MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE GOODELL LIBRARY 1B39 V. 1 This book may be kept out TWO WEEKS only, and is subject to a fine of TWO CENTS a day thereafter. It will be due on the day indicated below. CONT Page, LATF. ^1 3 seleciion of Grain Seeds, Roots, &c.. . ib. ug or Chiy Draining 96 ; CuUivation of Turnips 99 ■edisli I'urnips «... 101 eserving Turnijis 10 2 ^ Corn L;uvs 1 03 l,,ands near London 10.5 eeding Sheep 106 tin Agricultural Association ib. ! Drill System, &c 107 '.nglisb Agricultural Society and tbe Vo- lary CoUego 109 edford.shire Ileporlor, in reply to Sir Tlio- Letlibiidsre's Letter on the Corn Laws . . 110 rmuig- Accounts Ill Right Hon. Lord Western 112 ay at Draycott, StatFordsliire ib. ? of Horses 113 nt of the Expense of Stocking, of the j.[ Disbursements, and of the Yearly Re- ' , on a Farm of 250 Acres, in Ayrshire , ib. Id Show .' Ill uskisson on the Corn Laws 115 ack-Water 117 Jilssay, on the Black Caterpillar 119 on the Turnip Fly 123 )esrription of the Plate 134 ononiical Feeding of Farm Horses N:c. .. ib. Commutation 13.5 a Editor of the Intelligencer 136 e\v Breeds of Sheep ib. of the Society of Land Agents and Sur- ENTS. Page, veyors for Managing the Highways cousi- dered 137 The Corn Laws l38 Queries respecting Italian Rye-Grass ib. Smithfield Marker 139 To the Editor of the Sussex Advertiser 140 A Case of Choking in the Horse ib. On the Breeding of Stock 141 The Titlio Commutation Act 14'2 Lord Western's Merino Sheep 143 Food of Plains ib. l"ho Corn Laws ib. (!)n Breeding and Feeding Stock 144 Letting Fury, Berks: — Print<'d and pub- lish(!d by Hall and Marsh,— London : Simpkin ami Marshall, Stationers' Hall Court. ONNA l^IAULi SUPERB SEED WHLAT for SPRING SOWING. Consider- ing theeiKnaious a lid increasing- Consumption of Foreign Wlieat, llio above, of all others, demands immediate attention. One Twenty Shilling Packet is sufficient to STOCK a FARM. OBSERVF,.-Sold only at Mr. WEBBER'S, 81, Lombard-street, in sealed and signed PacKets of 20s., 10s., and 5s. each, the latter intended for GARDENS ONLY. H NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS. We offer our best thanks to many kind and valued Correspondents, who have favoured us with their communications ; but which ive are, xmavoidably, compelled to postpone until the publica- tion of the next number. CONTENTS. I'age. The Plate — Lord Western's New Breed of Shoep 171 Iloscription of a Macliine for m-.iking Drain- Tiles 173 On the Selection of Grain Seeds, Roots, &c... 175 On the Rural Management of tlie Forfarshire part of tho Western District of Strathniore . . 179 On the Nature and Properties of Linn? 184 Colchester and adjoining Hundieiis' Agricul- tural Association 187 Tho Prince de Rohan Potato — a new Variety. . 188 Tlie Corn Trade , 189 On cutting Wheat hefore it is ripe ih. The Corn Laws 190 The Trotsworth Manure 192 Commutation of 'I'ithes on Fruit Plantations.. . ib. On Subsoil Ploughing 1 93 Plough Drainage ib. Corn Laws 194 The proposed Act for Encouraging the Cultiva- tion of Continental Sods 195 The Corn Laws 196 On Subsoil Ploughing 193 On Assessing Cottages to Poor Rates 199 The Corn Laws ib. The Corn Laws , , 200 Agriculture 201 On the Effects of Draining. New, quick, and humane Method of Slaughter- ing Animals The New Poor Laws To the Landowners and Occupiers of the County of Essex ^ To the Editor of «' The Morning Herald" .... Tithe on Hops On Portable Manures On the Culture of the Potato . . On the Law respecting Glandered Horses .... On Draining Answer to Queries respecting Italian Ryo-Grass The Corn Laws First Annual Report of the Harleston Farmers' Club The Corn Separator Agricultural Colleges To the Right Hon. T^ord Melbourne, &c. &c. . . A nti Corn Law Delegation To the Right Hon. Lord John Russell Agricultural Reports Agricultural Intelligence Review of the Corn Trade during the month of February Prices of Seeds, Hops, Potatoes, &c \Vool Markets 'age. 201 202 ib. 203 204 ib. 205 206 211 212 213 ib. 214 2ir ib. 219 233 235 239 242 245 249 250 9 BATHER, SCALE MAKER, 4, LOWER I'HAMES STREEi', belwicn London Bridge and Billingsgate ; and 62, HAV- M ARKET, St. James's, Loudon. INVENrOE. AND PATENTEE. In use- with common weights A most important and valuable machine for all connected with agricultural pursuits. It i,sa vvcll-known fact, both to huyerand sel- ler of all kinds of grain, that, although it is the law and custom oft lie country to buyand sellby measure, yul both parti(!* are study- ing vvlinleach kind of grnin will weigh per bushel. The usefulness and readiness of this weighiiijr machine must appear lo all such, as its weis'hins' apparatus is only laid on when you want to weigh any kind of goods ; as a sack-truck or barrow, l\'w can do without one ; as it will answer so many pur- poses, either in the ware- house, at the farm, or in he field, for weighing corn, flour, seeds, hops, potatoes, butter, cheese, hay, straw, coals, live or dead slock, or any kind ©f goods whatever; also for inns, coach or waggon offices, wharfs, &c. It can bo used either with or without the same weights at present in use ; it can be used a*asteelyard with one weight; and il being light, portable, and a working tool (snck-truck or barrow), must convince all that its utility surpasses all weighing machines ever before offered to the Public. Price to weigh 2 cwt £3 10 0 Ditto 3 cwt 4 0 0 Ditto 5 cwt 6 0 0 With steelyard and ball, extra ,. £1 orl5 0 ROBINSON'S Patent Barley &, Patent Groats, ULCO:MMrNDED BY THE FACULTY. PATRONIZED BY THE QUEEN AND ROYAL FAMILY. The attention of Mothers (especially during the period of nursing), Invalids, and Families, is particu- larly called to the above Patent Articles, being the purest Farinaj of the Oat and Barley ever produced, deprived of their fermentative properties by a steam process. ROBINSON'S PATENT BARLEY cannot be equalled by any article for making pure Barley water in a few minutes; all impurities being rejected, it is rendered more palatable than Bar- ley Water made with Pearl Barley. It is an excellent adjunct with milk for the lireakfast table, highly use- ful for culinary purposes, light suppers, making de- licious puddings, thickening soups ; also, with the addition of lemon juice and sweetened, forms a most grateful beverage. ROBINSON'S PATENT GROATS are univer- sally esteemed for making a delicate Gruel ; and both the Groats and Barley are a nutritious food for Chil- dren, and those suffering under difficult digestion. CAUTION. — The Patentees, having received a Spe- cial Warrant of Appointment as Purveyors to Her Majesty, consider it a duty they owe themselves and the public, to put them on their guard against imita- tion, and respectfully to point out, that on each Genu- ine Packet are placed, in addition to the Royal Arms, the words "By Royal Letters Patent,'' audthe Signature of "MATTS. ROBINSON." Manufactured by Robinson and Bellville, C4, Red Lion Street, Holborn, Loudon ; and sold retail by all respectable Druggists, Grocers, Oilmen, &c., in town and country. Country Dealers are requested to be particular in ordering " Robinson's Patent." 1 ^ «.S CONTENTS. Page. Mr. Handley's Drainage Bill 251 Epitome of a Bill for facilitating the Drainage of Lands in England and Wales 252 Agriculture 255 To tlie Editor of the Farmers' Magazine 256 The Corn L:iws 258 'J'he obligation and extent of humanity to Brutes 260 Descri[)tion of a Macijine for distributing Soot, and remarks on Soot as a top-dressing to Crops 262 On Breeding lu-and In 264 Woollen Manufacture in Siberia 265 Don John 266 System of Minagement on the Farm of Sway- thorpe 267 The English Agricultural Society 271 On breeding Stock 272 Tlje English Agricultural Society and the Ve- terinary College 273 Answers to Queries on Italian Ryo-Grass .... ib. A Table coDtaining the Average Annual and Decennial Prices of Wheat in England, from the year 1770 lo 1838, both inclusive 274 On the cheapest and most efficient mode of sur- face or Furrow draining 275 Nitrate of Soda.— Query ? 276 Report on Subsoil and Trench Ploughing 277 Stable Economy 281 On the progress of Improvement in Agriculture 290 Liverpool Agricultural Society's Ploughing Match 291 Agricultural Meetings and Agitations 292 Rutland Hedge-cutting and Ditching 294 Geology and Agriculture 295 'the Intelligence of Animals ib. Page. The Cora Laws 296 On estimating the value of Farms 298 Union Agricultural Society ib. Cultivation of Gorse SOO Grain, Flour, and INIeal 30I Sheep in California i\). On the Cultivation of Cabbages and iSIangel Wurzel SQ2 On Factitiou:;, or Mule-bred Animals 30.3 A Hint to Landowners and Farmers 304 A verage Piices of Wheat 30 » Hoeing W heat 3C6 Answers to Queries on Italian Rye Grass .308 Hollow Draining ib. Agricultural Education 309 Corn Laws 310 The Consecjuencesand Danger to tho Labourers and Working Classes by throwing out of cul- tivation any large proportion of the United Kingdom iJi.J.. 3ll Oi\ the second known Fertilizer of the S jil, ^I;i- nure 312 Report of Tithe Commissioners 3l6 Llandoverv District Agricultural Society 317 I'he BeH Keeper's Manual , jb. Spade Husbandry 3i8 On Dibbling Wheat 320 Agricultural Reports .3'^! Gardening Operations for Ajril o'iS Agriculluial Intelligence 324 Review of the Corn Trade during the month of March 325 Prices of Seeds 329 Wool Markets , 330 THE NEW ]yEONTHI.V BELLE ASSEMBLEE, UNDER THE IMMEDIATE PATRONAGE OF HER ROYAL HIGHNESS The DUCHESS of KENT, Published on the First of every Month, WITH HIGHLY FINISHED CUTS OF THE NEWEST COSTUxMES, PRmE ©ME §mLum(^, CONTAINS Two Coloured Plates of the Monthly Fashions. FINISHED IN THE FIRST STYLE. The Work is Emhellished with CUTS qf the most FASHIONABLE DRESSES, as they arrive Weekly from Paris. Tbe Proprietors having commenced a New Series of the Monthly Belle Assembles beg to offer their warmest acknowledgements to their Subscribers, and the Public in general, for the very liberal Patronage the work has received during a period of nearly Seven Years — a success the more gratifying from the fact of its embracing an era unpre- cedented tor competition in the annals of the lighter branches of Periodical Literature. They deem it unnecessary, from tbe high auspices under which tbe work is published, (it being especially Patronized by the most August Mother in the Realm,) to direct attention to the moral tone pervading its contents, which renders the Belle Assembl^e so desirable a Magazine to place in the hands of the young and virtuous female, while the continuation of the same talent which has hitherto been so efficiently manifested in its Editorial department, is the best security they can present to its readers for future Literary excellence. The Number for January contained a beautiful Steel Engraving of Her Most Gra- cious Majesty the Queen ; and that for July was embellished with a splendid Portrait of Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Kent. OPINIONS OF THE PUBIiIC PRESS- "This magazine shouW find it3 way into every drawing-room in the kingdom" — News. " 'l"h« 'New Monthly Belle Assemblee' continues unrivalled in its claim to public notice, as llie arbiter elegantiarum of tlie day."— Maidstone Gazkttr. "In truth, one of the best of ihecla«s\ve have everniot with." — MAinsTONR Journal, " Here we have all that is calculated to interest nnr fair countrywomen." — Carlisi,!! Journal. " A very great acquisition to the fashionable world." — Kf:A!>ino Mkrcurv. " The literary contents surpnsn those of any similar publication." — Kf.nt Herald. " 'I'lie clii'kpeat medium of fashionable intelligence that is accessible to our fair readers, to whom, as the best judges, we most cordially recommen. it."