UNIVERSITY OF B.C. LIBRARY

3 9424 00125 9990

SIORAGE ITEM
P»OCESSING-C^fc

Lpl-

U.B.C.

-FISE

LIBRARY

THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA

GIFT
Hugh Nehal Gahan

The
Farmer's Handbook

A CONVENIENT REFERENCE BOOK
For All Persons Interested in

General Farming, Fruit Culture,Truck Farm-
ing, Market Gardening, Livestock
Production, Bee Keeping,
Dairying, Etc.

BY

International Correspondence Schools

SCRANTON, PA.

1st Edition, SOth Thousand, 4th Impression

scranton, pa.
International Textbook Company

Copyright, 1912, by

International Textbook Company

Copyright in Great Britain

All Rights Reserved

Press of

International Textbook Company

Scranton, Pa.

.-^ispma^, 71328

PREFACE

This handbook is intended as a book of reference
for general farmers, fruit growers, truck farmers,
market gardeners, livestock raisers, dairymen, and
in fact all persons interested in the principles and
best modern practices of agriculture. Students
and teachers of agriculture in colleges and public
schools will find it of great value to them in their
work, and suburbanites and city and town dwellers
who have gardens or raise livestock will receive
much help from a study of its pages. While not a
treatise covering the entire subject of agriculture;
it presents facts, data, and information in language
that is clear, concise, and easily understood, and
with the matter arranged in a manner that makes
the work especially valuable for ready reference.

Among the subjects treated are: Soil improve-
ment, general farm crops, fruit and vegetable cul-
ture, dairying,' bee keeping, farm implements and
machinery, as well as a section on farm livestock;
this last includes descriptions of the approved types
and breeds of livestock and the best method for
the feeding and caring of animals in both health and
disease. Although the treatment of some of the

subjects is necessarily brief, the information given
is of the same high order as that contained in the
Instruction Papers of the Agrictiltural Courses of
the International Correspondence Schools and is in
strict accord with the latest agricultural methods.

This handbook was prepared under the super-
vision of H. O. Sampson, Principal of our School of
Agriculture, assisted by the follo\ving Agricultural
Editors, all members of our staff of textbook writers:
J. E. McClintpck, S. W. Shoemaker, W. W. Otto,
H. J. Stevens, and E. D. Stivers.

International Correspondence Schools.

November 1, 1912.

INDEX

Abscesses, 278.

Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 208.

Abortion in farm livestock,
278.

Acetic acid as medicine for
livestock, 274.

Acid-forming bacteria in milk,
■ 31S.
phosphates as fertilizer, 34.

Aconite as medicine for live-
stock. Tincture of, 274.

Actinomycosis, 278.

Administration of medicines
to farm livestock, 273.

Aeration, Soil, 47.

Air in soil, 7.

Alfalfa as green manure, 29.
as hay and pasture crop, 77.

Aloes as medicine for live-
stock. 274.

Alsike clover as hay and pas-
ture crop, 75.

American merino sheep, 219.
saddle horses, 181.
trotter horses, 183.

Ammonia, Sulphate of, 31.
water as medicine tor live-
stock, 274.

Ammoniacal copper carbonate
as a fungicide, 91.

Analyses, Misleading method
of stating fertilizer, 37.

Anesthetics, 272.

Anodynes, 272.

Anthra.x, 278.

Symptomatic, 279.

Antimony as medicine for
livestock. Butter of, 275.

Antispadmodics, 272.

Apothecaries' fluid measure
table, 381.
weight table, 380.

Apples, Pruning of, 100.
Spraying of, 101.
Varieties of, 93.

Arab horses, 178.

Arithmetical tables, 378.

Arnica as medicine for live-
stock. Tincture of, 274.

Arrangement of home gar-
den, 166.

Arsenate of lead as an insecti-
cide, 89.

Arsenic as medicine for live-
stock. Fowler's solution
of, 274.

Arsenitc of lime as an insecti-
cide, 90.

Artichokes, Jerusalem, 84.

Ash in feeds, 239.

Ashes for fertilizer. Wood,
35.

Asparagus, 174.

Astringents, 272.

Avoirdupois weight table,
380.

Avrshire cattle, 201.

Azoturia, 279.

Babcock milk test, The. 321.
Bacon-type swine, 231.
Bacteria in milk, 315.

in milk, Acld-formlng, 318.

in milk. Pathogenic, 319.

in soil, 11.
Balanced rations, 243.
Barley, 58.

Treatment of smut on, 59.
Barrenness in farm livestock,

279.
Barrow, Score card for bacon-
type, 289.

Score card for fat-type, 300.
Basic slag for fertilizer, 35.

INDEX

Beam plows, 339.
Bean and pea thrashers, 352.
Beans, 17.5.

Bee keeping as an industry,
331.
keeping. Locations for, 333.
keeping. Objects of, 331.
keeping. Profits in, 33.5.
keeping. Time required in,

336.
stings. Treatment for, 337.
Beef animal. List of parts of,
205.
cattle. Breeds of, 205.
-cattle class, 214.
type. Description of, 205.
Bees, Drone, 339.

Parthenogenesis in, 339.
Queen, 337.
Races of honey, 337.
Worker, 338.
Beet lifters, 352.
Beets, 168.

Sugar, 83.
Belgian horses, 188.
Belladonna as medicine for
hvestock. Fluid extract
of, 274.
Berkshire swine, 232.
Bermuda grass as hay and

pasture crop, 70.
Bichloride of mercury as
medicine for livestock,
276.
Black quarter, 279.
Blackberries, Pruning of, 146.
Spraying of, 147.
Varieties of, 146.
Blackleg. 279.
Blisters, 273.
Bloat, 284.

Blood as fertilizer. Dried, 31.
Blue grass as hay and pas-
ture crop, Canada, 68.
grass as hay and pasture

crop, Kentucky, 67.
grass as hay and pasture

crop, Texas, 71.
vitriol as medicine for live-
stock, 274.
Boars, Rations for herd, 260.
Boiled milk, 317,

Bone black as fertilizer, 34.
as fertilizer, Dissolved, 34.
as fertilizer. Raw, 33.
as fertilizer. Steamed, 34.

Bordeaux mixture as a fungi-
cide, 91.

Boric acid as medicine for
hvestock, 275.

Broadcasting seeders, 344.

Brome grass as hay and pas-
ture crop. Smooth, 68.

Brown Swiss cattle, 203.

Buckwheat, 59.

Bunchers, Clover, 348.

Butcher-stock class of cattle,
214.

Cabbage, 169.
Calcium in soil, 10.
Calomel as medicine for live-
stock, 275.
Calves, Veal. 216.
Camphor as medicine for live-
stock. Spirits of, 277.
Canada blue grass as hay and
pasture crop, 68.
field peas as green manure,
27.
Canadian milk standards,

329.
Canners and cutters, 215.
Capillary water in soil, 6.
Carbohydrates in feeds, 240.
Carbolic acid as medicine for

livestock, 275.
Care of farm implements and

machinery, 354.
Carriage-horse class, 193.
Carrots, 83, 170.
Castor oil as medicine for
livestock, 275.
pomace as fertilizer, 33.
Cattle, Aberdeen-Angus, 208.
Ayrshire. 201.
Breeds of beef, 205.
Breeds of dairy, 197.
Breeds of dual-purpose,

211.
Brown Swiss, 203.
class. Beef, 214.
class. Butcher stock, 214.

INDEX

Cattle, Devon, 211.

Dutch belted. 202.

French Canadian, 203.

Galloway, 209.

Guernsey, 198.

Hereford, 208.

Holstein-Friesian, 200.

Jersey, 198.

manure, 22, 25.

Market classes and grades
of, 212. 213.

Polled Durham, 207.

Rations for dairy, 257.

Rations for fattening, 259.

Red polled, 212.

Shorthorn, 206.

Simmenthal, 203.

Sussex, 210.

Score card for dairy, 294.

Score card for beef, 295.
Cauliflower, 170.
Celery, 170.
Cerebrospinal meningitis,

280.
Charbon, 278.
Chemical changes in soil, 8.
Cherries, pruning of, 135.

Spraying of, 135.

Varieties of, 131.
Cheshire swine, 236.
Chester white swine, 234.
Cheviot sheep, 225.
Chinch bug on wheat, 55.
Choking in farm livestock,

280.
Cholera, Hog, 283.
Chunk-horse class, 192.
Classification of feeds,

241.
Cleanliness in handling milk,

316.
Cleveland bay horses, 186.
Climate for truck farming,

161.
Clover as hay and pasture
crop, Alsike, 75.

as hay and pasture crop,
Crimson, 76.

as hay and pasture crop,
Mammoth red, 74.

as hay and pasture crop,
Red, 74.

Clover as hay and pasture
crop, White, 76.
bunchers, 348.
hullers, 353.
Clovers as green manure, 27.
Clydesdale horses, 187.
Coal tar dips, 276.
Colic in farm livestock, 280.
Commercial fertilizer, 30.
Composition of feeds, 238.

of milk, 313.
Constipation in farm live-
stock, 281.
Cooling of milk, 316.
Copper sulphate as medicine

for livestock, 274.
Copperas as medicine for

livestock, 275.
Com as hay and pasture
crop, Kafir, 73.
binders, 350.
Enemies and diseases of,

66.
grown for silage in dif-
ferent zones of the U.
S., Table of varieties
of, 63.
huskers and shredders,

351.
in U. S., Date of first,
general, and last plant-
ing and harvesting, 64.
pickers, 350.
planters, 345.
Sweet, 175.
Varieties of, 60.
zones in the United States,
61.
Corrosive sublimate as med-
icine for livestock, 276.
Cotswold sheep, 227.
Cotton planters, 345.
Cottonseed meal as ferti-
lizer, 33.
Cough in farm livestock, 281.
Cow, List of parts of, 197.
Cowpeas as green manure,
28.
as hay and pasture crop,
78.
Crimson clover as hay and
pasture crop, 76.

viil

INDEX

Crops for home garden, 165.
from seeding, Table of
time required for matur-
ity of different vege-
table, 366.
Half-hardy vegetable, 174.
Hardy vegetable, 168.
Harvesting of home garden,

167.
Hay and pasture, 66.
Planting of home garden,

167.
Root, 82.
Soiling, 85.

Tender vegetable, 176.
Truck-farm, 163.
Cubic measure table, 379.
Cucumbers, 176.
Cultivators, 342.
Cultvu-e, Fruit, 89.
Currants, Pruning of, 150.

Varieties of, 149.
Cutters and canners, 215.
type. Description of, 197.

Dairying, 313.

Delaine merino sheep, 220.

Denitrification by tillage,

Lessening of, 48.
Devon cattle. 211.
Dewberries, Pruning of, 147.
Spraying of, 147.
Varieties of, 146.
Diagnosis of diseases of farm

livestock, 270.
Dips, Coal tar. 276.
Diseases of farm livestock,
264.
of farm livestock. Diagno-
sis of, 270.
of farm livestock, N o n -

transmissible, 267.
of farm livestock, Trans-
nussible, 265.
Disk plows. 340.
Distances, Table of, 382.
Distillate oils as insecticide,

91.
Ditches, Construction of
drainage, 15.
for drainage, Open, 15.

Ditches, Locating of drain-
age, 15.
Dorset sheep, 224.
Dosage of medicines for farm

livestock, 273.
Draft -horse class, 190.
Drags, Soil, 342.
Drainage, Beneficial effects
of soil, 13.

Cost of soil, 15.

laterals, 17.

mains, 17.

Open ditches for, 15.

Soil, 13.

submains, 17.
Dried blood as fertilizer, 31.
Drill, Grain, 345.
Drone bees, 339.
Dry measure table, 381.
Dual-purpose type of cattle,]

Description of, 211.
Duroc- Jersey swine, 234.
Dutch Belted cattle, 202.

E

Eczema, 2S1.

Epsom salts, as medicine for
livestock, 276.

Equipment for market gar-
dening, 156.
for truck farming, 162.

Equivalents, How to find fer-
tilizer, 39.
Table of data for comput-
ing fertilizer, 40.

Essex swine, 237.

Ewes, Rations for, 262.

Farcy. 281.

Farm implements and ma-
chinery. Care of, 354.

livestock, 178.
Fat in feeds, 240.
Feed, Fodder as, 242.

Hay as, 241.

on value of manure. Influ-
ence of, 23.

Root crops as, 243.

Silage as, 242.

Soiling crops as, 242.

Straw as, 242.

INDEX

Feedstufifs, Table of dry mat-
ter and nutrients in
American, 249.
Feeders and stockers, 215.
Feeding, livestock, 238.

standards, 24.3.

standards, Wolff-Lehmann,
245.
Feeds, Ash in, 239.

Carbohydrates in, 249.

Classification of, 241.

Composition of, 238.

Fat in, 240.

Protein in, 239.

Water in, 239.
Fertilizer analysis, mislead-
ing methods of stating,
37.

equivalents. How to find,
39.

equivalents. Table of data
for computing, 40.

Fish, 32.

laws. State, 36.
Fertilizers, Commercial, 30.

Facts about, 39.

Vegetable potash, 36.
Field peas as hay and pasture

crops, 81.
Fish fertilizer, 32.
Fodder as feed, 242.
Foot and mouth disease, 281.

rot, 281.
Foul in foot, 282.
Founder, 282.
French Canadian cattle, 203.

coach horses, 185.
Fruit culture, 89.
Fungicides, 91.
Furrow drains, 16.

G

Galloway cattle, 209.
Galls, 282.
Gang plows, 340.
Garbage tankage, 32.
Garden, Arrangement of
home, 166.

Crops for home, 165.

Glass for home, 165.

produce. Markets for mar-
ket, 159.

Garden, Site for home,
164.
Size for home, 164.
Soil for home, 164.
Soil improvement for

home, 165.
Tillage for home, 166.
Tools for home, 167.
Gardening, Equipment for
market, 156.
Site for market, 155.
Garget, 282.

Gasoline as medicine for live-
stock, 276.
Gentian root, as medicine for

Uvestock, 276.
German Coach horses, 185.
Gestation table for farm live-
stock, 301.
Gidd, 282.
Glanders, 283.

Gooseberries, Pruning of,
153.
Spraying of, 154.
Varieties of, 152.
Grade in underdrains. Ob-
taining uniform, 21.
Grain binders, 349.
drills, 345.
harvester and thrasher,

350.
headers, 350.
Grapes, pruning of, 122.
Spraying of, 124.
Training of, 122.
Varieties of, 117.
Grasses as hay and pasture

crop, 66.
Grease, 283.
heels, 283.
Green manure, 27.

manure, Alfalfa as, 29.
manure, Canada field peas

as, 27.
manure. Clovers as, 27.
manure, Cowpeas as, 28.
manure. Soybeans as, 28.
manure. Supplying of, 29.
manure. Vetch as, 28.
manure. Weeds as. 27.
manuring. Effects of, 29.
I Guernsey cattle, 198.

INDEX

Hackney horses, 184.
Hair and wool waste, as fer-
tilizer, 32.
Hampshire sheep, 223.

swine, 238.
Hand as a unit of measure-
ment, 178.
Harrowing, 51.
Harrows, 340.

Harvesting of corn, Table of
first, general, and last
planting and, 64.

of home garden crops, 167.
Hay and pasture crops, 66.

as feed, 241.

loaders, 349.

rakes, 348.

stackers, 348.

tedders, 349.
Heaves, 283.
Hellebore as an insecticide,

90.
Hereford cattle, 208.
Hessian fly. Combating of, 55.
Hog cholera, 283.

List of parts of, 230.

manure, Care of, 25.
Hogs. Rations for bacon, 260.

Rations for fattening, 250.
Holstein-Friesian cattle, 200.
Honey bees. Races of, 337.
Hoof and horn meal, 32.
Hoose, 284.

Horn and hoof meal, 32.
Horse class, Carriage-, 193.

class, Chunk-, 192.

class, Draft, 190.

class. Road, 194.

class, Saddle-, 195.

class. Wagon-, 192.

List of parts of, 179.

manure, 21.

manure. Care of, 25
Horses, American Saddle, 181.

American Trotter, 183.

Arab, 178.

Belgian, 188.

Breeds of, 178.

Cleveland Bay, 186.

Clydesdale, 187.

French Coach, 185.

Horses, German Coach, 185.
Hackney, 184.
Market classes of, 189.
Morgan, 182.
Orioff Trotter, 184.
Percheron, 186.
Rations for draft, 255.
Rations for driving, 255.
Rations for saddle, 256.
Score card for heavy mar-
ket, 289.
Score card for light mar-
ket, 292.
Shire, 188.
Sufiolk, 189.
Table of market classes of.

191.
Thoroughbred, 180.
Yorkshire Coach, 186.
Hoven, 284.
Humus in soil, 10.
Hydrometer readings. Table
of comparison of Baume
and specific gravity,
366.
Hydrostatic water in soil, 6.
Hygroscopic water in soil, 6.

Implements and machinery.
Care of farm, 354.
and machinery. Farm, 339.

Improvement, Soil, 13

Indigestion, in farm live-
stock, 285.

Inorganic ingredients of
soil, 1.

Insecticides for fruit plants,
89.

Intestinal worms, 285.

Iodine as medicine for live-
stock. Tincture of, 276.

Italian rye grass as hay and
pasture crop, 70.

Jamaica ginger as medicine
for livestock, 276.

Jerusalem artichokes, 84.

Jersey cattle, 198.

Johnson grass as hay and
pasture crop, 70.

INDEX

Kafir com as hay and pasture
crop, 73.

Kainite as fertilizer, 35.

Kentucky blue grass as hay
and pasture crop, 67.

Kerosene as medicine for live-
stock, 276.

Kerosene emulsion as an in-
secticide, 91.

Kohlrabi, 83.

Lambs, Rations for, 263.
Lard-type swine, 231.
Large Yorkshire swine, 237.
Laterals, Distance between

drainage, 18.
Laudanum as a medicine

for livestock, 277.
Leather meal as fertilizer,

33.
Legal weights per bushel,

Table of, 368-377.
Legumes as hay and pasture

crops, 73.
Leicester sheep, 226.
Lettuce, 171.

Lice on farm livestock, 285.
Lime, Methods of determin-
ing if soils need, 42.
on soils. Effect of, 41.
-sulphur as a fungicide, 92.
-sulphur as an insecticide,

90.
to soil, Application of, 44.
to soil. When to apply, 46.
water as medicine for live-
stock, 277.
Liming of soils, 41.
Lincoln sheep, 226.
Linear measure table, 378.
Linseed meal as fertilizer, 33.
oil as medicine for live-
stock. Raw, 277.
Liquid measure table, 381.
List of market classes of
sheep, 229.
of parts of beef animal, 205.
of parts of daily animal,

197.
of parts of hog. 230.

List of parts of horse, 179.

of parts of sheep, 217.
Listers, Com, 346.
Livestock, Administration
of medicines to farm,
273.
Diagnosis of diseases of

farm, 270.
Diseases of farm, 265.
Dosage of medicines for

farm, 273.
Farm, 178.
feeding, 238.
Gestation table for farm,

301.
Medicines for farm, 272.
Non-transmissible diseases

of farm, 266.
Sanitation of farm, 267.
Transmissible diseases of
farm, 265.
Location for bee keeping, 333.
Location for truck farm, 160.
Lockjaw, 288.

London purple as an insec-
ticide, 90.
Long-ton weight table, 380.
Lump jaw, 278.

M

Machinery and implements.

Farm, 339.
Machines and implements.

Care of farm, 3o4.
Maggots in farm livestock,

285.
Mammoth red clover as hay

and pasture crop, 74.
Mange, 285.
Mangel wurzels, 82.
Manure, Alfalfa as green, 29.
Canada field peas as green,

27.
Care of cattle, 25.
Care of hog, 25.
Care of horse, 25.
Care of poultry, 26.
Care of sheep, 26.
Cattle. 22.
Clovers as green, 27.
Cowpeas as green, 28.
Green, 27.

INDEX

Manure, Horse, 21.

Influence of feed on value

of, 23.
Poultrv, 23.
Sheep, 23.

Soybeans as green, 28.
spreaders, 353.
Stable, 21.
Swine, 23.
Vetch as green, 28.
Mares, Rations for, 256.
Market classes of cattle, 212,
213.
classes of horses, 189.
classes of sheep, 228.
garden produce. Markets

for, 159.
gardening, Equipment for,

156.
gardening, Site for. 155.
Markets for market - garden

produce, 159.
Meadow fescue as hay and
pasture crop, 69.
foxtail as hay and pasture
crop, 67.
Meal as fertihzer. Hoof and
horn, 32.
as fertilizer, Leather, 33.
as fertilizer. Linseed, 33.
Measures of extension, 378.

of volume, 383.
Medicine to farm livestock.
Administration of, 273.
for farm livestock, 272.
for farm livestock. Dosage
of, 273.
Meningitis, Cerebrospinal,

280.
Mercun.' as medicine for
livestock, Bichloride of,
276.
Metric equivalents, 381.
Milk, Acid-forming bacteria
in, 318.
Bacteria in, 315.
Boiled, 317.
Cleanliness in handling,

316.
constituents. 313.
Cooling of, 316.
fever, 286.

Milk, Odors in, 320.
Pasteurized, 317.
Pathogenic bacteria in,

319.
regulations. City, 327.
standard, Canadian, 329.
standards. State, 327.
standards. United States,

325.
Storing of, 316.
test. The Babcock, 321.
Testing of, 321.
Use of preservatives in,

317.
Weighing of, 321.
Milkers and springers, 217.
Millets as hay and pasture

crop, 71.
Minerals in soil, 8.
Miscible oil as an insecticide,

90.
Misleading methods of stat-
ing fertilizer analyses,
37.
Morgan horses, 182.
Mowers, 347.
Mule-foot swine, 235.
Muriate of potash as fertili-
zer, 35.
Mutton sheep, 218.

N

Navel ill, 286.

Nitrate of soda as fertilizer,

30.
Nitrogen in soil, 9.
Non-transmissible diseases of

farm livestock, 267.
Nutritive ratio, 244.

O

Oat grass as hay and pasture
crop. Tall, 69.

smut. Treatment of, 58.
Oats, 56.

Varieties of, 57.
Objects of bee keeping, 331.
Odors in milk, 320.
Onions, 172.

Orchard grass as hay and
pasture crop, 68, 69.

INDEX

jdil

Organic ingredients of soil, 1.
Orloff Trotter horses, 184.
Oxford Down sheep, 223.

P

Paris green as an insecticide,

89.
Parsnips, 84, 173.
Parthenogenesis in bees, 339.
Pasteurized milk, 317.
Pasture crops, Hay and, 66.
Pathogenic bacteria in milk,

319.
Peaches, Pruning of, 107.
Spraying of, 109.
Varieties of, 103.
Pears, Pruning of, 115.
Spraying of, 115.
Varieties of, 110.
Peas, 172.

Percheron horses, 186.
Perennial rye grass as hay

and pasture crop, 70.
Phosphates as fertilizer. Acid,
34.
as fertilizer. Rock, 34.
Phosphorus in soil, 9.
Pigs, Rations for, 259.
Plant -food in soil, 9.
Planters, Com, 345.
Cotton, 345.
Potato, 346.
Seedling, 347.
Planting and harvesting of
com, Table of first,
genera), and last, 64.
and harvesting of wheat.
Table of first, general,
and last, 54.
of home garden crops, 167.
Plants required to set an acre
of ground at given dis-
tance. Table of number
of, 363.
Plowing, 49.
Plows, Beam, 339.
Disk, 340.
Gang, 340.
Subsoil, 340.
Sulky, 340.
Walking, 339.
Plums, Pmning of, 130.

Plxims, Spraying of, 131.

Varieties of, 126.
Poland-China swine, 233.
Polled Durham cattle, 207.
Potash as fertilizer. Muriate
of, 35.

as fertilizer. Sulphate of,
36.

as fertilizer. Vegetable, 36.

as medicine for livestock.
Nitrate of, 277.
Potassium in soil, 10.

sulphide as a fimgicide,
92.
Potato diggers, 351.

planters, 346.
Potatoes, 81, 176.

Enemies and diseases of,
83.

Varieties of, 82.
Poultry manure, 23.

manure. Care of, 26.
Preservatives in milk. Use

of, 317.
Profits in bee keeping, 335.
Protein in feeds, 239.
Pruning of apples, 100.

of blackberries, 146.

of cherries, 135.

of currants, 150.

of dewberries, 147.

of gooseberries, 153.

of grapes, 122.

of peaches, 107.

of pears, 115.

of plums, 130.

of quinces, 138.

of raspberries, 145.
Pumace as fertilizer. Castor,
33.

Q

Quack grass as hay and pas-
ture crop, 71.
Quarter crack. 286.
Queen bees, 337.
Quinces, Pruning of, 138.
Spraying of, 138.
Varieties of, 136.
Quinine as a medicine for
livestock, 277.

INDEX

Rabies, 287.

Races of honey bees, 337.

Rachitis, 287.

Radishes, 173,

Rambouillet sheep, 221.

Raspberries, Pruning of, 145.

Spraying of, 147.

Varieties of, 143.
Ratio, Nutritive, 244.
Ration for draft horses, 255.

for stallion, 257.
Rations, Balanced, 243.

for bacon hogs, 260.

for brood sows, 261.

for dairy cattle, 257.

for driving horses, 256.

for ewes, 262.

for fattening cattle, 259.

for fattening hogs, 260.

for herd boars, 260.

for lambs, 263.

for mares, 256.

for pigs, 259.

for saddle horses, 2.56.
Raw bone as fertilizer, 33.
Reaper, Self-rake, 350.
Red clover as hay and pas-
ture crop, 74.

Polled cattle, 212.

top as hay and pasture
crop, 67.
Rheumatism, 287.
Rhubarb, 168.
Rickets, 287.
Ringworm, 287.
Road-horse class, 194.
Rock phosphates as fertil-
izer, 34.

Rollers, 341. ,

Rolling, 50.
Root crops, 82.

crops as feed, 243.
Rutabagas, 83.
Rye, 59.

grass, as hay and pasture
crop, 70.

S
Saddle-horse class, 195.
Saltpeter as medicine for
livestock, 277.

Sand crack, 286.

Sanitation for farm livestock,

267.
Scab, Sheep, 285.
Scabies in sheep, 286.
Score card for bacon-type
barrows, 289.
card for dairy cattle, 294.
card for fat-type barrows,

300.
card for heavy market

horses, 289.
card for light market

horses, 292.
card for market beef cat-
tle, 295.
card for mutton sheep, 296.
card for wool sheep, 298.
Scours, 288.
Scratches, 283.
Seed mixtures for meadows,
362.
mixtures for pastures, 362.
required per acre, Table
of quantity of, 359.
Seeders, Broadcasting, 344.
Seedling planters, 347.
Seeds to germinate. Table of
average time required
for garden, 366.
Self-boiled lime sulphur as a
fungicide, 92.
rake, reaper, 350.
Sheep, American Merino, 219.
Breeds of, 217.
Cheviot, 225.
Cotswold, 227.
Delaine Merino, 220.
Dorset, 224.
Hampshire, 223.
Leicester, 226.
Lincoln, 226.
List of parts of, 217.
manure, 23.
manure. Care of, 26.
Market classes of, 228.
Mutton, 218.
Oxford Down, 223.
Rambouillet, 221.
Score card for mutton,

296.
Score card for wool, 298.

INDEX

Sheep, Shropshire, 222.

Southdown, 221.

Suffolk, 225.

Wool, 218.
Shire horses, 188.
Shorthorn cattle, 206.
Shropshire sheep, 222.
Silage as feed, 242.
Simmenthal cattle, 203.
Site for home garden, 164.

for market gardening, 155.
Size of home garden, 164.
Slag as fe.-tllizer, Basic, 35.
Small Yorkshire swine, 236.
Smooth brome grass as hay

and pasture crop, 68.
Smut on barley. Treatment
of, 59.

on wheat, Treatment of
loose, 53.

on wheat. Treatment of
stinking, 53.

Treatment of oat, 58.
Soda as fertilizer, Nitrate of,

30.
Soil aeration, 47.

Air in, 7.

Bacteria in, 11.

by tillage, Mellowing of,
48.

by tillage, Pulverization
of, 46.

Chemical changes In, 8.

Classes of water in, 6.

Color of, 5.

drainage, 13.

Effect of sunshine on
plowed, 47.

for home garden, 164.

improvement, 13.

improvement for home gar-
den, 165.

by tillage, Increase of water-
holding capacity of, 47.

Inorganic ingredients of, 1.

Minerals in, 8.

Movement of water in, 6.

Need of water in, 5.

Organic ingredients of, 2.

particles, Size of, 1.

Plant-food In, 9.

Properties of, 1.

Soil temperature, 7.

Types of, 2.

Weight of, 4.

When to apply Ume to, 46.
SoiUng crops, 85.

crops as feed, 242.

systems. Tables of, 86-88.
Soils, Application of Ume to,
44.

for truck farming, 161.

Liming of, 41.
Sorghum as hay and pasture

crop, 71.
Southdown sheep, 221.
Sows, Rations for brood, 261.
Soybeans as green manure,
28.

as hay and pasture crop, 79.
Spinach, 173.
Sprayers, 353.
Spraying of apples, 101.

of blackberries, 147.

of cherries, 135.

of dewberries, 147.

of gooseberries, 154.

of grapes, 124.

of peaches, 109.

of pears, 115.

of plums, 131.

of quinces, 138.

of raspberries, 147.

of strawberries, 142.
Sprays for fruit plants, 89.
Springers and milkers, 217.
Square measure table, 379.
Squashes, 176.
Stable manure, 21.
Stallions, Rations for, 257.
Standards, Feeding, 243.
State fertilizer laws, 36.

mUk standards, 327.
Steamed bone as fertilizer, 34.
Sterility in farm livestock, 279.
Stockers and feeders, 215.
Stomach worms, 285.
Storing of milk. 316.
Straw as feed, 242.
Strawberries, Spraying of,
142.

Varieties of, 139.
Street sweepings, as fertilizer,
33.

INDEX

Subsoil. 1.

plows, 340.
Suffolk horses, 189.

sheep, 225.
Sugar beets, 83.
Sulky plows, 340.
Sulphate of ammonia, 31.

of iron as medicine for live-
stock, 275.

of potash as fertilizer, 36.
Sulphur as medicine for live-
stock, 277.

dust as a fungicide, 92.
Sunshine on plowed soil. Ef-
fect of, 47.
Sunstroke in farm livestock,

288.
Superphosphate for fertilizer,

34.
Surveyor's square measure

table, 379.
Sussex cattle, 210.
Sweet corn, 175.
Swine, Bacon-type, 231.

Berkshire, 232.

Cheshire, 236.

Chester White, 234.

Duroc- Jersey, 234.

Essex, 237.

fever, 288.

Hampshire, 238.

Lard-type, 231.

Large Yorkshire, 237.

manvire, 23.

Mule-foot, 2?5.

Poland-China, 233.

Small Yorkshire, 236.

Tamworth, 237.

Victoria, 236.
Symptomatic anthrax, 279.

Table, Apothecaries' fluid
measure, 381.

Apothecaries' weight,
380.

Avoirdupois weight,
380.

Cubic measure, 379.

Dry measure, 381.

for farm livestock, Gesta-
tion, 301.

Table, Linear measure, 378.

Liquid measure, 381.

Long-ton weight, 380.

of average time required
for garden seeds to ger-
minate. 366.

of capacity of circular silos
and quantity of silage
to be fed to lower sur-
face 2 inches daily, 367.

of comparison of Baum6
and specific-gravity hy-
drometer readings, 366.

of data for computing fer-
tilizer equivalents, 40.

of distances, 382.

of dry matter and nutrients
in American feedstuffs,
249.

of first, general, and last
planting and harvest-
ing of com, 64.

of first, general, and last
planting and harvest-
ing of wheat, 54.

of legal weights per bushel,
368-377.

of market classes of horses,
191.

of New England complete
soiling system for 20
cows, 86.

of New Jersey complete
soiling system for 20
cows, 88.

of number of plants re-
qviired to set an acre of
grovind at given distance,
363.

of partial soiling system
for 20 cows, 85.

of quantity of seed reqxiired
per acre, 359.

of time required for matu-
rity of different vegetable
crops from seeding, 366.

of varieties of com grown
for silage in different
zones of the U. S., 63.

of Wisconsin complete soil-
ing system for 20 cows,
87.

INDEX

Table, Square measure, 379.
Surveyor's square meas-
ure, 379.
Troy weight, 380.
Tall oat grass as hay and pas-

tvire crop, 69.
Tamworth swine, 237.
Tankage, 31.

Garbage, 32.
Temperature, Soil, 7.
Teosinte as a hay and pas-
ture crop, 73.
Testing of milk, 321.
Tetanus, 288.

Texas blue grass as hay and
pasture crop, 71.
fever, 288.
Thoroughbred horses, 180.
Thrashers, Bean and pea, 352.
Thrashing machines. Grain,

352.
Thrush, 289.
Tile to use for underdrains.

Size of, 17.
Tillage, Benefits of, 46.
of home garden, 166.
Pulverization of soil by, 46.
Time retniired in bee keep-
ing, 336.
Timothy as hay and pasture

crop, 66.
Tobacco, 84.

extracts and decoctions as
insecticides, 91.
Tomatoes, 177.
Tools for home garden, 167.
Training of grapes, 122.
Transmissible diseases of'

farm livestock, 265.
Troy weight table, 380.
Truck-farm crops, 153.
farm, Climate for, 161.
farm, Location for, 160.
farming. Equipment for,

162.
farming, Labor for, 161.
farming, Soils for, 161.
Tuberculosis of farm live-
stock, 289.
Turnips, 83, 174.
Turpentine as medicine for
livestock, 277.

U

Underdrains, 17.

arrangement of, 17.

Depth of, 19.

Excavating for, 20.

Laying tile for, 20.

Obtaining a uniform grade
in, 21.

Size of tiles to use for, 17.
United States milk standards.
325.

V
Varieties of apples, 93.

of blackberries, 146.

of cherries, 131.

of com, 60.

of currants, 149.

of dewberries, 146.

of gooseberries, 152.

of grapes, 117.

of oats, 57.

of peaches, 103.

of pears, 1 10.

of potatoes, 82.

of plums, 126.

of quinces, 136.

of raspberries, 143.

of strawberries, 139.

of wheat, 52.
Veal calves, 216.
Vegetable crops. Half-hardy,
174.

crops. Hardy, 168.

crops. Tender, 176.

potash fertilizers, 36.
Velvet grass as hay and

pasture crop, 71.
Verminous bronchitis, 284.
Vetch as green manure, 28.
Vetches a^ hay and pasture

crop, 80.
Victoria swine, 236.
Volume, Measures of, 383.

W

Wagon-horse class, 192.

Walking plows, 339.

Water-holding capacity of
soil. Increase of, by till-
age, 47.
in feeds, 239.

INDEX

Water in soil. Capillary, 6.
in soil. Classes of, 6.
in soil, Hydrostatic, 6.
in soil, Hygroscopic, 6.
in soil, Movement of, 6.
in soil. Need of, 5
Weeds as green manure, 27.
by tillage. Destruction of,
49.
Weeders, 344.
Weighing of milk, 321.
Wheat, Chinch bug on, 55.
Hessian fly on, 55.
Table of first, general, and
last planting and har-
vesting of, 54.
Treatment of loose smut

on, 53.
Treatment of stinking smut
on, 53.

Wheat, Varieties of, 52.

White clover as hay and pas-
ture crop, 76.

Whiskey as medicine for live-
stock, 277.

Windrowers, 348.

Wolfl-Lehmann feeding stand-
ards, 245.

Wool and hair waste, 32.
sheep, 218.

Wood ashes as fertilizer, 35.

Worker bees, 338.

Yorkshire Coach horses, 186.

Zones in the United States,
Corn, 61.

The Farmer's Handbook

PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Soil and Subsoil.— S'ot/ is that part of the earth's
surface in which plants, by means of their roots, may
or do find nourishment and a place in which to grow.
To distinguish the different parts of the soil, the terms
surface soil and subsoil are employed. Surface soil, as
the name implies, is soil at or near the surface of the
ground — that portion usually subjected to tillage;
subsoil is soil that lies beneath the surface soil. Surface
soil is usually darker in color than subsoil, due to the
presence of humus.

Inorganic Soil Ingredients.— The inorganic ingredients,
or rock particles, of soil are classified according to size
into three divisions known as sand, clay, and silt.
Sand is made up of larger soil particles than clay or
silt. In nearly all soils a certain amount of sand is
present. The quantity in an area of soil influences its
character to a marked degree. For example, a soil con-
taining relatively few sand particles is harder to work
with tillage implements than one containing a larger
number of sand particles.

The smallest particles of soil are known as day. They
are so small that when rubbed between the fingers no
gritty feeling is noticeable. A mass of clay particles
is usually gray in color. A familiar example of clay
is the material used for the making of brick and tile.

The particles of soil that are finer than the finest sand
but larger than those that make up clay are known as
silt. Particles of silt are darker in color and less
angular in shape than particles of sand.

2 PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Organic Soil Ingredients.— The animal and vegetable
matter of soil forms what is termed humus, which is
partly decomposed organic matter. The proportion of
humus in soil greatly influences its crop-producing
power. Other conditions being favorable, a soil rich
in humus is fertile, and one poor in humus is not fertile.
Soils rich in humus are, as a rule, dark in color, and
those poor in humus are light in color. Humus is re-
tentive of water, and for this reason soils rich in this
material are usually moist. If an area of soil is treated
with a liberal quantity of humus-forming material,
stable manure for e.xample, the soil will become more
compact, more retentive of moisture, darker in color,
and more fertile, all of which are desirable soil qualities.

Types of Soil. — Soils are designated according to the
proportion of rock particles of certain size that they
contain; or, if they are nearly deficient in rock particles,
according to the proportion of vegetable matter they
contain. For example, a soil made up largely of sand
is known as a sandy soil; one in which the particles
are nearly all silt is a silty soil, and one largely of
clay is a clay soil. Soils that are largely organic
matter are known as peat soils or as muck soils. The term
loam is used to designate soils that are made up of at
least three of the four ingredients— sand, silt, clay,
and humus. Loams are named in accordance with their
predominating-sized mineral particles. For example, a
loam largely of sand is a sandy loam; one made up
practically of clay is a clay loam; and one rich in silt
is a silty loam.

Sandy soils are easy to work but are poor in plant-
food, and are not retentive of water. However,
they are what are known as quick soils, that is, they
produce crops quickly after seed is planted or young
plants are set out.

Sandy loams and light sandy loams allow water and
plant-food to pass through them quickly, but, as a rule,
they are lacking in humus and also in fertility. They

PROPERTIES OF SOIL 3

are, however, easy to work, become warm quickly, and
will produce early crops of good quality, provided they
are kept supplied with large quantities of organic mat-
ter. Still, they are not particularly desirable for
cropping on account of the expense necessary to keep
them in a desirable state of fertility.

Regular sandy loams are light in color and contain
a comparatively small proportion of humus, but they
are easy to work, become warm early in spring, and
are quick soils when vegetable matter is added in liberal
quantities. They are very acceptable soils for vegetable
growing, but on account of the expense of keeping
them fertile, they are not profitable for general farming.

Medium sandy loams are often termed medium loams.
Compared with regular sandy loams, medium loams are
more compact, darker in color, more retentive of water,
and a little more productive, but they do not produce
crops so quickly. They are excellent soils for regular
farm crops, such as wheat, corn, etc., but, on account of
their lack of quickness, they are not so much desired
for vegetable growing as are the regular sandy loams.

Clay soils are hard to work, sticky when wet, exceed-
ingly retentive of water, and slow in producing crops,
but they are usually fairly rich in plant-food. They are
better adapted to the growing of regular farm crops
than to vegetable production.

Clay loams are generally designated as medium clay
loams and heavy clay loams. Medium clay loams are
usually dark in color, fairly compact in texture, and
retentive of water. They are rather difficult to work,
and, in addition, are cool and late, which qualities
make them unsuitable for vegetable growing. However,
they are acceptable for many of the regular farm crops.

Heavy clay loams are more compact, more retentive
of water, and more tenacious than the medium clay
loams. Considering these facts, they are not suitable for
vegetable growing, but if liberally supplied with humus
they are desirable for some forms of general farming.

4 PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Peat is formed by the partial decay of vegetation under
water. It is nearly all vegetable matter, containing, as
a rule, not more than 25% of rock particles. If drained
of surplus water and the vegetation allowed to rot for
a long time, peaty soils can be used for cropping.

Muck soils differ from peaty soils in the method of
formation. They are formed where vegetable matter is
under water for a time and is then successively exposed
to air and to water. They usually contain a larger
percentage of rock particles than is found in peat soils
and are usually swampy, but after being drained often
become exceedingly productive. Muck soils are excellent
for celery and onions, but for general cropping they are
not desirable.

Soils containing a large proportion of stone, varying
in diameter from ]4 in. to 6 in., are termed gravelly
soils. Of these there are several kinds, to which such
terms as gravelly sandy soil, gravelly loamy soil, or
gravelly clay soil are applied. Gravelly sandy soils
contain large quantities of coarse sand and are of little
use for crop production. Gravelly loam soils are suitable
for general farming, but on account of the presence of
gravel, which interferes with the working of land for
vegetable crops, they are not particularly suitable for
gardening. Gravelly clay soils are made up largely of
clay in addition to the gravel. They have about the
same characteristics as clay soils, and are more suitable
for general farming than for vegetable growing.

Stony soils are similar to gravelly soils, except that they
contain many large stones. They are not well adapted
for vegetable growing, largely on account of the diffi-
culty of the tillage operations, but for general farming
and for tree fruit culture they are often very acceptable.

Soil Weight. — The weight of soil varies considerably;
it is influenced by the size of the particles and by the
proportion of humus and of water the soil contains. A
soil composed largely of coarse particles is heavier than
one made up principally of small particles. This is

PROPERTIES OF SOIL 5

because in a fine-grained soil there is more combined
air space than in a coarse-grained soil, air, of course,
being lighter than soil particles.

The proportion of humus in a soil influences the
weight to a marked degree. The humus is lighter than
the soil particles; therefore, the larger the proportion
of humus, the less is the weight of the soil, and vice
versa. Peat or muck soils are about one-half the weight
of sandy soils. Surface soils that have been treated
liberally with stable manure are, on account of the
large proportion of humus they contain, lighter in
weight than the same types of soil that have not been
treated with manure.

An increase in the moisture content of a soil increases
its weight. Both water and air occupy the spaces
around the soil particles; if water is added to soil, it
displaces some of the air, which is lighter than water,
and the result is an increase in the weight of the given
quantity of soil.

Color of Soil. — The color of soil is influenced by its
composition. For example, soil that is made up largely
of white sand particles is light in color; soil of yellow
clay particles is yellow in color. Humus, also, in-
fluences the color of a soil. Since humus is dark in
color, if it is present in a soil in large quantities, the
soil is likely to be dark in color. The proportion of
water in a soil generally has an influence on the color.
Most soils are darker in color when wet than when
dry, but sandy soils change color but little when
they become wet.

Need of Water in Soil.— Water in soil is absolutely
necessary for proper plant growth. In fact, a soil
without sufficient water for the needs of plants is a
desert. The quantity of water taken up from the soil
by plants is exceedingly large. Over 90% of cabbage
and lettuce is water; green corn plants are nearly 80%
water; clover and potatoes are also about 80% water.
As all the water in a plant comes directly from the

6 PROPERTIES OF SOIL

soil, it is easy to see that a soil to produce large crops
must be liberally supplied with water.

Classes of Water in Soil.— The water in soil is
grouped into three classes known as hydrostatic water,
capillary water, and hygroscopic water. Below the sur-
face of the soil, water that maintains a given level
is encountered at a distance that depends on the
quantity of water in the soil at the place where the obser-
vation is made. This standing water is the so-called
hydrostatic water. It is known also as drainage water
and as ground water.

Capillary water is that which soaks through the sgil
in the same manner that oil is carried through a lamp
wick. This water passes in any direction — upwards,
sideways, or downwards. The soaking of water through
soil is caused by what is known as capillary attraction;
hence, the season for the term capillary water.

Hygroscopic water is that absorbed by the soil
particles and which can be driven out of the soil only
by excessi/e heat. It does not move from place to
place in soil like drainage water, and the only way
it can be removed is by heating a quantity of soil to a
temperature sufficient to drive the moisture away in the
form of vapor.

Movement of Soil Water.— Water in soil moves about
from place to place as a result of two forces; one, the
attraction of gravity that draws water downwards, and
the other, capillary attraction, that causes water to
pass in any direction from one part of soil to another.
The movement of water downwards is known as perco-
lation. Water in percolating through soil carries with
it to depths below the reach of plant roots many of the
soluble plant-foods with which it comes in contact. The
removal of plant-food from soil by the percolation of
water is known as leaching, and any soil from which
plant-food leaches rapidly is known as leachy soil.

The movement of water through soil by capillary at-
traction is necessary for crop production. Plant roots

PROPERTIES OF SOIL 7

absorb capillary water and use it for the development of
plants. In fact, no plant can thrive unless a plentiful
supply of capillary water is available for use by its
roots. The size of soil particles influences the rate at
which capillary water travels. The coarser the particles,
the more rapidly will water travel by capillary attrac-
tion, but, in a coarse soil it will travel a shorter
distance than in fine-grained soil.

Air in Soil. — In a soil in which plants grow, air is as
needful as water and plant-food. In fact, unless air is
present in soil, seeds cannot germinate and there can
be no plant growth. When drainage water fills all the
spaces of a soil at or within a few inches of the surface
of the ground, plants fail to grow simply because there
is no air around the roots. The death of plants in a
low, wet part of the field often results from a lack of
air in the soil. The removal of surplus water by
drainage is the remedy for such a condition.

Air in soil is necessary also for the decay of organic
matter in the formation of humus. A grass sod or a
quantity of stable manure plowed under and left in a
water-filled soil will not decay for years, but, if plowed
under and left in a soil where air is present, it will
decay in a few months.

The presence of air in soil is necessary also to make
possible chemical changes that liberate otherwise un-
available plant-food. If such changes did not occur,
the supply of available plant-food might soon become
deficient.

Soil Temperature. — Below a certain temperature seeds
will not germinate nor plants make satisfactory growth.
As soil is the medium in which seeds germinate and in
which the roots of plants are imbedded, the proper
degree of soil temperature is necessary for crop pro-
duction. Different crops differ as to the best tem-
perature for the sprouting of seeds and the growth of
the plants, but from 75° to 100° F. is a good average
temperature for most -ceds.

8 PROPERTIES OF SOIL

The rapidity of the growth of a crop depends to a
large extent on the temperature of the soil. With other
conditions the same, crops will mature more quickly in
a warm soil than in a cool soil. Soils that warm
quickly and easily and retain their heat well, are, as a
rule, more suitable for vegetable growing than those
having less favorable temperature conditions. But, for
grain growing, cooler soils are suitable.

The lay of the land influences the amount of heat
received by an area of soil. The more direct the rays
of the sun strike the land's surface, the greater is the
amount of heat received by the soil. A warm slope is
preferable for vegetables and other early crops on
account of the warming effect of the direct rays of the
sun. For fruit growing, however, a cool slope is pre-
ferred. This is because the fruit buds will be retarded,
and thus they may escape injury from late spring
frosts that are likely to occur.

Minerals in Soil.— The most abundant rock material in
soil is a hard compound known as silica, or quartz. It
is abundant in rocks, and on account of its hardness
it resists weathering longer than most other minerals.
For this reason it is found so largely in soils. Nearly
all sand grains are silica. In addition to silica, soils
contain quantities of compounds known as alumina,
lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, nu-
merous salts, and humus. Alumina and soda are
present in relatively large quantities in clay. Lime
and magnesia are found more abundantly in soils of
limestone origin than in those derived from other
sources. The quantities of other compounds in soil
vary, but are small in comparison with silica.

Chemical Changes in Soil.— Chemical changes are go-
ing on constantly in soil. Complex compounds are being
broken up into simpler ones or into elements, and
simple ones are uniting to form those more complex.
These changes are brought about largely by the action of
oxygen, which produces decay, or what may be termed

PROPERTIES OF SOIL 9

slow combustion. Acids and alkalies in the soil also
cause changes, and water in bringing materials into
solution is responsible for many chemical changes.
Bacteria, some forms of which live in the soil, are
also responsible for many of the chemical changes that
take place therein. The beneficial result of chemical
changes is the liberation of plant-food. Much of the
plant-food in soil is not soluble in water and is therefore
unavailable for use by the plants, but the constant
changes that take place break up these unavailable plant-
food compounds and convert the food they contain into a
form that can be used by plants.

Plant-Food in Soil.— The use made by plants of the
chemical constituents of soil is for food. Research has
shown that out of the eighty or more elements of the
universe, only fourteen are taken up from the soil by
plants for food, and, further, that the soil is never
deficient in any of the plant-foods except four. This
being the case, the farmer, gardener, and fertilizer manu-
facturer concern themselves only with these four foods,
which are the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
and calcium. The last three of these are often spoken of
as the mineral plant-food elements, on account of their
being minerals.

Nitrogen is a colorless gas that is abundant in the
atmosphere. As a gas, however, plants cannot absorb it.
To be available it must be in the form of a compound
that is soluble in water. Nitrogen combines to form a
variety of compounds, only a few of which are available
as plant-food, and these compounds are easily leached
from the soil. Nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia are the
most common compounds containing nitrogen.

Phosphorus is a solid; it forms the chief ingredient
of match tips, and gives oflF a faint glow in the dark.
To be available as a plant-food it must be part of a
compound that is soluble in water. The term phosphoric
acid is used to designate compounds containing phos-
phorus in the form usable by a plant.

10 PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Potassium is an element similar in appearance and
character to phosphorus. It burns easily and united with
oxygen it forms a compound called potash. In the form
of potash it is added to soil for use as plant-food.

Calcium is one of the ingredients of lime. It is a
yellow, solid element. In soil it is generally in the
form of lime or limestone. As a plant-food, lime is not
often deficient, but it is often applied to soil to correct
an acid condition, to liberate unavailable plant-food,
or for other beneficial effects.

The quantity of plant-food in an area of soil depends
somewhat on the size of the particles, on the origin and
method of formation, on the proportion of humus therein,
and on the manner in which the soil has been cropped.
The larger the particles of a soil, the less likely is a
large proportion of food to be present. This is because
a light soil does not retain plant-food well. This
deficiency of plant-food in sandy soils applies more to
the nitrogen compounds than to the others, simply be-
cause the nitrogen compounds leach away more rapidly.
In a clay or a loamy soil there is likely to be more
plant-food present, because the soil texture is better
fitted to prevent its loss.

The origin of a soil has more of an influence on the
mineral plant-foods than on the nitrogen compounds,
simply because the former are minerals and are con-
tained in the rocks that have formed the soil. For
example, in a soil formed from limestone, there is likely
to be a plentiful supply of lime present, or in one
formed from rocks rich in potassic or phosphatic com-
pounds, there is likely to be plenty of potassium and
phosphorus.

The quantity of humus in a soil is of vast im-
portance in regard to the quality of plant-food; humus
not only contains plant-food but the decaying of animal
and vegetable matter in the soil is instrumental in
liberating much of the plant-food that would otherwise
be unavailable.

PROPERTIES OF SOIL H

By chemical analysis the quantity of plant-food of
the different kinds can be told for a given quantity of
soil. It would seem, therefore, that a chemical analysis
would be of considerable benefit to a farmer. Such is
not the case, however, for, although the chemist can tell
how much plant-food is in a quantity of soil, he cannot
tell about its availability, and it is the availability that
the cultivator desires to know. Then, too, it is difficult
to secure a sample of soil for analysis that is representa-
tive of a field or other given area. Thus, a chemical
analysis tells about the quantity of plant-food in the
sample analyzed, but it may or may not tell about the
quantity of available plant-food of a large area of the soil.

Bacteria in Soil. — The presence of bacteria in soil is
very necessary. In fact, were it not for soil bacteria
there could be no crop production. One of the im-
portant effects of bacterial action in soil is the decay
of organic matter. The result of this decay is the for-
mation of humus, and without humus there can be no
plant growth. The rate at which bacteria change organic
matter into humus depends .largely on the condition
of the soil and the climate. The climatic condition
cannot be influenced by man, but the soil condition can
be influenced by the way the soil is farmed. By fol-
lowing the proper methods of cultivation, by rotating
crops grown on the soil, and by manuring in the right
way the organisms can be made more efficient than
otherwise, and as a result the soil through the agency of
humus becomes richer.

The bacteria in the soil have much to do with the
available nitrogen supply. As stated previously, nitro-
gen is one of the plant-foods that may be deficient in
soil. A large part of the nitrogen used by plants comes
from the organic matter in the soil, in other words,
from the humus. Nitrogen in the organic form, as it is
called, is in compounds that are very complex, and in
this condition it is not available for the plants. Certain
forms of bacteria act on these complex compounds and

12 PROPERTIES OF SOIL

break them up into simpler ones. In this process of
change at least three forms of bacteria are necessary.
Each form has its own special work to do. The first
changes the organic matter in a way that what is
known as ammonia is formed; the second changes the
ammonia into what are known as nitrites; and the
third one changes nitrites into nitrates. Nitrates are
soluble and are therefore available as plant-food. This
whole process of change from the organic to the nitrate,
or soluble, form is known as nitrHication. This process
is indeed of vast importance to agriculture. In fact,
were it not for nitrification there would be no plant
growth, for there would be practically no available
nitrogen, and without nitrogen no plant can grow.

Bacteria that live on the roots of legumes — clover,
alfalfa, peas, beans, etc. — are of much importance in the
enrichment of soil. On the roots of legumes that are
growing under favorable conditions there are found
knots of various sizes that are known as nodules, or
tubercules. In these nodules live bacteria that are an
aid to the plants. They are not parasites, for although
they derive nourishment in the form of sugar and dis-
solved salts from the plants, they benefit the plant by
supplying nitrogen to it in an available form. These
bacteria, unlike higher plants, have the power to use
the nitrogen of the air and make it available for use
by higher plants. After the plants have been removed
the roots and the tubercules decay and as a result some
of the nitrogen that has been taken from the air is
left for subsequent crops. This is why a crop of clover
or other legume acts as an enricher of the soil.

If none of the bacteria peculiar to the legume that is
planted on an area of soil is present in the soil, the
legume will make a poor growth and no nodules will
form. A few bacteria, however, will serve to inoculate
a large area of soil. The bacteria multiply rapidly, and
they are carried about by water and on dust particles
by the wind. In a region where a given kind of legume.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 13

Red clover, for example, is grown abundantly, there are
likely to be plenty of Red-clover bacteria in any area
of soil to be planted. When a legume new to a region
is to be planted, however, bacteria often need to be
supplied. The most practical way of accomplishing this
is to obtain soil from a field where the kind of legume
it is desired to grow has been grown successfully, and
scatter it on the field that is to be planted. The bac-
teria will in this way be carried to the field, and when
the legume plants become of sufficient size the bacteria
will gain access to the roots, form nodules, and com-
mence to be a benefit to the plants. This process of
supplying certain kinds of bacteria to soil is known as
soil inoculation.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT

SOIL DRAINAGE

Beneficial Effects of Drainage.— The beneficial effects
that result from artificial drainage of farm lands are
many and varied. The mechanical condition of wet
ground is soon corrected when the land is drained, the
soil assumes the light color characteristic of dry earth,
and the air, the sun, the rain, tillage implements, soil
bacteria, and plant-food are effective in a way that is
impossible in wet soil.

One of the principal benefits of drainage is that it
lowers the water-table below the zone of plant roots.
When the water-table is at or just below the surface
of the soil so that roots of plants are submerged, plant
life cannot long exist because of want of air. Also,
under such a condition, many of the plant-food com-
pounds that are dependent on air for their dissolution
and consequent availability to plants are rendered of no
value to crops. As soon as water-logged soil is drained
aeration takes place, with the result that iJlant roots are
enabled to obtain the necessary air and many of the
plant-food compounds are rendered available to plants.

14 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

Another important effect of drainage is the warming
of the soil. All wet soils are cold, and crops planted
on them will not thrive. When the surplus free water
is removed from land by drainage the soil invariably
becomes warmer.

A valuable effect of drainage is the mellowing of the
soil. When a soil is properly drained, the change in
its mechanical condition is most marked. The heavy
character of the soil disappears, and the soil becomes
light, pliable, and loose. On a well-drained and. hence
mellow soil, all tillage operations, including plowing,
rolling, and harrowing, are carried on more easily than
on a wet soil, and the planting and cultivating of crops
is therefore accomplished more cheaply. Farm machinery
also suffers less from wear and tear when it is used on
a light, dry soil than when it is used on a heavy, wet soil.

An important benefit of soil drainage is the pro-
motion of bacterial action. Most kinds of bacteria
cannot live in a water-logged soil. Owing to the fact
that the supply of available plant-food in soil is largely
dependent on the action of bacteria, it will readily be
seen that it is highly important to provide conditions
that will facilitate their action.

A saving of plant-food is effected by drainage. If
land is not well drained, and the fields, particularly
those that are tilled, become surface-washed, much of
the soil is carried away and with it the plant-food it
contained.

One of the benefits of drainage is the increase in the
quality of crops. Grass, wheat, corn, and many other
kinds of crops are, when other conditions are favorable,
of better quality if grown in drained soil than if grown
in wet soil.

The reclaiming of waste land is, perhaps, one of the
most beneficial results of drainage. Ground that would
otherwise be useless is made fit for cultivation by
ridding it of free water; in other words, the acreage of
available land on a farm is increased by drainage. Wet

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 15

soil that has never been farmed is, as a rule, rich in
plant-food, and when reclaimed makes valuable farm
land.

Cost of Drainage. — Some experts on drainage consider
$35 an acre as being the average cost of draining farm
land. Others claim that land can be drained for from
$12 to $15 an acre. There is, undoubtedly, a wide varia-
tion in the cost of drainage.

OPEN DITCHES

Where large quantities of surplus water from sur-
rounding highlands collect in ravines and overflow
lowlands, open ditches should be constructed to carry
away this surplus water. Gullies, which become larger
at every rain, are likely to be formed when this is not
done. These gullies interfere greatly with farm opera-
tions and occupy space that might otherwise be profitably
cultivated.

Open ditches are also useful in draining large areas
in regions where there is but little fall to the natural
waterways. In such regions open ditches are provided
to convey the water to natural water courses or to
large open ditches that in many districts serve as
outlets to drains from several farms.

Locating of Open Ditches.— In locating an open ditch
care must be taken to place it where it will receive the
most of the surface water in times when there is much
rain or snow. As far as possible, however, open ditches
should be placed where they will not be in the way of
farm operations, and where they will receive little or
no damage from livestock.

Construction of Open Ditches.— A ditch should have
such an amount of fall, or grade, that a slow, steady
flow will be maintained throughout its length. There will
then be but little danger that the sides and banks of
the ditch will be washed away. When a ditch is par-
ticularly steep at any point, the speed of the water
may be checked by a series of waterfalls.
3

16 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

The depth and width of a ditch should naturally
largely depend on the maximum quantity of water to
be carried by it, that is, the water it must carry in
times of freshets. The width should be a litTle greater
at the outlet than at the beginning, as the quantity of
water carried becomes greater as the outlet is ap-
proached.

Under most conditions the best kind of an open ditch
for farm lands is a wide ditch whose bank and sides,
and where pos.'-.ible its bottom, are kept grassed con-
tinually. Such drains can usually be maintained with
less labor, expense, and inconvenience than any other
type of open ditch. Open ditches are generally made
with sloping sides, the best slope being about 45°.
The banks can thus be grassed over so that the roots
of the grass protect the soil by holding it in place, and
with such a slope the grass can be easily mowed.

Furrow Drains. — Comparatively level stretches of stiff
clay soil are often met with that can be properly drained
neither by the ordinary surface ditch nor the under-
drain. One of the best methods of removing surplus
water from such areas is to plow the fields in narrow
lands, or divisions, leaving open, or dead, furrows at
the sides of each land. The water will collect in these
open furrows and will, if there is an incline to the
surface of the field, drain to some outlet. Even if the
field is so level that water will not drain from the fur-
rows, the drainage conditions of the field are better
than if no open furrows were made, for the surplus water
is removed from around the roots of many of the plants
in the field.

The distance apart and the depth of the furrows will,
of course, depend on various conditions. If the field is
. level or nearly so, the practice is to make the furrows
shallow and from 9 to IS ft. apart; if there is enough
inclination to the surface of the field to cause the water
in the furrows to pass to an outlet, the furrows are
made deep, and from 40 to 50 ft. apart.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 17

UNDERDRAINS

Arrangement of Underdrains.— All the lines of tile,
with the silt wells whenever these are employed, that
are used in draining surplus water from a field, make
u]) what is known as an underdrainage system. The prin-
cipal line or conduit of such a system is called a
main; sometimes a main constitutes the entire system.
When a large area is to be drained it is generally
:iecessary for an underdrainage system to be made up
of many branches. The number and size of these
branches naturally depend on the area to be drained
and the quantity of water to be removed.

A submain is a line of tile that has one or more drains
t;ranching from it but is itself subsidiary to a main.
The lines that extend from either a main or a submain
md that have no other lines branching from them are

nown as laterals. As more water is carried in the main

a drainage system than in the submains or the

erals, the main is generally made of tile of a larger

re than those used in building any of the other lines,
jiore water is carried in submains than in their own
laterals, and usually more than is carried in the lat-
erals of the main, and so submains are generally made
of tile with a larger bore than the tile used in laterals.
The laterals should join the main or the submains
at oblique angles and the submains should join the mains
at like angles.

Determining Size of Tile to Use.— In determining the
size of tile to use in an underdrain, careful study should
be made of the quantity of water to be carried, the
slope of the land in the area to be drained, and the
s'ize of this area. The quantity of water to be carried
is naturally a very important consideration. Other
things being equal, larger-sized tile should be used in
regions where the rainfall is heavy than in those where
it is light. It should be borne in mind that drainage
has to deal with the extreme rather than the average

18 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

rainfall. Suppose, for example, that there is often as
much as 2 in. of rainfall in 24 hr. in^a locality. If a
drain is constructed in such a region provision should
be made for getting rid of a large quantity of water
quickly, as a rainfall of 2 in. gives 54,308 gal. of water
to the acre. Of this, say one-fourth is lost through
evaporation and one-fourth is absorbed by the crops;
there still remains one-half the water, or 27,154 gal., to
be carried off through the drains. Of course this water
is carried away slowly, but if the tile in the drains are
too small it may remain in the soil long enough to
injure the crops.

The extent of the area to "be drained should likewise
be considered when the size of tile to use is being
determined. The following rules for determining in a
general way the acreage that mains will drain will be
helpful, but when considering them, the fact that many
other conditions enter into the problem should not be
overlooked. If the fall is about 3 in. in 100 ft., the
rule for finding the acreage that can be drained by a
tile of any diameter is to square the diameter and
divide by 4. Hence, if a 3-in. tile is used, the area
it will drain is 3x3-r4 = 2j4 A. If a 4-in. tile is used
the area that will be drained is 4x4^4 = 4 A. If the
fall is about 4 in. in 100 ft., the diameter is squared
and the result divided by 3 instead of 4. Under this
condition, a 3-in. main will carry the water from 3 A.,
and a 4-in. main from SVs A.

Distance Between Laterals.— Before deciding on the
distance from each other at which to lay laterals in
an area to be drained, full consideration should be taken
of the inclination of the land, the kind of soil, and the
quantity of water in the area. When there is a sharp
incline, the water is more readily removed than when it
has a gradual slope or is level, and consequently the
laterals should be placed farther apart in the first case
than in the other. The kind of soil and the quantity of
water are, naturally, important points.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 19

Water will reach a drain more quickly in a coarse-
grained soil than in a fine-grained soil; therefore, the
laterals should be placed farther apart in a sandy soil
than in a clay soil. The following are the usual dis-
tances at which laterals should be placed apart from
each other in various kinds of soil: In stiff clay soils,
from 30 to 40 ft. ; in loamy soils, from 40 to SO ft. ; in
silty soils, from SO to 60 ft.; in sandy soils, from 75 to
100 ft. In addition to considering these general rules,
a farmer might do well to ascertain the experience other
farmers in the locality may have had with drains on land
similar to his.

Depth of Underdrains— When deciding the depth at
which to lay a drain, careful consideration should be
made of the climate of the region, the soil of the area
to be drained, and the crops that are to be raised.

As the freezing of the water in drain tile will burst
or displace them, they should be laid below the depth
at which the ground freezes. In most parts of the.
United States a depth of from 3 to 4 ft. will be below
frost, and consequently this is a good average depth
for drains on tilled land.

The kind of soil is an important factor in determining
the depth of an underdrain. When a field has a loose
gravelly or sandy subsoil 3 or 4 ft. below the surface,
care should be taken not to lay the tile so deep as to
cause the water-table to be located in the subsoil. As
water percolates easily through such subsoils, they
would, unless the drain were placed above the subsoil,
act as a filter through which the water would be carried
out of the reach of plant roots.

In a field that has a stiff clay subsoil, the drain
should also be placed above the subsoil, but for a
different reason. Water percolates so slowly through
a stiff clay that sufficient surplus water will not be
removed to benefit the crops growing on the field.
Drains in such a field should be as shallow as climatic
conditions will allow.

20 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

Peaty soils or others of like class, which contain con-
siderable humus, often settle to a depth of 2 ft. or
more after being drained. In such areas the drains
should be placed deep enough to allow for the sinking
of the soil.

The natural wetness of a soil should influence the
consideration of the depth of a drain. If a soil is wet
only in the early spring and the late fall, and the
farmer desires to work the land at both these seasons,
he will probably be able to get rid of sufficient surplus
water by building a drain, say from 3 to 3'/2 ft. in
depth. On the other hand, if land is wet in the late
spring and the early fall, and but partly dry in the
summer, a drain from 3^^ to 4J^ ft. deep may be nec-
essary.

The kinds of crops to be grown in drained land should
have considerable influence on deciding the depth of
drains. In a tilled field the ground freezes much deeper
than in a field protected by a sod, and for this reason
drains laid in permanent meadows or pastures may be
more shallow than those laid in tilled fields.

Excavating for Underdrains.— After the ditch for a tile
drain has been laid out and the grade has been properly
marked on grade stakes, the excavating of the ditch is
next in order. As with surface ditches, the work is
done with hand tools or by means of a plow. The
depth of the ditch at all points should correspond with
the figures on the grade stakes, and the earth removed
should be thrown near the ditch, as it has to be replaced
after the tile are laid. Special care should also be
taken to remove all loose dirt from the ditch, as its
presence is likely to interfere with the laying of the tile.

Laying Tile in Underdrains.— Tile are laid end to end
on the bottom of the ditch, generally in a single row.
A whole tile should be placed at the outlet. When two
rows are laid parallel in the same ditch it is a good
plat), after two whole tile have been laid at the outlet,
to have the joints of one row alternate with the joints

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 21

of the other by starting the remainder of one row with
a whole tile, and the remainder of the other row with
a half tile. When this plan is employed each joint is
opposite the center of a tile in the other row. The
two rows can be laid at the same time.

The ends of the tile in an underdrain should be
placed very close together, as a tight joint tends to
prevent the entrance of silt and roots. There is no
danger of getting joints so tight that water will not
enter them. The tile if properly laid below where
frost can reach them are practically indestructible, and
hence the only way in which a tile drain is likely to
become useless is by being clogged.

Obtaining a Uniform Grade.— There are many methods
in vogue for obtaining a uniform grade in tile drains.
A method that is commonly used is to test the grade
by means of a spirit level as the tile are laid. If the
grade of the line of tile is to be, say, 5 in. in 100 ft.,
there should be a grade of 2^ in. in SO ft., V/i in. in
25 ft., 5^ in. in 12^ ft., or H in. in lYz ft. For practical
purposes, the amount of fall, or grade, in such a case
may be regarded as % in. for each 2 ft. Since a tile is 1 ft.
long, the distance from the center of the first tile to the
same position on the third tile is 2 ft. Therefore, if the
grade is correct, the spirit level when raised Yi in. at
the end toward the outlet should have the horizontal
bubble in the center.

To verify the calculation of the grade after laying
twelve or thirteen tile, it is a good plan to place a
leveling board or other straightedge on these tile and
set the spirit level on top of it, calculating the grade
as just explained.

STABLE MANURE

Horse Manure.— The dung of the horse, if the animal

is in normal health, is very dry, owing to the large

quantity of crude, woody fiber which is undigested.

This coarse fiber in horse dung gives it a loose texture.

22 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

which renders it liable to ferment easily. As soon as
fermentation occurs, the manure readily loses much of
its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Horse dung is
uniform in its character, being less variable in quality
than any other animal manure.

Horses that are in the stable at night and at feeding
times during the day, drop about two-thirds of their
dung in the stable.

The ordinary work horse of 1,200 lb. will make from
50 to 60 lb. of manure a day, one-half of which is urine.
At this rate, one horse will make in the neighborhood
of 10 T. of manure a year, about 6 T. of which are
dropped in the stable.

The liquid manure of solid-hoofed animals like the
horse and mule is very rich in nitrogen and potash.
Most of the nitrogen exists in the form of urates. On
these compounds the bacteria act so soon after the
manure is voided that the smell of hartshorn, or am-
monia, is very perceptible in a horse stable. Such a
condition always means loss of nitrogen.

Cattle Manure.— Steers and cows make a large quan-
tity of both solid and liquid manure. The average
quantity from a mature animal is 70 lb. a day, 30 lb. of
which is solid and 40 lb. liquid. No other class of
animals surpasses cattle in the quantity of the liquid
voided, taking into consideration, of course, the weight
of the animals. In estimating the value of the manure
from either steers or cows, it is a serious mistake not
to take into consideration the liquid manure along with
the solid. As a rule, these animals, in summer time, are
on a pasture range, and in the winter, if stabled at all,
they are in the stable only at night, having the run
of a barnyard during the day. By such practice, much
of their manure is lost on the pasture, roads, and lanes,
or is dropped in the barnyard. Cattle differ from horses
and mules in that they will urinate as frequently out
of as in the stable. Cattle manure, owing to its watery
condition, decomposes much more slowly than does

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 23

horse manure; it is also less inclined to ferment and
hre-fang.

Sheep Manure. — The dung from sheep tests very high
in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, being richer
than that of any of the other farm animals, except,
perhaps, poultry. Sheep dung is highly concentrated and
ferments readily, which means a loss of ammonia. It is
a quick-acting manure in the soil, soon becoming avail-
able as plant-food.

A full-grown sheep will produce from 1 to V/z T. of
manure a year. Sheep manure is liable to the same
losses that attend horse manure, and these losses come
about in a similar way.

Swine Manure. — The size and age of the animal has
much to do with the quantity of hog manure that is
made by one animal in a year. As nearly as experi-
ments can be made to ascertain the facts, a hog makes,
both of solid and liquid manure, from 8 to 10 lb. a day.
Hogs drink considerable swill and water; consequently,
their manure contains a large percentage of liquid.
This being the case, it is not inclined to heat as
quickly as either horse or sheep voidings. But, owing
to the large quantity of water contained, it is in danger of
losing some of its value by leaching. Hog manure decom-
poses slowly and in this respect it is like that of cattle.

Poultry Manure. — Poultry manure compares very
favorably with that of sheep. It is rich in all the
plant-food elements, because the solid and liquid void-
ings are made at the same time. As a fertilizer it acts
promptly, but as it belongs to the hot manures, fermen-
tation starts readily and the ammonia in it is likely to
be lost in the air. To prevent this loss, plenty of
powdered absorbents, like gypsum, road dust, fine loam,
or other similar material, should be applied to the
droppings when they are fresh.

Influence of Feed on Value of Manure.— The real
value of manure, both in quantity and quality, depends
not only on the animal producing it, but still more on

24 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

the kind of feed fed to the animal. It has been proved
both by experience and by chemical analyses that rich
feed makes rich manure. Animals give off in solid and
liquid excreta only that which they have eaten. If
they eat feed rich in protein, the manure will be rich
in nitrogen, because it is in the protein that nitrogen
is found; whereas, if their feed is poor in protein, the
manure is poor in nitrogen. Then, again, if they eat
feed rich in carbohydrates, the manure, being of the
same character as the feed, will not be nearly so val-
uable as if the animals had been fed protein feed.

Horses, cattle, and sheep, fed principally on hay and
other fodders, make manure rich in potash but poor in
phosphoric acid and nitrogen. This condition is due to
the fact that most of the potash of plants is found in the
leaves and stems. Cottonseed meal stands at the head
of the list of all feeds for making rich manure. Linseed
meal is another mill feed that makes a manure rich
in value. Gluten meal stands next to linseed meal in
its manure-making power, although it is a product that
is very likely to vary in protein content. Distillers'
grains, such as Ajax flakes, are high in protein, hence
a manure rich in nitrogen can be expected when they
are liberally included in a ration for livestock. Wheat
bran is another feed that is excellent for its manurial
value. Although worth only about one-third as much
as cottonseed meal, or one-half as much as linseed or
gluten meal for nitrogen, it contains a large quantity
of ash, which makes it valuable as a manure producer,
Corn meal is very low in manure-making value, how-
ever, a fact that often surprises farmers when they are
thus informed. Yet, it is only too true that corn meal
has only about one-half the manurial value of wheat
bran, one-third that of linseed meal, and one-fourth that
of cottonseed meal. There are many other mill feeds,
such as wheat middlings, buckwheat middlings, rice
feed, etc., that are very useful both for their feed value
to animals and for their manure-making value.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 2&

The grasses like timothy, red top, orchard grass, and
other similar plants, when fed to livestock, do not
yield nearly so rich a manure as the legumes, such as
clover, alfalfa, etc. The difference is not due to their
digestibility, for grasses, like timothy, are more easily
digested by the animal than legumes like clover, but it
is due to the difference in nitrogen content inherent in
the plant itself. There is also a difference in the
manurial value of the varieties of each plant class.
Corn fodder, a grass, yields a richer manure than
timothy, while alfalfa, a legume, makes richer manure
than Red clover.

Care of Horse Manure.— To save both the liquid and
solid manure of horses, the water-tight floor of their
stalls should be inclined slightly from the front to a
point just behind the animals. At this point the floor
should be a flat gutter having just enough of a de-
pression to it to keep the liquid from flowing back
over the main floor of the stable. The dung, urine,
litter, and absorbents can be mixed in the gutter and
all loss of liquid prevented.

Care of Cattle Manure.— If cattle or steers are stalled
in a stable, there is no better way devised to save all
their manure than to construct a water-tight gutter
behind them. To hold a day's voidings, this gutter
should be 24 in. wide and 7 in. deep, with the sides
perpendicular and the bottom perfectly level. All the
litter, absorbents, dung, and urine of the manure should
be collected in this gutter, enough of litter and ab-
sorbents being used to soak up all the liquid. The
manure from a gutter of this size should be removed
daily and be spread on the fields as desired.

Care of Hog Manure. — The solid and liquid manure of
hogs requires the same care and precaution against waste
as that of other animals. Hogs usually drop most of their
voidings in the outside pen. To prevent loss of the liquid
manure, the floor of this pen should be water-tight aiid
should slope toward either one side or the other.

26 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

A water-tight gutter of sufficient depth and width to
hold the manure for whatever length of time the farmer
sees fit to have it there, should be built along the
sloping side. Hog manure, being cold, is not likely to
heat quickly. If, however, heating occurs, the manure
should be removed at once and applied to the soil ;
otherwise, it will waste. The gutter for hog manure
should have a roof over it to protect the manure from
the weather. Litter and absorbents are as necessary
for use with hog manure as with any other kind.

Care of Sheep Manure.— Sheep are not stalled but are
allowed to run loose in stables, yet their manure needs
to be cared for quite as much as that of any other class
of livestock. Owing to the dryness of their dung and
the small quantity of water voided, there is no need
of gutters as for the animals previously named. A tight
floor over the whole sheep barn is of importance if the
greatest quantity of manure is to be saved. Litter will
not take the place of a tight floor, but when used on a
floor that will not allow the manure to escape it is a
most excellent material to retain all the rich manure of
the sheep. As a rule, there is more litter used for sheep
than for other animals, the idea being to have the flock
tramp a large quantity of it into shreds to be used as
fine manure. It is customary to allow manure to remain
in the sheep stable and add bedding from time to time,
only removing it when a large quantity has accumulated.

Care of Poultry Manure.— The coarse litters are not so
well suited for saving poultry manure as are the pow-
dered mineral absorbents. In a poultry house, a tight
floor or dropping-board sprinkled with road dust, loam,
gypsum, or some other absorbent is very necessary to
retain the richness of the poultry manure. Poultry
manure should be gathered frequently so that it may not
be wasted by being knocked about over the house by the
moving fowls.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 27

GREEN MANURE

Weeds as Green Manure.— Weeds are often very rich
in plant-food, and although it is not recommended to
have them grow on farms, they may be made use of by
plowing them under for green manure. The best time
to put them under the soil is while they are in bloom,
as they are thus prevented from going to seed.

Clovers as Green Manure.— Red clover is one of the
plants sometimes used for green manuring. If the whole
plant is turned under, it will supply a large quantity of
vegetable matter to form humus. However, the tops are
so valuable for animal feed that, as a rule, the entire
plant is seldom used for green manure.

Alsike clover is useful as a green manure. One ad-
vantage of this variety is that the plants will often
grow on ground too wet for Red clover. Besides this,
Alsike lasts in the soil longer than does Red clover.

Crimson clover, like Red clover, has a long tap root
and numerous branching roots. It is particularly useful
as a catch crop, and if plowed under will make very
good green manure. A crop of Crimson clover in a
region where it is indigenous is easily grown, and is one
that yields a heavier tonnage per acre than any of the
other clovers.

