throw-crook. Various forms of this instrument is in use, and one of the most common is represented in fig. 410, which is made of a piece of tough ash, about 3| feet long, the bent part of which is thinned off until it is capable of being bent to a curve, and is there retained by the iron stay a ; the part b being left ])rojecting beyond the stay, for the attachment of the first end of the rope that is to be made. The end c is furnished with ferule and swivel ring, by which it is either attached to the person by a cord passed round the waist, or held in the hand. In using this implement the rope-maker is stationary, usually sitting beside the straw; and the spinner, with the throw- crook, moves backwards as the rope extends. In its action this form of throw- crook is attended with a jerking motion, when the left hand holds the swivel c, and the right one revolves the instrument round the siiank. The direction of c h is in the line of the rope, and the twist given to the rope is effected by the revolution of the body of the implement around this line, in generating which a pull is given to the rope at two opposite points in the circle of revolution, which may be greatly neutra- lised by the spinner causing both hands to revolve in small circles. 4601. Fig. 411 is a form of throw-crook in use in the western counties of Scotland. It is used by iiolding the wooden iiollow cylinder b in the left hand. The end of OLD THKOW-CROOK. 900 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. the rope is attached to the hook, and the cross-head is a hollow box or case adapted Fi?.411. iron spindle a, in contin- uation of the hook, is made to revolve by means of the handle c, which is attached to one end of the same crank d to which the spindle a is. In theory, the strain upon the instrument, while in action, should be along the spindle a, from the hook to the crank d ; but in practice it acts in a line from the hook to the handle ANOTHER FORM OF c, causiug au uucom- THRow-cRooK. f.^^table strain upon the left hand, while the right one works the crank-handle with difficulty. 4602. I think the best form of throw- Fig. 412 crook is represented in fig. 412, where the strain of the straw-rope is in a straight line from the hook a, along the spindle e to the handle d. The left hand holds the swivel-ring c, and the right hand causes the part ebd to revolve round the line a e d Xjy means of the handle J, which is covered with a loose hol- low cylinder of wood, the rest of the instru- THE BEST FORM OF meut bclng made of THROW-CROOK. • 4603. The straw-rope spinner is an instrument of recent introduction to the farm, and is of considerable importance in facilitating the process of straw rope- making on large farms. Comparing it with the old and primitive instrument, the throw-crook, fig. 410, the advantage is considerable, inasmuch as two persons are engaged in the making of one rope with the throw-crook ; whereas, with the spinner, four persons are only required to make tliree ropes, thus efiecting a saving of one-tliird of the time occupied by the old practice. Fig. 413 is a view of this machine, consisting of a sole frame «a, with an upright post h tenoned into the 8ole, and carrying the cross-head c d. The Fig. 413. THE STRAW-ROPB SPINNER. to contain the machinery, consisting of five light spur-wheels, about six inches diame- ter, placed as seen in the case c d. Of these, the central and the two extreme wheels are mounted upon axles, which terminate in the hooks eee; the other two wheels being merely placed intermediate, to pro- duce revolution in the three principals in one direction. A winch-handle/ is fixed upon the axle of the central wheel, on the side opposite to the hooks; and to prevent the machine from moving with the j^tiain of the ropes, a few stones, or other weighty substances, are laid upon the sole-frame. The machine is then i>ut in operation by the driver turning the handle, and the three ropeinakers, each with a quantity of straw under his arm, commences his rope by binding a few straws round the hook appropriated to himself. He then proceeds backward, letting out tiie straw as he advances ; and the rope takes the twist, until the length required is completed, when each man coils up his rope into au oval ball. The price of a spinner is from £2, OS. to £2, 10s. 4604. Another form of this machine is that which is strapped to the body of the driver, lie moving away from the station- ary rojiemakers. This method is attended with inconvenience, especially to the driver, who, having the machine strapjied in front of his body, the handle being at the end, and the machinery consisting of STACKING CORN. 361 bevel gear, having the external form of the cross-head alone of fig. 413, the handle is brought so near to his body that much of the muscular force of the arm is lost by its misapplication. 4605. Straw is twisted into ropes in this manner : The left hand of the twister, a fiehl-worker holds by the swivel ring at the end of the shank of figs. 410 and 412, and by the cylinder b of fig. 411. Her right hand grasps the middle of the shank of fig. 410, and of the handle c of fig. 411, and of b fig. 412. On the spinner, a man, placing a little drawn straw in the hook, the twister causes the hook to revolve round an axis, as desci-ibed in (4600,) and ■walks backward, along a path swept clean, in a shed or the stable. The spinner sits on a stool, or on bundles of straw, and nearly closing the left liand, lets out the straw gradually between the thumb and the fin- gers, retaining it till sufficiently twisted, while the right hand is engaged supply- ing small portions of straw in equal and sufficient quantities to make the rope uni- form in thickness throughout, the twister drawing away the rope as fast as the spinner lets it out. Where the rope is let out unequally, it breaks at the small }»art ; when twisted too much, it snaps asunder; when not twisted enough, it comes asunder at any place by the least pull ; and when the twister does not keep the rope straight as fast as it is let out, it twists into loops, which are not easily made straight again. Fig. 414. THS PROCESS OF MAKING A 8TRAW-R0PB. All loose straws and other material should be swept away from the walk in which straw ropes are made, otherwise they will be picked and appropriated by the twist- ing-rope. After tlie rope has been let out to the desired length, the spinner winds it firmly in oblique strands on his left hand and arm into an oval ball, the twister ad- vancing towards him as fast as the s{>inner coils the rope, which is finished, and made firm by passing the end of it below one of the strands. In the Borders tiie spinner works the straw into form with both bands, while stooping with his head down and his back turned to the twister; but the rope thus made is always thick and rough, com- pared to tbe mode described above. If thistles have been negligently left in the straw, tbe spinner will be sure to suffer severely by their stings. Fig. 414 repre- sents the process of making a straw-rope, as just described. 4606. The best sort of straw for rope is that of the common or Angus oat, which being soft and pliable, makes a firm, smooth, small tough rope. 4607. The ordinary length of a straw- rope for a large stack may be taken at thirty feet. Counting every interruption, a straw-rope of this length may take five minutes in tbe making — that is, a hundred and twenty ropes in ten hours. A man's wages, 20d., and a woman's, lOd., making together 2s. 6d., will make tbe Cdst of making a single rope just one farthing. As three spinners let out to one twister, and as a machine spins as fast as a throw-crook, the cost of making cacll rope with tbe machine, tig. 413, will bo as much less than one farthing as tbe saving of tbe wages of two twisters. 4608. In using the throw-crook tbe spinner sits, while Mitb tbe spinning- machine be walks backward, and in coiling up the vo\)Q walks h^rward agaiu to tbe machine, where be is ready to begin to spin again. Inconveniences attend tbe use of tbe machine, fig. 413 : when oneof tlj^ spinners breaks bis rope, be is thrown out of work till tbe others begin a new one; and all the spinners must let out with tbe same velocity, otherwise a longer and softer, and a harder twisted and shorter rope will he made at the same time. 4609. Fig. 415 represents a straw-rope 38) PRACTICE— AUTUMN. coiled up in the neatest and most con- venient form. When the ends are made smal- ler than the middle, the rope can be easily taken hold of, and carried, and when the form is oval rather than sj)herical, the coil can be the more easily thrown upwards to a greater height, such as to the top of a stack. A STRAW-ROPE COILED UP. 4610. Among the other things required to be in a state of readiness before the crop is led into the stackyard, is straw drawn in parallel reeds and bound up in bunches. Straw is draicn and hunched in tiiis man- ner : — The straw was mowed in the straw- barn, (1763 ;) and in commencing to draw it, the man takes a wisp from the mow, and places it across his body, and after making the straws straight first with one hand and then another, he takes hold of each end of the wisp, and on spreading out his arms separates the wisp into two portions. Bringing both hands together, he lays hold of the severed wisp with the left hand, and on taking hold of its other end with the right draws the straws asunder, as before. Bringing again both hands together, he goes through the same process, and as often until he sees that the straws are parallel and straight, when he lays dowTi the now drawn wisp carefully upon the floor of the barn. 4611. The state of the straw, and the kind, render the drawing more or less easy and expeditious. Wiien it has been much broken in the thrashing, it requires the more drawing to make it straight; and of all the kinds of straw that of wheat, being long and strong, is the most easily and quickly drawn, (1964,) barley straw being the shortest and the most difficult to draw, (1968.) Oat straw is the most pleasant of any to draw, (1972.) 