— tiLoucESTER Journal. " Here we have all that is caUulated to inieieat our fair countivwomen — the pencil of fashion, the pen of romance, and the still small vaice of the warbling muee." — Chelmsford Chronicle. " This elegant and amusing periodical promises to deserve well the patronage of the female sex." — Newcastle Courant. All Communications to be addressed to 24, Norfolk'Street, Strand, London (post paid). CONTENTS. Page. The Plate— Mr. Chamberlain's Ox 331 Lecture on the Marquis of Tweeddale's Brick and Drain Tile Machine ih. On Herbaceous Green Crops 333 Farming improved 335 Exhibition of the Productions of Industry — Woollens 336 On the Culture of Potatoes 337 Leicestershire Agricultural Society e . • • 338 Kent Agricultural College , 342 On the Selection of Seeds, Roots, &c. ....... . 347 Ploughs and Ploughing Matches 35l On the Selection of Male Animals in the Breed- ing of Cattle and Sheep .... 352 The Corn Laws — Questions put by the Anti- Corn Law Delegation answered 355 The Corn Laws 357 A few Thoughts on Agriculture ib. Economy in Labour, and Improvement of Sys- tem 358 Importation of Foreign Agricultural Produce, . 359 The fate of Racing Horses ib. On the Cultivation of Potatoes 360 On the Employment of Gas-Water as a Manure 362 The Pitcher Plant ib. Liquid Manure ib. Agricultural Chemistry 363 The Corn Laws 368 On Subsoil-Ploughing Dry Land 370 An Essay on the simplest and easiest Mode of Analysing Soils 37 1 On Draining and Subsoil-Ploughing 376 Page. Mill-Stones 376 To the Editor of the Farmers' Magazine 377 Preservation and Preparation of Manures .... 379 Centralized Police for the whole Kingdom .... 380 Urine as JManure 381 The Corn Laws 382 Rutland Agricultural Society 383 Fifeshire Agricultural Society's Meeting ib. The Nature of Soils 384 Bees, Spring Feeding ib. Abortion or Slinking Calf 385 On the Application of Lime 386 Banking ib. On Bone Manure 393 Sagacity of the Dog 394 The Veterinary Science and Agriculture 395 On the Nature and Management of Live Stock ib. A Glossary of Geological Terms 396 The Globe Mangel Wurzel 397 On making Compost Heaps 398 Canada — The Corn Laws ib« Figure and Points of a perfect new Leicester Sheep . 399 Experiment on Soda as a Manure ib. Case of Interest to Farmers ib. Agricultural Reports 400 Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c 403 G ardening Operations for May 404 Review of the Corn Trade during the month of April 405 Seed, Hop, Wool, and Potato Markets 410 BRITANNIA LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY, No. 1, PRINCES STREET, BANK, LONDON. GAFZTAI., ONE X^IZ.Z.ION. DIRECTORS. William Bardgett, E»q. Samuel Bevin6ton, Esq. Wm.Fechney Black, Esq. JeriN BniGHTMAN, Esq. George CeifEN, Esq. MiLLis Coventry, Esq. John Drewett, Esq. Robert Egunton, Esq. Erasmus Robert Foster, Esq. Alex. Robert Irvine, Esq. Peter Morrison, Esq. Wm.Shand, Jun., Esq. Henrv Lewis SMAi.E,Ei?q. Thomas Teed, Esq. MEDICAL OFFICERS. Wm. Stroud, M.D. Ebenkzer Smith, Surgeon. Esq., SOLICITOR. William Bevan, Esq. Old Jewry. ADVANTAGES OF THIS INSTITUTION. A most economical set of Tables— computed expressly lor the use of this Institution, from authentic and com- plete data, and presenting the lowest rates of assurance that can be offered without compromising the safety of the Institution. Increasing Rates of Premium on a new and remark- able plan, for securing loans on debts ; a less immediate payment being required oh a Policy for the whole term of life than in any other Office. Premiums may be paid either Annually, Half-yearly, or Quarterly, in one sum, or in a limited number of payments. A Board of Directors in attendance daily at Two o'clock. Age of the assured in every case admitted in the Pohcy. Ail claims payable within one month after proof of death. Medical Attendants remunerated, in all cases, for their reports. A liberal Commission allowed to Solicitors and Agents. 1 Age. Premium per Cent .per Annum payable during First Five years St-cond FiveyearB Third Five years Fourth Kive year* Remainder of life. 20 30 40 60 £. s. d. 1 1 0 1 6 4 1 16 1 2 16 7 £. s. d. 1 5 10 1 12 2 2 4 4 3 9 4 £. s. d. 1 10 11 1 19 1 2 14 6 4 5 5 £. s. d. 1 16 9 2 7 4 3 7 3 5 6 3 £. s. d. 2 3 8 2 17 6 4 3 4 6 13 7 PETER MORRISON. Resident Director. CONTENTS. Page. The Pr.ATE— Mr. Baker's short-horn Bull 411 List of Prizes obtained for Animals exhibited by R. W. Baker, Esq ib. On Culmiferous Crops "113 On the proper Rlanure for Turnips 417 Important Discovery ib. A Review of the Prices of Corn in Prussia. . .. 418 Caoutchouc Horse-shoes 425 An Account of a Comparative Trial of Stable- Manure and Bone-Dust for raising Turnips on a Clay Soil ib. On the Cross Breed of Sheep between the Cots- wold and the Southdown 426 The Goodwood Cup 427 Liquid Maaure <>. ib. On Crib-Biting 428 Labourers' Friend Society 430 Patent Rotatory Steam-Engine ib. Agricultural Uses of Bone 431 Remarkable Anecdote of a Dog ib. Museum of Economic Geology 432 Grand Cairo — Hatching of Chickens ib- Russian Farmers 433 Character of the English Peasantry ib. The Potato 434 Account of Experiments made with some of the rarer Grasses as a substitute for Tares, or the failure of After-math 436 Faringdon 437 On the Comparative Value of the Turnip and Potato Crops 438 Growth of Swedish Turnips ib. To the Wool-Growers and Graziers of the County of Essex 439 Labourers' Friend Society ib. Employment of Mineral Tar, or Pyroligneous Liquor, for the Protection of Walls of Ma- sonry or of Mud ib. The Properties and Use of Soil and Subsoil ... 440 The Productive Powers of Nature ib. Bees swarming 441 London Lactaries 442 Trotsworth Manure ib. On tbe Unprofitableness of Old Pasture com- pared with New 443 Page, On the Foot-Rot in Sheep 445 To the Members of the Stockbridge Cattle Show 446 Important Chemical Discovery 447 Situation of an Apiary and Bee Pasturage .... ib. On the Cultivation of Timber Trees 448 Comparative Phrenology — Birds 449 The Prize Essay of the Entomological Society on the Turnip Fly and our '* Reviewer" . . . 450 A few Thoughts on Agriculture — Draining. . . . 451 The Apple 452 Carrots ib. A Case of a Horse swallowing Sponge 453 Infant Schools of Horticulture and Agriculture in France ib. A just and generous Landlord jb. An Experimental Inquiry into the Influence of Nitrogen on the Growth of Plants 454 On the Evolution of Nitrogen during the Growth of Plants, and the Sources from whence tliey derive that Element 458 An Account of an Experiment on the relative Values of several Varieties of Wheat 460 Spade Husbandry 453 On Breeding Sheep ib. The Linden Tree „ . , . ib. Turnip Culture 4^4 Profits of Manufacturers 4(35 Englisli Agricultural Society 4.GQ A Table for the Use of the Cattle-Keeper .... 470 Important Sale of Short-horns, Sheep and Horses 471 The Cotswold and Down Cross 472 The Vegetable Cultivator 473 Turnip Seed ib. The Smithfield Club 474 Improvement of tbe Condition of tlie Labouring Classes in Ireland 475 Foot- Rot in Sheep 475 The Woollen Trade 477 Agricultural Reports 478 Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c 483 Gardening Operations for June 484 Review of the Corn Trade during the month of May 485 Seed, Hop, Wool, and Potato Markets ....,, 489 I I '■=!-■ .1.1 ' t3 ^ fc <8 ^^ '~^ nS M ^ »i ^5^ ="1 .'VJ t^ ^ 4 •I) SS K- r^ cO Vi 5 -v: ^ '^ ^^ '^ i c rS ■ fi ^. *> M M "■^ >l5 ^ ', -^ "c k >^ ^' ^ s THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. VOLUJME THE SECOND. (new series.} JANUARY TO JUNE, MDCCCXXXTX. LONDON: OFFICE, 24, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND. MAY BE HAD BY ORDER TFIROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS. LOXDON : PRINTED BY JOSEPH R0C5ERS0X, 24, NORFOLK-STREET, STRAND. INDEX TO THE SECOND VOLUME. (new series.) Abortion, or Blinking calf, 385 Act, the proposed, for encourag- ing the cultivation of continen- tal soils that our own may re- turn to their primitive downs, 195 Account of experiments made with some of the raw grasses as a substitute for tares, or the fail- ure of after-math, 436 Agricultural chemistry, 4, 363 Agricultural college, 163, 217 Agricultural college — Kent, 342 Agricultural education, 309 Agricultural intelligence, fairs, &c., 84, 164, 244, 324, 403,483 Agricultural meetings. Market hill, 51 Rutland, 383 Agricultural meetings and agita- tions, 292 Agricultural museums, 261 Agricultural queries, 243 Agricultural reports, 80, 157, 240, 321, 400, 478 Agricultural societies, Bath and West of England, 77 Leicestershire, 338 Rutland, 21 Agriculture, a few thoughts on, 357, 451 Agriculture, on the progress and improvement in, 290 Ancient wages and prices in Suf- folk, 36 Anecdote of a dog, 431 Answer to W. VV.'s queries on the comparative merits of sheep, o Answer to queries respecting Italian rye-grass, 213, 273, 308 Anti-corn law delegation, 233 Apple, the, 452 Arable and turf farming com- pared, 14 Assessing cottages to the poor- rates, 199 Averages, imperial weekly, 89, 169, 249, 329, 409, 489 Banking — Bank of England — ac- count of the issues, securities, bullion, and surplus or rest, 387 Banks, American, 391 Bath and West of England Society for the encouragement of agri- culture, &c., 77 Bee-keeper's manual, 317 Bees, spring feeding, 384 Bees swarming, 441 Birmingham annual review of the corn trade, 241 Black caterpillar, prize essay on the, 119 Black-water, on, 117 Bone, agricultural uses of, 431 Bone manure, on, 393 Breeding in-and-in, 264 Breeding of stock, 141, 272 Breeding sheep, on, 463 Cabbages and mangel wurzel, on the cultivation of, 302 Canada, — the corn laws, 398 Caoutchouc horse shoes, 425 Carrots, 452 Case of interest to farmers, 399 Case of a horse swallowing sponge, 453 Centralized police for the whole kingdom, 380 Character of the English peasant- ry, 433 Choking in the horse, a case of, 140 Christmas of old, 47 Colchester and adjoining hundreds ' agricultural association, 187 Comparative phrenolosTj', — birds, 449 Comparative value of the turnip and potato crops, 438 Commutation of tithes on fruit plantations, 192 Compost heaps, on making, 393 Consequences and danger to the labourers and working classes by throwing out of cultivation any large proportion of the United Kingdom, 311 Com laws, the, 3, 15, 138, 143, 145, 190, 194, 196. 199, 213, 258, 206, 310, 357, 368, 382 Com laws, on the, 84, 103 Com laws, speech of E. Cayley, Esq., 10 Cora laws, Mr. Huskisson on the, 115 Corn separator, 217 Corn trade, review of the, 85, 165 245, 325, 405, 485 Corn trade, the, 189 Cotswold and Down cross, 472 Crib-biting, on, 428 Crops, the, 482 Cross breed of sheep between the Cotswold and the South-down, on the, 426 Culmiferous crops, on, 413 Cultivation of gorse, 300 Cultivation of potatoes, 360 Cultivation of timber trees, 448 Culture of the potato, on the, 206 Cutting wheat before it is ripe, 189 Description of a Devon ox, the property of C. Hillyard, Esq. — plate, 1 Description of a short-horn ox, bred by Sir C. Knightley, Bart., —plate, 91 Description of a machine for mak- ing drain tiles, 173 Description of a machine for dis- tributing soot, and remarks on soot as a top-dressing to crops, 262 Devon agricultural society, to the members of the, 41 Dibbling machine, 297 Dibbling wheat, on, 320 Don John, winner of the Doncas- ter St. Leger, 1838, 266 Drainage bill, Mr. Handley's, 251 Draining land, remarks on, with a description of the mole-plough brought from England by his grace the Duke of Hamilton, 48 Draining, on the effects of, 201 Draining, on, 212 Draining and subsoil ploughing, on, 376 Drill system, on the, 107 East Lothian stubble rake, 17 Economy in labour and improve- ment of system, 358 English agricultural society, 271, 297, 466 English agricultural society, the first general meeting, 65 English agricultural society, prizes 11 INDEX. to be awarded at tbe meeting- at Oxford, 68 English agricultural society, list of subscribers, 70 English agricultural society and tbe veterinary college, 38, 109, 273 Essay on tbe turnip-fly, 123 Essay on tbe simplest and easiest mode of analysing soils, 371 Estimate of tbe produce of tbe late harvest in Great Britain, and Ireland, 