Canada Field Peas as Green Manure.— The Canada field
pea, which is grown to a great extent in the northern
part of the United States, makes a very good green-
manure crop. It is a quick-growing crop, the plants
blooming about 7 or 8 wk. after the seed is planted.
The physical condition of a soil on which pea
vines have been grown is very much improved; so
much so, in fact, that it is often surprising to see how
the soil crumbles when being plowed. The matting of
the pea vines on the surface of the ground may be
largely prevented if the crop is grown with a strong-
growing, tall-stemmed variety of oats, as the oat plants

28 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

will act as a support for the pea vines. Better results
are insured by planting the seed of peas and oats
separately, the peas being placed from 23<2 to 3 in. in
the soil and the oats 1 in. The combination planting,
or even the peas grown alone, makes an excellent
green-manure crop.

Cowpeas as Green Manure.— Cowpeas grow with heavy
foliage and consequently make a large quantity of
green manure. However, the mass of foliage is so great
at times that, when it is all plowed under, the heat
caused by the decaying vegetable matter will make the
top layer of soil too dry. When used as green manure,
cowpeas should not be plowed under too deeply. For
the northern part of the United States, the varieties
known as New Era and Whippoorwill are probably the
best. They are quick-growing and will generally de-
velop sufficiently during the growing season to furnish
a large quantity of green manure.

Soybeans as Green Manure.— The soybean, like the
cowpea, makes a large quantity of valuable green
manure. It grows very well in the southern part of the
United States, and has an advantage over the cowpea
in that it is able to stand more drought. The soybean
plants, too, grow more upright and with less matting
of stems.

Vetch as Green Manure.— Two kinds of vetch are used
for green manuring, namely. Hairy vetch and Common
vetch.

Hairy vetch, although it grows best on a rich, moist
soil, will often make satisfactory growth on soils that
are somewhat dry and sandy, and for this reason is
sometimes called sand vetch. As sand vetch will mat
on the ground, the crop is often sown with some other
crop, a cereal like wheat, rye, or oats usually being
chosen.

The Common vetch, or tare, is a legume similar in
habits of growth to the field or garden pea. The vetch
plant, however, is more slender, and has more tendrils

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 29

and leaves than the pea plant. Common vetch makes a
good catch crop if sown with either rye or wheat, as
these crops will hold the vines off the ground. When
plowed under, this mixed crop makes excellent green
manure.

Alfalfa as Green Manure. — Alfalfa is seldom used as
a green manure, as the tops are of great value as animal
feed. It makes excellent green manure, however, when
it is desired to use it as such.

Effects of Green Manuring. — One of the principal
benefits of green manuring is that it adds humus to
the soil, thus making the soil more porous, more re-
tentive of film water, and lighter in weight, the latter
being particularly true of heavy soils, like clay. Owing
to the fact that soils treated by green manuring are
made physically better, they are easier to work with
the implements of tillage than soils not so treated.

Another benefit of green manuring is the addition
to the soil of such plant-foods as nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, potash, and lime, these fertilizing elements being
contained in varying quantities in the crop turned under.

The decomposing of the vegetable matter of green
manure adds much heat to the soil. The quantity of
heat liberated when vegetable matter decays is as great
as if the same quantity of matter were burned, the only
difference being in the time taken to complete the
process. In fact, decomposition is really slow burning.
This heating caused by the decay of green manure is
often of much benefit to the crop that follows.

Soil depth can be increased by green manuring, pro-
vided the vegetable matter is placed somewhat deeper
than the usual plow depth. The plowing must not be
so deep, however, as to shut off the supply of air from
the surface, because air is necessary for the decay of
vegetable matter.

Supplying of Green Manure.— Two or even three
green-manure crops may be grown and turned under
within a year, provided, of course, that the income crop

30 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

is given up. The advantage of turning under several
crops is that much more humus and nitrogen can be
added to the soil than when only one crop is used. The
work may be begun either in the spring or -the fall, as
desired.

The stage of a crop's growth greatly influences its value
for green manure. If the plants have mature, woody
stems, the vegetable matter will be slow to decay when
placed underneath the plow furrow. Besides this, when
a layer of dry, woody plant material is placed a few
inches below the soil surface, the normal supply of
capillary water from the lower soil depths is partly pre-
vented from reaching the roots of the plants growing in
the soil. Then, too, mature plants during their growth
have used large quantities of water, and the soil on
which they are grown is therefore likely to be deficient
in water. Thus, it is easy to conclude that plants should
not be too mature when they are plowed under for
green manure. During their blossoming period, plants
are in the best condition to be plowed under. At this
stage of growth, the stems are soft and succulent, will
decay rapidly, and will not cause the surface soil to
become dry for the succeeding crop.

The deeper green manure is placed in the soil, the
longer it will take the vegetable matter to decay. This
is because air, which is necessary for decay, is present
in smaller quantities as the soil depth increases. In
wet weather 4 in. and in dry weather S in. are good
average plow depths for green manuring.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

Nitrate of Soda.— Chile saltpeter, or nitrate of soda,
is a natural product that is mined with common salt in
the rainless regions of South America. Before the
fertilizer is sent to the farmer, it is purified. It then
contains from about 95 to 97% of practically pure nitrate
of soda. This purified salt contains from ISyi to 16% of

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 31

nitrogen, which means, of course, from 15J/2 to 16 lb. to
the hundredweight. The price of nitrate of soda varies
from $50 to $70 a ton, thus making the nitrogen it con-
tains cost from IS to 20c. or more a pound.

Sulphate of Ammonia. — At gasworks where gas is
manufactured for light and fuel, a by-product called
sulphate of ammonia is formed. This material is sold
as a fertilizer. In 100 lb. of the sulphate there are
25 lb. of ammonia, which is equal to 20^ lb. of actual
nitrogen. Since the sulphate, like the nitrate, is readily-
soluble, it should be applied after the crop is started.
Sulphate of ammonia is a good fertilizer to use when
growing wheat, corn, rye, oats, grass, or potatoes.

Dried Blood.— Among the important nitrogenous ani-
mal fertilizers is dried blood. This material is rich in
nitrogen and decays readily in the soil. At packing
houses, the blood from the animals that are killed is
carefully saved and dried, and then ground into meal.
Two grades of the meal are on the market; one is bright
red and the other is somewhat darker and almost black.
The red meal contains from 13 to 15% of nitrogen, with
little or no phosphoric acid, while the dark, or black,
meal has from 6 to 12% of nitrogen and usually a small
percentage of phosphoric acid. This lower grade of
dried blood is more generally used in the manufacture
of fertilizers, chiefly on account of its being cheaper
in price. The red meal is extensively used as a stock
food.

Tankage. — A fertilizer known as tankage is put on the
market as a by-product of the large slaughter houses.
Tankage is composed of the animal parts that cannot
be used for other purposes. Two grades of tankage
fertilizer, known as concentrated and crushed, are offered
for sale.

Concentrated tankage is made by evaporating some of

the animal fluids that are rich in fat. This leaves a

fairly uniform product, yielding on analysis from 10 to

12% of nitrogen and a small per cent, of phosphoric acid.

4

32 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

Crushed tankage is made by boiling and steaming the
otherwise waste materials, removing the fat, and drying
and grinding the residue. It contains on the average
from 5 to 10% of nitrogen and from 3 to 12% of phos-
phoric acid.

Fish Fertilizer. — Fish and fish scrap in various forms
are utilized in making commercial fertilizer. At packing
houses and fish canneries, all the waste fish products are
saved and sold for fertilizer. At fish-oil works, the
residue left after removing the oil is the part used as
fertilizer. Fertilizer made of such material is more
uniform in quality than that from the packing houses
and canneries, and contains, as a rule, from 7 to 8%
of nitrogen and the same amount of phosphoric acid.

Garbage Tankage. — The garbage of cities is often
utilized for making commercial fertilizer. The value of
such fertilizer, on account of the great variety of
material of which the tankage is composed, varies
widely. As a rule, this kind of fertilizer contains small
quantities of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash.

Wool and Hair Waste.— At slaughter houses, the refuse
hair and wool is saved and sold as a fertilizer. Its
nitrogen content is relatively high, reaching, especially
if the refuse is mixed with blood and other forms of
animal matter, as high as 12%. However, as wool and
hair decay slowly, the fertilizer is classed as a low-
grade product.

The waste wool from both carpet and woolen-goods
factories is often used as a top dressing for grass lands.
On an average, such waste contains from 1 to 5% of
soluble potash and from 4 to 7% of nitrogen.

Hoof and Horn Meal.— From the waste of hoofs and
horns, where these products are manufactured into
combs, buttons, etc., fertilizers known as either hoof or
horn meal are made. Although these meals contain as
high as 12% of nitrogen they are very slow acting and
of little use unless very finely ground. Hoof meal has
been found by experience to decay more quickly in a

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 33

soil than horn meal. These slow-acting fertilizers are
largely used in the manufacture of mixed fertilizers.

Street Sweepings.— The sweepings from city streets
are composed of manure mixed with dust or mud, chips
of wood, scraps of paper, nails, tin cans, bits of glass,
etc. The value of street sweepings as fertilizer depends
on the proportion of manure contained.

Leather Meal. — At factories where leather is worked
up into shoes, harnesses, etc. there are many waste
scraps. As leather contains considerable nitrogen, these
scraps are ground into meal and sold as fertilizer.
Leather itself decays very slowly; therefore, the meal
makes a slow-acting fertilizer. In fact, it is regarded
as the slowest acting of all nitrogen fertilizers.

Cottonseed and Linseed Meals.— The vegetable prod-
ucts known as cottonseed and linseed meals are rich in
nitrogen. Although they make very good fertilizer,
their use for this purpose, on account of price, is nearly
always limited to the regions in which cotton or flax
is grown. So valuable are they as fertilizer, that whenever
the price for which they can be purchased justifies their
use, fertilizer men incorporate them in mixed goods.

Castor Pomace. — The residue left after the oil has
been extracted from the castor bean, known as castor
pomace, is a vegetable product that is high in nitrogen.
The pomace differs from cottonseed and linseed meals
in that it is not used for feeding livestock. This makes
its use as a fertilizer more general. Castor pomace,
when analyzed, shows about 6% of nitrogen.

Raw Bone. — When bones in their natural condition
— that is, without any treatment of steaming, cooking,
burning, or the use of acid — are ground into a fine
powder, the product is known as raw bone. There is a
strong tendency to adulterate raw bone with such cheap
materials as coal ashes, lime, and ground oyster shells.
Bone in its raw state shows by analysis from 3 to 5%
of nitrogen, from 20 to 25% of phosphoric acid, and from
50 to 60% of lime.

34 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

Steamed Bone. — If bones are steamed or boiled before
grinding, the resulting product is known as steamed
bone. The object of cooking raw bones is to get rid of
the fat and meat particles. The steaming puts the bone
into a condition that will permit it to be more easily
crumbled. The advantage, then, that steamed bone has
over raw bone is not due to a difference in composition,
but to the fact that the steamed bone is more readily
reduced to a fine powder than is raw bone; the finer
the bone, the better it is fitted for use either as a
single fertilizer or in mixed goods.

Bone Black. — Charred, or partly burned, bone, called
bone black, is extensively used in the refining of sugar.
After being used several times, it is no longer valuable
to the sugar manufacturer, and is then sold as fertilizer.
This product contains about 30% of phosphoric acid, but
like all other charcoal resists decay for a long time.

Dissolved Bone. — When bones are treated with
sulphuric acid, the phosphoric acid contained in them is
made available, and the product is called dissolved
bone, or acidulated bone. Dissolved bone contains from
2 to 3% of nitrogen and from 15 to 17% of total phos
phoric acid, of which from 12 to 14% is available.

Rock Phosphates.— In North Carolina, South Carolina,
Tennessee, Florida, and one or two more states are
•found rock phosphates deposited in beds, veins, and
pockets. As regards consistency, there are two classes
of the phosphate rock. One is very hard and the other
is comparatively soft. The soft rock is easily crushed,
but powerful stone crushers are needed to render the
hard rock fine enough for fertilizer. Raw phosphate
rock usually contains from 18 to 30% of phosphoric acid,
and owing to its variation in quality, it is sold at the
crushers for from $1.75 to $4 a ton.

Acid Phosphate, or Superphosphate.— By treating finely
ground rock phosphate with sulphuric acid, the resulting
material is commercial acid phosphate, which usually
contains about 14% of phosphoric acid. Both dissolved

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 35

hone and acid phosphate are sometimes known as super-
phosphate.

Basic Slag. — A basic slag formed as a by-product at
iron furnaces where steel is manufactured is sold as
fertilizer. This slag is known also as Thomas slag and
odorless phosphate. To make it of use as a fertilizer, it
must be ground very fine, and then in this form it is
not soluble in water. The soil acids, however, will in
time dissolve the phosphate and make it available as
plant-food. The phosphoric acid content of basic slag
ranges from 12 to 20%.

Wood Ashes. — There are two kinds of wood ashes:
those from hard-wood trees, such as hickory, oak, beech,
walnut, and elm; and those from soft-wood trees, such
as pine, cedar, spruce, poplar, etc. The ashes from hard
woods are richer in potash than those from soft woods.
Besides supplying potash to a soil, wood ashes, because
they contain lime, correct acidity. They are good fer-
tilizers for soils rich in humus and make a good top
dressing for grass; but not more than 300 lb. per acre
should be applied at one time.

Kainite.— The only Stassfurt salt that in its crude
condition is imported into the United States is kainite.
It is a compound of magnesia, common salt, and potash,
about 12 to 13% of the material last named being present.
Kainite is used either alone as a fertilizer or in
mixtures to form commercial brands. On account of its
tendency to absorb water when kept for a long time, it
gets lumpy, and when in this condition it is difficult to
apply to the soil. One reason for the frequent use of
kainite as a fertilizer is that it is cheaper per ton than
the higher grades of potash. Kainite sells on the market
for from $11 to $16 a ton.

Muriate of Potash.— From the crude potash salts the
muriate of potash'' is manufactured. It is perhaps the
cheapest form of potash, as it contains 50% of actual
potash on an average and sells for from $40 to $50 a
ton, which, as just explained, brings the cost per pound

36 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

from 4 to Sc. However, it does not seem to be the best,
for after continued use the muriate affects the soil in
such a way that lime is required to bring it back to
fertility.

Muriate of potash can be used for all legumes and
fruit trees, but on account of the chlorine it contains,
it should not be used for potatoes, tobacco, sugar beets,
onions, or mangels. For these, the sulphate of potash is
a better form.

Sulphate of Potash.— Another fertilizer made by re-
fining crude Stassfurt salts, is sulphate of potash. It
contains from 48 to as high as 53% of actual potash. It
is a very valuable fertilizer, because it can be safely
used on any and all crops. Sulphate of potash does not
cause the loss of lime in soil as does the muriate, nor
does it attract moisture, become lumpy, or pack into
the soil. Perhaps the main reason that the sulphate
form is not used more as a fertilizer is its cost. The
actual potash in the sulphate costs yic. more per pound
than it does in the muriate.

For clay soils, the sulphate is a better form to use
than the muriate. On account of not becoming lumpy,
the sulphate of potash mixes very easily with other
ingredients in manufacturing commercial fertilizer.

Vegetable Potash Fertilizers. — Sometimes, ground to-
bacco stems are used as a potash fertilizer. On the
average, they show by analysis from 7 to 8% of
potash, from 2^ to 3J^ of nitrogen, and from 3 to 5% of
lime.

Another vegetable product useful for commercial fer-
tilizer is cottonseed hulls. Both raw hulls and the
ashes obtained from burning the hulls are used. The
ashes are the quicker acting, and, bulk for bulk, they
are richer in potash and phosphoric acid.

State Fertilizer Laws.— In states where fertilizers are
used, there are state laws that require the manufacturer
to attach to his goods a prescribed label. The form of
this label is fixed by the state; as a rule, it must bear

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 37

the name and address of the manufacturer, the weight
of the package to which it is attached, and the chemical
analysis of the fertilizer. In addition, the state fer-
tilizer laws provide for the inspection and analysis of
all brands offered for sale within the state. Were it
not for these laws, the farmer when purchasing mixed
or unmixed commercial fertilizer would be almost en-
tirely at the mercy of the manufacturer. The reason
for this is that no one can tell from the appearance,,
odor, weight, or handling qualities of a fertilizer
whether it contains plant-food in such form and quantity
that the fertilizer can profitably be applied to the soil.
Chemical analysis is the only way in which the quantity
of plant-food in a fertilizer can be determined.

As a rule, mixed fertilizers are put up in bags, on
the outside of which is printed the analysis. In some
states the manufacturer is required to purchase from
the state printed tags that bear the analysis of the
brand to which they are to be attached and the sig-
nature of the state chemist or person in charge of
fertilizer control. No matter what form of label is used,
the analysis must be legible and the fertilizer must
conform to the analysis. In most states the state
guarantees to the public that each package of fertilizer
bearing the approved label contains as much of the
fertilizing ingredients as the manufacturers state; if the
fertilizer falls short of the guarantee, the manufacturer
is liable to arrest and fine. From these statements it
will be seen that every farmer who purchases fertilizer
should become informed regarding the fertilizer control
law in his particular state.

Misleading Methods of Stating Analyses.— Notwith-
standing this effort on the part of the state to protect
the public, it is not difficult for fertilizer manufacturers
to practice misleading methods of stating the analyses
of their products. Some of these dubiius practices
can scarcely be said to be dishonest, yet they
certainly give a wrong impression concerning goods.

38

SOIL IMPROVEMENT

^ ANALYSIS. '^

^ I NITROGEN 3-35PERCEIfr^

2.AMM0NIA a6-4.2 .. -

g3.S0LUBLE 1

: PHOSPHORIC 10-12 " -:

\ ACID J ,:

FACTUAL POTASH. lO-IZ- ..:

For example, in the guaranteed analysis printed on a
fertilizer bag or tag, the manufacturer often uses two
numbers which represent, respectively, the minimum
and the maximum percentage of each plant-food ingre-
dient. This method of stating an analysis is shown in
the accompanying illustra-
tion. Although it is not dis-
honest, it is, in a way, mis-
leading, for unless a person
is familiar with the inter-
preting of an anlysis, he is
likely, on account of seeing
many figures, to be misled
into thinking that he is
getting considerable more
plant-food than is actually
present in the fertilizer.

As required by law, the
manufacturer guarantees the
smallest quantity of each
ingredient shown in the
analysis. The second number showing the maximum
quantity of each ingredient that might be present, then,
really has no meaning to the farmer. Thus, in the
analysis shown in the illustration, nitrogen 3 to 3.5%
means that there is" at least 3% of nitrogen in the bag
and that there may be 3.5% present. In the second
line of the analysis, the nitrogen is given in terms of
ammonia, 3% of nitrogen being equal to 3.6% of am-
monia. As shown in the third line, the soluble phos-
phoric acid is guaranteed to be 10% with a possibility
that 12% may be found. The actual potash, as indicati;d
in the line, is given as 10 to 12%, showing that 1G%
is there, but that as high as 12% may be present.

As actual nitrogen, soluble phosphoric acid, and actual
potash are the forms that a farmer should consider
when buying a fertilizer, he should always bear in mind
that the smallest quantities of these forms expressed on

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 39

the bags show the true commercial value of the fer-
tilizer. Therefore, in the analysis just given, the
purchase should be made on the basis of 3% of
nitrogen, 10% of phosphoric acid, and 10% of potash.
If slightly more than these quantities are present, the
farmer will be a gainer, but he should not figure on
more than the stated quantities being present. Neither
should he be deceived by lengthy analyses that have as
their purpose nothing but deception.

Facts About Fertilizers. — On the market, both mixed
and unmixed fertilizers are sold by the ton, with the
quantity of plant-food ingredients expressed in per-
centages. Thus, if a ton — 2,000 lb. — of fertilizer is said
to contain 3% of nitrogen, 10% of phosphoric acid, and
10% of potash, the quantities, in pounds, of these in-
gredients are:

Nitrogen 2,000 x .03 = 60

Phosphoric acid 2,000 x .10 = 200

Potash 2,000 X .10 = 200

In stating the percentages of ingredients in a fer-
tilizer, that of nitrogen is generally given first, that
of phosphoric acid second, and that of potash last. In
fact, it is so much a universal custom to use this order
that the names of the ingredients are often omitted.
Thus, the fertilizer just considered is often spoken of as
a 3-I0-I0 fertilizer. A i-i2-8 fertiliser would be one that
contained 1% of nitrogen, 12% of phosphoric acid, and
8% of potash.

How to Find Fertilizer Equivalents.— It is often neces-
sary for a farmer to find fertilizer equivalents. This
is because manufacturers do not confine their state-
ments of analyses to the percentages of nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid, and potash actually contained in a fertilizer.
The following table will be found helpful in making
the calculations necessary to express the quantity of
one ingredient in terms of some other ingredient.

By using this table a complex analysis of a fertilizer
is made clear. For example, consider the following

40

SOIL IMPROVEMENT

analysis: Ammonia, 2%; available phosphoric acid, 8%;
insoluble phosphoric acid, 2%; total phosphoric acid,
10%; bone phosphate, 21.8%; actual potash, 4%; sulphate
of potash, 7.4%.

DATA FOR COMPUTING FERTILIZER
EQUIVALENTS

To Convert
Guarantee of

Into Terms of

Multiply by

Kitrogen

Ammonia

1.215

Ammonia

Nitrogen

.823

Sodium nitrate

Nitrogen

.165

Nitrogen

Sodium nitrate

6.061

Bone phosphate

Phosphoric acid

.458

Phosphoric acid

Bone phosphate

2.183

Potash

Sulphate of potash

1.850

Sulphate of potash

Potash

.541

Potash

Muriate of potash

1.583

Muriate of potash

Potash

.632

Referring to the table, the percentage of ammonia can
be easily converted into terms of nitrogen by multi-
plying the quantity of ammonia by .823. Thus, 2% of
ammonia is equal to 2 x. 823 = 1.65% of nitrogen. The
available phosphoric acid given as 8% in the analysis is
really the only quantity representing phosphoric acid
that should be considered by the farmer. The 2% in-
soluble added to the 8% soluble equals 10% total phos-
phoric acid, as given. The quantity of bone phosphate,
21.8%, is found by multiplying the 10% of total phos-
phate acid by 2.183. There is really no reason why the
quantity of phosphoric acid in the analysis need be
given in terms of bone phosphate. The actual potash
given as 4% is, as in the case of the available phos-
phoric acid, the only quantity representing potash that it
is necessary to give in the analysis. This amount, how-
ever, when expressed in terms of sulphate of potash.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 41

found by multiplying 4 by 1.85, as shown in the table,
equals 7.4%. It will readily be seen that the analysis
under consideration could be written as follows:
Nitrogen, 1.65%; available phosphoric acid, 8%; actual

potash, 4%.

LIMING OF SOILS

Lime is a soil constituent that is necessary for nor-
mal plant growth. This is proved by the fact that
plants will not grow properly in soils deficient in lime.
An additional proof is that when plants are analyzed,
lime is found. But, as a rule, enough lime is present
in the soil for the use of crops; if it were not for the
fact that lime is needed in soil for other purposes than
as a plant-food, it would seldom be necessary to apply
it. For this reason, lime is usually considered an indi-
rect fertilizer; that is, it indirectly renders soil more
fertile.

The beneficial effects that result from the liming of
soil are. of course, dependent on the condition of the
soil. Aside from the value of lime as a plant-food,
there are three ways in which it may benefit soil,
namely: (1) by correcting soil acidity; (2) by making
otherwise unavailable plant-food available; (3) by im-
proving the mechanical condition.

Effects of Lime. — Soils that are sour, or acid, produce
very poor crops. The acid in soil comes largely from
plant roots, where it is needed to dissolve a part of the
plant-food. Soils on which crops have been raised for
a number of years without the application of lime are
very likely to become sour from the surplus of this
plant acid that remains in them. The use of com-
mercial fertilizers that are acid also tends to make
soil acid. The same is true of soils in which free
water is allowed to stand for a long time; insufficient
drainage is a very common cause of soil acidity. On
account of these conditions, many of the farm soils of
the United States and other countries are acid; and if

42 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

these soils are to produce good crops, the acidity must
be corrected. This can best be done by the application
of lime.

In some soils nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash
are often present in such a form that they are unavail-
able to plants. This is often the case in soils of a
vegetable origin, such as reclaimed swamp soils and
heavy black loams containing long, deep roots. When
such a condition exists, lime is an effective agent in
rendering the plant-food available. In fact, the good
effects obtained by applying lime to soil are often due
to the action of the lime in releasing plant-food.

Some soils, particularly those of a heavy clay nature,
are vastly improved mechanically by lime. In heavy
soils the particles composing them are very fine and
have a tendency to pack together, thus causing the soil
to retain a large quantity of free water and to become
very unfriable. Lime causes the fine soil particles to
flocculate, that is, join together in small lumps. This
makes the soil more friable, lighter, and easier to work
with the implements of tillage. In other words, the
structure is greatly improved.

Methods of Determining Whether Soil Needs Lime.
Although it is very profitable to apply lime where it
is needed, it is a waste of labor and money to apply
it where it is not needed. For this reason, soil should
be tested to determine whether it is in need of lime
before an application is made. There are three com-
mon tests for determining this point; the beet test, the
litmus-paper test, .and the ammonia test. These tests
can easily be made by any one.

The beet test consists merely of growing a crop of
beets in the soil to be tested. Owing to the fact that
all kinds of beets grow very poorly in soils deficient in
lime, a beet crop is a good indicator of the condition
of a soil with respect to this constituent. To make the
test the ground may be prepared and the beets planted
as follows;

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 43

Lay off in the field a piece of ground 36 ft. by 90 ft.
Next, plow this ground as deeply as the soil will allow
without subsoil being brought to the surface; the usual
.depth of plowing in the locality will be the best for
the test. Roll the ground immediately after it is
plowed, and then put on, at the rate of 500 to 600 lb.
per acre, a good complete fertilizer — one containing
available nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash — that is
rich in nitrogen. Harrow the ground well after apply-
ing the fertilizer. Then divide the piece into three
plats of equal size and spread lime as evenly as pos-
sible on two of them, using 100 lb. on one plat and
SO lb. on the other, which is at the approximate rate of
1 T. and 2 T. per acre.

On the third plat use no lime at all, as this is to be
a check plat. The lime used in the test should be very
fine and free from lumps, and should be brushed into
the soil with a weeder or a light harrow. When applied
in this way it does not come in direct contact with
the ammonia of the fertilizer. Next, beet seed of a
quantity sufficient, if they all grow, to produce a good
stand should be drilled into the soil. The beets should
be permitted to come to maturity, when the yields of
the different plats will show whether or not lime is
needed on the soil.

The litmus-paper test is used to determine whether a
soil is acid. If a soil is found to be acid it follows
that it is in need of lime. Litmus paper is a paper
covered with a preparation called litmus. It has the
property of turning red when it comes in contact with
an acid and blue when it comes in contact with an
alkali. In making soil tests, the blue litmus paper
used by chemists should be used, as it is better than
the common grade generally sold by druggists. To
test a soil, puddle a small quantity with water in a
cup and then place a small strip of blue litmus paper
in the wet soil. If the paper turns red soon after being
placed in contact with the soil, it is a good indication

44 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

that the soil is acid and, consequently, that it needs
lime. Before making the test, however, it is a good plan
to determine whether the water used for puddling is free
from acid.

A more positive method of testing the presence of lime
in a soil is to treat a small quantity with a solution of
hydrochloric acid and 1 part of water. Place 1 ounce
or so of the soil in a saucer and pour 1 teaspoon-
ful or so of the hydrochloric acid over it. If bubbles are
given off, this indicates that carbonate of lime is present
and that the soil is alkaline enough for crop purposes. If
no bubbles are given off, the soil may be either neutral
or acid and in either case it will be advisable to apply
carbonate of lime. Soil that is neutral, that is on the
line between alkalinity or acidity, is likely to become
acid in a short time.

Application of Lime to Soils.— Two forms of lime are
now used for soil improvement. These are limestone in
powdered form and stone lime, or quicklime, made by
burning limestone. Both forms can be purchased on the
market, or, if limestone exists in a community, the
farmer can burn it himself and thus obtain stone lime.
Powdered limestone is in condition to be applied to the
soil when it is purchased. Stone lime, or quicklime, as
it comes from the kilns must be either ground or slaked
before it is of use in a soil. By slaking is meant the
absorbing of water. This produces a chemical change,
making the lime caustic. In this condition the lime is
a powder and can easily be applied to the soil. Lime
may be slaked either by applying water to it directly
or by exposing it to air, from which it absorbs the
moisture necessary for slaking it.

There are several ways in which lime can be spread
on the soil. It may be applied with a manure spreader, a
lime spreader, or a fertilizer distributor, be spread from a
wagon or be placed in piles on the ground and distributed
by means of shovels. If a manure spreader is used and
the wind is blowing, it is practically necessary to use

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 45

a wooden or a canvas hood over the spreader drum, to
prevent the loss of considerable lime. Spreading lime
from a wagon by means of shovels is an unsatisfactory
method, as the lime, being caustic, will burn the hands
and faces of the workmen, and, besides, is likely to
injure the harness. If lime is to be distributed from
piles on the ground, the size and distance apart of these
will, of course, depend on the quantity of lime that is
to be used per acre. If it is desired to use 1 T. per
acre, SO-lb. heaps should be placed 33 ft. apart. Two
tons per acre can be distributed by placing 100-lb.
heaps 33 ft. apart.

It is often desired to apply a certain number of bushels
per acre. The weight of a bushel of stone lime in
most states is 80 lb.; after this quantity is slaked, it
will weigh from ISO to 160 lb., according to the quantity
of water absorbed. In order to put on a given number
of bushels per acre, the following figures showing the
quantities and distances apart for the piles will be
found useful: For an application of 20 bu. per acre,
put 5^2 bu. heaps 11 steps apart each way, one step to be
considered 3 ft. ; for 25 bu. per acre, put the heaps 10 steps
apart; for 30 bu., 9 steps; for 40 bu., 8 steps; for SO bu.,
7 steps; and for 60 bu., 6 steps.

The quantity of lime to use per acre varies. Heavy
soils usually require more lime than light soils, very
acid soils require more than only slightly acid soils,
and some crops use more lime than others. Then, too,
twice as much ground limestone should be used per
acre as slaked lime. Lime containing impurities, or
air-slaked lime that is not fresh, will not go as far as
good water-slaked lime. As a rule, from 1 to 2 T. of
water-slaked lime per acre are used and from 2 to 4 T.
per acre of ground limestone. An application of 1 T. of
slaked lime or 2 T. of limestone should give good results
in soils not exceedingly heavy or acid. Supplying the
soil with too much lime at one time is injurious, small and
frequent applications being better than large ones.

46 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

When to Apply Lime to Soil.— As a top dressing for
sod land, lime may be applied either in the spring or
in the fall. The latter season is preferable, because
the lime will have more time to work down into the
soil than if applied in the spring. When sod land that
is to be placed to corn is limed in the spring, it is a
good plan to plow and roll the land before putting on
the lime. After the lime has been applied it should be
harrowed well into the soil. Although lime is not as
beneficial to corn as it is to some other crops, it is
helpful to the crop that follows corn.

Lime should never be applied just before planting
sugar beets or potatoes, as it will decrease the quantity
of sugar in the beets and the percentage of starch in
the potatoes. Neither should lime be applied at the
same time that manure or commercial fertilizer is put
on the soil, as it acts chemically with these substances
and sets the nitrogen free. This danger may be avoided
by applying the lime a few months before using the
manure or fertilizer.

TILLAGE

BENEFITS OF TILLAGE
Pulverization of the Soil.— One of the prime objects
of tillage is to break the soil into fine particles. Soil,
from lying dormant for months or perhaps years, be-
comes packed and hard; it is first turned up by the
plow and is then still further broken up by other
instruments of tillage until it is divided into very
minute particles, in which condition it is suitable for
a seed-bed. Much of the plant-food present in a soil is
liberated by this pulverization and made available for
plants, and the fine soil grains are thoroughly mixed
with manure, plant roots, and humus. Many of the
living plant roots are shredded, torn, and broken by
tillage so that they will not sprout again, but these
broken roots are left in a condition to enrich the soil.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 47

Effects of Sunshine on Plowed Soil.— As soon as the
plow or any of the lighter implements of tillage disturb
the top layer of soil, the effects of sunshine on it can
be noticed. The heat from the sun's rays soon dries
out the upturned furrow slices and makes it possible
for the air to enter. By this action, the soil begins to
weather and change structure. In addition to the facts
just mentioned, the soil is also sweetened, that is,
made less acid, by the action of the sunshine. Then,
too, many insects, and other vermin are destroyed by
the excessive heat. There is a danger, however, of
exposing the furrow to too much sunshine. For instance,
if the furrow slices are left upturned for too long a
time before the rolling and harrowing processes take
place, the soil will be injured by drying out too much.

Soil Aeration. — The drying of soil by sunshine makes
more space for air to enter among the soil particles.
This better aeration, as it is called, is very important
for crop production. Without sufificient air in the soil,
seeds cannot sprout or plants grow. Besides these uses,
were it not for the air in the soil, there would be no
decay of vegetable and animal matter. The presence of
air also makes possible chemical changes, without which
much of the plant-food of the soil would be kept in an
unavailable condition. The air, too, is absolutely nec-
essary for the use of soil bacteria. The sunshine can
do the best work when the soil is prepared to receive
the sun's heat.

Increase of Water-Holding Capacity.— As tillage breaks
up the soil into fine particles, it increases the amount
of the soil surface exposed to the air. This being the
case, the quantity of film water that a soil can hold
is increased. The great importance of an increase in
the film water held in a soil is obvious when it is re-
membered that it is from film water that plant roots
absorb the moisture for plant growth.

There is always more or less loss of film water by
evaporation from the surface. The damage done to
5

48 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

crops by such loss of moisture, especially during dry
spells, is often considerable. There is a remedy, how-
ever, by which the farmer can at least prevent excessive
loss of moisture by evaporation. It has been found
that if 2 or 3 in. of fine, loose soil is kept on the
top of a cultivated field, that the quantity of moisture
lost by evaporation is reduced to a minimum. Such a
layer of loose soil, or dust mulch, as it is frequently
called, can be secured by frequently stirring the surface
soil with the implements of tillage.

Lessening of Denitrification.— A certain kind of bac-
teria called denitrifying bacteria exists in soil and causes
available nitrogen compounds to become unavailable.
The denitrifying bacteria work actively only where air
is absent. In well-tilled soil, therefore, which contains
plenty of air, denitrification practically ceases.

These injurious bacteria live in manures and straws
as well as in the soil, and if any of this vegetable
material containing active denitrifying bacteria is
plowed under a soil, and thorough tillage to supply air
is not practiced, the bacteria will continue to do their
destructive work of changing the available nitrates into
unavailable forms of nitrogen.

Mellowing of Soil.— A well-tilled soil is more mellow
and friable than one not well tilled, the mellowness
being due to the combined effects of tillage. Other
things being equal, a mellow soil is a good crop-
producing soil.

All kinds of soil are more or less dependent on tillage
operations to turn their characteristics into use. Rich
soil, for example, will not respond with profitable crops
without good tillage. Deep soil, too, is made better for
crops by careful tillage. A hard soil — that is, one
containing little or no plant-food — can be benefited by
tillage, but only after plant-food in the shape of manure
has been thoroughly mixed with the mineral matter of
the soil. A soil that is thin, due to the lack of plant-
food and humus, can be made deeper and more mellow,

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 49

provided plant-food and humus are well worked into it
by deep tillage operations. A soil that is thin by
reason of the nearness of the water-table can be made
deeper and more mellow by first removing the surplus
water by drainage and then practicing deep tillage.
Heavy soils that do not pulverize easily are benefited
ly plowing them in the fall, and allowing the upturned
lurrows to remain exposed to the weather during the
winter.

There are soils, however, that are not benefited by

tillage, and these are wet soils. The use of tillage

implements on soils of this class will greatly injure

their texture and make their surfaces lumpy and hard.

Destruction of Weeds. — One of the important benefi-ts

if tillage is the destruction of weeds. Weeds are ex-
pensive boarders; they are greedy eaters, excessive

Irinkers, and poor payers. They live on precisely the
^ame kind of food that crops do, and, what is more,
they take their food in the very same manner. Every
weed acts as a pump; its roots bring water to the stalk
from whence it is carried to the leaves, and is finally
lost to the plant by escaping into the atmosphere. Such
a drain of water and also of plant-food is very hard on
the crops that are growing on the soil. Tillage comes to
the aid of the farmer in the matter of weed destruction,
and if the operations are carried on at the right time
there need be but little loss of crop caused by weeds
growing in the soil.

TILLAGE OPERATIONS
Plowing. — Plowing is the first important work neces-
sary to prepare a suitable seed-bed for crops. It is the
basis for all other mechanical operations connected with
tillage. There is no other work done on a field that
can be substituted for good plowing. Not one of the
other operations of tillage, nor even all the rest com-
bined, can make amends for poor plowing, so essential is
the turning of the furrow slice to successful crop pro-
duction. So important is plowing, that experienced

50 SOIL IMPROVEMENT

farmers consider that, even in the most favorable season,
the best soil and seed amount to but little unless the
plowing is well done.

Although the plowing of a field is done to prepare the
seed-bed for the immediate crop, it influences future
plowings and crops to a greater extent than is generally
supposed. Often one bad plowing so injures a soil that
a good seed-bed cannot be prepared until the soil has
had several good plowings. Hence, the plowing of a
field should always be done in the best manner possible.

The depth to plow can, to a large extent, be regulated
by the natiiral depth of the surface soil. A good rule to
follow in this respect is to plow a little shallower than
the soil depth. For instance, if the surface soil is 6 in.
in depth, the rule is to plow 5 in. deep; and, if the soil
is 5 in. in depth, to plow 4 or AH in. deep. But, if the
soil is 10 in. deep, plow 7 or 8 in.; if 12 in. deep,
plow 9 or 10 in.

The width of plowing is largely regulated by the
depth. It is impossible to plow a wide furrow and at
the same time make it of shallow depth. An old rule
in plowing is to make the furrow from 2 to 3 in. wider
than it is deep. According to this rule, then, if the
furrows are 4 in. deep, they should be 6 or 7 in. wide;
or if 5 in. deep, they should be 7 or 8 in. wide. More
modern practice, however, is to make the furrows as
wide as is possible for the power in use to make them
and still have the furrow slice well turned. Plowing
is the most expensive part of tillage work, and it
should be done as cheaply as possible; the wider the
furrow, the less the cost of plowing a given area.

Rolling. — The rolling of ground is often one of the
most important of the tillage operations. In cases where
it is desired to pack down a seed-bed, to crush clods,
and to secure a fine dust mulch on ground, the roller
is invaluable. However, no more injurious effect can
proceed from the use of any implement of tillage than
that from a farm roller used when the soil is too wet.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 51

Soil in this condition is compressed into cakes that
adhere to the roller and are removed with difficulty.

Dragging. — The drag is used for leveling the uneven
edges of tt^p furrows after plowing, and also for com-
pacting the ground. The drag is especially useful if
the plowed ground has been left very rough. The action
of the drag is to grind off and smooth the surface, not
to roll it as is done with a roller. For smoothing dry,
cloddy fields, the plank drag is much more effective
than the roller, as the drag breaks the clods instead of
pressing them deeper into the ground as is done when
a roller is used. The plank drag is also employed to
pulverize fields after they have been harrowed. In
this connection it is especially useful if the harrows
have failed to pulverize thoroughly the soil on the
surface of the field.

Harrowing. — After a field has been plowed and either
rolled or dragged, it must be pulverized to make it light,
fluffy, and smooth at the surface. This work is done by
harrowing, which is for the purpose of putting the
field in a smooth and well-finished condition for seeding.
If a field is wet it is in no condition to be harrowed.
The disturbing of the soil particles at such a time
causes the soil to puddle rather than to crumble. A
soil can, however, be too dry for harrowing; this is
especially true if there are many clods on the field.
Under such adverse conditions it is a saving of labor
and a reduction of expense to wait for rain. Ground
when frozen is also unfit for harrowing, as it will be
chopped into lumps instead of being crumbled.

The depth of harrowing is determined by the depth
of plowing, the condition of the soil, the crop, and the
season. The best average depth for harrowing is 3 in. ;
soil should never be harrowed to the depth it was
plowed. If a soil is plowed to a depth of 5 in., for
instance, it would not be wise to harrow it to a depth
greater than 3}4 or 4 in., since the harrow teeth would
come too close to the turned-under sod.

52 GENERAL FARM CROPS

GENERAL FARM CROPS

WHEAT

Wheat, according to the time of the year it is planted,
is known as winter wheat or as spring wheat. The
seed of winter wheat is planted in the fall; the seed
of spring wheat is planted in the spring.

Following is a brief description of the chief varieties
of wheat:

Ficlts zvheat is a beardless soft winter wheat. It is
extensively grown in the eastern part of the United
States and Canada, and is noted for producing large
yields. It is probably the most widely grown variety
of wheat in the United States.

Blue Stem ivheat is a beardless hard spring wheat. It
is extensively grown in Minnesota, where it has been
found to give large yields of good quality.

Mammoth Red zvheat is a bearded soft winter wheat. It
is grown in the eastern part of the United States and
Canada.

Purple Straiv wheat is a beardless soft winter wheat.
It is grown in the eastern and the southern part of
the United States, particularly in the states south and
west of North Carolina.

Fife wheat is a beardless hard spring wheat. It is
extensively grown in Minnesota, and, like Blue Stem
wheat, has been found to produce large yields of good
quality.

Galgalos wheat is a beardless semihard wheat, grown
as a spring wheat in the South, particularly in Oklahoma
and New Mexico.

Kharkoz' zvheat is a bearded hard winter wheat. It is
extensively grown in Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma.

Club wheat has a short, compact head, and is the
wheat most widely grown in California, Oregon,

GENERAL FARM CROPS 53

Washington, and Idaho. The grain is white and exceed-
ingly soft.

St>elt, of which there are both spring and winter vari-
eties, is a very ancient form of wheat that has been
cultivated for centuries in Europe and Africa. In
thrashing most other kinds of wheat all the chaff is
removed, but in thrashing spelt a part of it remains on
the grain.

Emmer is similar to spelt in that the chaff adheres to
the grain after thrashing.

Einkorn is supposed to resemble the original wild
form of wheat from which all cultivated forms originated.
The head in einkorn is much flattened and is heavily
bearded, and the grains are somewhat angular in form.

Seven-headed zvlicat is a species that is distinguished
from the others by the branched head. It is known
also by the names Egyptian, Mummy, Hundredfold, and
Alaska. Agriculturally it is unimportant.

Durum wheat is a species that has been grown in the
United States since 1901. It is well adapted for regions
where the summers are hot and the atmosphere is dry,
and is practically free from rust. Experience has
shown that it is particularly adapted to the Dakotas,
although it is now grown rather extensively in many of
the other Western states.

In the table on page 54 is given the date of the first
sowing and harvesting, the date of the most general
sowing and harvesting, and the date of the latest sowing
and harvesting of wheat in several states of the Unitei^
States.

Loose smut on wheat is combated by placing the seed
wheat in sacks, soaking it for 4 hr. in cold water, and
allowing it to stand for 4 hr. or more in the wet sacks;
it is then immersed for 5 min. in water having a tem-
perature of 133° F., after which it is ready to be dried
and sown.

Stinking smut is combated by: (1) Placing the seed
wheat in sacks and immersing it in water at 133° F. for

64

GENERAL FARM CROPS

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GENERAL FARM CROPS 55

10 min. and then cooling it by placing in cold water
or by stirring the seed while drying. (2) Placing the
seed in a solution of copper sulphate, made by dissolving
1 lb. of the sulphate in 10 gal. of water; the seed is
immersed in the solution for 10 min. and then drained
for 10 min., after which it is spread out and dried.
f3> Immersing the seed for 30 min. in a solution made
by mixing 1 lb. of formalin with SO gal. of water.

One of the best methods of combating the chinch bug,
which attacks wheat crops, is to plant some crop, such
as millet, as a barrier between the wheat and the corn
fields, and when the bugs are in this crop to spray it
with kerosene and then plow the plants under. Another
type of barrier is made by throwing two furrow slices
together and forming a ridge, along the top of which
there will be a slight depression; this depression is
filled with coal tar, which the bugs are unable to pass.
Holes are dug at intervals along the furrow next to the
wheat field and the bugs, in passing to and fro in
trying to find a way around the barrier, drop into these
holes. Kerosene is poured into the holes occasionally,
and as a result many of the bugs are killed.

A practice often adopted by farmers to prevent ravages
of the Hessian Hy in the wheat crop is to delay the
sowing of the wheat until after the flies are killed by
early frosts. Another is to avoid the continuous crop-
ping of wheat on the same land. Perhaps one of the
best methods is to plant a strip of wheat along the
edge of the regular wheat field somewhat earlier than
the usual time of planting. The flies will then congre-
gate in this strip, and as a result the regular field will
not be ravaged. The burning of the wheat stubble is
also an effective preventive.

56

GENERAL FARM CROPS

OATS

The average yield of the oat crop in the United States
for several decades past has been a little over 27.5 bu.
per acre. The Northern states produce larger crops per
acre than do the Southern states. A few states report
yields as high as SO or more bu. per acre. Yields of

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

60 to 70 bu. are considered to be high, although yields of
100 bu. per acre have been reported.

The average yield in the United States would be
produced by three plants on each square foot of an

GENERAL FARM CROPS 67

acre, provided each plant produced three or four stalks
and each stalk produced 40 grains of fair size. An oat
crop is said to be well filled when each stalk bears
from 30 to 150 grains.

There are two distinct types of oats: (1) The spreading
oats, as shown in Fig. 1, in which the branches bearing
the grains spread in all directions from the main stalk,
or straw; and (2) the side, or mane, oats, as shown in
Fig. 2, on which all the branches bearing the grains
hang on one side of the main stem. These two distinct
types of oats may be subdivided as to time of planting
into spring and winter oats; as to color, into white,
black, gray, and red oats, and many variations of these
colors; and as to shape of the grain, into short and
plump oats, and long and slender oats.

There are also a few varieties of oats, the hulls of
which are so loose that they are separated from the
kernels in thrashing. Such varieties are called naked
oats. They are, however, poor yielders and are there-
fore not extensively grown.

The winter varieties of oats are those which are sown
in the fall. They have been grown almost wholly in
the South, but seem to be gaining favor in Northern
sections.

The spring varieties are those which are usually
planted in the spring. They are grown almost entirely
in the North. For Southern growers, the Red Rust
Proof and Virginia Gray varieties are recommended.
For planting in Northern United States, the varieties
known as American Banner, Improved American, Badger
Queen, Wide Awake, Colonel, Lincoln, Swedish Select,
and Siberian have met with much success. In Canada,
the Siberian variety is considered to be the best yielder.

Oats thrive best in a cool, moist climate and in a
soil that is not especially fertile, but in all instances
the soil should be moist.

Oats are inclined to grow too rank to produce a large
quantity of straw and a comparatively small quantity

58 GENERAL FARM CROPS

of grain, and have a tendency to break over, or lodge,
if they are grown on soils in a high state of fertility.

The most severe damage to the oat crop is caused by
oat smut. This disease causes a loss of from 5 to 50% in
fields sown with untreated seed. The best way to
combat the disease is to treat all seed oats with a
fungicide and thus kill the spores of the smut. The
treatments that are recommended for the stinking smut
on wheat are recommended for oat smut. The formalin
treatment, which is most commonly used, is as follows:
A solution made up of 1 lb. of formalin to SO gal. of
water is sprinkled over the oats at the rate of 1 gal. of
solution to 4 bu. of grain. The grain is then mixed
thoroughly by shoveling the oats into a conical pile,
and is covered with blankets. After being covered for
2 hr. the oats must either be sown or be spread out and
dried.

BARLEY

The barley plant is similar to wheat in its general
appearance and its habits of growth; barley grain re-
sembles the oat grain, in that it consists of a kernel
and a hull, except in the case" of a few varieties known
as hull-less barleys.

Two distinct varieties of barley exist, namely, the
two-rowed and six-rowed varieties. There are, however,
other so-called varieties, known as four-rowed, hull-less,
and beardless.

Barley may be grown under more varied climatic con-
ditions than any other grain crop; also, it requires less
water for its production than any other grain crop,
though an abundance of water does not materially re-
tard its growth. It may be raised in nearly all parts
of the United States and in some sections of Canada,
and its cultivation is carried on successfully even in
Alaska. But the soil, to grow barley successfully,
should be well drained and fertile.

GENERAL FARM CROPS 59

The only insect that proves injurious to barley is the
chinch bug. Smut attacks barley and as a preventive
the seed barley should be treated as follows: Place the
seed in sacks and soak it in cold water for 4 hr. ;
then let it stand in the sacks for 4 hr. After this
immerse the sacks with the grain in hot water at a
temperature of 130° F. for 5 min. The grain should
then be dried in the manner described for wheat.

RYE

Rye grows much taller than either wheat or barley,
frequently attaining a height of 6 or 7 ft. The heads
that bear the grain are longer and more slender than
those of wheat, and are covered with beards, as are
most of the barleys. Although rye kernels closely
resemble those of wheat, they are longer, more slender,
and more pointed at the end nearest the stem of the
head.

The annual yield of rye in the United States is about
14 bu. per acre. Yields of 20 to 25 bu. are considered
to be fair, and those of 30 to 35 bu. are said to be good.

Rj'e is naturally adapted to a cool climate and will
thrive in climates that are too cold for wheat. How-
ever, it is successfully grown in the warmer sections
of the United States. It may be successfully grown in
soils that are too poor in fertility to produce average
yields of other grain crops.

BUCKWHEAT

Buckwheat is classed with grain crops, although it is
a member of a family of plants that includes sorrel,
smartweed, and bindweed.

Buckwheat leaves the soil in which it is grown in a
peculiarly mellow, crumbly condition, and for this
reason, together with the fact that it will grow in almost
any kind of soil, it is considered to be a soil improver.

60 GENERAL FARM CROPS

CORN

Four general classes of corn are grown on a com-
mercial scale. These are pop corn, flint corn, dent
corn, and sweet corn.

There are two general varieties of pop con: — Rice and
Pearl. The grains of Rice pop corn are pointed at the
top, and the ears are somewhat cone shaped. The grains
of Pearl pop corn are rounded at the top and the ears
are cylindrical.

The kernels of ilint corn are hard and smooth. In
shape they are nearly round. The width of grains varies
in different varieties from ^ to yi in. The average
depth in all varieties is about }i in., and the thickness
is about Ye in. In color, flint kernels are usually
yellow, white, -or red, although brown and purple
varieties are known.

The ears of flint corn vary in length from 4 to 18 in.,
the average length being from 7 to 10 in., and in
diameter they vary from V/i to 2 in. In most varieties
of flint corn there are but eight rows of kernels on a
cob, although ten, twelve, and even sixteen rows are
found on some varieties.

Among the leading varieties of flint corn may be
mentioned Rhode Island White Flint, King Philip,
90-Day Yellow Flint, Pennsylvania Yellow Flint, Long-
fellow Flint, and Hall's Golden Nugget.

The most widely distributed class of corn is dent corn,
which gets its name from the fact that the kernels,
when matured, are indented at the top. In color, dent
kernels are generally yellow or white, although red and
mixed yellow and red kernels are sometimes found.

The ears of dent corn vary in different varieties from
5 to 12 in. in length and from V/2 to 254 in. in diameter.
A medium sized ear weighs yi lb. and a rather large-
sized ear weighs ^ lb. The average number of rows of
kernels on dent ears is from sixteen to twenty, although
as few as eight and as many as forty-eight are some

GENERAL FARM CROPS 61

times found. The size and shape of grains vary with
the variety and with the position on the ear.

Among the important varieties of dent corn are:
Boone County White, Clarage, Funk's Yellow Dent,
Hickory King, Hildreth, Hogue's Yellow Dent, Johnson
County White, Kansas Sunflower, Learning, Minnesota
No. 13, Pride of the North, Reid's Yellow Dent, Silver
King, and Silver Mine.

The corn most widely cultivated for household use is
szucet corn. Part of the starch of sweet corn turns to
sugar during the growth of the plant. The corn is,
therefore, sweeter to the taste than other kinds of
corn. The grains of sweet corn, when matured, are
wrinkled at the surface, rather broad, and rounded at
the top. In most varieties a typical grain is about
^2 in. long, J4 in. thick, and about J| in. wide.

Among the early varieties that are highly recom-
mended are Early Golden Bantam, Marblehead, Crosby,
Chicago Market, Early Landreth; among the medium
varieties, Squantum, Maul's XX, Stabler's Early; and
among the late varieties, Ne Plus Ultra, Stowell Ever-
green, and Country Gentleman.

The number of quarts of seed corn used per acre will
vary largely with the size of the kernels. When planted
three kernels to the hill with the hills 3 ft. 6 in. apart,
from 4 to A'/i qt. is the average quantity required to
plant an acre; where four kernels are planted to the
hill, the hills being 3 ft. 8 in. apart, about 5 to 5^ qt.
are required to plant an acre.

Fig. 3 shows the United States divided into sections
or corn zones, and in the table showing the varieties
of corn grown for silage is given a list of some of
the best-known varieties of corn for silage for each
zone.

The table on pages 64 and 65 gives the date of the
earliest planting and harvesting, also the date of the
most general and latest planting and harvesting of corn
in several states of the United States.

GENERAL FARM CROPS

js^ — ,J^^^^^^^wjj^v^^Vs^Vxyj:K^v^^v^^VN^^^^^^^

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GENERAL FARM CROPS

63

VARIETIES OF CORN GROWN FOR SILAGE IN
DIFFERENT ZONES OF THE UNITED STATES

Northern zone:

Early Hvtron

Longfellow Flint

Pride of North

Silver King

Central zone:

Boone County White

Silver Mine

McAuley

Clarage

Funk's Yellow Dent

Golden Surprise

Learning

Reid's Yellow Dent

Riley's Favorite

Hogue's Yellow Dent

Hildreth

Southern zone:

Boone County White

Cocke Prolific

Hickory King

Red Cob Silage

Mosby Prolific

Virginia Silage

Eastern zone:

Hickory King

Cocke Prolific '. .

Clarage

Learning

Longfellow Flint

Sibley's Pride of the North
Western zone:

Minnesota King

Dakota Dent

Hickory King

Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
White

White
White
White
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow

White
White
White
White
White
White

White
White
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow

Yellow
Yellow
White

7 to 8
10 to 12

7 to 8

6 to 8

9 to 11

8 to 11
10 to 11

7 to 9

9 to 11
9 to 10
9 to 10
9 to 11

8 to 9

9 to 11
10 to 11

10 to 12
8 to 9
8 to 9

10 to 12
8 to 9

10 to 12

7 to 9
7 to 9

7 to 8

8 to 10
10 to 12

7 to 8

7 to 8

7 to 8

8 to 9

64

GENERAL FARM CROPS

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66 GENERAL FARM CROPS

The average yield per acre of corn in the United
States is about 2S bu. ; a fair yield is 50 bu. ;
a good yield, 75 bu. ; an excellent yield, 100 bu. : and
more than 125 bu. have been raised per acre. If corn
is planted in hills 3 ft. 8 in, apart each way there will
be approximately 3,250 hills per acre, and if only one
plant, or stalk, in each hill produced one medium-sized
ear weighing }^ lb. the yield per acre would be about
23 bu. If two stalks in each hill produced a yi-lh.
ear the yield would be 47 bu. However, if three stalks
grew in each hill and each stalk produced a large-sized
or a J^-Ib. ear the yield per acre would be more
than 100 bu.

The corn plant is injured by numerous insect pests
among which are rootworms, root lice, cutworms, white
grubs, earworms, stalk borers, chinch bugs, wireworms,
and bill bugs. Corn smut appears in masses of black
powdery spores on any part of the plant that is above
ground, although the parts most likely to be affected
are the ears and tassels.

The best way thus far discovered for ridding corn
plants of smut is to gather the masses of spores two
or three times during the season and either burn them
or place them in boiling water. The heat will kill the
spores, and germination will be prevented.

HAY AND PASTURE CROPS

GRASSES

■Timothy. — Timothy in some localities is called herd's
grass, but this name is confusing from the fact that the
same name is sometimes used to designate red top.
A seed head of timothy is shown in Fig. 4.

In value, timothy leads all other hay grasses grown
in the United States. It is, however, nearly always
sown with Red or Alsike clover, sometimes with both.
When sown alone for hay, the quantity is about 15

GENERAL FARM CROPS

67

lb., or ^^ bu., per acre. If Red clover is included,
the quantity of timothy seed is reduced. In this case,
from 8 to 12 lb. of timothy is sown and about 8 lb. of
clover.

Timothy is sown at almost any time during the grow-
ing season, but if sown alone, the sowing should be
done in the fall, as the weather conditions at this time
are the most favorable for successful seeding.

Meadow Foxtail. — The grass known as Meadow fox-
tail, a head of which is shown in Fig. 5, is a near
relative of timothy and closely resembles it. Meadow
foxtail, however, differs from timothy in that its habit
of growth is slightly
creeping. Meadow fox-
tail is not common in
the United States.

Red Top.— Next to tim-
othy, red top is doubtless
the most important hay
grass in North America.
The plant is of a creep-
ing habit, producing long
underground stems. It
grows rapidly from seed
and quickly forms a
dense, smooth sod. These
latter characters make it particularly adapted for lawns
and pastures, and it is consequently largely used for
these purposes. The seed head is open and spreading,
as will be seen in Fig. 6. Red top is sometimes mistaken
for blue grass on account of the similarity of the heads
of the two plants.

Kentucky Blue Grass.— Probably the best-known pas-
ture grass of the United States is Kentucky blue grass,
also known in some sections as June grass. The first
name doubtless had its origin in the fact that the plant
grows luxuriantly in the limestone regions of Kentucky;
the second name was given on account of the fact that

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

Fig. 6

68

GENERAL FARM CROPS

the grass is at its best during the month of June. The
plant is rather shallow rooted and strongly creeping in
habit. When it becomes well established, it forms a
fairly dense, even sod. The leaves are crowded near
the base of the plant, and are light green in color. The
end of the blade of blue grass is closed, giving the end
of the leaf the appearance of the keel of a boat. A head
of Kentucky blue grass is shown in Fig. 7.

Canada Blue Grass. — Canada blue grass very closely

resembles Kentucky blue grass, but the stem of the

former is more zigzag than that

of the latter and the seed head

of the Canada blue grass, which

^ ._ is illustrated in Fig. 8, is more

**r^'l5^^-» vj flattened and is not so spread-

i^'^Yit,.^ «Mf.. ing as in the Kentucky blue

grass.

Smooth Brome Grass.— Smooth
brome grass is strongly creep-
ing in habit and a coarse
grower, under favorable condi-
tions reaching a height of from
4 to 5 ft., and forming a dense
sod from 6 to 8 in. thick. The
leaves are coarse, being from % to Yz in. wide, and often
reach a length of 1 ft. The seed head is in the form of
a long, spreading panicle, as will be seen from Fig. 9.
The seeds are among the largest of those of the cul-
tivated grasses, often being J^ in. in length.

Orchard Grass. — Orchard grass is a common grass in
some sections of the United States. The grass probably
derives its name from its ability to thrive under the
shade of trees, although it does not appear to grow
better in the shade than in the open. It is not creeping
in habit like blue grass, but has a habit of growth
similar to that of timothy. The plant does not form
an even sod like many other grasses, but grows in
raised clumps, making a very uneven and bunchy sod.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

GENERAL FARM CROPS

69

The coarse, light-green leaves are mostly produced near
the ground. It will be seen from Fig. 10 that the
panicle is somewhat spreading, with the flowers clus-
tered in what are known as tufts.

Meadow Fescue. — Meadow fescue somewhat resembles
brome grass when in blossom. Its habit of growth,
however, is not at all similar to that of brome grass,
as it is not a creeping plant. Meadow fescue can be
distinguished from most other grasses by its shiny.

.^^

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

bright-green leaves. A seed head of Meadow fescue is
shown in Fig. 11.

Tall Oat Grass.— Tall oat grass is related to the com-
mon cultivated oat plant. A seed head of Tall oat grass
is illustrated in Fig. 12. The grass is known also as
Meadow oat grass, and in some localities as Evergreen.
This last name is used in the southern part of the
United States, where this grass remains green through-
out the year. Tall oat grass grows to a height of from
3 to 5 ft., and forms clumps like orchard grass.

70

GENERAL FARM CROPS

Bermuda Grass.— In the southern part of the United
States, Bermuda grass is a favorite. The plant repro-
duces from seed and from creeping
stems on or just below the surface
of the ground. The main prostrate
stem may extend 4 or 5 ft. during
the season and send out several
lateral branches a foot or two in
length. At intervals of an inch or
^ffi iv/o, the stems take root. A flower-

wft ing stem is shown in Fig. 13. The
stems grow from a few inches to
2 ft. in height, depending on the
soil and the climate. The habit of
the grass is to form a dense sod,
which bears trampling by cattle. It
does not produce seed in the United
States except in the extreme South.
Italian Rye Grass.— Italian rye
grass, a head of which is shown in
Fig. 14, reaches at maturity a height
of from 2 to 3 ft. It is a short-
lived grass, lasting but 1 yr., or, at best, 2 yr.

Perennial Rye Grass.— Perennial rye grass, often
known as English rye grass, is said to have been the
first of the true grasses domesticated for hay and
pasture purposes. This grass grows
from 1 to 2 ft. in height, and is
adapted to both pastures and
meadows.

Johnson Grass. — In the southern

part of the United States, Johnson

grass is grown to some extent for

hay and pasture, although it is

Fig. 13 probably more often looked on as

an undesirable weed than as a useful plant.

Johnson grass often grows from 4 to 7 ft. high and
produces seed on a spreading head, as shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

GENERAL FARM CROPS

71

Velvet Grass. — Velvet grass is a low-growing variety
that reaches a height of about 2 ft. It derives its name
from the downy character of the leaves and other parts.
This character makes it distasteful to horses and cattle.
It is said that these animals will nearly starve before
acquiring a liking for velvet grass, but when once
accustomed to it they thrive remarkably well on it.

Quack Grass. — Quack grass is usually regarded as a
weed wherever it is common. It spreads by underground
stems in much the same manner (

as Johnson grass. In spite of '-

its weedy character, it is often
utilized as a hay and pasture

grass.

Texas Blue Grass.—

Texas blue grass is a

close relative of Ken-
tucky blue grass and

has similar habits.

It is a grass of south-
ern o r ig i n and

adapted to southern

conditions, although

it is grown as far

north as Tennessee.

It is used for both

meadows and pas-
tures and in some cases it is used successfully for lawns.
The Millets. — The millets grown in North America
are generally classed in four groups, only two of which
are of importance in the United States as hay. These
two groups are the foxtail millets and the broom-corn
millets, specimens of which are illustrated in Fig. 16.
The three important varieties of the foxtail millets are
Common millet, shown in (a) ; German millet, shown in
(c); and Hungarian grass, shown in (d).

Sorghum. — Although sorghum is generally used for
another purpose, namely, that of producing sirup, it has

Fig. 15

72

GENERAL FARM CROPS

GENERAL FARM CROPS

73

great value as a hay crop in many parts of the country.

Kafir Corn.— Kafir corn is a variety of sorghum,
although it does not have the sugar-producing qualities
of the latter. It is most commonly grown for the grain,
but is sometimes planted for hay in the same manner
as sorghum. It is especially adapted to the semiarid
sections, as it is able to endure extreme heat and
drought.

Teosinte. — Teosinte is an annual grass that much re-
sembles Indian corn in habit of growth; it is of tropical
origin, and consequently not adapted to northern ,con-
ditions. It is grown rather extensively in the southern
part of the United States.

LEGUMES

Nearly all leguminous plants have certain common
characteristics. The leaves are arranged around the
stem in regular order — not two-rowed as in grasses.
The leaf consists of a stalk and leaflets. All legumes
have a common form of
blossom, examples being
sweet peas, garden peas,
and beans. The root
system of legumes com-
prises a large central
root, called a tap root,
from which numerous
branches are sent out at
varying distances. The
roots of all legumes un-
der favorable conditions
bear tubercules, or nod-
ules, which are caused
by certain forms of bac-
teria that live in the
soil. They have the
power of assimilating the
free nitrogen of the soil atmosphere and of transferring
it to the root tubercules.

Fig. 17

74

GENERAL FARM CROPS

Red Clover. — Red clover is the most important legu-
minous crop in the United States and is especially
valuable as feed for milch cows, sheep, and in fact
almost all classes of growing animals. It is not so
suitable for horses because it is liable to contain too
much dust. In purchasing Red clover seed, care should
be taken to secure seed free from such adulterants as
Yellow trefoil, dodder. Curled dock, Sheep sorrel. Lamb's
quarters. Green foxtail, etc., which are frequently found.

Experiments have
proved that a crop of
Red clover yielding
4,900 lb. of dry matter
per acre will leave in
the soil from roots
and stubble 44 lb. of
nitrogen, 32 lb. of
potash, and 13 lb. of
phosphoric acid.

The stem, leaves,
and blossoms of a
Red clover plant are
shown in Fig. 17.

Perhaps the worst
enemy of clover is
the dodder plant,
which is a tawny yel-
low plant that twines
about the a 1 o v e r
plant, as shown in
Fig. 18, and on which
it lives.
Mammoth Red
Clover. — Mammoth Red clover, also called Mammoth
clover. Perennial Red clover, and Pea-vine clover, is a
variety of ordinary Red clover, differing from it in a few
respects only. It is larger and coarser than Red clover,
is a longer-lived plant, and matures 3 or 4 wk. later.

Fig. 18

GENERAL FARM CROPS

75

Alsike Clover. — Alsike clover, a plant of which is
shown in Fig. 19, has not attained the wide reputation
that Red clover has, and is seldom a competitor with
it where the latter can be grown successfully. But it
is especially well adapted to land too wet for Red
clover.

Fig. 19

Alsike clover may be used for the same purpose as
Red clover, and matures at about the same time. It is
often used in a mixture with Red clover to make certain
that there will be at least a partial crop in case the
latter fails.

76

GENERAL FARM CROPS

Crimson Clover. — Crimson clover, a plant of which is
shown in Fig. 20, differs from the other clovers in that
it runs its life history in less than a year from seeding.
This variety of clover is not likely to be hardy in
northern latitudes; hence, it is not planted extensively
north of the 40th parallel. It is grown most extensively
in the South Atlantic States.

Fig. 20

White Clover.— White clover, also called Dutch clover,
is a small plant of creeping habit. It is very common
in pastures and lawns. The stems of the plant are
prostrate, but at intervals, blossoms and leaves are
produced that assume an upright habit of growth, as is
well illustrated in Fig. 21. The root system of White
clover is much shallower than the root system of other

GENERAL FARM CROPS

77

clovers; also, there is not so deep a tap root as is
produced by either Red or Alsike clover.

White clover is less affected by climatic conditions
than Red clover and is better adapted to moist, rich
soils than to soils that are too dry. For this reason,
it makes better growth during wet seasons than during
dry seasons. It is one of the best plants for pasture
and lawn purposes, for which it is most largely used.

Fig. 21

Alfalfa. — Among the leguminous plants used as hay
and pasture crops, alfalfa is probably second in im-
portance. It is a strongly growing branching perennial,
which, at full maturity, may have a height of 3 or 4 ft.
As shown in Fig. 22, which illustrates an old root that
is starting a new growth, alfalfa has a large tap root,
which grows directly downwards. Under favorable con-
ditions the tap roots often reach a depth of from 12 to

78

GENERAL FARM CROPS

14 ft., depending on the character of the soil and the

depth of the permanent water-table.

Alfalfa is used as a
feed for cattle,
horses, sheep, swine,
and poultry. It is
used as pasture, as
haj', as silage, and
as a soiling crop.
About four-fifths of
the alfalfa grown in
the United States is
made into hay. Some-
times the hay is
ground into meal and
sold as alfalfa meal.
Alfalfa is a par-
ticularly desirable
feed for young stock,
because it contains a
large percentage of
protein, which is es-
sential for growth of
young animals. It is
also a good roughage
for beef cattle. It
has been determined
that 1 acre of alfalfa
will produce from 562
lb. to 706 lb. of "beef
annually.

In the eastern half
of the United States
it is usually neces-
sary, for the success-

FiG. 22

ful growing of alfalfa, to inoculate the soil with the
proper nodule-forming bacteria.

Cowpeas. — The cowpea is an annual leguminous plant
that is grown extensively in the South and is used

GENERAL FARM CROPS

79

largely to take the place of forage crops and of grain
as feed for all kinds of farm animals. The feeding
value of cowpeas is very high, as they are rich in
protein.

Above ground there may be considerable variation in
this plant, but there are only two general forms. One
form is decidedly bushy
in habit of growth; the
other is of a trailing
form. The bushy form
may grow to only 1 ft. or
so in height; the trailing
form may extend only
a few feet along the
ground or it may extend
15 or 20 ft.

In Fig. 23 is shown a
young cowpea plant with
two seed pods.

Soybeans.— The s o y-
bean, also known as soja
bean, is an erectly grow-
ing plant of from 2 to
4 ft. in height. As
shown in Fig. 24, the
leaves are composed of
three large leaflets borne
at the end of a stem.
This stem is often from
10 to 12 in. in length.
The leaves, stems, and Fig. 23

pods are covered with stiff, reddish hairs. As with
alfalfa and cowpeas, the leaflets are the most valu-
able part of the plant when it is used as forage.
The seeds are nearly globular, usually more or less
compressed, and in color range from whitish to brown
and black. In some varieties they are yellowish; in
others green. The plant is prolific and will produce as
many as 200 pods containing about 450 seeds. Root
7

80

GENERAL FARM CROPS

nodules, which are often as large as small peas, are
borne in great profusion. The amount of nitrogen
added to the soil by a crop of soybeans is large. It
is believed that the proper nodule-forming bacteria are
often wanting in the soils of the United States, unless
provided artificially.
Vetches. — The vetches commonly grown in the United

Fig. 24

States are of two kinds: the Hairy vetch, also known as
the Sand vetch; and the Common vetch. The leaf of
these plants is composed of about eight pairs of leaflets
arranged in pairs along the sides of the midrib. The
stems of the plants trail on the ground unless they are
supported by an upright plant. Both kinds of vetches
make excellent green-manure crops.

GENERAL FARM CROPS 81

Field Peas. — Field peas are an important crop in
Canada. Although they are not grown so extensively
in the United States, they are doubtless well adapted
to various portions of the country.

Miscellaneous Legumes.— Other leguminous plants that
are occasionally grown are: Japan clover, Florida beggar
weed, Sweet clover, Yellow trefoil or Black medic,
Bur clover, and Velvet bean.

POTATOES

The common potato is the enlarged, fleshy, underground
stem, known as the tuber, of the potato plant. Although
the tubers are widely known as Irish potatoes, the
plant is a native of America. Aside from its universal
culture in home gardens, the potato constitutes an
important field crop, ranking next to rice as a food
product for the human race. It is also extensively used
for feeding to domestic animals. In those sections of
America where potatoes are most largely grown, the
small and the badly diseased potatoes, that is, the un-
marketable portion of the crop, are used for the manu-
facture of starch, and in certain sections of Europe
large yields of comparatively small tubers are grown
especially for the manufacture of starch and of alcohol.

The average yield of potatoes in the United States
for several decades past has been 83 bu. per acre. It
takes about IS bu. of seed potatoes cut into 1 oz. pieces
to plant 1 acre, provided the rows are spaced 3 ft. apart
and there is a space of 12 in. between the hills in the
rows. If each seed piece grew and produced two 4-oz.
potatoes, which are only medium-sized potatoes, 1 acre
would yield 121 bu. of marketable potatoes. If each
hill should produce eight 4-oz. potatoes, or 2 lb., as
every grower should endeavor to have the crop yield,
1 acre would yield 484 bu. of marketable potatoes.

Among the thousands of varieties of potatoes that have
been developed the following may be considered as

82 GENERAL FARM CROPS

standard: Bliss, Triumph, Bovee, Burpee, Extra Early,
Crown Jewel, Early Ohio, Early Rose, Early Thorough-
bred, Eureka, Norton Beauty, Reliance, Six-Wetks'
Market, Beauty of Hebron, Irish Cobbler, Polaris, White
Elephant, Burbank, Carman Number 3, Freeman, Green
Mountain, Peachblow, Pearl, Rural New Yorker Num-
ber 2, Sir Walter Raleigh, State of Maine, Snowflake,
and Vermont Gold Coin. In a general way, the varieties
are mentioned in the order of their earliness of maturity.
Some varieties, however, mature much earlier in one
section of the country than in another.

The principal diseases of potatoes are early blight, late
blight, and scab. The blights destroy the foliage of the
plants and thus materially reduce the yield, and the
scab attacks the tubers. The blights are prevented by
spraying with Bordeaux mixture. There is no standard
formula for this mixture; however, a good Bordeaux
may be made up of the following: 5 lb. of copper
sulphate, 5 lb. of fresh quicklime, and SO gal. of water.
If to this mixture 1 lb. of Paris green or 3 lb. of
arsenate of lead is added the mixture will be effective
in killing the potato bug, the most common insect pest
of the potato.

The percentage of scabby potatoes in the crop produced
can be materially decreased by disinfecting the seed
potatoes by soaking them, before cutting, for 2 hr. in
a solution consisting of '/i pt. of formalin and 15 gal. of
water, or for V/2 hr. in 2 oz. of corrosive sublimate
dissolved in 15 gal. of water.

ROOT CROPS

The principal plants that are grown as farm crops for
their fleshy roots are mangel wurzels, beets, turnips,
rutabagas kohlrabi, carrots, parsnips, and artichokes.

Mangel Wurzels. — Among the best known varieties
of mangel wurzels, or cattle beets, or field beets, are the
Norbiton Giant, Gate Post, Golden Tankard, and Yellow

GENERAL FARM CROPS 83

Globe. These are grown almost entirely as feed for
livestock.

Sugar Beets. — Sugar beets are grown both for the
manufacture of sugar and as feed for livestock. The
leading variety grown for sugar production is the
Kleinwenzlebener. The leading varieties grown for
stock feed are Lane's Imperial, Danish Red Top, and
Danish Improved.

Turnips. — Three members of the turnip family are
commonly grown as farm crops, namely, the common
turnip, the rutabaga, and the hybrid turnip, which is a
cross of the common turnip and the rutabaga. Some
of the most-used varieties of common turnips are:
Purple Top, White Globe, Golden Ball, Snow Ball,
Strap Leaf, and Cow Horn.

In general appearance and habits of growth rutabagas
are much the same as common turnips. They are used
both as vegetables for human food and as a feed for
stock. Two common varieties of rutabagas are the
Purple Top and the Green Top.

Rutabagas are larger than common turnips and will
yield twice as much bulk per acre, for which reasons
they are grown more extensively as a root crop for
stock feeding. One of the most apparent differences
between the turnip and rutabaga is that the latter has
a greater development at the crown, producing a distinct
neck, which the turnip does not have.

Kohlrabi. — Kohlrabi is a plant that is frequently re-
ferred to as the turnip-headed cabbage, for the only
part used is the enlarged fleshy stem that grows above
ground.

The two most common varieties are the White Vienna
and the Purple Vienna.

Carrots. — The carrot is grown for human food and as a
feed for livestock, particularly for horses. The juices
of some varieties are used for coloring butter and the
seed is employed in the manufacture of some kinds of
liquor.

84 GENERAL FARM CROPS

Parsnips. — The parsnip is a hardy plant that is widely
grown in the United States for human food, and to
some extent as a feed for horses. In European coun-
tries, it is valued highly as a cattle feed. Since the
roots grow entirely under the soil, harvesting is more
difficult than with most other root crops, and as the
roots are comparatively small it is not likely that it
will ever become popular in the United States as a
crop for livestock.

Jerusalem Artichokes.— The Jerusalem artichoke is a
native of the United States. In its habit of growth
it resembles a small sunflower and belongs to the same
botanical family. It has a coarse foliage and grows
very rank. The artichoke is seldom planted with the
expectation that it will be grown but 1 yr. Usually
a field is devoted to it for several years, in some cases
as many as 7 years.

TOBACCO

The tobaccos grown most widely in the United States
are the White Burley, grown in Kentucky and small
areas in neighboring states; Export, or heavy, tobacco,
grown in the Middle West and in Maryland; Bright
Yellow tobacco, grown chiefly in Virginia and the
Carolinas; Sun-Cured tobacco, raised to a very limited
extent in Virginia; Perique, which has a wide reputa-
tion, but is raised only in a small area in Louisiana;
and cigar tobaccos.

All of the tobaccos named, except cigar tobaccos, are
used in the manufacture of chewing, cigarette, and pipe
tobaccos and are known as manufacturing tobaccos.
However, a portion of the Export tobacco is used in
foreign countries for the manufacture of cigars.

The cigar tobaccos are classed according to their use
as cigar-filler, cigar-binder, and cigar-wrapper tobaccos.

Cigar tobaccos are raised in two distinct zones in the
United States. The northern zone includes a large
portion of the Connecticut River valley in the states

GENERAL FARM CROPS

85

of Connecticut and Massachusetts; two districts in
New York, embracing Chemung and Onondaga and por-
tions of adjoining counties in one, and Tioga and por-
tions of adjoining counties in the other; Lancaster and
adjoining counties in Pennsylvania; Montgomery and
Miami and portions of adjoining counties in Ohio; and
small areas in Southern and Western Wisconsin. The
southern zone includes Gadsden County, Florida, with
the adjacent county of Decatur in Georgia and small por-
tions of adjoining counties; and small areas in Southern
Alabama, and Anderson and Nacogdoches counties,
Texas.