4612. After as much has been drawn and laid down as to make a bunch of Fig. 416. A BINCH OF DRAWN STRAW. about fifteen inches in diameter, the man makes a thumb-rope^ by twisting a little of undrawn straw round the thumb of his right hand, drawing it out with his left and twisting it with his right alternately, until asliort rope is made, one end of which he places on the floor and puts his foot upon by the side of the drawn straw ; and, keeping hold of tiie other end in his left hand, puts the drawn straw into the rope with his right ,' and then, holding botli ends of the ro]>e, binds the straw into a bunch a^ firn)ly, and in tiie same manner, as a bandster does a sheaf of corn, (4479.) Fig. 416 represents a bunch of drawn straw. 461 3. The carts, forks, straw, and ropes, being in readiness at the steading, and the corn fit for carrying to the stackyard, the first thing is to provide an efficient person to fork the corn in the field to the carts ; and a man is the best for tliis work, as he is able not only to wield the sheaves with ease, but possesses dexterity to place them in the positions most convenient for tlie carter to build them on the cart. Throw- ing the sheaves in an indiscriminate man- ner, or too quickly upon tlie cart, makes the work no easier for the forker ; while the carter has the additional trouble of turn- ing the sheaves to arrange them as a load, when his footing upon the cart isatbest inse- cure. A loss of two or t hree in in utes incurred in any way, in loading each cart, makes a considerable loss upon the day's work. 4614. In carrying the crop off the ground, the object is to do as little injury as possible to the land with the cart-wheels, particularly to the young grass ; for whioii reason, as well as for forming an unerring guide, the horses sliould walk in the open- furrow between the ridges, while the wheels pass along their furrow-brows, (738.) When corn is cut with band- win reajjcrs, the stocks of two ridges being ])laced on one, the cart clears the produce of two ridges; and the same may be the case wilh the mown corn, provided the bandsters are instructed to STACKING CORN. 563 set the stocks in the same position upon the ridges. Wlien tlie stooks are set on the furrow-brows of the ridges, on each side of the centre open-furrow of the four ridges occupied hy two band-wins, as suggested in (4481,) the carts wouhl at once clear tlie stooks of four ridges. In th rav- ing, tlie stooks being set on every ridge, the forker is obliged to go from one ridge to another to clear two ridges, thereby oc- casioning much loss of time. 4G15. In fol-king a hooded stook from the ground, the hood sheaves are first taken, and then the sheaves from the body of the stook as they were placed in setting the stook — that is, the sheaves at the ends are taken before those in the middle, and one pair is taken away before a sheaf in the next pair is touched. More loss of time is involved in disregarding this order of removal of the sheaves than might appear without consideration, for if the centre sheaves are taken away before the end ones, not only more force is required to do it, but the end ones will likely fall down in the exertion to extricate the cen- tral ones ; and if one side of a stook is taken away before the other, the remain- ing side will fall down. In either case the sheaves will be reached by the fork with inconvenience. When stooks have stood long upon the ground, they require more force to remove them from the ground than those which have stood for a shorter time. 4616. On forking gaitins from the field, they must first be bound into sheaves, which is done by loosening the slack band from its tying, and slipping it down the body of the gaitinto the proper place, and then binding it in the manner of a sheaf when reaped. A number of hands are re- quired to bind gaitins as fast as they are carted off, and they are not stooked when bound, nor left scattered on tiie ridges as they stood before, but are laid in heaps, with the corn ends away from the cart, on alter- nate ridges, as near the furrow brow as to be most conveniently placed for the forker. 4617. Acorn-cart is loaded with slieaves in this way : — The body is first filled with sheaves lying with their but-ends towards the shaft-horse's rump at one end, and the back-end of the cart at the other. When these sheaves come to the level of the frame or shelvements of the cart, other sheaves are laid across them in a row along both sides of the frame, with their but-ends projecting as far beyond the outer rail of the frame as the band, the particular sheaf on each corner of the frame being held in its place by transfixion upon a spike of theelongated bolt which secures the corner of the outer-rail frame, fig. 407/. Another row of sheaves is then placed upon these last, and their corner ones are kept in their places by a wisp from each sheaf being laid under and held fast by the weight of the adjoining sheaf. Sheaves are tlien placed along the middle of the cart with their but-ends to both its ends, to hold in those below them, and to fill up the hollow of the load. Thus row after row of sheaves is placed, and the hollow in the middle filled up, till as much is built on as the horses can conveniently draw, 12 full stooks being a good load. Be- fore finishing, it should be ascertained that the load is neither too light nor too heavy upon the horse's back ; and if the cart has been evenly laden ac- cording to its form, there is no risk of either inconvenience being felt by the shaft-horse. A load thus built will have the but-ends of all the sheaves on the outside, and the corn ends in the inside, as may be seen at/ey in fig. 417. 4618. The ropes keep the load from jolting ofl" the cart upon the road, and in crossing gaw-cuts on the head-ridge of the fields. They are thrown across the load diagonally to the opposite shafts at the front of the cart, and an end is made fast to each shaft, the forker on the ground holding on tlie slack, while the ploughman on the luad gives efficacy to the rope, by pulling it tight from behind, and trampling on the slieaves to make them the more firm. The crossing of the ropes at the centre prevents the load splitting asunder over the sides of the cart, while shaken along the road. Some plouglunen profess to show their dexterity in building foads of corn, by bringing them to the stack- yard without the assistance of ropes ; but there is no use of running the risk of los- ing time by breaking the load and strew- inc the road with sheaves. Such a fate, even with the assistance of ropes, attended the first load I tried to build. When the corn is mown, a woman should be em- S«4 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. ployed to rake the ground on which the stooks stood, as they were set before the ground was raked at the time of mowing. 4619. When corn is fit for stacking, the carrying is coutinued from break of day to twilight, provided there be no heavy dew at morning or evening. From a little after sunrise to a little after sunset, the corn may be taken in with great safety. It is customary, in some parts of the country, to keep the horses in the yoke all the time employed at leading during the day, and to feed them with corn in nose-bags while the carter is dining, and also to give them green food, such as tares, wiiile the cart is unloading at the stack. In other parts, the horses are taken out of the yoke, watered, and put into the stable, where tliey receive their corn while the men are at dinner. This is the easiest plan for the horses, in which they will work the longest day's work with less fatigue, though it usually occupies an hour of the best part of the day before they are again on the road, whereas half an hour, spent in the other case, is sufficient for the men to dine, and the horses to feed on corn. Some horses are apt to take fright, when the bridles are temporarily slipped off their head for the purpose of taking the bit out of their mouth, to allow them to eat the tares with freedom. Such an occurrence is doubtless the result of bad breaking in. To avoid it, in the case of a horse known to be easily frightened, the bit should be fastened with a small strap and buckle to the near side of the bridle. 4620. A load of tares is brought to the steading fresh in the morning, fur the horses employed at leading. Tares are not fit for horses until the pods are pretty well filled with grain, as prior to that state they are apt to purge and weaken them, when working much in the cart, which they are obliged to do when carrying in the corn. 4621. While the first cart is going to and h)atling in the field, and returning to the stackyard, the builder of the stacks collects his forks and ladders, (1743,) and trimmer, fig. 418 ; and his assistant, a field-worker, who pitches the sheaves con- veniently for him on the stack, fetches a few straw-ropes, fig. 415, and a hand rake, fig. 345, into the stackyard. The first stacks are built on the stathels, fig. 132, arranged on the outer margin of the stackyard along the fence, and require no peculiar preparation for the reception of the stacks. The steward should build the stacks unless he be specially engaged with the reapers in the field, when another man should be hired to do it ; but on a large farm more than one stacker will probably be required at all times. When more than one is employed, each should have a head of carts leading to him, in conformity to the distance the corn has to be brougiit; and when buth heads are leading from the same field, both shuuld have the same number of carts. The same carts and forker should serve the same builder, that the corn may be brought to each in a regular routine. 