118 Evolution of nitrogen during the growth of plants, and tbe sources from whence they derive that element, on tbe, 438 Experimental farm, on an, 26 Experiment on soda as a manure, 399 Experiment on tlie relative values of several varieties of wheat, 160 Factitious, or mule-bred animals, 303 Farm horses, on economical feed- ing of, 134 Farmer's clubs, 294 Farmer's IMagazine, letter to tbe editor of the, 2 J6, 377 Farming accounts, on, 111 Fai"ms, on estimating tbe value of, 298 Faringdon, 437 Fate of racing horses, 3j9 Fifeshire agricultural society's meeting, 383 Figure and points of a perfect new Leicester sheep, 399 Food of plants, 143 Foot-rot in sheep, on tbe, 445, 476 Foreign corn, state of, 146 Gardening operations for January; 83 ; for February, 164 ; for April, 323 ; for May, 404 ; for June, 484 Gas-water as a manure, on tbe employment of, 362 Geological terms, a glossary ef, 396 Geology and agriculture, 295 Globe mangel wurzol, 397 Glossary of geological terms, 396 Goodwood Cup, the, 427 Gorse, cultivation of, 300 Grain, comparative prices of, 89, 169, 249,329,409,489 Grain seeds, roots, &c., on the selection of, 91, 175, 347 Grain, flour, and meal, return to an order of the House of Com- mons, 301 Grand Cairo — batching of chick- ens, 432 Grass land, on tbe improvement of, 50 Grass lands near London, 105 Growth of Swedish turnips, 438 Haddinglon show of seed corn, 6cc., 307 Havkaway, — plate, 16 Harleston fiirmer's club, first an- nual report of the, 214 Harvest, the late, 28 Hedge cutting, 265 Herbaceous green crops, 333 Hereford ox, bred and fed by H. Chamberlain, Esq. — plate, 332 Hint to landholders and farmers, 304 Hoeing wheat, 306 Holkbam annual cattle sale, 85 Hollow draining, 308 Hops, particular districts from 1818, to 1838, 79 Hops, prices of, 90, 169, 249, 410, 489 Horses, diseases of, 113 Horses, glandered, on the law re- specting, 211 Important invention, 83 Important discovery, 417 Important chemical discovery, 417 Important sale of short-horns, shee)i, and horses, at Dodding- ton, Northumberland, 471 Importation of foreign agricultu- ral produce, 359 Improvement of the condition of the labouring class in Ireland, 475 Infant schools of horticulture and agriculture in France, 453 Influence of nitrogen on the growth of plants, an experimental in- quiry into the, 454 Italian rye-grass, answer to queries respecting, 213 Intelligence of animals, 295 Interesting to agriculturists, 26 Invitation to landlords, 49 Kent agricultural college, 342 Labourers' Friend Society, 430, 439 Lapacb tree, tbe, 482 Lecture on the Marquis of Tweed- dale's brick and drain-tile ma- chine, 331. Leicestershire Agricultural So- ciety, 33U. Lethbridge, Sir T,, and tbe corn- laws, 42. Letter to the Editor, by " An old practical farmer," 43 Letter from Lord Western to Earl Spencer, 44 Letter to the right hon. Lord Western, 112. Letter to tbe Editor of tbe Intelli- gencer, 136 Letter to the Editor of the Sussex Advertiser, 140 Letter to the landowners and oc- cupiers of tbe county of Essex, 203 Letter to tbe right hon. Lord J. Russell, 235 Letting farms, 144 Lime, on tbe nature and proper- lies of, 184 Lime, on tlie application of, 386 Linden tree, tbe, 463 Liquid manure, 362, 427 List of prizes obtained for ani- mals bred and exhibited by R. W.Baker, Esq., 411 Live stock, on tbe nature and ma- nagement of, 395 Liverpool monthly review of the corn trade, 153 Liverpool Agricultural Society's ploughing match, 291 Llandovery district agricultural society, 317 London lactaries, 442 Machine for making drain-tiles, description of, 173 Malt, the quantity of, consumed by the brewers of London and its vicinity, 79 ]Man and swine, 83 Mangel wurzel potato, 137 Manure, on the second known fertilizer of the soil, 312 Manures, preservation and prepa- ration of, 379 Mill-stones, 376 .Morning Herald, a letter to the liditor of the, 204 M'Queen's letter to the right hon. Lord Melbourne, 219 Museum of economic geology, 432. Napoleon, history of, 398 Natural history of the turnip-flea beetle, on tbe, 29 Nature and management of live stock, on tbe, 395 New, (|uick, and humane method of slaughtering animals, 202 New poor laws, tbe, 202 Nitrate of soda, query, 276 Notes, additional, to an article entitled " Hints and sugges- tions," 239 Oaks, celebrated, 319 Obligation and extent of humanity to brutes, principally considered in reference to domesticated animals, 260 Patent rotatory steam engine, 430 Perennial grasses, on, 45 Pitcher plant, the, 362 Plan of tbe society of land-agents and surveyors for managing the highways considered, 137 Plug or clay draining, 96 Plough drainage, 193 Ploughing matches, 36 Ploughing match, near Murtidy Castle, 4 Ploughs and ploughing matches. Portable manures, on, 205 Potato market, 90, 169, 250, 410, 490 Potato, the, 434 Potato, on the culture of tbe, 206, 337, 360 Potatoes, how to preserve, 47 Preservation and preparation of manures, 379 Preserving turnips, 102 Prices of corn in Russia, a review of the, IIR Prince de Roluin potato, a new variety, 188 Prize essay on the black cater- pillar, 119 Prize essay of the Entomological Society on the turnip-fly and our " reviewer," 450 Probable future price of wheat, on the, 39 Productive powers of nature, 440 Profits of manufactures, 465 Prolific cow, 311 Properties and use of soil and subsoil, 440 Queries respecting Italian rye- grass, 138 Questions put by the anti-corn- law delegation, answered, 355 Rent-day at Draycolt, Staflford- shire, 112 Reply to Sir T. Lethbridge's let- ter on the corn laws, by " The Bedfordshire Reporter," 110 Report of the proceedings of the Yoxford farmers' club, 19 Report on subsoil and trench ploughing, 277 Report oftithe commissioners, 316 Review of the corn trade, 85, 165, 245, 325, 405, 485 Review of the prices of corn in Russia, 418 Roderick Random, a short-horn bull, bred by R. W. Baker, Esq. — jilate, 411 Rural management of the Forfar- shire ])art of the western dis- trict of Stratbinoi e, on the, 179 Russian farmers, 433 Rutland agricultural society, 21, Rutland hedge cutting and ditch- ing, 294 Sagacity of the dog, 394 Salt for manure, proposed manu- facture of, 37 INDEX. Seed market, 89, 169, 249, 329, 410, 489 Selection of male animals in the breeding of cattle and sheep, on the, 352 Sheep, new breeds of, 51, 136 Sheep, on breeding, 106 Sheep, Lord Western's, 139, 143 Sheep in California, 301 Situation of an apiary and bee pas- turage, 447 Sraitlifield club, 474 Smithfield market, 139 Smithfield show, the late, 1, 148 Smithfield club great dinner, 73 Smithfield club, prize cattle, 77 Smithfield show, account of the dead weights of the animals exhibited, 114 Soda as a manure, experiment on, 399 Soils, the nature of, 384 Spade husbandr}"-, 3l8, 463 Stable economy, 281 Stable manure and bone-dust for raising turnips on a clay soil, an account of a comparative trial of, 425 Statement of the expence of stock- ing, of the annual disburse- ments, and of the yearly re- turns, on a farm of 250 acres in Ayrshire, 113 Stock, on breeding and feeding, 144 Stock of lumber in the port of Quebec, lltb December, 1838, 147 Stockbridge cattle show, to the members of the, 446 Subsoil ploughing, on, 193, 198 Subsoil j)loughing dry land, 370 Subsoil plough, on the use of the, 148 Surface or furrow draining, on the cheapest and most efficient mode of, 275 Swedish turnips, 101 System of management on tlie farm of Swaythorpe, 267 «« • 111 Table for the use of the cattle- keepe;-, 470 Tables containing the average an- nual and decennial prices of wheat in England, from the year 1770 to 1838, 274 Tithe commutation, 135, 142 Tithe commission, 135 Tithe on hops, 204 Tubsworth liquid manure, on tlie, 2, 192, 442 Turnip culture, 464 Turnip seed, 473 Turnip-fly, essay on the, 123 Turnips, on the cultivation of, 99 Turnips, on the proper manure for, 417 Tuxford's patent machine for cleansmg wheat, barley, oats, &c., 155 Union agricultural society, 298 United States flour trade, 40 Unproductiveness of old pasture compared with new, 443 Urine as manure, 381 \^egetable cultivator, 473 A'^eterinary College, and the Eng- lish agricultural society, 38, 109, 273 Waltham agricultural association, 106 Western's, Lord, three wether sheep— Plate, 171 Wheat, average prices of, 305 Wheat, the new varieties of, 83 Wool growers and graziers of the county of Esses, to the, 439 Wool markets, 90, 170, 249, 330, 410, 490 Woollen manufacture in Siberia, 265 WoolL-n trade, 477 ^Voollens — exhibition of the pro- ductions of industry, 336 Zinc milk-pails, 432 Pniiteii by JosciiU Rogersou, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, Jj«udon. f KGKl^^^' u THE FARMERS S MAGMlNfe JANUARY, 1839. No. 1.— Vol. II.] [New Series. THE PLATE. The subject of our first Plate is a Devon Ox, bred by the late George Talbot, Esq., of Guiting Hall, near Moreton on the Marsh, Gloucestershire, and fed by and the property of Clarke Hillyard, Esq., of Thorpelands, near Northampton, President of the Northamptonshire Farming- and Grazing Society, and Author of a clever work on Aa;riculture, entitled " Practical Farmino- and Grazinp-." This animal was exhibited at the late Smithfield Show, and obtained a prize of fifteen sovereigns in Class 3. The silver medal was adjudged to the executors of the late Mr. Talbot, as the breeder ; and the gold medal to Mr. Hillyard, for having exhi- bited the " best beast in any class." We are informed that this Ox, having been sold at the sale of the late Mr. Talbot's stock, passed through two or more fairs without attracting attention, and was standing unsold in Northampton fair late iyi the day, when Mr. Hillyard chanced to notice it ; and, duly estimating its merits, made the purchase, and at once determined to exhibit it at the next Smithfield Show. THE LATE SMITHFIELD SHOW. As regards the cattle generally, it may be observed, that upon this occasion, the Here- fords have outnumbered the Short-lJorns in ob- taining prizes, ihe reverse having been the case in many preceding shows. Of seven prizes for oxen, five have been carried off by the Herefords, one by a short-horn. Earl Spencer's, and one by a Devon, exliibiled by Mr. Hillyard. The mem- bers of tlie Club, will doubtless remember the ox wliich Mr. Hillyard sent to the yard last year, and which he described as possessing all the points which a good ox ought not to possess, Mr. Hillyard at the same time stated that he had a little animal in reserve for the present exhibition, which would show them what an ox ought to be. He has redeemed his pledge, and the breeders of Devon stock are indebted to him. This Devon is pronounced to be " the best beast" in the yard, and has won the gold medal. The estimated weight of this ox is 144 stone of 8lb., and has we understand been sold for fifty pounds. The sheep of Lord Western's new breed attracted much attention.* There were * See Lord Western's Letter to Earl Spencer, page 44. OLD SERIES.} two pens, the one the produce of a Leicester ram and a Merino Ewe, the other the produce of a Merino ram and a half-bred Ewe, Merino and Leicester. The first cross is manifestly the best, the further infusion of Meiino blood, evidently showmg a retrogression to the original Merino character. These sheep will apparently cut as good legs of mutton as any Southdown or Leicester. The wool is very fine : the fleeces of the first cross weigh about two pounds per fleece more than the pure Merino, and fetch as high a price. The sheep exhibited have, we are told, been kept upon cold clay land. A number of agricultural implements were exhi- bited by Messrs. Plenty, Read, Gardner, Binch- field, Novington, Wyatt, Hunt, and Wedlake, but we did not observe any of a particularly new or superior character, with the exception of (Gardner's turnip cutter, which is one of the best, if not the very best instrument for that purpose: indeed, tlie loft in which the agricultural implements and machines are placed for exhibition is so miserably dark and confined, as to render it impossible to ex- amine them or scarcely see what they are. The in- creased number of animals exhibited, and the ad- ditional interest taken in the show, is such as to B [No. l.