SOILING CROPS

Crops that are cut and fed green to livestock, either
in the stable or the feed lot, are called soiling crops. The
practice of feeding such crops is known as soiling.
Soiling may be either partial or complete, depending on
whether the feeding is practiced simply to supplement
pastures or to supply all of the green feed used by the
animals. Often several soiling crops are grown on the
same land in a single season and each soiling crop
produces a large quantity of feed per acre.

In the accompanying table is given a suggested list of
crops and the acreage required in a partial soiling
system for soiling 20 cows during the usual dry period

PARTIAL SOILING SYSTEM

FOR 20 COWS

Kind of Crop

Area to be
Seeded
Acres

Time of Feeding

U
3

1
2
1
3

Clover

Aug. 1 to 20

Millet

Aug. 10 to 20

Aug. 20 to Sept. 5

Aug. 15 to Oct. 15

Clover (second crop)

Sept. 1 to Oct. 1

GENERAL FARM CROPS

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GENERAL FARM CROPS

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FRUIT CULTURE 89

from Aug. 1 to Oct. 15, in a region where blue-grass
pastures prevail. In this plan, the soiling crops are
depended on to supplement the pasture until corn
silage is available, silage being used through the winter.

In the table on page 86 is given a complete suc-
cession of soiling crops, together with the rate and time
of seeding, and the feeding period. The system given in
this table is used in the New England states for the
complete soiling of a herd of 20 cows from May to Oct.

In the table on page 87 is given a system used in
Wisconsin, for a herd of 20 cows; the table on page 88
is a system applying to conditions in New Jersey and
near-by territory and furnishes green feed for 20 cows
for a period of 6 mo.

These tables are not intended as absolute guides, but
are for the purpose of giving a correct idea of the
essentials of a soiling system and to emphasize the
importance of a complete and orderly succession of crops.

FRUIT CULTURE

SPRAYS FOR FRUIT PLANTS

INSECTICIDES

Arsenate of Lead. — Arsenate of lead is a much-used
poisonous insecticide that contains very little soluble
arsenic; it stays in suspension well, is not easily
washed from plant foliage by rain, and has some
value as a fungicide. It is sold as a paste and as a
powder. The paste form is used at the rate of 2, 3,
or 4 lb. to SO gal. of water, the exact quantity de-
pending on the pest to be combated. Half as much of
the powdered form as of the paste form is required.

Paris Green. — Paris green is an arsenical poison easily
recognized by its green color. It contains a higher

90 FRUIT CULTURE

percentage of soluble arsenic than arsenate of lead. It
should not be used on peaches, cherries, or plums. Often
used as a potato spray. Generally used in the form of a
spray consisting of 1 lb. to from 75 to ISO gal. of water.

Arsenite of Lime. — Arsenite of lime is an arsenical
spray that is cheaper than arsenate of lead or Paris
green, but its use is likely to be attended with spray
injury. Made by boiling 1 lb. of white arsenic and
2 lb. of good lime in 2 gal. of water for 40 min. Water
to make 300 gal. of spray is added.

London Purple. — London purple is a by-product in the
manufacture of aniline dyes. Varies greatly in com-
position, and for this reason is not often used in
orchard work. Used in the same proportion and in
the same way as Paris green.

Hellebore. — Hellebore is a poison made from the
powdered roots of hellebore. Recommended as a substi-
tute for arsenical poisons where insects must be com-
bated on nearly ripe fruit. May be applied dry
mixed with from S to 10 parts of flour or lime, or as a
spray consisting of 1 oz. of hellebore Vo 1 gal. of water.

Lime-Sulphur. — Lime-sulphur is a contact insecticide
made by boiling stone lime and powdered sulphur.
Used as a spray on dormant trees at 1.03 sp. gr. for
scale insects, especially the San Jose scale. Also used
as a fungicide at 1.007 to 1.01 sp. gr. Concentrated
lime-sulphur may be purchased or may be made at
home by using the proportion of 1 lb. of lime, 1 lb. pow-
dered sulphur to 1 gal. of water and boiling for 1 hr.
The concentrated mixture should be tested with a
hydrometer and water added to give the specific gravity
required for the spray.

Miscible Oil.— Oil that has been chemically treated
so that it will combine with water to make a uniform
mixture is called miscible oil. Such oils are used
successfully as contact insecticides. Many brands of
miscible oils are on the market. Miscible oil is often
used as a spray for the San Jose scale.

FRUIT CULTURE 91

Kerosene Emulsion. — Kerosene emulsion is a contact
insecticide, similar in nature to miscible oil. Made
from kerosene with soap as an emulsifier. Much used
for combating plant lice. It is made by dissolving 1 lb.
of soap in 1 gal. of water and adding 2 gal. of kerosene
and churning with a force pump until a butter-like
mass is formed. To this is added water in different
proportions for spraying.

Distillate Oils.— Distillates are made from oil taken
from wells in the western part of the United States.
Used either as an emulsion or in the form of a mechan-
ical mixture. Used for combating scale insects.

Tobacco Extracts and Decoctions.— Tobacco extracts
and decoctions are spray materials made from tobacco
waste. Much used for plant lice and other sucking in-
sects. Many proprietary tobacco decoctions are on the
market, and these, when applied in accordance with the
directions that accompany the packages, will generally
prove satisfactory. May be made at home by steeping
1 lb. of tobacco in 1 gal. of water.

FUNGICIDES

Bordeaux Mixture. — Bordeaux mixture is a much-used
fungicide made from copper sulphate and lime. Can
be used successfully on most fruit and vegetable crops.
Sometimes causes injury to fruit and foliage of apple
and other fruit trees. The copper sulphate, lime, and
water are combined in different proportions, depending
on the plant to be sprayed and the fungus to be com-
bated. The strength of Bordeaux mixture is designated
Ijy figures giving the proportions of the ingredients and
followed by the name Bordeaux. For example, 6 : 6 : 50
Bordeaux means that the proportions of the mixture
are 6 lb. of copper sulphate, 6 lb. of lime, and 50 gal. of
water; 3 : 4 : 50 means that the proportions are 3 lb. of
copper sulphate, 4 lb. of lime, and 50 gal. of water.

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. — Ammoniacal copper
carbonate is a solution made from copper carbonate 6 oz.,

92 FRUIT CULTURE

ammonia 3 pt. and water to make SO gal. This solution
does not cause injury to fruit as Bordeaux mixtures does,
and for this reason its use on ripe fruit may some-
times be advisable, but it is more injurious to the tree
than Bordeaux mixture and is not so effective.

Sulphur Dust. — Sulphur in the form of dust has con-
siderable value as a fungicide. It is used principally
to combat powdery mildew on certain kinds of fruit.

Potassium Sulphide. — A spray of some value as a fungi-
cide is made by dissolving from 2 to 3 oz. of potassium
sulphide, sometimes called liver of sulphur, in 10 gal.
of water. It is of value principally for powdery mildew
on berry plants.

Lime-Sulphur. — During recent years dilute lime-sulphur
is being used as a summer fungicide to replace Bordeaux
mixture for many classes of fruit plants. It is claimed
that lime-sulphur does not cause injury to fruit as does
Bordeaux mixture.

Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur.— Self-boiled lime-sulphur is
a mechanical mixture of lime and sulphur. A small
quantity of the sulphur becomes dissolved in the mix-
ture, and it is this sulphur that gives the preparation
its fungicidal property. Much used as a summer spray
for peaches. It is made by adding sufificient water to
lime to start slaking and then sifting in sulphur.
Water is added to keep up the slaking and the mixture
is thoroughly stirred. When slaking is complete enough
cold water must be added to cool the mixture at once.
The proportion of 6 lb. of sulphur, 6 lb. of lime to
50 gal. of water is generally used in making the com-
pound, but other proportions are sometimes recom-
mended.

FRUIT CULTURE 93

APPLES

VARIETIES OF APPLES

Summer Varieties.— Among the most important sum-
mer varieties of apples are the following:

Y'ellow Transparent: Summer apple; good variety for
the home orchard. Tree is rather a slow grower, but
bears at an early age; often 2- or 3-year-old trees
will set considerable fruit. Fruit, above medium in
size, beautiful clear yellowish white in color; flesh,
white, juicy, with a pleasant flavor. Skin somewhat
tender; fruit should be picked often in order to be
marketed in good condition.

Early Harvest: One of the oldest and most widely
disseminated varieties of summer apples in America.
Tree, vigorous and healthy; comes into bearing rather
young. Fruit, medium size; pale yellow; pleasant; of
very good quality.

Red Astrachan : Widely known variety of summer
apple. Tree, medium size, fairly vigorous, although in
some sections it is not very productive. Fruit, medium
to large size; red splashes over greenish or greenish
yellow; a little too sour for dessert, but excellent for
cooking. Apples mature unevenly; are very perishable;
and are not well suited for long shipment.

Oldenburg : Adapted to a cool climate, but widely dis-
seminated; considered one of the most important of
summer apples. Tree, rather a slow grower; medium
in size; bears when young; prolific in most localities.
Fruit, medium to large; roundish to oblate; yellowish,
almost completely covered with irregular splashes and
stripes of red; stands shipment fairly well; generally
in demand on the market.

Gravenstein: Summer variety that is fairly well known
in most sections. Tree, strong, vigorous, spreading.
Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblate; red and yellow
striped. Flesh, yellowish; firm; quality very good.

94 FRUIT CULTURE

Fall and Winter Varieties.— Several of the important
varieties of apples suitable for fall and winter use are:

Fall Pippin: Tree, large; moderately vigorous; long
lived. Fruit, large; yellowish-green; of good quality, but
ripens unevenly, the first often being ready in September
and the last not ripening until a few weeks later. A
desirable variety for home and commercial orchards.

Alexander: Fall, or in some places a late summer
apple, grown especially in the eastern apple-growing
regions. Tree, a strong grower; bears at an early age.
Fruit, round, conic, or oblate conic; very large; coarse
in texture; of fair quality; greenish yellow almost cov-
ered with red stripes; ripens early in July in Vir-
ginia and continues until Sept. or Nov. in New York.

Wolf River: Similar to the Alexander. Tree, fairly
vigorous; large; spreading; comes into bearing rather
late. Fruit, large; broad; flat at the base; round;
slightly conic; bright red and yellowish stripes blushed
with deep red. Flesh yellowish; somewhat coarse;
juicy; of only fair to good quality. On account of their
high color and good size the apples are in good demand
on the market. Fruit may be kept until Dec. in a cool
cellar or until Jan. in cold storage.

Wealthy: An important fall apple extensively grown
in the Central States and to some extent in the Eastern
States. Tree, hardy and thrifty when young, but with
maturity it becomes a rather slow grower. Fruit, me-
dium to large; roundish oblate; of good quality; heavily
striped with red over light yellow or green. Flesh,
white, sometimes tinged with red.

Fameuse: An old variety decidedly adapted to North-
ern regions. Tree, of medium size; a moderate grower;
healthy and long lived. Fruit, above medium in size;
roundish and somewhat conic; bright red, deepening to
purplish black in the best colored specimens. Flesh,
white, often streaked or tinged with red; quality, good.

Mcintosh: Similar to the Fameuse, but adapted to a
wider range of localities. Tree, in some localities a

FRUIT CULTURE 95

slow grower and not very productive; in other places,
a strong grower, hardy, and productive; bears fairly
early; yields good crops. Fruit, medium to large;
roundish to somewhat oblate; red with a slight amount
of whitish yellow or green; quality, very good to best;
prized for dessert, but lacks sufficient firmness to stand
long shipment. Flesh, white or slightly yellowish; often
tinged with red; firm; fine; crisp; tender; juicy;
aromatic.

Hubbardston : An early winter variety. Tree, vigor-
ous and generally of good size. Fruit, medium to
large; roundish ovate; red mingled with yellow or
green. Flesh, whitish; slightly tinged with yellow;
quality, very good to best. '

Tompkins King: One of the highest quality apples
produced. Tree, rather vigorous; lateral branches, slen-
der and somewhat drooping. Fruit, large to very large;
roundish; sometimes inclined to conic; red with a
small amount of yellow. Flesh, rich yellow; tender;
aromatic; juicy; quality very good to best. In ordinary
storage the King keeps until Dec. or Jan., and in cold
storage until about Feb. King apples are probably at
their best about Christmas.

Yellow Bclleiiower: Tree, large; vigorous; good grower;
fairly hardy; not a satisfactory bearer. Fruit, round-
ish oblong, narrowing toward the base; pale lemon yel-
low, often with brownish yellow cheek; quality good; ex-
cellent for dessert and for cooking. Flesh, white,
showing slightly yellowish. The season same as King.

IVinter Banana: Tree, medium; vigorous; a fair grower;
bears young; yields moderate crops; in most cases is
an annual bearer. Fruit, large; roundish conic; bright
pale yellow with a dark pinkish blush; quality, good
to very good. Flesh, whitish tinged with yellow;
moderately firm; tender; juicy. The apples are better
for dessert than for cooking, being too mild in flavor
for the latter purpose. They will keep in cold storage
until about March.
8

96 FRUIT CULTURE

Smokehouse: Tree, vigorous; healthy; hardy; bears
rather young; a good yielder, usually producing crops
annually; has a tendency to form a dense head. Fruit,
medium large to large; oblate; yellow; deeply mottled
red; flesh, slightly tinged with yellow; rather firm;
crisp; juicy. Quality is good. Season is from Oct. to
Feb. in storage.

Black Gilliflower: Tree, medium in size; a vigorous
grower; generally a reliable bearer. Fruit, medium in
size; long ovate to oblong conic; dark red to dull
purple. Flesh, whitish or yellowish; becomes mellow
and mealy on standing. The season is from Oct. to
Jan. or Feb.

Rambo: Tree, of medium size; moderately vigorous.
Fruit, medium in size; roundish or somewhat oblate in
form; greenish yellow, mottled with red; quality, good
to very good. Flesh, white, tinged with yellow or
green; juicy; rather fine grained. In ordinary storage
the apples keep until Nov.; in cold storage until Feb.

Tolman Siveet: Tree, moderately vigorous; a good
grower; long lived; very hardy. Fruit, medium; oblate;
pale yellow, sometimes slightly blushed; sweet; quality
fair to very good. Flesh, white; firm; rather tough. In
ordinary storage the apples will keep until about Jan. 1
and in cold storage to about March or April.

York Imperial: Tree, vigorous; a thrifty grower; a
good bearer, bearing biennially, or in some cases an-
nually. Fruit, medium to large, roundish oblate, and
distinctly lopsided; pinkish red over green or yellow.
Flesh, yellowish; firm; fairly juicy; quality, generally
good. In cellar storage it will keep from Jan. to
April; in cold storage it seems to scald badly, and may
last only through Feb.

Smith Cider: Tree, moderately vigorous; has long,
stout, straggling branches. Fruit, medium; round;
striped pinkish red. Flesh, whitish; juicy; of good
flavor. Desirable for cooking purposes; will keep in cel-
lar storage until Feb.; in cold storage until March.

FRUIT CULTURE 97

Baldwin: The most important commercial winter apple
grown in America, a standard fruit in both American
and export markets, and one of the principal varieties
handled in cold storage. Tree, strong grower; long
lived; vigorous; slow to come into bearing, but bears
very abundantly, generally biennially. Fruit, medium in
size; roundish to conic; red over light yellow or green.
Flesh, yellowish; moderately coarse; quality good to
very good. Fruit is suitable both for dessert and cooking
purposes. Its season in ordinary storage is from Nov. to
March, in cold storage until May or June.

Esopiis Spitsenberg : Better known, perhaps, as Spit-
zenberg s of the Baldwin type, but of better quality
and mo^e highly prized as a fancy dessert fruit. It is
also a good quality cooking apple. Tree, rather slow
grower and generally rated as a moderate cropper.
Fruit, medium to large; oblong; bright red over yellow.
Flesh, yellowish; crisp; tender; quality very good to
best. Its season extends from Nov. to Feb. or March
in ordinary storage and to May or June in cold storage.

Delicious: Tree, a strong grower and a heavy bloomer.
Fruit, large to very large; oblong conic, with 5 points
projecting from the basin; red splashed and striped over
pale yellow. Flesh, pale yellow; tender; moderately
juicy. The quality is of the best, especially for dessert.

Rhode Island Greening: As a type of green apple, the
Rhode Island Greening is the best known in America.
Tree, large and spreading; a reliable cropper; yields
fruit annually. Fruit medium to large; grass green in
autumn, to yellowish green when fully matured; roundish
oblate; a good shipper. Flesh, yellowish; firm; fine
grained; juicy; quality very good. It is highly prized
for cooking and by many is thought to be an excellent
dessert fruit. Its season is about the same as that of
Baldwin.

Yellow Newtown: Also known as the Albemarle Pip-
pin. Tree, vigorous and erect. Fruit, yellow, often with
a pink blush spread over a part of the surface. Flesh,

98 fRUIT CULTURE

yellowish with a mild and highly aromatic flavor. Its
season extends from Jan. until April and sometimes until
May.

Northern Spy: Tree, large and vigorous; upright;
a slow grower and late coming into bearing, but when
mature a good yielder. Fruit, large to very large;
roundish conic; pale yellow nearly concealed by pinkish
red and splashed with carmine. The flavor is very good
and the fruit is well liked for dessert and for cooking.
In ordinary storage the apples cannot be kept much
later than Feb. or March, and even in cold storage they
are likely to deteriorate if left longer than March.

Jonathan: Tree, medium; fairly reliable cropper;
bears rather early. Fruit, small to medium; roundish
conic; bright red over yellow, which is sometimes
visible where a twig or leaf has shaded the fruit.
Flesh, white often marked with red; juicy; spicy;
quality, very good to best. Its season is from Oct. to
some time in Jan. in ordinary storage, and to Feb. or
March in cold storage.

Ben Davis: Tree, medium; rather a rank grower when
young; has coarse, strong wood that will stand under
heavy crops. The form of tree tends to be upright and
roundish, becoming rather spreading in old trees. Fruit,
medium to large; conic; deep red or red striped. Flesh,
whitish slightly tinged with yellow; firm; moderately
coarse; slightly tough. The quality is fair to poor. Its
season extends as late as June or July if the fruit is
kept in cold storage.

Gano: Similar to the Ben Davis, although better in
quality. Tree, generally vigorous and of the same up-
right spreading habit as the Ben Davis. Fruit, me-
dium: roundish conic; light yellow, overlaid almost com-
pletely with red. Flesh, whitish, slightly tinged with
yellow; firm, but coarse in texture. Its season is about
the same as that of Ben Davis.

Black Ben Davis: Is of the Ben Davis type, but re-
sembles the Gano more nearly than the Ben Davis.

FRUIT CULTURE 99

Tree, upright when young but spreading and dense
when mature. Fruit, medium to large; roundish conic; a
clear pale yellow covered with a brilliant red that be-
comes a dark purple on the side exposed to the sun. It
lasts until April and May when kept in cold storage.

IVinesap: Tree, of medium size; rather vigorous; bears
early; usually an annual cropper. Fruit, small to
medium; roundish; slightly conical; deep red. Flesh,
yellowish, with an occasional red streak running
through it; juicy; crisp; quality, good to very good.
The ordinary limit in cold storage is April.

Staymcn IVinesap: Tree, fairly vigorous; spreading;
rather open. Fruit, medium to very large; roundish conic
to globular; a dull red that is rather indistinctly striped
with carmine. Flesh, yellowish or greenish; crisp;
juicy; quality good to very good. The fruit will keep
in storage until April or May.

Wagener: Tree, small; vigorous when young, but short
lived. Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblate; bright,
light-red stripes over pale yellow. Flesh, whitish,
slightly tinged with yellow; juicy; tender. Quality,
very good to best, being similar to the Northern Spy
in this respect. Its season extends from Oct. to Feb.

Grimes: A variety adapted to middle latitudes and on«
of the best quality apples produced. Tree, moderately
vigorous; branches, short, curved, and crooked; good
cropper. Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblong.
Flesh, yellow;' firm; tender. Can be kept until Jan. oi
Feb. in cold storage.

Rome, or Rome Beauty: Does well in the latitude of
New Jersey and Southern Ohio. Tree, not particularly
vigorous, but attains medium size and bears early.
Fruit, medium to very large; roundish; red mixed with
yellow. Skin, thick; tough; smooth. Flesh, nearly
white, with a slight tinge of yellow or green; juicy;
crisp; of an agreeable taste; good quality. The fruit is
used both for dessert and for cooking purposes. The
season extends to about April or May.

100 FRUIT CULTURE

Stark: Tree, vigorous; large; a reliable cropper, and
very productive. Fruit, medium to large; red mixed
with dull green or yellow. Flesh, yellowish and firm;
quality, fair to good. The apples can often be kept in
storage until May. A variety widely grown in the central
part of the United States.

PRUNING OF APPLES

When the young apple tree from the nursery is planted
it should be cut back and the head started about 25^2 to
3 ft. from the ground. If the branches are properly
placed, the three or four best ones should be cut back
to stubs 10 to 15 in. in length; these branches should
be strong and be spaced about 6 in. apart on the trunk.
If the branches on the tree are not properly placed so
that a good head can be started, cut off all the branches,
leaving the trunk merely a whip, and form the head
from the new shoots that are sent out.

There is much difference of opinion in regard to the
subsequent pruning of the apple tree. Some authorities
give detailed instructions as to just how and when an
apple tree should be pruned, and the approximate dis-
tances the tree should be cut back at different ages.
Taking the average experience of a large number of
growers, however, it seems that the best results have
not been obtained by heavy pruning, but rather by
moderate pruning, and that the least cutting possible
should be done, consistent with training the tree into
such form that each individual fruit will receive as
much light as possible, and with keeping the tree in
such form that spraying and harvesting can be done
to the best advantage. The most economical way of
pruning is to pinch out, and train the growth of the
branches during the summer so that only the limbs
that are desirable are permitted to grow. This will
save cutting out a large quantity of wood later on, and
the branches permitted to grow in this way usually grow
larger than those pruned during the dormant season.

FRUIT CULTURE 101

From year to year after the tree has once been properly
started, it should be developed according to some
definite system. Each of the original three or four
main branches should be headed back some the second
spring and two branches allowed to develop on each of
them, the branches coming off at different points and
growing in such directions that the top of the tree
will be balanced and open. That year, during the
summer, the growth on these laterals should be limited to
two or three branches, chosen with the same end in view,
as in the case of the first laterals. This system of se-
lecting branches should be continued for 3 or 4 yr. until
the main framework of the tree has been built up.

After the framework of the tree has been built up,
the quantity of wood cut from the tree should be
gradually reduced, until only the removal of misplaced
and diseased branches will be needed. When the trees
approach bearing age care should be taken to leave the
fruit spurs on the tree and to keep the bearing wood
low and well distributed in all parts of the tree so that
the load of fruit may be well carried and easy of access.

Future injury to the tree is prevented if the pruning
is well and neatly done. No stubs should be left, the
cuts being made flush with the limb from which a
branch is pruned. All large cuts that will not heal over
in a short time should be painted with a good white lead
and linseed-oil paint. This painting of the wounds is very
important and should never be neglected.

SPRAYING OF APPLES
The principal insects attacking the apple are the bud
tnoth, canker worm, coddling moth, apple maggot, cigar-
case bearers, San Jose scale, oyster-shell scale, scurfy
scale, leaf-blister mite, round-headed borer, and apple-
tent caterpillar. The principal diseases of the apple are
scab, fire blight, black rot, sometimes called New York
apple-tree canker, and bitter rot.

102 FRUIT CULTURE

In order to control the insects and diseases of the
apple that can be controlled by spraying the following
system of spraying will be found effective:

1. During the season when the trees are dormant and
just as the leaf buds are swelling but before they are
open, spray with lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.03 — that
is, concentrated lime-sulphur of 33° Baume diluted
1 to 8 with water) to which has been added 2 lb. of
arsenate of lead to each SO gal. of solution. This
spraying is for the control of the San Jose scale, leaf-
blister mite, bud moth, and cigar-case bearer. It is gen-
erally known as the dormant spray.

2. After the leaf buds are open, but just before the
fruit blossoms open, or about the time when the fruit
blossoms are beginning to look pink at the tips, spray
with a dilute lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.007, that
is, concentrated lime-sulphur of 33° Baume diluted
1 to 40 with water). Bordeaux mixture (8 lb. copper
sulphate, 4 lb. lime, water-slaked, 50 gal. water), may
be used instead of the dilute lime-sulphur, but it is
likely to cause some damage to the foliage or fruit or
to both. Whichever of these solutions is used, arsenate
of lead should be added (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead to
50 gal. of the other spray solution). This combined
fungicide-insecticide spray is for the control of the
apple scab, bud moth, cigar-case bearer, and canker
worm.

3. After the petals have begun to fall from the apple
blossoms, starting when about two-thirds of them have
fallen, spray with the solution given in paragraph
2, preferably with the lime-sulphur-arsenate-of-lead solu-
tion. This spraying is for the control of the apple
scabj leaf spot, coddling moth, canker worm, and bud
moth, and is the most important of all the applications.

4. From 10 to 14 da. later another application of the
solution given in paragraph 2 should be made for the
control of apple scab, leaf spot, coddling moth, and
canker worm.

FRUIT CULTURE 103

5. From 8 to 9 wk. after the blossoms fall the spray-
ing described in paragraph 2 should again be repeated
for any late infections of the apple scab that may occur,
and also for any of the later brood of the coddling moth.
Though in most seasons this application will not be
found necessary, the work is not so expensive but that
it generally pays to apply it.

6. In case the green aphis attacks the foliage, spray
thoroughly, before the leaves begin to curl, with a
whale-oil soap solution (1 lb. whale-oil soap to 6 gal. of
water), or with a tobacco preparation guaranteed to con-
tain 2.7 per cent, of nicotine diluted with 65 to 100
parts of water, or with kerosene emulsion diluted in the
proportion of 1 part of emulsion to 6 parts of water.

The importance of applying all of these sprays thor-
oughly and at the right time cannot be too greatly
emphasized.

PEACHES

VARIETIES OF PEACHES
Early Varieties. — The following are the principal early
varieties of peaches that are used in commercial plant-
ings:

Greensboro: Very early. Fruit, white fleshed; medium
to large; oblong to oval, often somewhat flattened;
clingstone; fair flavor, rather soft for distance ship-
ment. Tree, hardy and productive. Best market peach
of its season and profitable where an early peach is in
demand. Inferior to Carman in flavor and shipping
quality, but ripens 2 wk. earlier.

Waddell: Early. Fruit, white fleshed; medium size;
oblong conic; semi-clingstone; flavor better than
Greensboro; better for shipment than Greensboro. Tree,
hardy and productive. Fruit needs to be thinned
severely to reach good size; ripens only a few days in
advance of Carman. Can be used to start the Carman
season, especially in local markets.

104 FRUIT CULTURE

Carman: Ripens a few days after Waddell. Fruit,
white fleshed; large; round to oval; semi-clingstone;
flavor, medium to good; shipping quality, fair to good.
Tree, hardy and productive. Regarded as the first im-
portant early shipping variety. More hardy and pro-
ductive than Elberta in most sections, but not high enough
in flavor for a good canning peach.

St. John: Earliest yellow-fleshed market variety.
Fruit, yellow-fleshed; medium size; round, blunt at apex;
freestone; flavor, high; rather soft for distance shipment.
Tree, fairly hardy and productive in some localities.

Mountain Rose: Medium early; ripens about 7 to 9
da. after Carman. Fruit, white fleshed; medium size;
nearly round, blunt at apex; freestone; high prominent
flavor; shipping quality, fair. Tree, fairly hardy and
in favorable seasons, productive; less hardy than Greens-
boro, Carman, and Hiley.

Hiley, or Early Belle: Medium early fruit, white
fleshed; large; oblong conic, apex pointed; freestone;
high quality and flavor. This variety has taken the
place of Mountain Rose in some localities, as it is hardier,
of better shipping quality, and ripens at the same
season.

Brigg's Red May: Early-ripening variety in California.
Fruit, medium to large; skin white, with rich red cheek;
round; semi-clingstone. Standard early variety.

Alexander: Widely grown early variety in California.
Fruit, greenish white, nearly covered with deep red;
medium to large; semi-clingstone; flesh, firm, juicy, and
sweet; bears transportation well.

Mid-Season Varieties.— The following are the prin-
cipal mid-season varieties of peaches used in commercial
plantings:

Champion : Ripens about 5 to 8 da. after Mountain
Rose or Hiley. Fruit, white fleshed; large; round, blunt
at apex; freestone; flavor regarded as the highest;
rather tender for distance shipment, otherwise a good
market variety. Tree, hardy and productive.

FRUIT CULTURE 105

Belle of Georgia: Ripens a few days before Elberta,
and a few days after Champion begins. Fruit, white
fleshed; large; oblong conic, apex pointed; freestone;
high flavor; especially desirable for distance shipments;
very firm. Tree, hardy and productive. Good variety
both for market and for the home garden.

Reeve's Favorite: Ripens about the same time as Belle
of Georgia. Fruit, yellow fleshed; very large; round,
with blunt apex; freestone; high flavor; good shipping
quality. Tree, less hardy than Early Crawford; lacks
productiveness as generally grown.

Foster: Widely grown in California where it ripens
just before or about the time of Early Crawford. Fruit,
yellow fleshed; uniformly large; slightly flattened, with
slight suture; freestone; flavor, good, rich, and juicy.
Tree, hardy and productive.

Oldmixon: Ripens about with Early Crawford. Fruit,
white fleshed; large; roundish, or slightly oval in shape;
flavor, excellent; flesh, juicy.

Early Crawford: Ripens about 7 to 9 da. before
Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; medium sized; requires
severe thinning to be of best size; round oval, blunt at
apex; freestone; high quality; rather tender for ship-
ping. Tree, rather tender in bud; fairly productive.

Elberta: Ripens a few days later than Belle of
Georgia. Fruit, yellow fleshed; very large; oblong oval,
often somewhat flattened; freestone; medium to good
quality according to locality; firm; excellent for shipping.
Tree, hardy and productive. Most popular market peach
grown.

Ede: Ripens about with Elberta. Fruit, yellow
fleshed; large; round oval conic; freestone; higher in
flavor than Elberta; shipping quality good. Tree, hardy
and productive.

Frances: Ripens a few days after Elberta. Fruit,
yellow fleshed; large; round to oval; freestone; high
flavor; good shipping quality. Tree, hardy and pro-
ductive.

106 FRUIT CULTURE

Late Varieties. — The following are the main late vari-
eties of peaches used in commercial plantings:

Fox Seedling: Ripens about 10 to 14 da. after Elberta.
Fruit, white fleshed; large; oval to conic; freestone;
flavor good; shipping quality, good. Tree, medium hardy
and productive. Best commercial variety of its season.

Muir: California variety. Ripens a few days before
Late Crawford. Fruit, large to very large; freestone;
flesh, yellow; flavor, excellent; fruit good both for
shipment and canning, and also particularly adapted
for drying. Tree, good bearer and strong grower.

Neu'liall: Grown largely in California. Ripens with
or sometimes a few days before Late Crawford. Fruit,
yellow fleshed; very large; freestone; flavor rich, some-
what vinous. Tree, hardy, healthy, and vigorous.

Late Crawford: Ripens from 10 to 14 da. later than
Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large, round to oval,
blunt at apex; freestone; flavor, good, but rather acid;
shipping quality, fair to good. Tree, rather tender in
bud, and, therefore, variable in productivity.

Smock: Ripens from 10 to 14 da. later than Elberta.
Fruit, yellow fleshed: medium to large; oblong to oval;
freestone; flavor, fair; flesh, rather dry; shipping quality
good. Tree, hardy and productive. Old variety, grown
commercially in some districts.

Edgcmont Beauty: Ripens about 10 to 14 da. later
than Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large; round to
oval, pointed at apex; freestone; shipping quality good.
Tree of the Crawford type, but appears to be slightly
more hardy and productive.

Iron Mountain : Ripens 5 to 6 da. later than Edge-
mont or Late Crawford. Fruit, white fleshed; skin,
greenish white; large; oblong to oval; freestone; high
quality; firm. Tree, vigorous, hardy, and productive.

Krummel October: Ripens 7 to 10 da. after Late
Crawford. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large; freestone;
round, blunt at apex; quality, high; good shipper.
Tree, medium hardy and productive.

FRUIT CULTURE 107

Salway: Ripens 2 wk. after Late Crawford. Fruit,
yellow fleshed; medium to large; round to oval;
freestone; flavor good where season permits of thorough
ripening; shipping quality good. Tree, requires long
season and good soil to be medium hardy and pro-
ductive.

Yellow Tuscany: Late variety, grown extensively in
southern California. Ripens about 2 wk. later than
Late Crawford; fruit, yellow fleshed; large; clingstone;
especially desirable for canning. Tree, productive and
a strong grower.

Bilyeu: Ripens about a month later than Late Craw-
ford. Fruit, white fleshed; medium to large; round to
oval; freestone; quality fair; very firm. Tree, hardy
and productive where season is long and soil rich.

Staley: Late variety grown extensively in California;
ripens about 3 wk. after Salway. Fruit, white fleshed;
very large; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally;
freestone; flavor, delicious; flesh, very juicy and tender.

PRUNING OF PEACHES

Before a young peach tree from the nursery is planted,
the top should be cut back to about 2 ft. above the bud.
If the side branches that are left are large they should
be pruned back to stubs 2 to 3 in. long; if they are
slender, the tree should be cut back to a cane. All
injured roots should be cut back smoothly, and all of
the roots should be cut back to not exceed 6 in. in
length.

The pruning the second spring should be with the
object of retaining the strongest two, three, or four
main branches that will tend to form the strongest and
best balanced tree; all other branches should be pruned
off close to the trunk.

The pruning the third spring consists in thinning out
the secondary branches that, when the tree becomes
larger, would exclude the light. Where two branches
take up much the same space, the weaker or more

108 FRUIT CULTURE

irregular branch should be removed. The branches left
should be cut back from a third to a half of the previous
season's growth, and if a tree possesses some branches
that have made an excessive or irregular growth, these
branches should be cut back even more severely in
order to maintain a well-balanced top.

Beginning with the fourth spring, when the form of
the tree has become well established, and continuing
throughout the life of the tree, the pruning consists in
cutting back the annual growth about a third to a
half on the leading branches, and in keeping
the top well thinned. The cutting back of the tips of
the branches will tend to cause a thickening of the
top, thus making the thinning of the top a necessity.
In cutting back any leading branch, the cut should
be made just above or beyond a side branch, or if no
such side branch exists, the cutting should be made
to a bud on the outside of the branch. Any broken
branches should be cut off smoothly where they join
another branch.

The annual cutting back of bearing peach trees re-
duces the bearing surface and may considerably reduce
the crop, because the peach- bears its fruit principally
on the previous season's wood or twig growth, although
some of the fruit is produced on spurs and short twigs
that develop on portions of branches that are 2 and in
some cases even 3 yr. old. Most commercial varieties
of peaches, however, set such an abundance of fruit buds
that some annual cutting back is necessary to keep them
from overbearing and to retain the vigor of the tree.

Unpruned peach trees frequently produce a somewhat
larger crop the first season than trees that have been
regularly pruned, but after the first or second crop the
pruned trees generally produce the larger crop, as they
are likely to be more vigorous and to have a greater
annual growth. Peach trees that are regularly pruned
are much longer lived than unpruned trees, and the
buds are less likely to be injured in winter.

FRUIT CULTURE 109

SPRAYING OF PEACHES

The principal insects attacking the peach are the
peach borer, plum curculio, and San Jose scale. The
principal diseases of the peach are brown rot, black
spot, or scab, leaf curl, and yellows. Spraying is not
effective for yellows, the only known means of control
being to take out and burn diseased trees as soon as
they are discovered.

The following method of spraying should be followed
for peaches:

1. Spray, before the buds open, with lime-sulphur
mixture (at sp. gr. 1.03 to sp. gr. 1.035 — that is,
concentrated lime-sulphur of 33° to 34° Baume diluted
1 to 8 or 1 to 9 with water) for the control of scale and
peach-leaf curl.

2. Spray just after petals fall from blooms with a
mixture of 2 to 3 lb. arsenate-of-lead paste to 50 gal. of
water to control the curculio.

3. Spray when calyx is being shed from the fruit with
self-boiled lime-sulphur (about 8 lb. sulphur, 8 lb. lime,
50 gal. water) to which has been added 2 to 3 lb. arsenate
of lead for each SO gal. of solution, for the control of
curculio, scab, and brown rot.

4. Spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (same formula
as given in paragraph 3) about 3 wk. after the third
spraying for the control of scab and brown rot.

5. For mid-season and late varieties, such as Cham-
pion, Elberta, Fox Seedling, Salway, and Bilyeau,
spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (same formula as
given in paragraph 3) about 2 wk. after the fourth
spraying, for the control of scab and brown rot.

110 FRUIT CULTURE

PEARS

VARIETIES OF PEARS

Of the many thousand varieties of pears the following
are the most important commercially; they are named
approximately in the order in which they mature, the
summer, fall, winter, varieties being given in the order
named:

Bloodgood : Of considerable importance throughout
California. Tree, generally hardy, close grower, having
deep reddish-brown wood; short jointed; comes into
bearing early and bears an abundance of fruit. Fruit,
yellowish-white flesh; though fairly good in flavor is not
very attractive in appearance.

Clapp's Favorite: Tree, very strong grower; young
wood, reddish, dark brown; tree tends to rather upright
growth, but when fruiting will spread considerably;
bears its fruit evenly and is very productive. Flesh
very fine and very juicy, being sweet and vinous in
flavor.

Barflett: European variety and known in Europe as
the Williams Bonchretien. It is the king of pears com-
mercially, has a very good market, and is one of the
most profitable varieties. Tree comes into bearing early;
generally healthy and vigorous, making a strong growth
but varying somewhat in fruitfulness. Fruit, large,
varying somewhat in form; when ripe is of a yellowish
color, often with an attractive blush on one side; flesh,
white and juicy; has a musky and perfumed flavor.

Bcurrc Hardy: In different localities may be a sum-
mer pear, an early autumn pear, and in some localities
it becomes a late autumn pear. Tree, a strong, erect
grower, with an abundance of foliage. Fruit, somewhat
sub-acid but of rich, delicious flavor, and is well re-
ceived in some markets.

Flemish Beauty: Popular variety, being known by more
than twenty names. Tree, vigorous and hardy; tends

FRUIT CULTURE 111

to come into bearing early; heavy bearer. Fruit, gen-
erally large, yellow, often marbled and covered with
patches of light russet; flesh, white, juicy, sweet, and
often slightly musky in flavor. On the Pacific coast
it must be picked early and ripened in the house to be
of the best quality.

Seckel: Very small pear, but what it lacks in size
is made up in quality. Fruit, very sweet and juicy,
making a delightful pear for eating, pickling, or
spicing. Because of small size, does not meet with
much demand in many markets, but those markets that
do know it appreciate it highly and will pay good
prices when it is well grown. Tree, generally small,
with a rather rounded head; likely to be a rather slow
grower, but is fairly hardy and generally healthy.

Howell: Increasing in popularity on the Pacific coast,
due largely to its handsome appearance and tendency to
be an annual bearer. Fruit, light yellow, often with a
red cheek; flesh, white and melting, generally juicy.
Tree, generally vigorous grower of upright habit; comes
into bearing early and bears annually.

Sheldon: Very popular pear in parts of the East; often
troubled with core rot, due no doubt to its hanging on
the tree too long. Tree, upright grower, vigorous, and
early, generally producing a round-headed tree and
tending to be a good bearer. Fruit, of medium size and
roundish; greenish yellow; often has a light russet
color, and at times becomes a bright red where e.xposed
to the sun; sweet, aromatic, juicy.

Duchesse d' AngouUme: Grown extensively along At-
lantic seaboard. When well grown it is an attractive
pear of good quality, but must be well grown to be
profitable. Fruit, varies in size, from large to very
large; greenish yellow, with more or less streaks and
spots of russet; flesh, white, juicy, and fine in flavor.
Tree, generally vigorous and does very well grafted on
the quince; is often used in double working for other
varieties.
9

112 FRUIT CULTURE

Bcurre Bosc: Unfortunately, not as well known in
America as it should be. When well grown, is one of
the most delicious varieties to be found anywhere; its
unattractive appearance has been against it, but as
people come to know it better, the demand is constantly
increasing. Fruit, large size and generally tapering;
color varying from dark yellow to green, often covered
with a cinnamon russet; there may also be streaks or
dots of red on the fruit; in some regions fruit becomes
almost entirely russet; flavor very delicious; has a
melting buttery, very rich flesh. Holds in storage well.

Bcurre Clairgeau: Fruit, very large and of pyriform
shape; apt to vary in size; color, very yellow; often
contains some cinnamon streaks covered with russet
dots; varies extremely in quality; because of its at-
tractiveness, often brings high prices and at times one
of the most profitable varieties. Tree, an erect grower,
and very vigorous, has handsome foliage, is a heavy
bearer, and comes into bearing early.

Beurre d'Anjou: Becoming one of most popular pears
on Pacific coast, also popular in many of the Eastern
States. Fruit, very good quality and in good modern
storage house can be held until Jan. or even Feb.; gen-
erally large and has a pyriform shape; stem short;
color, generally greenish yellow — may have trace of
russet and at times a shade of crimson on the sunny
side; flesh, fine grained, very juicy; flavor rich, gen-
erally perfumed. Tree, in some parts of the country
is a fair grower, and in other regions a rank grower.

Doyenne dn Cornice: French variety and has prac-
tically brought top prices for American pears, having
sold as high as $10 per box in the Rogue River Valley;
one of the favorite English Christmas pears and holds
up very well in cold storage. Tree, fairly vigorous, up-
right grower, although with age becoming rather broad
and spreading; unfortunately, comes into bearing late
and is not very productive. Fruit, generally large, of
pyriform type; color, greenish yellow and often russeted;

FRUIT CULTURE 113

on the sunny side becomes shaded with crimson; quality,
highest; flesh, white, melting, and has an abundance of
sweet, rich juice.

Glout Morceau: An old pear, formerly grown quite ex-
tensively in the East, but on account of susceptibility
to scab and blight is not grown as much as formerly,
should, however, receive more attention. Tree, has a
dark wood; generally of a spreading habit, usually
hardy, and although it does not come into bearing early,
when matured produces good crops and tends to bear
regularly. Good variety to use as a dwarf. Fruit, highly
prized by English trade, being on a par with Comice;
varies somewhat in form; generally large; of a short
pyriform type, at times approaching an oval; color,
pale greenish yellow; flesh is very fine grained, white,
melting, sugary, and extremely delicious.

Kieffer: Hybrid, supposed to be a cross between
Chinese sand pear and Bartlett or some similar variety;
has become the most popular variety in the South and
parts of the Middle West; increasing in popularity,
especially as a cooking pear; has been one of the most
resistant to the blight. Fruit, ships and keeps well;
probably stands rougher handling than most European
and American varieties; quality, poor for eating but
good for cooking; grows from a medium to a large size,
generally oval pyriform shape; often sprinkled with
small dots and has a tinge of red on the sunny side;
flesh, coarse and juicy.

Le Conte: Le Conte is a variety that is grown rather
extensively, especially in the South. It is supposed to
be a hybrid between the Chinese pear and some other
cultivated variety. Tree, generally vigorous, prolific,
and hardy. Fruit, like the Kieffer in quality, is poor
and is not grown in regions where the Bosc, Comice,
etc., succeed; skin is generally yellow; large, pyriform.

Eastern Beurre: Grown quite extensively on the Pa-
cific coast, especially in California; very late winter
variety, often keeping until April. Fruit, color is

114 FRUIT CULTURE

generally yellow, may contain some russet, often has a
brown cheek, and occasionally has patches of russet;
when well grown, flesh is fine, white, sweet, and juicy.
Tree, makes a moderate growth, has a round head and
under favorite conditions is a good bearer; must be
grown on good, rich soil.

Columbia: Being grown to some extent in California
and is valued in parts of the South. Tree, good bearer
and handsome grower. Fruit, yellow and when fully
matured often is deep orange.

Laurrencc : One of hardy winter varieties valued in
the East. Tree, generally a good bearer and a fair
grower. Fruit, in markets where it is known brings a
good price; color, light yellow with some russet; flavor,
generally melting, sweet, and aromatic; juicy; medium
in size.

Winter Nelis: King of the winter pears. When well
grown, reaches superb quality. Tree, however, often
comes into bearing late and the fruit often tends to
become rather small. Must be planted on deep, rich
soil and thinned well if it is to succeed. Fruit, generally
yellow in color, but may have patches of russet; when
well grown, flesh is very fine grained and buttery,
sweet, juicy, and of very good quality; generally a yellow
white. Can be kept well by proper handling.

Patrick Barry: Receives more diversity of comment
than almost any other variety, being condemned by
some and praised by others. It is one of the few
pears that can be shipped through the tropics. On the
Pacific coast it is displacing the Winter Nelis in certain
regions. Fruit, an elongated pyriform, fairly large; color,
will vary from almost a complete russet to a rich
golden russet or a deep yellow. Flesh, generally white,
juicy, and melting; may vary extremely from very
poor to fair. Tree, comes into bearing early and tends
to bear regularly. ,

FRUIT CULTURE 115

PRUNING OF PEARS

The same general principles of pruning that were
given in the discussion of the apple apply equally well
to the pear. The first 3 yr. the pruning should be
practically the same as for the apple, the laterals being
chosen and the framework being built up in the same
way.

After a pear tree comes into bearing, however, close
attention must be given to pruning, and pruning in
such a way as to produce a growth of soft, sappy
twigs or branches should be avoided, as such a growth
is easily injured by fire blight. The pruning should
be done regularly, and long, rangy branches that in
time will have to be headed in severely should not
be allowed to develop, for such heading in stimulates
a rank growth of soft wood.

Summer pruning, when properly and not too severely
done, is very effective on the pear, because it does not
tend to stimulate a growth of soft wood and tends to
throw the tree into heavy bearing. Terminal growth
of branches checked in the summer will avoid the
necessity later of heading in long, rambling branches,
and will also force the formation of twigs further down,
on the branch that in turn will bear fruit buds and
thus better distribute the crop over the tree. As many
pears have a tendency to produce a large percentage
of their buds near the tips of the branches, summer
pruning on such varieties is particularly desirable.

SPRAYING OF PEARS

The most serious insect pests of the pear are the pear
psylla, leaf-blister mite, San Jose scale, coddling moth,
and pear slug. The most destructive diseases attacking
the pear are fire blight and pear scab.

For the control of the insects and diseases of the pear
that can be controlled by spraying the following system
of spraying will be found effective;

116 FRUIT CULTURE

1. The first spraying of the pear should be the same
as for the apple, the spray solution being the same
and applied before the buds swell. This spraying is
for the control of the San Jose scale and leaf-blister
mite.

2. The second spraying of the pear is likewise given
at the same time as the second spraying of the apple
(before the blossoms open), but the fungicide used may
be weaker and no arsenate of lead is needed. In this
spraying a dilute lime-sulphur mixture (at sp. gr. 1.006
— that is 33° Baume lime-sulphur solution diluted 1 to 50
with water) should be used; if Bordeaux is preferred, the
same Bordeaux as used for the second spraying of the
apple may be used. This spray application is for the
control of the pear scab.

3. While the petals of the blossoms are still falling
and the calyx is still open, spray with arsenate of
lead (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead, SO gal. water) and the
same lime-sulphur solution given in paragraph 2. This
spraying is for the control of the codling moth, pear
scab, and any other fungous diseases present.

4. After the blossoms have fallen, spray with dilute
kerosene-soap emulsion (1 part kerosene-soap emulsion
stock solution, 6 parts water), or whale-oil soap (1 lb.
whale-oil soap, 4 or 5 gal. water), or one of the tobacco
extracts (a preparation guaranteed to contain at least
2.7 per cent, nicotine diluted with 65 to 100 parts of
water). This spraying is for the control of the pear
psylla and should be repeated at intervals of 3 to 7 da.
until the insects are under control.

5. From 10 to 14 da. after the spraying described in
paragraph 3, spray with the same lime-sulphur-arsenate-
of-lead solution. This is principally for the control of
the coddling moth and pear scab.

6. For the entire control of the coddling moth, an
arsenate-of-lead spray (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead,
SO gal. water) may have to be applied in July, Aug., or
even as late as Sept.

FRUIT CULTURE 117

7. The green aphis is controlled in the same way as
on the apple. This pest should be sprayed for as soon
as it appears, before the leaves curl, and is easy to
control if this rule is followed. The green aphis has a
number of broods and can rarely be controlled with
one spraying.

8. The fire blight of the pear cannot be controlled by
spraying. Prune out all affected parts as soon as in-
fection is detected, cutting from 6 to 10 in. below the
lowest affected part. Disinfect all cut surfaces with
corrosive-sublimate solution (1 part corrosive sublimate
to 1,000 parts of water). Coat all large wounds with
paint or gas tar.

GRAPES

VARIETIES OF GRAPES

Not less than 300 varieties of grapes are offered by
nurserymen to the grape growers of the United States.
The following list of varieties of grapes includes those
of the various classes that are generally considered the
most important commercially. The varieties are ar-
ranged under the botanical groups to which they belong,
a list of varieties being given, and then the par-
ticularly important ones being described.

Vinifera Grapes.— Black Ferrara, Black Hamburg,
Black Morocco, Cornichon, Emperor, Gros Colman, Ma-
laga, Mission, Muscat, Palomino, Rose of Peru, Sultana,
Thompson's Seedless, Tokay, Verdal.

Black Ferrara: In California, considered excellent both
for local market and for shipping a long distance.
Bunches and berries, large, and berries cling well to
stem; berries, black; flavor, superior; skin, thick; and
pulp, firm.

Cornichon: Also known as Purple Cornichon and Black
Cornichon. Vine, very vigorous and bears large, loose,
bunches of grapes on long peduncles; berries, large and
long, more or less curved; skin, dark in color, spotted

118 FRUIT CULTURE

and thick; berries, borne on long pedicles; qudllty, not
of the best, but variety is desirable because of its ex-
cellent shipping qualities, lateness, and curious shape of
the grapes.

Malaga, or White Malaga: Is grown in southern Cali-
fornia as a table grape and for raisins. Vine, vigorous;
bunch, very large, loose, shouldered, long, borne on a
long, flexible stem; berries, very large, oval, yellowish
green, covered with white bloom; skin, thick; flesh
firm; of very good quality.

Mission: Delicious table grape, grown more or less in
all parts of California having vineyards, but not largely
shipped out of the state. Vines, very vigorous and pro-
ductive. Bunches, of medium size, slightly shouldered,
loose; berries, of medium size, round, dark-purplish
black, heavy bloom; skin, thin; pulp, juicy; very sweet.

Muscat, or White Muscat of Alexandria : Leading table
grape of Pacific coast. Vines, although short and
straggling, are vigorous and productive, bearing often
two and sometimes three crops annually; bunch, long,
loose, shouldered; berry, oblong, light yellow, nearly
transparent, covered with bloom; skin, thick; pulp,
firm; very sweet, rich, with a musky flavor.

Thompson's Seedless: Vines, very vigorous, having an
especially long trunk and long canes; bunch, large,
cylindrical, well filled; berries, below medium or small,
oval; skin, rather thick, of fine golden-yellow color;
flesh, firm, crisp, juicy; quality, very good; as name
implies, this variety is seedless and is now the most
popular seedless grape grown on the Pacific coast, being
found in vineyards in all parts of Vinifera grape-growing
regions.

Tokay, or Flame Tokay: Leading shipping grape of
Pacific coast. Vines, very vigorous, all parts being
large; bunches, very large, sometimes weighing 8 or 10
lb., compact shouldered; berries, very large, oblong, red
or reddish, covered with heavy bloom; skin, thick; pulp,
firm; season, late; quality, rather poor.

FRUIT CULTURE 119

Labrusca Grapes. — Agawam, Brighton, Campbell Early,
Catawba, Concord, Diamond, Eaton, Empire State, Gaert-
ner, Herbert, lona, Jefferson, Salem, Vergennes, Win-
chell, VVorden, Niagara.

Agawam: Best known of the hybrids between La-
brusca and Vinifera grapes. Qualities which commend
it are large size of bunch and berry; beautiful purplish-
red, oval grapes; rich, sweet, aromatic flavor; attractive
appearance; excellent keeping qualities, vigor of vine,
and capacity for self-fertilization.

Catawba: One of the four standard grapes of eastern
America. Characters which give it prominence are:
adaptability to. many soils; splendid keeping qualities;
rich, sweet delicious flavor when fully ripe; vigorous,
hardy, productive vine; large handsome bunch, with
attractive dull purple-red berries; skin, thick but not
disagreeable; flesh, juicy, fine grained, sweet, and rich.
The chief defects of the variety is that it is susceptible
to fungi, and its lateness keeps it from being grown in
very northern regions.

Concord: Ranks first among the grapes of eastern
America. Probably 50% of the grapes grown in this
eastern region are Concords and at least 75% of those put
on the markets are that variety. Characters of Con-
cord which have enabled it to take first place in eastern
America viticulture are: elasticity of constitution-
whereby it adapts itself to many soils and climates; its
great productiveness; hardiness; ability to withstand
diseases and insects; certainty of maturity in northern
regions; and attractiveness from size of bunch and
berry, both of which are usually uniform, the latter of
a beautiful blue-black color.

Diamond: One of leading green grapes of the La-
brusca group, being surpassed in quality and beauty by
few other grapes. Vine, early, hardy, productive, vigor-
ous. Fruit, of splendid quality; rivals Niagara for first
place among green grapes; ships and keeps fairly well,
and makes a very good white wine.

120 FRUIT CULTURE

Warden : Seedling of Concord and has most of the
good qualities of its parent; differs chiefly from Con-
cord in having larger berries and bunches, in being
better in quality, and in being a week earlier; equally
as hardy, healthy, vigorous, and productive. Its fault
that keeps it from being as popular as the Concord
is that it is more fastidious as to soils and the berries
crack badly.

Niagara: Has been leading green grape, but plantings
of it have so signally failed that it is now ranked
below several other green grapes. In vigor and pro-
ductiveness, nearly equals the Concord, but it falls far
short of this variety, and of a number of green grapes,
in hardiness. Fruit, although highly esteemed by many,
has too much foxiness to be high in quality; shell
badly and do not keep well; of no value for wine
making; ripens about with Concord; clusters, of medium
size or large, usually shouldered, compact; berries,
large, oval, light green or pale yellow; skin, thin,
tender, astringent; seeds, separate easily from the
pulp, rather numerous, and of large size.

Aestivalis Grapes.— Cynthiana, Norton, Berckmans,
Delaware, Herbemont, Lenoir, Moir, Walter.

Norton: Leading wine grape in eastern America, but
the fruit has small value for any other purpose. Vine,
hardy, but requires a long, warm season to mature its
fruit; has great adaptability to different soils, but
thrives particularly well in rich alluvial soils; vines are
robust, very productive, as free or more so from diseases
than any other native grape, and very resistant to
insects. Bunches, of medium size. Berries small, almost
black; pulp, firm, rich, and spicy; pure-flavored but acid;
skin, thick; fruit keeps well.

Delaware: Standard grape in quality for eastern
America. Vines, productive, hardy, and adapted to many
soils and conditions; fairly immune to fungous diseases;
next to the Concord, probably most popular grape for
garden, commercial vineyard, and wine press now grown

FRUIT CULTURE 121

in eastern United States. Fruit, matures sufficiently
early to make crop certain; its handsome red color
makes it attractive; grapes keep and ship well. Faults
are: Small size of vine, bunch and berry, and slowness
of growth; suffers very seriously from the depredations
of robins.

Riparia Grapes. — Bacchus, Canada, Clinton, Elvira,
Janesville, Noah.

Bacchus: Wine grape grown from seed of Clinton,
an older and better known grape, which it much re-
sembles in vine characters, but surpasses in quality
of fruit and in productiveness; little by little it is
superseding its parent. Vines, vigorous, hardy, pro-
ductive, free from mildew, and adapted to a great
variety of soils. Bunches and berries, small, latter
dark red; quality does not fit it for a dessert grape,
being too sour, yet if left until after frosts it becomes
very good.

Noah: Rather largely grown in Missouri, where it is
much used for wine making. Vine, remarkable for
health and productiveness. Fruit, green, one of the few
good Riparia grapes of this color. Clusters, for one of its
species, are large, as are also the berries. Fruit ripens
with the Concord or a little later, and neither keeps
nor ships well. Seeds separate with difficulty from the
pulp and are numerous; pulp, tough, juicy, and rather
acid. Used for making white wines.

Rotundifolia Grapes.— James, Thomas, Mish, Flowers,
Memory, Scuppernong.

James: Probably best general-purpose Rotundifolia
grape for the South. Ripens toward the end of Aug.
and remain on vines 2 or 3 wk. longer. Vines, vig-
orous, productive, healthy; bunches bear from 4 to 12
large, blue-black grapes of large size; skin, thin; pulp,
sweet and juicy; quality, very good.

Flowers: One of the very late Rotundifolias, ripening
last of Sept. and remaining on the vine until last
of Oct. Vines, vigorous, healthy, and exceedingly

122 FRUIT CULTURE

productive; bunches, bearing from 10 to 20 purplish-
black, oblong, large berries; skin, thick and tough;
acid, pulpy; quality, good only "when very ripe.

Memory: Considered best Rotundifolia table giape.
Vines, vigorous and productive; bunches, bearing from
4 to 12 large, round, brownish-black berries; skin, thick
and tough; pulp, juicy, sweet, tender; of very best
quality.

Scuppernoug: Oldest of cultivated varieties of Rotun-
difolia grapes, and still largely cultivated; also lightest
in color of the varieties commonly cultivated, being a
brownish amber. Vines, very vigorous, very healthy, and
very productive. Bunches bear from 6 to 10 large ber-
ries; skin, thin; pulp, sweet, juicy, vinous, and with a
peculiar flavor characteristic of this variety; quality,
very good.

PRUNING AND TRAINING THE GRAPE

In discussing the pruning of the grape, the following
technical terms are often used:

Trunk — the body of the vine when 2 or more yr. old.

Arm — a branch from the trunk when 2 or more yr. old.

Cane — l-yr.-old branch of an arm or of the trunk.

Spur— A very short but annually lengthening arm,
from w-hich cane renewals are made.

Shoot — a growing, leafy branch of the current season.

When young grape vines are to be planted in per-
manent places in a vineyard, the roots should be rather
severely cut back, usually leaving stubs from 6 to 10 in.
in length, and all dead or injured roots cut out. The
top almost always should be cut back to a single cane
and to two or three buds.

The aim for the first two or three seasons should be to
develop a good root system; to accomplish this the
growth of the first summer is cut back, late in the
winter or early in the spring, to two buds, leaving the
vines in apparently the same condition as at setting.
At the end of the first year all grapes to be grown on

FRUIT CULTURE 123

trellises should be tied up to keep them out of the
way of the cultivator. Grapes to be grown on stakes
are staked at this age also.

Any fruit set the second season should be removed
before it has attained much size. Two years after
setting, the vines should be ready to train permanently
on the trellis or stakes, as the case may be. East of
the Rocky Mouutains all species of grapes are grown
commercially on trellises, or on wires stretched on
posts. On the Pacific coast they are nearly always
grown on stakes.

Whatever the method of pruning and training chosen,
the grower must keep in mind the relationship of the
wood to fruit bearing; that is, grapes are borne on the
base of shoots of the same year's growth, which in
their turn spring from the canes of the preceding year.

The average yield for a Concord grape vine is about
IS lb. In order to produce this quantity, from forty to
sixty clusters of grapes are required. As each shoot
bears from two to three clusters, usually two, twenty
to thirty buds must be left on the previous year's
growth, or sufficient spurs to furnish the required
number of clusters. These buds might be left on a
single cane; but usually two, three, or more canes are
selected, variously distributed on one or two main stems
in accordance with different systems of training and
trimming. Good pruning, then, consists in removing all
wood except canes or spurs sufficient to furnish the
shoots necessary for the desired number of clusters.

The time for pruning grapes extends from the dropping
of the leaves in the fall to a period just before the
swelling of the buds in the spring. Some vineyardists
prune after a vigorous flow of the sap has begun and
claim that no serious injury results, but such bleeding
must be devitalizing to the vines. In sections where
winters are severe it is often necessary, in order to
prevent freezing, to cover the vines in position or to
lay them on the ground for covering. To lessen the

124 FRUIT CULTURE

area to be covered, it is best to prune some before
covering. In such pruning it is advisable to leave more
wood than is actually needed for the next year's crop,
as there is danger of some of the buds being broken
off or of the canes being otherwise injured by the
covering and uncovering. It is seldom advisable to
prune when vines are actually frozen, as frozen canes
are brittle and easily broken during handling.

Where the vines are in a vigorous condition the
system of training to be adopted becomes somewhat
optional with the grower, although there is no doubt
that certain varieties do best when trained to a certain
type. For example, it is generally agreed that strong-
growing varieties like the Concord, Niagara, and others
do best when trained with the shoots drooping, and the
weaker and slower-growing varieties like the Delaware
can be best trained to some form in which the shoots
are upright, other conditions being the same.

SPRAYING OF GRAPES

The most serious insect pests attacking the grape are
phylloxera, grape-vine fidia or grape root worm, grape-
vine flea beetle or steely flea beetle, grape leaf hopper,
grape-berry moth, and the rose chafer. Some one or
several of these pests must be reckoned with in most
parts of the country.

The serious diseases of the grape are black rot,
downy mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnose, and
chlorosis, or yellow leaf.

The best method of spraying for the control of such
insects and diseases of the grape that can be controlled
by spraying will vary. The following, however, will serve
as a guide:

1. For the control of the grape-vine flea beetle, spray
thoroughly just before the buds begin to swell with
arsenate-of-lead solution (4 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal.
water). Later in the season, when the worms appear on
the leaves, arsenate of lead should be added to one of

FRUIT CULTURE 125

the Bordeaux sprayings (8 lb. arsenate of lead to 150 gal.
Bordeaux mixture).

2. If anthracnose has to be combated, apply to the
surface of the canes when the buds are swelling, but
before they begin to open, a warm, saturated solution
of copperas (iron sulphate), to which may be added if
necessary lo make it stronger, 1% of sulphuric acid.
This solution is very caustic and should be handled
with care. If the saturated solution of copperas is used
alone the solution may be sprayed on, but if the
sulphuric acid has been added, it is safer to apply it
to the canes with a swab. Thoroughness is essential in
this work, as all the surface of the canes must be cov-
ered if the solution is to be effective. Anthracnose is
not satisfactorily controlled by Bordeaux alone.

3. For the control of the black rot, and incidentally
for the control of downy mildew and powdery mildew,
spray with Bordeaux mixture (4 lb. copper sulphate,
4 lb. lime, water slaked, and 50 gal. water) just as the
pink tips of the first leaves appear.

4. From 10 to 14 da. after the spraying described in
paragraph 3, spray again with the same strength Bor-
deaux for the same troubles.

5. Repeat the spraying just after blossoming.

6. Repeat the spraying in from 10 to 14 da. later.

7. Repeat the spraying in from 10 to 14 da. later.

8. For the control of the grape-vine fidia, or grape
root worm, while the beetles are feeding on the foliage
about the middle of June, spray with a molasses-
arsenical mixture (1 gal. molasses, 6 lb. arsenate of lead,
100 gal. water).

9. For the control of the grape leaf hopper, when the
hoppers appear, spray with a nicotine preparation guar-
anteed to contain at least 2.7% nicotine diluted with 65
to 100 parts of water.

10. For the control of the rose chafer, when the in-
sects are present, spray with glucose-arsenate mixture
(10 lb. arsenate of lead, 25 lb. glucose, 100 gal. water).

126 FRUIT CULTURE

11. If the sprayings for black rot are not necessary,
other means of control must be applied for the powdery
mildew. In such cases in dry climates, dusting the
vines with flowers of sulphur is effective.

12. If the vines are suffering from chlorosis, or yellow
leaf, this trouble is thought by some to be overcome by
applying a small quantity of iron sulphate to the soil
about the vine. But as a number of the American
varieties are known to be free from this trouble, plant-
ing them is probably the wiser course.

PLUMS

VARIETIES OF PLUMS

Plums grown in the United States and Canada may
be divided into four groups: (1) Plums that have been
introduced from Europe; (2) native plums; (3) plums
introduced from Japan; and (4) hybrid plums.

Of the European plums, only two species are of special
interest to American growers. These are the Domestica,
to which most of the large European plums grown in
America belong, and, second, the Insititia, which are
smaller plums and include fewer species of value.

The native plums may be divided into the following
prominent species: (1) Americana, known as the red
plum, yellow horse, hog plum, and goose plum; this
plum is grown over a large portion of America. (2) The
second division, the Hortulana, which includes a number
of variable plums that are adapted to a wide range of
climate and especially adapted to growing in the South-
ern States and the Mississippi valley. The Hortulana
make good stock upon which to graft varieties of the
same and other native plums. (3) The third division
of the native plums is Primus nigra. This species of plum
grows further north than any other native plum and is
often called the Canadian plum. The fruit of the Prunus
nigra ripens earlier than that of the Americana, or

FRUIT CULTURE 127

Ilortulana. It is more oblong in shape, darker in color,
has less bloom and a finer skin that that of the
Americana.

The plums introduced from Japan belong to the variety-
known as Primus triiiora. These plums are about as
hardy as the Domestica, and some of them have proven
of special worth. However, many varieties of Prunus
triflora that have been introduced into America have
proved worthless.

Hybrid plums are produced by crossing different
species. Many valuable hybrid plums are grown in
America.

The following are the most important varieties of
plums grown in this country:

Abundance: Triflora. Variable; several distinct
strains exist; has been much overplanted. Fruit, ships
and keeps poorly; subject to brown rot and drops
readily; must be picked before it is ripe; color, pinkish
red to dark red.

Agen: Domestica. One of the best plums of Europe
or America for prune making; rich in sugar and solids;
very good preserving plum; its defect is lack of size;
many strains of this variety. Tree, bears regularly and
heavily. Fruit, hangs well on trees; excellent for home
orchard and for commercial use.

Apple: Triflora. Fruit, large and has firm, compact,
red flesh; excellent keeper; fruit has peculiar flavor;
inferior for dessert or kitchen. Tree, robust grower.

Arch Duke: Domestica. Well known. Fruit, large,
dark, rich purple; keeps and ships well; suitable for
home and market use. Tree, medium grower. Season, late.

Arctic: Domestica. Tree, hardy and productive; small;
medium grower. Fruit, medium size; blue. Mid-season.

Bavay: Domestica. One of the best of the green
plums; a descendant of Reine Claude. Fruit, excellent
dessert plum; high flavor; good canner; keeps well and
flavor not quite equal to Reine Claude. Tree, medium
size, vigorous. Season, late.
10

128 FRUIT CULTURE

Bradshaw: Domestica. Tree, regular bearer, produc-
tive, hardy, healthy. Fruit, ships well; not very high
in flavor. Ripens in peach season, which is against it.
Leads all other plums in number of trees in New York.

Burbank: Triflora. Second to Abundance in number
■of trees planted in New York. Fruit, handsome, red;
keeps and ships better than Abundance. Ripens a week
later than Abundance. Tree, vigorous, but wood is
brittle.

Compass: Hybrid of American type. It is being adver-
tised as of value commercially for the Northwest. Fruit,
small and of no value unless for regions mentioned.

Datnsvns: Insititia. Name is from Wamascus. Fruit,
usually oval, black; chiefly used for making preserves.
Tree, scarcely surpassed in productiveness, vigor, and
hardiness by any of the plums. The Damsons show
great adaptability to various soils and climates. There
are a number of improved varieties of Damson, among
which are Crittenden, Shropshire, a standard, and French.
Many of these improved varieties excel the Damson in
quality.

Diamond: Domestica. Fruit, large, well formed; flesh,
coarse; flavor, poor; ships well; otherwise it is disap-
pointing for market fruit. Tree, vigorous, hardy, and
productive.

Gey man Prune: Domestica. One of the oldest plums
under cultivation; of several strains. Tree, medium to
large; purplish black; flesh, yellowish green. Dis-
tributed over the whole country. Season, late.

Golden Drop: Domestica. Largest and best of the
yellow plums; fit for the home garden only.

Grand Duke: Domestica. Tree, rather late in coming
into bearing; fruit, excellent market plum, hangs well,
and ships well; flavor moderate; good canner; large
sized. Season, late.

Gueii. Domestica. One of the standards. Tree, bears
early and abundantly; large, vigorous, healthy, hardy.
Fruit, of poor quality, but excellent shipper.

FRUIT CULTURE 129

Italian Prune: Domestica. One of the most widely-
grown of all plums; leading plum in the Pacific North-
west. Fruit, line flavor; purple; attractive when cooked;
ships well. Tree, large; hardy, productive; regular
bearer, but often capricious as to soil and climate.

Lombard: Domestica. One of the most easily grown
of all plums. Tree, hardy, productive; regular bearer;
much used as a stock on which to graft weaker growing
varieties. Fruit, very poor in quality.

Middleburg : Domestica. A very good late plum for
New York. Fruit, purple. Not enough planted.

Monarch: Domestica. One of the most popular of the
recent introductions. Fruit, of moderate quality; color,
purple.

October: Triflora. Late plum. Tree, vigorous, rather
tardy in bearing in some places. Mid-season or later.
Fruit, dark red.

Pond: Domestica. Fruit, one of the largest; poor
quality; purple.

Pottawattamie : Native. Especially adapted to north-
ern latitudes. Fruit, good quality for a native plum.
Tree, dwarf, vigorous, productive.

Quackenboss: Domestica. Tree, large, vigorous, hardy.
Fruit, purple, large, good quality. One of the best.

Reine Claude: Domestica. Fruit, unexcelled in quality.
Tree, moderate; grows very poorly in the nursery;
productive; is apt to sun scald.

Satsuma: Triflora. Fruit, red flesh; one of the best of
its class in quality; keeps and ships well; is subject
to brown rot in the Southern States. Tree, fairly good
grower; hardy; productive.

Washington: One of the largest of the Reine Claude
or green gage type. Fruit, fine flavor; suitable for home
use.

Wayland: Hortulana. Suitable for Central Iowa and
Nebraska. Fruit, sour and small; excellent for jelly.

Wood: Americana. Can be recommended for the cold
parts of the country. Fruit, red.

130 FRUIT CULTURE

Yello-M Egg: Domestica. Fruit, largest and most
handsome of the yellow plums; good for culinary use.

PRUNING OF PLUMS

As a rule, the plum should be pruned as little as
possible. More growers overprune plum trees than
underprune them; and this is a serious condition, be-
cause a plum tree will not recover from overpruning
nearly so readily as will an apple tree.

Plum trees are grown in two types, or forms. The
first type has a leader, or main stem, with four or five
branches coming from it at different points. This type
is often used in New York for the Domestica and
Damson plums. The second type of pruning is more
common on the Triflora group of plums; in this it is
usual to start four or five branches at a head about
2 ft. from the ground, and remove the leader, making
the tree into a vase shape, somewhat like an inverted
umbrella; the branches should be spaced 4 to 6 in.
apart on the trunk to prevent splitting.

Subsequent pruning of the plum consists of the re-
moval of limbs which cross and in keeping the trees
low. Until the trees begin to bear, as little pruning as
possible should be given; if this policy is adhered to
it will tend to make the trees bear early. One dis--
advantage attending excessive pruning is that such a
practice once started must be continued.

The trees should be kept low to lessen the expense
of picking. In some orchards, plum trees are shorn off
at a certain height and are never allowed to make a
growth of more than two or three buds above this each
year. Some of the Americana varieties make such a
crooked, dense growth that considerable pruning is
necessary in order to allow sufficient room for the
pickers to harvest the fruit.

FRUIT CULTURE 131

SPRAYING OF PLUMS

The principal insect attacking the plum is the plum
curculio. The principal diseases of the plum are the
black knot, brown rot, plum pockets, and leaf spot,
peach yellows, and little peach.

The following method of spraying the plum has been
recommended:

1. If San Jose scale is present, spray just before the
buds open in the spring with lime-sulphur solution
(sp. gr. 1.03 — that is, concentrated lime-sulphur of 2Z°
Baume diluted 1 to 8 with water).

2. Just after the blossoms fall, spray with arsenate
of lead (3 to 4 lb. arsenate of lead, 100 gal. water) for the
control of the plum curculio.

3. About 10 da. after the blossoms have fallen, or
about the time when the shucks, or calyces, are being
shed from the fruit, spray with arsenate of lead (3 to
4 lb. arsenate of lead, SO gal. water) combined with
self-boiled lime-sulphur (8 lb. sulphur, 8 lb. lime, SO gal.
water), for the control of the plum curculio, leaf spot,
and brown rot.

4. About 2 to 3 wk. after the spraying described in
paragraph 3, spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (8 lb.
sulphur, 8 lb. lime, SO gal. water) for the control of
leaf spot and brown rot.

5. About 1 mo. before fruit ripens repeat spraying
given in paragraph 4 for the control of the fruit spot
and brown rot.

CHERRIES

VARIETIES OF CHERRIES

There are two main types of cherries, sour cherries
and sweet cherries. The sour cherries most commonly
grown are included in two general groups, the Mont-
morency group, and the Morello group. The most im-
portant of the sour cherries commercially are:

132 FRUIT CULTURE

Baldwin: Morello type. Tree has a stout spreading
top and is regarded as promising.

Briisselcr Braune : Very late in ripening, July 15 to 25.
Tree, medium to large, upright in type; long branches;
slender; twigs, light gray and covered with numerous
lenticels; leaves, medium in thickness and slightly
rough; dark green on the upper surface, much lighter
below; serrated on the edge. In some sections, a poor
bearer.

Dye House: Montmorency group. Fruit, medium to
small; smaller than Early Richmond and Montmorency;
quality, very good; flavor, slightly acid.

Early Richmond: Montmorency group. Season, early,
or moderately early, June 15. Tree, usually regarded as
productive, but inclined to be short lived; hardy, vig-
orous, profuse, and regular bearer. Fruit, medium in
size, light red; poor for shipping.

English Morello: Morello group. Classed as one of
the best sorts, being very productive and hardy; a firm
and excellent shipper. One of the oldest varieties and
has been grown in this country for many years. Season,
late, about July 15 to 20 in Central Iowa. Tree, medium
and spreading; slender and hardy in growth.

Montmorency: Montmorency group. Much confusion
exists in regard to the Montmorency variety. There are
at least two strains, the long-stemmed, or Montmorency
Ordinaire, and the sort-stemmed, which is the large
Montmorency and considered to be of the best quality,
but a poor bearer. The long-stemmed variety is the one
most generally distributed and the one that is generally
secured by the public even when named Montmorency or
Montmorency Ordinaire or Montmorency Extraordinaire,
the short-stemmed Montmorency being practically non-
existent in this country. The Montmorency Ordinaire
is the standard variety, and fruits from June 20 to
about July 1, or mid-season.

Ostheim: Morello group. Really consists of a number
of types. Has been grown in the United States for

FRUIT CULTURE 133

nearly a century. Fruit, round, medium to- dark red;
juicy; skin, tough; quality, fair. Planted in large num-
bers in some sections.

Suda: Morello group. Hard to distinguish the fruit
of this variety from Wragg or English Morello, the
only essential difference being in the stem; but the
tree is more upright and can thus be readily distinguished
from these varieties. Tree, good, prolific bearer in some
sections.

iVragg: Morello. Regarded by some as little more
than a large English Morello, which is somewhat later;
is being considerably, planted in all parts of the North-
west; now considered a standard variety.

The two main groups of sweet cherries commercially
are the Bigarreaux and the Dukes. The principal varie-
ties of the Bigarreaux group are:

Ring: Fruit, very large, almost flat, with a sweet
flavor; flesh, firm; ripens in mid-season; high in
quality; and is regarded as promising.

Centennial: Said to be a seedling of Napoleon; flesh
somewhat similar to Yellow Spanish. Considered prom-
ising, especially on the Pacific coast.

Elton: Tree, good grower, but lacks productiveness in
some sections. Fruit, very large, heart shaped; skin,
pale yellow, with red blush; flesh, medium light, firm,
with a sweet flavor of the best quality. Desirable for
some sections. Mid-season.

Lambert: Originated in Oregon. Fruit, large to very
large; heart shaped; color, dark amber, turning a dark
red magenta as fruit matures; flesh, dark, rich, firm,
and juicy, with a good flavor; pit, small for so large a
fruit.

Napoleon, or Royal Ann: One of the most popular
varieties. Tree, strong; vigorous in growth; very pro-
ductive. Fruit, large, good quality; flesh, light colored.
Mid-season.

Rockport : Early to mid-season. Fruit, quality very
good. Tree, moderate in vigor.

134 FRUIT CULTURE

Black Tartarian: One of the oldest and most popular
varieties; lacks in vigor and hardiness when compared
with Windsor and Napoleon. Fruit, very large, dark
red; flesh, of good quality.

Windsor: Origin, Ontario, Canada. One of the new
varieties that has made a good reputation; should be
included in almost all cherry orchards. Tree, hardy,
vigorous, and very productive. Fruit, heart shaped,
dark liver colored; flesh, dark red, firm, fine quality.

Wood, or Governor Wood: Recommended for all
near-by markets and home use. Tree, strong, vigorous
grower, and productive. Fruit, medium to large; pale
yellow, with a reddish blush; flesh, tender and juicy;
of good quality.