4622. In filling a stackyard, the barley being first thrashed their slacks should be placed nearest the barn ; and wheat being the last tlirashed, their stacks are placed on the stathels round the outside of the stackyard. Oats being required at all seasons, their stacks may be placed any- where. Tl'e stacks of pease and beans either fill up the heart of the stackyard at last, or are placed in a convenient place on the outside. 4623. In setting a loaded cart to the stool or stathel of a stack, it should be studied to let the ploughman have the ad''antage of any wind going in forking the sheaves from the cart. The stack should be built in this way : — Set up a couple of sheaves against each other in the centre of the stathel, and another couple against their sides. Pile other sheaves against these in rows round the centre, with a slop downwards towards the cir- cumference of the stathel, each row being placed half the length of the sheaf beyond the inner one, till the circumference is completed, when it should be examined; and where any sheaf presses too hard upon another, it should be relieved, and where a slackness is founlaced on one side to conduct the air into tlie boss. The inconvenience of this form of boss is, that, as the stack subsides, the sharp apex a penetrates througli the sheaves lying above it, and, in thus dis- turbing their arrangement, disfigures the form of the upper part of the stack. 4651. Fig. 424 represents a form of boss Fig. 424. which I prefer to this. It consists of 3 stems of trees, — of weedings — 7 feet long, held to- gether in the form of a prism, whose side is 3 feet in width, by fillets of wood of that length being nailed to them. The prism is set on end, and on a stathel only requires to be nail- ed to it at the bot- tom ; but as a far- A PRISMATIC BOSS. tlicr nieaus of sta- bility,a8pur from each tree should be nailed to the stathel within the prism. On the ground it requires two tresslea as well as the other sort of boss, to complete the ventilation of the air within the stack. This has the advantage over the other kind, of supporting the top of the stack evenly, when it subsides upon the upper end of the prism, relieving the body of the stack of the weight of its top. 4652. Other means than a boss are employed to form a hollow in the heart of a stack, by setting the upright sheaves which form the foundation of the stack, around a long cylindrical bundle of straw, firmly wound with straw-rope ; and as the stack rises in height, the bundle is drawn up through its centre to the top where it is removed, leaving a hole through the height of the stack. This hole creates a current of air through the stack, allow- ing the heated air to escape, while the cool air enters from below by means of a tressle, or stathel. 4653. In wet weather corn is built in small stacks even in the stackyard; and should the weather prove settled wet, a dry moment should be seized to put 2 or 3 stooks into what are called hand-huts in the field, that is, small stacks built by hand, by a person standing on the ground. Sometimes corn is built on a headridge of the field, instead of being carried to the stackyard, as the same strength of men and horses will stack more corn there in a single fine day, than when it is carried to the stackyard; and the stacks derive more benefit from the air in the field than in the yard. Such stacks are also thatched in the field, and carried to the thrassiiing- machine during the winter. It is not an uncommon practice of some farmers to build a portion of their crop in the field every year; but the practice is not com- mendable in ordinary circumstances, as, besides the trouble and waste created in carrying straw for thatch to the field, much confusion and loss are experienced in car- rying the corn to the steading in winter, when some of it cannot fail to bo shaken out of the sheaves, and when the stacks wanted cannot, perhaps, be hrouglit in for a tract of bad weather, or through deep snow. A scheme may be justifiable under peculiar circumstances which would be wrong in ordinary practice, and the build- ing of stacks in the field is one of them. STACKING CORN. 073 4654. The bundles of pease are turned in the field till they are win, and they become smaller by being tied with a wisp of their own straw. Pease strasv is very apt to compress in the stack, and to heat, and should therefore be built with bosses, either in round stacks or oblong ones, like a haystack. The largest stack I ever saw was one of pease, at Beauchanip in Forfar- shire, which was 150 yards in length; a tressle, under which a person could have walked upright, was erected through the entire length of the stack. When pease become very dry in the field before they are led, the pods are apt to open and spill the corn, particularly in snnuy wea- ther ; and to avoid snch a loss, tiie crop is usually brought quickly into the stack- yard, and built on bosses. 4655. Beans are a long time of winning in the field in calm weather. As it is desirable to have the land they grow on ploughed up for wheat, they are not unfre- quently carried to a lea-field and stooked upon it, till ready to be stacked. Being hard and open in the straw, they keep pretty well in small stacks, though not quite win; and the risk of keeping is worth running in dry weather after much rain, when the pods are very apt to burst and spill the corn on the ground. In building both pease and bean stacks, the sheaves are laid down with their corn end inwards, and tramped with the feet ; and the stacks receive but little trimming, the pease none at all, the beans with the back of a shovel, fig. 83. 4656. The thatching of pease and bean stacks is conducted in the same manner as described for those of grain ; but less pains are bestowed in finishing them off. As, however a good deal of corn is ex- posed on the outside of both pease and bean stacks, the thatching is not unfre- quently brought down their legs, and kept on with straw-ropes. 4657- I vvould advise you not to imitate the practice of those farmers, who, because gratified to have their crops safe in the stackyard, seem regardless of the state in which the stackyard itself is left, after all the operations connected with the leading in of the corn, and with the thatching of the stacks, are finished. It is left for a long time littered with the refuse of the thatching straw, which, when it becomes wetted with rain, is not only useless as litter elsewhere, but soon heats, and causes an unpleasant odour around the stacks. The spare straw should be removed, after it is of no use in the stackyard — that to the straw-barn which is drawn and bundled, and that to the sheds of the hara- mels which is loose, to be ready as litter for the cattle which will soon occupy them for tlieir winter quarters. The ground should then be raked clean. After this cleaning, the air will become sweet, the stacks have free circulation of it amongst them, and the poultry will have the opportunity to pick up every particle of grain that may have fallen upon the ground. After such a necessary act of cleanliness is done, the stackyard gate should be closed, which brings the labours connected with the ingathering of the crop to a termination. 4658. Where rough grass grows on a farm, such as on a bog which is partially dry in sum- mer, I would suggest its being mown and sheafed, for covering stacks. A day or two spent in mowing such grass, after the harvest is over, are well spent, even at the rate of wages and food of ordinary harvest-work. Not only does such vegetable materials save the drawing of clean straw when it is scarce, but of itself forms good covering for stacks which are soon to be thrashed; and by the time it has served the pur- pose of thatch, it becomes dry enough to litter courts. Bog-reeds, Arundo phragmites, might be used in the same way, where they do not find a profitable market as thatch for cottages. Every year I caused a large quantity of such materials to be mown, immediately after the reaping of the harvest was finished. The reapers enjoyed the work as a sport and relaxation on the winding up of the harvest, and the produce of tlieir work added many tons to the manure heap. 4659. " The soil of the great Nankin cotton country," says Mr Fortune, "is not only remark- ably fertile, but agriculture seems more advanced, and bears a greater resemblance to what it is at home, than in any part of China I have seen. One here meets with a farmyard containing stacks regularly built up and thatched, in the same form and manner as we find them in Eng- land; the land, too, is ridged and furrowed in the same way ; and were it not for the plantations of bamboo, and the long tails and general costume of the natives, a man might almost imagine him- self on the banks of the Thames." * Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 126. 874 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. ON REAPING BUCKWHEAT. 