— VOL, X. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. render a more extensive accommodation indispen- sable. Tlie commiltee appointed last year to seek for larger premises lias made a report, and we doubt not, that before the next show more con- venienl premises ■will be obtained. The exhibition of seeds and roots by Messrs. T. Gibbs and Co., of Half-Moon-street, Piccadilly, was very superior. They had some exceeding- ly fine specimens of mangel wurzel, Swedish and other turnips, Kohl Rabi, a large collec- tion of specimens of the most approved grasses for laying down land to permanent grass, and a sample of a new blue pea, called the Whit- mote Blue Pea, which is only adapted for poor light land. The selection of seeds of all kinds is of the highest importance to the farmer, and too much encouragement cannot be given to those pereons engaged in the seed trade, upon whose correctness in that branch implicit confidence can be placed, an observation which will strictly apply to the house above named. Although not formmg part of the exhibition in Sadler's yard, yet being prepared for the reexamination of those agricul- turists who visit London, we cannot omit no- ticing the collection of roots now exhibiting by Messrs. Cormack, Son, and Oliver, at their Bed- ford Conservatory, Covent Garden, and at the same time expressing our conviction, that agricul- turists would be much gratified by an inspection of the particularly fine specimens of turnips, globe mangel wurzel, &c., and the permanent pasture grasses in their natural growing sta*e. — Mark Lane Express. ON THE TROTSWORTH LIQUID MANURE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK I..A.NE EXPRESS. Sir,— Observing an advertisement in your last num- ber, announcing' the intention of Mr, Kimberley to pub- lish his long lookecl for pamphlet containing' a descrip- tion of the Trotswortii liquid manure, I beg to offer a few remarks on that subject that may not be uninterest- ing to your agricultural readers, who like myself are anxious to obtain a knowledge of the ingredient, with a view to apply it to our own benefit. In consequence of the very iiigh opinion entertained of the value of this manure, (as described in Belt's Weekly Messet^ger, Dec. 25, 1837) by many of the first practical farmers in the county, numerous applications were made to Mr. Kimberley by persons who had an opportunity of witnessing the flourishing state of his crop* for some years past, to know how they were to obtain a supply of the mixture, at the same time ofiering to subscribe any leasonahle sum for that purpose ; but, as the manure could not be conveyed in a manufactured state to any distance without considerable expense of carriage, &c., and as the inventor of the composition was not desirous of maintaining a monopoly of the arti- cle in question, it was suggested that a public subscrip- tion at a remunerating price should be offered for the purchase of the recipe ; but the proposition was gene- tously objected to by Mr. Kimberley, on the ground rhat he wouhl not accept any payment until the value of the manure should be clearly ascertained. To effect this ohject, some gentlemen in his immediate neigh- bourhood were permitted to witness the application of the manure by the side of horse dung, on different fields and soils at Trotsworth, and to observe the pro- gress of tiie several crops at intervals during the last season : the results of these exjieriments has been per- fectly satisfactory, liie crops at harvest maintaining a character equal to those dressed with horse manure, and at a savins' of four-fifths of the expense as compared with the latter material. The locality of my own land to Mr. Kimberley's farm enabled me, through his kindness, to procure seve- ral cart-loads of his liquid, with which I made a variety of experiments too numerous to insert in this letter; but the results of which I have communicated to that gen- tleman, and I shall exceedingly regret, considering the great boon held out to the nation at large, and the very moderate terms on which it may be obtained, that the development of this important discovery should be re- tarded or withheld for want of a prompt and liberal spirit on the part of those who are so deeply interested in the economical cultivation of our native soil. — I am, Sir, your obedient servant, A Subscriber to the pamphlet above-mentioned. Egham, Surrey, Dec. 14, 1838. ANSWER TO W. W's. QUERIES ON THE COMPARATIVE MERITS OF SHEEP. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER's MAGAZINE. Sir, — Among the many interesting questions of your Hertfordshire correspondent, W. W., I find one on the comparative merits of the Down and half- bred sheep, which are hardiest, best to fold, come earliest to maturity, &c., &cc.1 Having been a breeder of a cross very similar if not altogether like the one he alludes to, (wliich I believe to be hardier than the Leicester) the improved Cotswold and Down Ewe, for eight years, and having persevered in it with the express view of producing a distinct breed of sheep, I may probably be enabled to give biin some little interesting information on this im- portant subject ; but, as it is not my wish to trespass on your columns at too great a length, now that they are filling with the accounts of the different Christ- mas cattle shows, I beg to refer him more particu- larly to the Farmers' Magasine for January last, or the Mark Lane Express of the 4tb December, 183T, where he will find my opinions, founded on the re- sults of then seven years' experience and unceasing watching, fully expressed. I presume the object at which W, W. aims, is to bo made acquainted with the description of sheep, the most profitable ; now this must necessarily involve two questions, viz., which are most profitable for breeding, and which for fattening? or is there a description of sheep, which beyond any other, will pay the breeder on the average of soils, and tlio feeder on any system better than another t I hold that there is, and thnt on any soil where folding is required, except that of the poorest nature, and which consists of a wild range of poor Down land, where no large sheep of any breed can be kept to advantage, the hnlf-breds will beat any other folding sheep yet known : the farm on which I keep them has this autumn been valued at eighteen shillings an acre, (exclusive of tithe) for the arable, with a moderate portion of water-mea- dow, of course higher; part of it is farmed on the four field and part on the five field system. The flock for many weeks in the autumn travels frequently nearly two miles from the fold, and the same distance back the same day, and every successive year more strongly confirms the opinion 1 have so often publicly expressed, and as often sought to have tested (as yet in vain) by a fair, impartial trial, that no breed of sheep will pay the breeder so well, or return to the grazier so much wool and mutton, in value, in proportion to the food consumed. By the cross the wool is rendered very superior to the original long wool, while it loses little, if any in weight ; it is also of more value per lb. than THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Down wool, and at least two-fifths heavier, averaging lor sliearling or teg welliers nine pounds each fleece, taking a hundred together; the carcass at from 13 to 15 months old is allowed to he rij)er, or in other words, to hear a hetter proportion of fat and lean, and more equally distributed both internally and ex- ternally, tiian any other young mutton ; the size at this age will vary according to the object of the breeder — whether he aims at size or not. I am now breeding somewhat smaller, and pasturing the same numbers of half-breds on an equal number of acres as my neighbours do of the Hampshire downs ; but I have bred them weighing nineteen stone (of 81bs,) five pounds, at fifteen months old, fed by Mr. Can- non of Maidenhead, Berkshire, who sold one hun- dred of that age, (or under,) in April, 1836, at or nearly an average of four pounds each, a price, I be- lieve, unparallelled, unless for fancy stock. With regard to the next question of W. W., " whether the cross of the long woolled sheep with the Down ewe, or the Down ram with the long woolled ewe, is best," I submit the former is far pre- ferable, inasmuch as the offspring is generally im- pressed with more of the qualities existing in the male, than in the female, and length of wool, width of carcass, and aptitude to fatten, being more con- spicuous in the white-faced breed than in the Down, it follows the first named method is much to be pre- ferred. With the view, as before stated, of perpe- tuating a distinct breed, (in which attempt, though in a different sheep, I have the satisfaction of seeing myself followed by no less a person than Lord Western) I have heen for eight years breeding half- breds froTn lialf-breds. a practice always condemned by theorists, but which experience of the above number of years, enables ine confidently to maintain is the best, indeed, only efficient wav of arriving at the desired points, viz., a uniformity of wool of superior value, of mutton of middle quality between Leicester and Down, with close resemblance in the feature and colour of the flock; this I am now fast accomplishing, in my late bred sheep it is already accomplished to my satisfaction, and my shearling ewes or tegs are of such a description, that any breeder of sheep would be pleased to see, and I could wish, by way of friendly competition, to ex- hibit them ujion equal terms against any breed the kingdom produces, as possessing a combination of qualities the most useful and profitable. If W. W. is acquainted with Mr. Betts, who lives near Watford, Herts, he will there find 150 lambs which I sold him, 100 being of my breed, and the 50 of the same description, but a little coarser, from these 50 tup lambs were selected, with them are 100 second cross lambs from Down ewes by my half-bred rams, which I understand are particularly handsome. To W. W's. eighth question 1 am unable de- cisively to speak, never having tried either the pure Leicester or Lincoln, but probabilities strongly in- cline me to the opinion that the new Leicesters, or improved Cotswolds (which latter is a cross on the Cotswold ewe by the new Leicester ram) possess by far the most approved qualities, both of wool, symmetry, and mutton, and my reasons for preferring the improved Cotswold of the two, are, that while it bears a heavier, longer wool, with the same beau- tiful symmetry, and equal disposition to arrive at early maturity, it is bred on hills as poor as the vale of Leicester is rich, consequently we have everjr reason to calculate that a greater hardihood of con- stitution will be a leading characteristic in the progeny. I am. Sir, vour's respectfully, J. T. TWYNAM. Whitchurch, Hants, Dec. 11, 1838. THE CORN LAWS. TO THE EDITOn OF THE FAHMEr's MAGAZINE. Sir, — In your last number of the "Farmer's Ma- gazine" there is an address to the landowners and occupiers of West Somerset on the subject of the Corn Laws. It is from the mischief arising from the efforts of sucli avowed friends of the agricultural in- terest that we have chiefly to guard against. There are too many who are inclined to give way to a supposed clamour against the Corn Laws, and to advocate a Don Quixotish abandonment of protection for fear it should "too often be repeated" that the Corn Laws were for the protection of the agricultu- ral interest onlj-. Why this affectation of ignorance on the question"? Is there any one so foolish as to disbelieve that the Corn Laws are for the