Yellow Spanish: Old and well-known variety and does
well under many conditions. Tree, strong grower and
productive. Fruit, large sized; good quality.

The Dukes have one very undesirable feature in that
they tend to ripen their fruit over a considerable period
of time. In growth of tree they vary from the upright
to a round, spreading head. As stated before, these are
classed with the sweet cherries, but in flavor the fruit
is neither sweet nor sour, being rather half way. It is
usually tender, juicy, excellent in flavor, and can be
used both fresh and preserved. In so far as acreage is
concerned, the Dukes do not occupy a very important
position, for they are poor shippers and are subject
to rot.

Eugenie: Tree, lacks vigor, grows upright, and is fairly
productive; one of the earliest to ripen and lasts over
a long season; flesh, and juice, dark red; and flavor
fine.

Louis Philippe: Downing states that the tree is up-
right, spreading in growth; skin, rich; dark; flesh, dark
red. Said to be productive. Medium to late.

Magnifique : One of the latest of all cherries to ripen
and of value on this account. Tree, upright, spreading
grower, productive; but the fruit is of too light a shade

FRUIT CULTURE 135

of red to take well on the market; flesh, pale yellow,
firm, and juicy.

May Duke: One of the most popular of all varieties,
being one of the earliest to ripen. Tree, vigorous'
grower, productive. Fruit, dark red.

Montr euil Belle De: Comparatively new; productive
and profitable. Fruit, glossy red, almost black; flesh
and juice, dark red. Medium late in season and ripens
in good season for a Duke.

Clivet: Tree, strong, spreading grower, frequently re-
ported as unproductive. Fruit, color, dark red. Season,
medium late.

PRUNING OF CHERRIES

Compared with other fruits, the cherry receives little
pruning, especially after the first 2 or 3 yr. If the
head is started within 18 in. of the ground and oppor-
tunity is given for the tree to spread, a desirable
spreading habit may be started. Some of the most
successful growers of cherries prefer to train their trees
with a leader from which from three to five main
branches are allowed to develop.

During the first year, just sufficient wood should be
removed to secure the spreading habit, and no more.
When a low-headed tree of this sort is forced to spread
its growth, most of the fruit may be readily picked,
thus materially reducing the cost of picking, and the
spreading branches shade the trunk and to some extent
prevent the cracking and splitting seen on some trunks.

When the trees reach bearing age, comparatively little
pruning is needed other than to take out wood that
crosses, and wood showing disease.

SPRAYING OF CHERRIES

Among the principal insects attacking the cherry are
the black cherry aphis, plum curculio, San Jose scale,
and other scale insects. The principal fungous diseases
of the cherry are the black knot, brown rot, shot-hole
fungus, or leaf blight, and powdery mildew.

136 FRUIT CULTURE

The following system of spraying will be found ef-
fective in controlling the insect and disease troubles
of the cherry:

1. Just before the leaf buds break, or open, spray
with a lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.03 — that is, con-
centrated lime-sulphur of 33° Baume diluted 1 to 8 with
water). This spraying is for the control of the San
Jose and other scales.

2. Just before the fruit buds burst open, spray with
a lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.007 to 1.006 — that is,
concentrated lime-sulphur of 33° Baume diluted either
1 to 40 or 1 to 50 with water), to which has been added
arsenate of lead {V/z or 2 lb. arsenate of lead to SO gal.
lime-sulphur solution). This spraying is for the con-
trol of the plum curculio and the fungous diseases.

3. As soon as the fruit has set, spray again with the
same lime-sulphur-arsenate-of-lead solution given in
paragraph 2, for the control of both the insect and the
fungous troubles. In some cases it may be advisable to
make two or three later sprayings with the same ma-
terial.

Bordeaux mixture is sometimes used in place of the
dilute lime-sulphur solution given in paragraph 2, but
on account of the liability of injuring the foliage, this
is not to be recommended.

QUINCES

VARIETIES OF QUINCES
There are comparatively few varieties of quinces in
cultivation. The following are brief descriptions of the
important commercial varieties, including information
that the prospective planter would find useful in se-
lecting varieties for his orchard:

Orange, or Apple Quince: Probably most important
commercially. Tree, moderately vigorous, with spread-
ing habits. Fruit, variable in size and shape, and is

FRUIT CULTURE 137

modified somewhat by the treatment it receives; it may
be pear shaped or flattened on the end something like
an apple; color, pale orange, surface being moderately
covered with down. Flesh, firm and of good flavor. Mid-
season variety and when well grown can be kept until
Feb. Best general-purpose variety.

Champion: Tree, upright grower, somewhat taller than
Orange. Fruit, large, pear shaped and furrowed about
the top; color, generally greenish yellow; covered with
a prominent fuzz; late in maturing and in some places
does not ripen well; it is one of the best keepers.

Rae, or Rae's Mammoth: Tree, small, of two-thirds the
size of Orange at the same age. Fruit, large to very
large; somewhat pear shaped; color, orange; surface,
smooth; flesh, of good quality; ripens early but does not
keep as well as Orange.

Meech, Meech's Prolific: Tree, something like Orange,
bears young; fairly good cropper. Fruit, handsome but
inclined to be small and not as valuable for market as
some other varieties.

Missouri Mammoth: Tree, one of the largest and most
handsome; bears reasonably young; generally regarded
as prolific. Fruit, rich and aromatic.

Bourgeat: Tree, strong grower; regarded as a good
bearer. Fruit, bright golden yellow; large in size, with
a small core; good keeper; can be held until spring.

Van Demon: Recent introduction of Luther Burbank;
by some claimed to be one of the hardiest and surest
bearers in existence. Fruit, ripens throughout a com-
paratively long season and is claimed to be a good
keeper.

Chinese, or Hong Kong: Sometimes catalogued as a
new, unique, and distinct fruit. Fruit, may be regarded
as very large in size, somewhat oblong in shape. Tree,
not unlike an ordinary quince tree in habit; it is gen-
erally regarded as hardy in New York. Of no particu-
lar value for commercial growing.

138 FRUIT CULTURE

PRUNING OF QUINCES

When the quince is planted direct from the nursery
row and already has a good head started within a few
inches of the ground, all the pruning necessary is to
remove any excess of limbs and plant as it is; cutting
back the terminal is not even necessary. However, if
the tree has become dried in shipment and the tips of
the limbs are dead, all dead parts should be pruned off.

Some quince growers prune their trees severely, as
much as one-half of the new growth each year, but
such men are usually those who force their trees with
manures and other nitrogenous fertilizers, and who
must prune severely to keep the trees within bounds.
The better practice seems to be to use nitrogenous
fertilizers sparingly and to prune very little.

A good plan is to head the trees from 6 to 8 in. from
the ground and to allow them to grow at will until
they come into bearing, the amount of pruning necessary
to keep the fire blight in subjection being adequate. At
the end of 4 years or so the trees may need heading
back, but this is a matter of judgment in each case.
In such cases, winter pruning is the best.

After the tree comes into bearing and thinning of
the fruit is desirable in order to improve the size and
quality of the fruit borne, heading in may be practiced.
This consists in cutting back the annual growth a
certain amount each year. There is, however, danger
in this pruning, because the quince, like the pear, is
subject to fire blight, and as excessive pruning will
cause an excessive growth of tender sprouts on which
the fire blight is especially severe, the pruning should
be done with care and judgment.

SPRAYING OF QUINCES

The principal insects attacking the quince are the
round-headed apple-tree borer, quince curculio, coddling
moth, and San Jose scale, though the latter, very

FRUIT CULTURE 139

fortunately, seldom attacks the quince and when it does
causes very little harm. The most serious diseases of
the quince are iire blight, leaf and fruit spot, or black
spot, and rust, or cedar rust.

The following system of spraying the quince is fol-
lowed by some of the best commercial growers:

1. Just before the blossoms open, spray with Bordeaux
mixture (6 lb. copper sulphate, 6 lb. lime, water
slaked, 50 gal. water) ; Bordeaux mixture appears to be
well adapted to the requirements of the quince. Arsenate
of lead (2 or 3 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. of fungicide
solution) should also be used with the fungicide spray
at this time. This spraying is for the control of leaf
and fruit spot, or black spot, rust, and curculio.

2. Immediately after the blossoms have fallen, or
even while the last of the petals are falling, spray
with Bordeaux mixture (3 lb. copper sulphate, 4 lb.
lime, water slaked, 50 gal. water) and arsenate of lead
(2 or 3 lb. arsenate of lead to SO gal. spray solution).
This spraying is for the control of the same troubles
mentioned in paragraph 1.

3. From three to four other sprayings at intervals of
10 days after the spraying described in paragraph 2
will be sufficient to keep the fruit and foliage in
excellent condition.

STRAWBERRIES

VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES

The following varieties of strawberries have been
recommended for commercial planting, the varieties
being named in the order of their ripening and
designated as perfect and imperfect. These terms refer
to the sex of the flowers. Perfect flowers have both
sets of sexual organs, and varieties having them are
self-fertile; varieties having only the pistils, or female
organs, cannot fertilize themselves and should be planted
with perfect varieties.

140 FRUIT CULTURE

Michel's Early: Perfect. Fruit, pointed, conical; me-
dium to below in size; seeds, not prominent; dull, pale
red; flesh, pale, juicy, acid, subacid when dead ripe;
rather soft; quality medium. Season, extra early; plant,
moderately vigorous. Foliage, moderately good; rusts
slightly to considerably.

Virginia: Imperfect. Plants, few in number; of
medium vigor; healthy; productive. Leaves, inclined to
be large; rather dark green. Blooms early in mid-sea-
son; ripens slightly before mid-season; picks easily.
Seeds, deeply depressed. Fruit, large to medium, those
ripening late being small; roundish conic to wedge,
bluntly pointed and often with depression at apex;
color, light and dark glossy scarlet, resembling Hunn.
Flesh, medium red; of average firmness; mild; not high
in flavor or quality. Only a fairly, desirable variety.

Bcder Wood: Perfect. Fruit, round to conical; medium
size; pale red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, pale, juicy,
acid, moderately firm, medium quality. Season, early to
extra early. Plant, vigorous; runners numerous; foliage
moderately good; rusts considerably.

Clyde: Perfect. Fruit, round, large to very large,
pale red; seeds not prominent; flesh, pale red, juicy,
subacid, pleasant, firm, and above medium in quality.
Season, early to medium. Plant, vigorous, with numer-
ous runners. Foliage, poor to moderately good; rusts
considerably.

Loz'ctt: Perfect. Fruit, pointed to wedge conical;
above medium size; bright red, glossy; flesh, bright red,
juicy, acid, moderately firm, and above medium in
quality. Season, early to medium. Plant, vigorous, with
but few runners; poor to moderately good foliage; rusts
considerably. Attractive berry.

WarReld: Imperfect. Fruit, pointed conical; medium
to above medium size; deep red, glossy; seeds, rather
prominent; flesh, deep red, juicy, acid, moderately firm;
quality, medium. Season early to medium. Plants, vigor-
ous, with large number of runners; foliage moderately

FRUIT CULTURE 141

good; rusts considerably. Handsome berry and a good
cropper.

Glen Mary: Perfect. Fruit, irregular, roundish to
wedge conical; very large to large; deep red at base,
becoming pale toward tip; seeds not prominent; flesh,
bright red, juicy, rather watery; subacid, firm, of
medium quality. Season, medium. Plant, moderately
vigorous, with numerous runners; foliage, moderately
good to good; rusts considerably.

Senator Dunlap : Perfect. Fruit, handsome, pointed,
wedge shaped; medium to large in size; deep, glossy
red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, rich red, juicy, tender,
subacid, moderately firm; above medium quality. Sea-
son, early. Plant, vigorous, with large number of run-
ners; productive; foliage, moderately good; rusts con-
siderably.

Sample: Imperfect. Fruit, handsome, pointed, regular
in shape; above medium to large; bright or rather deep,
glossy red; seeds fairly prominent; flesh, bright red,
juicy, almost watery, subacid, moderately firm; quality,
medium. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous,
productive, with large number of runners; foliage, mod-
erately good to good; rusts considerably.

President: Imperfect. Plant has numerous runners;
vigorous; somewhat injured by blight; productive;
leaves, large, dark green. Blooms and ripens in mid-
season; picks easily. Fruit, of largest size, slightly
conic; seeds, slightly depressed; attractive bright scar-
let; flesh, medium light color, firm, moderately juicy,
mild; fair to good quality; good variety where size and
color are prime requisites.

Braiidywine : Perfect. Roundish to sugar loafed; me-
dium to large; deep, dull red; appearance, unattractive;
seeds, not prominent; flesh, bright red, juicy; sub-
acid, good, firm, and of good quality. Season, late.
Plant, vigorous grower, with medium number of runners;
foliage, moderately good to good; rusts slightly to con-
siderably. Good late variety.

142 FRUIT CULTURE

Gandy: Perfect. Roundish; medium to large; pale,
dull red; seeds, not specially prominent; flesh, bright
red, juicy, subacid, pleasant, firm; above medium to
good in quality. Season, late. Plant, moderately vig-
orous, vifith a moderate number of runners; foliage, good;
rusts slightly.

Marshall: Perfect. Fruit, pointed conical; large to
very large; deep red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, pale
red, moderately juicy, mildly subacid, firm, of good
quality. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous, with
a large number of runners; foliage good; rusts consid-
erably. Probably better for home use than for market.

Biibach: Imperfect. Fruit, irregular wedge shaped;
very large; bright red; seeds, not prominent; flesh,
bright red, juicy, subacid, moderately firm; of good
quality. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous, with
moderate number of runners; foliage, moderately good,
but rusts considerably. One of most satisfactory in
regard to size and appearance of fruit, productiveness,
and good foliage.

Steven's Late Champion: Perfect or semiperfect. Plant,
sets few plants; vigorous, healthy; unproductive; leaves,
large; dark green. Blooms and ripens in mid-season;
picks easily. Fruit, large; retains its size well through
the season; seeds, depressed; irregular in shape, but
averaging wedge shaped; flesh, attractive light scarlet,
well colored, firm, agreeably acid; quality, good. Plants
should be set closer than most varieties.

SPRAYING OF STRAWBERRIES

The principal insect enemy of the strawberry is the
white grub, though the strawberry leaf roller often does
considerable damage, and the most serious diseases are
the leaf spot, leaf blight, or rust. When once in a straw-
berry bed, the white grub can be controlled only by digging
it out from below the crown of the infested plant, and by
cultivating the land about the plants early- in the fall.
Strawberries should not be set on old sod land which is

FRUIT CULTURE 143

likely to be infested with white grubs. If cultivated for a
year in corn or other farm crops (not potatoes) upon
which the grub does not feed, a field will be rid of most
of them.

The following method of spraying for the control of
leaf spot and the leaf roller has been recommended:

1. Soon after the growth of the newly set plants be-
gins, spray with Bordeaux mixture (5 lb. copper
sulphate, 5 lb. lime, water slaked, 50 gal. water).

2. Repeat this spraying in about 2 wk. and two or
three times more during the first season, as may be
needed.

3. The second spring, before the plants blossom, spray
with the Bordeaux mixture of the formula given in
paragraph 1. Whenever the strawberry leaf roller is
present add from 2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead to each
50 gal. of Bordeaux solution.

4. Two weeks later give another spraying with the
Bordeaux mixture mentioned in paragraph 1.

RASPBERRIES

VARIETIES OF RASPBERRIES

Red Raspberries. — The varieties of red raspberries
most usually planted are:

Cuthbert: Bush, strong grower but only moderately
hardy; where hardy, it. is productive and is the main
crop variety. Fruit, large, dull red, moderately juicy,
of good quality, and a good shipper. Mid-season.

Herbert: Bush, strong grower, hardy, and very pro-
ductive. Fruit, bright red, sweet, juicy, and of good
quality. Mid-season. Likely to replace Cuthbert in
localities where that variety is not sufficiently hardy.

London: Bush, only medium grower, hardy, but not
productive in all localities. Fruit, large and of good
flavor. Mid-season.
11

144 FRUIT CULTURE

Marlboro: Bush, fairly strong grower, hardy, usually
productive. Fruit, medium or a little larger; bright red,
and of medium quality. Best early variety.

Black Raspberries.— The most commonly planted va-
rieties of black raspberries are:

Cumberland: Bush, strong grower; one of the hardiest,
productive. Fruit, large, black, sweet, and of good
quality. Season, medium, early.

Gregg: Bush, very strong grower; not hardy in all
localities, - but productive where hardy. One of most
widely planted black raspberries. Fruit, large to very
large; black, with a gray bloom; moderately juicy,
sweet, and of good quality. Season, late.

Kansas: Bush, moderately vigorous grower; pro-
ductive; not hardy in all localities, but promising where
hardy. Fruit, above average in size; glossy black, and
of good quality. Mid-season.

Black Diamond: Bush, vigorous grower; resistant to
disease; very productive. Fruit, large, black; good
shipper. Mid-season, a few days later than Kansas.

Ohio: Bush, strong grower; productive. Fruit, of
medium size, but very seedy and for this reason very
desirable for drying, because it will yield a high
percentage of dried fruit to the bushel.

Palmer: Bush, strong grower; not always hardy;
moderately productive. Fruit, medium size; black, juicy,
sweet, and of good quality. Season, early. Probably
best of the early varieties in localities where it does
not become winter-killed.

Purple-Cane Raspberries.— The purple-cane varieties
are not of much importance commercially. Two of the
best are:

Shaffer: Bush, very strong grower; fairly hardy; very
productive when canes are not winter-killed. Fruit,
large, dark, purplish red; juicy; quality, fair. Season,
medium to late.

Columbian : Bush, strong grower; very productive when
canes are not injured during the winter. Fruit, large.

FRUIT CULTURE 145

dark purplish red, juicy, and of good quality. Season,
late.

PRUNING OF RASPBERRIES

Red Raspberry. — The wood of the red raspberry is
biennial — that is, it lives for 2 yr. ; but the roots
are perennial — that is, they live year after year. The
young canes shoot up from the roots in the spring and
should be allowed to grow at will during the first season.
The second spring each l-yr.-old cane should be cut
back to a height of about 2 ft. to cause the development
of laterals on which the fruit is to be borne. As soon
as the fruit has been picked from these in the summer,
the old canes should be cut out to allow room for the
development of the new canes. Some growers summer
prune the young canes of the red raspberry, but this
is not generally recommended.

Black Raspberry. — The wood and roots of the black
raspberry are similar in growth to that of the red rasp-
berry, but the pruning is different. As soon as the young
canes that start up from the crown of the plant reach
a height of 2 to 2^ ft. their tender tips, or terminal buds,
should be pinched off with the fingers. This will pre-
vent the further elongation of the cane and force the
growth of the lower buds into lateral branches. The
second spring the laterals of these l-yr.-old canes
should be cut back so that the cane will somewhat re-
semble a small conical tree, the lower side branches
being cut back to a length of about 18 in. and each
branch above proportionately shorter. These laterals
will in turn throw out side branches on which the
fruit will be borne during the summer. As soon as
the fruit has been picked the old canes that bore it
should be cut off close to the ground, taken out of the
plantation and burned. On soils where the growth of
black raspberries is very vigorous, the canes are sup-
ported by wires stretched on posts.

Purple-Cane Raspberries.— The pruning of the purple-
cane raspberry is similar to that of the black raspberry.

146 FRUIT CULTURE

except that as the growth is somewhat more vigorous the
young canes should be allowed to grow to a height of
2J4 to 3 ft. before being pinched off.

BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES

VARIETIES

Blackberries.— Blcickberries are a popular bush fruit
and a largo number of varieties are planted. Those
most extensively planted are:

Agawant: Bush, vigorous grower; hardy and pro-
ductive. Fruit, medium to large; glossy black, firm,
juicy, sweet, and of good quality. Mid-season or a
little earlier.

Eldorado: Bush, strong grower; hardy, but only mod-
erately productive. Fruit, black, sweet, juicy, and of
good quality. Season, about same as Agawam.

Mcrscreau : Bush, good grower but not as hardy as
Agawam. Fruit, above medium size; glossy black, sweet.

Rathbun: Bush, moderately strong grower, but lacks
hardiness. Fruit, large, black, and of good quality.

Snyder: Bush, vigorous and very hardy. Fruit, me-
dium size; usually black but sometimes with a reddish
tinge; juicy, sweet, and of good quality. Mid-season
or a little earlier.

Dewberries. — Two of the most prominent varieties of
dewberries are:

Lucrctia: Bush, good grower but not hardy in north-
ern localities. Fruit, large, glossy black, sweet, juicy,
and of good quality. Season, early.

Mayes: Bush, strong grower but lacks hardiness.
Fruit, very large; glossy black, juicy, and of good
quality. Season, very early — earlier than Lucretia.

PRUNING OF BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES

Blackberries. — The pruning of the blackberry is also

similar to that of the black raspberry, the growth of

FRUIT CULTURE 147

the wood and of the roots being the same, except that
the suckers, or young canes, spring up from the roots.
VV"hen the young canes are 18 to 24 in. high their tips
should be pinched off and all except three or four of
the strongest canes should be cut out. The second
spring the laterals forced into growth by the previous
summer pruning should be pruned so that each cane
will assume a conical appearance, with the lower lat-
erals about 18 in. long, though the proper length varies
considerably with different varieties. As soon as the
old canes have borne fruit they should be cut out and
burned. The second year from five to six of the young
canes should be allowed to grow, and should likewise
be pinched off at a height of 18 to 24 in. The young
canes will not all reach the required height at the same
time, and for this reason the patch must be gone over
several times. Blackberries are frequently supported
on wires or stakes.

Dewberries. — Though the canes of the dewberry are
very similar in growth to those of the other brambles,
they grow long and trail much more along the ground.
The dewberry is not summer pruned like the black-
berry, but the l-yr.-old canes, if too long, are cut back
in the spring to a length of 18 to 24 in., and are thinned
out to four or five strong canes in a hill. On account
of their drooping, or trailing, habit of growth, the dew-
berry canes that are to bear fruit should be tied up
in the spring; this will prevent the fruit from becoming
soiled and will make, cultivation easier. The young
canes are allowed to trail along the ground, where their
tips take root and form new plants, which may be used
for starting new plantations.

SPRAYING OF RASPBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES,
AND DEWBERRIES
Spraying of Raspberries.— The principal insects that
attack raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries are
the saw fly and the cane borer.

148 FRUIT CULTURE

The principal fungous diseases of these small fruits are
the following: Anthracnose, which is very destructive
to black raspberries but not often a serious problem on
red raspberries; cane wilt, or cane blight, a destructive
disease on both red and black raspberries; crown gall,
or root knot, a destructive disease on red raspberries;
and red rust, often a serious trouble on black rasp-
berries and blackberries, but which does not affect red
raspberries.

Spraying is not often practiced on raspberries, black-
berries, or dewberries, because their disease and insect
troubles are largely controlled by cutting out diseased
canes. For the control of anthracnose on raspberries,
it is sometimes desirable to spray with Bordeaux mix-
ture (5 lb. copper sulphate, S lb. lime, water slaked,
50 gal. water), the first application being made when
the young growth of canes is from 6 to 8 in. high, and
the second and third applications being made at in-
interval of about 2 wk. each. It is, however, often
found that such spraying is not profitable.

In case the brambles are attacked by the saw fly,
sprayings with arsenate of lead (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of
lead, SO gal. water) or with Paris green (1 lb. Paris
green, 50 gal. water) should be given until the pest is
under control. One thorough application of either of
these poisons, especially of the first, will usually be
sufficient. Care should be taken not to apply either of
these poisons after the fruit has formed.

In some sections of the country, at rare intervals, the
canes in blackberry plantations will suddenly be found
to be covered with dark-brown soft scales. These may
be so abundant as almost to cover the entire canes.
These insects suck the sap from the plants and greatly
weaken them. In case of such an attack, all of the
unnecessary wood should be pruned out and in the
spring before growth begins a thorough spraying given
with lime-sulphur solution (at sp. gr. 1.03 — that is, con-
centrated lime-sulphur solution of 33° Beaume diluted

FRUIT CULTURE 149

1 to 8 with water) or with a kerosene emulsion. In
most cases, however, it will be found necessary to
abandon a blackberry plantation so attacked and to
set out another on good, rich soil.

CURRANTS

VARIETIES OF CURRANTS

Red Currants. — Of the fifty or more varieties of red
currants the following are the more important com-
mercially:

Cherry: Bush, strong grower and productive in most
places. Fruit, large to very large in long, well-filled
bunches; deep red, acid, and medium in quality. Tips
of branches sometimes go blind. Origin, Italy. Mid-
season.

Fay: Bush, medium, spreading grower; branches lop
and fruit gets soiled; is slow in starting to bear in
some localities, but is largely grown. Fruit, large to
very large in well-filled bunches; red berries and of
a milder acid flavor than Cherry. Mid-season.

London Market: Bush, erect in growth and is less
injured by diseases and borers than others. Fruit
resembles Fay but is more acid. Mid-season.

Prince Albert: Bush, upright grower, with strong
canes; moderately productive. Fruit, medium in size in
short bunches; pale scarlet; medium in quality. Very
late.

Red Cross: Bush, strong grower and productive. Fruit,
large in short, compact bunches; red; excellent flavor.
Origin, New York. Mid-season.

Filler: Bush, productive. Fruit, red and of good
quality.

Pomona: Bush, rather spreading grower and pro-
ductive. Fruit, bright red, of good quality, and con-
tains few seeds.

Red Dutch: Bush and fruit, small. Not recommended.

150 FRUIT CULTURE

Versailles: Bush, good grower and productive; a
seedling of Cherry and something like it. Mid-season.

Victoria: Bush, a good grower and little troubled
by leaf diseases or borers; foliage very good, but
susceptible to injury by hot weather; very productive.
Fruit, small, red, acid, and of good flavor. Late mid-
season.

Wilder: Bush, strong, upright grower; productive.
Fruit, large, hangs well; red, and of a good, mild flavor.
Mid-season.

Perfection : Bush, productive and foliage good. A
good variety for table use when well grown. Fruit
large, mild in flavor, and borne in long bunches. Origin,
New York.

Diploma: Bush, a strong grower. Fruit, large and
of good quality.

White Currants. — The following are the most commonly
planted varieties of white currants:

White Imperial: Best white currant. Bush, pro-
ductive. Fruit, pale yellow, sweet, rich, and used for
the table.

White Grape: Bush, productive. Fruit, pale yellow,
mild, and of good quality.

Black Currants.— The following are the most com-
monly planted varieties of black currants:

Lee's Prolific: An improvement on Black Naples,
and similar to it.

Black Naples: Bush, a strong grower. Fruit, large and
borne in small bunches.

Champion: Bush, a good grower. Fruit, large and of
mild flavor. Mid-season.

PRUNING OF CURRANTS
Practically no pruning is needed at the time of plant-
ing, although some growers prune the nursery plant
to a single cane and head that cane back to five or six
buds. In the commercial currant plantation, little
pruning is given until the plants are 4 or 5 yr. old.

FRUIT CULTURE 151

The red and white currants and the black currants
bear the largest proporton of their fruit on wood of
different ages and therefore require different pruning.
The red and white currants bear their fruit on wood 2
or more yr. old, the most and best of it being on
wood from 3 to 5 yr. old; hence a plentiful supply of
wood of these ages should be left on the bushes. The
black currant bears most of its fruit on wood that
developed the previous summer; therefore black currant
bushes should always have a sufficient supply of 1-yr.-
old wood to bear a large crop of berries. At the be-
ginning of the second year the bushes should be thinned
out to five or six strong canes, or even less if a bush
is not vigorous. Pruning during the succeeding years
should be devoted to keeping about five or six strong,
healthy canes in each bush, keeping the bush open
enough so that sunlight will be admitted to all the
fruit, and maintaining the proper proportion of fruit-
bearing wood.

Currants are sometimes pruned to grow in tree form,
but such plants are of no commercial value, because
the damage done by a single borer will ruin the bush.

SPRAYING OF CURRANTS

The currant is attacked by the San Jose scale, currant
borer, currant worm, or currant saw fly, green leaf hop-
per, or currant leaf hopper, yellow leaf currant bug, or
four-lined leaf bug, grape flea beetle, currant plant
louse, currant miner, and by the currant leaf spots. A
number of the insects do but little damage.

To control the above insects and diseases, the currant
should have the following sprayings: (1) Before the
buds open with a 1 to 9 lime-sulphur solution to control
the San Jose scale (sp. gr. about 1.03 — that is, 33° Baume
lime-sulphur diluted 1 to 9 with water); (2) as soon as
the plants have gone out of bloom, with 4 : 5 : 50 Bor-
deaux mixture (4 lb. copper sulphate, 5 lb. lime, water
slaked, 50 gal. water), and a 2 : 50 arsenate of lead

152 FRUIT CULTURE

(2 lb. arsenate of lead to SO gal. Bordeaux mixture)
combined to control the leaf spots and currant worm;
when arsenate of lead is used in this spraying there is
often no necessity for applying it again; (3) as soon
as the fruit is harvested with the same spray as that
given in (2), or without the arsenate of lead if the
currant worm has been controlled by the previous
spraying.

In some cases an application of 4 : S : 50 Bordeaux
mixture between the second and third regular sprayings
is advisable to control the leaf spots, but this application
should not be made so late that the spray will stain
the fruit. No arsenate of lead should be applied within
4 wk. of harvest.

GOOSEBERRIES

VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES

Gooseberries are of three general classes: American,
European, and American-European hybrids.

American Gooseberries.— Doic/iuh^ ; One of the best
of the American class and most widely grown. Bush,
strong grower, seldom troubled with mildew, and very
productive. Fruit, large for its class, with a thin,
smooth, pale green skin; pulp, soft, sweet, juicy, and
of good quality. Mid-season.

Houghton: Parent of Downing. Bush, vigorous and
hardy, but somewhat drooping grower, and is productive.
Although fruit is small and dark red in color, with a
whitish bloom, flavor is very good.

Pear!: Cross between Downing and Ashton's Seedling
or Broom Girl, and closely resembles Downing. Bush,
strong, fairly erect grower, seldom attacked by mildew,
and productive. Fruit, medium, or about as large as
Downing; pale green skin; pulp, juicy, and of good
flavor. Mid-season.

Red Jacket, or Jossclyn : Cross between Houghton and
Warrington Red. Bush, strong grower; does not mildew;

FRUIT CULTURE 15»

productive. Fruit, good size; skin, reddish green to red
and tender; pulp, rich, fragrant, and of good quality.
Highly esteemed by some growers. Mid-season.

Purple Red: Bush, strong grower and productive.

European, or English, Gooseberries.— Among the
European, or English, gooseberries, of which about a
thousand are catalogued, the following appear to have
been of some value in certain sections in the Northern
States and Canada:

Industry: One of the best. Bush, heavy cropper
where it succeeds, but often suffers from mildew.
Fruit, medium to large; skin, smooth or nearly so; dark
red; pulp, very good in flavor; excellent for marketing
in unripe condition.

Crown Bob: Good variety for early market. Fruit
resembles Industry in color but is smaller.

Wellington Glory: Has proven productive in some parts
of the country. Fruit, an attractive pale yellow.

Warrington Red: Bush, strong grower; somewhat sub-
ject to mildew. Fruit, pale red, hairy; pulp, sweet and
of good quality.

Whitesmith: Frequently recommended as a desirable
variety, especially for the home garden. Fruit, medium
to large; skin, smooth, and pale yellowish green; pulp,
of good quality.

American-European Hybrid Gooseberries.— Two of the
American-European hybrids, which resemble the Euro-
pean in type, are of value:

Columbus: Bush, strong grower, and comparatively
free from mildew. Fruit, white or greenish yellow, and
of good quality.

Chautauqua: Bush, vigorous, healthy grower. Fruit,
large, smooth; pale green.

PRUNING OF GOOSEBERRIES

At the time of planting no pruning is needed except
to take off injured roots or twigs, nor is any usually
given for the first 2 or 3 years except to head in a

154 FRUIT CULTURE

branch that may be growing too rapidly. Gooseberries
are trained to grow in two forms, the bush form and
the tree form. The bush form is the only commercial
form; four, five, or six canes are allowed to develop to
make the bush in the same way as described for cur-
rants. The gooseberry bush should not be pruned out
too much, as such pruning may expose the fruit to too
much sunlight. After three or four seasons of growth
the new wood should be pruned back in the spring
one-half of the growth made the previous summer, in
order to prevent the formation of a large quantity of
blind wood. Canes 4 to 6 yr. old should be removed.
The best and the largest proportion of fruit is borne
on wood 3 to 5 yr. old.

SPRAYING OF GOOSEBERRIES

Gooseberries are subject to the same insects and dis-
eases already mentioned for currants, with the addition
of the gooseberry mildew, which is a serious problem
with European varieties. To avoid this mildew as
much as possible, gooseberries should be planted on an
elevation where they will have a good circulation of
air about them, and should be pruned and cultivated
so as to allow the air to circulate as freely as possible.

The first two sprayings for the gooseberry should be
the same as those for the currant. Then, as soon as
the fruit is set the plants should be thoroughly sprayed
with a 1 to 35 lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.008, that
is concentrated lime-sulphur solution of 33° Baume di-
luted 1 to 35 with water), or a solution of 1 oz.
of potassium sulphide in 2 gal. of water, making
sure that both the upper and under surfaces of the
foliage are well covered. These sprayings should be
repeated at intervals of 10 da. until the fruit is
harvested. Even in spite of all that can be done, how-
ever, the mildew will sometimes destroy the crop.
After the fruit is harvested the bushes should be
sprayed as described under (3) for currants.

VEGETABLE CULTURE 153

VEGETABLE CULTURE

ESSENTIALS OF VEGETABLE CULTURE

MARKET GARDENING

Location for Market Gardening.— Before locating a
market garden in a particular locality, the vegetable
grower should give careful consideration to all con-
ditions existing in the region. Some of the conditions
may be improved; others are fixed. The points of
greatest importance to consider in choosing a location
are: the kind of market that is available, the distance
from market, the nature of the roads to market, the
labor supply, the stable-manure supply, the climate,
the seasons, and the social conditions.

Site for Market Gardening.— The choosing of the site
that is to be used as a market garden is of prime im-
portance. The factors that influence the desirability of
a site are: the kind of soil, the drainage of the soil,
the water supply, the exposure of the land, and the
previous treatment that has been given to the soil.

Unless certain special crops are grown, the kind of
soil best suited for a market garden is one of light to
medium loam. A soil. of this nature is easy to work,
it does not setain water to a degree to make it sticky,
and it can be worked early in the spring or soon after
a rain. Owing to the fact that much hand working of
the soil is necessary in gardening, it is advantageous to
have a soil free from stones. To have a soil rich in
vegetable matter and plant-food is also desirable,
although if necessary, this can be supplied in manures.
Other soils than light to medium loams can be used for
vegetable growing, of course, but they are not s<»

156 VEGETABLE CULTURE

suitable because they do not have the properties just
mentioned.

Soil in which surplus water stands at or within V/2
ft. of the surface is of little use for the production of
vegetable crops until the surplus water has been re-
moved. However, soils that need draining are often
very rich in plant-food; all they require to make them
productive is the removal of the surplus- water.

In the selection of a site for a market garden the
availability of a water supply for the house and barn,
and the shed where the vegetables are washed, and for
irrigation purposes, is an important factor, as mar-
ket gardening cannot be conducted without an adequate
supply of water.

The ideal exposure for a market garden in the north
temperate zone is one with a slight slope to the south-
east and with a protection on the northwest from the
full sweep of the winds from that direction. The next
best exposure is a level one. Level land is very desir-
able for market gardens provided it is well drained.
One trouble with level lands, however, is that they are
often exposed to winds that may at certain seasons do
considerable damage.

The treatment soil has received before being con-
verted into a market garden needs but little attention.
If a soil is of the right type it can be made suitable
for a garden by the addition of vegetable matter and
other plant-food and by working it with proper garden
tools and implements. A soil that has been made fertile
by previous treatment is, of course, a valuable asset to a
market garden, but, as just stated, it is not a requisite.

In selecting a site, the local seasonal differences
should be studied. For instance, if a market gardener
has decided on a region in which to locate, he should
ascertain before choosing a site, whether or not there
are frost belts in the region.

Equipment for Market Gardening.— Equipment for
market gardening includes capital to run the business.

VEGETABLE CULTURE 157

land used for gardening and as a site for the buildings,
the buildings themselves, a water-supply system, live-
stock, barn equipment, tools, machinery, glass for hot-
beds and cold frames, seeds, plants, stable manure,
commercial fertilizer, and labor. The equipment may be
either comparatively simple or very extensive, depend-
ing on the size of the business, the capital of the
gardener, the nature of the soil, the kind of crops to be
grown, the cost of labor, and the ideas of the grower.
Following is given an approximate list of items needed
on a 10-acre market garden that requires fixed and
working capital, and the cost of each item. It may be
possible, of course, under local conditions, to dispense
with some of these items, and the prices given may
vary in different localities. The items and figures given
are taken from the books of a market gardener in the
northern part of the United States.

Items Requiring Fixed Capital

Land (10 acres at $100 per acre) $1,000.00

Buildings :

House 1,000.00

Barn 600.00

Combination packing shed, tool room, and im-
plement shed 500.00

Water-supply system, including 3}^ H. P. gaso-
line engine and duplex pump 400.00

Livestock :

1 team of work horses weighing about 2,600 lb.. 400.00

1 express horse weighing about 1,200 lb 200.00

1 cow 75.00

Barn equipment:

1 two-horse manure wagon 200.00

1 one-horse market wagon 175.00

1 one-horse tip cart 50.00

1 carriage 125.00

1 second-hand express wagon 35.00

1 heavy double harness 45.00

1 medium express harness 40.00

1 tip-cart harness 18.00

1 driving harness 18.00

3 collars 9.00

2 heavy horse blankets 8.00

158 VEGETABLE CULTURE

1 medium-weight blanket 3.50

3 stable blankets ^ 4.50

2 carriage robes 6.00

2 sets of curry combs, brushes, etc 3.00

Incidentals v 5.00

Tools and machinery :

1 two-horse plow 15.00

lone-horse plow 8.50

1 double-action disk harrow 24.00

1 smoothing harrow 15.00

1 Meeker harrow 22.50

1 five-tooth shovel cultivator 8.50

1 twelve-tooth spike cultivator 8.50

1 seed sower 9.00

1 wheel hoe 5.00

2 slide hoes 3.00

5 common hoes 2.00

3 manure forks 2.70

3 fourteen-tooth iron garden rakes 1.80

3 shovels 3.60

2 spades 1.50

1 hammer .60

1 rip saw 1.25

1 cross-cut saw 1.25

1 plane 1.00

1 level 75

2 chisels .50

1 bit stock and bits 2.00

Miscellaneous tools 5.00

Miscellaneous garden equipment:

1 garden line and reel 1.00

50 ft. of hose 4.00

Small tools not listed 10.00

25 hotbed sash at $4.25 each...? 106.25

Lumber for frames 20.00

Total $5,204.20

Items Requiring Working Capital

Seeds and plants $100.00

Stable manure, 400 tons at $1 per ton 400.00

Commercial fertilizer 200.00

Labor :

4 men at $1.50 per day, working 26 days per
month for 8 months 1,248.C0

2 men at $25 per month for 12 months per year.. 600.00

Total $2,548.00

VEGETABLE CULTURE 159

Total Capital Required

Fixed capital required $5,204.20

Working capital required 2,548.00

$7,752.20

Markets for Market-Garden Produce.— Markets for

market-garden produce may be classified as four kinds;
wholesale markets, wholesale-retail markets, retail mar-
kets, and soecial markets.

Wholesale markets are those where produce is bought in
large quantities to be sold to dealers, who, in turn, sell
it to consumers. The consumer, therefore, buys goods
that have been handled by the grower, by transporta-
tion agents (if the goods have been shipped), by the
wholesale dealer, and by the merchant to whom the
wholesaler sells. He pays, therefore, at least two profits
other than that of the grower.

Wholesale-retail markets are those where the produce is
sold by the grower direct to the retailer and by the
retailer to the consumer. To this class belong all mar-
ket and grocery stores. The wholesale-retail market
does not usually oflFer a very acceptable opportunity to
the market gardener because of the accessibility of the
wholesale market, in which sales can be generally made
with less trouble than in the wholesale-retail market.
In small cities where no wholesale market exists and
in towns where there are a number of enterprising
marketmen and hucksters, however, good wholesale-
retail markets are often open to the market gardener.
To supply such a market a large variety of produce
should be grown.

Retail markets are those where the producer sells direct
to the consumer. Such trade is largely monopolized in
the large cities and their suburbs by peddlers. In towns
and villages the opportunity for such business is prob-
ably greater than elsewhere.

Special markets may be classified as two kinds: mar-
kets developed by the ingenuity of the gardener, and
12

160 VEGETABLE CULTURE

markets for a special product. In the case of markets
of the tirst kind a broad field is open to the grower,
provided he is able to devise some successful scheme
for packing and distributing his produce, either to the
wholesale-retail market or to the consumer. In the
case of markets of the second kind, the market may be
a canning factory that uses large quantities of certain
vegetables, or it may be a hotel that demands a high-
grade product. Often private families are willing to
pay a fancy price for some exceptionally desirable
product, and thus a profitable special market can be
developed.

Range of Crops for Market Gardening.— The range of
crops that may be grown by a market gardener is so
great that usually the grower can find some crop
especially suited to his soil, climate, or market. There
are about forty vegetable crops that are commonly
found in the markets of the United States, and it is
possible to produce the greater number of these crops
in most sections of the country. Of each of these
diflFerent vegetables there are many varieties. In ad-
dition to this wide range of vegetable crops there are a
number of small fruit crops that fit in well with the
cropping and the marketing of the market gardener.

TRUCK FARMING

Location for Truck Farms.— The factors influencing the
location of a truck farm are similar to those influencing
the location of a market garden, but are of a different
relative importance. In the order of their importance
they are: Transportation facilities, climate, soil, mar-
keting organizations, labor, distance to shipping centers,
Toads to market, and social factors.

Transportation Facilities for Truck Farming.— The
truck farmer is absolutely dependent on public carriers
for the transportation of his produce. These carriers are,
as a rule, railroads and boats. Before locating a truck
farm, consideration should be given to whether the

VEGETABLE CULTURE 161

service of such carriers as are available is adequate
for the purpose.

Climate for Truck Farming.— The great variations of
climate in different sections of the United States have
made truck farming possible. The range in climatic
conditions along the Atlantic coast, for example, is such
that a succession of tender crops grown in the field are
available to the northern consumer from one year's
end to the other. The climate influences the selection
of crops, the time of year of shipment, and indirectly
the cost of transportation to the markets where the
produce will be sold.

Soils for Truck Farming.— The ideal soil for truck
farms is a sandy loam that is free from stones. Such
soil should be well drained and in a high state of
fertility.

Marketing Organizations for Truck Farming.— When
truck farms are located a long distance from market it
is practically impossible for individual growers to
market their crops satisfactorily. Such a condition
compels the growers to organize associations and pro-
vide sales departments to sell their produce. Such
organizations have satisfactorily solved the marketing
problem for truck farmers. These associations are found
in localities where a number of growers can conveniently
act together. To locate where affiliation with such an
organization is impossible would be unwise for the
truck farmer at a considerable distance from market.

Labor for Truck Farming.— The labor problem of truck
farmers is not usually so difficult to solve as that of
market gardeners, on account of the slack demand for
labor in remote regions as compared to that near large
cities. However, the cost of labor for the truck farm
is comparatively large. An investigation of labor con-
ditions should precede the selection of a location for the
business.

Distance to Shipping Centers.— The extreme distance
from a shipping center to the truck farm should not be

162 VEGETABLE CULTURE

more than 10 miles, and each mile nearer than this
distance deducts the annual constant expense to a large
degree.

Roads to Shipping Centers.— The same problems in re-
gard to roads confronts both the truck farmer and
the market gardener. Locations admirably suited by
natural conditions for the business of truck farming
may be rendered entirely unsuitable by impassable
roads.

Social Conditions.— The truck farmer is usually in a
sparsely settled region, and for this reason his social
problems are more difficult of satisfactory solution than
are those of the market gardener located in more
thickly settled communities. For this reason, a pros-
pective truck farmer should study thoroughly all con-
ditions pertaining to the social life and customs of a
locality before establishing a business.

Equipment for Truck Farming.-The size of a truck
farm varies between wide limits. Some truck farms
have from 4 to 5 acres of ground; others often have as
many as 600 to 800 acres under cultivation. This vari-
ation in size is due largely to the type of crops grown,
the ideas of the farmer, the length of time he has spent
in the business, the success he has attained, and the
amount of capital invested.

The capital necessary to go into truck farming is
small, but the amount that may be invested is almost
unlimited. A lesser investment in land, glass, build-
ings, and labor, makes the amount needed by the truck
farmer less than that required by the market gardener.
The cost of selling produce is also less because of the
opportunity to sell through organizations. To start a
small truck farm $1,000 would be sufficient. Some per-
sons could start on less and succeed and others would
need more.

Markets for Truck-Farm Produce.— It is typical of
the truck farmer to sell his produce in distant markets,
through a selling organization. Occasionally a truck

VEGETABLE CULTURE 163

farmer operating a large farm is found who handles
his own products, the bulk of his business enabling
him to do this to advantage. It is also typical of the
truck farmer to produce large quantities of single
crops. Such crops are marketed in carload lots to
wholesale distributors.

The marketing organization of the truck farm bears
much the same relation to the grower as the commission
house of the large city bears to the market gardener.
There is, however, one distinct difference; as the mar-
keting organizations exist to provide a market for truck
farmers' products, they are controlled by the grower,
while the commission man of the city is in business
to amass wealth for himself. The truck farmer gets
much more satisfaction from his method of marketing
than does the average market gardener who depends
on commission merchants to handle his crops. On the
other hand, it is necessary for the truck farmer to
market his produce through his association or not at
all, while to the market gardener a number of ways ot
distribution are opened.

Truck-Farm Crops.— The crops of the truck farm are
practically identical with those of the market garden,
different crops being grown in different sections of the
country. The development of methods of distribution
and of packing have made possible the shipment of
very perishable products for a long distance and have
thus increased the range of crops that may be pro-
duced on sections far distant from market.

There are a number of distinct trucking sections
along the Atlantic coast of the United States. The
largest of these centers is at Norfolk, Va. The prin-
cipal crops of this section in the order of their im-
portance are: Irish potatoes, spinach, cabbage, kale,
sweet potatoes, strawberries, radishes, peas, lettuce,
cucumbers, cantaloups, egg plants, tomatoes, asparagus,
beans, and beets. In the trucking centers of Texas,
onions are the principal crop. Florida excels in the

164 VEGETABLE CULTURE

production of lettuce, cucumbers, celery, and tomatoes.
Colorado is foremost in the production of cantaloups.
Georgia leads in growing watermelons. Other sections,
of course, produce the crops to which they are adapted.

HOME GARDENING

Site for Home Garden. — In selecting a site for a home
garden the following factors need careful attention:
(1) Convenience of access from the house; (2) extent of
land available; (3) richness of the soil; (4) ease of
working the plot; and (5) appearance of the garden.

A home garden not convenient of access to the house-
keeper loses a large part of its value. The garden
should be located so that when vegetables are wanted
they can be quickly obtained, fresh from the soil.

The fact that a home garden must be located largely
according to the land available often makes accessibility
to the house out of the question. Nevertheless, it does
not lose its importance on this account.

Size of Home Garden. — The extent of land needed for
the home garden depends on the size of the family to
be fed, and the amount of time and money that can
be spent on the garden. A home garden 20 ft. long by
10 ft. wide can be made to produce a good supply of
some of the smaller vegetable crops, such as lettuce,
radishes, spinach, beets, carrots, turnips, and perhaps
a few potatoes and tomatoes.

An area 50 ft. x 100 ft. will yield sufficient produce
for a large family for both the summer and winter
supply. In a home garden the plants can be grown
close together and more than one crop can be taken
from the same land the same season.

Soil for Home Garden.— The home garden, especially
if it is in a city or town, must often be located with
little opportunity for selection according to soil charac-
teristics. The soil should preferably be sandy. Other
types of soil can be made to produce crops, but always
with more labor and expense.

VEGETABLE CULTURE 165

Soil Improvement for Home Garden.— Soil improvement
for a home garden should consist of the addition of as
much stable manure as can be obtained conveniently. A
quantity that covers the soil to the depth of from 3 to
8 in. is desirable, provided it is later worked into the
soil. The plowing under of grass sod and the addition
of all vegetable matter available, such as clipped lawn
grass, garbage, etc., help to increase the capacity of
the soil for crop production. The addition of wood
ashes is also helpful. Except in limestone regions,
the use of about 50 lb. of lime to every 100 sq. ft. of
soil is good practice. Lime and manure should not,
however, be added at the same time. If good tillage
is coupled with the addition of the fertilizing material
and lime, satisfactory crops can be produced from prac-
tically any type of soil. Drainage, if necessary, should
be provided in a home garden.

Selection of Crops for Home Garden.— The selection of
crops for the home garden is distinctly a family problem.
The home gardener is practically unlimited in his choice
of garden crops, and the greater the variety, within
reasonable limits, the greater the interest in the garden,
and the more benefits received from it.

The majority of garden crops are easily grown from
seed, and the cost of seeds of the best kind and from
the most reliable sources is very small. Plants of those
crops that must be started in hotbeds or cold frames
can usually be purchased ready for transplanting from
dealers in towns and cities. The cost of such plants,
too, is usually not high.

Glass for Home Garden. — Home gardening for the city
and town worker is made much more interesting by the
use of a few sash for the production of plants out of
season. From 1 to 5 sash is the usual number in use
on a home garden, depending on the amount of money
it is desired to spend, the room available, and the time
allowable for the work. The type of glass structure
most used by home gardeners is the cold frame.

166 VEGETABLE CULTURE

Arrangement of Home Garden.— A rectangular shape
is the most desirable for the home garden, as the plan
of cropping may then be such as to make necessary
the least possible labor in the care of the garden. The
gardener can, in addition, economize on space in a
rectangular plot.

Every home garden, if of sufficient size, should have
the following perennial crops: Asparagus, rhubarb,
raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, and currants.
These should be located on one side of the garden
where they will not interfere with the annual plowing
and harrowing for other crops. A border of perennial
crops makes a most desirable arrangement. In addition
to the perennial crops, the following are desirable:
Strawberries, lettuce, beets, carrots, cabbage, cauliflower,
cucumbers, spinach, radishes, sweet corn, string beans,
and tomatoes.

To be most successful with the garden a plan should
be made before the gardening season opens. In making
a plan the gardener should arrange the crops according
to their planting time and degree of hardiness. The
length of time usually needed from seed to maturity
should also be considered, as it is often desirable to
plant crops on ground that has already produced a crop
earlier in the season.

General Rules for a Home Garden.— Some general rules
in regard to cropping a home garden are given following:
(1) Group the perennials; (2) plant the hardy crops to-
gether, so that no more land than is necessary need
be cared for early in the season; (3) group the small
crops and the large crops that need similar tillage;
(4) as soon as one crop has been harvested, follow it
by another; (5) interplant some of the slow-growing
large crops with quick-growing small crops.

Tillage of a Home Garden.— The soil of a home garden
should be plowed after the manure has been applied.
The plowing then mixes the manure with the soil and
upturns the soil particles to the air, thus making the

VEGETABLE CULTURE 167

soil fine in texture. Spading the ground will ac-
complish the same result as plowing, but it is more
expensive and tiresome.

After the soil has been plowed a harrow should be
used to make a finely pulverized seed-bed. On small
areas a hand garden rake can be used in place of a
harrow.

After the plants in the garden have commenced to
grow, tillage between the rows is necessary. Thorough
working of the soil should be done to keep the ground
stirred to a depth of 1 or 2 in. during the whole
growing season. This stirring of the soil conserves soil
moisture and keeps the garden free from weeds, both of
which are essential in gardening.

Planting and Harvesting of Home-Garden Crops.— The
planting of the seeds, the setting out of the plants, and
the harvesting of the crops take place in different parts
of the garden throughout the entire season. There is no
general planting and harvesting time for home-garden
crops, as in most branches of agriculture.

Tools for a Home Garden.— For the average home gar-
den the following implements and tools will be found
useful. The average cost of the equipment is also given.

1 seed sower and wheel cultivator combined. $9.00 - 7 v ■>'>^;

1 common hoe 40 !• SD^

1 fourteen-tooth iron garden rake 50 (■ r*

1 spading fork 70 i- ro

1 shovel 1.00 -u-^

1 garden hose and reel 1.00 ■lo-iT''

1 wheelbarrow 4.50 ')• f1>

Total $17.10 •'T-'S;

For the man who plants an area of say 10 ft. x 20 ft.,
such an equipment is not necessary. The hoe, rake, ;

and spading fork are all the tools that he need have. ''

168 VEGETABLE CULTURE

VEGETABLE CROPS

Vegetable plants are of three degrees of hardiness:
Hardy, half hardy, and tender. Hardy plants are those
that can withstand frost without injury. Half-hardy
plants are those that will grow in the cool moist season
of the year, but will not withstand frost without injury.
Tender plants are those that are killed by frost; they
should not, therefore, be put in the ground until the
season is far enough advanced that no long period of
cool weather is likely to occur.

Following is given a list of the common vegetable
crops classed as hardy, half hardy, and tender:

Hardy crops: Rhubarb, beets, cabbage, carrots, cauli-
flower, celery, lettuce, onions, peas, parsnips, radishes,
turnips.

Half-hardy crops: Asparagus, beans (some varieties),
sweet corn (some varieties).

Tender crops: Beans, sweet corn, cucumbers, potatoes,
squashes, tomatoes.

HARDY VEGETABLE CROPS
Rhubarb. — The ideal soil for rhubarb is a deep, rich,
sandy loam, but the plant can be grown successfully
on all types of soil, provided they are put in proper
condition. Rhubarb requires an enormous quantity of
soil moisture, consequently irrigation is especially
valuable.

Propagation of rhubarb is usually accomplished by
root division. A piece of root that has a strong eye
will, under favorable conditions, produce a good plant
in one season. The best time to plant rhubarb is in
the early spring. The roots are usually planted
3 ft. X 4 ft. or 4 ft. X 4 ft., being covered with several
inches of soil. Linnaeus and Victoria are the most
popular varieties.

Beets.— Beets thrive best on sandy loams that are
deep and moist, but well drained. They will, however,

VEGETABLE CULTURE 169

grow in practically all American gardens. When grown
in heavy soils they are likely to be too fibrous.

Beets are propagated from seed. The early varieties
are sown as early in spring as the ground can be pre-
pared. From about 6 to 8 weeks are required for the
roots to reach a size sufficient for use. Succession
plantings of oval and turnip-shaped beets may be made
until the middle of August. In planting beets, the
distance between plants in the row should be from
2 in. to 3 in. for small-topped varieties, and from 5 in. to
6 in. for the larger-rooted varieties. These distances
are secured by thinning. If cultivating is to be done
with a hand-wheel hoe, the rows should be about 12 in.
apart; if cultivating is to be done with a horse cul-
tivator, the distance between rows should be from
24 in. to 30 in.

Cabbage. — Cabbage will do well on any soil that is
constantly moist, yet well drained, and that has abun-
dant plant-food. Perhaps the largest crops of late
cabbage have been grown on clay loams that have been
well manured. The best climate for cabbage is one that
is cool and moist, consequently the growing of cabbage
is largely confined to northern districts.

For early cabbage, fall plowing is generally desirable;
for late cabbage, it is the practice to break the ground
early in the spring. When early cabbage is to be raised,
it is now almost a universal practice in the North to
sow the seed in hotbeds or greenhouses in Jan. or Feb.
Late cabbage seed is sowed in the open sometime during
May in northern latitudes. When the plants have
reached a suitable size they are transplanted into rows.
The proper distance to set the plants depends on the
methods of cultivating, spraying, and harvesting. Early
varieties, such as Jersey Wakefield, may be planted
14 in. X 26 in. or even closer; Charlestown Wakefield,
16 in. X 28 in.; Danish Ball Head, 18 in. x 30 in.;
and Flat Dutch and the other late flat-headed varieties,
24 in. X 36 in.

170 VEGETABLE CULTURE

Carrots. — The soil for carrots should be fine, mellow,
fertile, moist, and not inclined to bake. The best roots
are grown in distinctly sandy soils.

The carrot is propagated from seed sown in the open.
If an early crop is desired, the seed should be sown as
early in the spring as the ground can be prepared. A
succession of roots is secured by planting at various
times throughout the season. The early varieties mature
in from 8 to 10 wk. and late varieties in from 4 to 5 mo.

Carrot seeds germinate slowly, consequently it is an
advantage to sow enough radish seed with the carrot
seed to mark the rows, so that cultivation may not be
interfered with. The seed should be covered, as a rule,
with about }4 in. of soil.

For the small early varieties, 10 in. to 12 in. between
rows is sufficient space if a hand-wheel hoe is used.
For later varieties, 15 in. between rows is about right.
When a horse cultivator is to be used, all varieties
should be planted in rows from 24 in. to 30 in. apart.
Various spaces are recommended for the distance be-
tween plants in the row, from 4 in. to S in. being the
usual space allowed. Thinning, of course, is necessary
to space the plants properly.

Cauliflower. — Cauliflower thrives best in rich, heavy,
loams, although large crops are obtained when the
crop is grown in light soils. A constant supply of
moisture is the most important factor.

Cauliflower, both late and early, is grown by prac-
tically the same methods as late and early cabbage.
As cauliflower plants are more tender than cabbage
plants, it is customary, however, to sow the former
somewhat later than the latter. Mar. 1 being about
right for northern districts. The planting distances are
the same as for cabbage.

Celery. — Muck soils are specially adapted to celery
growing because they are very moist, fertile, loose, and
mellow. It is a fact, however, that the flavor of celery
is somewhat deficient when the crop is grown on muck

VEGETABLE CULTURE 171

soil. Many clay and silt soils produce good crops,
especially when well manured and irrigated. Large
quantities of celery are also raised on light sandy
loams, but it is usually necessary to use considerable
commercial fertilizer.

Celery seeds are very small and slow to germinate
and must be provided with the best conditions in the
seed-bed. The soil should be in fine condition and
moist. It is seldom best to sow seed for the early crop
before Mar. 1. In most Northern districts, the seed
may be sown in flats, hotbeds, or greenhouses. When
the rough leaves appear, the small seedlings are trans-
planted into flats or beds; lyi in. each way is ample
space. Seed for the late crop is usually sown in the
open or in protected beds as early in the spring as
the ground can be prepared. The rows are generally
1 ft. apart. This provides plenty of space for wheel-hoe
cultivation until the plants are transplanted.

In most sections, planting for the early crop should
not occur until from May 10 to IS. Vigorous plants,
properly set at this time, should produce a marketable
crop by Aug. 1. The late plants may be set the latter
part of June and throughout the month of July.
Planting distances are extremely variable. If planting
is to be in blanching trenches, the distance between
rows must not be less than 3J^ ft. ; S ft. is the more
common spacing, especially for the tall, green varieties.
When boards or other devices are used for blanching,
the space between rows varies from 18 in. to 3 ft. The
standard distance between the plants in the row is 6 in.
Some of the best growers plant the early varieties
only 4 in. apart and allow 24 in. between rows. At this
distance, 65,000 plants are required for an acre.

Lettuce. — Rich, sandy soils, properly fertilized, are
preferable for growing early crops of lettuce. For all
classes of lettuce, however, sandy loams furnish the best
conditions. The soil preparation for lettuce should be
thorough. The seed is sown in the open from early spring

172 VEGETABLE CULTURE

until late fall, and all winter in the far South. It is cus-
tomary to drill lettuce in rows about 1 ft. apart, and to
thin to 1 ft. or less. In home gardens, the plants are often
thinned out at first to about 4 in. and later to 1 ft.

Onions. — Perhaps the best soils for onions are those
containing large quantities of organic matter. Such
soils as muck and peat seem to be an ideal medium for
the growing of this crop, as they warm up rapidly in the
spring, and thus facilitate early planting, which is very
important. Such soils also retain moisture, so that
drouth seldom injures the crop to any great extent.
Land used in growing onions should be practically level
to prevent damage from washing. Onions are easily
washed out on sloping lands.

Most of the onions grown in the United States are
produced from seed sown in the open, where the crop
matures. When wheel hoes are used, it is customary
to plant the crop 12 in. to 14 in. between rows. When
horse tools are used the rows are made from 24 in. to
30 in. apart. In fairly heavy soil, the seed should be
covered with not more than l4 in. of soil. In very sandy
soil, it is advisable to cover the seed a little deeper.
It is customary to allow 8 to 12 plants to the lineal
foot. The proper distance in a row is secured, of
course, by thinning.

Peas.— A cool, moist, but well-drained soil is essential
to the largest yields of peas. Sandy loams are preferred,
although good results can be obtained on any loose,
friable, and well-prepared soil.

For the earliest crop, the seed should be planted in
Mar., or as soon as the ground can be prepared. For
the first planting, a shallow covering of about 1 in. of
soil should be given to the seed. As the • season ad-
vances, the planting should be deeper. Planting dis-
tances depend on the height of the vines, whether the
vines are to be supported or not, and the purpose of the
crop. When sown in drills, the space between rows
varies from 18 in. to 3 ft.

VEGETABLE CULTURE 173

Parsnips. — Parsnips do best in deep, fertile, sandy-
loams. Clay soil has a tendency to produce crooked
and branching roots.

Parsnip seeds germinate very slowly, consequently
they should be sown as early as possible in the spring.
A few radish seeds should be sown with the parsnips
to mark the rows so that cultivation may be begun
before the parsnips are up. The soil should be thor-
oughly prepared before sowing. From J4 in. to 1 in. of
soil is sufficient covering. It is customary to use plenty
of seed, and then thin the plants to 6 in. or 7 in. in
strong soils, or 4 in. to 5 in. in poorer ones. There
should be 15 in. to 18 in. between rows for wheel-hoe
cultivation, and 2 ft. or more when horse implements
are to be used.

Radishes. — The soil for radishes should be cool, moist,
fertile, and friable. Sandy loams are preferable. In
heavy soils, the roots are likely to be rough or ill
shaped, with a large number of fibrous laterals.

Radishes are planted from early spring, as soon as the
ground can be worked, until 6 wk. before frosting
weather. By the selection of different varieties, and
sowing at frequent intervals, i. constant succession of
radishes may be had throughout the season. The seeds
are strong in germination, and should be sown thinly.
The distance between plants in the row should vary
from 1 in. to 5 in., depending on the size of roots and
tops. As a rule, rows are about 1 ft. apart.

Spinach. — For spinach a very rich, moist soil is re-
quired. In soils of moderate fertility, the plants become
spindling, and the production is Kght. The general
practice is to make early sowings in low beds from b
to 9 ft. wide. The rows, which should be 10 or 14 in.
apart, are drilled lengthwise in the beds and the plants
thinned to from 4 to 6 in. apart. It is important to
sow in good time, so that the plants will become
thoroughly established before winter. Sept. 25 is the
favorite time for sowing in the latitude of Norfolk, Va.

174 VEGETABLE CULTURE

Turnips. — Turnips, like other root crops, are best
yrown in sandy soils, and although the crop is produced
in a wide range of soil types, to obtain large yields and
high quality, the soil must be fertile and constantly
moist.

For an early crop, the seed should be sown as soon as
the ground can be prepared. For a late crop, the seed
should be sown the latter part of July or early in Aug.,
depending on the locality. If a wheel hoe is to be used
in culti-vating, the rows should be from 12 to 18 in.
apart, and if a horse cultivator is to be employed, the
rows should be from 26 to 30 in. apart. In the case
of the early crop, the plants should be about 2J^ to 3 in.
apart in the row. For the larger late varieties, 4 or 5 in.
between plants in a row is about right. The seed
should be planted from J4 to J4 in. deep.

HALF-HARDY CROPS

Asparagus. — Asparagus is grown successfully on a
great variety of soils. The best soil is a deep, rich,
moist, sandy loam. Sandy loams are especially im-
portant for the green or blanched asparagus, because it
is very difficult to produce straight shoots in heavy clay
soils.

Asparagus is propagated by seed and by dividing the
<;rowns. The latter method, however, is not satisfactory
and is seldom practiced by commercial growers. Owing
to the fact that the asparagus plantation is to last 10
years or longer, too much thought or care cannot be
given to the preparation of the soil. Planting distances
vary considerably in different sections. In the growing
of white stalks, the average spacing in New Jersey is
2 ft. X Syi ft.; in New York, about 2 ft. x 5 ft.; in
California, about 2 ft. x 9 ft. In the growing of green
asparagus, the average spacing in New Jersey is 2 ft. x
5 ft.; in Massachusetts, 2 ft. x 4 ft.; in Pennsylvania,
2 ft. X 4}^ ft. Spring planting is universally regarded
as better than fall planting. In America, the asparagus

VEGETABLE CULTURE 175

plants are set from 6 in. to 1 ft. deep, but 8 in. is
considered deep enough. An ordinary moldboard plow
is used to make the trenches for planting. The furrow
soil is thrown on each side of the furrow. It is often
necessary to make two or three rows before the proper
depth has been obtained. It is not best to set the
plants in the bottom of a hard trench. The best prac-
tice is to spread the roots over a slight mound of fine
soil and then cover the crown with 2 or 3 in. of fine,
moist soil. The crown should be fully firmed over the
fleshy roots.

Beans. — Beans are discussed here as a half-hardy
crop, but in reality only certain varieties are half hardy,
the others being tender varieties.

The soils for beans should be well drained and have'
a moderate quantity of organic matter. Some varieties
of beans will grow and mature light crops on poor
soils, but high fertility is necessary to larger yields.
The light sandy loams are especially important for lima
beans.

It is better to wait until the ground is thoroughly
warm and there is little danger of damaging weather
conditions before planting beans. Kidney beans may
be planted early, followed by the marrows, and then
the pea varieties. In New York, the kidney beans may
be planted the latter part of May, and the pea varieties
from June 5 to 20. The distances between rows range
from 24 in. to 34 in., 28 in. being about the proper
spacing. The usual distance of the beans apart in a
row is from 2 to 4 in. In heavy soils, V/i in. is ample
depth for planting; in lighter soils, 2 in. to 3 in. is
about right.

Sweet Com. — Sod land is invariably the best for sweet
corn. The crop may be grown successfully on prac-
tically all types of soils, but large yields are to be
obtained, of course, only from very fertile soils. As
in the case of beans, some varieties of sweet corn are
half hardy and some are tender.

176 VEGETABLE CULTURE,

When grown for market, early planting of sweet corn
is especially important. The crop is often grown in
hills, but drills are preferred. Plants of a lighter
growing variety may stand 10 in. apart, and 1 ft. is
not too much space for vigorous varieties. The space
between rows varies from 30 in. to 4 ft. It is best to
seed freely and then if necessary to reduce the number
of plants.

TENDER CROPS

Cucumbers. — Light, sandy loams are best for early
cucumbers, if earliness is the chief consideration, but
yields are larger and the bearing period longer in
heavier soils. Whatever the type of soil, it must be
moist but not wet.

Planting should not occur until the ground is warm
and there is practically no danger of frost. Many
growers plant seed at two different depths. The early
plants come on first, and if these are killed or damaged
by frost, the later ones will be likely to escape. Plant-
ing in hills was the universal practice some years ago
and is still preferred by many growers. In good soils,
the distance between hills should be not less than
5 ft. X 5 ft. and some prefer to plant 6 ft. x 6 ft. In
lighter and moderately fertile soils, 4 ft. x 5 ft. may be
permissible.

Potatoes.— Soil for potatoes should be rather loamy in
character and should have a liberal supply of potash,
either naturally or supplied in the drill by the applica-
tion of sulphate of potash.

Potatoes are cut into sections for planting, a section
being a small piece containing one or more eyes. The
pieces are planted 3 or 4 in. below the surface of the
ground. It is the best practice to plant in drills, drop-
ping two pieces every 12 to 18 in. If horse cultivation is
used, the drills should be at least 3 ft. apart.

Squashes. — A rich, warm, but well-drained, moist soil
is essential to quick maturity and high yields in
squashes. The plants are often started under glass.

VEGETABLE CULTURE 177

like cucumbers and muskmelons, and planted in the
open. It is customary to sow from 10 to 12 seeds in
hills enriched with two or three forkfuls of rotten
manure, and then to thin to two or three plants.
Squashes are often planted in drills and thinned as
may be desired. The dish types of pattypan and crook-
neck squashes are generally planted 4 ft. x 4 ft. apart.
The winter, or running varieties, should be planted
about 8 ft. X 8 ft., or 10 ft. x 12 ft., depending on
the fertility of the soil and the vigor of the varieties.

Tomatoes. — A deep, fertile, sandy loam, or a well-
drained clay sod soil undoubtedly provides the best
conditions for the culture of tomatoes. The crop, how-
ever, is grown successfully on a great variety of
soils. The tomato is propagated from seed sown in
hotbeds, cold frames, or greenhouses. When the seed-
lings have attained sufficient size, they are transplanted
to the open ground. The proper distances should be
determined by the fertility of the soil, the vigor of
the variety, and the method of culture. In fine soils,
and with early varieties, 3 ft. x 3 ft. apart will be
satisfactory. In many soils, 3 ft. x 4 ft. are good
distances for early varieties; 4 ft. x 4 ft., and 4 ft. x 5 ft.
are good planting distances for late varieties.

178 FARM LIVESTOCK

FARM LIVESTOCK

HORSES

For a proper understanding of the terms used by
horsemen, a knowledge of the various parts and exterior
regions of a horse is necessary. In the accompanying
illustration is shown a profile view of a horse with the
parts and exterior regions numbered. The names of
the numbered parts and regions are given following
the cut.

The common unit of measurement for the height of
horses is the hand. A hand is 4 in. or the supposed
width of the human palm. Thus, if a horse were S ft.
4 in. tall, its height would be expressed as 16 hands;
if it were 5 ft. 6 in. tall, its height would be expressed
as W/z hands. The measurement of a horse's height is
taken from the ground to the top of the shoulders.

THE ARAB HORSE

The native home of the Arab breed of horse is in
Arabia, but it is probable that the breed is not indig-
enous to that country. Arab horses range from 14 to
15 hands in height, rarely exceeding 15^4 hands. The
head is of splendid appearance, being broad and high,
the muzzle short and fine, the face bony, the veins
handsomely coursed, the nostrils large, the ears small
and well set, the eyes large and prominent, and the
jaw heavy and wide, giving an abundance of room for
the windpipe. The neck is deep where it joins the
shoulder, of good length, and nicely turned ■ in the
throat latch. The shoulders are long and obliquely set,
but the withers are often too thick and are inclined to

FARM LIVESTOCK

179

1, Chin groove

2, Lips

3, Nostril

4, Muzzle
6, Face

6, Nose

7. Eye

5, Forehead
9, Poll

;0, Ear

i/. Lower jaw

12, Angle of lower jaw

13, Throat latch

14, Neck

15, Crest

16, Juncture of neck

and shoulder

17, Withers

18, Shoulder

19, Arm

SO, Point of shoul-
der
81, Forearm

22, Elbow

23, Knee

S4, Front cannon

25, Front fetlock

26, Front pastern

27, Front coronet

28, Front hoof

29, Chestnuts

30, Floor of chest

31 , Bellv

32, Ribs

33, Flank

34, Back

3.5, Loin

36, Hip

37, Croup

38, Dock
35, Tail

40, Point of but-

tock

41. Thigh
4-?, Stifle

43, Quarters

44, Gaskin

45, Hock

4^f Hind cannon

47, Hind fetlock

48, Hind pastern

49, Hind coronet
60, Hind hoof

180 FARM LIVESTOCK

be rather low for saddle purposes. The body is rather
short and usually deeply ribbed, the ribs springing out
well from the spine with a symmetrical curve; the back
is well sustained with heavy muscles; the • loins are
broad and muscular; the croup is rather long and level,
and the tail is set high and usually carried with style;
the quarters are long and deep, but the gaskins and
hocks are not of the most approved shape. The legs
and feet are of good size and shape for strength.

Contrary to popular opinion, the prevailing color of
the Arab is not snow white, or coal black, or spotted.
The best authorities state that about 50% of the animals
are bays, about 20% are chestnuts, and about 30% are
grays and white with dark skin; occasionally a brown
'specimen is found and very rarely a black.

As a saddle horse the Arab ranks high.

THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE

The Thoroughbred has a fine, lean head that has
quality, eyes that are prominent and intelligent, ears
of medium size, a broad forehead, a heavy jaw, and a
refined muzzle. The neck is long and rather thin, the
crest fairly straight from the withers to the poll, and
the head carried somewhat low with the nose pointing
forwards when the animal is running. In the best
specimens of the breed, the shoulders are obliquely set,
and well covered with muscle, and the withers are high
and thin. The chest cf a Thoroughbred has a tendency
to be narrow and deep; very narrow chests, however,
are objectionable. It is desirable that the front legs,
from the bottom, or floor, of the chest to the ground,
should be little moie than half the height of the horse.
The back and loins are comparatively short and well
muscled, the conformation of these parts indicating an
ability of the animal to carry weight. The ribs are
long and well sprung. The croup is of good length,
rather level, and curved gracefully with the tail, which
is attached at a medium height and is somewhat lightly

FARM LIVESTOCK 181

haired. The Thoroughbred is heavily muscled in the
thighs and quarters, which are long and deep, exhibiting
great propelling power. The gaskins, or lower thighs,
should be broad, and the feet and joints should show
strength and quality. The cannons are broad and the
pasterns are longer than those of any other breed and
frequently too sloping. It is desirable that the hind
legs should be a trifle straighter than in the case of
harness horses.

In color, Thoroughbred horses are variable. Bay and
brown are the most common and the most popular colors,
although chestnut is by no means uncommon, and black,
sorrel, gray, and roan occasionally occur.

THE AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE

Between 1830 and 1840 many horses were taken into
Kentucky, principally from Virginia and other eastern
states and from Canada. Most of the horses from
Virginia were either Thoroughbreds or animals largely
permeated with Thoroughbred blood. Many of those
taken from New York and the New England states
were pacers, and were descendants from crosses of the
early French Canadian mares with the stallions of New
York and New England. It is probable, also, that
many of them were descendants of the Narrangansett
Pacer, a well-known strain that existed in the eastern
part of the country in colonial times. These pacing
horses, when taken to Kentucky, were crossed with
the Thoroughbreds that had been brought from Virginia.
From the animals resulting from this cross the American
Saddle horse has been developed.

The size most desired for animals of this breed is a
height of from 15 hands V/i in. to IS hands 2'^ in. and
a weight of from 950 to 1,100 lb. The saddle horse
exhibits much style in carriage of head and in arch
of neck and tail. In the best animals of the breed,
the back is very strong and hence capable of sus-
taining considerable weight. The shoulders and pasterns

182 FARM LIVESTOCK

are usually long, obliquely set, and springy. The croup
is long and level, and the tail is long, set high, and
stylishly carried.

Gaits of the Saddle Horse.— The most distinguishing
feature of the saddle horse is his variety of gaits. The
three natural gaits of a horse are the walk, trot, and
gallop. The gallop, in the case of the saddle horse, has
been changed by training to the canter. The canter is
performed by practically the same movement of the legs
as the gallop but is slower and easier on the rider.
Some saddle horses have only the three gaits, the walk,
the trot, and the canter; and are known as walk-trot-
canter horses, or merely as plain-gaited horses. Many
saddle horses have acquired through training two addi-
tional gaits, the rack and a slow gait. The rack is a
gait in which each foot strikes the ground separately
and in a peculiar rhythm. The rack was formerly
termed the single-foot gait, but the American Saddle
Horse Breeders' Association has officially adopted the
term rack. The slow gait may be either the running
walk, the slow pace, or the fox trot, all of which are
closely allied. The running walk is faster than the
common walk but is performed with the same rhythm;
that is, each foot strikes the ground independently of
the others. The slow pace is a slow, modified form of
the common pace. The fox trot is a slow trot or a jog
trot. A horse that can show the walk, the trot, the
canter, the rack, and the running walk or the slow
pace or the fox trot is called a gaited horse.

THE MORGAN HORSE

The Morgan horse is small, standing from 14 to 15}4
hands high, and weighing from 900 to 1,200 lb. The
head is small and neat, the forehead being broad and
high. The eyes are large and brown, and are neatly set
in the head. The head and ears are smaller and more
refined than those of the American Trotter, and the
neck is longer, has a better crest, and is set better,

FARM LIVESTOCK 18»

being carried higher. The shoulders are long and ob-
liquely set, and the chest is deep and capacious, indi-
cating endurance and hardiness of constitution. The
back is short and well muscled; the ribs spring well
from the spine, giving a round barrel; the croup is long
and the tail neatly set; and the limbs are clean and
cordy, the bone being of the best quality. The pre-
vailing colors are bay, chestnut, brown, and black.
Although but few Morgans ever attained phenomenal
speed, most of them have good action and are clean,
open-gaited trotters. Many of them with a little school-
ing readily acquire saddle gaits.

THE AMERICAN TROTTER

The American Trotter breed, the animals of which are
commonly known as standard-bred horses, includes both
the trotter and the pacer. In fact, the trotting and the
pacing gaits are somewhat interchangeable and many of
the so-called trotting horses have both. In the early
development of this type, breeders failed to recognize
any standard toward which to breed, but simply bred
for speed. The American Trotter horse is scattered
widely throughout the United States, being found in
almost every section. He is distinctly the product of
America and has been developed because of the love
of Americans for horse racing at the trotting and
pacing gaits.