4660. The buckwheat is a phmt re- markably dependent on the weather. It requires dry weather immediately after being sown, and it springs up during the time of greatest drought. But alter put- ting forth its third leaf, it requires rain for the develo})ment of its flowers. During the long time it continues in flower it re- quires alternate rain and sunshine, to enable the flower to set. The flower drops ofl' in thunderstorms, and they wither in violent easterly winds. After flowering, the plant again requires dry weather to bring the seed to maturity. 4661. "Tlie ripening of the grain is very unequal, " says Thaer, "for the plant is continually flowering and setting. We must therefore cut it at the time the greatest quantity of grain is ripe. It sometimes happens that the first flowers do not set, or that they produce nothing but barren seeds, destitute of farina, while those which come out later yield better seed. But ti)e grain will ripen, and even the flowers set, while the crop is lying ou the groimd after cutting, especially if rain fall. Tiiis occurrence is therefore con- sidered favourable.'' * 4662. In the south of England a con- "■siderable period of both hot and dry weather is necessary in autumn to harvest it. It may be reaped with the sickle or with the scythe, or it may be pulled up by the roots — which last method is recommended by some, .IS less likely to shed the seed wiien fully ripe. In dry weather it should be reaped early in the morning, or late in the evening when the dew is upon it, and should not he moved too much in the day. It may be tied up in sheaves, or made into bundles like pease; but, in either way, it should be protected from birds, which are very fond of the seed. 4G63. Owing to the thick knotty stems of the straw, the green state in which it is cut, and the late period it comes to har- vest, a succession of fourteen or fifteen fine days are requisite to dry it sufficiently for stacking. It requires turning and moving several times, in preparing it for the stack ; and these should be done gently and in tlie dew, to disturb the seed as little as possible, as many of them will be lost, although tlie plant does not easily spoil when lying ou the ground. To allow it to be early carried, it should be built in small stacks with bosses, (4651.) 4664. A considerable diversity of opinion exists as to the producti^'eness of buckwheat — Thaer considering 20 bushels an acre an extraordinary crop very rarely to be obtained; while Mr Hewitt Davis says that he has reaped 70 quarters from 12 acres, which is rather more than 46 bushels an acre.t 466.5. The straw of buckwheat makes excellent fodder for cattle, as long as it is fresh ; and the green plant, when raised with manure, afl"ords such a forage in summer as causes a great increase of milk in cows, but it produces a stupifying eflect on them. The green plant is also a valuable manure for wheat. 4666. No grain seems so eagerly eaten by poultry, or makes them lay eggs so soon and abundantly, as buckwheat. It is also relished by horses amongst oats. Its meal fattens both poultry and pigs. Its flour makes good unleavened cakes, which must be eaten fresh, as they soon turn sour. Its blossom is considered, in Flanders, to afford the best food for bees. 4667. " The farina of the buckwheat is yel- low, like the pollen oF the cedar," says M. Ras- pail. " The grains of its fecula are so small that they rarely attain to .0004 of an inch. The cel- lular texture which contains tliem breaks down under the pestle into angular fragments of .0055 to .004 of an inch in size, whicli, by their faceltes and their yellowisii appearance, resemble fatty grains. By a certain degree of maceration the grains of fecnla may be rendered discerniljle the interior of these fragments.:!: 4668. The import of buckwheat, for the year ending 5tb January 1850, was 308 quarters ; and of buckwheat meal 1095 cwts.§ (3472.) * Thaer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 484 — Sliaw and Johnson's Translation. + Davis' Farminff Essays, p. 68. J Raspail's Ort/anic Chemistnj, p. 122. § Parliamentary Return, March 15, 1850. HARVESTING MAIZE. 875 ON HARVESTING THE SUNFLOWER. 4669. When the stems and discs of the sunflower become withered, and the seeds shining and dark-coloured, the plant is ready to be removed from the ground. It may simply be pulled up by the roots — which in a strong crop, however, may require considerable force ; but the stem may be easily cut over at the ground with a sharp sickle, fig. 392. 4670. The discs are afterwards easily cut off the stems with a sharp knife, and the seeds must be rubbed out with any suitable instrument, such as the Ameri- cans use for rubbing out the maize. Mr Lawson informs me that from 30 to 40 bushels of seed, per acre, may be deemed a fair crop of sunflower. These will yield 50 gallons of oil ; the refuse m ill make 1500 lb. of oil-cake; and the stalks burnt into ash will afford half a ton of potash. Professor Johnston men- tions that the seed yields 15 per cent of oil. 4671. " The seeds of both the common and dwarf sunflower (3475,) yield an oil little in- ferior to that of the olive for domestic purposes," says Mr Lawson. " In Portugal the seeds are made into bread, as also into a kind of meal ; and in America they are roasted, and used as a sub- stitute for coffee ; but the purpose for which they seem best adapted is the feeding of domestic fowls, pheasants, and other game. The greatest objection to their culture is, that they require Very superior soil, and are a most impoverishing crop, particularly the taller growing sort, Ileli- anthus annuus ; from which circumstance the dwarf species, Hdiantlius Indicus, has been pre- ferred by some cultivators in France, who assert that, as its dwarf habit of growth admits of a greater number of plants being grown on a given space, it is not so much inferior to the other in quantity of produce, as, from its appearance, one would be led to expect. 4672. " In addition to the uses above men- tioned, some French authors assert that the leaves, either in a green or dried state, form ex- cellent food for cows, and that they are greedily eaten by them. The stems also form good fuel, and yield a considerable proportion of potash.* ON HARVESTING MAIZE. colour, but it should be left standing as long as the weather is favourable for ripen- ing ; and even an occasional day's rain or frost will not damage the grain. 4674. When ripe, the cobs should be pulled off the stem, thrown into the cart, and carried to the barn, where it should be husked as quickly as possible, else the grain will become musty. The cobs should not be pulled off at one time in larger quantities than what can be husked. Six people in the field — men, women, and boys — will, in one hour, break off the cobs with a downward pull, from two rows, and throw them into heaps on the ground, from one acre of maize. The same num- ber of people require the same time to cut off one acre of the stalks by the ground with a sharp knife, and lay them in small heaps. The pulling off the cobs and the cutting down the stalks are done simultaneously. Carts then follow, the cobs are thrown into them, and the stalks are also removed to the dung stance. 4675. The husk is taken off in this manner: — In the evening of the day the cobs are brought from the field, three people, for every quarter of maize to be husked, sit down in the barn floor against, or if the lieuj) is in tiie middle of the floor, around the heap, with their backs to the maize, and a two bushel basket before every four of tliem. Putting the hand behind, they jiick a cob of maize from the iieap, bring it before them, pull off the husk, spread it open, and whisk it ofl" by the jerk of a little pointed stick, held in the right hand, and throw the husk on the floor belore them and the head of maize into the basket. Wiien the heap of husk before them rises to about two feet in height, the people face about and sit upon it, having the maize and the baskets before them, when they throw the heads of maize into the baskets, and the hu^^ks over their shoulder ui)on the heap. Two men carry away the baskets as they are filled, and empty them in a corner of the barn. 4676. So long as the heads of maize are kept in the barn, it is siifiicient to turn 4673. About the 10th of September the them over occasionally, raising what is at entireplantofthemaizeassumesadrystraw the bottom of the heap to the lop. Much * Lawson's ^Agriculturist's Manual, p. 292. 876 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. air existing among tlie heads, tliere is no danger of the grain heating ; but if not turned to change the sides, and let the damp out, the corn will acquire a musty smell. So treated, they will keep for any length of time. 4677. The grain may be taken off the beads, when in a fresh state, by pressing or rubbing them against any blunt-edged instrument, and after having been gathered two or three months, they may be beaten out with a stick or flail, fig. 350. In America, I believe, the heads of maize are put into a trough like a cart body, having both ends open, and a number of auger holes perforated in the bottom : and on their being beaten with a stick by a man at each end of the trough, the grain falls tli rough the auger boles into baskets, or on the floor. One bushel may thus be beaten out in ten minutes. 4678. After the grain has been beaten from the heads, it should be kept in a dry place, where are both light and air, and frequently turned over; and here it may be kept for any length of time, if free of damp, and taken away as it is ground into meal, which ought to be used fresh, other- wise it soon becomes sour. 4679. The produce is about six quar- ters an acre. The bushel of maize weighs 60 lb., and affords 100 lb. of maize bread.