protection of the agricultural interest only. For what purpose else could they be framed, and what landed proprietor or statesman would fence from the avowal of that being, the full and only purpose of thera? Surely none but those who would by deceit endeavour to miscal a measure to disguise the real design of it, and thus shew an unfitness for their station as states- men, or for the enjoyment of a property they cannot or dare not defend openly. It is time to cast away such truckling to expediency and clamour. Let the question be openly and fearlessly debated on its just grounds, and we need not fear for the result, but thus to work the way of what is now only an opposi- tion from a weak minority is folly. As an example of what injury the agriculturists may expect from the adoption of an insuflScient fixed duty I will beg- to refer to the growth of rape. What has been the effeet of the low fixed duty on rape on its growth in this country 1 There was an influx of foreign, which reduced the price one half, from about 40/. per last to below 20/., and in consequence English growers became tired, and then the foreigner exacted nearly the former price of 40/., till again the English growers competed, when the price once more declined so as to drive our cultivators out of the field, and once more the foreigner sacked high prices. The great bulk of high priced rapeseed will 1 am convinoed be of foreign growth. What would have been the effect on our cultivators if they could not have resorted to the growth of grain, and what could they have re- course to if our legislature were to give the same fa- cility to the consumption of wheat as they have to that of rapeseed ? It is the surplus of other countries that we must look at, and that surplus would under a fixed duty come in at the lowest rate of price. V/heat might be bought to come here at lOs. duty to be afforded at 21. a quarter in the face of our harvest, and the more the price is lowered the more is the cultivator compelled to sell his produce, so that we might be compelled to sell our new wheat even lower than 40s. per quarter. In times of real scarcity also 10s. duty even would not be maintained as greatly enhancing the cost to the consumer. The average system has worked much better than any fixed duty we can obtain. From our heavy burthens in taxation our prices must be higher than those of other countries free from them, aud we shall always be able (frost or war excepted^ to get sup- plies by paying greater prices than the average of prices in those countries, and higher prices are ne- cessary here in time of scarcity to prevent distress at home. An inadequate fixed duty is sure to reduce our prices to the average of other countries plus that duty a graduated scale will, in expectation of low duty, and the necessity of a scale of prices ranging here to obtain that, raise prices abroad to an approx- B 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. imation to our limit of price for importing-. How- far it would be politic to incre-ase the minimum of import duty, and thus to let our exchequer share the rise with the foreigner is I admit a subject worthy of consideration, as not enhancing the price to the con- sumer, but insomuch as it would help the payment of taxes, would benefit the country at large. The variation of duty and prices are the only safe limits for admission or exclusion of import, and there should be none except when needed, of which price will usually be the most certain index. I am afraid I am occupying too much space in your columns, but the subject must be my -apology. I am. Sir, yours, Holderness, Dec. 10. R. IVESON. GRAND PLOUGHING MATCH. On Tuesday, the 5th December, one of the most ani- mated and patriotic exhibitions ever witnessed took place near Murthly Castle. The late Sir John Archi- bald Stewart, of GrandtuUy, last year had intended, in order to stimulate the agricultural energies of the tenantry of his numerous estates, to present them with a splendid silver medal and other prizes, to be com- peted for at a ploughing match. Death has since de- prived the country of the worthy Baronet who originated the patriotic scheme, but his brother and successor has nobly carried his predecessor's intentions into effect, and again has the skill and science of our ploughmen been called into exertion. The field se- lected for the display -was the large haugh, nearly op- posite Murthly Castle on the north bank of the Tay. Long ere day dawn, seventy pairs of horses had passed Dunkeld Bridge for the combat, and by eight o'clock nearly a hundred competitors had arrived, and a con- course most numerous of the inhabitants of the sur- rounding country had assembled to witness the contest, eager, if possible, to anticipate the award of the judges. The gentlemen appointed to this difficult office were Messrs. Inches, Marlee House; Constable, Hill of Errol ; and Jack, West Mill of Kianaird. The prizes were awarded as follows : — 1st, to Donald Stewart, Lagg of Graudtully. 2nd,— John Stewart, Meikle Tombaue, Strathbraan. 3rd,— Robert Dow, Dalbathie. 4th, — Donald Keir, Ballanleek, Strathbiaan, 5th, — James Robertson, Pitleoch, do. 6th, — George M'Farlane, servant to Mr. Campbell, Mains of GrandtuUy. 7th, — Alex. Chapman, Airntully. 8th, — Wm. M'Kenzie New Delvine. 9th,— John Tyrie, servant to Mr. Sime, Airntully. 10th, — Peter Duff, Lednaskae, GrandtuUy. 11th,— James M'Laren, Airntully. 12th,— James Duff, servant to Mr. Robertson, Ballan- loan, Strathbraan. 13tb, — David Malcolm, servant to Mr. Bruce, Airn- tully. 14th,— John Robertson, do. do. do. The Medal given as the first prize is of the most splendid description, of the most chaste design and beautiful workmatiship, and value 6/. ; it bears on the one side the armorial bearings of the family, on the obverse, the ordinary agricultural emblems,' -svith the inscription of Presented by Sir Wm. D. Stewart, of GrandtuUy, Bart., to Donald Stewart, Lagg of GrandtuUy, as First Prize, at a Competition of 93 Ploughs which took place on his Estate, 5th Dec, 1838. The other prizes were handsome gratuities in money, and to the first was added a sovereign. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. No. HI.* BY HKNHY U. MADDEN, ESQ., L.R.C.S., EDINBURGH. (From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.) From the remarks we have made on vegetable nutrition, 1 am sure it must appear self-evident to all, that the action of the " permanent" consiMu- ents of soil, namely, silica, alumina, carbonate of time, &c., must be purely mechanical ; and that it (i is the organic matter only, which is added to the soil, that can have any physiological or chemical influence upon vegetation. 1} is clear, therefore, that the success of all farming operations will in a great measure depend upon requisite attention being paid to the supply of these " transient" in- gredients, as they have very properly been deno- minated. Nevertheless, it is absolutely necessary that the proper texture of the soil shonld be con- tinually preserved, which can only be done by having constant recourse to various mechanical operations, which have from time immemorial been used for this purpose. These may be advantage- ously divided into two classes. First, those which are employed to alter the natural texture or con- dition of the soil, as draining, paring, and burn- ing, &:c. ; and, secondly, those by which the na- tural texture is restored, after it has been altered by the various processes which have been carried on in the soil, 3.% ploughing harrowing, &ic. We shall now therefore, say a few words with regard to the theory of these operations. First, with re« gard to draining. That certain plants only can grow in soil which is constantly wet and boggy, is a fact tliat must be known to all those who have taken the trouble to look about them ; and to such it must be equally evident, that the plants which do generally inhabit such situations, are far from be- ing the most useful. 'I'o grow those vegetables, therefore, which are most prized by the agricul- turist, the very first point to be examined into is the condition of the land with respect to water; without due attention to which, no soil, however well constituted in other respects, will be found capable of being cultivated by any means to the greatest advantage. When a farmer therefore intends to bring any new piece of ground into cul- tivation, he must first examine its natural herbage ; and to one who has any knowledge of " country matters," this will be quite sufficient, since the general character and appearance of the sward of a wet soil is so distinct, that it is impossible to mis- take it. For example, wherever the grass is coarse interspersed with rushes and carices, we may con- clude that the soil is wet, and that the water it contains is frequently stagnant ; if however, these symptoms are not very evident, the farmer must proceed further, — let him see if the herbage is the same in all parts of the field, or whetlier it ,s coarser in some places than in others ; should this be the case, let him next determine the position of the coarser parts, whether they occur on the rising ground or in hollows. Should the latter be their prevailing position, more particularly should the grass of all the lower parts of the fields apjjear to be in a less thriving state than that on the more elevated portions, there will be good reason to be- lieve that it is owing to some defect in the texture either of the soil or subsoil, by which the water * In No. 2 of this series, p. 348, line 19, delete Ccommon salt^ after carbonate of soda. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 5 that iKiturally falls on it is prevented from getting easily away. Again, sliould any spot show evi- dence of moisture, that should at once be ex- amined, and its cause if possible ascertained, more particularly as to wliether it depends upon the ex- istence of a spring, since it frequently happens that soil, which of itself is of the very best texture, may be rendered bad, -and nearly useless, by sueh an occurrence. ^Vhen the fact is once ascertained, there is no want of remedies. Di-aininghas, I am happy to say, attracted so much attention of late, that it is now brought to a very fair degree of perfection, — in fact, the difficulty is not how to drain, but how to persuade the farmers and land- lords to have their fields drained ; for strange as it may appear, still it is " not less strange than n-i(C," there are many farmers who are so devoted to their old ways, that although they cannot look around them without the practical advantages of draining presented to the eye, still they are content to grow rushes instead of grass, rather than be at the first expense of having their land rendered permanently fertile : by which means, instead of annually losing the rent of such land, they would be receiving a large profit upon the outlay which was necessary to effect the cure. On account of so much having been already written in this Journal upon the principles and practice of draining, I shall not occupy my limited space with a recapitulation of the various methods of performing this valuable operation, but shall merely, in the briefest manner possible, give an outline of the scientific principles upon which it is founded. The fundamental law upon which the success of all draining operations depends is simplj' this, — that water, in common with all other fluids, cannot support itself in an inclined position, but will always endeavour to obtain a horizontal one, unless op- posed by insurmountable obstacles ; henc3, so long as the surface upon which water rests is in the slightest degree inclined, it ^^ill continue to move onwards. All therefore, which is required to be done, in order tliat land should be thoroughly drained, is to ensure a permanent oblique ch&nnel for the water, the lower end of which must of course ultimately terminate in some proper recep- tacle, as a pond, river, or the like. In securing this channel there are various circumstances to be con- sidered, the neglect of any of which will inevitably produce a failure : — These are — I. From whence does the water proceed, from above or below ? Or, in other words, is the mois- ture owing to retained surface water, or emitted spring water ? 