No breed of horses is characterized by such a great
variation in size, conformation, and color, as the
American Trotter. In fact, there is so little of breed
type found among these light-harness horses that some
persons refuse to recognize them as belonging to a
breed. In the best of these animals there is g.eat
symmetry of form. The head is inclined to be a little
large and coarse; the neck rather short, lean, and
straight; the shoulders sloping and well laid; the back
and loin longer than is desired; and the croup short
and somewhat drooping. American Trotters usually have

184 FARM LIVESTOCK

deep chests and, as a rule, short, clean, fine-boned
legs, and strong feet of excellent quality. The action
is quick and the stride long. Breeders desire a weight,
in the case of stallions, of about 1,150 lb., and, in the
case of mares, of about 1,050 lb. Bay and brown are
the most common colors of these horses.

THE ORLOFF TROTTER

The Orloff Trotter has the characteristic conformation
of light-harness horses and is used chiefly for driving
purposes. The average height is about 16 hands, and
the weight varies considerably, running from about
1,000 to 1,300 lb. Gray, white, and black are the most
-common colors of these horses, although chestnut and
bay are not uncommon. It is said that Orloff Trotters
are lacking in quality. The head is usually small and
the face dished. In good animals of the breed, the
neck is strong, well arched, and carried high. The
back is short and strong, and the loin full and muscular.
The croup is somewhat sloping, being commonly criticized
in this respect, but is heavily muscled. The shoulders
are sloping but lack heaviness of form. The legs are
strongly muscled and the bone and feet are regarded as
of superior quality.

THE HACKNEY HORSE

The most desirable height for the Hackney is from
15^ to 15^4 hands, but the breed shows a wide variation
in this regard. Some animals are less than 14 hands
and others range over 16 hands. In England, the
horses of this breed under 14 hands are called Hackney
ponies; those from 14 to 15 hands Hackney cobs; and
those IS hands and over, Hackney carriage horses. They
have all been bred much alike with the exception of
size, which represents a difference of the breeders' ideas
as to what is most desired and useful. The largest
Hackney rarely weighs over 1,250 lb. Animals of this
breed are usually stoutly built, compact, strong boned,
muscular, and of kindly disposition. The head is light,

FARM LIVESTOCK 185

clean cut, and intelligent in appearance; the neck is
strong, well arched and muscular, but free from coarse-
ness; the shoulders are smooth and oblique; the body is
rotund, short, and compact ; the legs are short, strong
boned, and flattish; the tendons are prominent; and the
hoofs are symmetrical and of good quality. The action
of the Hackney is high, quick, elastic, and regular, the
hocks being well flexed. The common colors are bay,
chestnut, and brown, although black, roan, gray, and
buckskin occasionally occur.

THE FRENCH COACH HORSE

The French Coach breed of horses, as the name im-
plies, originated in France. The name French Coach,
however, is an American one, there being no breed of
that name in France. The breed known in America as
French Coach is termed in France the Demi-Sang,
meaning half blood. The horses of this breed are, on
an average, about 16 hands high. The average weight
of the stallions is about 1,350 lb., and of the mares
about 1,200 lb. There is, however, considerable varia-
tion in the size. French Coach horses have a good
length of body; a refined, well-placed neck; and a
neat head. The back is short, broad, and well muscled;
the croup is level and of good length; and the tail is
well carried. The limbs are well placed, of good shape,
and have quality; and the feet and pasterns are of
superior quality. The trot of the French Coach horse
is not so snappy and high as that of the Hackney, but
the stride is longer and more powerful. Bay and brown
are the prevailing colors, but black and chestnut are
not unusual, and sometimes other colors occur.

THE GERMAN COACH HORSE.

The German Coach breed of horses, as the name sug-
gests, is a product of Germany. Horses of this breed
range in height from 15^ to 17 hands, and weigh from
1,250 to 1,600 lb. The usual height is from 16 to 16J4

186 FARM LIVESTOCK

hands, and the weight from 1,300 to 1,500 lb. The head
of the German Coach is neat, the neck is long and
arched; the shoulders are oblique and well placed; and
the withers are prominent. The German Coach horse
is larger than the French Coach horse, the body being
longer and heavier. In color, the German Coach horses
are bay, brown, and black, brown and bay being more
prevalent than any other color.

THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE

In height, the Cleveland Bay ranges from about 16
to 16|'4 hands, and weighs from 1,200 to 1,550 lb. The
body is of the large coach type. The neck is of mod-
erate length and the head is neat. The shoulders are
long and sloping; the back and loins short and broad;
and the croup high. These animals have an abundance
of bone of good quality, and their action is good,
although by no means as high as that of the Hackney.
The color of the Cleveland Bay horse is always some
shade of bay, either light or dark, with black legs,
mane, and tail.

THE YORKSHIRE COACH HORSE

The Yorkshire Coach breed is recognized as a distinct
breed in England, but is registered in the same stud
books as the Cleveland Bay in the United States. The
Yorkshire Coach horse is not so heavy as the Cleveland
Bay but is a little taller, often standing 17 hands high.
He is finer in bone, with more quality and refinement
about the limbs, head, and neck, and is also a little
more snappy in his action. In the best animals, the
•color is bay or brown, with black eyes; and there is an
abundance of mane and tail.

THE PERCHERON HORSE

Percherons range in height from about 16 to IT/i
hands and weigh from about 1,600 to 2,200 lb. An
average weight for a Percheron stallion in good condition

FARM LIVESTOCK 187

is from 1,900 to 2,000 lb. The Percheron has a deep,
thick, compact body on rather short legs, which are
devoid of the long hair characteristic of the Clydes-
dale and the Shire. The head is neat and refined, of
good width between the eyes and the jaws, and tapers
to a refined muzzle; the forehead is broad and full; and
the ears are small, pointed, and carried erect. The
neck is of moderate length, rather arched, and is
usually set well on the shoulders.

In action, the Percheron is quick and energetic, ex-
hibiting considerable snap. Percherons are good walkers
but have a shorter stride than either the Clydesdales or
the Shires. The trot is performed with vim and energy,
and the knees and hocks are usually flexed well when
carried forwards. Gray and black are the predominating
colors, although occasionally bay, brown, and chestnut
occur. The Percheron has a sanguine temperament, and
an amiable disposition, in these respects being the best
of all the draft breeds.

THE CLYDESDALE HORSE

Clydesdales commonly range in height from 16 to 17
hands, and weigh from about 1,800 to 2,000 lb. In the
best animals the head is of good shape; the shoulders
are rather oblique; and the chest is somewhat narrower
than in animals of the other draft breeds. The body
of the Clydesdale is criticized by many competent
judges, who assert that it is lacking in depth and cir-
cumference. The feet, bone, and action are cardinal
points with Clydesdale breeders, and in these respects
animals of the breed are superior. A prominent charac-
teristic of Clydesdale horses is the long, fine, silky hair,
commonly termed feather, which grows out from the
backs of the cannons and from the coronets.

In the early days a few of the Clydesdales were black,
a few were gray, and a few were chestnut, but the
Highland Agricultural Society made it a rule that only
bays and browns should be allowed to compete for

188 FARM LIVESTOCK

prizes. This checked the production of blacks and grays,
which were rather common in the country at that time.
Gray Clydesdales are still unpopular, and some authori-
ties think that a chestnut color indicates Shire blood.

THE SHIRE HORSE

Shire stallions range in height from 16 to 17}^ hands
and weigh from about 1,800 to 2,400 lb. The shoulders
are massive and powerful. The back is of moderate
length and the croup of fair length, although not so
level as that of the Clydesdale. The Shire is inclined
to be a little plain over the hips and a little too short
and straight in the pasterns. The feet are inclined to
be small and too flat, lacking height at the heel, and
also brittle, especially feet of a white color. As a
rule, animals of the breed have an abundance of bone.
A deep cheit and heavily muscled shoulders, thighs, and
quarters are characteristic of the breed. Shire horses
have a profuse growth of feather coming out from the
cannons; often the feather is not as fine and silky as
is desired.

Horses of the Shire breed are usually of a bay or
brown color, although black, gray, and occasionally
chestnut occurs. As a rule, they have white faces, the
white extending from the forehead to the muzzle, and
one or more white feet and legs, the white extending
to the knee or hock, and occasionally higher.

THE BELGIAN HORSE

The Belgian is the heaviest of all draft horses. The
stallions range in height from 16 to 17 hands and vary
in weight from 1,800 to 2,500 lb. The mares, of course,
are considerably lighter in weight than the stallions,
but are heavy in comparison with mares of the other
draft breeds.

The characters that distinguish the Belgian draft
horse from the horses of other draft breeds are the deep,
thick body and short legs, which are free from long

FARM LIVESTOCK 189

hair. He lacks the levelness of top that is desired,
many animals of the breed being low in the back, rising
rather high on top of the hips, and being rather short
and drooping in the croup. The neck of the Belgian is
short and thick and has a heavy crest that extends to
the poll. The pasterns, in many instances, are a little
short and upright, and the feet are small, having much
the shape of the feet of a mule.

The prevailing colors of the Belgians are chestnut,
bay, brown, and red roan; occasionally black and in-
frequently gray occurs, the latter color, however, not
being popular.

THE SUFFOLK HORSE

Suffolk horses range in height from ISyi to 16V&
hands high and weigh from about 1,700 to 1,800 lb. The
Suffolk is not claimed to be strictly a draft horse, but
is suited for agricultural purposes.

The Suffolk differs from the Clydesdale and the Shire
in that it is free from all long hair on the limbs. It
has a neat head, which is wide in the forehead, and the
jaw tapers to the muzzle. The neck is of good length
and the crest exceptionally well developed, presenting
an arched appearance. The shoulders are long but not
extremely straight nor obliquely set. The legs, which
are rather short, are free from feather, and appear to
be a little light in bone; however, breeders disclaim this,
stating that it is simply because they are free from
feather. The pasterns are of moderate length and the
feet are of good texture, although at one time they were
criticized for being too flat.

In color, the Suffolk is always some shade of chestnut,
either light or dark, the light being preferred. The
color of horses of this breed is exceptionally uniform.

MARKET CLASSES OF HORSES

The market classification of horses is based on their
size, conformation, height, weight, style, and action. A
classification based on such widely variable characters

190 FARM LIVESTOCK

as these must necessarily be somewhat flexible, that is,
the lines of division between the classes must be more
or less a matter of personal opinion and subject to
change according to the market demands for and the
supply of any particular class. Many animals go to
market and help to supply the demand that are not
altogether typical of the market class in which they are
sold. In attempting to meet the market demands, if
there are not enough horses of a particular type, dealers
try to fill the demand as far as possible with animals
that are only partly typical of the class.

In the table on page 191 are given the names of the
market classes and subclasses of horses, and the height
and weight requirements for each. It will be seen that
in most cases the name of the class and subclass is
suggestive of the use to which the horses belonging to
it are put.

Draft-Horse Class. — The draft-horse class is composed
of horses that are broad, massive, rugged, and compact,
and have sufficient weight, strength, and endurance to
pull heavy loads. The weight should come from size
rather than an abundance of fat. Draft horses range in
height from 15^ to 17>4 hands, and weigh from 1,600 to
2,200 lb. or more. The action should be energetic and spir-
ited, and the stride at the walk should be long and rapid.

The draft-horse class has been divided into light
draft horses, heavy draft horses, and loggers, but the
distinction between the light and the heavy subclasses
is rarely made on the market, pertaining almost ex-
clusively to the show ring.

Light draft horses are from 153^ to 16^ hands high
and weigh from 1,600 to 1,750 lb. Although 15J4 hands
is accepted as the minimum height, a horse of this
height is less desirable that one that is taller, and
it closely approaches the eastern chunk subclass.

Heavy draft horses are the heaviest type of horses;
they weigh from 1,750 to 2,200 lb. or more, and are from
16 to 17J4 hands high.

FARM LIVESTOCK

191

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Loggers are heavy draft horses that are used in the
lumbering regions for drawing heavy loads of logs. They
usually differ from the heavy draft horses in being
plain, rough, or slightly unsound in some respect, such
as being defective in wind, having sidebones, boggy
hocks, etc. Occasionally, good horses are purchased for
logging purposes, but as a rule the trade demands
rather cheap animals.

Chunk Class. — Horses of the chunk class are short
legged, broad, and heavy set. As a class, chunks are
less uniform in type than the animals of any other
'Class. They vary in height from IS to 16 hands and
weigh from about 800 to 1,550 lb. The subclasses of the
■chunk class are eastern and export chunks, farm
•chunks, and southern chunks.

Eastern and export chunks are of much the same type
and conformation as draft horses, but are a little more
blocky and compact. At one time a considerable num-
ber were exported, but in recent years the price has
been too high to permit of a profit in such business.
Eastern and export chunks are largely used in pairs
and in threes for trucking purposes.

Farm chunks are an important item in the horse mar-
ket, particularly during the spring months. At other
seasons they are usually sold to supply demands other
than for farming. Farm chunks are lighter in bone and
not as uniform in type as eastern chunks.

Southern chunks, or southern horses, as they are more
generally called, are lighter in bone and more rangy
in conformation that farm chunks. They are somewhat
of the road-horse type, and usually have considerable
light-horse blood. Southern chunks are taken to the
southern states, where they are largely used for agri-
cultural purposes.

Wagon-Horse Class. — Animals of the wagon-horse
class are used principally for the pulling of light wagons,
such as delivery and express wagons, on city streets.
Horses of good action are required for this purpose, as

FARM LIVESTOCK 195

they are required to do their work at a fairly rapid gait.
Horses of this class are from about 15 to 17J4 hands-
high and weigh from about 1,050 to 1,700 lb. The sub-
classes of the wagon-horse class are express horses,
delivery-wagon horses, artillery horses, and fire horses.

E.rt>rcss horses are used singly or in pairs by express
companies in the collecting and delivering of packages.
The size of the horses that are used is determined by
the weight of the wagon, whether the horses are worked
singly or doubly, and the extent of the territory from
which collections and deliveries are made. The lightest
grade of express horses, which are used for the de-
livering of valuable packages, such as money, etc., are
known as money horses; such horses must be capable
of doing fast work.

Delivery-wagon horses, or, as they are often termed,
wagon horses, are similar to express horses, but are not
quite so large and generally not as high grade, as most
mercantile firms do not care to pay large prices for
horses. However, there are exceptions, some large de-
partment stores buying nothing but choice animals.

Artillery horses should be from S to 8 yr. old. Only
geldings are used for artillery purposes, and the demand
is rather spasmodic.

Fire horses, as the term implies, are animals that are
used for the drawing of fire-fighting apparatus. Because
of the fact that such horses are required to pull com-
paratively heavy loads at fast speed, it is necessary
that they be more rangy than express horses.

Carriage-Horse Class.— Horses of the carriage-horse
class are used for drawing heavy vehicles and are fre-
quently spoken of as heavy-harness horses. They range
in height from 14J4 to 16J4 hands and weigh from 900 to
1,250 lb. The subclasses of the carriage-horse class are
coach horses, cobs, park horses, and cab horses.

Coach horses must have high action and beauty of
form. They must flex the hocks well under the body
and carry the knees high toward the chin. They are a

194 FARM LIVESTOCK

little larger than other horses of the carriage class, and
may be said to be a little more stately in action than
cobs or park horses.

Cobs are small, stocky coach horses. The cob is a
popular English type, and in England a horse is never
considered a >Job that is over 15 hands high. The action
of the cob is much the same as that of the coach horse,
being, perhaps, a trifle higher at the knees and hocks.
Cobs should be somewhat quicker on their feet than
coach horses.

Park horses are used strictly for display purposes, such
as for driving in parks or on boulevards, and are usually
used by horse fanciers. An abundance of quality and
extremely high action at both knees and hocks are
essential in horses of this subclass.

Cab horses are usually either the lower grades of the
coach class or worn-out and discarded coach horses.
They are used chiefly in cities for the conveyance of
vehicles for public service.

Road-Horse Class.— Road horses are more lithe in build
and angular in form than those of the carriage class.
They are frequently spoken of as drivers or as light-
harness horses. Although performance is the principal
quality sought, a good conformation is very desirable.
This class is composed of runabout horses and roadsters.

Runabout horses occupy an intermediate place between
typical roadsters and carriage horses. They wear har-
ness much like that of carriage horses, but in action
and conformation and in the use to which they are put
they correspond more to the roadster. They are not so
heavy and full as coach horses, and are not so light,
thin, and angular as roadsters. They are used on run-
abouts, driving wagons, phaetons, etc.

Roadsters are less uniform and usually more lithe
and angular than runabout horses. In general, a
roadster may be described as having the greyhound
form, often being a little higher at the hips than at
the withers, and powerfully developed in the hind

FARM LIVESTOCK 195

limbs. Speed, style, and stamina are the principal
qualities sought for.

Saddle-Horse Class. — The most important requirement
for an animal of the saddle-horse class is to be sure of
foot, as no rider cares to mount a stumbler. A saddle
horse should also be an easy rider, and be easily con-
trolled. In selecting a saddle horse, it is a good plan
to choose a conformation that will place the rider well
back on the animal, thus lessening the weight on the
fore end. The subclasses of the saddle-horse class are:
five-gaited saddlers, three-gaited saddlers, hunters,
cavalry horses, and polo ponies.

Fivc-gaited saddlers, often spoken of as gaited saddle
horses or as American saddle horses, are the result of
skilful selection and breeding for more than half a
century. They have the five recognized distinct gaits
under the saddle, namely, the walk, the trot, the canter,
the single-foot, or rack, and a slow gait, which may be
either the running walk, the fox trot, or the slow pace.

Thrcc-gaited saddlers are much the same in general type
and conformation as the five-gaited saddlers, but they
are a little more compactly built, having shorter necks
and bodies; the tails are usually docked and set; and
they have only the three gaits: the walk, the trot, and
the canter.'

Hunters are horses used by sportsmen to ride after
hounds. They are often required to take daring leaps
over fences and gullies, and must be fearless and trained
to jump. They should be strongly built and able to
stand long, hard rides without becoming unduly jaded.

Cavalry horses, as the name implies, are horses used by
the government for cavalry mounts. For this service,
the government requires geldings of uniform and lasting
color, that are from 4 to 8 yr. old.

Polo ponies are small saddlers that are used in playing
polo. The four essentials which they must have are a
specified size, weight-carrying ability, agility, and speed.

196

FARM LIVESTOCK

FARM LIVESTOCK 197

DAIRY CATTLE

DESCRIPTION OF DAIRY TYPE

The majority of animals of all breeds of cattle that
are noted for the secretion of large quantities of milk
have a peculiar and distinct conformation, commonly
termed the dairy conformation, and animals that
have this conformation are said to be of the dairy type.
The most distinguishing features of the dairy type are
the triangular, or wedge, shape of the body and the

Names of Exterior Regions of Dairy Cattle

a. Poll n, Thigh

b. Neck o, Pin bones, or thurls

c. Muzzle p. Flank

d. Face q. Fore flank

e. Forehead r, Udder
/, Withers s. Teats

g, Shoulders t. Milk veins

h, Chest M, Escutcheon

i, Barrel z; Navel

/, Back, or chine w. Dewlap

k. Loin A, Heart girth

/, Hips B, Width of chest

tn, Rump C, Floor of chest

lean frame. This conformation is decidedly more marked
in the females than in the males.

In addition to being wedge-shaped, the characteristic
dairy form is angular, or lean; that is, it has a com-
paratively thin covering of muscular tissue. The
shoulders are thin and the ridge of the shoulder blade
is prominent. The ribs are thinly covered with muscle,
particularly on the upper part close to the backbone.
The loin is broad and flat but bony, and the thighs
are thin, flat, and incurved at the rear as viewed from

198 FARM LIVESTOCK

the side. That the angularity is due to a lack of mus-
cular development rather than to a lack of fatty tissue
is shown by the fact that cows of the dairy type
frequently take on fat when far advanced in the period
of lactation or when completely dry.

The characters of the dairy type of animal that have
just been described are the most striking, but there
are numerous minor characters that distinguish this
type from thj beef type. Among these are: leanness of
head, breadth of muzzle, and thinness of neck. The
dairy type of cow also has a distinctly feminine ap-
pearance.

The desired conformation of a dairy cow is shown in
the accompanying illustration, (a), (b), and (c) showing,
respectively, a profile view, a rear view, and a front
view. The different exterior regions of the animal are
marked with letters and in connection are given the
corresponding letters with the names commonly applied
to these regions.

JERSEY CATTLE

Jersey cattle are characterized by small to medium
size. The official score card of the breed calls for frorn
800 to 1,000 lb. as the weight of a mature cow. The bulls
weigh considerably more than this, their weight usually
ranging from 1,200 to 1,800 lb. when they are mature.

A prominent characteristic of the Jersey form is the
tendency of the bones to be short and curved. For
instance, the face is short and usually dished; the
hind legs are crooked; and in many cases there is more
or less of a tendency for the back to depart from a
straight line.

In color, the Jersey is variable. The typical color,
however, is fawn or gray shading to black at the ex-
tremities, with a black muzzle, a black tongue, and a
black switch at the end of the tail. As a rule, there is
a ring of light-colored hair immediately about the
muzzle. In some animals, particularly in bulls, the

FARM LIVESTOCK 199

gray shades to black over the whole body, and in others
the fawn color deepens to almost a red. A considerable
proportion of Jerseys are marked with more or less
white.

The Jerseys produce a moderate quantity of milk,
which contains a high percentage of butter fat. Normal
Jersey milk contains about 5% of butter fat; frequently
the per cent, is less and frequently greater, in some
cases rising as high as 7%. In quantity of butter fat
produced in a year, the Jersey ranks as one of the
leading dairy breeds.

GUERNSEY CATTLE

Guernseys are of a larger size than the Jerseys,
although the animals, as a whole, cannot be character-
ized as large. Mature cows will seldom weigh more
than 1,200 lb., and occasionally weigh less than 1,000
lb. The official score card of the breed calls for a
weight of 1,050 lb. for a cow 4 yr. old or over, and
1,500 lb. for a bull of the same age.

In form, Guernseys have the characteristic wedge
shape and the spareness and angularity of conformation
of the dairy type, although in some animals there is a
slight tendency to beefiness and to thick, heavy
shoulders. This latter conformation is more frequently
seen in bulls, although a number of the cows are thicker
through the shoulders than is desirable.

The bones of the Guernsey are much straighter than
those of the Jersey and are inclined to be somewhat
longer.

The characteristic Guernsey color is fawn and white.
Breeders of fancy stock prefer the colors to be about
equally distributed and in rather large blocks or
patches. Occasionally, Guernseys are seen with no
white at all; and the number of animals of this breed
in which the white color includes more than two-thirds
of the whole surface is comparatively small. The shade
of fawn varies from very light to very deep or dark,

200 FARM LIVESTOCK

almost red, the shade most preferred being usually de-
scribed as orange fawn. Whatever the shade of fawn,
there should be no black hairs, especially in streaks or
patches, forming a brindled appearance.

A characteristic of the Guernseys that has considerable
influence in affecting their color is a profuse secretion
of yellow coloring matter, which pertains to the whole
skin, but may be seen especially on those parts where
the skin is bare or only thinly covered with hair, such
as in the ears, about the muzzle, in the fore flank, and
about the vulva. In the best specimens, this secretion
is of a deep golden-tan color shading into orange yellow.
This color extends also to the hoofs and horns, giving
these, especially in choice specimens, an amber appear-
ance. The muzzle of the Guernsey should be of a clear
flesh color tinged with orange.

Guernseys do not produce large quantities of milk,
but their milk is ordinarily of about the same quality
as that of the Jerseys, varying from Ayz to 6J4% of
butter fat. The milk, cream, and butter of the Guern-
seys are of a higher color than the similar products of
any other breed.

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE

Holstein cattle are characterized by large size. Mature
cows of the breed seldom weigh less than 1,200 lb. and
not infrequently reach a weight of 1,400 to 1,500 lb. The
bulls, when mature, often exceed 2,000 lb. in weight.
The characteristic wedge shape is usually strikingly
developed in these cattle. In general, the form is in-
clined to be spare, although in many individuals there
is considerable muscular development, even approaching
■what may be termed beefiness. The animals have long,
straight faces, long backs, long ribs, and the legs, in
some cases, are rather long. The back and legs are
straight, although there is often a decided tendency for
the back to droop from a point over the hip bones to the
root of the tail.

FARM LIVESTOCK 201

A prominent character of Holstein cattle is their color,
which is distinctly black and white, the two colors
being entirely separate from each other. The proportion
of the two colors is variable, running from almost all
white to almost all black; during recent years the pro-
portions most desired by the breeders have been rather
more white than black, with the two colors in rather
large patches. Although animals marked in this way
are considered to be more desirable, little discrimination
is made against those showing other proportions of color.

Holstein cows excel those of all other breeds in milk
production. The percentage of butter fat in the milk,
however, is small, in occasional instances so small as
to interfere seriously with the sale of the milk as such.
In addition, the butter fat in Holstein milk is soft and
of rather light color, but with modern methods of butter
manufacture these disadvantages are largely overcome,
so that, taking into consideration the large quantity of
milk produced, Holsteins are often as satisfactory as
any breed from the standpoint of butter production.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE

Ayrshire cattle are of medium size. The American
standard calls for a weight of about 1,000 lb. in the case
of mature cows, and of 1,500 lb. for mature bulls. The
Scotch standard calls for a weight of about 1,050 lb. for
a mature cow.

The characteristic wedge shape of the dairy type is
clearly defined in the Ayrshires. Their lines are
straight and their bones fine and well knit together,
which gives them a smooth appearance even when they
do not carry much flesh. They are particularly round
in the barrel, and the hindquarter is long, strong, and
square. The cows commonly have large, symmetrical
udders, with rather small teats placed wide apart and
on the lines of a square.

In color, Ayrshires are the most variable of any of the
dairy breeds, running from almost pure white to all

202 FARM LIVESTOCK

admixtures, except roan, of white with yellow red, red,
dark red, brown, and even black. The most common
color at the present time is dark red and white, with
a large preponderance of white in most cases.

Although definite statistics are lacking, it is com-
monly believed that Ayrshires are particularly econom-
ical users of feed, and that, in proportion to the feed
consumed, their milk production is relatively high.
Ayrshires give a large flow of milk, ranking next to
Holsteins in this respect, although the milk is not par-
ticularly rich in butter fat, seldom exceeding 4%.

DUTCH BELTED CATTLE

Dutch Belted cattle are of medium size, being in this
respect comparable to the Ayrshires. The cows average
about 1,000 lb. when full grown, and the mature bulls
about 1,500 lb. Animals of this breed have a distinct
dairy form.

In color, the Dutch Belted cattle are black and white;
the black is confined to the forequarters and hindquar-
ters and the white extends in a broad belt about the
middle. Much attention is given by breeders to the
particular markings of the animals. In a perfectly
marked specimen, the white belt should extend from the
shoulders back to the hips in a regular band around the
whole body. In the case of the cows, the band, or belt,
includes the forward half of the udder; in the case of
the bulls, the belt is similar, except that the sheath
of the penis is usually black. A very narrow belt or a
belt running onto the forequarters or the hindquarters
is looked on with disfavor, as is any irregularity of the
belt, such as a black spot in the white or broken patches
of white in the black areas.

In milk production, the Dutch Belted cattle have
considerable merit, and there are many animals of the
breed that are listed high in this respect.

FARM LIVESTOCK 203

BROWN SWISS CATTLE

Brown Swiss cattle are of large size and rather heavy-
form. The bones of the head and legs are large and
strong, giving the animals a sturdy appearance. Many
specimens have considerable muscular development,
enough to be described as beefy, although they do not
approach the pronounced beef type as seen in beef
breeds.

In color, the Brown Swiss are of a uniform dark
grayish-brown or mouse color, running toward gray in
the flanks and on the belly, and with a light ring about
the muzzle. There is little variation in the color.
Occasionally, an animal will shade a little darker
toward black and occasionally one a little lighter
toward light gray.

The Brown Swiss are hardy and vigorous and, as a
rule, easy to keep in good condition. As milk pro-
ducers, they vary considerably. Few individuals have
made notable records.

SIMMENTHAL CATTLE

The Simmenthal breed of dairy cattle is closely related
to the Brown Swiss breed. The animals of the Sim-
menthal breed are from the valley of the Simme in
Switzerland, and are found in largest numbers in the
vicinity of Berne, in that country. They are similar
to the Brown Swiss in all respects save color. In color,
they are a light fawn mixed with white. Only a few
have been imported into America.

FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE

French Canadian cattle are small, of a strictly dairy
type, and somewhat resemble the Jersey in form. In
color, they vary from a dark reddish brown to black,
and almost never have any admixture of white. They
are prized by their owners on account of their activity
and vigor and their ability to thrive under adverse

204

FARM LIVESTOCK

FARM LIVESTOCK

205

conditions as to feed and climate. They have not, as yet,
become firmly established as a breed in any part of the
United States.

BEEF CATTLE

DESCRIPTION OF BEEF TYPE

Beef cattle are cattle that are kept primarily for the
production of beef, in contrast to dairy cattle, which are
raised primarily for the production of milk.

Names

OF ElxTERIOR

Regions of Beef Cattle

/, Muzzle

20, Fore ribs

2, Face

21, Midribs

3, Tongue fat (feeder's wattle)

22, Barrel

4, Poll

23, Belly

5, Breast

24, Hind flank

6, Brisket

25, Back

7, Shoulder

point

26, Loin

8, Neck

27, Rump

p. Dewlap

28, Hooks

10, Shoulder

vein

29, Thighs

//, Shoulder

SO, Gaskins

12, Withers

SI, Hocks

/J?, Elbow

S2, Pin bones

14, Arm

SS, Tail head

15, Knee

34, Switch

16, Cannon

S5, Twist

17, Dew claws

36, Udder in cows; cod

18, Crops

in steers; scrotum

19, Fore flank

in bulls

An animal of the correct beef type has a compact
form. It is short in the neck and legs, and has a broad,
short head; well-sprung ribs; a deep, broad chest; well-
laid-in shoulders and hips; a long, level rump; and
well-fleshed thighs. The top line and bottom line are

206 FARM LIVESTOCK

approximately straight and parallel. In general, a
beef-type animal has a high percentage of meat to bone
and oflfal.

Animals of the beef type invariably show marked indi-
cations of having a high percentage of the blood of one
or more of the recognized improved breeds of beef
cattle. The breeds that are classed as beef breeds are:
the Shorthorn, the Polled Durham, the Hereford, the
Aberdeen-Angus, the Galloway, and the Sussex.

In describing beef cattle, it is necessary to mention
various parts and regions of the body. The location of
all of the parts and exterior regions about which doubt
might arise is shown in the accompanying illustration.
In (a) is shown a profile view of an animal; in
(fc), a front view; and in (c) a rear view. These views
also illustrate the ideal type of beef animal.

SHORTHORN CATTLE

The Shorthorn breed has wonderful adaptability, and
this quality has led to wide distribution of the animals
not only in this country under various conditions, but
in nearly every country in which cattle are bred.
Shorthorns were the first cattle used for improving the
cattle on the ranges, but notwithstanding their value
for this purpose, they are best adapted to a system of
mixed farming, such as is carried on in the Central
States. The Shorthorns are popular in localities where
land is high in value, because many of the animals yield
a profit in milk as well as in calves.

The Shorthorn may be red, white, red and white, or
roan in color. Animals of the breed are the heaviest
of the beef cattle, mature bulls often weighing as much
as 2,400 lb. At present the tendency is to breed for
early maturity, and as a result present-day Shorthorns
are not as large and coarse as they were formerly. The
Shorthorn is characterized by great scale and substance,
together with symmetry and style. The Shorthorn is a
good feeder and makes large gains for the feed consumed.

FARM LIVESTOCK 207

The breed is very popular in the United States, Canada,
England, and other countries where beef is produced.
The "Prime Scots," so popular in the English markets,
are crosses of the Shorthorn on the Aberdeen-Angus,
and the "blue-gray" steers are crosses of light-colored
Shorthorns on Galloways.

POLLED DURHAM CATTLE
Polled Durhams have been developed along two lines,
the single standard and the double standard. The
single-standard line of breeding had its origin in crosses
of Shorthorn bulls on native muley, or hornless, cows.
The term single standard is derived from the fact that
animals of this line of breeding can be registered only
in the American Polled Durham Herd Book. The
double-standard line of breeding had its inception in
what might be termed a freak of nature — the birth of
hornless calves from pure-bred Shorthorn parents. The
term double standard is derived from the fact that
animals of this strain are eligible to registry in both
the American Polled Durham Herd Book and the
American Shorthorn Herd Book.

In size, color, and general appearance, the Polled
Durhams are similar to the typical Shorthorn, save
that the Polled Durhams are hornless. The preferred
and prevailing color is red. The breed is so much like
the Shorthorn that no additional description need be
given.

The breed is not yet sufficiently strong in numbers and
has not been handled enough for dairy purposes to
furnish milk records of value. The animals have been
from the first, and continue to be, bred primarily for
the development of beef qualities as their dominant
character, consequently their dairy qualities must be
regarded as a secondary consideration.

15

208 FARM LIVESTOCK

HEREFORD CATTLE

In general conformation, the Hereford represents the
beef type to an extreme, having a broad, deep, com-
pactly built, thick-fleshed body set on short legs. The
horns are white or waxy yellow, often coarser and con-
siderably longer than those of the Shorthorn; in cows
and steers they are often a little elevated, but in bulls
they are usually drooping. The color of the Hereford
is red with white markings. The most common mark-
ings are a white face, a white stripe on top of the
neck and sometimes part of the way down the back,
white on the legs from the hock down, and more or
less white on the belly. White may occur to a greater
or less extent on any part of the body. Herefords have
proved to be especially well adapted to range conditions
and are used more extensively for the improvement of
the cattle on the ranges of the West and Southwest
than are the animals of any other breed. In size, the
Herford ranks a little below the Shorthorn. The bulls
often weigh as much as 2,200 lb. and the cows 1,500 lb. or
more.

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE

The striking features of the general outline of the
Aberdeen-Angus are smoothness, compactness, and a
cylindrical shape of the body. The Aberdeen-Angus
are low-set; have great style, quality, and symmetry;
and are evenly and smoothly covered with a wealth of
firm flesh that retains its smoothness and firmness even
if the animals are forced in fattening.

In the early history of the breed, browns, blacks, reds,
and brindles were common, but now black is the pre-
vailing color, although red calves are occasionally
dropped, showing a tendency to revert back to the old
colors. White is objectionable except on the bottom
line behind the navel, and it is tolerated there only to
a moderate extent. In size, the Aberdeen-Angus is
somewhat smaller than the Shorthorn; mature cows

FARM LIVESTOCK 209

usually weigh from about 1,200 to 1,600 lb. and mature
bulls, from about 2,000 to 2,200 lb.

An important point in favor of the Aberdeen-Angus
is their hornless character.

It is frequently claimed that the Aberdeen-Angus
surpasses all other breeds in the production of beef.
There is, of course, a considerable difference of opinion
as to this, but it is safe to say that the Aberdeen-Angus
is second to #one as an all-round beef breed, and is,
in some respects, superior to all others. This claim is
substantiated by the position that the breed has taken
at the leading fat-stock shows and by the high regard
in which the meat is held in the market.

The milking qualities of the Aberdeen-Angus have
been considerably neglected, more attention having been
paid to beef production. However, there are some indi-
viduals and certain strains of the breed that make a
creditable showing as milkers.

GALLOWAY CATTLE

Galloways are best adapted for a cold, damp climate,
their special qualifications for these conditions being
ruggedness and a thick coat of hair that protects them
from cold and rain. They have been found very suit-
able for Dakota, Montana, and Idaho ranches, and for
the Canadian Northwest. Being of a rather small frame
and very muscular and active, they are well adapted
to rugged pastures.

The Galloway is a thick, low-set, symmetrical, black,
polled animal, resembling somewhat the Aberdeen-
Angus. In good animals the head is short and broad,
without any trace of horns or scurs, and is surmounted
by a poll that is not quite as sharp as that of the
Aberdeen-Angus. The ears are set a little farther back
than those of the Aberdeen-Angus and point forwards
and upwards, and have a fringe of long hair. The
body is cylindrical but somewhat longer and flatter in
the rib than that of the Aberdeen-Angus.

210 FARM LIVESTOCK

The color of the Galloway is black with a brownish
tinge; white markings on the feet, legs, or any portion
of the body above the bottom line are very objectionable.

In size, the Galloway hardly equals the Shorthorn,
Hereford, or Aberdeen-Angus. Galloway steers can
usually be made to weigh from 1,000 to 1,200 lb. as
yearlings past; from 1,200 to 1,400 lb. at 2 yr. old;
and from 1,400 to 1,600 lb. at 3 yr. old. Mature bulls
will weigh about 1,800 to 1,900 lb., an* mature cows
from about 1,200 to 1,500 lb.

The Galloway is distinctly a beef breed and lays no
claim to milking qualities, although the animals pro-
duce enough milk to raise their calves, and the milk is
of good quality.

SUSSEX CATTLE

The Sussex are best adapted to localities that are
rich in crop production and temperate in_ climate. Their
grazing qualities are nearly if not quite equal to those
of the Herefords. They are very hardy, which is due
largely to the manner in which they have been handled.
The color of the Sussex is solid red, a moderately deep
shade being preferred. The horns are inclined to be
large and long, curving around in front and often in-
clining slightly downwards. The nose is of flesh color.
The form is blocky, the ribs being well sprung and
long, and the body capacious. The Sussex is compara-
tively large, ranking about on a par with the Hereford
in size. The average weight of mature cows is about
1,400 lb. and of mature bulls about 2,000 lb.

The Sussex has long been held in high esteem as a
beef breed, as might be assumed from the excellent
showing it has made at fat-stock shows in England. In
beef production it is comparable to the Shorthorn and
the Hereford.

FARM LIVESTOCK 2H

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE

DESCRIPTION OF DUAL-PURPOSE TYPE

Dual-purl'ose cattle are cattle that are kept for the
production of both beef and milk. An appropriate term
for them and one that is commonly applied is general-
purpose cattle. They produce, when fattened, fairly
satisfactory carcasses of beef, although they are not
the equals of the special-purpose beef cattle in this
respect, and the cows give a sufficient quantity of milk
of fair butter-fat content to warrant milking them. If
cattle of a dual-purpose breed or strain possess merit as
beef animals but are without dairy qualities, they
should be classed as beef cattle. If, on the other hand,
they possess dairy qualities but neither they nor their
offspring exhibit beef qualities, they should be classed
as special-purpose dairy cattle.

The dual-purpose type of animal is not restricted to
any particular breeds, but because a large number of
animals of certain breeds are of this type, the breeds
are spoken of as dual-purpose breeds. These breeds
are: the Devon, the Red Polled, and the Brown Swiss;
certain animals and strains of the Shorthorn breed are
also classed as dual purpose.

DEVON CATTLE

In color, the Devon is a solid red, with the exception
of deep orange-colored rings around the eyes and oc-
casionally a small amount of white in front of the
udder or the scrotum and in the switch. White is not
permissible on any other part of the body. The red
varies from dark to light; some breeders prefer one
shade and some the other.

The Devon is smaller than the Shorthorn and the
Hereford, the size varying greatly, however, with the
breeding, feeding, and care. The lack of size of the
Devons makes them less popular than they would

212 FARM LIVESTOCK

otherwise be, but what they lack in size they make up
in quality, fattening powers, compactness of flesh, per-
fection of form, splendid handling qualities, and beauty
when finished. The average weight of mature cows
is about 900 lb. and of mature bulls about 1,200 lb. The
bulls seldom weigh more than 2,000 lb.

Combining fair flesh and milk-producing qualities,
the Devons are very suitable animals for hilly regions
where a system of mixed farming is followed.

RED POLLED CATTLE

The Red Polled breed is one of the best of the dual-
purpose breeds. Red Polls produce an abundant quan-
tity of milk and the steers fatten readily, producing
carcasses that are very acceptable to the butcher. As
the name implies, the animals are without horns, all
indications of such being very objectionable. The color
is red, varying from a light to a dark shade. A solid
red is preferred, but a little white is permissible on
the udder, on the belly, and on the switch of the tail.
In size, the Red Poll ranks below most of the animals
of the beef breeds. Typical mature bulls of the breed
will weigh from about 1,800 to 2,000 lb. and mature cows
from about 1,100 to 1,300 lb.

Although the dairy qualities of the Red Poll do not
rank with those of special dairy cattle, the breed stands
high in this respect among the dual-purpose cattle.

MARKET CLASSES OF CATTLE

Variations in the quality, condition, weight, and age
of cattle reaching the great livestock markets make it
necessary that different classes and grades be estab-
lished. If it were not for these classes and grades it
would be impossible properly to designate different
kinds of cattle and intelligently to report market con-
ditions through the public press. A list of the various
market classes and grades of cattle is given in the
accompanying table.

FARM LIVESTOCK

213

Market Classes and Grades of Cattle
Classes Grades

Prime steers

Beef cattle

Butcher stock '

Cutters and
canners

Stockers and
feeders

Veal calves

Choice steers
Good steers
Medium steers
Common steers

Prime heifers
Choice heifers
Good heifers
Medium heifers
Prime cows
Choice cows
Good cows
Medium cows
Common rough steers
Choice bulls
Good bulls
Medium bulls

Good cutters

Medium cutters

Common cutters and good canners

Medium canners

Inferior canners

Bologna bulls

■ Fancy selected feeders
Choice feeders
Good feeders
Medium feeders
Common feeders
Inferior feeders
Feeder bulls

Fancy selected yearling stockers
Choice yearling stockers
Good yearling stockers
Medium yearling stockers
Common yearling stockers
Inferior yearling stockers
Good stock heifers
Medium stock heifers

Choice
Good
Medium
Common

Milkers and springers

214 FARM LIVESTOCK

Beef Cattle.— In the beef-cattle class are included all
grades of fat steers and occasionally the best grades
of fat heifers and cows. Condition and quality rather
than weight determine whether an animal shall be in-
cluded in this class. Beef cattle are in demand in the
Chicago market by three classes of buyers: exporters,
packers, and shippers. Exporters desire fat cattle for
export to the British markets; packers desire them for
slaughter in Chicago as dressed beef; and shippers de-
sire them for shipping to Boston, New York, Philadel-
phia, Pittsburg, Baltimore, Cleveland, Albany, Detroit,
and many smaller eastern cities. The Chicago packing
houses use from about 50 to 60% of the beef cattle sold
on the Chicago market, and the exporters and shippers
from about 20 to 25% each.

The beef cattle class is made up of the following
grades: Prime steers, choice steers, medium steers, and
common rough steers. Prime steers are those that are
practically above criticism as to both condition and
quality. The bulk of the prime steers sold at Chicago
weigh from about 1,200 to 1,600 lb. Choice steers are
not quite right as to either quality or condition but
have to a marked degree desirable characteristics. Such
steers usually weigh from about 1,150 to 1.600 lb. Steers
that are of good quality, but noticeably lacking in con-
dition or in finish, or those that are finished but are
deficient in quality, or those lacking in both quality
and condition but above the average are graded as
good. They weigh from about 1,150 to 1,600 lb. Steers
of about average quality and condition but lacking to
a marked degree the finish and quality demanded in a
prime steer are graded as medium steers. Steers of this
grade are usually of light weight, weighing from about
1,100 to 1,400 lb. Common rough steers, as the term
implies, are the roughest grade of beef cattle. Such
steers weigh from about 900 to 1,200 lb.

Butcher Stock. — A large number of cattle of all grades
as to weight and quality reach the market after having

FARM LIVESTOCK 215

been merely warmed up — an expression used by cattle-
men to designate the fact that cattle have been full fed
but a short time. Then, no matter how carefully
stockers and feeders are selected, there is almost sure
to be a few animals that do not fatten satisfactorily.
These, together with the better grades of heifers, cows,
and bulls are classed as butcher stock. The butcher-
stock class is made up of the following grades: prime
heifers, usually weighing from about 800 to 1,200 lb.;
choice heifers, weighing from about 700 to 1,000
lb. ; good heifers, weighing about the same as choice
heifers; medium heifers, weighing from about 600 to 90O
lb.; prime cows; choice cows; good cows; medium cows;
common rough steers; choice bulls; good bulls; and medium
bulls.

Cutters and Canners.— Thin cows, inferior steers,
rough heifers, and the poorer grades of bulls, provided
they carry sufficient flesh to allow of the loin or rib,
or both, being used for cutting, or selling over the
butcher's block, are classed as cutters. Cutters are a
slightly better grade of cattle than canners, which are
cattle of the same general class as cutters, but too
inferior to allow of even a part of their carcasses being-
used for sale over the butcher's block. Canners are
used largely for canning purposes. The class of canners
and cutters and the grades within this class are more or
less elastic and variable, as are all market classes and
the grades within them.

The bulk of cattle classed as cutters and canners may
be graded as follows: Good cutters, medium cutters, common
cutters, and good canners, medium canners, inferior canners.
and Bologna bulls. The impression prevails among persons
unfamiliar with the cutter-and-canner trade that only old,
thin cows are classed as canners. This is an erroneous im-
pression, as wretchedly thin bulls, steers, and heifers are
included as well.

Stockers and Feeders. — The class known as stockers and
feeders includes calves, yearlings, 2-yr.-olds, and older

216 FARM LIVESTOCK

cattle. \Mien it is necessary to refer to steers or bulls
18 mo. old or older that are intended for immediate
use in the feed lot, they are spoken of as feeders.
Calves, heifers, and young steers, including yearlings,
are referred to as stackers. Some difficulties are en-
countered, however, in attempting to draw a definite
line between stockers and feeders. Cattle of the same
grade, age, quality, and weight shipped to the country
by two different feeders might not be handled at all
alike; one feeder might use them as stockers while
the other might place them in the feed lot for imme-
diate use.

It is seldom that a steer weighing less than 800 lb.
is placed in the feed lot; the common practice is to
buy steers for feeders that weigh from 900 to 1,000 lb. or
more. Such steers are usually 18 mo. of age or older.
Steers spoken of in the market as feeders are, generally
speaking, in better flesh than stockers. As a rule, there-
fore, feeders may be classified as steers weighing 900 lb.
or more, that are 18 mo. old or older, and that are
fleshy enough to render an extended period of low feed-
ing unnecessary.

The stocker and feeder class of cattle is divided into
the following grades: Fancy selected feeders, choice feeders,
good feeders, medium feeders, common feeders, inferior feeders,
feeder bulls, fancy selected yearling stockers, choice yearling
stockers, good yearling stockers, medium yearling stockers, com-
mon yearling stockers, inferior yearling stockers, good stock
heifers, medium stock heifers, and common stock heifers.

Veal Calves.— Calves of suitable age, condition, and
weight to sell, when slaughtered, as veal are classed as
veal calves. Veal calves are graded as follows: Choice
veals, good veals, medium veals, and common veals.
Weight is not as important in determining the grade of
a veal calf as age and flesh, although desirable weight
in the good and choice grades of veals is important. A
veal either 25 lb. too light or too heavy may be sold
at a reduced price when one of the same quality, age,

FARM LIVESTOCK 217

and flesh, but of desirable weight, would sell as a choice
veal. It is more difficult to distinguish breeding in
young calves than in older cattle; it is fortunate, there-
fore, that the breeding of veals is of little importance
and that the most important point is to get fine finish
on a young calf — say a weight of from about 140 to 160
lb. with faultless finish on an 8-wk.-old calf.

Milkers and Springers.— A cow that is in milk
when she goes to market or has a calf at her side is
classed as a milker. One that shows unmistakable signs
of pregnancy is classed as a springer. Milkers and
springers may be either slaughtered or returned to the
farm to serve as dairy cattle or as breeding stock.

vSHEEP

In order that the description of the types and breeds
of sheep may be more intelligible, the position of the
different parts of a sheep is indicated on the animal
shown in the accompanying illustration. The names

of the different parts are as follows: a, head; b, neckj
c, shoulder; d, brisket; e, top of shoulder, or withers;
f, fore leg; g, chest; h, back; i, loin; ;, hip; k, rump;
/, leg of mutton; m, twist; n, hind leg; o, flank; p, belly;
q, fore flank; r, ribs, or sides; and s, tail, or dock.

218 FARM LIVESTOCK

WOOL TYPE OF SHEEP

From the sheep that centuries ago were raised in the
southern part of Europe, especially in the hills of
Spain, and fostered by the early Romans, there has
been developed a type of sheep known as the wool
type. The animals of this type are noted for the pro-
duction of a large quantity and a fine quality of wool,
from which the finest woolen cloth is made.

A typical wool-type animal is angular in shape; the
skin lies in folds over the body, especially about the
neck; and the head presents a strong and rather coarse
appearance, particularly in the case of a ram that shows
great vitality. The neck is long, rather thin, and often
■droops where it joins the body; the shoulders are close
together, sharp, and prominent on top; the brisket is
narrow ; the fore legs are close together, with the fore
feet often wider apart than the knees; and the fore
flanks are low but thin. The ribs slope downwards
sharply from the backbone, which appears- to be too
long for the length of the sheep; the back is narrow;
the loin is thin and narrow; the rump is short and in-
clined to droop abruptly from the hips, which are also
■narrow; the thighs are thin and separated well up
toward the tail, or dock; the flanks are thin; the bot-
tom line is generally level; and the legs have a
tendency to be long.

Some breeds of the wool type of sheep have been
developed by feeding, selection, and breeding until they
produce a fair quantity and quality of mutton as well
as excellent fleeces of wool.

MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP

In the British Isles, sheep raising has been carried
on for several centuries, but in this region the chief
aim of the breeder has been the production of a fine
quality of mutton, wool production being a secondary con-
sideration. The type of sheep that has been developed

FARM LIVESTOCK 219

under these conditions is known as the mutton type.
In form, a sheep of the mutton type is smooth, round,
compact, symmetrical, and free from angularities, and
the flesh is evently distributed over the carcass. The
head is broad between the eyes, which are large and
prominent; the neck is short and thick; the brisket
is broad and full; the fore legs are short, straight, and
set squarely under the body; the fore flanks are well
filled so that there is but a slight depression just back
of the shoulders, which are evenly and deeply covered
with flesh and are smooth and round on top. The ribs
are well covered with flesh and spring boldly out from
the backbone, making the back broad and level and the
body cylindrical. The loin is broad and thickly cov-
ered with flesh; the flanks are let well down but are
thick, giving a straight bottom line that is parallel with
the top line. The hindquarters are broad; the rump is
long and level; and the twist extends well down to the
hocks. The legs stand well apart; and the thighs, both
on the outside and between the legs, are well covered
with flesh, thus making a good leg of mutton.

Sheep of breeds of the mutton type produce heavy
fleeces, but these are not of as fine a quality as those
produced by sheep of the wool type.

AMERICAN MERINO SHEEP

In general appearance, a typical animal of the Ameri-
can Merino breed of sheep more nearly represents the
ideal wool type than does an individual of any other
breed in America. The American Merino is narrow
and angulai in conformation; has a rather long neck
and long leg; and has many distinct folds in its skin,
except on the back.

The head of the American Merino is small as com-
pared with the heads of animals of other breeds, and
usually the lips, nostrils, legs, and part of the face
are covered with fine, white, silky hair. The ears are
small, and, as a rule, are covered like the parts just

220 FARM LIVESTOCK

mentioned, with fine, white hair, although occasionally
tan-colord spots of hair are found on one or more of
such parts. The head of the ewe is hornless, but the
rams carry heavy, spiral horns, which are marked with
transverse wrinkles.

In size, American Merinos vary greatly. It is gen-
erally accepted, however, that mature ewes should
weigh about 100 lb. and mature rams about ISO lb.

The American Merino is an inferior animal for mut-
ton production, because it does not make a rapid growth,
lay on flesh rapidly, or produce a first-class carcass.
The meat is lacking in quality, and there is always
much waste in dressing, due to the extensive folds of
the skin, the long legs, and the large proportion of
bone to flesh.

In wool production, sheep of the American Merino
breed surpass those of all other breeds in America.
Sheep of no other breed produce as fine or as heavy
fleeces.

DELAINE MERINO SHEEP

Sheep of the Delaine Merino breed differ from Ameri-
can Merino sheep in having a larger and better mutton
carcass, fewer wrinkles and folds on the body, and
longer wool that contains less yolk. The minimum
weight for ewes of the various families of Delaine
Merinos varies from 100 to 130 lb., and the minimum
weight for the rams, from ISO to 180 lb.

The Delaine Merino breed is really a branch of the
American Merino breed, and has been developed prin-
cipally in the section including the western part of
Pennsylvania, the Panhandle district of West Virginia,
and a few counties in the eastern part of Ohio.

The Delaine Merino is superior to the American
Merino for mutton production, and, as a rule, is inferior
in wool production.

FARM LIVESTOCK 221

RAMBOUILLET SHEEP

In general appearance, a typical animal of the Ram-
bouillet breed of sheep bears some resemblance to the
American Merino, but the Rambouillet is larger and
has more of a mutton carcass. The outline of the body
is rounder and more plump; the back is broader; the
ribs are better arched; and there is a better develop-
ment of loin, hindquarters, and leg of mutton, and a
deeper fleshing all over the body than in the American
Merino. The females are hornless, but the rams usually
bear large, spirally curved horns; occasionally, polled
rams are found.

In size, the Rambouillet is considerably larger than
the American Merino. Mature rams usually weigh from
175 to 230 lb., and occasionally one will weigh 300 lb.
Mature ewes weigh from about 110 to 150 lb., and
mature wethers from about 150 to 200 lb.

The Rambouillet is not one of the best breeds of
sheep for mutton production, but it is better in this
respect than the American Merino, although not so
good as the Delaine Merino.

The Rambouillet is one of the best breeds for wool
production. The wool covers the body evenly, is of
good length on the belly, and grows well down on the
nose and legs.

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP

The Southdown breed of sheep probably more nearly
represents the ideal mutton type than does any other
breed. In general appearance, the typical Southdown
presents a compact, broad, deep, and smooth body evenly
covered with flesh. The head is small and hornless in
the case of both rams and ewes.

The Southdown is the smallest of the medium-wool
breeds, and is often criticised on account of its lack of
size. However, the carcass of a Southdown is so com-
pact that mature rams of the breed will weigh, on an
average, about 175 lb. and mature ewes about 135 lb.

222 FARM LIVESTOCK

For the production of mutton, the Southdown breed is
one of the best. Animals of this breed are good feeders,
make good gains for the feed consumed, mature quickly,
and can be made ready for the market at almost any age.

In wool production, the Southdown does not rank
high, although the wool is finer in quality than that of
sheep of any other breed of the mutton type.

SHROPSHIRE SHEEP

The Shropshire breed of sheep is a medium-wool breed
that is popular with sheep raisers. The sheep of this
breed are larger and heavier than those of the South-
down breed, which they resemble in general conforma-
tion, although they are not so compact as the South-
downs. Both the ram and the ewe are hornless, and in
the case of the best specimens of the breed, the head,
with the exception of a small part of the nose, is covered
with a dense cap of wool. The nose of the ram is
slightly Roman, and the nostrils are strong and large;
the head of the ewe is finer than that of the ram and
the nose is straight. The ears of a Shropshire sheep are
small, short, pointed, moderately thick, wide apart, and
covered with short, fine wool.

In size, the Shropshire is about an average of the
sheep of the medium-wool breeds. Mature rams should
weigh about 225 lb. and mature ewes from 150 to 160 lb.

The Shropshire breed ranks next to the Southdown in
the quality of mutton produced; in fact, the quality of
Shropshire mutton is claimed by some to be equal to
that of the Southdown. Shropshires fatten readily and
there is comparatively little offal in dressing.

The wool of Shropshire sheep is of superior fineness
and crimp for a medium-wool breed, is usually about
3^2 in. in length, and often contains a considerable
quantity of yolk. The fleeces from a flock of Shropshire
sheep should average about 7 or 8 lb. in weight.

FARM LIVESTOCK 223

OXFORD DOWN SHEEP

Sheep of the Oxford Down breed are the largest of
the animals of the medium-wool breeds. They resemble
the Southdowns and Shropshires in general conformation,
which is that of the mutton type. The head is hornless,
the poll, or top of the head, is well covered with a
tuft or a topknot of wool, and the cheeks are covered
with wool, although the rest of the face is. usually
covered with dark hair. The ears are rather long, thin,
set low and well back, and are free from wool. The
face and legs are of a dark-brown color. The body is
practically the same as that of the Shropshire. The
rump is brnad, level, and well covered with flesh.

When mature, Oxford Down rams should weigh not
less than 275 lb., and some rams of the breed have
attained a weight of 400 lb. Mature ewes should weigh
about 200 lb. Lambs dropped in April should weigh
from 100 to 120 lb. in the following September.

In the ability to produce mutton, Oxford Down sheep
rank high on account of their large carcasses, the
small proportion of waste in dressing, and the fine
quality of the mutton. The lambs grow rapidly and
attain a des-'rable killing size at 12 mo. of age, and
when kept until older they continue to make good gains.

As wool producers, the Oxford Downs are much in
favor on account of their heavy fleeces. The wool is
of a quality known as combing wool, which is longer
and coarser than that from sheep of any of the other
medium-wool breeds. The fleeces from a flock of good
Oxford Down sheep should average from 10 to 12 lb.

HAMPSHIRE SHEEP

The ears, nose, and legs of Hampshire sheep are of a
uniformly dark-brown color that often shades to almost
black. The ears, the back of which may be of a dark
mouse color, are rather long and in the best specimens
of the breed are inclined to fall slightly outwards. The
16

224 FARM LIVESTOCK

head is well covered with wool between the ears and on
the cheeks; the neck is rather long, thick, and well
muscled, and the body is very much like that of an
animal of the Oxford Down breed.

The Hampshires raised in America are lighter in
weight than the Oxford Downs, but in England the
Hampshires are often regarded as the heaviest sheep of
the medium-wool breeds. Mature rams should weigh
about 250 lb. and mature ewes about 190 lb. Occasion-
ally, by careful breeding and good care, rams weighing
300 lb. are produced.

For production of mutton, Hampshire sheep have long
ranked high. The wool of the Hampshire sheep is of
medium length and not so fine as that of the Southdowns.

DORSET SHEEP

The Dorset breed of sheep, also known as the Dorset
Horn breed, is a breed that is distinctly marked. Both
the rams and the ewes have horns. The horns of the
ram are spirally curved rather close to the head; those
of the ewe are shorter, smaller, not so close to the
head and are curved less than those of the ram. The
sheep of the Dorset breed have white faces and legs.
The face, muzzle, ears, and that part of the legs below
the knees and hocks are covered with short, white hair.
The nostrils are large and white. The body of the
Dorset, although smooth and well covered with flesh, is
longer in proportion to its depth and width than the
body of a sheep of the other breeds of the mutton type.

In size, sheep of the Dorset breed rank somewhat
above the average of those of the medium-wool breeds.
Mature rams should weigh about 225 lb. and mature
ewes about 165 lb.; an extra good 2-yr-old ram has
been known to weigh 317 lb.; a yearling ram, 287 lb.;
a S-mo.-old ram lamb, 184 lb.; and yearling ewes,
250 lb.

In the production of mutton, sheep of the Dorset breed
rank only fair among those of the medium-wool breeds.

FARM LIVESTOCK 225

Sheep of this breed dress with a larger percentage of
waste than those of some other breeds, although the
quality of the meat is fair. The principal value of
Dorset sheep is in the production of early, or hothouse,
lambs, for which they have long been highly valued.
The Dorset does not rank high in production of wool.

CHEVIOT SHEEP

Sheep of the Cheviot breed are white in color and
have a graceful carriage. The head is usually hornless
in the case of both the male and the female, although
occasionally horns occur on the ram; according to an
enactment of the American Cheviot Sheep Society, all
male Iambs dropped after January 1, 1905, are ineligible
to registry unless they have a true polled head. The
head, back to a line just back of the ears and around
under the middle of the lower jaw, and the legs from
the knees and hocks down, are usually covered with
fine, white hair; sometimes small black spots, which are
not considered objectionable, appear on the head and
ears. Reddish or sandy hairs that occasionally occur
on the face and legs are objectionable.

A mature Cheviot ram should weigh from 200 to 225
lb. and a mature ewe from 150 to 160 lb.

The quality of the meat of the Cheviot is good,
although not so delicate as that of the Southdown, and
there is comparatively little offal in dressing.

Cheviot sheep produce fleeces of a medium quality
known in the market as half combing wool.

SUFFOLK SHEEP

Sheep of the Suffolk breed have a characteristic inky-
black color in the region of the head, ears, and legs.
The head, in the case of both the male and the female,
is hornless. The face is long and narrow, and the ears
long and rather large. The face and the ears are cov-
ered with jet-black hair; there is rarely any wool on
any part of the head, although a small quantity of

226 FARM LIVESTOCK

clean, white wool on the forehead is not regarded as
objectionable.

In size, the Suffolk sheep rank somewhat above the
average of those of the medium-wool breeds. Mature
rams should weigh from about 225 to 240 lb., and mature
ewes about 175 lb.

Sheep of this breed rank high for the quality and
quantity of the mutton that they produce, but do not
rank high as wool producers.

LINCOLN SHEEP

Sheep of the Lincoln breed are large, squarely built
animals, and are nearly white in color. The head is
large and hornless in the case of both the ram and the
ewe; the face is rather long and usually is covered
with fine, white hairs, but frequently has a grayish
tinge over the nose; the poll is surmounted by a short
tuft of wool; and the ears are large and often covered
with brownish spots.

Lincoln sheep are the largest of any breed. Mature
rams should weigh from about 275 to 300 lb., and mature
ewes from about 225 to 250 lb.

Lincoln sheep are good feeders and mature quickly,
but they do not rank high as mutton producers. The
carcass is too large to suit the modern market demand,
yields too much fat, and the quality of the meat is not
first class.

Sheep of this breed produce longer wool and heavier
fleeces than those of any other breed with the exception
of sheep of the fine- wool breeds.

LEICESTER SHEEP

The Leicester breed is divided into two strains; the
English, or Dishley, Leicester, and the Border Leicester.
These names are derived from the sections of England
■where the two strains were developed. The sheep of
the two strains are much the same in general appearance,
and the same description will api)ly to both, except
where differences are stated.

FARM LIVESTOCK 227

The heads of both the ram and the ewe are hornless
and usually are white, although small black spots occa-
sionally occur on the face and ears. The head of a
Border Leicester is covered with fine, soft, white hair,
but occasionally the poll of the head of a Dishley
Leicester is covered with a tuft of short wool. The
ears are thin, somewhat large, and stand rather erect.
The nose is slightly Roman and the skin at the muzzle
is black. The hindquarters are not so large as breeders
desire, because the thighs are not sufficiently thick,
especially near the hocks.

When mature and fitted for market, Leicester sheep
carry too much fat to be popular. The lambs fatten
readily and make desirable mutton if killed before they
are 12 mo. old.

The wool of Leicester sheep is about 6 in. long and is
a fine grade of coarse wool.

COTSWOLD SHEEP

Sheep of the Cotswold breed are large, long-wooled,
and white in color, and somewhat resemble those of the
Lincoln and the Leicester breeds. The head in the case
of both the male and the female is hornless and carried
high, and the poll is surmounted by curling locks of
wool, which often almost cover the eyes and extend
down as far as the nostrils. This forelock is one of the
characteristic features of the breed and is not trimmed
when the sheep are shorn or trimmed for show. The
face is usually covered with white hair, but is sometimes
spotted with gray or brown patches.

In size, Cotswold sheep are larger than those of the
Leicester and almost and sometimes fully as large as
those of the Lincoln breed. The weight of these sheep
will average about 25 lb. lighter than that of the Lin-
colns. A mature ram should weigh from about 250 to 275
lb. and a mature ewe from about 200 to 250 lb.

Cotswold sheep make a desirable grade of mutton if
killed at about 1 yr. of age. If they are allo.wed to

228 FARM LIVESTOCK

grow to 2 yr. of age, the carcasses are too large, bear
too much fat, and the flesh is not of as desirable quality
as when the sheep are killed at a younger age.

Cotswold sheep produce a lustrous combing of wool
that is rather coarse and hair-like, and hangs in spiral
curls, or locks. The wool is coarser than that of either
Leicester or Lincoln sheep. ,

MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP

Almost the entire number of sheep and lambs received
at the large livestock markets are classed as mutton
sheep, feeder sheep, or breeding sheep.

All sheep and lambs that are shipped to a large
market and sold for slaughter, no matter what their
condition, age, or weight may be, are classed as mutton
sheep. The largest part of the sheep received in the
market consists of this class, which is divided into the
following subclasses: Lambs, yearlings, wethers, ewes,
bucks, and stags. Lambs are animals that are mostly
under 12 to 14 mo. of age. Yearlings are the castrated
lambs from about 12 to 14 mo. of age until they are
about 2 yr. old, or mature, after which they are
known as wethers. All female sheep received in the
markets and that are older than lambs are known as
ewes. Rams after they have passed out of the lamb
subclass are designated in the market as bucks. Male
lambs that are castrated after they are 12 to 14 mo. old
are classed in the market as stags. Each of the sub-
classes described and the subclasses of the other market
classes of sheep are further divided into market grades
of sheep. The grades usually given in market reports
are prime or fancy selected, choice, good, medium, and
common, or culls. The grades rank in the order named
in regard to the quality and the condition of the sheep.

The class known as feeder sheep consists of sheep that
are received in the markets in poor condition and that
are sold to be fattened. The recognized subclasses of
feeder sheep are lambs, yearlings, wethers, and ewes.

FARM LIVESTOCK

229

Market Classes and Grades of Sheep

Classa

Subclasses

Mutton sheep

Grades

1 Prime
Choice
Good
Medium
Common, or culls
[■ Prime
< Choice
IGood

{Prime
Choice
Good
Common
(Prime
Choice
Good
Medium
Common, or culls
{Choice
Good
Common

'Lambs

Yearlings

Wethers

Feeder sheep

Lambs

Yearlings

Wethers

Ewes

Breeding sheep

fEwes

iBucks

(Fancy selected
Choice
Good
Medium
Common
f Choice
< Good
I Common

{Choice
Good
Medium
Common
{Choice
Good
Medium
Common

{Fancy selected
Choice
Good
Common
Not graded

Miscellaneous classes: Hothouse lambs, export sheep,
throw-outs, dead sheep.

230 FARM LIVESTOCK

The class known as breeding sheep consists of those
sheep that are bought in the large markets for breeding
purposes. By far the largest number of sheep of this
class are ewes. The rams, or bucks, as they are known
in the markets, are few in number and most of them
show a form and a mixture of blood that make them
undesirable for breeding purposes.

A miscellaneous class consists of hothouse lambs,
export sheep, throw-outs or rejects, and dead sheep.
Hothouse lambs are those dropped at a time of year that
will permit of placing them, when 8 to 12 wk. old and
weighing from 25 to 50 lb., on the market between
Christmas and the first of May. The weight of the
lambs will vary with their age. Export sheep are usually
sheep in excellent condition and are of the prime and
choice grades of any of the subclasses of the mutton
class of sheep. Throw-outs are the sheep first placed in
the feeder class on account of their poor condition and
then rejected, or thrown out, by purchasers of feeder
sheep, a privilege allowed by the market authorities.
Such sheep are usually purchased by local butchers who
cater to a cheap trade. Dead sheep are those that are
killed in transit They are sold for their wool and for
fertilizing purposes.

The classes, subclasses, and grades of market sheep
are shown in the accompanying diagram.

SWINE

In describing the different breeds of swine, mention
is made of certain parts of a hog, and in order that a
•clear understanding may be had of the location of these
parts, they are designated by letters on the outline view
of an animal shown in the accompanying illustration. In
the illustration, a is the snout; b, the ear; c, the poll;
d, the jowl; e, the neck; /, the shoulder; g, the front
/eg; h, the chest; !, the side; /, the back; k. the loin;
I, the rump; m, the ham; n, the hind leg; o, the fore flank;

FARM LIVESTOCK

231

p, the belly; q, the hind flank; r, the pastern joint; s, the
scrotum; and t, the tail.

LARD TYPE OF SWINE

Hogs of the lard type, as the term implies, produce
large quantities of fat. The animals have, as a rule,
well developed hams and shoulders, but they produce
only a fair quantity of bacon.

The animals of the different lard-type breeds are of
the same general character, but differ in minor respects.
An animal of the lard type should show good width and
fair length, and should be built low to the ground. The
snout should be of medium length, the eyes full, mild,
and bright, the face short, the cheeks full, the jowl

strong and broad, and the neck thick and of a medium
length. The shoulders should be broad and compact on
top, the chest broad, the sides deep, the back broad
and thickly and evenly fleshed, the loins wide and
thick, and the bottom line straight and even. The hams
should be heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, and wide.

BACON TYPE OF SWINE

Hogs of the bacon type, as the name indicates, pro-
duce relatively large quantities of bacon. Their bodies
are long, deep, and narrow throughout. The shoulders

232 FARM LIVESTOCK

and hams are not so well developed as in the lard type
of hogs, but they should be smoothly covered with flesh
and in line with the sides. The back should be of
moderate but uniform width, and smoothly covered. The
sides, as they are the parts from which the bacon is
taken, should be long and deep, and have a good thick-
ness of flesh. There should be no falling away at the
flanks, and the flesh should be firm and free from
wrinkles.

In general appearance, hogs of the bacon type are
long and narrow, have long heads, and stand up rather
high on their legs. There is really no use of the great
length of the head and legs, so far as meat production
is concerned, but it seems impossible to breed hogs
without there being a certain correlation of parts, and
it has been found that a hog with long legs and head
will generally have a long and narrow body.

BREEDS OF THE LARD TYPE
Berkshire Swine. — The Berkshire breed of swine
originated in the southern part of England, particularly
in the counties of Berkshire and Wilts.

The animals of this breed are black in color and
usually show six white points, namely, on the face, on
the tail, and on the four feet. A splash of white on
the jowl, under the neck, or on the fore legs is often
found and is not regarded by the American Berkshire
Association as a disqualification. White ears are some-
times found, but they are not objected to by breeders
and judges. The black of the Berkshires differs some-
what from the black of some of the other breeds in that
it is a sort of blue-black.

The conformation of the modern Berkshire is typical
of the lard hog. An animal of this breed has a short
face that is gracefully dished; the ears are short,
pointed, and usually erect; the back is broad and level;
the hams are full; and the legs are short, strong, and
straight.

FARM LIVESTOCK 233

Berkshires are of medium to large size. The average
mature boar in good breeding condition should weigh
about 500 lb. and the sow about 400 lb. Frequently
specimens are found that weigh considerably more than
these weights. The pigs can be made ready for market
at from 6 to 8 mo. of age, if desired.

Poland-China Swine. — The Poland-China breed of swine
originated in the counties of Butler and Warren in
Southwest Ohio, as a result of crossing the mongrel
hogs of the early settlers with Berkshires and other old
breeds from Europe and Asia. Associated with Butler
and Warren counties in the early improvement of the
breed were Hamilton County in Ohio, and Union and
Wayne counties in Indiana, the five counties consti-
tuting a region known as the Miami Valley. The
Poland-China swine are black with six white points
— white in the face, on the tip of the tail, and on the
four feet. Splashes of white are sometimes found on
the jaw, legs, flanks, sides, or back, and are not objected
to by judges and breeders. The black should be jet
black and not blue-black, as in the Berkshires.

Like the Berkshires, the Poland-Chinas possess the
characteristic conformation of the lard type. They have
short heads, wide faces that are but slightly dished, full
jowls, short and wide necks, broad shoulders, wide
backs, well-sprung ribs, broad loins, full and broad
hams, deep sides, and legs that are straight and of
medium length. A distinguishing feature of the breed
is the ears; these are rather small and on an ideal
animal should stand up slightly at the base to within
two-thirds of the tip, where a gentle break or drop
should occur.

Poland-China swine are of medium to large size. A
mature boar in breeding condition should weigh about
500 lb. and a mature sow about 400 lb. Poland-China
pigs that are fed for market can usually be made to
weigh 200 lb. at 6 mo. of age, and 250 lb. is by no
means rare at this age.

234 FARM LIVESTOCK

Duroc-Jersey Swine. — TheDuroc-Jersey breed of swine is

an American breed that was originated by crossing the
Durocs, a breed of red swine found in New York State,
with the Jersey Red, a breed of red swine found in New
Jersey. These original breeds constituting the foundation
stock of the Duroc-Jerseys probably sprang from some of
the red swine, such as the Guinea hogs, Portuguese hogs,
red Spanish hogs, and Berkshires, that were imported
into North America at an early date.

The Duroc-Jerseys are of a cherry-red color when
purely bred. It often happens, however, especially in
mature animals, that they become copper or reddish
gray in color, and in some instances the tips of the hairs
turn black. These variations from the established
cherry-red color are undesirable. Black spots on the
belly and legs are also undesirable, but are admissible.

The conformation of Duroc-Jersey swine is similar to
that of the Berkshires and Poland-Chinas. The head
is small, the face straight or slightly dished, the nose
of medium length, the ears are of medium size and
point forwards and downwards;, the back is broad in
comparison to its length, the sides are deep, and the
hams and shoulders are heavily fleshed and extend well
down on the legs.

In size, the Duroc-Jerseys are somewhat large. Mature
boars in good breeding condition should weigh from
about 500 to 550 lb. and mature sows in the same con-
dition should weigh from about 400 to 450 lb. Duroc-
Jersey pigs that are fed for market mature quickly and
reach a good size.

Chester White Swine.— The Chester White breed of
swine originated in Chester County, Pennsylvania, as
a result of crossing the common white swine of that
locality with white hogs brought from Europe.

In 1865, L. B. Silver, of Salem, Ohio, purchased some
Chester White swine and began breeding with the pur-
pose of securing a type of this breed of large size and
superior quality. As a result of his breeding, a strain

FARM LIVESTOCK 235

known as Ohio Improved Chester White, commonly
spoken of as O. I. C, was originated. A separate herd
book is maintained by breeders of this strain. Both the
old type of Chester Whites and the O. I. C. strain have
been developed to the extent that they are to be found
in all parts of the United States and Canada where
swine are kept.

The Chester White, as the name implies, is a white
breed. Blue specks, known as freckles, are often found
on the skin of these animals and are not objected to
by judges, but black, sandy patches in the hair or on
the hide are undesirable and will bar an animal from
registration in the breed herd books.

In conformation, the Chester Whites are of the typical
lard-hog shape. They have short, broad heads, and
slightly dished faces. The ears are drooping but do
not stand out so far from the head as in the case of
animals of the Poland-China breed. In width and
depth, Chester Whites are similar to the Poland-Chinas,
but, as a rule, they have greater length.

In size, the Chester WTiites are large. Mature boars
in breeding condition should weigh about 600 lb. and
mature sows in the same condition, about 450 lb. Young
animals that are fattened for market should weigh
from about 250 to 275 lb. at 6 mo. of age.

Mule-Foot Swine.— The origin of the Mule-Foot breed
of swine is unknown. Certain breeders claim a knowledge
of its origin, but their claims are discredited by the
association fostering the interests of the breed. Doubt-
less this lack of information is due to the fact that
the breed has only recently been brought to public
attention.

The Mule-Foot hogs are characterized by a solid hoof,
which resembles that of the mule, as the name indicates
This gives them great strength in the feet, a point
widely exploited by their admirers. In color, they are
black, although white points are admissible. It is
claimed for the breed that no animal has ever been

236 FARM LIVESTOCK

known to have hog cholera, but this claim has been
proved erroneous. The Mule-Foots are known to have
great vitality and to be good feeders.

Cheshire Swine. — The Cheshire breed of swine orig-
inated in Jefferson County, New York. Evidence indi-
cates that the breed is the result of crossing Large
Yorkshire and White Suffolk swine with the native
white swine of Jefferson County.

Cheshires are white in color. Black spots sometimes
occur on the skins of pure-breds and although objec-
tionable do not disqualify them. The animals are
smooth, compact, and of symmetrical proportions. As a
rule, they mature early. They are of medium size, as a
breed, but frequently specimens are found that are as
large as the largest individuals of the lard-type breeds.
The sows are good mothers and are very prolific. The
feeding qualities of the animals of the breed have not
been thoroughly investigated.

Small Yorkshire Swine.— The Small Yorkshire breed of
swine originated in England. Little is known of the
foundation stock, but it is believed they were Chinese
swine.

Small Yorkshires are white, with occasional black
spots on the skin. They are very small and compact.
Animals of this breed are noted for quick-maturing
qualities, and are well adapted for producing early
market pork. Their meat is fine grained and tender,
but inclined to be rather fat.

Victoria Swine.— The Victoria breed of swine originated
in Lake County, Indiana, as a result of crossing Poland-
Chinas, Berkshires, Chester Whites, and a breed of
white hogs from England.

In color, Victoria swine are white, with occasional
dark spots in the skin. The ears are erect or slightly
drooping, and the animals have a good coat of fine,
soft hair; the head is small and the face is medium
dished; the bones are fine, and the back is straight,
broad, and level. The Victorias are said to be prolific

FARM LIVESTOCK 237

hogs, easy to keep in condition, and are readily fattened
at any age. They are of medium size; mature sows
should weigh about 450 lb. and mature boars about 600 lb.

Essex Swine. — The Essex breed of swine originated in
the county of Essex, England, as a result of crossing
Neapolitan swine with the native hogs of Essex. It is
thought also that Berkshire and Suffolk blood was
used in the crossing.

Essex swine are black; animals with white on them
are not admitted to registry by the record association.
They are small, compact animals, set on short legs.
The face is dished, the snout short, and the shoulders
and hams well developed. The animals are quick ma-
turing, and easily fattened; the meat is fine grained,
but carries an excessive quantity of fat. The breed
does not stand very high in prolificacy.