* 4680. The husks of maize may be used to stuff' mattresses, to make door-mats or brown paper. The pith of the cob makes excellent fuel, and the produce of an acre will furnish a family fire-lighting for a whole winter. The stalks, when burnt, afi'ord the best smoking for hams. The leaves, as taken off" in summer, when dried make a hay of the finest odour. 4681. The produce of an acre of maize may be estimated thus: — 6 quarters, at 28s. per qr., in 1850, 10 cwt. leaf hay, at 3s. tid. per cwt., Pith and stalli for firing, £S 8 1 15 0 10 i;io 13 0 4682. Poultry fed on maize acquire a high-flavoured flesh like the pheasant. When so fed, their eggs are of superior colour and flavour. Hams are iu high repute from pigs fed on maize. 4683. In detailing the culture of buck- wheat, maida, and maize, my object is not to recommend them as constituent crops of the farm — for I greatly fear none of them will find such a climate in the British isles as will allow their full de- velopment— and consequently, their pro- duct, whatever it may be, would not compensate for the labour and expense bestowed upon their culture ; but, as the potato cannot now be depended on to yield a constant return, I would direct your attention to such crops as these, that, should you possess some favoured spot, enjoying a good soil and genial warmth, you might endeavour to raise one or all of them, ar.d raise a supply of food for the poultry. That object is of less im- portance now, in 1850, that the price of oats and barley has descended so low, as to be only a little more than a halfpenny per lb., whereas maize here is three far- things. The ordinary grains of your own raising may therefore now be given to poultry without stint, as the cheapest food you have to give them. 4684. The average quantity of nutritive mat- ter derived from an acre of maize yielding thirty busliels an acre, or 1800 lbs., is of husk or woody fibre 100 lb.; starch, sugar, &c., 1260 lb.; gluten, &c. 216 lb.; oil or fat from 90 to 170 lb.; and saline matter 27 Ib.f 4685. America is the great field for the cul- ture of maize, and of the United States, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, and Ohio raise much the largest quantity of any of the other counties.in the States. The quantities raised in the entire Union were as follows : — In 1841 . . 387,380,185 bushels. ... 1842 . . 441,829,246" ... ... 1843 . . 494,618,:i0« ... ... 1844 . . 421, .95:5,000 ... ...1845 . . 417,899,000 ... 4686. The money value of the produce of 1845, 417,899,000 bushels at 25 cents, is 104,474,500 dollars ; and reckoning 5 dollars to L.l British currency, the amount is L.20,894,900. The quantity of maize raised, as compared with wheat, is in the ratio of 4 to 1 , on account of the growing fondness of the people for it as an article of food, more than for exportation.^ * Keene's Facts for Farmers, p. 8-16. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chf.mistri/, 2d edition, p. 928. t Journal of Agriculture, March 1850, p. 360-2. BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS. Sff 4687. " Almost all the grains of the fecula of the maize," observes M. Raspail, " are damaged by the mill, on account of the great hardness which the seeds acquire by drying, from the oil, the gum, and the sugar they contain. The greater part are agglutinated together, and pre- sent the appearance of a cellular texture, with small meslies. They are folded, and more or less wrinkled and irregularly rounded. The largest of them scarcely exceed .000,98 of an inch, and but few are so large. But if, instead of examining this fecula as it is found in the farina, it be taken out of the unripe seed when the perisperm is, so to speak, yet milky, the grains have a totally different appearance. They are perfectly spherical, smooth, and entire ; and it appears to me that more fecula could be obtained, by expression of the seeds a little before they are quite ripe, than by grinding the ripe seeds. For by the former method the un- ruptured grains fall to the bottom of the liquid; while in the latter, being torn and bruised by the mill, they give out their soluble substance to the water, and remain suspended in the liquid, being as light as simple membranes. This is the reason why Parmentier, who analysed the farina of maize by the second mode, obtained so little fecula from it."* 4688. The import of maize, for the year end- ing 5th January 1850, exceeded that of 1848, being 2,249,571 quarters; but the import of Indian corn meal decreased in that period, being 102,181 cwt. (3495.)t ON THE COMMON JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. 4689. Although some farmers raise the common Jerusalem artichoke to feed their pigs with, and as a relish to their horses, for which purposes it is well adapted, I have refrained to recommend it for culture in the fields, because when it gets possession of the land no weed is so difficult to era- dicate. Where a piece of ground is de- tached, and is not appropriated to a better purpose, this plant might be cul- tivated ; and its culture is in all respects like that of the potato on tlie flat ground in every third furrow of the plough, (2774.) Its stem rises from six to ten feet in height, and wiien it has withered it is cut off, and the crop raised out of the ground by means of the spade or graip. The tubers may be pitted, but are more conveniently stored in an outhouse when in daily use by stock. They should be cooked before being given to the pigs. 4690. The Jerusalem artichoke, Heliantkus tuberosiis, occupies the same place in the botani- cal system as the sunflower, (3475.) Its leaves are rough ; stem si.K to ten feet in height ; root tuberous; perennial; native of Brazil; introduced in 1617. Seldom or never produces its flowers, which are yellow, in this country, except the tubers be carefully removed when they begin to form. The name Jerusalem is a corruption of Girasol— turning to the sun— an imputed pro- perty to this genus of plants. 4691. " Before the introduction of the potato into this country," observes Mr Lawson, " the common Jerusalem artichoke was held in much esteem, as it is even yet on the Continent. Fowls, particularly pheasants, are remarkably fond of its tubers, as are also swine, cattle, hares, rab- bits. The tubers are produced in considerable quantities; and as they are not liable to be injured by slight frosts, their limited cultivation, instead of potatoes, for feeding the above mentioned live stock, has been recommended. They might also be planted in woods and waste places, on good lightish soil, not too much shaded, as winter food for game. The tubers, as is well known, are also eaten at table, cooked in various ways." X 4692. •' When the bulbous roots of the Jeru- salem artichoke are bruised and expressed, a mucilaginous liquid is obtained. When heated to 212°, this liquid coagulates so strongly, that it may be employed to clarify other li- quids." § 4693. The ash of the tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke, according to Boussingault, consists of the following ingredients : — Potash, . . Soda, . Lime, . Magnesia, Oxide of iron, alumina, &c., Phoisphoiic acid, Sulphuric acid. Chlorine, Silica, 54-67 traces 2-82 2-21 6-39 13-27 2-70 1-97 15 97 100-00 Percentage of ash in the dry state, 600 |1 ON THE BIRDS DKSTRUCTIVE TO THE GRAIN CROPS. 4694. Of late years the opinion seems to gain ground, that birds do more good to the farmer and gardener, by devouring destructive insects, than harm in eating and spilling every kind of seed. A closer obser- vation of the habits of birds may have • Raspail's Organic Chemhtry, p. 120. + rarliawentary Return, 15th March 1850. t Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, p. 234. § Thomson's Organic Chemistry— \eget&h\es, p. 843. II Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 384. 87t PRACTICE— AUTUMN, caused such a change in opinion, and it is conducive to the cause of truth that ohser- vatious on the subject have been made ; for tlie prevalent opinion formerly was, tliat every bird which consumed grain did so much unmitigated mischief; wliereas it is now ascertained beyond doubt that every bird feeds its young on animal, and not entirely on vegetable food. Like most changes of opinion, however, this one is likely to reacli the opposite extreme, and the tendency at present inclines to the denial of birds doing any damage to the products of the fields — always excepting game birds. The confirmed truth is, that birds are neither entirely insectivorous nor entirely granivorous, but that they gene- rally feed their young with insects and molluscs, while the adult bird itself eats siicli fruits and seeds as are found to their liking in the products of the gardens and tlie fields. This being the real state of the case, let us consider which of the birds are most destructive to grain in the fields. 4695 The greenfinch, Linaria ckloris, in the seed season, accompanied by their young brood, will attack almost every sort of seed that is ripe or ripening, but are more particularly destructive to turnip- seed and flax, where these are grown, and to oats among the ordinary grains. Oat fields, and even wheat fields near woods and hedges, sufler considerably, the green- finch being a great eater, its bill being seldom idle, shelling and munching from sunrise to sunset. 