2. The texture of the soil must be particularly attended to, If it be a stiff clay, and the cause of the damage surface water, the first thing to be done is, by constant tillage, to vender the clay as loose as possible, — to raise the land in ridges, and to furrotv-drai7i, as it is termed. If aL!,ain the clay is of a lighter kind, as a good clay-loam, for example, — or still more, if the soil be sandy, the subsoil likewise possessing an open texture, the fault will almost invariably depend upon the existence of a spring; in this case, the highest parts of the land should always be drained first, as it sometimes happens that this effectually cures the evil without incurring the expense of draining the whole. There are other cases, how- ever, in which, without an intimate knowledge of geology, it would be useless to attempt draining ; tor example, in those perplexing instances where the subsoil consists of irregular strata of clay and sand. Many other cases, ton, might be mentioned all of which prove that, to practise draining suc- cessfully, a man must make it his chief study, and depend upon it, it will always, in such cases, be found more economical in the end for farmers to employ a professional drainer, than for them to run the risk of a failure, by attempting it them- selves. Before concluding this subject, I may just enumerate the cases in which draining may be re- quired. 1. To GET KID OF SuRVACE WATER. — 1. In all stiff horizontal clays. 2. In horizontal lands of all textures, if repos- ing on a subsoil of impervious clay. 3. In ferruginous soils of any texture, where there exists the moor-pan, as it is termed, — by which is meant a peculiar impervious stratum, composed chiefly of iron, which often exists be- tweeen the soil and subsoil in such situations. Here, however, the breaking of the pan might greatly assist the subsequent draining of the land. II. To GET RID OF SPRINGS. — Whcrcvcr these exist, it is clear that the only way to prevent them injuring the land, is by giving their contents a free exit, in some direction where they can do no harm. Paring and Burning. — This operation is re- commended by several writers as the readiest way of bringing many kinds of waste land into a fit state for immediate cultivation ; and yet there is no process upon which the opinion of different scientific men appears to be more at variance, — some strangly opposing it as an unwarrantable waste of manure, and others recommendingit as strenuous- ly on the score of economy! It is evident therefore, that one or other of these two sects must either be guided by erroneous principles, or neither of them have sufficiently investigated into all the particu- lars of the subject upon which they have written. The latter of these, I think, we shall be able to prove to be the cause of this, as of many other cases, in which directly opposite opinions are held by difterent men upon the same subject. We shall therefore, carefully discuss the point under the two following heads. a First, We shall state the different theories which have been propounded to explain the action of this process, and mention the various ways in which it may possibly act : and, secondly, See how, and in what cases it may be advantageously applied to practice. The various theories which have been promulgated with reference to this subject are chiefly the following, namely, 1st, That it acts by altering the texture of the soil ; 2d, That its aetion depends upon the heat decomposing inert vegetable matter ; 3d, That the cause of the improvement depends upon the formation of vegetable alkali (carbonate of potass) which acts as manure; and 4th, That the good effects are caused by the destruction of certain in- jurious substances which previously existed in the soil. The first of these theories is the one pro- posed by Sir Humphrey Davy, and has certaiidy the merit of being founded upon strictly scientific principles ; for example he states that it is inju- rious, except upon clayey soils, but that, in the latter case, the effect of the heat is to alter the constitution of these soils — in fact, to render them in texture much more similar to sands ; to use his own words, " It may, when judiciously applied, convert a matter which was stiff", damp, and, in consequence, cold, into one powdery, dry, and warm, and much more proper as a bed for vege- table life." Now that this statement concerning the alteration of texture is strictly true, needs no 6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. other proof than a reference to the process of brick-making, which essentially depends upon the above fact. If for example, we powder a brick, we shall find that in this state, the clay possesses properties extremely similar to those of sand, namely, that when mixed with water its particles do not adhere together, and form a cohesive plas- tic mass. The chemical change which ic has un- dergone is simply its being deprived of water, and as I stated in ray first paper, " dry alumina cannot be made to unite with water, except through the medium of chemical solvents ;" so that having once completely deprived it of that substance, there is extremely little chance of its ever resuming the form of a hydrate. Moreover, during the process of burning, the alumina enters into chemical union with the silica and iron of the soil, should any ex- ist, and forms with them insoluble compounds, which are decomposed with great difficulty ; and hence it may be extremely useful in lands where the iron is liable to become soluble, in which state as before mentioned, it acts as a powerful poison to almost all vegetables. An objection might here be raised, that although paring and burning alter- ed the texture of the soil actually exposed to the tire, still this quantity would be too small, when spread and mixed with the remainder, to produce any material difference of texture ; but upon cal- culation, it will be found, that even if the turf lost one half of its weight by burning — which could only take place when a large quantity of vegeta- ble matter was present — as it is generally cut two or more inches thick, there would be added at least 14| per cent, of altered alumina (having the mechanical properties of silica) to the soil ; six inches being taken as the average depth of tillage. Sir Humphrey Davey likewise takes notice of the second method by which paring and burning might be useful, namely, by decomposing inert vegetable matter. He says, " Although it de- stroys animal and vegetable matter, nevertheless this is more than compensated by the good it ef- fects upon the texture, and in fact, the carhon of the ashes may be more useful than the original vegetable fibre." Here however, it is not so easy, fully to comprehend the author's meaning ; for we have already seen that, in order for any sub- stance to be absorbed by plants, it must either be soluble in water, or in an extremely minute state of division ; whereas, carbon, when fully developed, or, in other words, when completely disorganised is capable of being dissolved by no known agent except fire ; and as to a spontaneous formation of carbonic acid, by a union taking place between it and oxygen in the cold, if such is the case, it cer- tainly is a new chemical fact ; and lastly very little if any of the carbon left after the incineration of turf, will be in a sufficiently minute state of divi- sion to admit of its being absorbed in the solid form. The good effects, however, may depend upon the burning acting in the following way upon the inert vegetable fibre of the soil. Although a great part of the organic matter must be com- pletely disorganised by the intensity of the heat, still a portion of it may not suffer decomposition to the same extent, and this, when acted upon by the carbonate of potass, produced during the pro- cess, may be easily converted into soluble organic food, which, of course, would act as manure ; moreover, it is very well known that an accumu- lation of undecomposed vegetable fibre is injurious to plants ; in fact, is one of the most frequent causes of " loss of heart" in old pasture land, so that its destruction might be beneficial. Thirdly, The utility of the process being de- pendent upon the formation of carbonate of potass has already been shown. In calcareous soils there would moreover be formed, in addition, a certain quantity of " hot lime," which of course would act in the same manner as if applied after it had been burned in the kiln. The great objection which has been made to the process of paring and burning, will be best considered here, as it is this " waste of or- ganic matter" that is so severely reprobated. Those who hold this opinion, state that the quan- tity of alkali which is formed, is by no means suffi- cient to compensate for the immense loss sustain- ed by the large quantity of organic matter which is necessarily destroyed during the process ; and in its place they propose paring the land , and form- ing the part removed into compost heaps, in order to be decomposed by means of lime. That this might possibly be applicable in a few cases there can be no doubt ; but to adopt it as a general principle, would be extremely dangerous ; for I fear that, practically, it would be the very reverse of economical ; for when the price of the lime, the expense of making the heaps, and all the other minutia;, are taken into consideration, it will be found that, in fact, such a procedure would be attended with far more expense than would be compensated by the quantity of manure gained. I have heard a remark by a very sagacious farmer, which I think will apply extremely well here, namely, that, " in the management of a farm there is a certain point, beyond which if a man goes he will find himself a loser instead of a gainer ; for it will never answer to keep a market farm like a garden." So also there are many things, which when considered abstractedly, might appear eco- nomical, when put into practice would be found to be exactly the reverse. The last method in which paring and burning has been supposed to act, is that promulgated by Professor Rennie : according to his hypothesis, the advantage derived from this process depciuls chiefly upon the heat decomposing certain perni- cious matters contained in the soil. This state- ment was made on account of the importance that has been attached by many late writers to some experiments performed some years ago by M. JMa- caire, by which he endeavoured to prove that plants ejected from their roots substances which were injurious to them, or, in other words, that plants passed ea;creme7ititiovs matters into the soil. By this means they have accounted for the neces- sity of a rotation of crops, and many other cir- cumstances, the causes of which had before been wrapped in obscurity. Now, whatever may be the merits of this theory — and we shall have an opportunity of discussing it fully when speaking of the rotation of crops — it, like all others, has been made use of, by some at least, to explain al- most every operation in husbandry : for example. Professor Rennie would have us believe that the chief if not the only beneficial effects to be derived from the various operations of paring and burn- ing, fallowing, irrigation, and the like, depended upon their freeing the soil from this excrement. These, with the exception of the first, will be con- sidered afterwards; we shall, however, here make a few remarks upon how far the cfl'ects of paring and burning can