BREEDS OF THE BACON TYPE

Large Yorkshire Swine.— The Large Yorkshire breed of
swine originated in England. For many years large,
awkward, white swine have existed in certain parts of
that country, particularly in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire,
and Norfolk, and it is from these animals that the
Large Yorkshires were developed.

The hogs of this breed are white in color, with occa-
sional blue spots on the skin. They are large in size,
rangy, inclined to be long in the leg and coarse in bone,
and are somewhat slow in coming to maturity. They
have extreme length and depth of body, and their meat
is well streaked with fat and lean, being esp'ecially
desirable for bacon purposes. In fact, Yorkshire bacon
is considered to be the best obtainable.

Tamworth Swine. — The Tamworth breed of swine
originated in central England, notably in the county of
Stafford. The breed is one of the oldest in existence
and the ancestry is obscure.

The color of the Tamworths is somewhat variable, a
golden-red hair on flesh-colored skin that is free from

238 FARM LIVESTOCK

black being preferred. The snout is very long and
straight, the ears are large and pointed, and the legs
are long. The animals have long, deep bodies and the
meat from their carcasses is well fitted for bacon pur-
poses. As compared with Poland-Chinas, Berkshires,
and other animals of the lard type, they seem long
and narrow. In constitution, they take high rank, being
especially strong and vigorous.

Hampshire Swine. — The Hampshire breed of swine, for-
merly known as the Thin Rind breed, is indigenous to
England.

The Hampshire is a black animal with a broad white
belt encircling the body and with white fore legs. The
ears of Hampshires are erect, which, together with the
peculiar marking of white, makes them easy to dis-
tinguish from animals of other breeds. They have a
rather long snout and narrow face, and incline some-
what to smallness of bone.

The Hampshires can be fed to produce a good selling
weight of hog at an early age, and by feeding to
maturity they make good heavyweight hogs. As breeders,
they are prolific and are said to have good constitutions.

LIVESTOCK FEEDING

COMPOSITION OF FEEDS
It is a matter of common observation on farms that
certain feeds tend to produce growth — the formation of
bene, muscles, etc.; that other feeds tend to produce fat;
and that still other feeds tend to produce milk. The
reason for this lies in the difference in their compo-
sition; therefore, a knowledge of the composition of a
feed is a valuable guide in feeding livestock. Chemists
have made five classes or groups into which all com-
pounds that are found in feeds are placed. These
classes are water, ash, protein, carb-hydrates, and fat.

FARM LIVESTOCK 239

The following tabulation shows the elements that make
up the compounds of each class:

Water /Hydrogen

^^^^^ \ Oxygen

Ash.

Oxygen
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron

Manganese
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Silicon
Fluorine
. Chlorine

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Protein ■< Nitrogen

Sulphur
Phosphorus
.Iron

{Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen

{Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen

Water in Feeds. — All feeds contain water, although
the more water a feed contains the smaller is its nu-
tritive value. In young and growing plants the presence
of water is readily apparent; it constitutes from 70 to
90% of the total weight of such plants. Air-dried feeds,
such as the grains, corn, wheat, and oats, and well-cured
hays, contain on an average only from 8 to 15% of water.

Ash in Feeds. — The mineral matter, or ash, of a feed
is the portion that is left after complete burning; it is,
therefore, the incombustible part.

The common farm feeds contain but a small per-
centage of ash, although the percentage varies greatly
in different feeds.

Potatoes contain .9% of ash; rutabagas, 1.2%; corn,
1.5%; oats, 3.2%; timothy hay, 4.4%; Red clover hay,
cut when the clover is in bloom, 6.6%; and alfalfa hay,
8.6 to 10.6%.

Protein in Feeds. — All plant and animal compounds
that contain the element nitrogen are grouped into a
class to which the term protein is applied. This is a
very general term, and the number of compounds in-
cluded in this group is exceedingly large. In addition
to nitrogen, there are always found in protein the
17

240 FARM LIVESTOCK

elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and sometimes
sulphur, phosphorus, and iron. Owing to the fact that
nitrogen is found in all the compounds included in this
class, they are often spoken of as nitrogenous com-
pounds.

The percentage of protein in the common feeds is
given in the table showing the dry matter and digestible
nutrients in 100 pounds of feedstuffs, printed on a subse-
quent page. An examination of this table will show
that the seeds of plants usually contain a higher per-
centage of protein than the other parts of the plants.
It will be learned, further, that by-products from mills
and slaughter houses are rich in protein.

Carbohydrates in Feeds.— Like protein, the term carbo-
hydrate is a general one and is the name of a large
group of compounds. All carbohydrates are alike, how-
ever, in that they contain only the three elements,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are two general
classes of carbohydrates, namely, crude fiber and
nitrogen-free extract. Crude fiber constitutes the frame-
work, or skeleton, of plants, such as the hard, woody
portions of corn stalks and of straws. The husks of
grains, such as oat hulls and corn and wheat bran,
contain large quantities of this material; wood also is
an example of crude fiber. Carbohydrates of the
nitrogen-free-extract class are much more valuable as
sources of feed than are those of the crude-fiber class,
because the former are more easily digested than the
latter. Familiar examples of the nitrogen-free-extract
compounds are corn starch and common sugar.

Fat in Feeds. — The term fat, as it is used in connec-
tion with feeds, applies to all true fats and oils, as well
as to all other feed compounds that are soluble in ether,
and because of this fact the terms ether extract and
fat are used synonymously in tables showing the com-
position of feedstuffs. Although all feeds contain some
fat, the percentage in feeds varies widely.

FARM LIVESTOCK 241

CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDS

Feedstuffs can be conveniently divided into two gen-
eral classes; concentrates and roughages. Roughages
are also of two classes: dry and succulent.

The concentrates include all grains, seeds, and by-
products that are used as feeds. Feeds of this class
yield a larger proportion of digestible nutrients than
those of the other class. The proportion of concentrate
feeds that should be supplied in a ration depends on the
class of animal that is being fed and on whether or not
the ration is merely one for maintenance or is a full
ration.

Three general classes of dry roughage are used as
livestock feed. These are hays, straws, and fodders.
As compared with the concentrates, all roughage feeds
are more bulky in nature, less digestible, and, there-
fore, are not so efficient as furnishers of materials for
the production of energy, growth, fat, or milk. They
usually are the stalks of the plants from which the
seed has been removed. Their low digestibility is due
to the large proportion of crude fiber, or woody matter,
that they contain. Though ranking low in feed value,
they constitute an essential and necessary part of every
ration for all farm animals, except perhaps for pigs.

On account of the difference in the digestive capacity
of the animals, less roughage is used for horses and
pigs than for ruminants. The abundance and the com-
parative cheapness of roughage on most farms make it
highly desirable that the feeder use all such feeds as
completely as possible on the farm.

Hays. — The hays represent the most valuable roughage
for feeding purposes. They are of two classes, namely,
leguminous and non-leguminous. The leguminous hays
have, on an average, a higher feed value, are more di-
gestible and usually more palatable when properly
cured, and contain a larger proportion of protein than
the non-leguminous hays. As leguminous hays contain

242 FARM LIVESTOCK

more protein and less carbohydrates than non-leguminous
hays, the former are particularly valuable when fed
■with corn or other feeds that contain small percentages
of protein. The quantity of protein that leguminous hays
contain guarantees a high fertilizing value to the
manure of the animals to which the hays are fed. There
can be no well-directed or wise system of cropping
established on farms that does not include some legume
in the crop rotation, and experience and scientific inves-
tigation both indicate that leguminous hay should be
fed on the farm where it is grown.

Straws. — The straws are the lowest of the roughages
in feed value. Their high content of crude fiber makes
them hard to digest and reduces their palatability.
However, straws are of some use as livestock feed.
Ruminants that are to be carried through the winter
on merely a maintenance ration can make large use
of straw. Idle horses can also be fed some of this
material to advantage.

Fodders.— Most of the fodder available for livestock
feed has its origin in the corri plant. Corn fodder, or
fodder corn, is the entire corn plant after drying. Corn
stover is corn fodder minus the ears. Shredded corn
stover is corn stover that has been passed through a
corn shredder.

Soiling Crops.— The crops most valuable for soiling
purposes aie field corn, sweet corn, sorghum, millets,
rape, rye, oats, wheat, alfalfa, the clovers, cowpeas,
soybeans, and vetch. It is desirable that these crops
be fairly well matured before they are cut, as the im-
mature plants are mostly water and often have an
injurious effect on the digestive system of an animal.

Silage. — Silage may be defined as feed which has been
stored in such a manner that its green or fresh con-
dition is preserved. Green clover, alfalfa, cowpeas,
sorghum, and other forage crops have been stored suc-
cessfully in the silo. But the great American crop
preeminently suited for the making of silage is the

FARM LIVESTOCK 243

corn plant. Recent tests have shown that it is usually
unprofitable to make silage out of a crop that can be
successfully cured and stored in the mow without danger
of excessive fermentation. The pithy stalk of the corn
plant prevents it from drying and being handled in the
same way as the hollow-stalked hays and straws.

Root Crops. — The roots ordinarily grown for feed are
mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, and carrots. Horses
prefer carrots; sheep, common turnips and rutabagas;
and for cattle, mangels are very appropriate. In England
and Scotland, roots are largely depended on for all
classes of livestock, especially for cattle and sheep. In
fact, in those countries roots constitute the greatest
part of the daily rations for livestock; but in America
roots are not grown extensively for the feeding of
livestock. This is due chiefly to the labor required to
grow and harvest a root crop, and to the fact that corn
is so extensively grown and made into silage.

BALANCED RATIONS

Feeding Standards.— A feeding standard shows the
experimentally established quantities of dry matter,
digestible protein, digestible carbohydrates, and di-
gestible fat that are necessary to satisfy the physio-
logical requirements per day per 1,000 lb. of live weight
of animals under specified conditions.

Thus, the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards given in
the accompanying table show that a dairy cow weighing
1,000 lb. and giving 22 lb. of milk should receive 29 lb.
of dry matter, 2J^ lb. of digestible protein, 13 lb. of
digestible carbohydrates, and yi lb. of digestible fat
for each 24 hr. This standard is the result of experi-
ment and scientific investigation, which has shown that
a daily ration supplying the above quantities and kinds
of digestible nutrients to a 1,000-lb. cow will maintain
on an average, a milk flow of 22 lb. a day. All the
other standards in the table have been derived in the
same manner.

244 FARM LIVESTOCK

Nutritive Ratio.— A nutritive ratio is the ratio of the
digestible protein to the digestible carbohydrates and
fat in any feed or ration; In computing the nutritive
ratio of a ration, the amount of digestible fat is multi-
plied by 2.25 and the product added to the amount of
digestible carbohydrates, and the sum divided by the
amount of digestible protein. The ratio of one
to the quotient is the nutritive ratio. To illustrate:
What is the nutritive ratio of a ration furnishing 2.5 lb.
of digestible protein, 15 lb. of digestible carbohydrates,
and .5 lb. of digestible fat?

The calculation is usually made as follows: .5x2.25
= 1.125; 1.125 + 15 = 16.125; 16.125 v 2.5 = 6.45. The nutritive
ratio is, therefore, 1 part of protein to 6.45 parts of
carbohydrates and fat, or 1 : 6.45.

Note. — Some authorities on feeding multiply the quan-
tity of fat by 2.4 in computing a nutritive ratio, but
recent experiments and investigations show that 2.25 is
a more nearly correct factor to use.

The nutritive ratio is wide or narrow according to the
proportion of protein that the ration contains. If the
relative amount of protein in a ration is large, it is
said to have a narrow nutritive ratio, and if the relative
amount of protein is small it is said to have a wide
nutritive ratio. A ratio of 1 to 5.5 or less is considered
narrow; a ratio of 1 to 8 and above is considered wide;
between these two the nutritive ratio is medium. Young
growing animals generally and cows giving milk need
a large amount of protein, and should therefore receive
a ration that has a narrow nutritive ratio. Fattening
animals thrive well on wide rations, but pregnant
animals and horses at work should receive rations of a
medium nutritive ratio.

FARM LIVESTOCK 245

WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS

Animal

Oxen:

At rest In stall

At Ught work ,

At medium work

At heavy work

Fattening cattle:

First period ,

Second period

Third period

Milk cows when yielding
daily:

11.0 1b. of milk

16.6 lb. of milk

22.0 lb. of milk

27.5 lb. of milk

Sheep:

Coarse-wool

Fine-wool

Breeding ewes with

lambs

Fattening sheep:

First period

Second period

Horses:

At light work

At medium work

At heavy work

Brood sows

Fattening swine:

First period

Second period

Third period

Requirements per Day per
1,000 Lb. Live Weight

Q

Digestible Nutrients

.7
1.4
2.0
2.8

2.5
3.0
2.7

1.6
2.0
2.5
3.3

1.2
1.5

2.9

3.0
3.5

1.5

2.0
2.5
2.5

4.5
4.0
2.7

8.0
10.0
11.5
13.0

15.0
14.5
15.0

10.0
11.0
13.0
13.0

10.5
12.0

15.0

15.0
14.5

9.5
11.0
13.3
15.5

25.0
24.0
18.0

246

FARM LIVESTOCK
Table — (Continued)

Requirements per Day per
1,000 Lb. Live Weight

u

Q

Digestible Nutrients

Animal

.S

CI, §

0, o

•a Cu

11

^ "O

n

1.2 .

■£15

Growing cattle — Dairy
breeds:

Age, 2 to 3'mo. ; average
live weight, 150 lb —

Age, 3 to 6 mo. ; average
live weight, 300 lb. . .

Age, 6 to 12 mo.; aver-
age Uve weight, 500
lb

23

24

27
26
26

23
24

25

24

24

4.0
3.0

2.0

1.8

1.5

4.2
3.5

2.5

2.0

1.8

13.0
12.8

12.5

12.5

12.0

13.0
12.8

13.2

12.5

12.0

2.0
1.0

.5

.4

.3

2.0
1.5

.7

.5

.4

1 to 4.4
1 to 5.0

1 to 6.8

Age. 12 to 18 mo.; aver-
age Uve weight, 700
lb

1 to 7.4

Age, 18 to 24 mo.; aver-
age Uve weight, 900
lb

1 to 8.5

Crowing cattle — Beef
breeds:

Age. 2 to 3 mo. ; average
Uve weight, 160 lb. . .

Age, 3 to 6 mo. ; average
Uve weight, 330 lb. . .

Age, 6 to 12 mo. ; aver-
age Uve weight, 550

1 to 4.2
1 to 4.6

1 to 5.9

Age, 12 to 18 mo.; aver-
age Uve weight, 750
lb

1 to 6.8

Age, 18 to 24 mo. ; aver-
age Uve weight, 950
lb

1 to 7.2

FARM LIVESTOCK

Table — (Contin ued)

247

Requirements per Day per
1,000 Lb. Live Weight

o
4J tn

Digestible Nutrients

Animal

C

S-d

<u o

o

(U

|l

o

Nutritive
Ratio

Growing sheep — Wool
breeds:

Age, 4 to 6 mo. ; average
live weight, 60 lb. . .

Age, 6 to 8 mo. ; average
live weight, 75 lb.. . .

Age, 8 to 11 mo.; aver-
age live weight, 80 lb.

Age, 11 to 15 mo.; aver-
age live weight, 90 lb.

Age, 15 to 20 mo. ; aver-
age live weight, 100
lb

25
25
23
22

22

26
26

24

23

22

3.4
2.8
2.1
1.8

1.5

4.4
3.5

3.0

2.2

2.0

15.4
1.3.8
11.5
11.2

10.8

15.5
15.0

14.3

12.6

12.0

.7
.6
.5

.4

3

.9

.7

.5
.5

.4

1 to 5.0
1 to 5.4
1 to 6.0
1 to 6.7

1 to 7.7

Growing sheep — Mutton
breeds:

Age, 4 to 6 mo.; average
live weight, 60 lb. ...

Age, 6 to 8 mo. ; average
live weight, 80 lb. . . .

Age, 8 to 11 mo.; aver-
age live weight, 100
lb

1 to 4.0
1 to 4.7

1 to 5.1

Age, 11 to 15 mo.; aver-
age live weight, 120
lb

1 to 6.2

Age 15 to 20 mo. ; aver-
age live weight, 150
lb

1 to 6.5

248

FARM LIVESTOCK
Table — (Continued)

Requriements

per Day per

1,000 Lb. Live Weight

"S -0

Digestible Nutrients

Animal

a

8

. o

2 -S

1-3

^ 13

Q

u o
■d ft
S
O

3 0i

Crowing swine — Breeding

stock:

Age, 2 to 3 mo. ; average

live weight, 50 lb. . . .

44

7.6

28.0

1.0

1 to 4.0

Age, 3 to 5 mo. ; average

Uve weight, 100 lb. . .

35

4.8

22.5

.7

1 to 5.0

Age, 5 to 6 mo. ; average

live weight, 120 lb.. .

32

3.7

21.3

.4

1 to 6.0

Age, 6 to 8 mo. ; average

live weight, 200 lb. . .

28

2.8

18.7

.3

1 to 6.9

Age, 8 to 12 mo.; aver-

age live weight, 250

lb

25

2.1

15.3

.2

1 to 7.5

Crowing fattening swine:

Age, 2 to 3 mo. ; average

live weight, 50 lb.. . .

44

7.6

28.0

1.0

1 to 4.0

Age, 3 to 5 mo. ; average

live weight, 100 lb. . .

35

5.0

23.1

.8

1 to 5.0

Age, 5 to 6 mo. ; average

live weight. 150 lb. . .

33

4.3

22.3

.6

1 to 5.5

Age, 6 to 8 mo.; average

live weight, 200 lb. . .

30

3.6

20.5

.4

1 to 5.9

Age, 9 to 12 mo.; aver-

age live weight, 300

lb

26

3.0

18.3

.3

1 to 6.3

FARM LIVESTOCK

24'>

Making Up a Balanced Ration.— By the aid of the

accompanying table giving the total dry matter and
the digestible nutrients contained in 100 lb. of the
different feedstuffs, and the number of pounds of each
of the digestible nutrients, the nutritive ratio may be
determined of almost any ration that may be fed. The
value of such determinations to the feeder is not only to
acquaint him with the wide variations in the demands
and requirements of the different classes of livestock,
but to increase his knowledge of the chemical com-
position of feeds. With a knowledge of feeding
standards and of the composition of feeds a stockman
is enabled to combine feeds so that they satisfy the
needs of animals, or, in other words, to feed a balanced
ration. This is the first and a most fundamental prin-
ciple of feeding.

TOTAL DRY MATTER AND TOTAL DIGESTIBLE

NUTRIENTS IN 100 LB. OF COMMON

AMERICAN FEEDSTUFFS

Feedstuff

Total

Dry

Matter

in 100
Lb.

Digestible Nutrients
in 100 Lb.

aJ'd o

Alfalfa hay

Alsike clover, green

Alsike-clover hay . .

Artichokes

Barley and peas, green

Barley and vetch, green. . . .

Barley forage

Barley grain

Barley hay

Barley screenings

Barley straw

9.3.4
25.2
90.3
20.5
20.0
20.0
21.0
89.2
85.0
87.8
85.8

11.4
2.6
8.4
1.3
2.1
2.1
1.9
8.4
5.7
9.5

40.0
11.4
39.7
14.7
9.1
6.5
10.4
65.3
43.6
49.9
40.1

1.3

.5

1.1

.2

.4

.3

.3

1.6

1.0

2.5

.6

250

FARM LIVESTOCK

Table — (Continued)

Feedstuff

Barnyard millet, green

Barnyard millet hay

Bean, horse, green

Bean, horse, hay

Bean, velvet, green

Bean, velvet, hay

Beans, horse

Beet pulp, dr>'

Beet pulp, wet

Beets, common

Beets, sugar

Beggar-weed hay

Bermuda grass, green

Bermuda-grass hay

Bone-and-meat meal

Bran, com

Bran, wheat, all analyses . .

Brewers' grains, dry

Brewers' grains, wet

Broom-corn seed

buckwheat bran

Buckwheat, grain

Buckwheat straw

Buffalo-grass hay

Bur-clover hay

Buttermilk

Cabbage

Canada field peas

Canada field peas, green . . .

Carrots

Cassava

Cassava starch refuse

Cattail-millet hay

Clover and grass, mixed,

hay

Colostrum

Common beets

Common millet, green

Corn-and-cob meal

Digestible Nutrients

Total

in 100 Lb

Dry

Matter

l-S

in 100
Lb.

^1

P^ cu

o_>>a,

(Xi

25.0

1.6

14.4

.3

85.1

5.2

.38.6

.8

15.8

2.3

7.3

.2

90.8

4.3

39.5

.8

17.8

2.7

8.4

.4

90.0

9.6

52.5

1.4

88.7

23.1

49.8

.8

91.6

4.1

64.9

10.2

.5

7.7

11.5

1.2

7.9

.1

13.5

1.3

9.8

.1

90.8

6.8

42.8

1.6

28.3

1.3

13.4

.4

93.1

6.4

44.9

1.6

94.0

36.7

5.5

10.6

90.6

6.0

52.5

4.8

88.1

11.9

42.0

2.5

91.3

20.0

32.2

6.0

23.0

4.9

7.6

1.7

87.2

4.6

42.2

1.5

91.8

5.9

34.0

2.0

86.6

8.1

48.2

2.4

90.1

1.2

37.4

.5

85.0

3.0

42.0

1.6

91.0

8.2

39.0

2.1

9.9

3.8

3.9

1.0

10.0

2.3

5.9

.1

85.0

19.7

49.3

.4

15.3

1.8

6.9

.3

11.4

.8

7.7

.3

34.0

.8

28.9

.2

88.0

.4

74.0

.6

89.0

7.2

41.6

1.0

87.1

5.8

41.8

1.3

25.4

17.6

2.7

3.6

11.5

1.2

7.9

.1

20.0

.8

11.0

.2

84.9

4.4

60.0

2.9

FARM LIVESTOCK
Table — (Continued)

251

Feedstuff

Com bran

Com, dent, grain

Com, flint, grain

Com fodder, ears on

Com leaves

Com meal

Com stover, ears removed. .

Cottonseed

Cottonseed hulls

Cottonseed meal

Cowpeas, green

Cowpea hay

Cowpea seeds

Crimson clover, green

Crimson-clover hay

Distillers' grains, dry

Dried blood

Dwarf Essex rape

Emmer, grain

Emmer hay

English hay

Field-bean hay

Field peas, Canada, green . .

Flaxseed

Flax shives

Germ oil meal

Gluten feed

Hairy vetch, winter, .hay. . .
Hay from mixed grasses. . . .

Hog millet, green

Hominy chop

Hominy feed

Horse bean, green

Horse-bean hay

Horse beans

Hungarian-grass hay

ItaUan rye-grass hay

Japan-clover hay

Japanese millet, green

Total

Dry

Matter

in 100

Lb.

90.6
89.4
88.7
57.8
70.0
8.5.0
59.5
89.7
88.9
93.0
16.4
89.5
85.4
19.1
90.4
92.4
91.5
14.3
91.6
93.1
86.0
95.0
15.3
90.8
90.0
91.4
90.8
88.7
84.7
20.0
90.4
90.4
15.8
90.8
88.7
86.0
91.5
89.0
25.0

Digestible Nutrients
in 100 Lb.

I§

6.0

7.8

8.0

2.5

2.8

6.7

1.4

12.5

.3

37.6

1.8

5.8

16.8

2.4

10.5

22.8

60.8

2.0

10.0

7.0

4.5

3.6

1.8

20.6

1.2

15.8

21.3

11.9

4.2

.8

6.8

6.8

2.3

4.3

23.1

5.0

4.5

9.1

1.1

52.5
66.8
66.2
34.6
37.8
64.3
31.2
30.0
33.2
21.4
8.7
9.3
54.9
9.1
34.9
39.7

8.2
70.3
43.9
44.0
39.7

6.9
17.1
34.4
38.8
52.8
40.7
42.0
10.8
60.5
60.5

7.3
39.5
49.8
46.9
43.4
37.7
13.6

252

FARM LIVESTOCK
Table — (Continued)

FeedstuflE

Johnson grass, green

Johnson-grass hay

Kafir com, grain

Kafir com, heads, ground.
Kafir com. Red, green . . . .
Kafir com. White, green. . .

Kentucky blue grass

Kentucky blue-grass hay. .
Linseed meal, new-process.
Linseed meal, old-process. .

Malt sprouts

Mammoth-clover hay

Mangels

Meadow fescue, green

Meadow-fescue hay

Meadow-foxtail hay

Meat-and-bone meal

Meat scrap

Milk, cow's, whole

Milk, cow's, skim

Millet seed

Millet straw

Milo maize, heads, ground

Milo maize, seed

Mixed grass and clover hay
Molasses, beet, pulp, dry. . ,

Molasses grains

Molasses, Porto Rico

Molasses, sugar-beet

Oat and pea hay

Oat and vetch hay

Oat hay

Oatmeal

Oat middlings

Oat straw

Oats and peas, green

Oats and vetch, green

Oats, grain

Orchard-grass hay

Total

Dry
Matter
in 100

Lb.

Digestible Nutrients
in 100 Lb.

25.0
89.8
90.1
86.4
18.4
16.6
34.9
86.0
90.3
90.2
90.5
78.8
9.1
30.1
80.8
93.4
94.0
89.3
12.8
9.4
87.9
85.0
90.3
91.0
87.1
92.0
89.6
74.1
79.2
89.5
85.0
86.0
92.1
91.2
90.8
20.3
20.0
89.6
90.1

.6
2.9
5.2
4.2
.8
.9
2.8
4.4
31.5
30.2
20.3
6.2
1.0
1.6
4.2
5.3
36.7
66.2
3.4
2.9
7.1
.9
4.2
4.9
5.8
6.1
10.8
1.4
4.7
7.6
8.3
4.7
11.9
13.1
1.3
1.8
2.3
10.7
4.9

iO>.(£

13.7
45.6
44.3
42.4

9.7

8.3
19.7
40.2
35.7
32.0
46.0
34.7

5.5
18.6
36.9
41.0

5.5

4.8
5.3

48.5

34.3

45.0

44.8

41.8

68.7

48.0

59.2

54.1

41.5

35.8

36.7

65.1

57.7 .

39.5

10.2

10.0

50.3

42.4

.2

.8

1.4

1.2

.4

.5

.8

.7

2.4

6.9

1.4

2.1

.2

.5

1.5

1.3

10.6

13.4

3.7

.3

2.5

.6

1.1

1.3

1.3

2.2

1.5

1.3

1.7

6.7

6.5

.8

.4

.2

3.8

1.4

FARM LIVESTOCK
Table — (Continued)

253

Feedstuff

Total

Dry

Matter

in 100
Lb.

Digestible Nutrients
in 100 Lb.

s g

6 -M •O

aST3 a

Oxeye-daisy hay

Palmnut cake

Parsnips

Pea and oat hay

Peanut cake

Peanut kernels, without

hulls

Peanut-vine hay

Perennial rye-grass hay. . . .

Potato

Prairie hay

Pumpkin, field

Pumpkin, garden

Rape-seed cake

Red clover, green

Red-clover hay

Red-dog flour

Red-top hay

Rice, grain

Rowen hay

Rutabagas

Rye bran

Rye forage

Rye, grain

Rye-grass hay. Perennial. . .

Rye-grass hay, Italian

Rye straw

Sage, Common

Salt-marsh-grass hay

Sanfoin hay

Serradella, green .

Serradella hay

Sesame oil cake

Shorts

Silage, com

Silage, com, ears removed. .

Sorghum seed

Soybean hay

Soybean seeds

89.7
89.6
9.5
89.5
89.3

92.5
92.4
86.0
20.9
90.8
9.1
13.2
90.0
29.2
84.7
90.1
91.1
87.6
86.0
11.4
88.2
23.4
91.3
86.0
91.5
92.9
50.4
89.6
85.0
20.5
90.8
92.6
88.8
26.4
26.3
87.2
88.2
88.3

3.7

16.0

1.0

7.6

42.8

25.1
6.7
6.1
1.1
3.0
1.0
1.4

25.3
2.9
7.1

16.2
4.8
6.4
7.9
1.0

11.2
2.1
9.5
6.1
4.5
.7
1.2
3.1

10.4
2.1

11.4

33.0

13.0
1.4
1.1
4.5

10.6

29.1

41.0
52.6
7.2
41.5
20.4

13.7
42.2
37.8
15.7
42.9

5.8

8.3
23.7
14.9
37.8
57.0
46.9
79.2
42.2

8.1
46.8
14.1
69.4
37.8
43.4
39.6
14.1
39.7
36.5

8.9
38.6
10.9
45.7
14.2
14.9
61.1
40.9
23.3

254

FARM LIVESTOCK

Table — (Continued)

Feedstuff

Digestible Nutrients

Total

in 100 Lt

.

Dry

Matter

•i-s

ol •§

•o

in 100

3 c

JO: a c

rt = •

Lb.

O 3
u O

,^■5 o

fe §

Pi P,

U>.cu

(S

89.9

2.3

40.1

1.0

92.0

10.0

70.3

2.0

93.1

7.0

43.9

.6

15.0

1.9

6.6

.2

13..5

1.3

9.8

.1

12.0

1.9

5.0

.2

79.2

4.7

54.1

15.8

.o

9.5

.3

91.4

14.8

29.7

18.2

89.2

29.5

23.3

8.0

88.4

4.0

38.9

.7

20.0

2.5

8.4

.4

90.9

11.9

36.7

.5

91.2

8.8

63.7

7.0

28.9

.8

22.9

.3

86.0

3.3

41.4

1.1

93.0

50.1

11.6

9.9

.9

4.9

.2

85.7

5.1

36.3

1.4

38.4

1.5

19.9

.6

86.8

2.8

42.4

1.3

9.9

.9

6.4

.1

90.0

9.6

52.5

1.4

20.0

2.1

6.5

.3

85.0

8.3

35.8

1.3

20.0

2.3

10.0

.2

85.0

10.6

36.8

1.2

15.0

1.9

6.6

.2

15.0

2.8

6.4

.3

20.0

2.6

10.3

.3

85.0

10.6

36.8

1.2

88.1

11.9

42.0

2.5

89.5

8.8

67.5

1.5

88.4

9.6

48.2

1.9

90.4

.8

35.2

.4

6.2

.6

5.0

.2

90.3

11.5

42.2

1.5

86.0

6.8

40.6

1.5

85.9

2.9

48.7

1.7

Soybean straw

Spelt, grain

Spelt, hay

Spring vetch, green

Sugar beets

Sugar-beet leaves

Sugar-beet molasses

Sugar cane, green

Sunflower seed

Sunflower-seed cake

Swamp-grass hay

Sweet clover, green

Sweet-clover hay

Sweet com, grain

Sweet potatoes

Tall-oat hay

Tankage

Teosinte, green

Texas blue-grass hay

Timothy grass

Timothy hay, all analyses.

Turnips, flat

Velvet -bean hay

Vetch and barley, green . .

Vetch and oat hay

Vetch and oats, green

Vetch and wheat, hay ....

Vetch, green.

Vetch, Hairy, winter, green
Wheat and vetch, green. . .

Wheat and vetch hay

Wheat bran, all analyses. .

Wheat, grain

Wheat screenings

Wheat straw

Whey

White-clover hay

White-top hay

Wild-oat grass hay

FARM LIVESTOCK 255

RATIONS FOR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF
LIVESTOCK

Ration for Draft Horses.— As an average for draft
horses at moderate work, a good plan to follow is to
feed 1 lb. of grain and 1J4 lb. of hay per day per
100 lb. of live weight of the horse. At this rate, a
1,600-lb. horse would receive 16 lb. of grain and 20 lb. of
hay per day. If the work is severe, the quantity of
grain should be increased to V/i lb. or more per 100 lb.
of live weight of the horse, but should not exceed
1\^ lb. When a heavy grain ration is fed it may be
necessary to feed a slightly smaller quantity of hay,
but this should not be less than 1 lb. per 100 lb. of live
weight; the exact quantity must be determined largely ■
by the individuality and appetite of each horse. When
a heavy grain ration is being fed it should be slightly
reduced as soon as the work slackens.

The grain ration should be divided into three equal
feeds and given morning, noon, and night. The greater
part of the hay should be fed to the horses in the
evening, as they will then have all night in which to
consume and digest it; about one-quarter should be fed
in the morning and one-sixth or less at noon, the
quantity for each feed depending on the time allowed
for the horses to eat.

In selecting the kind of grain for the ration of a
draft horse, the feeder should be guided by the kind of
hay used and the cheapness of the ration; a larger
quantity of corn can be economically and satisfactorily
used in a ration with clover or alfalfa hay than with
prairie or timothy hay. Also, the ration should contain
enough digestible protein to meet the requirements of
the horse. A ration consisting of ^ part of corn, ^^
part of oats, and Ye part of bran, by weight, and
a mixture of timothy and alfalfa or clover hay, or of
prairie hay and alfalfa or clover, will give satisfactory
18

256 FARM LIVESTOCK

results. For a 1,600-lb. horse at moderate work, a ration
of this proportion would be as follows:

Pounds

Com 8

Oats 5i

Bran 2|

Timothy or prairie hay 10

Clover or alfalfa hay 10

Rations for Driving and Saddle Horses.— An ample
ration for a driving or a saddle horse at severe work is
1 lb. of good hay and H^ lb. of grain per 100 lb. of
live weight of the animal. At this rate a 1,200-lb. horse
would receive 12 lb. of hay and 16 lb. of grain per day.
Most of the hay should be fed at night and but little
given in the morning before the horse is put at work.
The grain should be divided into three equal parts and
given morning, noon, and night.

For extremely severe work, such as racing, less hay
should be given than for common road work; most of
the nutrients should be supplied by grain, oats being
best. About % lb. of hay per 100 lb. of live weight
of the animal should be given, most of it being fed at
the evening feed.

Ration for Pregnant Mares.— A good grain ration for
a mare that is just past the seventh month of preg-
nancy and is being worked is as follows: Ground oats,
by weight, 4 parts; corn, 2 parts; wheat bran, 2 parts;
alfalfa or clover hay, V/i lb. per 100 lb. of live weight.

Rations for Mares After Parturition.— For about 3
da. after foaling, mares should have a light grain feed
of oats and bran, and good clean hay, preferably clover
or alfalfa. The ration should be light, as a colt does
not need a large supply of milk the first few days of
its life. If, at the end of 3 to 4 da. the mare and
foal are in good condition, the ration should be gradually
increased in order to stimulate the flow of milk.

A mare that is working and suckling a foal requires
a little heavier ration than is usually prescribed for

FARM LIVESTOCK 257

work horses, owing to the fact that she is producing
milk in addition to supplying energy for work. The
ration should be a highly nutritious one that will pro-
duce a good flow of milk; for this purpose good alfalfa
or clover hay fed in conjunction with corn and oats
is desirable. If good alfalfa or clover hay is not avail-
able, some linseed meal or cottonseed meal should be
added to the ration. Ordinarily, U/z lb. of grain and
1J4 lb. of hay per 100 lb. of live weight will be sufficient,
although it may be necessary to increase the grain to
V/i lb. per 100 lb. of live weight if the mare shows
signs of getting in poor condition. When such a grain
ration is fed it is a good plan to mix the grain with
chopped hay in order to prevent any serious digestive
disturbances.

Ration for Stallions.— The sexual tax on a stallion
during the breeding season makes it necessary that he
be fed a highly nitrogenous ration, as the principal
part of the seminal fluid is composed of albuminous
matter. During this time there is nothing better to
feed than good clover or alfalfa hay, with oats and
bran and a very little corn. A grain ration com-
posed of 2 parts of oats, 1 part of corn, and 1 part of
bran, by weight, combined with a roughage ration of
1 part of alfalfa hay and 1 part of timothy or prairie
hay will give satisfactory results. Because of the low
protein content of corn, a large quantity should not be
fed. During the breeding season a stallion requires
about the same quantity of feed as horses at hard
work.

Rations for Dairy Cattle. -The efficiency of the dairy
cow depends to a large extent on the feeding of a ration
adapted to the production of milk and butter fat. The
following rations are offered as suggestions to be
modified to suit individual conditions. With these
rations as a guide, a dairyman can easily make up from
the feedstuffs he has available an economical and
satisfactory ration for the cows of his herd.

258

FARM LIVESTOCK

Pounds

Rations

No. 1:

Mixed hay 20

Dried distillers'

grains 4

Hominy chop 2

Wheat bran 2

No. 2:

Mixed hay 10

Corn silage 40

Gluten feed 4

Corn meal 2

Wheat bran 2

No. 3:

Mixed hay 15

Mangels 40

Cottonseed meal 2

Hominy chop 4

Wheat bran 2

No. 4:

Mixed hay 10

Dried beet pulp S

Cottonseed meal 2

Hominy chop 4

Wheat bran 2

Rations Pounds

No. 5:
Clover or alfalfa hay IS

Corn silage 25

Oats 3

Wheat bran 3

Buckwheat middlings 3

No. 6:

Timothy hay 10

Corn silage 40

Dried distillers'

grains 4

Cottonseed meal 2

Hominy chop or
corn meal 2

No. 7:

Timothy hay 10

Corn silage 40

Gluten feed 4

Linseed meal 3

Hominy chop or
corn meal 1

No. 8:

Alfalfa hay 20

Corn 3

Oats 3

Wheat bran 2

Rations for the Fattening of Cattle.— The following
are samples of satisfactory daily rations for the fat-
tening of cattle under corn-belt conditions:

Rations Pounds

No. 1:

Ear corn 20

Oil meal 3

Clover hay 8

No. 2:

Shelled corn 18

Oil meal 3

Clover hay 9

No. 3:

Ear corn 14

Oil meal 1.5

Shock corn 14

Clover hay 8

Rations Pounds

No. 4:

Ear corn 18

Cottonseed meal 1

Alfalfa hay 10

No. 5:

Ear corn 15

Corn silage 25

Alfalfa hay 5

No. 6:

Ear corn 16

Cottonseed meal 3

Corn silage 32

No. 7:

Alfalfa hay 5

Corn stover 5

Com 18

FARM LIVESTOCK 259

Ration for Unweaned Pigs.— During the time pigs are
running with their mothers they should have a rather
narrow grain ration. The following materials mixed in
the proportion given have been found by experience to
be well suited for suckling pigs:

Parts

Corn meal 2

Wheat middlings 7

Tankage 1

Skim-milk 30

These materials are mixed together to form a medium
thick slop, and are fed soon after being mixed. Of
this mixture the pigs are fed just what they will clean
up with a relish. No feed should be left in the troughs
to become sour. If skim-milk cannot be procured, pure,
fresh water maj' be substituted.

Rations for Pigs After Weaning.— After weaning the
pigs, the first ration given may be continued until they
reach an age of about 4 mo. From the fourth to the
sixth month, the following proportions may be used:

Parts

Corn meal 5

Wheat middlings 4

Tankage 1

Skim-milk 30

From 6 mo. up to the time the pigs are marketed, the
following proportions are used:

Parts

Corn meal 4

Tankage 1

This mixture is either fed dry or made into a thick
mush by the addition of skim-milk, whey, or water. If
fed dry, an abundance of pure, fresh water should be
placed where the pigs can get it at will.

Other mixtures that will give about the same propor-
tion of nutrients may be substituted for the preceding
rations. Hogs welcome a variety in food as well as do
other animals.

260 FARM LIVESTOCK

Succulent Feed for Fattening Hogs.— In addition to
rations given in the preceding paragraphs, young pigs
need some kind of succulent feed. In summer this
succulent feed can best be derived from pasture. Ani-
mals running on pasture require less attention from
their caretakers than do animals that are being fed in
a lot, for the reason that they gather a large part of
their feed themselves. The exercise that the pigs get
in searching for food in a pasture tends to give them
a good appetite and to keep them healthy.

Rations for Bacon Hogs. — Rations for producing bacon
hogs should be somewhat narrower than those required
for fat hogs. In the corn belt, bacon hogs for the first
month or two after birth should be fed about the same
ration as that given for unweaned pigs of the lard type.
The finishing ration, however, should be different from
that for fat hogs. A mixture of corn, other grains, mill
feed, tankage, skim-milk, and pasture crops makes a
satisfactory ration for bacon pigs. Corn should not, how-
ever, form more than one-third of the concentrated part of
the ration. Outside of the corn belt where barley, peas,
and oats are grown, these grains mixed with shorts,
middlings, tankage, and skim-milk give good results. For
summer, alfalfa, clover, or some other pasture for the pro-
duction ot green forage is desirable. If the hogs are kept
and fed during winter, mangel wurzels, sugar beets, or
turnips may form the succulent part of the ration.

Rations for Herd Boars.— The boar or boars of a
breeding herd of swine should be placed in pastures or
lots by themselves, where they will have plenty of
room in which to exercise, as this has a tendency to keep
their appetite vigorous. They should be supplied with
abundant water, and it is well to have a quantity of
charcoal available. The feed for aged animals should
consist of a slop composed of a mixture of different
ground grains and mill feeds, enough only being fed
to the animals to keep them in fair flesh. A ration that
has been found satisfactory consists of the following:

FARM LIVESTOCK 261

Parts

Ground oats 2

Corn meal 1

Wheat middlings 1

For each mess, a small quantity of salt and a
handful of linseed meal may be added to this ration,
and these should be mixed together with sweet skim-
milk to form a slop. Only as much of this mixture as
the boar will eat with a relish should be given at
one time.

Young boars during their first half year should be
given enough of a ration consisting of mixed mill feed
and grain to keep them in rapid growth. This means
that the quantity given at a meal should be all that
they will eat with a relish.

Rations for Brood Sows.— The feed for a brood sow
should be similar to that recommended for young pigs.
The following combination for the concentrated part of
the ration has been found to be satisfactory:

Parts

Corn meal 5

Middlings or ground oats 5

Tankage 1

This ration may be fed either dry or mixed with
water. If the sows are being fed during the winter,
some bulky feed should be added to the above list.
Well-cured alfalfa or clover hay will prove to be a
good feed. If such hay cannot be procured, sugar beets
or mangel wurzels may be used. In the absence of all
these, sorghum cane that has been cut when ripe and
placed where it is protected from frost will answer.

A brood sow carrying a litter during the summer
should be placed on good alfalfa or clover pasture. She
will then require no other bulky feed than that which
she can gather. The preceding mixed ration may be
fed to the sow if it is easily procurable, but if the
pasture is an exceedingly good one, ear corn alone will
answer as the grain part of the ration.

262

FARM LIVESTOCK

Rations for Pregnant Ewes.— Several rations for preg-
nant ewes weighing from 140 to 160 lb. that are not on
pasture are given in the accompanying list:

Rations Pounds

No. 1:
Shelled corn or oats .4

Wheat bran 1

Corn silage 2.0

or root crops 3.0

Clover hay 2.0

No. 2:
Shelled corn or oats .4

Wheat bran 1

Corn silage 2.0

or root crops 3.0

Alfalfa hay 2.0

No. 3:
Shelled corn or oats .4 No. 8

Corn silage 2.0

or root crops 3.0

Soybean hay 2.5

No. 4:
Oats or shelled corn .4

Wheat bran 1

Corn silage 2.0

or root crops 3.0

Corn fodder 1.0

Clover or alfalfa

hay l.S

No. 5:

Shelled corn 4

Wheat bran 1

Corn silage 2.0

or root crops 3.0

Oat or wheat straw 1.0
Clover or alfalfa

hay 1.5

Rations Pounds

No. 6:

Shelled corn 3

Oats 1

Wheat bran 2

Clover, alfalfa, or
soybean hay 2.2

No. 7:

Shelled corn 2

Oats 2

Wheat bran 2

Oil meal 5

Corn fodder 1.0

Clover, alfalfa, or
soybean hay 2.0

Shelled corn 2

Oats 3

Wheat bran 2

Oil meal 1

Corn fodder 3.0

No. 9:

Shelled corn 3

Oats 2

Wheat bran 2

Oil meal 1

Oat or wheat straw 1.5

No. 10:

Shelled corn 2

Oats 2

Wheat bran 1

Oil meal 1

Corn silage 2.5

or root crops 3.8

Corn fodder 2.5

or oat straw 1.0

Rations for Ewes With Suckling Lambs.— In the ac-
companying table are given a number of rations for
ewes with suckling lambs.

FARM LIVESTOCK

263

SUGGESTED DAILY RATIONS FOR EWES WITH
SUCKLING LAMBS

Kind of Feed

No. of Ration

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6

Mixture of:

Shelled com, 5 parts

by weight

Whole oats, 5 parts

by weight

Wheat bran, 2 parts

by weight

Oil meal, 1 part by

weight

Com silage

Root crops. i 3.00

Clover, alfalfa, or soy-
bean hay 2.00

Com stover

Oat straw

1.33

3.00

1.33

4.00
2.50

1.33

5.00
2.50

1.60

3.00

1.33 1.40

2.50
2.50

1.50
2.00

2.50
2.50

1.50
2.00

Rations for the Fattening of Lambs.— In the following
list are given rations suitable for the fattening of lambs
in the corn belt, in the western part of the United
States, and in Canada or in the northeastern and
eastern parts of the United States.

Daily Rations for Fattening One Lamb in-
THE Corn Belt

Rations Pounds

No. 1:

Shelled corn 1.4

Clover hay 1.1

No. 2:

Shelled corn 1.0

Clover hay 2.0

No. 3:

Shelled corn 1.2

Linseed meal 4

Oat straw or shred-
ded corn, stover.. 1.0

Rations Pounds

No. 4:

Shelled corn 1.0

Soybeans 5

Soybean straw 5

Oat straw 5

No. 5:

Shelled corn 1.0

Linseed meal 3

Silage 1.5

Oat straw 6

264

FARM LIVESTOCK

Daily Ration for Fattening One Lamb in the West-
ern Portion of the United States

Rations Pounds

No. 1:

Barley 1.5

Alfalfa hay 1.5

No. 2:

Barley 8

Alfalfa hay 2.8

No. 3:

Barley 1.4

Wheat bran 3

Prairie hay 1.0

Rations Pounds

No. 4:

Oats 7

Peas 7

Oat straw S

Pea straw 1.0

No. 5:

Barley 1.5

Sugar-beet pulp

(wet) 6.0

Prairie hay 5

Daily Rations for Fattening One Lamb in Canada or

IN THE Northern and Eastern Portions of the

United States

Rations Pounds

No. 1:

Barley 1.3

Linseed meal 2

Clover hay 1.2

No. 2:

Oats 4

Barley 4

Peas 4

Wheat bran 2

Root crops 1.4

Pea straw 5

Oat straw 5

Rations Pounds

No. 3:

Barley 5

Peas 5

Wheat bran 2

Mixed hay 1.0

Root crops 1.2

No. 4:

Barley L4

Linseed meal 1

Silage 2.0

Mixed hay 5

DISEASES OF FARM LIVESTOCK

Any departure from a condition of health in an
animal constitutes a diseased condition. In some cases
the departure may be so slight and so unimportant as
to be of no particular significance. On the other
hand, the disturbance may be severe and the condition
of the animal so serious that medical or surgical aid
is necessary. Some of the more common of the de-
rangements that may require medical aid are described

FARM LIVESTOCK 265

herewith and such treatment suggested as it is prac-
ticable for one not skilled in veterinary science to
undertake. The treatment of certain complex diseases
and certain diseases that are likely to become epidemic
and may spread to mankind are matters that should
not be left to unskilled hands, for the situation is one
that may involve even more than a heavy loss to the
owner and to the community. In the case of some
diseases lack of proper measures may even result in
loss of human life. For these reasons it is always
advisable, when there is reason to suspect that a
dangerous transmissible disease has broken out, to call
a qualified veterinarian. In many states, a state
veterinarian is employed and, if notified, he will visit
suspected premises or send a deputy to make an in-
spection, the expense being borne by the state. Every
stock owner will do well to post himself as to the pro-
visions made by his own state in this particular, and
take steps to make use of any suggestions or assistance
that may be available from the state veterinarian's
office. Frequently leaflets or bulletins are issued by
these offices, and these publications may afford timely
•warning on matters that are of the most absorbing
interest to the owner and breeder of livestock.

TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASES
Infectious diseases and contagious diseases, as the
terms are usually applied, are those that are trans-
missible from one animal to another of the same
species, and sometimes to those of another species. A
contagious disease is one that requires immediate contact
of healthy animals with diseased animals, or with their
excretions, before transmission can take place. This is
due to the fact that the causal agent of the disease,
usually a bacterium or an animal parasite, cannot exist
for an appreciable time outside of or away from its host.
Consequently, there is little danger of a healthy animal
acquiring a contagious disease unless it comes close

266 FARM LIVESTOCK

enough to one affected with the malady to permit (he
direct passage of the germs to the unaffected indi-
vidual. An infectious disease is one that does not require
close contact in order for transmission to take place,
as the causal agents of infectious diseases are able to
exist independently outside of the host. Hence, infec-
tion from such a disease, spread on the ground, on
feed, in water, or in the air, may remain virulent for a
considerable and in some cases an indefinite time, and
animals coming in contact with it during this time
may contract the disease. This, briefly, is the common
distinction between infectious and contagious diseases,
but it should ,be understood that there is no absolutely
sharp line of demarcation between the two. Some
diseases partake of the nature of both infectious and
contagious disorders, hence, there is a tendency among
pathologists to discontinue the use of these terms and
refer to all the diseases included in the two groups
as transmissible diseases.

Mange, or scabies, is an example of a contagious dis-
ease. It is caused by a minute animal parasite, which,
although it may live for a short time away from the body
of its host, is not capable of reproducing under such con-
ditions and consequently cannot exist indefinitely.
Healthy animals may contract mange by coming in
contact with affected animals, by being confined in
quarters or pastures but recently occupied by affected
animals, by the use of blankets, harness, etc., recently
used on affected animals, or in fact in any way that
permits the living parasite to be transferred during its
life cycle. If, however, sufficient time elapses between
the use of these quarters, or articles, by infected
animals and their occupation by or coming in contact
with healthy animals the disease will not be transmitted,
because the parasites will have been unable to maintain
themselves during this time away from the host.

Blackleg may be cited as an example of an infectious
disease. It is caused by a germ or bacterium capable

FARM LIVESTOCK 267

of maintaining itself for an indefinite time outside of
the body of the host. Hence, pastures, quarters, etc.,
when once infected with the germs of blackleg, are
likely to harbor the infection for many years. From
the above it is obvious that contagious diseases are
much more easily controlled and exterminated than
are infectious diseases.

NON-TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASES
Under the heading of non-transmissible diseases may
be grouped the numerous disorders that are not due to
a specific organism. Certain forms of indigestion, for
example, are due to errors of diet rather than to any
specific germ or animal parasite; some skin diseases
are not due to parasites, and some diseases of the heart
and of the respiratory organs are not traceable to such
causes.

SANITARY MEASURES

The maintenance of good sanitary conditions about
livestock quarters is of the greatest importance not
only in the treatment of animal diseases, but also in
their prevention. Although it is not true, as some
suppose, that dirt and filth generate disease, it is
true that most disease-producing organisms find an ideal
breeding ground under such conditions.

Light. — One of the most important steps in making
buildings sanitary is a provision for an abundance of
light. Direct sunlight is destructive to most disease
germs, and buildings should be so placed and designed
as to admit a maximum amount. Parts of livestock
quarters that do not get direct sunlight should get an
abundance of diffused light. Well-lighted interiors are
conducive to the contentment of animals and greatly
simplify the routine work of feeding, grooming, and
cleaning the building, for accumulations of dirt and
dust are quickly noticed and easily removed.

Ventilation. — Barns that are enclosed on all sides
require some provision for ventilation. No domestic

268

FARM LIVESTOCK

animal can be confined in an enclosed space that is not
adequately ventilated without some bad effects from it.
As a rule, quarters for hogs, sheep, beef cattle, and
some other animals are somewhat loosely constructed,
or consist of sheds rather than enclosed barns; in such
cases it is not advisable or necessary to install an
extensive system of ventilation, but if a building is of
such a nature as not to admit of good natural ventila-
tion, some means of supplying fresh air and of re-
moving foul air should be provided. The King system

-^

la

^

1\

of ventilating barns is by far the most practical and
satisfactory one in use. By this system, fresh air is
admitted to the interior of the barn at a point near
the ceiling and foul air passes out through flues that
open near the floor. The accompanying illustration
shows a diagram of a barn ventilated by the King
system. Foul-air flues and the openings into them near
the floor line are seen at a. Fresh air inlets are shown
at b, and at c are auxiliary openings into the foul-air
flues. The latter openings are to be kept closed except

FARM LIVESTOCK 269

when the temperature of the barn becomes too high, at
which time they may be opened to permit warm air
near the ceiling to escape.

Disinfection. — Although the sanitary measures already
described go a long way toward protecting animals
from the ravages of disease-producing organisms, it is,
nevertheless, advisable and often absolutely necessary
to make use of chemical disinfectants as a means of
destroying these organisms. Successful stock raisers
commonly make it a rule to apply a disinfectant about
animal quarters at fixed intervals regardless of whether
or not disease is prevalent. Such a course is to be
commended, for it tends to prevent the unrestricted
multiplication of injurious organisms and may fore-
stall a serious outbreak of disease.

Some of the most commonly-used disinfectants are
carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde, and
the coal-tar dips. A brief description of these will be
found under their respective names in the discussion
of common medicines.

Disinfection, to be effective, must be thorough. In
fact it is commonly accepted as true that the inefficient
and haphazard use of disinfectants may be even worse
than no application, because it is likely to give a false
sense of security and also to have the effect of satis-
fying legal requirements with reference to disinfection,
but in reality leaving the danger still present. In
stables, sheds, barns, etc. that are to be disinfected, all
movable fixtures should be taken out in order that
the disinfectant may reach every accessible part of the
structure. If wooden floors are in use and they are
decaying and broken, it is advisable to remove them
also, for beneath them there is sure to be an accumu-
lation of dirt and filth that is favorable to the growth
of disease germs. After the interior of the building
has been exposed as far as possible by the removal of
fixtures, etc., the disinfecting solution should be sprayed
on all parts. If a suitable spray pump is not available.

270 FARM LIVESTOCK

scrubbing with a broom, brush, or mop will accomplish
practically the same results, and even if spraying is
resorted to, the scrubbing process should be applied to
walls, floors, etc., where there are accumulations of
refuse material.

All fixtures should be treated with the disinfectant
before being returned to the structure, or if they are
old and racked a better plan is to install new ones.
A concrete floor is one of the most valuable aids in main-
taining sanitary conditions, and should be substituted
for wooden floors whenever possible.

In rare cases, the use of a gaseous disinfectant such
as formaldehyde gas or sulphur dioxide, may be prac-
ticable, but in most cases livestock quarters are not
sufficiently close to permit of the use of these agents.
Hence, liquid disinfectants are almost universally used
for this purpose.

DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES
The Pulse. — The pulse is one of the most important
aids in the diagnosis of disease, because it serves to
indicate the action of the heart and also is, to some
extent, an indication of the condition of the nervous
system. The pulse rate, or the number of beats per
minute, is about as follows in different domestic ani-
mals: Horse, 30 to 40 beats per min. ; cow, 40 to 50
beats per min. ; sheep, 70 to 80 beats per min.; swine,
70 to 80 beats per min.

Owing to the fact that there is a considerable varia-
tion in domestic animals, even though they may be in
perfect health, and the further fact that experience is
necessary in order to make a correct interpretation of
pulse, it is not likely that the man unskilled in vet-
erinary science will be able to diagnose diseases by
taking the pulse. Nevertheless, it will be of some
assistance, when taken in connection with other diag-
nostic indications that are discussed in following
paragraphs.

FARM LIVESTOCK 271

Temperature. — The following figures indicate the range
of temperatures of various animals under normal condi-
tions: Horses, 100° to 101°; cattle, 100° to 103°; sheep^
101° to 104°; swine, 102° to 104°.

Temperatures of domestic animals are best taken by-
means of a special thermometer known as a clinical
thermometer, which may be purchased from any drug-
gist. A considerable rise or fall of temperature, from
the figures given, may be taken as an indication of a
diseased condition. In general, veterinarians consider
that a rise of 6° or more denotes a serious condition,
and any considerable fall below normal almost always
signifies approaching death. It must be understood,
however, that local conditions may operate to bring
about considerable variations in temperature, and all
readings of the thermometer should be considered in
connection with them. For example, excitement, heat,
or oestrum, hot weather, and other factors may cause
considerable rise of temperature. Cool weather, large
quantities of cold water or cold feed taken into the
body, and some other factors may cause a reduction
of temperature; hence, if at any time the thermometer
indicates a considerable departure from normal tem-
perature, an investigation should be made to determine
whether it is due to any of these causes.

Respiration. — The rate of breathing and the sounds
heard during the process often afford aid in diagnosing
disease. Rapid breathing may be due to disease and
often constitutes a symptom of the disorders of the
respiratory organs. However, it may also be occa-
sioned by extreme heat, excitement, violent exercise,
or other factors. Hence, as in preceding cases, it is
important that the subject be considered in connection
with the conditions that may have influenced it.

Mucous Membranes. — Ordinarily, mucous membranes,

as seen in the mouth, nostrils, and other openings into

the body have a characteristic pink color that is indie-'

ative of health. A diseased condition usually brings

19

272 FARM LIVESTOCK

about more or less change in the appearance of these
membranes. A flushed, congested condition indicates
a general inflammation of the tissues, while a lack of
proper color or paleness is taken as an indication of
debility, anemia, or insufficient nutrition.

COMMON MEDICINES

The information presented here is offered merely as a
suggestion of what may be done in certain cases and
is not to be considered as specific directions for treat-
ment nor is responsibility assumed by the publishers
for cases in which favorable results are not forth-
coming. The action of all medicines is relative, as is
also the dosage of the same, and hence no attempt is
made to lay down fixed rules.

Anesthetics. — The term anesthetic is applied to
medicinal agents that are used for producing insen-
sibility during periods of pain, or when an operation
is being performed. Some of the anesthetics used in
veterinary practice are cocaine, chloroform, and ether,
but it is scarcely advisable for a layman to administer
them. Carbolic acid has a distinct anesthetic action
when applied to the skin, and is sometimes applied
locally for this purpose.

Anodynes. — Remedies that are used to relieve pain
are called anodynes. The following are medicines of
this class: Cocaine, menthol, tar, carbolic acid, bella-
donna, etc. These are used for external applications.
Internally, opium, choral hydrate, and turpentine are
often given. Morphine is used by veterinarians for hypo-
■dermic injections.

Antispasmodics. — Antispasmodics are agents that relieve
spasms or cramps. Hot and cold applications, friction,
liniments, counter irritation, and bleeding are frequently
resorted to. The agents enumerated under anodynes
are frequently used internally as antispasmodics.

Astringents. — Astringents are used to check bleeding,
to reduce secretions, and to cause tissues to contract and

FARM LIVESTOCK 273

condense. Chalk, alum, turpentine, boric acid, common
salt, and iodoform are some common agents of this class.

Blisters. — Blisters are commonly spoken of as vesicants
and counter irritants. Some blisters merely cause red-
ness and a slight irritation; others are so powerful
that they actually burn the flesh with which they come
in contact.

Mustard, and tincture of iodine are examples of mild
blisters; butter of antimony, lunar caustic, and caustic
potash are examples of severe blisters.

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES

In most cases medicines are either administered to
domestic animals through the mouth or are applied
externally. Veterinarians occasionally resort to hypo-
dermic injections, using for this purpose a syringe
having a hollow needle. This procedure is often of
value when immediate results are desired, or when on
account of paralysis or other cause the animal is
unable to swallow. It is also useful as a means of
getting a drug into a specific locality in which it is
required, as, for instance, the injecting of cocaine into
the flesh previous to operations, or the injecting of
vermicides into the windpipe to destroy worms. In
addition to these methods of administration, some drugs
are volatilized and animals permitted to inhale them.

Dosage. — The doses suggested in the following list of
medicinal agents are those calculated to be given to
adult animals. To small animals or to animals much
weakened by disease or other causes reduced doses
should be given. It should be noted that ruminants,
that is, animals that chew the cud, such as cattle and
sheep, will take larger doses than will horses or swine.
This is due to the fact that ruminants have four
stomachs, and consequently a more extensive digestive
system.

The dosage of a solid medicament is usually given in
apothecaries' weight. The tables of apothecaries' weight

274 FARM LIVESTOCK

and fluid measures given later on will be of assistance
in this connection.

LIST OF COMMON MEDICINES

Acetic acid: Occasionally applied externally for the
Temoval of warts and abnormal growths.

Aconite, Tincture of: Frequently administered by
veterinarians for fevers or inflammations. It is a
powerful drug and should be avoided in case an animal
is suffering from a weak heart or disturbance of the
circulatory system. Dose, horses 10 to 20 drops; cattle
20 to 30 drops; sheep, 10 drops; swine, 1 to 5 drops.
External applications of this drug are sometimes made
to relieve pain, but should be used sparingly.

Aloes: Extensively used as a purgative for horses.
Dose, 5 to 8 drams. Should be administered in a ball
or bolus, which may be procured from a druggist.

Ammonia water: Frequently given as a drench in
cases of acute indigestion, colic, bloating, and is also
used as a stimulant. Dose, horses, Yz oz. ; cattle, 1 oz. ;
sheep, 2 drams; swine, J4 to 1 dram. In all cases to be
diluted with water.

Arnica, Tincture of: Is useful to promote sweating
:.nd reduce fever. Dose, horses, ^ to 1 oz. ; cattle, 1 oz. ;
sheep, 2 drams; swine, Vz dram. Applied externally,
tincture of arnica is useful in sprains, bruises, etc.

Arsenic, Fowler's solution of: Extensively used by
veterinarians as a tonic for animals that are depleted
in condition, also used in the treatment of heaves of
horses. Dose, horses, 2 to 4 drams; cattle, 4 to 6 drams;
sheep and pigs, 5 to 20 drops.

Belladonna, Fluid extract of: In cases of fever, colic,
tetanus (lockjaw), it is believed to be a valuable
agent.- Dose, horses, Yz dram; cattle, 1 dram; sheep, 20
drops; swine, 3 drops.

Blue vitriol (copper sulphate) : Used in the treatment
of foot rot in sheep, also for application to wounds,
on which it acts as an antiseptic and astringent. A

FARM LIVESTOCK 275

solution of 1 oz. to 1 pt. of water is usually employed, but
in severe cases a stronger solution may be applied.

Boric acid: A solution of 20 grains of boric acid to
1 oz. of water is useful in the treatment of sore or
inflamed eyes, mouth, nostrils, etc. Such a solution is
practically non-poisonous, yet it has considerable merit
as a germicide and astringent.

Butter of antimony: A caustic used in the treatment of
old sores, wire cuts, etc. in which proud flesh has formed.
The material is applied undiluted by means of a swab.
Must be handled with care and is never administered
internally.

Carbolic acid: Crude carbolic acid in a 5% solution
is a suitable disinfectant for use about barns, stables, pens,
and for other purposes. May be applied with a sprayer
or by scrubbing the surface with a broom or brush.

Pure carbolic acid (not crude), diluted with 30 parts
of water is useful in the treatment of wounds, sores,
scratches, etc., and is one of the nost generally used
disinfectants in veterinary medicine. The solution
given is efficient for sterilizing instruments, which
should be immersed in it for five minutes. Both the
products mentioned are extremely poisonous, and their
careless use or storage is frequently the cause of fatal
accidents. It is, therefore, advisable to keep them in a
compartment under lock and key, and take careful steps
to prevent persons not familiar with their qualities from
having access to them.

Calomel: An extensively used purgative and vermifuge.
Dose, horses, ^ to 1 dram; cattle, 1 to 2 drams; sheep
or swine, 5 to 20 grains.

Castor oil: Purgative. Dose, horses, 1 to 2 pt. ; sheep,
4 oz. ; swine, 2 oz.

Copperas (sulphate of iron) : A valuable tonic and very
often one of the constituents of condition powders.
Useful for checking scours in pigs or calves. Dose,
horses, 1 dram; cattle, 2 drams; sheep, 20 grains; swine,
10 grains.

276 FARM LIVESTOCK

Corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury) : A power-
ful disinfectant and very poisonous. For external use
only. Corrosive sublimate 1 part in 1,000 parts of water
makes a solution that is suitable for use about livestock
quarters, also for cleansing wounds and disinfecting prior
to operations. It attacks metals, consequently should not
be used on instruments or in any place where it will
come in contact with metal surfaces.

Ccal-tar dips: A general class of proprietary disin-
fectant and insecticidal solutions that are on the mar-
ket under different trade names. They are extensively
used as dipping and disinfecting solutions for sheep,
swine, and cattle, and if they bear the label of reputable
manufacturers may be depended on for destroying skin
parasites, when used according to directions. They are
also useful for dressing cuts, scratches, surgical wounds,
etc. They have the advantage of being practically non-
poisonous, hence are much safer to use than carbolic
acid or corrosive sublimate, and if of good quality they
are undoubtedly just as efficient as disinfectants.

Epsom salts: Purgative. Useful for cattle and sheep,
but not much used for horses. Doses, cattle, 1 to lyi lb.;
sheep, 2 to 4 oz.

Gentian root: Powdered gentian root is one of the
most common ingredients of condition powders, and it
has considerable merit as a bitter tonic. Dose, horses,
2 drams; cattle, 4 drams; sheep, 1 dram.

Iodine, Tincture of: Used externally to paint surfaces
where a counter irritant is required; also in the treat-
ment of skin diseases, such as ringworm. Application
may be made once daily until the area becomes sore,
when it should be discontinued for a time.

Jamaica ginger: Useful in many cases of intestinal
disorders. Should be given in milk. Dose, horses, 1 oz.;
cattle, 2 oz. ; sheep, Yz oz. ; calves and foals, l/i oz.

Kerosene and gasoline: Sometimes given internally for
stomach worms. Lambs will take from 1 to 2 drams,
larger animals a proportionate amount.

FARM LIVESTOCK 277

Laudanum: Given internally for the relief of acute
pain such as is often present in colic; also useful in
severe cases of intestinal disorders. Dose, horses, 1 oz. ;
cattle, I to 2 oz. ; sheep, 2 drams; swine, 5 to 20 drops.

Lime water: Frequently given to young animals in
cases of diarrhea. Should be diluted with milk, using
about 2 parts of milk to 1 part of lime water.

Linseed oil, raw: Extensively used as a purgative, also
as a diluent for mixing drugs that are too strong to be
given undiluted. For purgative effects, 1 to 2 pt. may
be given to horses; cattle, 2 to 3 pt. ; sheep, }^ pt.

Quinine: A stimulant and bitter tonic. Dose, horses,
Yz to \ dram; cattle, 2 to 4 drams; sheep, Yz dram; swine,
10 grains.

Saltpeter (nitrate of potash) : A favorite remedy for
the treatment of kidney disorders, also useful in fevers.
Dose, horses, 1 oz. ; cattle, 1 to V/z oz. ; sheep, 2 drams.

Spirits of, camphor: Will often afford relief from pain
in colic. Useful in cases of dyspepsia and sometimes
in respiratory troubles, coughs, and colds. Should be
given in water. Dose, horses, 2 to 4 drams; cattle, 1 oz. ;
sheep, 2 drams; swine, 10 to 20 drops.

Sulphur: It is a common belief that feeding sulphur
will tend to destroy skin parasites, but there is little
evidence to support this belief. Dry sulphur dusted into
the hair will often accomplish this result. Burning
sulphur in a tight enclosure is useful in the treatment
of hoose, or verminous bronchitis.

Turpentine: A standard remedy for colic. Useful in
cases of bloating and for the destruction of intestinal
parasites. Should be given in linseed oil or in milk.
Dose, horses, ^ to 2 oz. ; cattle, 2 to 3 oz. ; sheep, 1 to 3
drams; swihe, 1 dram. Turpentine is extensively used
in compounding liniments.

Whiskey: A stimulant that is valuable in cases that
require such treatment, as for example, sunstroke, chills,
general depression, or collapse. Dose, horses and cattle,
2 to 4 oz. ; sheep and swine, 1 to 2 oz.

278 FARM LIVESTOCK

COMMON DISEASES
Abortion. — Contagious abortion, due to a specific germ,

is somewhat common in cows, ewes, and mares. Cases
should be at once isolated from other animals and the
fetus and fetal membranes burned, as they are likely
to spread the disease. Disinfect quarters occupied by
these animals and douche the womb with a 1% solution
of coal-tar dip or a 2% solution of carbolic acid. Repeat
douche daily and do not breed until all vaginal dis-
charge ceases. A male may become infected by serving
affected females, hence care must be used in selecting
a sire.

If accidental abortion, due to injury, overwork, or
undue excitement, is threatened, give the patient rest,
quiet, and, if necessary, small doses of laudanum.

Abscesses. — For an abscess, as a rule, a hot poultice
is advisable until the abscess softens and pus collects.
The abscess should then be opened and thoroughly
cleaned with an antiseptic solution such as carbolic
acid. Repeat the cleansing daily or oftener if necessary.
Apply lard or vaseline to the skin and hair about the
abscess.

Actinomycosis. — Actinomycosis, or lump jaw, affects
chiefly young cattle. It is due to a fungus that is
usually taken in with feed. If the tumor is external
it may be removed and the wound painted with tincture
of iodine. Internally, give large doses of potassium
iodide — some authorities recommend 3 drams daily until
symptoms of poisoning are seen, when the dose should
be reduced to 1 or V/z drams or discontinued if necessary.

Anthrax, or Charbon. — Anthrax, or charbon, affects
horses, cattle, and sheep and is transmissible to man.
It is a dangerous disease, for which there is no satis-
factory treatment. Affected animals should be destroyed
and the carcasses burned or buried in quicklime.
Premises occupied by such animals should be thoroughly
disinfected or abandoned and all discharges from the

FARM LIVESTOCK 279

bodies burned or buried with the carcasses. The utmost
care should be observed in this work, since the disease
is extremely infectious and usually fatal in man. A
vaccine that is somewhat successful in rendering animals
immune to the disease may be purchased from druggists.

Azoturia. — Azoturia is a disease that affects horses,
particularly work horses, after a short period of idleness
on full feed; it is often called Monday-morning-sickness
because of the frequent cases that develop after the
animals have rested over Sunday on full feed. Treat-
ment should consist of supporting the animal in slings
if it is paralyzed, administering a purgative, and apply-
ing hot blankets. A qualified veterinarian should be
called to administer hypodermic injections and give
other necessary treatment. Light, succulent feed should
be given until recovery is complete.

Barrenness, or Sterility.— Barrenness, or sterility, may
affect breeding animals of any species. Reduction of
flesh by restriction of diet and giving abundant exer-
cise may correct the condition in overfat animals.
Tonics and a liberal ration containing an abundance
of nitrogenous feed should be given in the case of
depleted animals. Barrenness in cows is sometimes
corrected by injecting into the vagina a quart of warm
water in which a cake of ordinary compressed yeast
has been dissolved. The yeast should be dissolved a
few hours before injection and the treatment repeated
daily for 3 or 4 da. Some cases of sterility are due
to causes that require surgical aid, in which emergency
the services of a veterinarian are required.

Blackleg. — Blackleg is known also as black quarter, and
as symptomatic anthrax, the latter term being applied for
the reason that the disease somewhat resembles anthrax,
but it should be understood that the two are distinct.
Blackleg affects chiefly young cattle and its ravages are
most pronounced among those that are fat and thrifty.
It is almost always fatal and no treatment is satis-
factory. Cases should be destroved and the carcasses

280 FARM LIVESTOCK

treated as directed for anthrax cases. Vaccination with
a protective vaccine that any stockman can administer
is very successful in preventing the disease. Vaccine
may be had in pill form at any drug store.

Cerebrospinal Meningitis.— Cerebrospinal meningitis
is sometimes epidemic among horses and sheep. A
layman can scarcely undertake treatment. If possible,
a veterinarian who is familiar with the disease should
be called.

Choking.— If an animal is choked the first efforts
should be directed toward returning the obstruction to
the mouth. If this is not successful, olive oil or castor
oil should be given to lubricate the passage and thus
aid in passing the obstruction to the stomach. Some-
times gentle massage of the exterior of the esophagus
will assist in this. In some cases a piece of garden
hose may be used to force the obstruction down, but
great care is necessary or rupture of the gullet may
result. In cattle severe bloating may follow a case of
choking, in which case tapping the paunch as directed
for hoven may be necessary. A surgeon may be able
to open the esophagus by an operation and remove the
body.

Colic. — Colic is an extremely common disorder among
horses. It is difficult to give specific directions for
treatment, as there are various forms of the disease, due
to different causes, and a treatment that is suitable for
one is often entirely unsuitable for another. Good
authorities recognize the following forms of colic:
Engorgement colic, obstruction colic, tympanitic colic,
spasmodic colic, and worm colic. Horse owners will do
well to familiarize themselves with the different forms
of colic and from this knowledge there will follow
an ability to avoid many cases and to give simple
treatment when a case makes its appearance. It is
obvious that a satisfactory discussion of the causes,
symptoms, and treatment of these various colics cannot
be given here.

FARM LIVESTOCK 281

Constipation.— Many cases can be benefited if not
cured by giving laxative feed, abundant exercise, and
good care. Purgatives are often necessary, in which
case aloes are usually given to horses and Epsom salts
to cattle. Linseed oil or castor oil are often useful. It
should be the aim to correct the condition that causes
constipation; probably in most cases it will be found
to be improper feeding.

Cough. — As a rule, cough should be regarded as a
symptom of a disease rather than as a disease in itself.
One of the first steps in treatment is to provide dry,
comfortable, well-ventilated quarters. Turpentine, mus-
tard, and other mild counter irritants applied to the
skin of the neck and chest are often of service. Equine
cough syrup containing agents that tend to relieve the
irritation may he procured from druggists. Opium or
heroin are sometimes administered by veterinarians ia
cases of violent or spasmodic cough.

Eczema. — Eczema is, in most cases, due to improper
feeding, hence the first step toward treatment should be
directed to the correction of this condition. A laxative
should be given and the affected skin may be washed
with tar soap and oxide-of-zinc ointment of icthyol
applied.

Farcy. — See glanders.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease.— Foot-and-mouth disease
affects cattle, sheep, swine, and goats. It is extremely
infectious and no satisfactory treatment is known,
hence immediate destruction of affected animals is
recommended. The disease is rare in the United States
and Canada, but occasional outbreaks occur, probably
resulting from the importation of infected animals from
foreign countries. Thorough disinfection of premises
occupied by diseased animals is necessary and it is
advisable to leave such quarters vacant for several
months before placing healthy animals in them.

Foot Rot. — Foot rot is an infectious disease of sheep.
Affected animals should be isolated and unaffected ones

282 FARM LIVESTOCK

removed from pastures that may be infected. All
affected animals should be compelled to stand for a
few moments each day in a shallow tank or trough
containing blue vitriol solution, or a 2% solution of
coal-tar dip. In advanced cases, individual treatment
should be given by removing diseased horn and applying
pure carbolic acid or the latter mixed with 10 to IS
parts of glycerine, after which a bandage moistened
with disinfectant solution should be applied.

Founder. — For founder, hot foot-baths and poultices of
thermofuge or antiphlogistine are a favorite treatment.
If the animal is shod, the shoes should be removed and
a clean, dry, well bedded box stall provided. Bleeding
and blistering are frequently practiced by veterinarians.
In acute cases it may be advisable to cast the animal
or place it in slings. Proper shoeing will often ben.efit
•chronic cases.

Fotil in Foot. — The disease known as foul in foot is
Tisually seen in cattle and is often due to animals
being confined in wet, filthy quarters. A correction of
this condition and the application of the remedies sug-
gested for foot rot in sheep will usually bring about
a cure.

Galls. — Galls are usually due to poor fitting of har-
nesses or chafing, and the steps first made should be
to remove the cause. Galled surfaces should be cleansed
and oxide-of-zinc ointment applied. Alum dusting pow-
ders are also often effective.

Garget. — As a treatment for garget the udder should
be milked dry and massaged. Cloths wrung out of hot
water or applications of camphor ointment procurable
from any druggist are useful. In acute cases it may
be well to support the udder by means of a wide
bandage around the hips of the animal. Some forms of
garget are believed to be contagious, hence it is well
to isolate all cases.

Gid.— Gid is a parasite disease of sheep, often spoken
of as grub in the head. The only treatment consists of

FARM LIVESTOCK 283

trephining the skull and removing the parasites, but
the operation requires special instruments and skill in
their use. Preventive measures such as avoiding in-
fected pastures and destroying the heads of sheep that
die of the disease are more satisfactory.

Glanders, or Farcy. — Glanders, or farcy, is an ex-
tremely contagious and practically incurable disease of
horses, mules, and asses. Affected animals should be
destroyed and premises carefully disinfected. The
disease is transmissible to man, hence the work of
destroying animals and disinfection should be done
with great care.

Grease. — Grease, sometimes called grease heels or
scratches, is a form of eczema affecting horses' heels.
Some cases are believed to be due to filth or skin
abrasions. The treatment suggested under eczema is
often beneficial in early stages. The affected area
should be clipped, cleansed, and a hot poultice applied.
Carbolic acid and glycerine may then be applied as
directed under eczema, the part bandaged, and the
animal kept in a dry, clean stall well supplied with
bedding.

Heaves. — Heaves are not curable but may be al-
leviated by moistening all grain or hay fed. An
affected animal should not be watered immediately
before exercise or work. Arsenic, iron, and strychnine
are often given, but should be prescribed by a veteri-
narian.

Hog Cholera. — Hog cholera is now believed to be
identical with swine plague. Attempts at curative
treatment are of little avail. Diseased animals should
be destroyed in a manner that will prevent spread of
the infection. Thorough disinfection of pens and re-
moval of animals to fresh pastures are essential in
stamping out the disease. It is generally agreed by
authorities on hog cholera that most of the so-called
hog cholera cures are worthless. A protective vaccine
is being used with good results, but at present its cost

284 FARM LIVESTOCK

seems to be almost prohibitive except under certain
conditions. Information as to where the vaccine may
be procured can usually be obtained from a state
veterinarian.