4696. The yellow-hammer, or yellow- yite, Emberiza citrinella, prefers for its own eating grain and seeds, particularly oats ; and in new-sown fields of oats, as well as wheat, it may be seen busily pick- ing up the grain from the moment it is feown till the period of its brairding. By autumn, when the broods are reared and the corn crops begin to ripen, they assem- ble with sparrows and corn-buntings, and other plunderers, which leave little alongside the hedges but empty husks on the standing straw. When feeding in the stubble fields, they advance by very short leaps, with their breasts nearly touching the ground ; when apprehensive of danger, crouch motionless; and when alarmed, give intimation to each other by means of their ordinary short note. They are gene- rally more shy than the chaffinches but less so than the corn-buntings. 4697. The seed-bunting, or black -bon- net, Emberiza sckcuniculus, mostly lives on seeds, though the small patches of oats on the crofts in the upland districts are almost certain to attract its notice ; and flocks of black-bonnets will devour the half-ripened oats on such moorland crofts as late as October. Not being shy, it is not easily scared from its food. It is migratory in most parts of Scotland, depart- ing in October, and reappearing in the beginning of April. 4698. The corn-bunting, Emberiza miliaria^ feeds wholly on grain, and in early spring, together with the yellow- hammer and others, devour considerable quantities of the newly sown seed-corn, particularly oats and barley. After the breeding season it feeds on the ripening seeds of beans, pease, wheat, oats, and barley, while during the autumn it feeds on the stubble lands; and at this season it sits as close as the skylark, although it is usually shy. It does not omit to visit the new-sown wheat on the fallows and after potatoes. In winter it becomes remark- ably fat, and is superior as an article of food to most of our small birds. " It could hardly be supposed," observes Mr Knapp, " that this bird, not larger than a lark, is capable of doing serious injury; yet I this nu)rning witnessed a rick of barley, standing in adetached field, entirely stripped of its thatching, which this bunt- ing effected by seizing the end of the straw, and deliberately drawing it out to search for any grain the ear might yet contain ; the base of the rick being en- tirely surrounded by the straw, one end resting on the ground, and the other against the snow, as it slid down from the sunnnit, and regularly placed as if by the hand ; and so completely was the thatching ])ulle(l off, that the immediate removal of the corn became necessary. The sparrow and other birds burrow into the stack, and pilfer the corn ; but the deli- berate operation of unroofing the edifice appears to he the habit of the bunting alone." Such a circumstance as this shows the risks which stacks built in the field run, when they might have been safely secured in the stackyard. BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS. a;t 4699. The common skylark, or laverock, Alauda arvensis^ is much more destruc- tive than the coru-bunting, both to the newly sown seed-corn and the ripening crops, inasmuch as tlie species is greatly more numerous; but who would grudge the laverock all that he can glean from the fields? In winter larks assemble in vast flocks, grow very fat, and are taken in great numbers for the table. They cannot be considered of much importance aa an article of food, yet vast numbers are sent to our markets in winter, especially in London, and some other English cities ; but in Scotland they are in little request. They taste well — not better, however, than the corn-bunting, and are decidedly infe- rior to the blackbird, fieldfare, and thrush. At Bonneville, on my way from Geneva to Mont Blanc, I was obliged to dine on larks for want of more substantial fare. 4700. The grey or brown linnet, rose lintie, Zn grain and pease, which it abundantly obtains during several weeks in autumn on the standing corn, and less profusely supplied in winter when it searches the stubbles. As Buftbn observes, "sparrows follow the sower in seed-time, and the reaper in harvest ; they attend the thrasher at the barns, and the poulterer when he scatters grain to his fowls; they visit the pigeon-house and pierce the craws of the young pigeons to extract the food." It is supposed that a sparrow eats its own weight of corn every day, when it can get it for the taking; and Bufi'on estimates that a pair of sparrows will eat 20 lb. of corn every year. When as many as 3000 have been caught on one farm in a single day with a net, one may calcu- late from such data the quantity of grain they consume on a single farm.t 4703. These are the principal small or passerine birds which infest the corn-fields. Bechstein's Cage Birds, p. 183, note. f Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vii. p. 284-98. 380 PKACTICE— AUTb'xVl^'. Others of a larijer description also frequent pease, and of the field-mustard and cliar- such haunts, and among these the common lock. In spring it also feeds on the leaves pheasant, Phasimius colchicus, is accused of the turnip, and picks the young blades of comniittin*'- "reat havoc amongst grain of the red and white clovers. At this crops. Its true habits are thus described season, I have several times found its by Professor Macgillivray : " Its favourite crop distended with the farinaceous roots places of resort are thick plantations or of Potentilla anserina, obtained in the tanked woods by streams, where, among ploughed fields. This root is highly nu- the lonn- grasses, brambles, and other tritious ; and formerly, in seasons of scar- shrubs, it passes the night, sleeping on the city, was collected in the West Highlands ground in summer and autumn, but com- and Hebrides as an article of food, and eaten either boiled or roasted in the peat ashes. In summer they eat grass, and other vegetable substances ; in autumn, grain, beech-mast, acorns, and leguiiiin()ns seeds. The beech-masts and acorns they swallow LMitire, their bill not being suffi- ciently strong to break them up." ''•■ 4705. The wood-pigeon destroys the growing crop in this manner, as described monly roosting on the trees in winter. Early in the morning it betakes itself to the open fields to search for its food, which con- sists of the tender shoots of various plants, grasses, bulbous roots, roots of grasses, and Potentilla anserina^ turnip tops, as well as acorns and insects. In autumn, and the early part of winter, it obtains a plentiful supply of grain, acorns, beech mast, and small fruits. In severe weather, however, especially where great numbers by an eyewitness: — "The wood-pigeon are kept, the pheasants require to be fed has a weak bill, but nature has provided with grain, when they learn to attend to her with very strong wings ; when the the call of the keeper." In the natural flock, therefore, settle upon the lying por- etate, and in small numbers, pheasants tion of a wheat field, instead of breaking prefer insects and the young shoots of off the heads and carrying them away, plants, to corn, of which they pick at a time they lay ^themselves down upon their only a few grains ; but when semi-domes- breasts upon the grain, and using their ticated, and congregating in large num- wings as flails, they beat out the pickles bers, they assume the habits of the domes- from the heads, and then proceed to eat tic fowl, and will eat and trample down ex- them. The consequence is, that, the tensive patches of the growing corn, in the immediate vicinity of their preserves — and this they do between the ripening and the reaping of the crop. The remedy against pickles having been thrashed out upon a matting of straw, a great proportion of tiiem fall down through it to the ground, and are lost even to the wood- pigeon : in their destructive effects is to restrain their short, they do not eat one pickle for twenty which they thrash from the stalk. I have repeatedly watched this process from behind the trunk of a large willow- tree, growing in a thick-set hedge on the edge of a wheat field, and seen the opera- tion go on within a couple of yards of me. numbers within moderate bounds. Their numbers have multiplied greatly in Scot- land within niv recollection, anproach a ewe, he is (irivfii oil" hy the ohl fellow. To pre- vent him cHectually from serving a ewe, a ])iece of cloth named a brat, or apron, is sewed to the wool below his belly. TUPPING EWES. 385 When particular ewes are not desired to be served until a specified time, a piece of cloth is sewed on the wool behind them, to hang over the tail. When fastened on below the tail, as is sometimes done, the ewe is interfered with in making water. 4723. Tups are not selected for ewes by mere chance, bat for such qualities as may improve those in the ewes. When ewes are nearly perfect, they may be selected for breeding tups. A good ewe flock should exhibit these characteristics : — a strong bone^ which, supporting a roomy frame, affords space for a large development of flesh, — an abundance of wool of good qunl'ity^ which clothes all the body in inclement weather, and in- sures profit to the breeder, — a disposition to fatten carJy, which enables the breeder to dispose of his draft-slieep readily, — and prolificacy^ which increases the flock rapidly, and is also a source of profit. Each one of these properties is advan- tageous in itself, and wiien all are com- bined in the same individuals, the flock has attained a high degree of perfection. 4724. In selecting tups, you should observe whether or not they possess one or more of the above qualities, in which the ewes may be deficient ; and if they do, their union with the ewes will produce in their progeny a higher degree of perfection than exists in the ewes themselves. But, should the ewes be superior in all points to the tups examined, no such tups ought to be used, as thev will certainly deteriorate the progeny, part of which will have to make up the future ewe flock. 