be explained upon this hypothe- sis. One of the chief aiguments which he adduces in support of this statement, namely, that it is not the formation of ashes, and their action as ma- nure, which is the cause of the improvement, but THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that the whole amelioration depends upon the de- composition of the excreinentitious matters — is, that when fires have been lighted upon grass, the sward is afterwards most luxuriant for a certain distance round the spoi occupied by the burning mass, or, in other words, as far as the heat of the fire has been sufficient to decompose the excre- ment." Now a moment's consideration will, I think, be sufficient to show the fallacy of this ar- gument. First, is it lilcely that the spot itself on which the fire stood should have a luxuriant her- bage, when every root and seed contained in the soil must have been completely destroyed by the intense heat ? And again, how is it possible that the heat could be sufficient to decompose the ex- crement (an organic compound) for some distance round the spot, and yet that the roots of the grass {orr/anized bodies likewise^ should not be in the least degree injured ? Moreover, although this alone would be sufficient to show the instabilit}' of the argument — the fact related by no means proves that it is not the effect of the ashes of the plants burned; for, since the active jjart of these ashes is extremely soluble, the very first rain would carry it into the soil, and unless it were either ex- tremely loose, or perfectly horizontal, a portion of it would most certainly spread for some distance round the spot, and hence the increased luxuri- ance. So much for all the theories which have deduced as explanatory of this process. We shall now shortly recapitulate the various methods in which it may possibly act. 1. In stiff clays, paring and burning may be of value, by depriving a certain portion of alumina of its chemically combined water, thus giving to it the inechanicr.l proi)erties of sand, and hence to a cer- tain extent altering the texture of the soil. 2. In cases where iron exists in the soil, which is liable to become soluble, this process may act beneficially, by causing a chemical union to take j)]ace between this substance and the alumina and silica, and thus rendering it incapable of being again dissolved ; and in this manner doing away with one cause of " loss of heart." 3. By destroying a large quantity of inert vege- table matter, tlie land may be greatly cleaned and improved ; by which means another cause of " loss of heart " is overcome. 4. By the formation of alkaline ashes (carbo- nate of potass), and the subsequent action of these upon the remaining organic matters of the soil; thus converting them into soluble food. 5. In calcareous soils the chalk will be reduced to lime, thus increasing the quantity of alkali found in this particular instance, the subsequent eflects of which will of course be the same as in the preceding case. 6. By destroying tbe seeds of useless plants, and at the same time most probably the larvae of innumerable injurious insects. 7. The process of paring and burning being of course followed by ploughing, the land will thus be thoroughly stirred up, and fully prepared for the subsequent operations of husbandry. Thus we have at least seven excellent reasons in favour of this operation, and only one against it, which we have already seen to be in a great mea- sure futile. We shall proceed therefore to say a few words in reference to its practical application. These remarks will require to be indeed very brief, since it is clear that what has been already said concerning the methods in v>hich tlic procebs may act, will at once suggest to the thinking farmer the cases in which it may be applicable. 1 shall merely, therefore, take this oi)portunity of re- marking how impossible it is to lay down practical rules upon any one operation in husbandry, which can be applicable to all cases ; in fact, lam convinced that the chief cause of practical agricul- turists not giving in to the suggestions of men of science, is, that the latter are so extremely apt to lay down general rules, without at first consider- ing carefully all the various circumstances, local or individual, which may influence greatly the feasibility of the plan proposed. For example, with reference to the suggestion of making com- post heaps after paring, instead of burning the mass, the following circumstances would have to be carefully considered, — l*^, Whether there is a scarcity of manure, and consequently that great care must be taken to husband all that can be got at; 2nd, Whether lime can be obtained with faci- lity, and at a trifling expense ; 'ird. Whether on examination the soil is not already full of calca- reous matter ; Ath, Whether the trouble and ex- ])ense of carting the lime, making the heaps, turn- ing them, and allowing the land to lie useless until the compost is fully formed, will be compensated for by the value of manure gained. Without due attention to all these circumstances the farmer would very possibly find in the end that he was a loser instead of a gainer, and that, in endeavour- ing to carry his economy to the greatest possible extent, he had, in point of fact, greatly increased his expense. Thus we see that paring and burn- ing is the easiest, quickest, and most economical way of bringing poor cold clays into a fit state for cropping, particularly if stocked with undecom- posed vegetable matter, unless under the peculiar circumstances above mentioned ; and that likewise it may be useful for sandy soils, should these be liable to " loss of heart," either from the existence of iron in a soluble state, or, as in the former case, from the accumulation of vegetable fibre, more particularly if the soil has already a suffi- ciency of lime ; but should this not be the case, unless lime were expensive, it should be tried first, as in many cases it will be found the most econo- mical. The above methods are those chiefly in use for altering the natural texture of soils, and, as has been shewn, are extremely useful for that purpose. In addition to these, however, there has been a great deal said of late concerning the judi- cious admixture of soils in order to improve their fertility, as, for example, adding clay to sand, and vice versa. Now, however plausible these sug- gestions may at first sight appear, it is very doubt- ful whether they will ever prove of any great practical value ; for there are such a variety of collateral circumstances to be taken into consi- deration, that it is difficult to see how they could possibly be put in practice, without incurring a much greater outlay of capital than the increased fertility of the soil would ever recompense; for, when we consider the immense quantity of sand or clay, as the case might be, which would be ne- cessary to effect the requisite alteration of tex- ture,*—when we calculate the time and expense * About 120f cubic yards of earth would be re- quired to cover each English acre, one inch thick, which, as before stated, taking six inches as the average depth of tillage, would, when thoroughly mixed, only add llf jier cent, of sand or clay to the soil. This shews in a forcible ligiit the ])ractical advantages of paring and burning, over artiticial ad- mistme in all cases where the texture of the soil in too stiff". 8 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of digging, carting, and spreading the soil, — the repeated tillings requisite to mix it properly, — and, moreover, when we consider that, unless the soil added were surface-xoil (which could extremely seldom be the case), we are adding so much inert mineral matter, which will necessarily impoverish the original soil to a great degree, and hence re- quire large quantities of manure to be added ; — ■when, I repeat, we take these and many other cir- cumstances into consideration, I conceive that, however plausible the idea of an artificial mixture of soils may be in theory, it will not, in the pre- sent state of husbandry at least, he found appli- cable to practice in any instance where economy is a consideration- AVe shall now proceed to consider the various methods which arc had recourse to by farmers, in order to restore the natural texture to soil, after that has been altered by the various processes which have been carried on in it.* When earth has been for a long period exposed to the weather, however well jjulverized it may have been at first, it will — unless it consist almost entirely of siliceous matter — become consolidated to a greater or less extent, and thus be rendered xmfit for many of the operations of husbandry. Moreover, if, in addition to mere exposure, the soil should have had an abundance of vegetation upon it, the root fibres of all these plants will of course remain in it, and thus tend in a still greater degree to bind it together. To obviate these dif- ficulties, as well as to facilitate various other pro- cesses, farmers have, from time immemorial, had recourse to various mechanical operations for re- storing the soil to its original state : these are ploughing, harrowing, and the like, by means of which the earth is fully broken up, the root-fibres which it contains completely separated, and the soil thus reduced to a comparatively fine powder. This preparation of soil, of course, differs in de- gree according to the foulness of the land ; for example, much more preparation is requisite after a grain than a fallow crop, and for this obvious reason, that the latter is in most cases entirely removed from the soil, roots and all, whereas in the former case the root is almost invariably left behind : grain crops too, from not permitting of hoeing, &c., during their growth, tend greatly to promote the increase of weeds, on which account a longer and more careful cleaning is of course rendered necessary. In a slight sketch of the sci- ence of farming, like the present, it would of course be quite out of place to enter into any of the minutia) of practice connected with the mere mechanical operations of husbandry. A very few words will therefore suflSce on the subject of ploughing and harrowing. These operations, os before mentioned, are had continual recourse to by the farmer, in order to keep his land clean and ofien, and at the same time render it fit for the reception of seed ; and the principles upoa which they act are purely mechanical, the plough being merely a modification of tlie spade, so as to admit of the substitution of draught for manual labour; and the harrow again merely a horse- * Of course these remarks refer only to land w-hich has alrea.ly been subjected to cultivation, since it is evident that soil whicli has never been broken up for agricultural purposes must have remained for so great a length of time in grass, or some such state, thattliis may legitimately be termed its natural con- dition ; and consequently pulverizing such soils may be considered as altering their texture. rake. It will be, therefore, quite superfluous to occupy any space in explaining the principles of such well known, operations. Not so, however, with regard to the various kinds of f allowing, which are used by farmers as aids to ploughing, &c. in cleaning and preparing their land ; for here a great many circumstances re- quire attention, all of which must be examined scientifically. Fallowing, it is well known, implies subjecting soil to various plougbings, harrowings, grubbings, &c., and at the same time allowing it to remain for a certain period, either without sowing any crop upon it, as in perfect fallows ; or arranging the seed sown in such a manner that they will sufter the land to be continually cleaned during the whole period of their growth, as in fallow crops. 