Hoose. — Hoose is a parasitic disease of calves and
lambs, caused by worms in the bronchial tubes, hence
it is sometimes spoken of as verminous bronchitis. Some
cases are successfully treated by confining animals in
a tent or a tight room and causing them to inhale
sulphur dioxide, generated by burning sulphur on char-
coal. There is imminent danger of suffocating the
animals if they are kept too long in the gas, hence
great care is necessary. In some cases an attendant
remains with them and opens doors when he is no
longer able to endure the gas. Veterinarians sometimes
inject choloroform or turpentine into the windpipe by
means of a hypodermic syringe.

Hoven, or Bloat.— Hoven, or bloat, is very likely to
occur in cattle when they are allowed to overfeed,
particularly on rank-growing forage such as clover or
alfalfa. In early stages of the disease, a wooden
bit or gag, retained in the mouth by means of
light ropes over the horns will assist in getting
rid of the gas that is accumulating in the digestive
tract. A handful of salt placed in the mouth back
of the gag will often make it more effective. A
favorite remedy is 2 oz. of turpentine well diluted
with milk or linseed oil. Other remedies are: common
baking soda in 2-tablespoonful doses as a drench, and
Jamaica ginger in 3- or 4-oz. doses given as a drench, well
diluted with hot water. In acute cases when bloating has
become so severe that there is danger of suffocation or
rupture of the paunch, tapping should be resorted to.
Use a trocar and canula, inserting the instrument about
half way between the point of the hip or what is often
called the hook bone and the last rib on the left side
of the animal and choosing the point where the swelling
is most prominent. It is well to first make a hole in

FARM LIVESTOCK 285

the skin with a knife. When the puncture has been
effected the trocar is withdrawn and the canula allowed
to remain in the opening. A pocket knife may be used
if a trocar is not available, but with the former there
is danger of making the incision too large.

Intestinal and Stomach Worms.— Intestinal and
stomach worms are one of the most common parasitic
disorders of domestic animals. Worms in the stomach
or intestines interfere with nutrition, cause irritation
and spasms, and may give rise to serious complications.
Some of the different forms are tapeworms, roundworms,
whipworms, threadworms, and pinworms. Common
remedies for worms are turpentine, diluted with lin-
seed oil, salt, copperas and santonin. It is always
advisable to withhold feed for 24 to 48 hr.
previous to giving worm remedies, and shortly after
giving the drug a purgative should be administered. In
obstinate cases a more specific treatment than can be
outlined here and one that is particularly adapted to
the specific parasite that is causing the trouble may be
necessary.

Indigestion. — The usual treatment for indigestion is
to give a purgative, followed by Jamaica ginger and a
tonic, but special cases often require special treatment.
If the indigestion is due to improper feeding, the cause
should be obviated by feeding sparingly for a time, or
even by withholding feed entirely.

Lice. — Lice are more or less common on all domestic
animals. A good coal-tar dip is an efficient lice killer
and may usually be depended on to exterminate the
parasites if used in accordance with directions furnished
by the manufacturer.

Maggots. — Maggots are frequently seen in wounds
resulting from dehorning, castrating, and accidents. The
treatment is to apply coal-tar dip, kerosene, or turpentine
diluted with linseed oil.

Mange. — Mange is a parasitic disease caused by
minute animal parasites or mites. It is common in

286 FARM LIVESTOCK

sheep and cattle and is often called scab or scabies; it
also affects horses and hogs. Some forms of mange are
more resistant to treatment than others. Dipping in a
reliable coal-tar dip is the most convenient and satis-
factory remedy for small animals. The dip solution does
not kill eggs of the mites, hence the dipping should be
repeated frequently if it is expected to exterminate the
disease. If dipping is not practicable, local treatment
with green soap, sulphur ointment, or carbolic acid in
glycerine may be applied. The hair should be clipped
and scabs softened before application in order to secure
the best results. Infected quarters should be thoroughly
sprayed with coal-tar-dip solution to destroy parasites
that may be harbored there.

Milk Fever. — Milk fever affects chiefly dairy cows that
are heavy milkers. Purgative of Epsom salts may be
given early in the disease, but if paralysis has set in,
medicine administered by the mouth is likely to cause
strangulation. The affected cow should be propped up
to a comfortable position with bags of straw, and ice or
cold water applied to her head and spine. Oxygen gas
injected into the udder is a treatment that is now used
very extensively. If oxygen cannot be procured, pumping
the udder full of air by means of an ordinary bicycle
pump and a milking tube may be resorted to.

Navel 111.— Navel ill is an infectious disease of the
joints. It occurs in foals and sometimes in the young
of other animals soon after birth, and is due to the
entrance of germs through the navel opening. Pre-
vention consists in keeping the dam in a clean, dry,
sanitary stall, and in bandaging the navel of the young
as soon as it is dropped. Treatment after a case has
developed is seldom successful.

Quarter Crack and Sand Crack.— When a horse is
affected with quarter cracks or sand cracks a black-
smith may draw the parts of the hoof together with a
carefully fitted shoe, or by means of nails. Tar should
be applied to exclude dirt from the crevices.

FARM LIVESTOCK 287

Rabies. — Rabies affects all animals and is trans-
missible to man, in the latter case being known as
hydrophobia. There is no satisfactory treatment of
rabies in animals. On account of the imminent danger
of spreading the disease, it is advisable to destroy af-
fected animals at once. However, in case what is
thought to be a rabid animal, as a mad dog, is at large
in a community and bites animals or persons it is
always advisable to preserve the life of the supposedly
rabid animal until a diagnosis can be made to determine
whether or not rabies is actually present. This precaution
is particularly important in case persons are bitten.

Rheumatism. — Rheumatism affects horses, cattle, pigs,
and goats. Treatment is not very satisfactory. Clean,
dry quarters and good, nourishing feed will go a long
way toward preventing the disorder and will often
bring about marked improvement in cases already de-
veloped. Enlarged, stiffened joints may be rubbed with
iodine ointment. Veterinarians are sometimes able to
fire and blister affected parts with good results.

Rickets, or Rachitis. — Rickets, or rachitis, is common
in young pigs and is believed to be due to improper
feeding of the dam. Treatment should be directed
toward correcting the diet and providing clean, dry,
sanitary quarters. Liquid feeds, such as gruels, are
particularly useful.

Ringworm. — Ringworm attacks horses, cattle, sheep,
goats, and swine. The disorder is due to a fungous
growth. Painting with iodine or a strong solution of
cold-tar dip will usually destroy the parasite. Occa-
sionally man acquires ringworm from animals, hence
due precaution should be taken in treating cases. Ani-
mals transmit the disease to animals of the same
species, but it is said that cattle seldom acquire it from
horses or vice versa. It is always desirable to isolate
cases of ringworm and disinfect the quarters they have
occupied. Green soap, boracic acid, and turpentine are
other remedies that are frequently used.
20

288 FARM LIVESTOCK

Scab in Sheep. — See Mange.

Scours. — Scours affects chiefly newly born animals.
Linseed oil will often assist in a freeing of the in-
testinal tract from irritating material. Laudanum is
useful to relieve pain. Lime water is a favorite remedy
with many stockmen. See that feed is clean and whole-
some and milk pails or troughs are sterilized for each
feeding.

Sunstroke. — Apply ice or cold water to the head and
along the spine. Bleeding is not advisable. A stimu-
lant such as whiskey is often given in these cases.
Many authorities consider it inadvisable to drench
animals over the entire body with a hose or by throwing
pails of water on them. Many cases of sunstroke in
horses may be prevented. During periods of intense
heat, provide a head covering and place in this a sponge
moistened with cold water. Frequent watering is also
a safeguard.

Swine Fever. — See hog cholera.

Tetanus, or Lockjaw. — Tetanus, or lockjaw, is an
extremely contagious disease and a dangerous one be-
cause of the fact that it is easily transmitted to man.
As a general rule, treatment for the disease is useless,
although good results have been reported from the use
of a serum. When there is reason to suspect that an
animal will develop tetanus because of infection from
a wound, an immediate use of the same serum, known
as antitetanic serum, is successful in preventing the
disease in a large majority of cases. A qualified
veterinarian should be employed to administer the
serum. A wound that is suspected to contain tetanus
germs should be opened and cleaned out so that every
part of it will be exposed to the air, as the germs of
tetanus do not thrive under these conditions. Pure
carbolic acid may be used to clean the wound.

Texas Fever. — Texas fever is a virulent disease of
cattle and one that is very prevalent in the southern
part of the United States. It is caused by a minute

FARM LIVESTOCK 289

animal parasite that lives in the body of the Texas
fever tick or more properly the splenetic fever tick.
Hence, efforts should be made to exterminate the latter
pest. The method of immunizing cattle against the
disease has been developed and used somewhat ex-
tensively. No satisfactory treatment is known, and it
is often advisable to destroy affected animals and free
the other ones from ticks by dipping or spraying and
remove them to new pasture.

Thnish.— Thrush affects the frogs of horses' hoofs.
Treatment consists in placing the animals in clean, dry
quarters and cleaning the foot and applying a healing
powder such as calomel and iodoform, equal parts. In
"some cases it may be necessary to cauterize the affected
part, for which purpose butter of antimony applied with
a swab is effective. Afterwards a dressing of tar and
a bandage over the foot will serve to exclude dirt and
permit healing.

Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis affects all domestic ani-
mals. There is no satisfactory treatment for this dis-
ease, but every effort should be made to stamp it out by
destroying the affected animals or at least isolating
them and abstaining from the use of any products from
them. A discussion of the additional measures for the
control of this disease is impossible in this space.
Consult a state veterinarian or board of health.

SCORE CARDS FOR FARM LIVESTOCK

SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES

Perfect Judge's

General Appearance Score Score

Height: score according to class 1 . . —

Weight: score according to class 6 . _

Form: according to class, broad, massive,

symmetrical 5

Condition: carrying a good amount of firm

flesh 4

Quality: bone moderately heavy, clean, firm,
and indicating sufficient substance; ten-
dons well defined; hair and skin fine .... 4

290

FARM LIVESTOCK

SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES

(Continued)

Perfect Judge's
Score Score

Temperament: quiet, yet energetic 3

Head and Neck

Head: medium in size, not coarse 1

Muzzle: fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even;

teeth sound 1

Eyes: large, full, bright, clear 1

Forehead: broad and full 1

Ears: medium size, pointed, well carried, and

not far apart 1

Neck: medium length, clean cut, well

muscled; tapering from shoulder to head,

and head attached at proper angle; crest

well developed and nicely arched; throat

latch fine; windpipe large 2

Forequarters
Shoulders: oblique, long, smooth, and cov-
ered with muscle extending into back;

withers well finished at the top 3

Arms: short, well muscled, elbow lying close

to the body . 2

Fore legs: viewed from in front, a perpendic-
ular line from the point of the shoulder

should fall on the center of the knee,

cannon, pastern, and foot; from the side,

a perpendicular line dropping from the

center of the elbow joint should fall on

the center of the knee and pastern joint

and back of the hoof 3

Forearms; heavily muscled, long, w^de, and

tapering from the elbow to the knee .. . 2

Knees: large, clean, wide, straight, and

strongly supported 1

Cannons: short, wide, clean; tendons large,

set well back, not tied in below the knees 2

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, free from

puffiness 1

Pasterns: strong, of medium length; angle

with the ground 45 degrees 2

Feet: straight, medium size, even; horn

dense; frog large, elastic; bars strong;

sole concave; heel wide, high; hoof head

large 5 _____

Body
Chest: deep, low; girth large; width of breast

in proportion to other parts 3

Ribs: long, well sprung 3

FARM LIVESTOCK 291

SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES

(Continued)

Perfect Judge's
Score Score

Back: straight, short, broad, well muscled. . 3

Loins: wide, short, thick, and neatly joined

to hips 2

Under line: long, flank low 1

Hindquarters
Hips: smooth, level; width in proportion

with other parts, but not prominent. ... 2

Croup: long, wide, muscular, not drooping. . 2

Tail: attached high, well carried, well haired,

with straight and not too coarse hair . . 1

Thighs: long, muscular, thick, and wide; well

muscled over stifle 3

Quarters: heavUy muscled, deep 2

Hind legs: viewed from behind, a perpendic-
ular line from the point of the buttock

should fall on the center of the hock,

cannon, pastern, and foot; from the side,

a perpendicular line from the hip joint

should fall on the center of the foot and

divide the gaskin in the middle; and a

perpendicular line from the point of the

buttock should run parallel with the

line of the cannon 4

Gaskins, or lower thighs: long, wide, well

muscled 1

Hocks: large, strong, clean, and well defined;

free from pufiiness, coarseness, and curb-

iness 4

Cannons: medium length, broad, flat, and

clean; tendons large and set back, not

too light below the hock 2

Fetlocks: large, wide, straight, strong, free

from puffiness 1

Pasterns: strong and of medium length;

obliquity not so great as fore pasterns . . 1

Hind feet: straight, medium size, even;

smaller and not so round as fore feet;

horn dense; frog large, elastic; bars

strong; sole concave; heel wide; high. . . 4

Action

Walk: elastic, quick, balanced; step long. ... 6

Trot: rapid, straight, regular, high; should

not wing or roll in front or go wide or

too close behind 4

Total 100

292 FARM LIVESTOCK

SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT MARKET HORSES

Perfect Judge's
General Appearance Score Score

Height: score according to class 1

Weigtit: score according to class 1

Form: according to class, symmetrical,

smooth, and stylish 5

Condition: carrying a moderate amount of

firm flesh 2

Quality: bone clean, firm, and indicating
sufficient substance; tendons well de-
fined; hair and skin fine 3

Temperament: spirited, yet docile 2

Head and Neck

Head: not too large, features well defined and

regular 1

Muzzle: fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even;

teeth sound 1

Eyes: large, full, bright, and clear 1

Forehead: broad and full 1

Ears: medium size, pointed; well carried, and

not far apart 1 __^_^

Neck: rather long and clean cut, well muscled;
crest well developed and nicely arched;
throat latch fine; windpipe large; taper-
ing from shoulder to head and head

attached at proper angle 2 .. .

Forequarters

Shoulders: oblique, long, smooth, and covered
with muscle extending into back; withers
well finished at the top 4

Arms: short, well muscled, elbows lying close

to the body. . 2 — _

Fore legs: viewed from in front, a perpendic-
ular line from the point of the shoulder
should fall on the center of the knee,
cannon, pastern, and foot; from the
side, a perpendicular line dropping from
the center of the elbow joint should fall
on the center of the knee and pastern
joint and back of the hoof 3 .

Forearms: well muscled, medium length, wide,

and tapering from the elbow to the knee 2

EJiees: large, clean, wide, straight, and

strongly supported 1

Cannons: medium length, wide, clean; ten-
dons large, set well back, not tied in
below the knees 2

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, free from

puffiness 1

Pasterns: strong, of medium length; angle

with the ground 45° 2

FARM LIVESTOCK 293

SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT MARKET HORSES

(Continued)

Perfect Judge's
L Score Score
Feet: straight, medium size, even; horn

dense ; f rogjlarge .elastic ; bars strong ; sole

concave; heel wide, high; hoof head large 5

Body
Chest: deep, low; girth large; width of breast

in proportion to other parts 2

Ribs: long, well sprung 4

Back: straight, short, broad, well muscled. . 3

Loins: wide, short, thick, and neatly joined

to hips 2

Under line: long; flank low 1

Hindquarters
Hips: smooth, level, width in proportion to

other parts but not prominent 2

Croup: long, wide, muscular 2

Tail; attached high, well carried, well haired

with straight and not too coarse hair ... 1

Thighs: long, muscular, thick, and wide 3

Quarters: heavily muscled i

Hind legs: viewed from behind, a perpendic-
ular line from the point of the buttock

should fall on the center of the hock,

cannon, pastern, and foot. From the

side, a perpendicular line from the hip

joint should fall on the center of the foot

and divide the gaskin in the middle; and

a perpendicular Une from the point of

the buttock should nm parallel with the

line of the cannon 4

Gaskins, or lower thighs: wide, well muscled 1

Hocks: large, strong, clean, and well defined 4

Cannons: short, broad, fiat and clean, ten-
dons large and set back 2

Fetlocks: large, wide, straight and strong. . . 1

Pasterns: strong and of medium length;

obliquity not so great as fore pasterns . . 1

Hind feet: straight, medium size, even;

smaller and not so round as fore feet ;

horn dense; frog large, elastic; bars

strong; sole concave; heel wide, high. . . 4

Action

Walk: elastic, quick, balanced; step long. ... 4

Trot: rapid, straight, regular, high; should ,

not forge, wing, or roll in front, or go

wide or too close behind 15 — ^^

Total loo

294 FARM LIVESTOCK

SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY

General Appearance

Form: wedge-shaped as viewed from the
front, side, and top

Form: spare, as indicated by prominent
joints and clean bone and lack of muscu-
lar development along ribs and loins. . .

Quality: hair fine, soft; skin pliable, loose,
medium thickness; secretion yellow,
abundant

Constitution: vigorous, as indicated by alert
expression, evidently active vital fimc-
tions, and general healthy appearance. .
Head and Neck

Muzzle: clean cut; mouth large; nostrils'
large

Eyes: large, bright

Face; lean, long; quiet expression

Forehead: broad, slightly dished

Ears: medium size; fine texture

Neck: fine, medium length; throat clean;
light dewlap

Forequarters and Hindquarters
Withers: lean, thin; shoulders, angular, not

fleshy

Hips: far apart; not lower than spine 1

Rump: long, wide, comparatively level. . . >

Thurls: high, wide apart J

Thighs: thin, long

Legs: straight, short; shank fine

Body
Chest: deep; with large girth and broad on

floor of chest; well-sprung ribs

Abdomen: large, deep; indicative of capacity;

well supported

Back: lean, straight; chine open

Tail: long, slim, with fine switch

Loin: broad

Udder: large, long; attached high and full

behind; extending far in front and full;

quarters even

Udder: capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable

skin covered with short, fine hair

Teats: convenient size, evenly placed

Milk veins: large, tortuous, long, branching,

with large milk wells

CATTLE
Perfect Judge's
Score Score

20

10
2

Total 100

FARM LIVESTOCK 295

SCORE CARD FOR MARKET BEEF CATTLE

Perfect Judge's
Score Score

Weight: estimated. .. .pounds; actual....

pounds; score according to age 10

Form: straight top and bottom lines; deep,

broad, low set, compact, symmetrical. . 10

Quality: hair, fine; bone, fine but strong;
skin, pliable; mellow even covering of
firm flesh, especially in region of valu-
able cuts; absence of ties and rolls 10 — __

Condition: prime; flesh, deep; evidence of
finish, especially marked in cod, tail-
head, flank, shoulder, and throat; ab-
sence of bunches, patches, or rolls of fat . 10

Head: clean, symmetrical; quiet expression;
mouth and nostrils, large; lips, moder-
ately thin; eyes, large, clear, placid;
face, short; forehead, broad, full; ears,
medium size, fine texture, erect 5

Neck: thick, short, tapering neatly from

shoulder to head; throat, clean 2

Shoulder vein: full 2

Shoulder: well covered with flesh; compact . . 3

Brisket: full, broad, but not too prominent;

breast wide 1

Dewlap; skin not too loose and drooping. .. . 1

Chest: deep, wide, full 1

Crops: full, thick, broad 3

Ribs: long, arched, thickly fleshed 8

Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly

fleshed 8

Loin: thick, broad; thickness extending well

forwards 8

Flank: full, low, thick 2

Hooks: smoothly covered; width in propor-
tion with other parts, but not prom-
inent 2

Rump: long, level, wide and even; tailhead,

smooth, not patchy 2

Pin bones: not prominent, width in propor-
tion with other parts 1 ^

Thighs: full, fleshed well down to hock 3

Twist: deep, full; purse in steers full 4

Legs: straight, short; arm, full; shank, fine,

smooth 4

Total 100

296 FARM LIVESTOCK

SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP

Perfect Judge's
General Appearance Score Score

Weight: score according to age and breed ... 4

Form: straight top and under line; deep,

broad, low set, compact, symmetrical. . 10

Quality: hair fine; bone fine but strong; even

covering of firm flesh; features refined

but not delicate; styUsh 10

Constitution: chest capacious; brisket well

developed; flank deep; bone strong;

movement bold and vigorous 10

Condition: thrifty; skin pink; fleece elastic;

well fleshed, but not excessively fat;

deep covering of firm flesh 5

Disposition: quiet but not sluggish 2

Color and markings: according to breed. ... 2

Head and Neck

Muzzle: mouth and nostrils large; lips thin. 1

Eyes: full, bright, clear 1

Face: short, according to breed 1

Forehead: broad, full • -. • • 1

Ears: texture, fine; size and form, according

to breed : ;•••,• ^

Neck: thick, short, neatly tapenng to head;

throat clean, according to breed 3

Forequarters
Shoulder: covered with flesh; compact;

smoothly joined with neck and body. . . 4

Brisket : well developed ; breast wide . . i

Fore legs: straight, short, set well apart;

pasterns upright; feet squarely placed.

neither close nor sprawUng ^

Body
Ribs: long, well sprung, thickly Aeshed. .^^.^.^ 3

^ -1-- 1-1-- — — ,,,r ^

Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly

fleshed c

Loin: thick, broad, firm Y

Flank: full, even with under hne i

Hindquarters

Hips: level, smoothly covered; width in pro-
portion with other parts .- • • • 1

Rump: long, level, wide and even in width;
not covered at tailhead with excessive
fat 3

Thighs: full, fleshed well down to hock. ... 2

FARM LIVESTOCK 297

SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP

(Continued)

Perfect Judge's
Score Score
Twist: deep, plump, firm, indicating flesh-
iness 5

Hind legs: straight, short, set well apart;
bones smooth, strong, being neither
coarse nor fine; pasterns upright; feet
squarely placed; neither close nor
sprawling 3

Wool
Quantity: long, dense, even, according to

breed 5 _^_^

Quality: siructure and color true; fine, soft,

even, according to breed 5

Condition: strong, bright, clean, slight

amount of yolk 4 ^.—

Total 100

298

FARM LIVESTOCK

SCORE CARD FOR WOOL TYPE OP SHEEP

General Appearance
Form: level, deep, stylish; round rather than

square

Quality: clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin

Head and Neck
Muzzle: fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white

Eyes: large, clear, placid

Face: wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat

Forehead: broad, full

Ears: soft, thick, velvety

Neck: short, muscular, well set on shoulders.

Forequarters

vjhoulder: strong, deep, and broad

Brisket: projecting forwards; breast wide. .

Legs: straight, short, wide apart, shank

smooth and fine

Body

Chest: deep, full, indicating constitution. . .

Back: level, long; round ribbed

Loin: wide, level

Flank: low, making under line straight

Perfect Judge's
Score Score

10
4
4
2

Hindquarters

Hips: far apart, level, smooth 2

Rump: long, level, wide 4

Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth,

fine 2

Wool

Quantity: long, dense, even covering, espe-
cially over crown, cheek, armpit, hind
legs, and belly 15

Quality: fine fiber; crimp close, regular; even

quaUty, including tops of folds 15

Condition: bright, lustrous, sound, pure,
soft; even distribution of yolk, with
even surface to fleece

Total.

15
100

FARM LIVESTOCK 299

SCORE CARD FOR BACON-TYPE BARROW

General Appearance

Perfect
Score

Judge's
Score

Weight : 170 to 200 pounds, the result of thick
cover of firm flesh

Form: long, level, smooth, deep

Quality, hair, fine; skin, thin; bone, fine; firm
covering of flesh without any soft
bunches of fat or wrinkles

Condition: deep, uniform covering of flesh,
especially in region of high-priced cuts . .

Head and Neck

Snout: fine

Eyes: fuU, mild, bright

Face : slim

Ears: trim, medium size

Jowl: light, trim

Neck: medium length, Ught

10

FOREQUARTERS

Shoulders: free from roughness, smooth,
compact, and same width as back and
hindquarters

Breast: moderately wide, full

Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean;
pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. . . .

Body

Chest: deep, full girth

Back: medium and uniform in width, smooth

Sides: long, smooth, level from beginning of
shoulders to end of hindquarters. The
side at all points should touch a straight
edge running from fore to hindquarters .

Ribs: deep, uniformly sprung

Belly: trim, firm, thick without any flabbi-
ness or shrinkage at flank

Hindquarters
Hips: smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of

body

Rump: long, even, straight, rounded toward

tail

Gammon: firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed

deep and low toward hocks

Legs: straight, short, strong; feet, medium

size; bone, clean; pasterns, upright. . . .

Total 100

10

300

FARM LIVESTOCK

SCORE CARD FOR FAT-TYPE BARROW

General Appearance
Weight: score according to age (pigs of a

given age should show a certain weight)
Form: deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical,

compact, standing squarely on legs. . . .
QuaUty: hair, silky; skin, fine; bone, fine;

mellow covering of flesh, free from lumps

and wrinkles

Condition: deep, even covering of flesh and

fat over all parts of the body

Head and Neck

Snout: medium length, not coarse

Eyes: full, mild, bright

Face: short, cheeks full

Ears: fine, medium size, soft

Jowl: strong, neat, broad

Neck: thick, medium length

Perfect
Score

Sides: deep, lengthy, full; ribs, close and well
sprung

Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly
fleshed

Loin: wide, thick, straight

Belly: straight, even

Hindquarters

Hips: wide apart, smooth

Rump: long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight. .
Ham: heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide

Thighs: fleshed close to hocks

Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean;
pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. . . .

10

Forequarters
Shoulder: broad, deep, full, compact on top 6
Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean;

pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. . . 2

Body
Chest: deep, broad; large girth.

10

Judge's
Score

Total 100

FARM LIVESTOCK

301

GESTATION TABLE

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date

Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

Jan. 1

Dec. 2

Oct. 12

May 27

Apr. 22

2

3

13

28

23

3

4

14

29

24

4

5

15

30

25

5

6

16

31

26

6

7

17

June 1

27

7

8

18

2

28

8

9

19

3

29

9

10

20

4

30

10

11

21

5

May 1

11

12

22

6

2

12

13

23

7

3

13

14

24

8

4

14

15

25

9

5

15

16

26

10

6

16

17

27

11

7

17

18

28

12

8

18

19

29

13

9

19

20

30

14

10

20

21

31

15

11

21

22

Nov. 1

16

12

22

23

2

17

13

23

24

3

18

14

24

25

4

19

15

25

26

5

20

16

26

27

6

21

17

27

28

7

22

18

28

29

8

23

19

29

30

9

24

20

30

31

10

25

21

31

Jan. 1

11

26

22

302

FARM LIVESTOCK

Tavl^— (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

Feb. 1

Jan. 2

Nov. 12

June 27

May 23

2

3

13

28

24

3

4

14

29

25

4

5

15

30

26

5

6

16

July 1

27

6

7

17

2

28

7

8

18

3

29

8

9

19

4

30

9

10

20

5

31

10

11

21

6

June 1

11

12

22

7

2

12

13

23

8

3

13

14

24

9

4

14

15

25

10

5

15

16

26

11

6

16

17

27

12

7

17

18

28

13

8

18

19

29

14

9

19

20

30

15

10

20

21

Dec. 1

16

11

21

22

2

17

12

22

23

3

18

13

23

24

4

19

14

24

25

5

20

15

25

26

6

21

16

26

27

7

22

17

27

28

8

23

18

28

29

9

24

19

FARM LIVESTOCK

303

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

March 1

Jan. 30

Dec. 10

July 25

June 20

2

31

11

26

21

3

Feb. 1

12

27

22

4

2

13

28

23

5

3

14

29

24

6

4

15

30

25

7

5

16

31

26

8

6

17

Aug. 1

27

9

7

18

2

28

10

8

19

3

29

11

9

20

4

30

12

10

21

5

July 1

13

11

22

6

2

14

12

23

7

3

15

13

24

8

4

16

14

25

9

5

17

15

26

10

6

18

16

27

11

7

19

17

28

12

8

20

18

29

13

9

21

19

30

14

10

22

20

31

15

11

23

21

Jan. 1

16

12

24

22

2

17

13

25

23

3

18

14

26

24

4

19

15

27

25

5

20

16

28

26

6

21

17

29

27

7

22

18

30

28

8

23

19

31

March 1

9

24

20

21

304

FARM LIVESTOCK

T A B L E — (Contin ued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

Apr. 1

March 2

Jan. 10

Aug. 25

July 21

2

3

11

26

22

3

4

12

27

23

4

5

13

28

24

5

6

14

29

25

6

7

15

30

26

7

8

16

31

27

8

9

17

Sept. 1

28

9

10

18

2

29

10

11

19

3

30

11

12

20

4

31

12

13

21

5

Aug. 1

13

14

22

6

2

14

15

23

7

3

15

16

24

8

4

16

17

25

9

5

17

18

26

10

6

18

19

27

11

7

19

20

28

12

8

20

21

29

13

9

21

22

30

14

10

22

23

31

15

11

23

24

Feb. 1

16

12

24

25

2

17

13

25

26

3

18

14

26

27

4

19

15

27

28

5

20

16

28

29

6

21

17

29

30

7

22

18

30

31

8

23

19

FARM LIVESTOCK

305

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

May 1

Apr. 1

Feb. 9

Sept. 24

Aug. 20

2

2

10

25

21

3

3

11

26

22

4

4

12

27

23

5

5

13

28

24

6

6

14

29

25

7

7

15

30

26

8

8

16

Oct. 1

27

9

9

17

2

28

10

10

18

3

29

11

11

19

4

30

^ 12

12

20

5

31

13

13

21

6

Sept. 1

14

14

22

7

2

15

15

23

8

3

16

16

24

9

4

17

17

25

10

5

18

18

26

11

6

19

19

27

12

7

20

20

28

13

8

21

21

March 1

14

9

22

22

2

15

10

23

23

3

16

11

24

24

4

17

12

25

25

5

18

13

26

26

6

19

14

27

27

7

20

15

28

28

8

21

16

29

29

9

22

17

30

30

10

23

18

31

May 1

11

24

19

306

FARM LIVESTOCK

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

June 1

May 2

March 12

Oct. 25

Sept. 20

2

3

13

26

21

3

4

14

27

22

4

5

15

28

23

5

6

16

29

24

6

7

17

30

25

7

8

18

31

26

8

9

19

Nov. 1

27

9

10

20

2

28

10

11

21

3

29

11

12

22

4

30

12

13

23

5

Oct. 1

13

14

24

6

2

14

15

25

7

3

15

16

26

8

4

16

17

27

9

5

17

18

28

10

6

18

19

29

11

7

19

20

30

12

8

20

21

31

13

9

21

22

Apr. 1

14

10

22

23

2

15

11

23

24

3

16

12

24

25

4

17

13

25

26

5

18

14

26

27

6

19

15

27

28

7

20

16

28

29

8

21

17

29

30

9

22

18

30

31

10

23

19

FARM LIVESTOCK

307

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

July 1

June 1

Apr. 11

Nov. 24

Oct. 20

2

2

12

25

21

3

3

13

26

22

4

4

14

27

23

5

5

15

28

24

6

6

16

29

25

7

7

17

30

26

8

8

18

Dec. 1

27

9

9

19

2

28

10

10

20

3

29

H

U

21

4

30

12

12

22

5

31

13

13

23

6

Nov. 1

14

14

24

7

2

15

15

25

8

3

16

16

26

9

4

17

17

27

10

5

18

18

28

11

6

19

19

29

12

7

20

20

30

13

8

21

21

May 1

14

9

22

22

2

15

10

23

23

3

16

11

24

24

4

17

12

25

25

5

18

13

26

26

6

19

14

27

27

7

20

15

28

28

8

21

16

29

29

9

22

17

30

30

10

23

18

31

July 1

11

24

19

308

FARM LIVESTOCK

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

Aug. 1

July 2

May 12

Dec. 25

Nov. 20

2

3

13

26

21

3

4

14

27

22

4

5

15

28

23

5

6

16

29

24

6

7

17

30

25

7

8

18

31

26

8

9

19

Jan. 1

27

9 •

10

20

2

28

10

11

21

3

29

11

12

22

4

30

12

13

23

5

Dec. 1

13

14

24

6

2

14

15

25

7

3

15

16

26

8

4

16

17

27

9

5

17

18

28

10

6

18

19

29

11

7

19

20

30

12

8

20

21

31

13

9

21

22

June 1

14

10

22

23

2

15

11

23

24

3

16

12

24

25

4

17

13

25

26

5

18

14

26

27

6

19

15

27

28

7

20

16

28

29

8

21

17

29

30

9

22

18

30

31

10

23

19

31

Aug. 1

11

24

20

FARM LIVESTOCK

309

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

Sept. 1

Aug. 2

June 12

Jan. 25

Dec. 21

2

3

13

26

22

3

4

14

27

23

4

5

15

28

24

5

6

16

29

25

6

7

17

30

26

7

8

18

31

27

8

9

19

Feb. 1

28

9

10

20

2

29

10

11

21

3

30

11

12

22

4

31

12

13

23

5

Jan. 1

13

14

24

6

2

14

15

25

7

3

15

16

26

8

4

16

17

27

9

5

17

18

28

10

6

18

19

29

11

7

19

20

30

12

8

20

21

July 1

13

9

21

22

2

It

10

22

23

3

15

11

23

24

4

16

12

24

25

5

17

13

25

26

6

18

14

26

27

7

19

15

27

28

8

20

16

28

29

9

21

17

29

30

10

22

18

30

31

11

23

19

310

FARM LIVESTOCK

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

Oct. 1

Sept. 1

July 12

Feb. 24

Jan. 20

2

2

13

25

21

3

3

14

26

22

4

4

15

27

23

5

5

16

28

24

6

6

17

March 1

25

7

7

18

2

26

8

8

19

3

27

9

9

20

4

28

10

10

21

5

29

11

11

22

6

30

12

12

23

7

31

13

13

24

8

Feb. 1

14

14

25

9

2

15

15

26

10

3

16

16

27

11

4

17

17

28

12

5

18

IS

29

13

6

19

19

30

14

7

20

20

31

15

8

21

21

Aug. 1

16

9

22

22

2

17

10

23

23

3

18

11

24

24

4

19

12

25

25

5

20

13

26

26

6

21

14

27

27

7

22

15

28

28

8

23

16

29

29

9

24

17

30

30

10

25

18

31

Oct. 1

11

26

19

FARM LIVESTOCK

311

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date
Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

Nov. 1

Oct. 2

Aug. 12

March 27

Feb. 20

2

3

13

28

21

3

4

14

29

22

4

5

15

30

23

5

6

16

31

24

6

7

17

Apr. 1

25

7

8

18

2

26

8

9

19

3

27

9

10

20

4

28

10

11

21

5

March 1

11

12

22

6

2

12

13

23

7

3

13

14

24

8

4

14

15

25

9

5

15

16

26

10

6

16

17

27

11

7

17

18

28

12

8

18

19

29

13

9

19

20

30

14

10

20

21

31

15

11

21

22

Sept. 1

16

12

22

23

2

17

13

23

24

3

18

14

24

25

4

19

15

25

26

5

20

16

26

27

6

21

17

27

28

7

22

18

28

29

8

23

19

29

30

9

24

20

30

31

10

25

21

312

FARM LIVESTOCK

Table — (Continued)

Mare

Cow

Ewe

Sow

Date

Bred

Due to

Due to

Due to

Due to

Foal

Calve

Lamb

Farrow

Dec. 1

Nov. 1

Sept. 11

Apr 26

March 22

2

2

12

27

23

3

3

13

28

24

4

4

14

29

25

5

5

15

30

26

6

6

16

May 1

27

7

7

17

2

28

8

8

18

3

29

9

9

19

4

30

10

10

20

5

31

11

11

21

6

Apr. 1

12

12

22

7

2

13

13

23

8

3

14

14

24

9

4

15

15

25

10

5

16

16

26

11

6

17

17

27

12

7

18

18

28

13

8

19

19

29

14

9

20

20

30

15

10

21

21

Oct. 1

16

11

22

22

2

17

12

23

23

3

18

13

24

24

4

19

14

25

25

5

20

15

26

26

6

21

16

27

27

7

22

17

28

28

8

23

18

29

29

9

24

19

30

Dec. 1

10

25

20

31

11

26

21

DAIRYING

313

DAIRYING

MILK CONSTITUENTS

Milk consists of water, butter fat, protein, sugar, and
ash. The last four of these constituents are known as
the solids of milk, and, when considered collectively in
an analysis, are termed the total solids.

The average composition of cow's milk is: Water,
87.40%; fat, 3.75%; protein, 3.15%; sugar, 5%; ash, .70%.

Milk from different cows varies considerably in com-
position from this average. Probably the greatest dif-
ference is in the percentage of fat. Cows are known that
give milk in which there is as much as 8% of fat, and
there are others that give milk in which there is less
than 3% of fat.

The average composition of milk from the cow, nanny
goat, ewe, and mare are given in the accompanying
table, for the purpose of showing the difference in the
percentages of the different constituents in the milk of
these animals.

COMPOSITION OF MILK OF DIFFERENT SPECIES
OF ANIMALS

Species of Animal

Water
Per
Cent.

Fat

Per

Cent.

Protein

Per

Cent.

Sugar

Per

Cent.

Ash
Per

Cent.

87.40
85.71
80.82
90.78

3.75

4.78
6.86
1.21

3.15
4.29
6.52
1.99

5.00
4.46
4.91
5.67

.70

Nanny goat

Ewe

.76
.89

35

The butter fat of milk, which is also known as milk
fat, is made up of small globules, the number in a

314 DAIRYING

single drop of milk varying from 30,000,000 to 100,000,000.
The globules are arranged both singly and in aggre-
gations. The fat is the lightest part of milk, and if
milk is allowed to stand quietly for a time most of the
globules rise to the surface. Some of the smallest
globules, however, are not able to overcome the re-
sistance encountered in passing upwards through the
milk, and hence do not rise to the surface.

Cream is the part of milk into which a large part of the
fat is gathered. The separation of cream from the other
part of milk is known as the creaming of milk. Gravity
creaming, or separation, can be accomplished by allow-
ing the milk to stand quietly for a time, and then
removing the upper layers, in which the fat has ac-
cumulated. Cream can be separated also by means of
machines known as centrifugal separators. The prin-
ciple on which these machines are based is that as cream
is lighter than the other part of the milk, centrifugal
force can be used in the separation of the cream.

Two of the substances of milk, casein and albumin,
belong to the class of compounds known as protein.
Casein forms a large part of the curd obtained when
milk is allowed to sour or when milk is curdled by the
addition of rennet, a material employed in the manu-
facture of cheese. Casein gives to milk much of its
opacity.

If whole milk is curdled, the fat globules are enclosed
in the curd. The removal of the curd leaves a yellowish
or greenish clear liquid, the whey, which contains the
constituents of the milk that are in solution. One of
these is albumin, a substance that coagulates on heating
and that, in appearance, is much like the white of an
egg. The quantity of albumin in milk is small.

The sugar found in milk is known as lactose. It is
much less sweet and less soluble than cane sugar and
is obtained by condensing the milk and allowing the
sugar to crystallize. It is used for medicinal purposes
and for the modification of milk for children.

DAIRYING 315

Some of the compounds that form the ash of milk are
in solution, and hence are found in the whey; others
are insoluble and are removed in the curd. The ash
constituents are an important part of the milk; without
them it would not be a perfect food for young animals.

BACTERIA IN MILK

Soon after milk is drawn it begins to undergo
changes, the most apparent one of which is that of
becoming sour, or acid. This and many of the other
changes are caused by bacteria. Many kinds of bacteria
are nearly always present in milk, but in varying
numbers. It is known, however, that milk produced
under cleanly conditions is much freer from bacteria
than that produced under unclean conditions. Cleanli-
ness, therefore, is an important consideration in milk
production. Certain kinds of bacteria are responsible
for diseases of mankind, and many of these disease-
producing bacteria grow luxuriantly in milk and are
often found there in large numbers; the best way to
exclude them is by producing and caring for the milk
in the most sanitary manner possible.

Bacteria thrive best where food is abundant, where
the temper?ture is favorable for their growth, and
where moisture is present. These three conditions are
found in the soil and in the alimentary tract of animals;
therefore, any material from these sources — mud, dirt,
or manure, for example — that gets into a quantity of
milk carries with it a number of bacteria. In the milk
they find conditions favorable for growth — food is
plentiful; the temperature, especially if the milk be
warm, is favorable; and moisture is present. As a
result, they multiply rapidly and in a comparatively
short time the milk will contain so many bacteria that
it is likely to be unfit for use.

No other food is so exposed to contamination by mud,
dust, and manure, as is milk. If a solid food becomes

316 DAIRYING

dirty it can be washed, but when bacteria have once
been introduced into milk, the harm cannot be remedied,
fol' milk cannot be cleaned like a solid. Insoluble
particles of dirt and manure can be removed by straining
milk through a fine-meshed cloth, but many of the
bacteria that are on the particles will be washed off
and will pass through the cloth. Thus, if milk is to
keep well and be an appetizing, healthful human food,
it must be produced under such conditions that bacteria
do not enter it in large numbers.

Cleanliness as a Means of Control.— One of the most
efficient ways of controlling the number of bacteria in
milk is to exercise cleanliness at every step in the
production and handling. Milk that contains only the
bacteria coming from the udder will not sour for days,
but that containing large quantities of dirt will often
be unfit for use in a few hours.

Cooling and Storing of Milk.— As bacteria multiply
more rapidly at high than at low temperatures, milk
will become sour more quickly if kept at a high tem-
perature tha.T if kept at a low temperature. For this
reason, milk will keep longer if cooled rapidly soon
after it is drawn than if it is allowed to cool slowly or
is allowed to remain at a fairly high temperature.

Milk may be cooled in a number of ways. When the
quantity to be treated is small, it may be placed in a
tall, narrow can and the can placed in cold water.
Stirring the milk in the can will hasten the cooling to
a great extent. When a large quantity is to be treated,
a device known as a milk cooler is employed. The
most efficient coolers are those in which the milk is
allowed to flow in a very thin stream over a metal
surface on the opposite side of which is cold water, or
water and ice.

Milk that has been cooled should, of course, be stored
in a cool place, but the temperature should not be below
the freezing point, as freezing causes the separation of
the fat and casein in such a manner that they cannot

DAIRYING 317

be reincorporated. A temperature just above the freezing
point is satisfactory, for at this temperature the milk
will remain sweet for a long time.

Use of Preservatives in Milk.— The growth of bacteria
in milk can be inhibited by the use of such preservatives
as boric acid and formaldehyde. However, since these
preservativec are injurious to human health, their use as
a milk preservative is, as a rule, prohibited. Formalde-
hyde used at the rate of 1 part to 25,000 parts of milk
will act as an efficient preservative and will prevent
milk from souring for from 24 to 48 hr. ; hence, there is
great temptation for its use, especially in the case of
the dealer who has milk that cannot be disposed of
at once.

Boiled Milk. — ^The bacteria that cause souring of milk
are almost certain to be killed by boiling the milk, but
there are certain putrefactive bacteria that the boiling
temperature will not kill. Any injurious bacteria will
not be present in any considerable numbers in the milk
until after 24 to 48 hr. Boiled milk, therefore, is
perfectly healthful if used within, say, 24 to 36 hr.;
after about 48 hr. it is likely to be harmful as human
food. Although boiling is a means of controlling the
number of bacteria in milk, there are several objections
to this method of treatment. Boiled milk is not easily
digested and assimilated by the human body; the
boiled taste is very apparent and is objected to by most
people; and there is always the danger that the milk
will be a day or so old, and hence likely to contain
putrefactive bacteria.

Pasteurized Milk.— A method of controlling the number
of bacteria in milk by heat that is more satisfactory
than boiling is that of pasteuri2ation. Liquids are
pasteurized by heating them to a temperature some-
what below the boiling point, averaging in practice
from 140° F. to 180° F., keeping them at that tempera-
ture for a given period of time, and then cooling them
rapidly. In milk treated thus, the bacteria that cause

318 DAIRYING

milk to sour, and most disease-producing forms, are
destroyed. Certain spore forms that grow rapidly when
acidity is not present are not killed by the heat of
pasteurization, and for this reason the milk should be
used before it becomes old, say in from 24 to 48 hr.
Persons often think that all milk that is not sour is
fit for use. Long before souring takes place in pas-
teurized milk, it is likely to be unfit for use as human
food. It is important, therefore, that pasteurized milk
be sold as such and that the consumer recognizes the
fact that the milk should be used within a short time
after delivery.

The city of New York requires that milk sold as
pasteurized shall be marked as such, and that the date
and hour when it was pasteurized be indicated on the
bottle; it must be delivered to the customer within 24
hr., and must be pasteurized a second time.

Acid-Forming Bacteria in Milk.— The fermentation
most commonly found in milk is that which causes it
to become acid. The bacteria that are responsible for
this change are known as acid-forming bacteria. Bac-
teria of this kind grow more rapidly than those of any
other kind, and on this account souring is the most
noticeable change, aside from creaming, that occurs in
milk. In fact, souring is regarded as such a natural
change that milk in which it does not appear is looked
upon with suspicion, and justly so.

All acid-forming bacteria are instrumental in pre-
venting the growth of putrefactive forms of bacteria.
None of the putrefactive bacteria can grow in an acid
substance, and as acid is soon formed in milk by the
development of acid-forming bacteria, unheated, or raw,
milk becomes a medium unfavorable to the growth of
putrefactive forms. This seems an important provision
of nature, for, were it not for the development of the
acid-forming bacteria, milk in a comparatively brief
time after it was drawn would become an offensive,
ill-smelling, unhealthful substance.

DAIRYING 319

The acid condition of milk is useful in the manu-
facture of butter, which, as a rule, is made from cream
that has been allowed to sour. Butter made from sour
cream has a desirable flavor and good keeping quality,
but that from sweet cream has little flavor and is poor
in keeping quality.

In addition to being useful to the butter manufac-
turer, acid-forming bacteria are very important in cheese
making. They are helpful in the ripening process, for
if none are present cheese does not ripen. The presence
of the bacteria also protects the cheese against attacks
of putrefactive bacteria through the acid formed by an
action similar to that noted in the case of milk.

Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk.— As may be inferred
from previous statements, milk may contain many kinds
of disease-producing bacteria. Technically, these are
known as pathogenic bacteria. They may be grouped
into two general classes — those that are due to a dis-
eased condition of the cow giving the milk, and those
that are due to diseases of man and transmitted from
one person to another through the medium of milk.
Tuberculosis, garget, mammitis, foot and mouth disease,
cow pox, digestive troubles, and inflammation of the
uterus are among the diseases of cattle that may cause
trouble and suffering in the human family if milk from
diseased animals is used as food. Therefore, whenever
a dairyman finds any of these diseases in his herd he
should immediately stop selling the milk and take
measures to have the diseased animals treated.

The diseases of mankind that may be transmitted by
milk are those bacteriological diseases that infect
through the alimentary tract. Typhoid fever and diph-
theria are often cafried by milk, and it has been
claimed that at least a few epidemics of scarlet fever
have been caused by the contamination of milk with
scarlet-fever germs. In view of the fact that diseases
are often transmitted by milk, great care should be
exercised by dairymen and consumers to prevent infection.
22

320 DAIRYING

If any of the germ diseases mentioned are near a
dairy, the milk should not be used until all danger
of infection is over, or if one of the diseases is in the
family of a person employed about the dairy, he should
not be allowed to handle any of the utensils used for
milk, nor should he be allowed to come in contact with
the milk in any manner.

ABSORPTION OF ODORS BY MILK

Milk has the property of absorbing and retaining
certain odors, and the absorption will take place when
the milk is either warm or cold. It is important,
therefore, in dairy practice to keep milk in an atmos-
phere that is free from pronounced odors of any kind.
Milk tainted by odors is not necessarily unhealthful,
but it is unappetizing, and is sure to be objectionable to
the consumer. In view of this fact, it is especially
important that the air of the dairy stable be kept free
from objectionable odors, especially during milking time.

Fermenting manures and feeds that have pronounced
odors should be kept out of the stables. Silage is
sometimes the cause of an odor in milk. If it is fed
directly before the milk is drawn, the atmosphere of
the barn will be filled with the silage odor and, as a
result, the milk will be tainted; if, on the contrary,
the feeding is done an hour or so before milking time
and the barn is thoroughly aired there will be prac-
tically no silage odor in the milk. The keeping of
other classes of animals, hogs for example, in a stable
with dairy cattle is sometimes responsible for unpleasant
odors in milk. If other animals are kept in a stable
with cows, great care should be exercised in keeping
their quarters clean and thus preventing the contamina-
tion of milk.

Ventilation of the dairy stable is necessary not only
for the health of the herd but for preventing the ex-
cessive so-called cowy odor that is too often noticed in

DAIRYING

321

stables, as a pronounced cowy odor is likely to taint
the milk.

Care should be exercised to prevent undesirable odors
in milk after it has been removed from the stable.
Placing it in open vessels in cellars or rooms where
there is an odor from decaying vegetables, etc. is a
bad practice. Bright, clean rooms that have an untainted
atmosphere are desirable storage places for milk.

WEIGHING, TESTING, AND KEEPING OF
RECORDS OF MILK

In order to determine whether a cow is a profitable
one to keep, her owner must have a knowledge of the
quantity of milk and butter fat that she produces in a
year. Such knowledge can be secured only by keeping

Fig. 1

a record of the quantity of milk produced and of the
per cent, of butter fat the milk contains. There are
several ways in which this can be done. The milk of
each milking from the cow can be weighed and a small

322

DAIRYING

sample taken for the determination of the per cent, of
butter fat; or the milk can be weighed and sampled
1 da. in each week, the figures thus obtained being

used
every

as an average for
seventh week the

the 7 da.; or each day of
milk can be weighed and
sampled for testing. The
latter method involves less
work than either of the two
preceding methods, and it
has been shown to be ac-
curate. The keeping of rec-
ords should not be begun
until at least 3 wk. after
the cow has calved.

The percentage of fat in
milk is determined by means
of the Babcock test. The
essential parts of one of the
cheapest and simplest Bab-
cock testing outfits on the
market are shown in Figs. 1
and 2. In Fig. 1 is illus-
trated a centrifugal machine,
or centrifuge, commonly
called a tester, for making
the Babcock test. In Fig. 2
(a) is shown a Babcock milk
bottle, at least four of which
should be provided; in (&),
a glass pipette of 17.6 cubic
centimeters capacity; and in
(c), an acid measure of a
capacity of 17.5 cubic centimeters. Such an outfit as the
one illustrated can be purchased from dealers in dairy
supplies.

The details of the testing of a sample of milk are as
follows: First, the milk is thoroughly mixed by being
poured from one vessel into another. For taking the
required quantity of the sample for the test, a glass

i^

{cj

Fig. 2

DAIRYING 323

pipette, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 2 (6), is used.
A quantity of milk is drawn up into the pipette with
the mouth until the top of the milk is 1 or 2 in. above
the line a that is etched on the pipette tube. The
pipette is then removed from the mouth and the fore-
finger is quickly placed over the top of the tube. Due
to atmospheric pressure without, the milk will remain
in the pipette. The pressure of the forefinger is then
slightly released and the milk is allowed to drop out
of the tube until the top of the milk is on a level with
the etched mark on the glass. There is then 17.6 cubic
centimeters of milk in the tube, which is the quantity
desired for testing. The point of the pipette is now
placed in the neck of a test bottle such as the one
illustrated in Fig. 2 (a). The bottle and pipette are
held in a slanting position, and the milk is allowed to
flow slowly into the bottle. Care must be exercised
that no milk is spilled in any way. A small quantity
will remain in the point of the pipette; this should be
blown into the bottle. Next, the acid cylinder is filled
with acid to the etched mark on the side that indicates
17.5 cubic centimeters; for the testing of milk, sul-
phuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.82 or 1.83 is used.
The 17.5 cubic centimeters of acid is then poured into
the test bottle, the bottle being held at an angle as
before. The bottle should be turned around slowly as
the acid is flowing down the neck; this washes any
adhering milk into the bottle. It should be understood
that the quantity of acid just given may not be exactly
right for all samples, and it may be desirable, after
some experience has been gained, to vary slightly from
this quantity. If the acid has been poured into the
milk carefully, the liquids will be in two distinct layers,
with a band of partly mixed liquids between them. The
acid and milk are next mixed together by gently ro-
tating the test bottle in such a manner that the milk
and acid are whirled round and round inside the bottle.
The rotating should be continued until all clots of curd

324

DAIRYING

that form are completely dissolved. The mixing of the
two liquids is accompanied by considerable heat and the
milk becomes dark in color. After the mixing, the
bottle is placed upright in the tester as shown at a in
Fig. 1. It is desirable to have the machine filled with
bottles to balance it; in case but one sample of milk is
to be tested the three other bottles can be filled with
water. When the handle is turned, the chambers con-
taining the bottles revolve around a common center and
the centrifugal force that is exerted causes the bottles
to assume the position shown in Fig. 3. The handle of

the tester should be
turned from 4 to 5
min. at the speed
given for the particu-
lar machine in use.

After the machine
has stopped whirling
the bottles will again
assume a vertical po-
sition, and the fat
will be found on top
of the liquid. Enough
hot water is then
added to each bottle
containing a sample
to fill the bottle to the lower part of the neck; a pipette
or some special device can be used for this purpose. The
bottles are again placed in the tester and whirled for
about 1 min. After that they are taken out and hot
water is added until the lower part of the column of
fat comes up into the graduated neck of the bottle.
The bottles are again placed in the tester and given
a final whirl for about 1 min. After the completion
of the final whirl the bottles are removed and the
percentage of fat is determined by means of the scale
on the neck of the bottle.
For the testing of whole milk, a bottle with a scale

DAIRYING

325

arranged as shown in Fig. 4 is used. Each division
represents .2 of 1% of fat; hence, each 5 divisions
represents 1% of fat. The line of separation between
the fat and the mixture of milk and acid is curved, as
indicated at a. The top of the fat column also is
curved, as shown at b. When ascertaining a per-
centage, the fat is' measured from the ^^ y
lower part of the line a to the upper part
of the line b, as indicated by the brace c.
In calculating a percentage, the reading
indicated by the line a is subtracted from
that indicated by the line b, and the result
is the per cent, of fat in the milk.

MILK STANDARDS

MILK STANDARDS OF THE UNITED
STATES

Government Milk Standards.— The United
States government has comprehensive
standards regarding the quality of the
milk sold within its jurisdiction. These
standards define the various kinds and
forms of milk and establish certain re-
quirements for them. The government
standards of purity define milk as follows:
Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion
obtained by the complete milking of one
or more healthy cows, properly fed and FiG- 4

kept, excluding that obtained within 15 da. before and
10 da. after calving, and contains not less than &y2% of
solids not fat, and not less than 3]4% of milk fat.

The government standards define cream as follows:
Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which
rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated
from it by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and
contains not less than 18% of milk fat.

326

DAIRYING

STATE MILK AND CREAM STANDARDS

State

Milk

Fat
Per
Cent.

Solids

not Fat

Per

Cent.

Total

Solids

Per

Cent.

Cream

Connecticut. . . .

California

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kentucky

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts. .

Michigan

Minnesota

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New York

North Carolina.
North Dakota . .

Ohio

Oregon

Pennsylvania. . .
South Dakota. .

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

Wisconsin

Wyoming

3.25
3.00
3.25
3.00
3.00
3.25
3.00
3.25
3.00
3.50
3.25
3.00
3.50
3.25
3.00
3.00
3.50
3.00
3.00
3.25
3.00
3.00
3.20
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.20
4.00
3.25
3.00
3.00
2.40

8.50
8.50
8.50
8.00

8.50

8.50

8.50
9.00

9.50
8.50
9.00

8.80
9.25
8.50
8.00
8.50

11.75

12.00
11.00

12.50
12.00
12.00
12.50
12.15
12.50
13.00

12.00

13.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.20
12.00
13.00
12.50
12.00
12.50

12.00

DAIRYING 327

The milk standards of the government are merely a
statement of the consensus of opinion of experts as to
what the composition of milk should be. These standards
are not in any law and have no legal standing, but in
the trial of a case where milk was an article of inter-
state commerce and deficient in milk solids or in butter
fat without evidence of actual adulteration, the federal
standards representing the consensus of opinion of
leading authorities would unquestionably be submitted
as evidence in the case and have great weight.

State Milk Standards.— The majority of the states in
the United States have legal standards for milk and
cream sold within their borders. The state standards
are different from those of the federal government in
that they have the force of law. These standards, in
many cases, are lower than the federal standards. There
is a general movement in progress at the present time,
however, among the various states whose milk standards
are lower than those of the federal government, to raise
the requirements for milk so that they will conform to
the federal standards.

In the accompanying table are given the legal stand-
ards for milk and cream of those states that have laws
regarding the sale of milk.

City Milk Regulations.— Many cities, especially the
larger ones, have rigid regulations regarding the quality
of the milk sold within their limits and the manner of
its production. With reference to the composition of
milk, the standards of the cities are similar to those
of the majority of the states. The question of the use
of preservatives, however, is more important in the
case of cities, as there is much temptation to use pre-
servatives to keep surplus milk sweet from day to day;
consequently, in most cities that have milk ordinances
or regulations, especial attention is given to the matter
of preservatives.

The ideal condition with reference to the bacterial
condition of milk is to have milk delivered to the

328 DAIRYING

consumer in the same condition, bacteriologically, as
when it was drawn from the cow. This condition, of
course, can only be approximated, and in cases wher«
the milk is shipped considerable distances, and is sev-
eral hours old when it is delivered to the consumer, it
is extremely difficult to control the bacterial condition.
However, as the carelessness of the producer and the
dealer shows in the number of bacteria in the milk,
many cities have established bacterial standards for
milk, and the sale of milk containing a greater number
of bacteria than that of the standard is unlawful.

Various other city regulations are generally made.
Usually a license must be procured by each dealer or
person selling milk. The applicant must state, in his
application for a license, the source of the milk sold
and the conditions under which it is produced. The
purpose of the license is to acquaint the health authori-
ties with all persons selling milk in the city. Thus,
the authorities are enabled to regulate, to some extent,
conditions under which the milk is produced.

Some cities require that the tuberculin test be made
on all animals that furnish milk for the city and that
all tuberculous cows be removed from the herds. Chi-
cago has such a provision, but in lieu of the test the
milk may be pasteurized in accordance with the rules
of the board of health. Certain cities require that milk
shall not be shipped from any farm on which there is a
case of typhoid fever, diphtheria, or scarlet fever until
a permit stating that there is no danger of infection
has been obtained from a physician. As it is possible
for milk to become infected with typhoid baccilli at any
point in its handling, milk dealers in cities having
contagious-disease regulation are required to report all
cases that occur in the families of their employes.
During the continuance of the disease in the family the
employe is not allowed to have anything to do with
the milk either directly or indirectly.

DAIRYING 329

MILK STANDARDS OF CANADA

Following are given the milk standards of Canada as
published by the Canadian Department of Inland Rev-
enue. It can be seen that in many respects they are
similar to those of the United States.

Milk, unless otherwise specified, is the fresh, clean,
and unaltered product obtained by the complete, unin-
terrupted milking, under proper sanitary conditions, of
one or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, ex-
cluding that obtained within 2 wk. before and 1 wk.
after calving, and contains not less than 314% of milk
fat, and not less than 8J/2% of milk solids other than fat.

Skim-milk is milk from which a part or all the cream
has been removed, and contains not less than 8J^% of
non-fat milk solids.

Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below
boiling, but suiEciently to kill most of the active organ-
isms present; and immediately cooled to 45° F., or lower,
and kept at a temperature not higher than 45° F. until
delivered to the consumer, at which time it shall contain
not more than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.

Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the
temperature of boiling water, or higher, for a length of
time sufficient to kill all organisms present; and must
be delivered to the consumer in a sterile condition.
Sterilized milk shall not be sold or offered for sale,
except in hermetically-closed containers bearing the
words "This milk should be used within 12 hr. after
opening the container."

Certified* milk, sold as such, shall comply with the
following requirements:

*It is evident that the weight carried by the term
"certified" will depend upon the character of the or-
ganization that assumes responsibility. Doubtless this
will usually be a local medical association; but there is
nothing to prevent any responsible body of properly
qualified persons from undertaking the production of
certified milk.

330 DAIRYING

1. It shall be taken from cows semi-annually subjected
to the tuberculin test, and found without reaction.

2. It shall contain not more than 10,000 bacteria per
cubic centimeter from June to September; and not more
than 5,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter from October
to May, inclusive.

3. It shall be free from blood, pus, or disease-pro-
ducing organisms.

4. It shall be free from disagreeable odor or taste.

5. It shall have undergone no pasteurization or
sterilization, and shall be free from chemical preserv-
atives.

6. It shall have been cooled to 45° F. within yi hr.
after milking, and kept at that temperature until de-
livered to the customer.

7. It shall contain 12 to 13% of milk solids, of which
at least 3}^% is fat.

8. It shall be from a farm whose herd is inspected by
a veterinarian, and whose employes are examined
monthly by a physician.

Evaporated milk is milk from which a considerable
portion of water has been evaporated, and contains not
less than 26% of milk solids, and not less than TW^o
of milk fat.

Condensed milk is milk from which a considerable
portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar
has been added. It contains not less than 28% of milk
solids, and not less than 7.77o of milk fat.

Condensed skim-milk is skim-milk from which a con-
siderable portion of water has been evaporated, with or
without the addition of sugar.

Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter
is separatee? from ripened cream, by the usual churning
processes; or a similar product, made by the appropriate
treatment of skim-milk.

Goat's milk, ewe's milk, etc., are the fresh, clean,
lacteal secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the
complete milking of healthy animals other than cows.

BEE KEEPING 331

properly fed and kept, and conform in name to the
species of animals from which they are obtained.

Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which
rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated
from it by centrifugal force, is fresh apd clean, and
contains (unless otherwise specified) not less than 18%
of milk fat. When cream is guaranteed to contain
another percentage of milk fat than 18% it must con-
form to such guarantee. Cream must be entirely free
from gelatine, sucrate of lime, gums, or other substances
added with a view to give density, consistency, or ap-
parent thickness to the article. Cream must contain no
preservatives of any kind, nor any coloring matter other
than is natural to milk.

Evaporated cream, clotted cream, condensed cream, or
any other preparation purporting to be a special cream,
except ice cream, must conform to the definition of
cream, and must contain at least 25% of milk fat.

BEE KEEPING

status of Bee Keeping as an Industry.— Bee keeping
at the present time, although usually considered one of
the minor branches of agriculture, is of considerable
economic importance. The honey and wax products of
the United States have an annual value of between
$20,000,000 and $30,000,000. It is said that the state of
California alone produced for export, in one year, 500
carloads of honey, single apiarists of that state pro-
ducing as much as 80 T. One baking establishment
has purchased in one lot approximately 1,000 T. of
honey. It is not unusual for individual apiarists, in
America, to produce from 20 to 30 T. of honey per year.
These statements convey some idea of the magnitude
of the industry in this country.

Objects of Bee Keeping.— The objects of bee keeping
are various. The industry may be carried on as a
business, as a side line to some other business, as a

332 BEE KEEPING

means of recreation, as a source of honey for home
use, as a benefit to horticulture, or for a combination
of these objects.

Bee keeping as a business is now pursued by a large
number of persons. It affords a good profit on the
money invested, and good wages for the labor and time
it requires. It should be emphasized, however, that it
is unwise for the average person to undertake extensive
bee keeping without considerable previous experience in
managing a small apiary. If a person desires to engage
in bee keeping as a sole business he should begin on a
small scale, make the bees pay all expenses connected
with the apiary and the cost of increasing the business,
and gradually increase the number of colonies as far
as local conditions or his desire will permit. Many per-
sons have made a failure at bee keeping, losing all of
their bees and considerable money, because they started
in the business on too large a scale.

Bee keeping perhaps has its widest field as a side line
to some other occupation. In fact, it is usually not the
sole occupation of the bee keeper. It is particularly
suitable as a side line to general farming, gardening,
fruit growing, poultry farming, and similar pursuits, but
it can be practiced without difficulty in connection with
most professional and commercial pursuits. If bee
keeping is not attempted on too large a scale, it will
not interfere greatly with other work.

Bee keeping has always been a favorite means of
recreation, especially to persons engaged in sedentary
occupations. It affords a desirable amount of exercise,
an opportunity for outdoor work, and an intimacy with
an insect whose activity has been a subject of absorbing
study from the earliest times. Bee keeping has the
advantage of being a recreation that pays its own way
and often produces no mean profit.

Many persons keep bees for the producing of honey
for home use. A few colonies will usually produce a suf-
ficient quantity to supply a large family the year round.

BEE KEEPING 333

The value of bees in the pollination of various fruits
and seed crops is often sufficient to warrant the keeping
of an apiary. The quality and quantity of many varie-
ties of apples, pears, plums, and small fruits depend
absolutely on cross-pollination. The most active agents
in this work are honey bees.

Adaptability of Various Locations to Bee Keeping.
Few industries can be pursued in such a wide latitude of
locations as bee keeping. It may be followed in the
country, in towns, and, to a limited extent, in large
cities. Although at first thought country localities would
seem to be the best for bee keeping, it often happens
that bees kept in towns or cities find more abundant
pasturage than those kept in the country.

Apiaries have been established in such unexpected
places as in the heart of Michigan forests, on floating
houseboats of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, in the
deserts of Arizona and Southern California, in the
swamps of Florida, and on house tops in New York,
Washington, Cincinnati, and other large cities. Actual
experience has demonstrated that bees may be kept
successfully in such a wide range of territory and
under such a variety of surroundings that it would be
unwise to state positively that bee keeping cannot be
followed in any given locality. Of course, however,
some localities are much better adapted to bee keeping
than others.

The best location for bee keeping is a region in
which different pollen- and nectar-bearing plants bloom
in succession throughout the spring, summer, and fall
seasons. A desirable succession of blossoms is as fol-
lows: Red maple, willow, and poplar flowers in early
spring, immediately followed by an abundance of fruit
bloom, and white-clover, basswood, and locust flowers;
buckwheat blossoms in summer; and the flowers of
such plants as asters and Spanish needles in the fall.
It is particularly important that there be an abundance
of late summer or fall flowers that will yield sufficient

334 BEE KEEPING

nectar to enable bees to gather enough for their winter
stores.

In general, it may be said that bees can be kept in
practically all inhabited regions, although the degree of
success likely to be attained will depend largely on the
abundance of bee pasturage. In addition to inhabited
regions there are numerous forest, swamp, prairie, and
mountain sections that are well suited to bee keeping.
Many regions that at present are entirely worthless
would yield a good profit if made to support apiaries.

Adaptability of Different Persons to Bee Keeping.
Any person with fairly steady nerves and some patience
and courage can easily learn to control and handle bees.
There are, it is true, a few exceptional individuals
whose systems are particularly susceptible to the poison
injected by the bee, so much so that serious results
follow a single sting. Such cases, however, are very
rare. In most instances, the system eventually becomes
accustomed to the poison, so that beyond momentary pain
a sting causes no discomfort.

There is little if any ground for the belief that bees
have a natural antipathy for some persons and a natural
liking for others. Bees are angered by actions rather
than by any peculiarity of the individual. They prefer,
of course, not to be disturbed; hence they usually keep
guards on the lookout for intruders. When visitors
approach the hives these guards are apt to fly toward
them, and if the visitors show fear by striking with
their hands or jerking their heads they are likely to be
stung. A person not accustomed to bees is very likely,
unconsciously, to dodge the head about when a bee
buzzes uncomfortably close to the face. Bees resent
such actions and when angered by them are almost sure
to sting. On the other hand, an unprotected person who
moves about with deliberation, will, under the same
circumstances, usually escape without a sting.

Bee keeping is a branch of agriculture that is par-
ticularly suitable for women. The work required by

BEE KEEPING 335

an apiary is comparatively light and does not entail
close confinement, heavy lifting, or fatiguing exertion.
Many women in towns and cities, as well as in the
country, are turning their attention to bee keeping as
a source of recreation, pleasure, and profit.

Profits in Bee Keeping.— Considering the capital and
the time required, bee keeping is one of the most profit-
able branches of agriculture. It is impossible to give
definite figures concerning the profits that may be made
from an apiary, as much depends on the locality, the
season, the bees, the management, and the number of
bees to an area. A conservative estimate for a good
locality is 25 to 30 lb. of comb honey — honey in the
comb — or 40 to 50 lb. of extracted honey — honey extracted
from the comb — per colony per year. It is not uncommon
for a colony in a favorable locality to produce 60 lb. of
comb honey in a season and even as much as 100 lb.
per colony has been produced; these quantities, how-
ever, are exceptional and should not be expected each
year. Wholesale prices for honey range from about 12
to 15c. per lb. for comb honey and from about 7 to 10c.
per lb. for extracted honey. If sold direct to the
consumer, comb honey brings from about 15 to 25c.
per section — a section contains about 1 lb. and ex-
tracted honey from about 10 to 20c. per lb. Assum-
ing that a colony produces 25 lb. of comb honey
per year, which is a fair average, and that the honey
is sold for 20c. per lb., which also is a fair average, the
gross return will be $5.

The expense of maintaining an apiary varies as widely
as the income. Aside from the item of labor, the ex-
penses will include the purchase of comb foundations
and sections, repairs, eventual replacing of hives and
implements, and interest on the capital invested. It
has been estimated that, on an average, the annual
expense per colony, not including that for labor, will
be from 50c. to $1; this estimate, however, does not
provide for increase. Assuming that the average expense
23

336 . BEE KEEPING

per colony is 75c. and that the average gross returns
are $5, the net profit will be $4.25 per colony. This may
seem to be a small profit, but it should be remembered
that it is only an average. Many bee keepers make con-
siderably more, some making double the sum given.

Time Required in Bee Keeping.— The amount of time
required in bee keeping is an important consideration
to persons who desire to engage in the industry as an
adjunct to some other pursuit. Such persons are anxious
to know whether bee keeping will interfere with their
regular work. The element of time does not, of course,
concern persons who desire to devote their entire atten-
tion to bee keeping, except as it affects the number of
colonies that may be managed.

If it were not for the fact that at certain seasons,
such as during the swarming season, bees require close
attention, it would be possible to keep a large number of
colonies, even though bee keeping is followed as a sub-
sidiary pursuit. During most of the year all the atten-
tion that bees require, provided not too many colonies
are kept, can be given before or after regular work
hours. Bees, to a large extent, supply their own food
and water and work on their own initiative. There are
times, however, when they must be carefully attended
to, and for this reason there is danger of having too
many colonies. Persons such as farmers, fruit growers,
gardeners, etc., who are not closely confined each day,
can usually keep from fifty to one hundred colonies
without hindrance to their other work. Persons such
as professional men, who are more or less confined, will
usually find that from ten to twenty colonies will be
all they can handle successfully. Almost any one can
keep from one to ten colonies without difficulty. These
statements, of course, are only general. If a person
begins bee keeping with only a few colonies and
gradually increases the number, a good idea of the
amount of time required will be obtained and the size
of the apiary can be governed accordingly.

BEE KEEPING 337

Races of Honey Bees. — All domesticated bees, com-
monly known as honey bees, are of one species. There
are several distinct races, or strains, of this species and
a considerable number of varieties. The most important
races of bees are: the Italian, the German, or Black,
the Carniolan, the Banat, the Caucasian, and the
Cyprian. Besides these races there are a number of
hybrids that are of more or less importance.

Treatment for Bee Stings.— If a person is stung by a
bee it is important that the sting be extracted as soon
as possible. The longer it remains in the flesh the
deeper it will work and the more poison will be injected
into the wound. A sting should never be grasped with
the thumb and forefinger and lifted directly out, as
is commonly done, but should either be brushed out
sidewise or better be removed by applying pressure at
the side of it with a finger nail. Grasping the sting
with the thumb and forefinger injects into the wound all
of the poison remaining in the sting tube. In extracting
a sting it frequently occurs that the sheath only is
removed, and that the lancets remain and work deeper
into the flesh. The latter may work so deep that they
disappear. This need cause no alarm, as the lancets are
composed of material that will cause no injury, and
they will be absorbed by the blood.

The Queen Bee. — The queen bee is not a reigning
sovereign over her colony, as the term implies, but is,
rather, a mother. The sole function of a queen is to
lay eggs and thus maintain the population of the hive.
She is so highly specialized for this particular purpose
that she gives all of her energy to egg laying, not even
expending a part of it in procuring and digesting her
own food. The food is predigested by the workers and
constantly offered to her; often the workers give it to
her directly by inserting their tongues into her mouth.
As this predigested food is of a highly concentrated,
nitrogenous nature and extremely nourishing, the queen
is fitted by it to perform a remarkable work. In fact,

338 BEE KEEPING

the rate of egg-laying is almost incredible, often being
as high as 3,000 eggs or more per day. The laying of
eggs is begun, as a rule, in January, is gradually in-
creased until just after the height of the honey season,
decreasing when nectar is scarce and increasing when
it is plentiful, and is gradually decreased until, gen-
erally, about November, when it is almost or entirely
ceased for the winter.

A queen sometimes lives as long as 5 yr., but it
frequently happens that the fertilizing element with
which she is provided is exhausted long before the end
of this time. In fact, the vigor and prolificacy of a
queen diminishes after the second, or at most, the
third year of her life. She may continue to lay fertile
eggs during her entire life, but it is probable that after
the second or third year she will not be sufficiently
prolific to keep up the population of the colony. For
this reason it is the practice of the best bee keepers
to requeen their colony every 2 yr. ; some bee keepers
go so far as to recommend requeening every year, but
this is unnecessary if the queen is a good one.

Worker Bees.— The workers perform all of the work
of a colony, aside from the laying of eggs. They gather
nectar, pollen, propolis, and water; secrete wax and
build comb; serve, when young, as nurses to the brood;
feed the queen and, at times, the drones; act as sentinels
to ward off intruders; and, within certain limits, regu-
late the temperature within the hive. Although the
work of an individual worker may seem insignificant,
that performed by the thousands of workers that con-
stitute the chief part of a colony is amazing.

Worker bees never attain a great age. Those reared
in autumn may live 8 or 9 mo., and if in queenless
colonies where little work is performed, even longer.
Those reared in spring or early summer usually perish
in 3 mo. and, if very active, in from 30 to 40 da.
The period of activity of a worker bee is usually
terminated by the wearing out of the wing membranes.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 339

When a bee is no longer able to fly it is cast out of the
hive to perish.

Drones. — The function of the drones is to fertilize the
queen. They serve a slight secondary service in aiding
to provide and maintain heat in the colony, which is
necessary for the hatching of eggs and the rearing of
broods. However, they perform no work whatever, living
solely on the labors of the workers. A great many
more drones than queens are produced by a colony;
this is doubtless a provision of nature to insure that a
queen will be fertilized. The drones are usually killec*
by the workers as soon as the honey flow commences to
diminish.

ParthenogeDesis in Bees.— Male bees, or drones, are
produced by a peculiar phenomenon of nature known as
parthenogenesis. By this term is meant the rearing of
young from unfertilized eggs. If a queen fails to mate
with a drone, or if her supply of the fertilizing element
becomes exhausted, she has the power to lay unfertilized
eggs, a power possessed also by a fertilized queen.
Unfertilized eggs produce drones and fertilized eggs
produce queens and workers, depending on the food given
to the larvas. In no other form of animal life, so far
as is known, are males produced without the union of
male and female.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

PLOWS

Seam, or Walking, Plows.— Several types of beam, or
walking, plows are on the market. For plowing tough
sod, plows with long moldboards are best, because they
pulverize the soil but little, turn the sod smoothly, and
are of light draft. For plowing stubble land, plows with
steep moldboards are best, as they bend the furrow
slice abruptly and pulverize the soil much more thor-
oughly than sod plows. There are on the market also

310 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

general-purpose plows that are used either for sod or
for stubble. Where land is so sloping that the furrow
slice must be thrown down hill, what is known as the
reversible plow is generally used. These plows are made
to turn a right-hand or a left-hand furrow by adjusting
the bottom, or standard.

Stilky Plows. — Wheel, or sulky, plows have provisions
for interchangeable bottoms; they can be made to turn
a 14-, 16-, or 18-in. furrow. These plows are usually
provided with a seat for the driver, but in some of the
simplest types, the truck, which is bolted to the beam,
serves merely to steady the running of the plow and to
regulate the depth of furrow.

Gang Plows.— Wheel plows that have two or more
bottoms are called gang plows. Some gang plows are
provided with hand or foot levers for raising and low-
ering the bottoms and others are so designed that the
bottoms are raised and lowered by the team or engine
that pulls the plow. Gang plows are equipped with
different types of plow bottoms, each with its own form
of moldboard and plowshare.

Disk Plows.— In the disk type of plow a rotating disk
has been substituted for the moldboard. These plows
are especially recommended for soils that are sticky
or for use in very hard ground.

Subsoil Plows. — What are known as subsoil plows are
frequently used where it is desired to loosen the ground
to a greater depth than can be done with the surface
plow. Such plows are used to follow in the bottom of
the furrow made by the common plow. They simply
loosen the soil, but do not bring it to the surface of
the ground,

HARROWS
Spike-Tooth Harrows.— Spike-tooth harrows both pul-
verize and compact the soil. By means of levers the
teeth may be placed in a vertical position, tilted for-
wards, or given a slant backwards. When the teeth are

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 341

tilted forwards the harrow exercises a vigorous stirring
action, but when they are given a slant to the rear, the
action is less vigorous and the soil is smoothed and
leveled. Sloping the teeth backwards also prevents
them from gathering trash and from catching under
roots or other obstructions.