472 "i. Most of the ewes will be tupped by the second week the tup has been amongst them, and in the third week they will all be served. It is likely that some of the first served ewes will return in sea- son, and will have to be tupped again amongst the last served, the season return- ing on ewes in a fortnight. When ewes do not return in season, it may be con- cluded that they are in lambj and those which again exhibit symptoms of season, after being served again, at an interval of a fortnight, will not likely be in lamb,and will become tup-eild or barren ewes, (929.) 4726. It is the duty of the shepherd to VOL. II. notice what ewes are tupped in succession, and which of them return in season, that he may know the succession in lambing of every ewe, (2546.) 4727. After 3 weeks have elapsed from putting the tup amongst the ewes, he should be withdrawn ; as lambs begotten so long after the rest, will never coincide with tlie flock. After serving, tups should be put on good pasture, as they will have lost much of their condition, feeling indis- posed to eat their ordinary quantity of food during the tu])ping season. 4728. The ewes and gimmers may now be put together on such ordinary pasture as the farm affords. During the'.autumnal months they will find plenty of food on such; and for the winter, a rough pasture- field should have been reserved for them. When none such has been reserved, they will require a few turnips every day; but you should bear in mind, that a/a< ewe always bears a small lamb, (2.565,) and is very subject to inflammatory fever after lambing ; and from the recovery of which will probably have a scantiness of n)ilk. Swedish turnips produce fatness on ewes more readily than other kinds, so that white turnips should be reserved for them should they receive turnips at all ; but the rough pasture is greatly more for their advantage than any turnip, and a little oil-cake, 1 lb. a-day to each in addition, will bring thera through any period of severe weather. 47"29. On carse, dairy, and pastoral farms, on wliicli only wetliers ate reared, as also on farms in the neighbourhood of large towns, no standing flock of breeding ewes are kept. 4730. On pastoral farms on wliich breeding is pursued,, a standing rule should be, not to put the tups to the ewes till such a period that the lambs may not appear in spring before a suffi- ciency of food is found to support the ewes. 4731. On the middle district of mountain pas- turage, the Cheviot breed is chiefly bred in Scot- land; a^id their tupping season is from the 15th to the 22d of Jsoveniber, with the expectation of receiving lambs from the 15th to the 22d of April. 4732. A few days should always be allowed to elapse belore the tups are put to the gimmers, because, being less able than ewes to endure the hardships of lambing and of giving suck, their lambing season should be the longer postponed, until the weather is milder, and the pasture yields more nourishing food. 2 B 386 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. 4733. The number of ewes or gimmers to a tup bhould be 60, but where the grazing is more than or-heei) ; and the clipping is carried to such a degree that, on close-woolled sheep, such as the Southdown, the trimming is exercised over the entire body, so as to produce apparently fine points of symmetry in those parts of the sheep in which it is naturally deficient. This is nothing less than intentional fraud, to take in the igno- rant and llie unwary ; for no ju<1g>; can be de- ceived by it, and no one auare of the practice but must discover it at once. The eye of the in- experienced might be deceived by it at first, but the handling will dispel the illusion instantly. Suck a practice is countenanced at all, I suppose, for no better reason than is the hefting of cowe (2250) of their milk, because it is a custom. For the sake of fair dealing, it is hoped that this fraudulent practice will be forthwith aban- doned. 4740. The yellmn. — The yellows is a complaint to which ewes are subject in autumn. It is jaun- dice, exhibiting yellowness of the eye, the mucous membranes, and the urine. Bleeding,and purging with aloes and calomel, are the appropriate reme- * A Lammermuir Farmer's Treatise on Sheep, p. 73-4. t Little's Practical Obserrations on Mountain Sheep, p. 74-5. BATHING SHEEP. 387 dies. Fat draft-ewes which hare fed some time upon aftermath are most liable to the disease. Inflammation of the liver is the cause, in which the pain of the affected part is very obscure, and the natural language of the sufferer not very ex- pressive; nor is the symptomatic fever marked. Here a striking analogy is noted between the lower animals and man, inasmuch as there is generally a sympathetic pain in the right shoul- der, so strongly marked, as often to be mistaken for the principal disorder, and treated accord- ingly. Whenever you observe, therefore, a lameness of the right leg of any fat sheep on foggage, you may suspect the existence of yellows, and examine the inside of the eye- lid, and observe whether any yellowness exists there. 4741. The rot. — The rot is a serious disease, causing the death of numbers of a flock in a short period. Deficient food in summer, and a flush of rank wet grass in autumn, injure the health and constitution of sheep. In the wet and cold season of 1817, when sheep could not obtain a mouthful of good food in summer, and when the autumn arrived, accompanied with a flush of wet herbage, I knew a farmer on the Cheviot hills who lost 300 Cheviot ewes in the course of a few weeks by this disease. 4742. The early symptoms of rot are very ob- scure— a circumstance much to be lamented, as it is in the first stage alone that it admits of cure. " The animal is dull," observes Mr Youatt ; "lagging behind his companions, he does not feed BO well as usual. If suspicion has been a little excited by this, the truth of the matter may easily be put to the test ; for if the wool is parted, and especially about the brisket, the skin will have a pale yellow hue. The eye of the sheep begin- ning to sicken with the rot can never be mis- taken : it is injected, but pale; the small veins at the corner of the eye are turgid, but they are filled with yellow serous fluid, and not with blood. The caruncle, or small glandular body at the corner of the eye, is also yello^. Farmers, very properly, pay great attention to this in their examination or purchase of sheep. If the carun- cle is red, they have a proof, which never fails them, that the animal is healthy. If that body is white, they have no great objection or fear — it is generally so at grass ; but if it is of a yellow colour, they immediately reject the sheep, al- though he may otherwise appear to be in the very best possible condition ; for it is a proof that the liver is diseased, and the bile beginning to mingle with the blood. There is no loss of condition, but quite the contrary ; for the sheep, in the early stage of rot, has a great propensity to fatten. Mr Bakewell was aware of this, for he used to overflow certain of his pastures, and when the water was run off, turn those of his sheep upon them which he wanted to prepare for the market. They speedily became rotted, and in the early stage of the rot they accumulated flesh and fat with wonderful rapidity. By this manoeuvre he used to gain 5 or 6 weeks on his neigh- bours." 4743. I have already said, (947,) that when sheep have access to salt, they are never known to be affected with rot. I have little doubt, that had oil-cake been put within their power in such a wet and cold summer as 1817, they would have escaped the malady. Change of pasture from a wet to a dry situation may be the means of cur- ing the rot, at an early stage of the disease. All land that has been irrigated in summer, and pro- duces a rank growth of grass in autumn, should be avoided by sheep as much as a pestilence. Soft spongy soil, clayey, and never free of mois- ture, in its natural state, will afl'ect sheep with rot when grazed upon it. Draining would ren- der such land sound; and sheep-drains have made many pastures so, that were formerly subject to the complaint every year. When the rot is in- evitable, sheep cannot be long kept on the same farm, but must be sold in the course of a few months ; and the safest flock, in such circum- stances, is a flying-stock, especially of ewes, for they are the most easily affected with rot. Lime has rendered land sound, which was subject to rot even after it had been drained. Sudden frost and thaw, alternately, in spring, produce rot, according to the old proverb — Mony a frost, and mony a thow, Betaken mony a rotten yow. 4744. Flukes. — The liver of rotten sheep al- ways contains the well-known animal the /«ite, so named from its striking resemblance to a flounder. Its nature has not yet been satisfac- torily examined. It was named Fasciola by Lin- naeus, and Distoma hepatica by Rudolphi. Its intestinal ducts contain great numbers of grains of a pale red colour like sand, which are supposed to be its eggs ; and as no difference of sex has been observed, it is believed to be a hermaphro- dite. It is supposed that its eggs find their way to the grass, from which sheep receive them into their stomach, and thus are supposed to find their way into the liver. ..The eggs are foup.d in the biliary ducts, in the intestinal canals, and even in the dung of healthy sheep ; and they swarm in the dung of rotten ones. The ducts of a single liver have been found to contain more than a thousand, while the germs are quite innu- merable.* ON THE BATHING AND SMEARING OF SHEEP. 4745. Immediately after the tups are put to the ewes, arrangements are made for "a part of the sheep stock to be prepared to be fattened on turnips (901,) and the preparation consists of bathing them with, or in a particular liquid. I have said that * Youatt On Sheep, p. 445-62 ; Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 503, and vol. vi. p. 331-34 ; Parkinson On Lite Stock, vol. i. p. 419. 888 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. sheep are affected by a troublesome insect — tbe keb or kcd, or sheep-tick, fiir. 308,— wbich increase so much in numbers, as the wool grows, as to be troublesome to the ehcep in autumn ; and were means not taken to remove them, tlie annoyance they would occasion would cause the sheep to rub themselves upon everyobjoct they could find, to a degree to tear their fleece, and deteriorate its value considerably. 4746. Another reason for bathing sheep is, that on experiencing so great a change of food, as from grass to turnips, cutaneous eruptions are apt to appear on the skin, even to the exhibition of the scab, (1071,) winch deteriorates the fleece even more than the rubbing occasioned by the ked. In severe cases of scab, bathing is too mild an application, mercurial oint- ment being required. When lambs are rubbed with this ointment, inflammation will ensue if warm weather follows, though ewes stand the application much better. But I believe that spirit of tar by itself, or diluted with a little tobacco-liquor, is as eflScacious and a much safer remedy. 4747. The liquid to be used as a bath, to be of service, should combine the pro- perties of killing the ked with certainty, and of preventing eruptions on the skin, without injury to the staple of the wool ; and both these ends are attained by the use of tobacco-liquor and spirit of tar, the former instantly destroying the ked, and the latter acting as a j)reservative to the skin, (1070.) The bath is necessary for all classes of sheej), to kill the keds; but the spirit of tar is specially useful for sheep bougiit to fatten on turnips, as travelled sheep are almost always aflected with cuta- neous crii))tions, and ])articularly theBlack- faceil breed direct from the hills, after they have been on turnips for some time. As a matter of safety for a sound and clean flock, every sheep that is j)urchased, whether for feeding (m turnip or increas- ing rlie flock, sli(.uld be bathed immediately on its arrival on the farm, and before it mixes with tiie standing flock. 4748. The materials used in the hath are tobacco, sj)irit of tar, soft soap, and sulphur. The tobacco is best in the state of leaf, but I understand it is illegal for tobacconists to sell it in that state. Taken in the proportion of 1 lb, of tobacco to 20 sheep, it is put into a boiler with 1 quart of water to each 1 lb. of tobacco, and boiled gently for several hours. The tobacco is then wrung out, and the li(juor taken out of the boiler ; and the tobacco again returned into the empty boiler with half a quart of fresh water to each 1 lb. of the original weight, and boiled as long as any colouring matter is obtained from it, when it is wrung out and thrown away. The water boils in to 1 quart to the 1 lb. of the tobacco, and forms a decoction much stronger than an infusion. 4749. The soft soap is also used in the proportion of 1 lb. to 20 sheep, and it dis- solves thoroughly in a sufticient quantity of warm water. 4750. The flour of sulphur is mixed with the soap in the proportion of 2 oz. to 20 sheep, with which it combines, and assists in preserving the colour of the wool from the staining of the tobacco-liquor. 4751. The tobacco-liquor is put into a tub, and the solution of soft soap is inti- mately mixed with it, the snlphur being put in last, and the whole mixed together. 4752. A tin flask easily holding one quart, and provided with a handle and long spout, small at the end, is used to pour the bath along the shedded wool of tbe sheep, and is represented by fig. 426. Fig. 426. A BATH-JUG. 4753. The spirit of tar is measured into a wine-glass from a greybeard, and poured into the flask of bath when about to be used, in the proportion of half a ^^ ine-glass to 1 quart, and the mixture stirred. 4754. Some people mix stale himian urine with the bath to make it stronger, BATHING SHEEP. 389 but spirit of tar is more powerful than any ammoniacal gas. 4755. This is an effective bath, and inexpensive, the tobacco being Ss. 6d. per lb., a bottle of spirit of tar 6d., soft soap 5d., and sulphur Is. per lb. — making the cost 5s. 6d. for 20, or 2jd. for each sheep. 475fi. A useful implement in bathing sheep is the bath-stool, fig. 427, vvhicli Fig. 427. THE BATH-STOOL FOR SHEBP. is made of the best ash. It consists of a seat «, for the shepherd to sit on while bathing the sheep, 1 foot square ; a sparred part 3 feet long, has a frame and bars 30 inches wide in front from b to Fig. c, its greatest width being across at d. The legs e e^ are 18 inches high, attached by means of iron bolts passing through their upper part and the frame of the stool, and secured with nut and screw. 4757. Dry weather sliould be chosen for bathing sheep, else the rain will wash away the newly applied bath. 4758. Coarse aprons should be worn by those who apply bath to sheep, it being a dirty process. 4759. The bathing is conducted in this way : Tlie slieep being penned, one is caught and placed on the stool upon its belly, fig. 428, with its 4 legs lianging tliriiiigli the sp:irs, and its head towards the shepherd, who sits astride on the seat. The staple of the wool is divided by the shep- herd with the thumbs of both hand.-;, begin- ning at the head and ending at the tail of the sheep ; and when he has made one shed, an assistant, a field worker, pours the liquor from the fla^ik, following the hands of the shepherd in their passage along the shed, which he keeps open from the tail to the head of the sheep. Fig. 428 shows the bathed sheep in a different pen from the un- 428. BATHING SHEEP. bathed ; the process of bathing as described: also the tub of tobacco-liquor, the quart measure, the greybeard containing the spirit of tar, and the wine-glass, all at hand. S90 PRACTICE— AUTUMN. 4760. The sheds made are one along each side of tlie back-bone, one along the ribs on each side, one ahmg eacli side of the belly, one along the nape of the neck, one along each side of the neck, and one along the counter. From these sheds the bath will spread over the whole body. The sheep is turned on its sides and its back, to obtain easy access to these several parts. When the sheep is lying on its back on the stool, its legs are not tied, so the assistant should be aware of receiving a kick from the hind feet on the face, or on the flask. Some liquor is put on the tail, head, scrotum, inside of the thighs, brisket, root of the neck, and top of the shoulder, because these are the parts most likely to be affect- ed by scab, and are chiefly the seats of the nidi of insects. The shepherd and his assistant will bath 40 sheep in a day. 4761. Shortly after bathing, the keds will be seen adherinir to the ))oints of the wool, dead ; and the fleeces of those sheep which have been much infested by this vermin will be speckled thick with their bodies. Sheeit exhibit different effects by keds : those which recover from a lean to a better condition, on change of food, are most liable to be overrun with them, as some cattle are with lice when impmving in condition on turnips, ( 1375.) On this ac- count the ked may be expected to increase rapidly on sheep which have been some time on turnips, and hence the necessity of bathing sheep before putting them on tur- nips. Hoggs are most liable to their attack, because, perhaps, they get most rapidly into condition after being weaned, and because they bear the largest quan- tity of wool, (3i)42.) 4762. Hoggs (924) are bathed first, because, being put early on turnips — say the middle of October — they should be pre- pared before the ewes have returned from the tuj)s. 4763. Ewes (925) should not be bathed till after being tu])i)ed, as the smell of the bath might counteract the ettiuvium of the season, and deceive the tup; and its effects upon the skin may even prevent the sea- son coming in a regular course upon the ewe. Be the eflects of bath what they may, the safe practice is not to bath flock-ewes 'till after being tupped ; on which account their bathing ought to be conducted with great care, as a twist or rack given to the body in catch- ing, or in lifting them hastily off the ground, or in putting them recklessly upon thestool, may cause tiiem tocast lau:b; and, in case of such an accident, the sooner they are bathed afier being tupped the better, the body then not being much under the influence of the foetus. I am not aware that any case of ewes casting their lamb can be traced to this particular cause, but it is certain that injury to the body of any female in the })eriod of gestation is lial)le to cause abortion ; and there is no reason why injuries sustained at bathing should not produce that effect, as well as other occasions of injury. I dare say this parti- cular source of injury to ewes lias hitherto been overlooked both by farmers and shep- herds. 4764. The tups (92S) are bathed imme- diately before or after the ewes. 4765. A syringe has been recommended to be used to bath sheep, because it can be introduced anu)ngst the wool without dis- turbing the adherence of the stajtles of the fleece, which shedding must do. No doubt, fleeces that have been shedded are more apt to be blown asunder by the wind, but only for a short time, after which they recover their c