Spring-Tooth Harrow.— The implement known as the
spring-tooth harrow breaks up the soil, but does little
smoothing or pulverizing. Spring-tooth harrows are very
efficient implements for loosening up plowed ground that
has become compact. The depth to which a spring-
tooth harrow penetrates is adjusted by means of levers.

Disk Harrows. — A disk harrow consists of a series of
sharp disks mounted in such a manner that they may
be made to cut straight ahead in the direction the team
is moving, or the two sections of the frame may be so
adjusted, by means of a lever, as to cause the disks
to cut at an angle. Disk harrows are used for cutting
up heavy sod preparatory to plowing, for working down
sod that has been plowed, and for cutting up clods.
They are also very useful for preparing a seed-bed
in corn stubble or other loose ground when it is un-
desirable to plow the field. They are also sometimes
used for disking green manure or stable manure into
the soil.

Acme Harrow. — The Acme type of harrow is equipped
with a series of curved blades that slice and turn the
surface soil. It is an efficient surface-working tool
when the ground is mellow and a cutting action is
desired.

ROLLERS AND DRAGS

Rollers. — The first rollers were made from the trunks
of trees, which were cut into suitable lengths and
mounted in frames. Pins passing through the frame
and driven into the ends of the log served as bearings
on which the roller turned as it was dragged through
the field. On a level, even surface this implement is a

342 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

good clod crusher and compacts the soil satisfactorily.
The first improvement was a substitution of two or
three sections for a single log. Such a roller is much
easier to turn in the field than one made of a single log.

Steel rollers are now in the market. These can be
had either as a smooth or as a corrugated cylinder.
The smooth-cylinder type leaves the soil in a smooth
and compact condition; the corrugated roller leaves the
surface of the soil in slight ridges. The smooth roller
is wasteful of moisture unless it is followed closely
vfhh a harrow; the corrugated roller is a very efficient
pulverizer and leaves the soil in excellent condition
for further working.

For use in the semi-arid regions of the West a special
form of roller known as the subsurface packer is used
for packing the ground beneath the surface for the
purpose of increasing the moisture-holding capacity of
the soil. This tool consists of a series of wedge-shaped
wheels that are designed to penetrate the immediate
surface and compact the subsurface soil and bring the
furrow slice into immediate contact with the subsoil.

Drags. — Drags, which are usually nothing more or less
than three or four heavy 2-in. boards lapped one over
the other and well secured' by strips bolted across the
top, can be easily made at home. If a vigorous pulver-
izing action is desired, the drag is drawn through the
field with the sharp edges of the planks forwards, but
if a smooth action only is desired, the implement is
drawn in the opposite direction. This tool crushes
clods and levels the surface of a field very effectively.

CULTIVATORS
Single-Shovel Cultivator.— The single-shovel cultivator
is used for marking off land with furrows or trenches
in which seed or plants may be planted. It is a con-
venient implement for marking out a potato patch or for
use in the home garden. The depth of the furrow is

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 343

regulated by the driver, who walks behind and usually
carries a part of the weight of the plow by means of
handles. If the ground is hard, some pressure on the
handles may be necessary to secure sufficient penetration
of the soil.

Double-Shovel Cultivator.— A double-shovel cultivator
is generally used where the area to be cultivated is
small. This implement is also sometimes used in large
fields after the corn is too tall to admit of the use of
a straddle-row cultivator.

Straddle-Row Cultivator.— The straddle-row type of
cultivator cultivates the soil on both sides of the corn
row at one operation. Straddle-row cultivators can be
had either for cultivating a single row at a time or
two rows at a time. With an implement of the latter
type one man with three horses can cultivate practically
twice as much corn in a day as one man with two
horses using a single-row implement.

In the modern single-row and double-row cultivators
the plows are attached to a frame that is mounted on
wheels, and the implement is provided with levers and
other means of adjustment. Cultivators may be equipped
with different kinds of shovels, or disks, depending on
the character of the work to be done. Under some
circumstances the spring-tooth shovel is desirable. In
case vines are very troublesome in the field, gangs
carrying three disks each are more effective than shovels
in cutting their way through the soil. Early in the
season large shovels are used on the implement, but
after the first or second cultivation these should give
way to short, narrow shovels, which will stir the surface
without disturbing the roots of the crop. If surface
cultivation is desirable, sweep plates may be sub-
stituted.

344 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

WEEDERS

The weeder is a very satisfactory implement of
tillage "when the ground is mellow and the weeds are
small. It is of particular value for cultivating corn
before it is up and for several days after the plants
are through the ground. The slender, flexible teeth
destroy the young weeds without injury to the corn
plants. Weeders are made in several sizes from those
that till a single row to those that till several rows
at a time. _____

PLANTING IMPLEMENTS
Broadcasting Seeders.— Seeders that merely scatter
the seed over the surface of the field are known as
broadcasting seeders, or simply as broadcasters. They
are used principally for the seeding of grasses and also
sometimes for the seeding of small grains. The simplest
form of broadcasting machine is known as the knapsack
seeder. It consists of a bag to hold the seed, and is
supported by means of a strap over the shoulder.
The bottom of the bag has an opening that allows the
seed to pass out to the distributing mechanism, which
is operated by means of gears turned by a handle. The
rate of seeding is determined by the size of the opening
in the bottom of the bag, and the rate at which the
sower walks.

Another type of hand broadcaster is the wheelbarrow
seeder. In this implement the bottom of the box is
provided with openings and a vibrating rod. As the
seeder is pushed across the field, the vibrating rod
causes the seed to be distributed from the openings of
the box. These wheelbarrow machines are made in
several widths, 14 ft. being the common width.

The end-gate broadcasting seeder resembles the knap-
sack seeder in general principles, except that the bag
is replaced by a metal hopper and the distributing disks
are driven by power obtained from a sprocket bolted tc

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 345

the wheels of a wagon, on the end gate of which the
seeder is attached.

Grain Drills. — The modern grain drill consists of the
following essential parts: the hopper, the supporting
frame, the wheels, the feeding mechanism, the furrow
opener, and the tubes for conveying the seed from the
hopper to the ground. In addition, manufacturers of
drills generally equip their machines with fertilizer at-
tachments for distributing commercial fertilizer at the
time the seed is sown. The fertilizer is carried in a
hopper at the rear of the seed box. The bottom of the
hopper is provided with a feeding mechanism that
pulverizes the material and conveys it to the tubes
leading down to the soil. Another attachment often
included on the grain drill is a grass seeder. The
hopper for grass seed is usually placed on the front
of the main grain box and is provided with a seeding
mechanism that differs from the grain-seeding device
only in size. Short lengths of chain are frequently-
attached to the furrow openers of the implement to drag
behind them for the purpose of making sure that all
grain is covered. These so-called covering chains are
especially useful when the soil is wet. For use in dry
regions, drills are frequently equipped with what are
known as press wheels, which follow the furrow opener.
These press wheels are designed to compact the soil
around the seed and thus to encourage the capillary
movement of moisture up into the seed-bed.

Corn and Cotton Planters.— Corn planters are of two
types, namely, hand planters and horse planters. Hand
planters are used to a limited extent on small farms,
but probably their greatest use is found in the replanting^
of missing hills in large fields.

The modern two-horse corn planter is designed to drill
or to hill drop two rows of seed at a time. The frame of
the corn planter is, as a rule, constructed entirely of steel
and is made as light as is consistent with strength and
rigidity. The front of the planter is usually joined to

346 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

the main frame by a hinge that is controlled by a lever.
This lever is used to regulate the planting by raising
or lowering the furrow openers. The bottoms of the seed
boxes are generally provided with revolving plates, in
which are holes or notches to receive the grains of
corn. As the plate revolves, a grain or a number of
grains are dropped into what is known as the planter
shank each time the hole in the plate comes over the
opening.

In some localities, particularly in the eastern and
southern parts of the United States, it is desirable to
use commercial fertilizers to secure early and quick
growth of corn. To meet this need, fertilizer attach-
ments may be secured with almost any make of planter.

The single-row corn drill, for which only one horse is
necessary, is extensively used in some parts of the
country. The mechanical principles used in this drill
are practically the same as those employed in connec-
tion with the two-row planter. The standard equipment
has one dropping plate, which may be adjusted to drop
■one grain every 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, or 18 in. as desired.

In the semi-arid regions it is desirable to plant corn
in the bottom of a deep furrow and gradually fill this
furrow as the plant develops. This method of planting is
Ttnown as listing, and the machines constructed for the
purpose are called listers.

Combination corn and cotton planters of the same
general type as the reg^ular corn planters are to be
secured on the market. In these machines only a slight
adjustment is necessary to adapt the drill to either
corn or cotton.

Potato Planters. — In many of the potato-growing dis-
tricts, special potato planters are used that open the
furrow and drop either cut or whole potatoes at regular
intervals and cover the furrow. Fertilizer is used very
generally by large potato growers; hence, the potato
planters are usually equipped with fertilizer attachments.
In these attachments the fertilizer is carried in boxes

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 347

from which it is forced in the desired quantities into
the furrow, where it is mixed with the soil by disks.
Seedling Planters.— In the tobacco districts and in the
extensive trucking sections young seedling plants are
frequently transplanted by machinery. In one of the
most modern of these transplanters the essential parts
consist of a barrel for carrying the water supply, a
furrow opener, and a covering device. Two men riding
on seats provided at the rear of the implement hold the
plants in an upright position in the furrow just behind
the opener until the soil "is pressed around them by a
covering shovel. The soil in the furrow is moistened
by water from the barrel.

HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS

HAY-HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS

Mowers. — Mowers are now made in sizes of 3H. 4, 4J^,
5, 6, and 7 ft. in width of cut. The ordinary two-horse
farm mowers are usually either 4J4 or 5 ft. in width of
cut. The cutting swath of the one-horse mower is
about 35^ ft.

The best mowers are provided with roller bearings on
the main shaft for the purpose of reducing friction and
draft. Gears on the main and cross-shafts should in all
cases be closed to prevent dust and grit from getting
in and wearing out the parts.

The cutter bar of a mower is usually known as a
floating bar, because it is connected to the frame in
such a way that it practically floats over the uneven
ground. Every mower should have some method of
adjusting the cutter bar so that when the pins wear
and sag in the bar, caused by the constant pressure
against it, the space may be taken up.

The grass board fastened to the outside end of the
cutter bar serves the purpose of turning the grass in
toward the cutter bar. This board should be provided

348 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

with a spring so that it may be adjusted to heavy grass
without danger of breaking either the board or the out-
side shoe. All mowers are provided with some arrange-
iflent by which the cutter bar can be raised by the
operator from the seat. Some have both a hand and a
foot lift.

Wlndrower, or Buncher.— Where clover is raised for
seed, a very handy attachment for the mower is a
buncher. This implement is used for bunching clover,
timothy, prairie hay, and field peas. It places the grass
or vines in windrows where the sun and air have a
chance to dry and cure them.

Hay Rakes. — Two classes of front-delivery hay rakes
are in general use in the United States: the so-called
hand-dump rake and the self-dump rake. The former
is operated by means of a lever and the latter by a
foot trip that throws into action a ratchet in the wheel.
This raises the teeth of the rake at regular in-
tervals and leaves the hay in the windrow.

The side-delivery hay rake is an invention of recent
years and is used in connection with hay loading. With
the front-delivery style of hay rake it is difficult to
rake hay so that it will lie in long windrows con-
venient for loading with the hay loader. With the
side-delivery rake, however, a continuous windrow can
be made.

Where large fields of hay are to be handled quickly
and taken directly to the stack, a sweep rake is
used. The large wooden teeth, which are drawn be-
tween two horses, will take up the hay either from
the swath or the windrow. When the load is secured,
the teeth are raised and the hay is drawn to a point
where the stack is being built and is dumped on the
teeth of the stacker and by it elevated to the stack.

Hay Stacker. — A power hay stacker is usually used
in connection with a sweep rake. By means of a
stacker the hay is quickly elevated and swung to any
part of the stack. Several types of stackers are in use

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 349

in various parts of the country and they have been
found to be economical labor-saving devices where a
large quantity of hay is to be stacked.

Hay Tedder. — Hay tedders are valuable machines for
shaking up hay so that the sun can cure it. They are
especially valuable for stirring up hay that has been
rained on or that is very heavy.

Hay Loaders. — By means of hay loaders it is possible
to load a quantity of hay on a wagon in much less time
than by pitching it with forks. Usually, hay loaders are
mounted on two wheels and are made to be drawn after
the wagon. They have a cylinder carrying hooks de-
signed to lift the hay from the ground and deposit it
upon the endless carrier that elevates it onto the
wagon. One type of loader consists of a series of rakes
so mounted on a crank-shaft that they grasp the hay in
the swath and draw it a short distance upwards on
the frame of the loader by a peculiar alternating move-
ment of the rakes. The hooks on the under side of
each rake gradually carry the hay to the top of the
elevator, where it falls over on the wagon.

SMALL-GRAIN HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS
Grain Binders. — The operation of the grain binder is as
follows: As the machine advances the grain is caught
by the reel and pushed backwards between the cutter-bar
fingers until it is cut. The grain then falls on the
platform and is conveyed by the platform canvas to the
elevator, which carries it to the binding mechanism. As
soon as a sufficient quantity of grain has accumulated
in the binding mechanism, it is bound into a bundle
and deposited on the carrier. When a number of these
bundles have accumulated, the bundle carrier is released
by means of a lever controlled by the driver and the
bundles are deposited in a convenient pile. Grain
binders are made with S-, 6-, 7-, and 8-ft. cuts for the
pull machines, and 10-, 12-, and 14-ft. cuts for the push
machines.

350 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

Headers. — Machines known as headers are much used
in the prairie regions for harvesting small grain. They
are fitted with a long reel and a cutting device that
removes the heads and drops them on a moving canvas,
by which they are elevated and deposited in a wagon
driven along by the side of the machine. The header
is pushed by attaching four or more horses abreast to
tongues in the rear.

Combined Harvester and Thrasher.— In California and
other localities where there js no probability of rain
during the harvest seasons, use is made of a machine
known as the combined harvester and thrasher. These
machines head, thrash, and sack the grain at one
operation. They are propelled either by horses or by
a traction engine. If horses are used, from thirty to
thirty-six are required to furnish the power necessary.
The machines have a daily capacity of from 60 to 125 A.
of grain.

Self-Rake Reaper.— The self-rake reaper is an imple-
ment used chiefly for cutting small grain. It cuts the
grain and places it in bundles ready for binding. These
machines are used principally in regions too hilly for
binders. They are also used for cutting grain — flax, for
example — that it is not desired to have bound into
bundles.

CORN-HARVESTING MACHINERY
Corn Pickers.— Up to the present time there are two
general classes of pickers on the market. One type is
intended to pick the ears and remove the husks before
the corn is elevated into a wagon that is drawn beside
the machine. The other type picks the ears without any
attempt to remove the husks. Neither type has come
into very general use, perhaps largely on account of the
expense of the implement.

Corn Binders. — During recent years corn binders have
come into extensive use for the harvesting of corn.
These machines cut the corn stalks and bind them into

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 351

bundles. They weigh complete from 1,400 to 1,800 lb.
Generally speaking, those weighing in the neighborhood
of 1,500 lb. have been most successful, this weight seem-
ing to give the proper relation between driving power
and durability.

Corn Huskers and Shredders.— The scarcity of farm
labor and the desirability of having corn fodder shredded
for convenience in handling has led to the development
of a combined husker and shredder. In most of these
machines the fodder is placed on a feeding table from
which it is fed into snapping rolls. As the stalks pass
these rolls the ears are removed and allowed to fall
directly on husking rolls, or on a conveyer, which car-
ries them to husking rolls. The husks are removed from
the ear by these rolls and are conveyed to the rear of
the machine by a husk drag. After the removal of the
ears, the stalks pass to the shredder head, where they
are cut and split into small fragments. From the
shredder head the material is carried to the conveyer at
the opposite end of the machine. The ears pass from
the husking rolls to a conveyer at the front of the
machine. The shredded fodder passes over beaters that
remove any shelled corn that it may contain.

ROOT-CROP HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS
Potato Diggers. — Single-shovel potato harvesters that
are provided with an advanced furrow opener and a
shaker at the rear are on the market. The shaker is
operated by means of a spur wheel, which engages the
soil at the bottom of the furrow and gives the rods a
rapid vertical motion. This motion separates the dirt
from the potatoes and leaves them in a continuous row
on the surface.

Where a large number of potatoes are grown annually,
a type of digger with a greater capacity than that of
the single-shovel type is in use. These large machines
are provided with two main drive wheels at the rear and
a two-wheeled truck in front. A feature of this machine
24

352 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

are steel rods that have a backwards and forwards mo-
tion that sifts out all the dirt and deposits the potatoes
in a compact row on clean ground at the rear of the
machine. At the same time, the vines and trash are
deposited at one side by another set of rods, assisted
by vine forks.

Beet Lifters.— The depth which sugar beets extend
into the soil has made necessary a special type of plow
for lifting them and breaking the tap roots without
injuring the beets. Several different forms of plows
designed for this purpose are on the market. In one
of the best of these types the implement does not re-
move the beets from the soil, but simply lifts them
sufficiently to break the root connections, after which
they may be pulled up by hand and the tops removed.

THRASHING MACHINERY

In the modern thrashing machine the grain is con-
veyed to a cylinder, where it is shelled from the head
by the passage of the straw between the cylinder and
what is known as a concave. From the cylinder the
straw passes over straw racks to the stacker and as the
straw passes back over the racks, the thrashed grain
sifts down through screens where a blast of air from
a fan blows out the dust and fine chaff. From the
screens the grain passes to what is known as the auger,
by means of which it is removed from the machine. The
capacity of a thrashing machine is indicated by the
width of the cylinder and the width of the machine
proper. A medium-sized machine will require for its
operation a 15- or a 16-H. P. engine, and will have a
capacity of 500 to 1,000 bu. of wheat per day, or double
that quantify of oats.

Bean and Pea Thrashers.— Where beans and peas are
grown extensively, special thrashers are often used to
separate the grain. These differ from the grain thrashers
in having two cylinders operated at different speeds.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 353

The vines first pass through a low-speed cylinder that
thrashes out the dry pods and then through a more
rapidly revolving cylinder to remove the seeds from the
damp pods. These machines are usually provided with
a recleaner and a clod crusher to remove dirt that may
be adhering to the vines.

Clover HuUer. — The clover huller operates on the same
principle as the grain thrasher, except that it is pro-
vided with an additional hulling cylinder. The first
cylinder removes the heads and thrashes out a part of
the seed. The heads are then separated from the stems
and chaff and passed to the hulling cylinder, which
removes the seeds from the pods. The separation of
the seed from the straw and chaff is accomplished in
the same manner as in the grain thrasher.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM IMPLEMENTS

Manure Spreaders. — At the present time there are
several successful manure spreaders on the market. The
capacity of spreaders is usually stated in bushels, and
the rate of speed is designated as tons per acre. The
ordinary two-horse spreader is usually rated at 70 bu.
.Some spreaders are equipped with lime distributors.
This attachment consists of a box or hood that fits down
over the beater of the machine and prevents the fine
dust of the lime from being blown away.

The greatest advantage from using a manure spreader
comes from the manner in which the machine pulverizes
and spreads the manure. The fineness and evenness of
the spreading has much to do with the crop grown, and
to be effective the spreader must break the lumps into
pieces and spread the manure evenly over the ground.
The increase in crop production resulting from the
manure spreader will usually pay for the implement in
one season's use, to say nothing of the labor saved.

Sprayers. — By proper spraying a very large part of
the annual loss caused by insects and fungi to fruit

354 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

and vegetable plants can be prevented. To do this work
effectively, spraying machines must be employed. The
kind of spraying outfit to use will depend entirely on
how much work is to be done. For the home garden or
small orchard, hand sprayers are satisfactory. Several
types of hand sprayers are on the market, from the small
bucket pumps to knapsack sprayers that are carried on
the back of the operator.

What are known as barrel spray outfits are satis-
factory for an orchard of, say, 5 or 6 A., or for a garden
of about the same size. These consist essentially of a
force pump inserted either into the end or into the side
of a barrel that contains the spray solution. Some kind
of agitator for keeping the spray mixture in motion
should also be a part of the equipment.

An outfit with a double-action force pump is used for
orchards of, say, from 6 to IS A. This double-action pump
can be mounted on skids and the spray material pumped
through a hose from a barrel standing beside the pump.

For a large orchard or garden, power spray outfits of
some kind are necessary. These consist essentially of
a large pump, a tank of some kind for holding the spray
material, and some source of power. This power is
generally furnished by a gasoline engine.

CARE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS AND
MACHINERY

The total value of the machinery on the farms of the
United States is more than three-quarters of a billion
dollars, and, in addition to this amount vast sums are
expended each year in adding to this investment by the
purchase of new machines and in the repair of old
machinery. The factories of this country produce farm
machinery each year to the value of about $100,000,000,
of which about $16,000,000 worth is exported, leaving a
balance of $84,000,000 that is purchased by the American
farmer.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 355

From a study of these figures, it is easy to see that
a very great saving would come to the farmers of this
country if by careful operation and proper care the life
of each machine could be extended for a term of years.
The profit from this extended term of service will be
realized by the greater durability and the increased
efficiency that comes from proper care and expert
management.

The care of farm machinery naturally comes under
two heads: (1) the proper handling of the machinery
while in operation in the field, and (2) the proper care
of the machines when not in use.

The driver or operator of any piece of machinery
should have a thorough knowledge of the working parts
of the machine that he is using and should be able to
detect the first indications of loose parts or lack of
adjustment. A loose bolt or lack of adjustment of
parts may in a very short time result in permanent
injury to the machine and an expensive delay in the
work. Very often the delay is more expensive than the
repair, especially if the break occurs during harvest.
Such a break often necessitates a trip to the shop, which
consumes time during which the help is idle and the
crop is suffering.

Much of this delay and annoyance can be avoided by
having on the farm a small shop in which all minor
repairs can be made. In fact, such a shop with a modest
supply of blacksmith and carpenter tools should be a
part of the equipment of every farm. The man who
has any mechanical ability will soon learn to use such
tools and be able to attend to all minor repairs and
thus keep his machinery in a high state of efficiency.
The shop should be located in a small building well
apart from the barn on account of the danger of fire
from the forge. It need not be a separate building, how-
ever, but may be built in connection with a wagon or a
scale shed. Some means should be provided for heating
the shop in winter.

356 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

The following tools will be found sufficient to equip
a shop for all ordinary repair work. Other tools, of
course, may be desirable, but they are not absolutely
necessary. A statement of the average cost is also given

Wood-Working Tools

Saw $2.00

Hatchet 50

Draw shave 50

Jack plane 75

Ratchet brace 1.25

Bits 2.00

Chisels 75

Oil stone SO

Square 75

Rule 25

Screwdrivers 25

Total $9.50

Iron-Working Tools

Forge or blower $5.00

Anvil 6.00

Tongs, 2 pairs 75

Hand hammer SO

Sledge hammer 1.00

Vise 5.00

Small tools 2.00

Total $20.25

Total cost of all tools, $29.75.

The presence of a shop with the above equipment will
in a single season often effect a saving of an amount
sufficient to pay for the entire list of tools, to say noth-
ing of the satisfaction that is derived from being able
to have the machinery of the farm always in good
working order.

The lack of durability in farm machinery is often due
to the fact that the machines are placed in the hands of
ignorant or inexperienced men who are not familiar
with the operation and are therefore not capable of
handling them properly.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 357

All machines when not in use should be properly
housed and protected from the weather. A season with-
out shelter detracts more from the value of a machine
than the wear caused by its use during the same season.
It is a .well-known fact that the iron and steel parts of
a machine rust when exposed to the weather. This
results in a gradual destruction of these materials and
greatly interferes with the working of the machine when
it is put in use. Also rusting results in loss of
efficiency and a gradual weakening of the parts. From
the financial side of the subject it pays well to care
for and house farm implements. A well-regulated farm
of, say, 160 A., for its successful operation, should have
at least the following implements, which cost approx-
imately the sum named:

1 grain binder $125.00

1 mower 45.00

1 gang plow 50.00

1 walking plow 12.00

2 cultivators 40.00

1 disk pulverizer 25.00

2 farm wagons 100.00

1 smoothing harrow 18.00

1 planter 35.00

1 seeder S\00

1 manure spreader 100.00

1 hay loader 45.00

1 hay rake 20.00

1 light road wagon 60.00

1 buggy 75.00

Total $800.00

This makes a total of $800, assuming that all the
machinery is new. For $200 a very convenient tool shed
can be built that by a little careful planning can be
made to shelter all of the above machinery very satis-
factorily, especially if a floor is provided on a level with
the eaves by which means considerable room can be
made for some of the implements which can be easily
taken apart, and for parts removed from some of the

368 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

larger ones. Assume that a man starts farming with
$800 invested in implements, and that if these imple-
ments are sheltered and well cared for they will
last 10 yr. and if not sheltered ' they will last
only 5 yr. If the implements stand out in the
weather it costs $800 more to purchase a new set of
implements at the end of 5 yr. The compound
interest on this amount for 5 yr. at 5% amounts to
about $215, or, the extra amount of money paid out for
machinery, with its accrued interest, equals $1,015. If
our tool shed costs $200, the compound interest on this
amount for 10 yr. at 5% equals $125, or the shed
may be considered to cost $325. After paying the ex-
penses for the shed, it leaves at the end of 10 yr.
a balance of $690.40 in favor of housing the machinery,
and the shed is perhaps good for 10 yr. more. This
does not take into consideration the saving in the cost
of repairs.

It is very poor economy to buy good tools and convert
them into poor ones by the lack of care. This is
especially true of plows. In order to do good work, a
plow must scour properly, and in order to do this the
moldboards are made very hard and given a high polish.
When plows are left in the soil or exposed to the
weather the polished surface soon becomes pitted with
rust and its scouring qualities are lost until a new
polish can be obtained. Plows left in the field over
night should have the polished surfaces covered with
grease or oil. Between seasons, plows should be prop-
erly housed in the barn or in a tool shed and the
polished surface covered with paint or grease. Paint is
to be preferred, because mice and rats are apt to remove
the grease before spring.

Rainy days and spare time during the winter season
should be devoted to the inspection and repair of all
machinery. For this reason the tool shed or storage
room should be light and machines so placed that they
are readily accessible. At this time all bolts should be

MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 359

tightened, the paint renewed on the wooden parts and
all bearings thoroughly cleaned and oiled. If this is
done much valuable time will be saved later during the
busy season when the tools are in almost constant
demand.

The man who expends money in the proper housing
and in care of his machinery will find that it will all
come back to him in the lengthened life of his ma-
chines, in the reduced cost of repairs, and in the satis-
faction derived from having his machinery always in
good order.

MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL
TABLES

QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED PER ACRE

Kind of Seed Quantity

Alfalfa, broadcasted 20 to 2.5 lb.

Alfalfa, In drills 15 to 20 lb.

Artichokes 6 to 8 bu.

Asparagus 4 to 5 lb.

Barley 8 to 10 pk.

Barley and peas, each 1 to 2 bu.

Beans, dwarf, in drills 1| bu.

Beans, field, small variety 2 to 3 pk.

Beans, field, large variety 5 to 6 pk.

Beans, pole, in drills 10 to 12 qt.

Beet 4 to 6 lb.

Beggar weed, for forage 5 to 6 lb.

Beggar weed, for hay 8 to 10 lb.

Bent grass 1 to 2 bu.

Blue grass 25 lb.

Brome grass, alone for hay 12 to 15 lb.

Brome grass, alone for pasture 15 to 201b.

Broom com 3 pk.

Broom com, for seed. 1 pk.

Buckwheat 3 to 5 pk.

Bur clover 12 lb.

Cabbage I to 1 lb.

Carrot 4 to 6 lb.

Chicory 1 to U lb.

Clover, Alsike, alone for forage 8 to 15 lb.

Clover, Alsike, on wheat or rye 4 to 6 lb.

Clover, Crimson 12 to 15 lb.

Clover, Japan 12 lb.

360 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES

Table — (Continued)
Kind of Seed Quantity

Clover, Mammoth 12 to 15 lb.

Clover, Red, alone for forage 16 lb.

Clover, Red, on small grain 8 to 14 lb.

Clover, Sweet (Melilotus) 2 to 4 pk.

Clover, White 10 to 12 lb.

Clover, Yellow 3 to 5 lb.

Com, in hills ". . . 6 to 10 qt.

Com, for silage 9 to 11 qt.

Cotton 1 to 3 bu.

Cowpeas 1 to IJ bu.

Cowpeas, in drills with com i to 1 bu.

Cowpeas, for seed ,3 pk.

Cucumber, in hills 2 lb.

Cress, water, in drills 2 to 3 lb.

Cress, upland 2 to 3 lb.

Eggplant, for 1 ,000 plants 1 oz.

Field pea, small variety 2^ bu.

Field pea, large variety 3 to 3| bu.

Flax, for seed 2 to 3 pk.

Fla.x, for fiber IJ to 2 bu.

Grass, for lawns 2 to 4 bu.

Hemp, broadcasted 3J to 4 pk.

Hungarian grass, for hay 2 pk.

Hungarian grass, for seed 1 pk.

Johnson grass 1 to IJ bu.

Kafir com, in drills 3 to 6 lb.

Kafir com, for fodder 10 to 12 lb.

Kale 2 to 4 lb.

Kohlrabi 4 to 5 lb.

Lettuce 20 to 30 oz.

Lupine. . li to 2 bu.

Mangels 5 to 8 lb.

Meadow fescue 12 to 15 lb.

Millet, barnyard. In drills 1 to 2 pk.

Millet, foxtail, in drills 2 to 3 pk.

Millet, German, for seed 1 pk.

Millet. Pearl, for soiling 4 lb.

Millet, Pearl, for hay 8 to 10 lb.

Milo 5 lb.

Muskmelon, in hills 2 to 3 lb.

Mustard, broadcasted i bu-

Oat grass, Tall 30 lb.

Oats 2 to 3 bu.

/-, * A fOats, 2bu.

Oats and peas \ pg^s, J bu.

Onion, in drills 5 to 6 lb.

Onion, for sets 30 lb.

Onion sets 6 to 12 lb.

Orchard grass 12 to 15 lb.

MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 361

Table— (Continued)
Kind of Seed Quantity

Parsnip 4 to 8 lb.

Pop com 3 lb.

Potatoes, cut tubers 6 to 20 bu.

Pumpkin 4 lb.

Rape, in drills 2 to 4 lb.

Rape, broadcasted 4 to 8 lb.

Radish, in drills 8 to 10 lb.

Red top 12 to 15 lb.

Rice 1 to 3 bu.

Rutabaga 3 to 5 lb.

Rye, early 3 to 4 pk.

Rye, late 6 to 8 pk.

Rye, for forage 3 to 4 pk.

Rye grass 2 to 3 bu. —

Sage, in drills 8 to 10 lb.

Sainfoin 40 lb.

Salsify 8 to 10 lb.

Sand lucerne, broadcasted 15 lb.

Sheep's fescue 2| to 3 bu.

Sorghum, for forage Ij to 2 bu.

Sorghum, for seed or syrup 2 to 5 lb.

Sorghum, saccharine, for silage 6 to 251b.

Sorghum and peas, each } pk.

Soybeans, in drills 2 to 3 pk.

Soybeans, broadcasted 1 to IJ bu.

Spinage 10 to 12 lb.

Spurry 6 to 8 qt.

Spurry, for seed 4 qt.

Squash, bush, in hills 4 to 6 lb.

Squash, running, in hills 3 to 4 lb.

Sugar beet 15 to 20 lb.

Sugar cane 4 T. of cane

Sunflower 10 to 15 lb.

Sweet potatoes Ij to 4 bu.

Teosinte 1 to 3 lb.

Timothy 15 to 25 lb.

Timothy and clover{T|^;>j;y; ■■■■••::;::::::: I }b;

Tomato, for transplanting J lb.

Turnip, broadcasted 2 to 4 lb.

Turnip, in drills ] lb.

Turnip, hybrid 3 to 5 lb.

Velvet bean 1 to 4 pk.

Vetch, Hairy, in drills 1 bu.

Vetch, Hairy, broadcasted IJ bu

Vetch, kidney 18 to 22 lb.

Vetch, spring f pk.

Watermelon, in hills 4 to 5 lb.

Wheat 6 to 9 pk.

362 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES

MIXTURES RECOMMENDED FOR 1 A. OF

MEADOW
Mixture Pounds

No. 1:

Timothy 8

Red clover 8

No. 2:

Timothy 8

Red clover 6

Alsike clover 2

No. 3:

Red top 13

Orchard grass 18

Meadow fescue 9

Red clover 4

No. 4:

Timothy 8

Red clover 4

Alsike clover : 2

Kentucky blue grass 2

Red top 2

MIXTURES RECOMMENDED FOR PERMANENT
PASTURES

For fertile land: Pounds

Timothy 8 to 12

Kentucky blue grass 4 to 6

Meadow fescue 1 to 4

Orchard grass 1 to 4

Red clover 6

Alsike clover 3

White clover 1 to 2

For rather poor land :

Timothy 8 to 12

Red top 4

Canadian blue grass 4

Red clover 6

Alsike clover ^ 3

White clover 1

For wet pasture:

Red top 14

Alsike clover 8

Creeping bent grass 6

Perennial rye grass 12

MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 363

NUMBER OF PLANTS REQUIRED TO SET 1 A.
OF GROUND AT GIVEN DISTANCES

Distance

Plants

Distance

Plants

1 in.X 6 in.

1,045.440

12 in.X 15 in.

34.848

1 in.X 8 in.

784,080

12 in.X 18 in.

29.040

1 in.X 10 in.

627,269

12 in.X 20 in.

26,136

1 in.X 12 in.

522,720

12 in.X 30 in.

17,424

2 in.X 6 in.

522,720

12 in.X 42 in.

12,446

2 in.X Sin.

392,040

12 in.X 54 in.

9,680

2 in. X 10 in.

313,632

15 in.X 15 in.

27,878

2 in.X 12 in.

261,360

15 in.X 18 in.

23,2.32

3 in. X 6 in.

348,480

15 in.X 20 in.

20,908

3 in.X Sin.

261,360

15 in.X 24 in.

17,424

3 in.X 10 in.

209,088

15 in.X 30 in.

13.939

3 in.X 12 in.

174,240

15 in.X 36 in.

11,616

4 in.X 6 in.

261,360

15 in.X 42 in.

9,953

4 in.X Sin.

196,020

15 in.X 48 in.

8,712

4 in.X 10 in.

156,816

15 in.X 54 in.

7,744

4 in.X 12 in.

130,680

15 in. X 60 in.

6,969

5 in.X 6 in.

209,088

18 in.X 18 in.

19.360

5 in.X Sin.

156,816

18 in.X 20 in.

17,424

5 in.X 10 in.

125,452

18 in.X 24 in.

14,520

6 in.X 12 in.

104,544

18 in.X 30 in.

11,616

6 in.X 6 in.

174,240

18 in.X 36 in.

9,680

6 in.X Sin.

130,680

18 in.X 42 in.

8,297

6 in.X 10 in.

104,544

18 in.X 48 in.

7,260

6 in.X 12 in.

87,120

18 in.X 54 in.

6,453

7 in.X 7 in.

128,013

18 in.X 60 in.

5,808

7 in.X Sin.

112,011

20 in.X 20 in.

15,681

7 in.X 10 in.

89,609

20 in.X 24 in.

13,168

7 in.X 12 in.

74,674

20 in.X 30 in.

10,454

8 in.X Sin.

98,010

20 in.X 36 in.

8,712

8 in.X 10 in.

78,408

20 in.X 42 in.

7,467

8 in.X 12 in.

65,340

20 in.X 48 in.

6,534

9 in.X 9 in.

77.440

20 in. X 54 in.

5,308

9 in.X 10 in.

69,696

20 in.X 60 in.

5,227

9 in.X 12 in.

58,080

1 ft.X 1 ft.

43,560

10 in.X 10 in.

62,726

1 ft.X 2 ft.

21,780

10 in.X 12 in.

52.272

1 ft.X 3 ft.

14,520

10 in.X 15 in.

4l;817

1 ft.X 4 ft.

10,890

10 in.X 18 in.

34,848

1 ft.X 5 ft.

8,712

10 in.X 20 in.

31,362

1 ft. X 6 ft.

7,260

10 in.X 24 in.

26,132

1 ft.X 7 ft.

6,223

10 in.X 30 in.

20,908

1 ft.X 8 ft.

5,445

10 in.X 36 in.

17,424

1 ft.X 9 ft. ■

4,840

10 in.X 42 in.

14,935

1 ft.X 10 ft.

4,356

10 in.X 48 in.

13,068

1 ft.X 11 ft.

3,960

364 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES
Table — (Conlinued)

Distance

Plants

Distance

Plants

1 ft.X12 ft.

3,630

6 ft.X 12 ft.

6D5

2 ft.X 2 ft.

10,890

7 ft.X 7 ft.

888

2 ft.X 3 ft.

7.260

7 ft.X 8 ft.

777

2 ft. X 4 ft.

5,44,T

7 ft.X 9 ft.

691

2 ft.X 5 ft.

4,356

7 ft X 10 ft.

622

2 ft. X 6 ft.

3,6.30

7 ft.X 11 ft.

565

2 ft.X 7 ft.

3,111

7 ft.X 12 ft.

518

2 ft.X 8 ft.

2,722

8 ft.X 8 ft.

680

2 ft. X 9 ft.

2,420

8 ft.X 9 ft.

605

2 ft.X 10 ft.

2,178

8 ft.X 10 ft.

544

2 ft.X 11 ft.

1,980

8 ft.X 11 ft.

495

2 ft.X 12 ft.

1,815

8 ft. X 12 ft.

453

3 ft.X 3 ft.

4.840

9 ft. X 9 ft.

537

3 ft.X 4 ft.

3,630

9 ft.X 10 ft.

484

3 ft. X 5 ft.

2,904

9 ft.X 11 ft.

440

3 ft. X 6 ft.

2,420

9 ft.X 12 ft.

403

3 ft.X 7 ft.

2,074

9 ft.X 14 ft.

345

3 ft.X 8 ft.

1,815

9 ft.X 15 ft.

322

3 ft.X 9 ft.

1,613

9 ft.X 18 ft.

268

3 ft.X 10 ft.

1,4.52

9 ft.X 20 ft.

242

3ft.Xll ft.

1,320

10 ft.X 10 ft.

435

3 ft.X 12 ft.

1,210

10 ft.X 12 ft.

363

4 ft.X 4 ft.

2,722

10 ft.X 15 ft.

290

4 ft. X 5 ft.

2,178

10 ft.X 18 ft.

242

4 ft. X 6 ft.

1,185

10 ft.X 20 ft.

217

4 ft.X 7 ft.

1,5.56

10 ft.X 24 ft.

181

4 ft.X 8 ft.

1,361

10 ft.X 30 ft.

145

4 ft. X 9 ft.

1,210

16 ft.X 36 ft.

121

4 ft.X 10 ft.

1,089

10ft.X42 ft.

103

4 ft.X 11 ft.

990

10ft.X45ft.

96

4 ft.X 12 ft.

907

10 ft.X 48 ft.

90

5 ft.X 5 ft.

1,742

10 ft.X 54 ft.

80

5 ft.X 6 ft.

1,4.52

10 ft.X 60 ft.

72

5 ft.X 7 ft.

1,244

12 ft.X 12 ft.

302

5 ft.X 8 ft.

1,089

12 ft.X 15 ft.

242

5 ft.X 9 ft.

968

12 ft.X 18 ft.

201

5 ft.X 10 ft.

871

12 ft.X 20 ft.

181

5 ft.X 11 ft.

792

12 ft.X 24 ft.

151

5 ft.X 12 ft.

726

12 ft.X 30 ft.

121

6 ft.X 6 ft.

1,210

12 ft.X 36 ft.

100

6 ft. X 7 ft.

1,037

12 ft.X42 ft.

86

6 ft. X 8 ft.

907

12ft.X48ft.

75

6 ft.X 9 ft.

806

12 ft.X 54 ft.

67

6 ft.X 10 ft.

726

12 ft.X 60 ft.

60

6 ft.X 11 ft.

660

15 ft.X 15 ft.

193

MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 365

Table — (Continued)

Distance

Plants

Distance

Plants

15 ft. X 18 ft.

161

30 ft. X 30 ft.

48

15 ft. X 20 ft.

145

30 ft. X 36 ft.

40

15 ft. X 24 ft.

121

30 ft. X 42 ft.

34

15 ft. X 30 ft.

96

30 ft. X 48 ft.

30

15 ft.X36 ft.

80

30 ft. X 54 ft.

26

15 ft. X 42 ft.

69

30 ft. X 60 ft.

24

. 15 ft. X 48 ft.

60

36 ft. X 36 ft.

33

15 ft. X 54 ft.

53

36 ft. X 42 ft.

28

15 ft. X 00 ft.

48

36 ft.X48ft.

25

18 ft. X IS ft.

134

36 ft. X 54 ft.

22

18 ft. X 20 ft.

121

36 ft. X 60 ft.

20

18 ft. X 24 ft.

100

38 ft. X 38 ft.

30

18 ft. X 30 ft.

80

38 ft. X 40 ft.

28

18 ft. X 36 ft.

67

38 ft. X 42 ft.

27

18 ft. X 42 ft.

57

38 ft. X 48 ft.

23

18 ft. X 48 ft.

50

38 ft. X 50 ft.

22

18 ft. X 54 ft.

44

,38 ft. X 54 ft.

21

18 ft. X 60 ft.

40

38 ft. X 60 ft.

19

20 ft. X 20 ft.

108

40 ft. X 40 ft.

27

20 ft. X 24 ft.

90

40 ft. X 42 ft.

25

20 ft. X 30 ft.

72

40 ft. X 48 ft.

22

20 ft. X 36 ft.

60

40 ft. X 50 ft.

21

20ft.X42ft.

51

40 ft. X 54 ft.

20

20ft.X48ft.

45

40 ft. X 60 ft.

18

20 ft. X 54 ft.

40

42 ft. X 42 ft.

24

20 ft. X 60 ft.

36

42 ft. X 48 ft.

21

24 ft. X 24 ft.

75

42 ft.X54 ft.

19

24 ft. X 30 ft.

60

42 ft. X 60 ft.

17

24 ft. X 36 ft.

50

48 ft. X 48 ft.

18

24 ft. X 42 ft.

43

48 ft. X 54 ft.

16

24 ft. X 48 ft.

37

48 ft. X 60 ft.

15

24ft.X-54ft.

33

50 ft. X 50 ft.

17

24 ft. X 60 ft.

30

366 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES

AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN SEED
TO GERMINATE

Crop

Days

Crop

Days

Bean

5 to 10
7 to 10
5 to 10

12 to 18
5 to 10

10 to 20

5 to 8

6 to 10
5 to 10

Lettuce

6 to 8

Beet

7 to 10

Cabbage

Carrot

Cauliflower

Celery

Pea

6 to 10

Parsnip

Pepper

Salsify

Radish

Tomato

Turnips

10 to 20
9 to 14
7 to 12
3 to 6

Cucumber

Endive

6 to 12

4 to 8

TIME REQUIRED FOR MATURITY OF DIFFERENT
VEGETABLE CROPS FROM SEEDING

Crop

Bean, string . .
Bean, shell . . .
Beet, turnip . .
Beet, Long

Blood

Cabbage, early
Cabbage, late.
Cauliflower . . .

Com

Eggplant

Days

45 to 65

65 to 70

65

1.50
105
1.50
110
75
150 to 160

Crop

Lettuce

Onion

Pepper

Radish

Squash, sum-
mer

Squash, winter

Tomato

Turnip

Days

135 to 150

140 to 150

30 to 45

60 to 65

125

150
60 to 70

COMPARISON OF BAUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

HYDROMETER READINGS FOR LIQUIDS

HEAVIER THAN WATER

Baum6

Specific

Baian6

Specific

Degrees

Gravity

Degrees

Gravity

1

1.007

24

1.198

2

1.014

25

1.208

3

1.021

26

1.218

4

1.028

27

1.229

4.3

1.030

28

1.239

15

1.115

29

1.250

16

1.124

30

1.261

17

1.133

31

1.272

18

1.142

32

1.283

19

1.151

33

1.295

20

1.160

34

1.306

21

1.169

35

1.318

22

1.179

36

1.330

23

1.188

CAPACITY OF CIRCULAR SILOS AND QUANTITY

OF SILAGE TO BE FED TO LOWER THE

SURFACE 2 IN. DAILY

Inside
IDiaiTieter

Acreage of

Quantity

Depth

Capacity

Corn to

to be Fed

Feet

Feet

Tons

Fill. 15 T.

Daily

to the Acre

Pounds

10

28

42

2.8

525

10

30

47

3.0

525

10

32

51

3.4

525

10

34

56

3.7

525

10

38

65

4.3

525

10

40

70

4.6

525

12

28

61

4.1

755

12

30

67

4.5

755

12

32

74

5.0

755

12

34

80

5.3

755

12

36

87

5.8

755

12

38

94

6.4

735

12

40

101

7.3

755

14

28

83

5.5

1030

14

30

91

6.1

1030

14

32

100

6.7

1030

14

34

109

7.2

1030

14

36

118

7.9

1030

14

38

128

8.5

10.30

14

40

138

9.2

1030

16

28

108

7.2

1340

16

32

131

8.7

1340

16

34

143

9.5

1340

16

30

155

10.3

1340

16

38

167

11.1

1340

16

40

180

12.0

1340

18

30

151

10.0

1700

18

32

166

11.0

1700

18

34

181

12.0

1700

18

36

196

13.2

1700

18

38

212

14.1

1700

18

40

229

15.2

1700

18

42

246

16.4

1700

18

44

264

17.6

1700

18

46

282

18.8

1700

20

30

187

12.5

- 2100

20

32

205

13.6

2100

20

34

224

15.0

2100

20

36

243

16.2

2100

20

40

281

18.8

2100

20

42

300

20.0

2100

20

44

320

21.3

2100

20

46

340

22.6

2100

20

48

361

24.0

2100

20

50

382

25.5

2100

367
25

368 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES

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376 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES

Notes Concerning

^Not defined.

'Small white beans, 60 lb.

^Green apples. [wurzels.

■•Sugar beets and mangel

^Shelled beans, 60 lb. ; vel-
vet beans, 78 lb.

*White beans.

'Wheat bran.

*Green unshelled beans,
56 lb.

^English blue-grass seed,
22 lb.; native blue-grass
seed. 14 lb.

^"Also castor seed.

"Soybeans, 58 lb. [30 lb.

"Green unshelled beans,

''Soybeans.

'•Free from hulls.

'^Commercially dry, for all
hard woods.

''Fifteen lb. commercially
dry, for all soft woods.

"Standard weight in bor-
ough of Greensburg.

"Dried beans.

'"Red and white.

'"Corn in ear, 70 lb. until
Dec. 1 next after grown;
68 lb. thereafter.

''Sweet corn.

'-On the cob.

^'Indian corn in ear.

'•Unwashed plastering hair,
8 lb.; washed plastering
hair, 4 lb.

'°Corn in ear, from Nov. 1
to May 1 following, 70
lb.; 68 lb. from May 1 to
Nov. 1.

"Indian corn meal.

"Cracked corn.

'"Shelled.

'"Free from hulls.

^"Standard weight bu. corn
meal, bolted or unbolted,
48 lb.

^'Except the seed of long
staple cotton, of which
the v/eight shall be 42 lb.

Preceding Table

''Green unshelled corn,

100 lb.
''Green cucumbers.
'•See also "Pop corn,"

"Indian corn," and "Kafir

corn."
"'Green peaches.
'*Green pears.
"Malt rye. [32 lb.

'*Top sets; bottom sets,
'"Shelled, 56 lb.
•"Shelled, dry.
•'Strike measure.
•'Bottom onion sets.
•'German and American.
"Shelled.
•'Peaches (peeled) ; un-

peeled, 32 lb.
"Cowpeas.

•'Roasted; green, 22 lb.
^*Not stated whether peeled

or unpeeled.
*"Top onion sets.
'"Including split peas.
"In the ear.
"'Slaked lime, 40 lb.
■"'German, Missouri, and

Tennessee millet seeds.
^•Matured onions.
'^Bottom onion sets, 32 lb.
"Matured.
^'Matured pears, 56 lb.;

dried pears, 26 lb.
'"Black-eyed peas.
'"Barley malt.
'"Includes "Rice corn."
""Rice corn." [seed.

"Sorghum saccharatum
"Red top grass seed

(chaff); fancy, 32 lb.
••Seed.

''Irish potatoes.
"Free from hulls.
"Ground salt, 70 lb.
'"India wheat, 46 lb.
'"In some states herd's

grass is a synonym for

timothy; in other states,

for red top.

MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 377

The states of Idaho, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming
have no standard for bushel weights.

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF VARIOUS COM'

MODITIES FOR WHICH BUSHEL WEIGHTS

HAVE BEEN ADOPTED IN BUT ONE

OR TWO STATES

Alsike (or Swedish) seed, 60 lb. (Md. and Okla.)

Beggar-weed seed, 62 lb. (Fla.) ("Tenn.)

Blackberries, 30 lb. (la.); 48 lb. (Tenn.); dried, 28 lb.

Bermuda grass seed, 40 lb. (Okla.).

Blueberries, 42 lb. (Minn.).

Bromus inermus, 14 lb. (N. Dak.).

Bur clover, in hulls, 8 lb. (N. C).

Cabbage, 50 lb. (Tenn.).

Canary seed, 60 lb. (Tenn.); 50 lb. (la.).

Cantaloup melon, 50 lb. (Tenn.)

Castor seed, 50 lb. (Md.).

Cement, 80 lb. (Tenn.).

Cherries, 40 lb. (la.); with stems, 56 lb. (Tenn.); with-
out stems, 64 lb. (Tenn.).

Chufa, 54 lb. (Fla.).

Cotton seed, staple, 42 lb. (S. C).

Culm, 80 lb. (Md.).

Currants, 40 lb. (la. and Minn.).

Feed, 50 lb. (Mass.).

Fescue, seed of all the, except the Tall and Meadow
fescue, 14 lb. (N. C). (N. C).

Fescue, Tall and Meadow fescue grass seed, 24 lb.

Grapes, 40 lb. (la.); with stems, 48 lb. (Tenn.); with-
out stems, 60 lb. (Tenn.).

Guavas, 54 lb. (Fla.).

Hominy, 60 lb. (O.) ; 62 lb. (Tenn.).

Horseradish, 50 lb. (Tenn.).

Italian rye-grass seed, 20 lb. (Tenn.).

Japan clover in hulls, 25 lb. (N. C).

Johnson grass, 28 lb. (Ark.); 25 lb. (N. C).

Kale, 30 lb. (Tenn.).

Land plaster, 100 lb. (Tenn.).

Lentils, 60 lb. (N. C.).

Lucerne, 60 lb. (N. C).

Lupines, 60 lb. (N. C).

Meadow seed, tall, 14 lb. (N. C).

Meal (?), 46 lb. (Ala.); unbolted, 48 lb. (Ala.).

Middlings, fine, 40 lb. (Ind.); coarse middlings, 30 lb,
(Ind.).

Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 lb. (Mass. and N. H.),

Mustard, 30 lb. (Tenn.).

Mustard seed, 58 lb. (N. C).

378 ARITHMETICAL TABLES

Oat grass seed, 14 lb. (N. C).

Oat grass seed, 14 lb. (N. C). (Mich.).

Plums, 40 lb. (Fla.); 64 lb. (Tenn.): dried, 28 lb.

Prunes, dried, 28 lb. (Ida.); green, 45 lb. (Ida.).

Radish seed, 50 lb. (la.).

Raspberries, 32 lb. (la. and Kan.); 48 lb. (Tenn.).

Rhubarb. 50 lb. (Tenn.).

Sage, 4 lb. (Tenn.).

Salads, 30 lb. (Tenn.).

Sand, 130 lb. (la.).

Seed of brome grasses, 14 lb. (N. C).

Spinage, 30 lb. (Tenn.).

Strawberries, 32 lb. (la.); 48 lb. (Tenn.).

Sugar cane seed (amber), 57 lb. (N. J.)

Sunflower seed, 24 lb. (N. C).

Teosinte, 59 lb. (N. C).

Velvet grass seed, 7 lb. (Tenn.).

Vetches, 60 lb. (N. C).

ARITHMETICAL TABLES

MEASURES OF EXTENSION

Measures of extension are used in measuring lengths (dis-
tances), surfaces (areas), and solids (volumes), and are divided,
accordingly, into linear measure, square measure, and cubic
measure.

Linear measure has one dimension (length), square measure
has two dimensions (length and breadth), and cubic measure
has three dimensions (length, breadth, and thickness).

LINEAR MEASURE

12 inches (in.) =1 foot ft.

3 feet =1 yard yd.

5i yards =1 rod rd.

320 rods =1 mile mi.

in.

ft.

yd. rd. m

12 =

1

36 =

3 =

1

198 =

16^ =

5i= 1

63,360 = 5

280 =1

760 =320=1

ARITHMETICAL TABLES 379

SQUARE MEASURE

144 square inches (sq. in.) . . . . = 1 square foot sq. ft.

9 square feet =1 square yard sq. yd.

30i square yards =1 square rod sq. rd.

160 square rods = 1 acre A.

640 acres =1 square mile sq. mi.

sq. mi.

sq. in.

sq. ft.

sq. yd.

sq. rd.

144 =

1

1.296 =

9 =

1

39,204 =

2721 =

30i =

1

6.272,640 =

43,560 =

4,840 =

160

4,014,489,600 = 27,878.400 =3,097,600 =102,400 = 640=1

SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE

625 square links (sq. Ii.) =1 square rod sq. rd.

16 square rods = 1 square chain . . . sq. ch.

10 square chains =1 acre A.

640 acres =1 square mile . . . . sq. mi.

36 square miles (6 miles square) . . = 1 township Tp.

A square measuring 208.71 ft. on each side contains 1 A.
The following are the comparative sizes, in square yards,
of acres in different countries:

sq. yd. sq. yd.

England and America 4,840 Amsterdam 9,722

Scotland 6,150 Dantzic 6,650

Ireland 7,840 France 11,960

Hamburg 11.545 Prussia 3,053

CUBIC MEASURE

1,728 cubic inches (cu. in.) =1 cubic foot cu. ft.

27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard cu. yd.

128 cubic feet = 1 cord of wood.

cu. in. cu. ft. cu. yd.
1,728 = 1
46.656 = 27 = 1

380

ARITHMETICAL TABLES

= 1 ton T.

MEASURES OF WEIGHT
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound

100 pounds =1 hundredweight. . .

20 hundredweight "1

2,000 pounds I

oz. lb. cwt. T.
16= 1
1,600= 100= 1
32,000 = 2,000 = 20 = 1
LONG-TON TABLE

16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound

28 pounds =1 quarter

4 quarters =1 hundredweight.

20 hundredweight 1
2,240 pounds J

.lb.
.cwt.

, = 1 ton. ...
lb. qr. cwt.

.lb.
.qr.
.cwt.

.T.

16= 1
448= 28= 1
1.792= 112= 4= 1
35,840 = 2,240 = 80 = 20 = 1

TROY WEIGHT

24 grains (gr.) =1 pennyweight

20 pennyweights =1 ounce

12 ounces =1 pound

gr. pwt. oz. lb.
24= 1
480= 20= 1
.5,760 = 240=12 = 1

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT

20 grains (gr.) =1 scruple so.

3 scruples =1 dram dr.

8 drams =1 ounce oz.

12 ounces =1 pound lb.

gr. 3 5 S lb
20= 1
60= 3= 1
480= 24= 8= 1
5,760 = 288 = 96=12 = 1

pwt.

lb.

or 3
or 5
or 3
or lb

ARITHMETICAL TABLES 38>

MEASURES OF CAPACITY
LIQUID MEASURE

4 gills (gi.) =1 pint pt.

2 pints =1 quart qt.

4 quarts =1 gallon gal.

31J gallons =1 barrel bbi.

2b^"^l^ \ =1 hogshead hhd.

63gaUons J , .., ...^

gt. pt. qt. gal. bbl. hhd.

4= 1

8= 2= 1
32= 8= 4= 1
1.008 = 252 = 126 = 31 J = 1
2,016 = 504 = 252 = 63 =2 = 1

APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURE

60 minims, or drops (TTl.) =1 fluid dram £5

8 fluid drams =1 fluid ounce £ S

16 fluid ounces =1 pint O.

8 pints =1 gallon Cong.

DRY MEASURE

2 pints (pt.) =1 quart qt.

8 quarts =1 peck pk.

4 pecks =1 bushel bu.

pt. qt. pk. bu.
2= 1
16= 8 = 1
64 = 32 = 4 = 1

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES

METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF POUNDS, FEET, ETC.

The government publishes the equivalents in pounds, etc.
of the metric system, but the American shipper wants to
know what the pounds, inches, feet, and gallons, to which
he is accustomed, are in the metric system. The following is
a convenient table showing the metric values of our measures.
Some countries demand that the metric system should be
used in the consular papers, and in most countries, especially

382

ARITHMETICAL TABLES

tn Latin-America, the consignees ask for the weights, etc. in
the metric system.

Pounds

Kilos

Pounds

Kilos

1 = .4536

2 = .9072

3 =1.3608

4 =1.8144

5 =2.2680

6 =2.7216

7 =3.1751

8 =3.6287

9 =4.0823

10 = 4.536

20 = 9.072

30 = 13.608

40 =18.144

50.

60 =27.216

70 =31.751

80 =36.287

90 =40.823

100 = 45.36

200 = 90.72

300 =136.08

400 '. . . =181.44

500 =226.80

600 =272.16

700 =317.51

800 =362.87

900 =408.23

= 22.680 1,000 =453.60

1,000 kilos = 1 metric ton (Tonelada metrico).

Centimeters

1 inch = 2.54

1 foot = 30.48

1 yard = 91.44

2 feet = 60.96

3 feet = 91.44

4 feet =121.92

5 feet = 152.40

6 feet = 182.88

Centimeters

7 feet =213.36

8 feet =243.84

9 feet =274.32

10 feet =304.80

11 feet =335.28

12 feet =365.76

13 feet =396.24

14 feet =426.72

TABLE OF DISTANCES

1 mile =5,280 ft.; 1,760 yd.;

320 rd.; 8 fur.

1 furlong = 40 rd.

1 league =3 mi.

1 knot,* or nautical mile =6,080 ft.; or U mi.

* A knot is really a measure of speed and not of distance;
when used in this sense, it is equivalent to 1 nautical mile
in 1 hour. Thus, a vessel traveling 20 nautical miles per hour
has a speed of 20 knots.

ARITHMETICAL TABLES 383

1 nautical league =3 nautical mi.

1 fathom = 6 ft.

1 meter =3 ft. 3j in., nearly

1 hand =4 in.

1 palm = 3 in.

1 span =9 in.

1 cable's length =240 yd.

MEASURES OF VOLUME

1 cubic foot = 1,728 cu. in.

1 ale gallon = 282 cu. in.

1 standard, or wine, gallon =231 cu. in. ^.j,

1 dry gallon = 268.8 cu. in.

1 bushel =2,150.4 cu. in.

1 British bushel =2,218.19 cu. in.

1 cord of wood =128 cu. ft.

1 perch = 24.75 cu. ft.

1 ton of round timber =40 cu. ft.

1 ton of hewn timber = 50 cu. ft.

Cylinders having the following dimensions in inches con-
tain the measures stated, very closely; the diameters are
given first:

Gill =lfin.X3in. I Gallon = 7in.X 6 in.

Pint =3iin.X3in. I 8 gallons = 14 in. X 12 in.

Quart =3Un.X6in. | 10 gallons = 14 in. X 15 in-

NIENdORANDA

/% .■'^\:

-?^f 3^ 1^^

Promotion
Advancement in Salary

and

' Business Success °

Secured
Through the

GENERAL FARMING

Soil Improvement

Farm Crops

Livestock and Dairying

POULTRY FARMING

Poultry Breeding

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION
OF THE

International
Correspondence Scliools

International Textbook
Company, Proprietorc

SCRANTON, PA., U. S. A.
V_^ SEE FOLLOWING PAGES ^^s^

The Benefits of an Agri-
cultural Course

The benefits to be derived from a Course in
Agriculture in the I. C. S. are manifold, the
most important, perhaps, is that it teaches the
tiller of the soil to grow not only a better crop,
but realize a greater production, as well as to
do it with a great deal less of labor and expense,
thereby making the tilling of the soil more of
a pleasure than a drudge. Farmers, as well as
others, are waking up to the truth that scien-
tific farming is the only proper method to
pursue, especially in these days of worn-out
land, problems of drainage, and other things
too numerous to mention. In this connection,
your instruction on manures is worth the price
of the whole Course. I might say the same
of your instruction on drainage, etc.

I have just put out twenty-five ParagonChest-
nut Trees, and a quantity of Catalpa Speciosa,
Bald Cypress, etc., and, in the proper prepara-
tion of the soil to receive these trees, your
instruction, of course, stood me in good stead.
Am also growing Ginseng. Golden Seal, Pink
Root, Ladies' SUpper, and others of the so-
called "special crops." on the same farm; the
preparation of the soil for the successful grow-
ing of such plants requires special consideration
and study. I also have a problem of drainage
on my hands, on the same farm, but, with the
instruction given in your Agricultural Course,
it will be a very easy matter to meet all the
conditions.

I have endeavored to make my letter brief,
but, on account of the great scope or magni-
tude of your Agricultural Course, it would be
difficult to say it all upon a hundred sheets of
paper of this size.

Wayne C.^nfield,
84 Madison St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa.

SECURED A POSITION ON A POULTRY FARM

Jack Chamberlain, Petoskey, Mich.: "Since taking up
your Course in Poultry Farming I have been employed on a
poultry farm, and my wages are 10 per cent, h-gher than ever
before, due to the knowledge gained from your Course."

WELL SATISFIED
Phillip Becker, 1910 Prospect Ave., New York, N. Y.:
"I desire to state that I find your Course in Agriculture all that
I expected it would be. It not only explains everything, but
tells what to do, when to do it, and how to do it. I am very
well satisfied with the Course."

MANAGING A LARGE PLANT
Philip J. Roy, St. Joseph Academy, Tipton, Ind.: "From
the knowledge gained from the lessons in your Poultry Farming
Course that I have completed, I have been appointed man-
ager of poultry farming for this institution, and as a special
favor I ask all the assistance that the I. C. S. may see fit to
give me to make my work a success. At present, I have 1,000
eggs under incubation. The president and general manager
of this institution have inspected my studies thus far and they
have given me their confidence in my work; they think your
Course so complete that one can be successful if your teach-
ings are followed."

FIT TO MANAGE A FARM

J. H. Pennington, Pennington Gap, Va.: "My Course in
Agrictilture has been of great practical value to me and I am
sure that any one who studies it will be fuUy able to manage a
farm."

NOW MANAGER

Clal'DE C. Rocke, Manager Hillair Farm, Sterlington,
N. Y.: "I find the knowledge derived from your Course
in Soil Improvement and Farm Crops of practical value in my
business. I took up the Course with the idea of gaining all
the information possible concerning agriculture, also the more
advanced methods of farming. I now have charge of a gentle-
man's estate, and there is seldom a day but some points of the
Course are of benefit to me in my work."
3

Worth Many Times Its
Cost

I wish to express my gratitude to the faculty
of the International Correspondence Schools
for the assistance they have rendered me and
the interest they have taken in my progress
and success since I enlisted for a Course in Soil
Improvement and Farm Crops. The Instruc-
tion Papers are very lucid and cover every
point of importance with the utmost care,
thereby making it easy for a person to grasp
the meaning of what is taught. I think any
one who contemplates making farming his Ufe
vocation will find an International Correspond-
ence Schools' Course in Agriculture worth many
times the cost.

William H. Halloway,

River Side Farm, Newark, Md.

MOST PRACTICAL

Harold Brown, 1511 W. 8th St., Los Angeles, Cal.: "I
think your Poultry Course is the most complete and practical
I have ever seen, covering as it does every branch of the busi-
ness thoroughly from start to finish."

WE HELPED HIM OBTAIN A POSITION

John Gowdey, Millville Poultry Farm, MUlville, N. J.:
"The Poultry Farming Course in which I enrolled last October
is now nearly finished and I have found it to be an exceedingly
valuable Course, as it contains a great amount of very valuable
information along the line of poultry raising — information
which no one person could gain in even a lifetime of practical
experience without such aid. I consider this Course one of
the best investments of my life; and would not be without the
information gained through it for many times the cost of the
Scholarship. I wish also to thank your Students' Aid Depart-
ment for the valuable assistance they have rendered in securing
a position that I desired."

SAVED HIM FROM FAILURE

Jas. Archer Gurnev, Charleston, S. C: "When I began
studying the Poultry Farming Course for which I enrolled
with the I. C. S. I had no idea there was so much to be learned
about poultry. Had I attempted to go into the business prior
to the study of this Course I would have made a grand failure.
The knowledge gained from each one of your Instruction
Papers is worth the price of the entire Course."

NO HOBBY OR THEORY

Marshall J. Lune, South Hill, B. C, Canada: "I found
the Poultry Farming Course of the I. C. S. to be simple, pointed,
and accurate. I have been impressed with the fine judgment,
sound business methods, and scientific research which stamps
Uie author as a scientific and practical man of long experience.
The subject matter is well chosen and carefully pruned of all
hobbies and unproven theories."

HIS COURSE PROFITABLE

C. L. Law, 2036 W. 8.3d St., Cleveland, Ohio: "I have
found my Poultry Farming Course very satisfactory. Pre-
vious to enrolment with the I. C. S. I had studied poultry raising
and had bred poultry to some extent ; but I must say that your
Course has been of great profit to me."

Holds a Prominent
Position

As this is the last lesson of my Course in
Agriculture, I feel duty bound to give my views
of your instruction. I had eight years of prac-
tical experience at the time of enrolment, but
I must confess that I have become much better
acquainted with my calling during the short
period of study with the I.C.S. than during the
eight years of practical work. The way the
I.C.S. deal with the different topics is remark-
able. They come direct to the point and they
make everything plain.

Albert J. Wilkins,

Rhinebeck, N. Y.

(Mr. Wilkins is foreman on the farm of Mr.
Vincent Astor.]

mS MOST SATISFACTORY INVESTMENT

Martin J. Rooney, 408 S. Ohio St., Butte, Mont.: "The
I. C. S. Course in Poultry Farming is thorough in every par-
ticular. I can honestly say that I consider the price I paid
for the Course one of the most satisfactory investments I ever
made."

THE BEST OF ITS KIND

Fr.^nk H. Payne, 115 Patterson Ave., Ogden, Utah: "I
am more than satisfied with my Course in Poultry Farming
for which I enrolled in the I. C. S., and can truthfully recom-
mend it to any one wishing a thorough knowledge of the poul-
try business. I have studied several books on poultry culture,
but your Course is the best of its kind."

NO EXCUSE FOR FAILURE

D. I. McFalls, White Plains, N. Y. : "I am pleased to
express my appreciation of the Poultry Course by the I. C. S.
If I had had the knowledge your Course has now furnished me
two years ago, I would have been spared much anxiety and saved
loss, since your Paper on feeding alone would have been worth
more to me than the cost of the whole Course. To any one
having your Course, there need be no more excuse for failures
in the poultry business.

THE I. C. S. VERSUS EXPERIENCE

C. L. Swartz, Detroit, Minn.: "I Uke your Poultry Farm-
ing Course very much and have learned a great many things
that would have taken years of experience to have found out.
Any one starting in the poultry business would be spending
his time and money wisely by taking the Course, as when
he has finished the Course, he can start right in to make
a success of the business."

MANAGING A POULTRY PLANT AT DOUBLE HIS FOR-
MER WAGES

Jack W. Patton, Coxeyetta Poultry Farm, Box 64, Mas-
sillon, Ohio: " Since studying your Course in Poultrj' Farming,
I have been able to increase my earnings 100 per cent. I have
secured the position of manager with the Coxeyetta Poultry
Farm of Massillon, Ohio. I consider the lesson papers on
Poultry Feeding alone worth the price of the entire Course.
Any one completing your Course should have no difficulty
in securing a position as manager or superintendent of a poul-
try plant."

A Course that Leads
to Success

I have found your Course in General Farm-
ing to be simple, practical, and of the greatest
value to a prospective farmer or stockman.
A study of your Course is not only a mortgage
lifter, but it will put a common-sense man in a
position to be envied by his fellow men. J.
would not part with my Course for many times
the amount paid. You not only get the Course
but four beautiful Bound Volumes for refer-
ence and future use. I shall always endeavor
to interest my friends to the best of my ability
and will advise them to take the Course, as a
study of it will lead to their greatest aim in hfe.
Alex. R. Gaul,
272 Western St., Albany, N. Y.

FOUND fflS COURSE PROFITABLE

Gilbert M. Burr, Meshoppen, Pa.: "It gives me pleasure
to acknowledge the great assistance obtained through the
study of the I.C.S. Poultry Farming Course. I had made
several attempts to establish a poultry business, but had met
with many discouragements, and it was not until I had
mastered the underlying principles of your Course that I met
with any gratifying degree of success. I have now a well-
established business as the proprietor of Brookvale farm, rais-
ing white Orpingtons. I am using in my plant the Inter-
national Sanitary Hover with excellent success. It is superior
to any other brooder made."

NOW PROFESSOR OF POULTRY CULTURE
Karl J. Kay, State Agricultrual School, Bamesville, Ga.:
"When I enrolled with the I.C.S. for my first Course, I was
getting a salary of $800 a year. Later I enrolled for your
Complete Poultry Course, with the intention of introducing
some of the matter into my school. Becoming interested, I took
up the work in earnest for myself. From its thoroughness,
completeness, logical and clear arrangement, I can most heartily
endorse your Course as admirably suited to the novice who
knows nothing of chickens, or to the experienced professional
who wants to broaden out upon all phases of the subject.

mS COURSE GAINED HIM A POSITION

J. F. Kerker, 3843 1st Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.: "The
knowledge gained from your Poultry Breeding Course has
benefited me greatly in my present employment. Since
obtaining your diploma I have become assistant poultryman at
the Minnesota State Experiment Station, with a handsome
increase in salary. I would not be getting this if I had not
received the special training through your Course."

NOW MANAGER

C. W. Larson, R. F. D. No. 3, Box 40-A, St. Paul, Minn.:
" Through the training received from the I.C.S. Poultry Farming
Course I was able to obtain the position of manager for the
Victoria Poultry Farm, an up-to-date plant, at a good salary.
Any one who contemplates going into the poultry industry-
should take up your Poultry Farming Course."

NOW PROPRIETOR

J. K. Shaughnessy, Federal St., Agawam, Mass.: "Before
enrolling with the I.C.S. for the Poultry Farming Course, I was
foreman on railroad construction work. My present position,
secured through the Students' Aid Department, is that of
manager and half owner of the Sanitary Poultry Yards. I am
a city-bred man but always longed for country life and chickens.
Any one who will study your Course can make a success of the
poultry business."

9

Manager for Mr. Schwab

The Johnstown Daily Democrat, dated Jan.
9, 1914, contains an illustrated article describ-
ing the poultry plant of Charles M. Schwab,
Loretto, Pa., near to Mr. Schwab's summer
home. The plant is of brick, 200 feet long, cost-
ing $1S,000. The article states further that the
manager of the plant, Mr. H. L. Hagerty, is a
graduate of the I.C.S. Poultry Farming Course.
In a recent letter from Mr. H.^gerty, he says:

"I was a trainman on the P.R.R. and did not
average $50 a month, working all hours and in
all kinds of weather, when I enrolled with the
I.C.S. for the Poultry Farming Course. I am
now in charge of the plant described herein. I
gladly recommend your Course and will answer
any correspondence concerning poultry."

NOTmNG LACKING

C. H. RosENBAL-M, 227 Poplar St., Nomstown, Pa.: "Be-
fore taking your Course in Poultry Husbandry, I had been
studying the business for several years; reading the best
books published on the subject, and all that, but in them all
there was always something lacking — something that was not
thoroughly explained. Your Course in Poultry Husbandry
leaves nothing unexplained to the smallest detail. I consider
myself greatly benefited by your Course. The articles on
feeding alone are worth the price of the entire Course."

NO OTHER POULTRY LITERATURE
APPROACHES OURS

E. F. Staudacher, Brooklyn, N. Y.: "I have read various
poultry magazines, government bulletins, different poultry-
system books, etc., but I have never read any poultry literature
that, in my opinion, could approach the Poultry Farming
Course that you are now furnishing. It is the most practical,
comprehensive, and voluminous treatise on the subject that I
have ever come across; it fully covers the subject matter in all
its phases; is most interestingly and entertainingly written, and
it seems to me that the further I go into it, the more enthu-
siastic I become with it. In short, it is a clear, concise, and
most excellent write-up in which the presentation of facts is
attractively set forth in a manner easily understood."

STUDIED BOOKS AND FAILED— OUR INSTRUCTION
TURNED FAILURE INTO SUCCESS
Chas. S. Fry, 241 Rose St., Reading, Pa.: "After having
taken your Course on Poultry Farming, would say it is very
interesting and instructive, and I have derived great benefits
from it. I have been interested in poultry for about twenty
years; read all kinds of poultry books and thought I knew a
great deal about poultry, but had failures all through. Your
Course has overcome these failures and cannot be recommended
too highly, because it not only instructs how to house, breed,
and feed all kinds of poultry, but gives all the details on dis-
eases which must be known by all successful poultrymen."

OUR COURSE MORE VALUABLE THAN ALL POULTRY
PUBLICATIONS
Ralph W. Weston, Box 26, Honolulu, Hawaii: "Having
about completed your Course In Poultry Farming, I can say
in all faith that the methods set forth are of priceless value
to any one intending to keep poultry, ducks, geese, turkeys,
or squabs. In a small way, I have applied the methods set
forth in the Course and find the results as stated. In my
opinion the Poultry Farming Course is worth all the poultry
magazines published, and is also worth many times the expen-
diture of time and money."

U

Praises the I. C. S.

As a student of your Agricultural Course,
I have received the best instruction that I
could have found anywhere. To a person
that already has work of some kind, as I had, it
offers a good chance of gaining more knowl-
edge without taking very much time from
regular work. Also, it is not expensive. The
Course starts from the beginning and treats
all subjects so that any one without any pre-
vious knowledge of the subject can easily mas-
ter the instruction given and can carry the
work completely through. This knowledge
will be of great practical assistance to any one.
The volumes that are furnished with the
Course are very good. I would advise any one
thinking of taking a Course to do so with the
International Correspondence Schools.
Ernest E. Vest,

Scottsburg, Ind.

12

WORTH MANY TIMES THE PRICE

Clarence Theo. Anvick, Box 23, Areata, Cal.: "It would
hardly seem just for one to finish your Course in Poultry Farm-
ing without giving an opinion on it. Every branch of poultry
farming has been so thoroughly touched, and presented in such
simple language that no one who takes up its study can fail
to fully comprehend the text. The Course is worth many
times the price paid for it and cannot be easily forgotten. It
can be safely recommended to all who wish a broader knowl-
edge of the subject, and should appeal alike both to those who
intend to enter the business of poultry raising on a small scale
or a large scale."

DOLLARS AND CENTS KNOWLEDGE

Thomas H. Pollard, 916 Eighth Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.:
"Having been a subscriber to your Mechanical Course in for-
mer years, I was pleased to learn that you were issuing a Course
in Poultry Farming. Knowing the need of information on this
subject, I subscribed for the Course. In reading and study-
ing the first Instruction Papers, I began to realize the greatness
and perfection of the Course. Step by step the student is led
to proficiency and also I find that each step has been carefully
examined beforehand from one standpoint — the question of
dollars and cents. In this lies the crux of the matter, the
secret of success."

SUPERIOR TO OTHER COURSES

W. A. Moore, 14.3 Sherman Ave., N. Hamilton, Ont., Can.:
"This is to certify that I have nearly completed the I. C. S.
Poultry Course and I find it up to date and the best so far.
I have taken courses in two other poultry schools and followed
the experimental farms and find points completely covered
in the I. C. S. Course which all others said they had no data of.
Any one desiring a thoroughly practical poultry course can get
nothing better."

HIS COURSE BROUGHT SUCCESS

D. Brannan, 223 Beech St., Grafton. W. Va.: "I can truly
say that since I began to study the Course in Poultry Farming
I have had perfect success with my fowls. I have 11 pullets
and four cockerels and have been getting from 50 to 75 per cent,
egg yield since my flock was 6 months old, and I am not troubled
with colds, etc., in my flock as before. The Poultry Farming
Course is very good in its teachings with regard to the com-
mercial side of poultry raising; that is, raising fowls for meat and
eggs."

13

Proprietor of a Pros-
perous Business

Before I enrolled with the I. C. S. for the
Poultry Farming Course I was in the milk
business. Since enrolment I have sold out and
now devote all my time to poultry. I found no
difficulty in completing my Course and I have
to thank the I. C. S. for putting me where I am
today. No one going into the poultry busi-
ness for profit can do without the I. C. S.
Course. There is much to learn and the Course
will take you over all the dangerous places in
safety. There is no branch of the poultry
business omitted. I am at present making
about three times as much by selling hatching
eggs and day-old chicks as I did before enrol-
ment.

G. F. Kaihler,

508 S. Lime St., Lancaster, Pa.

r\ /OUE DATE ^

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ET-6 BP 74-4B3 L/A 1

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THE UNIVERSITY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA

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