'J'hese two of course are mere modifications of each other. Tlie pure fallows will be best considered under two heads. Winter and Summer, because, although a complete fallow occupies both these seasons, still the changes effected in the soil are extremely differ- ent during the early and latter parts of the process. Winter-Fallow. — All land which is to be either thoroughly fallowed, or prepared for a fallow-crop, is well ploughed in Autumn, after the harvest is completed, and this should be as deep as possible, eight or nine inches at least, or even the trench plough may be used if it appear necessary. Great care should be taken in this operation that the land be laid in such a manner as to keep it as dry as pos- sible, more especially to prevent the surface-water from stagnating on any one spot ; for which purpose the method of cleaving xcith open furrotvs, as it is called, is the most effectual, as by this means the ridges are divided in two, and hence the number of water-courses doubled ; in other cases again, gather- ing tip may be had recourse to for the same purpose. After this ploughing, the land is allowed to rest un- til the following spring, and during this interval various changes take place, which it will be neces- sary for us to consider carefully; these are the de- struction of weeds, and probably insects, and the more complete pulverization of the soil. One of the chief advantages to be gained b}'- fallowing is un- doubtedly the destruction of weeds, and conse- quently, if the land be ploughed in the Autumn to a considerable depth, and the under surface exposed to all the severity of the winter, the tender fibres of the roots of these weeds are thereby destroyed, and the plants themselves of course die ; so that, for perennial weeds, the winter-fallow is an effectual I'emedy ; the annual ones, however, have, long ere this period, shed their seeds, and consequently a great many of these may escape injury. In addi- tion, however, to the destruction of weeds, the Winter-fallow is supposed to clear the laud of many insects, which during these months retire below the surface of the soil, to protect themselves from the severity of the season. This, however, is not found to be strictly correct, and I doubt if the winter- fallow is ever very effectual in promoting the de- struction of insects, and for this reason, very few of these animals penetrate to any considerable depth into the soil, the average being from three to four inches ; if, then, the ploughing is carried to the depth of eight or nine inches, it follows that by this means the insects are even better protected from the inclemency of the weather than if the land had been left untouched ;* and the s])ring cross-ploughing, * Of course this refers only to the greater number of the insects, for some of them will undoubtedly be exposed between the furrow-slices, and thus most pro- bably be destroyed. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. harrowing, &c., will be sure to turn tliera up, so that they will then he all ready to return their thanks to the farmer for his kindness, by doing- liim all the damage in their jiower. The aame holds true with the germs of annual weeds ; these being self-sown, of course lie near the surface, and the ploughing will effectually prevent them from being injured by the cold, even should the season be sufficiently se- vere to destroy them were they left in their original position. The winter-fallow is especially useful in breaking up obdurate clods of earth ; this change is brought about by various means, as the constant exposure lo all the inclemencies of the weather, &c., but move particularly by frost. Wh^n a frost oc- curs, the water which is contained in the interstices of the clods of earth is of course converted into ice, during whicli change it has been distinctly proved that it expands with great force ; so that, by this expansion, the particles of earth are of course sepa- rated from each other, and thus the whole mass ren- dered much more friable. This probably is the most essential benefit derived from the ^\'inter fallow, for it not only does away with the necessity of the re- peated ploughings and harrowings which the soil would otherwise require to bring it into a fit state for receiving the seed, but it at the same time greatly facilitates the subsequent removal of root-weeds, 8cc. ; and in this manner therefore makes the land beautifully clean for the spring sowing. Summer Fallow. — This is the true fallow, and is had recourse to for the express purpose of cleaning the land thoroughly, both of annual and perennial v.-eeds, and at the same time to refresh it by rest, and renew it by a plentiful addition of manure ; so that after Summer-fallow land is considered to be in the higliest state of perfection, — in fact, when used, it always forms the commencement of the rotation. A great many speculations have been hazarded upon this point, both by practical and scientific men ; some of the former in objecting to the process as an unnecessary waste of time, and many of the latter in endeavouring to explain its mode of action. With regard to the first of these I shall say but little, as that would require too much detail: it may be re- marked, however, that the best farmers of the true wheat soils (clay loams) agree, that, on the whole, the Summer-fallow is the safest preparation for this crop ; and, moreover, that, if the clay be very obdu- rate, it is indispensable, in order that the land may be kept clean and open. For the lighter soils, how- ever, the adoption of fallow-crops has almost en- tirely superseded the necessity of true fallow, and is certainly the most economical. With regard to its action, however, we must de- scend more into particulars. Ist, Some say that it is useful solely by the destruction of weeds ; some that it actually refreshes exhausted soils ; and others hold that its beneficial eflf'ects are owing to the de- composition of excrementitious matters contained in tiie soil. That it is useful by destroying weeds is perfectly clear, for, by the repeated tillings to which the land is subjected, these plants are broken down in all the stages of their growth ; and that farmer must be unwarrantably careless who allows a single weed to ripen en a field whicli is in Sun-.mer-fallow. It may likewise be useful in destroying insects, for if no vegetable is allowed to grow, they must either die of starvation, or migrate to some other spot, where they will be better provided for. 'Jdly. Summer- fallow is supposed actually to re- fresh the soil, after it has been exhausted by pre- vious cropping ; tliis remark, of course, must refer to the soil as it existed previous to the fallow, and not after the addition of large quantities of manure, which always forms a part of the process ; for it certcinly does not require any great depth of know- ledge to discover that land will become richer after the addition of a considerable quantity of manure ! How then can this exposure render the soil more fertile? We have already seen that the fertility of soil by no means depends merely upon the proportion of organic matter which it contains, but much more upon the state in which such matter exists, since, as long as it is insoluble, it is perfectly useless. Hence the question comes to be, can Summer-fallowing re- duce hitherto insoluble organic matter to such a state that it is capable of being absorbed by plants? We have already had occasion to remark, that this change is most probably effected by some process analogous to fermentation and putrefaction ; to effect which ])urposes it is requisite that the substances be ex- posed to the joint influence of moisture, air, light, and heat. Now we shall find that the Summer-fal- low combines all these requisites ; by the land being thoroughly and repeatedly ploughed, the vrhoie, or nearly so, of the organic matter contained in it must be exposed for some time to the action of these va- rious agents, and thus putrefaction aided to a great degree, and a stock of soluble matter prepared for the next crop ; in fact, the process may be very aptly compared to cooking previous to the seed beino- sown, in order that they may not have to wait for their food until they are half-famished. 3dly. Some suppose that Summer-fallow acts by the destruction of excrementitious matter. Here we have Professor Ronnie's theory again. He states, that, by the frequent turnings of the earth, and exposing it to the beat of the summer sun, the dark excrementitious matters ot the soil are decom- posed, and the land thus rendered more wholesome for the succeeding crop ; and moreover, that the reason why this process is more necessarj^ for clays thansands is, that, in the latter class of soils, the excrement may evaporate, or may be carried down with descending moisture, provided the subsoil be open and porous ; and lastly, he compares this ex- crement to barren peat. Unfortunately, however, for this theory, each of these statements can be easily explained, without any reference to the excretory powers of plants, which at best is not sufficiently well established at present. First, with regard to the decomposition of the excrement by exposure, and consequently the rendering of the soil more wholesome for the succeeding crop ; from all that I have been able to gather from any work upon the excretions of plants, it appears that the advocates of this theory merely consider that this discharged matter is injurious to plants of the same kind, and not that it is hurtful to vegetation in general : on the contrary, M. Macaire himself states, that the ex- crement of the bean and pea is useful, instead of in- jurious, to ivheut plants ; so that the idea of render- ing the land more wholesome cannot hold good, ex- cept Summer-fallow were employed for the purpose of restoring fertility to soil which had been ex- hausted by the constant renetitions of the same crop. Sffcondly, as to the clays requiring Summer-fallow more than sands ; this, I take it, depends upon their texture not permitting tlie free action of air, &c.upon the insoluble vegetable fibre which it contains, in order to eflfect its decomposition ; hence the liability of such soils, when left in permanent pastxire, to lose heart from an accumulation of vegetable matter. Lastly, the similitude of the excrementitious matter to barren peat is improbable, from the following facts. Peat consists of undecomposed vegetable fibre, and most frequently likewise some antiseptic 10 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. substance (^probably nioditied creosote*), wLicli pre- vents the decomposition of any organic matter, either naturally existing in it, or artificially added to it; and Jience the cause of the sterility of such soils, all the ort^anic matter being in nainsoluble state, i'he excrements described by M. Macaire, on the other Jiand, are stated to be soluble ; for ex- ample, that of heans is said to resemble gum. For these reasons, would it not be better to leave the excretory tlieory alone? At all events, until more extensive experiments have been performed, in or- der to prove more unequivocally than has hitherto been done, that all plants do really excrete a matter injurious to themselves, when placed under perfectly natural circumstances. We have thus examined pretty fully into all the diflerent methods employed by farmers, both to len- der the soil fit for cultivation, in the .*irst place, and afterwards to preserve it constantly in that condi- tion ; and we have seen that all these processes are founded upon strictly scientific principles ; and, moreover, that they require an accurate knowledge of these principles, in order that they may be advan- tageously put to practice ; and, lastly," that, with some of them, it is necessary, before any one at- tempts to apply them practically, that he should have an extensive acquaintance with many of the higher branches of science. With these remarks, we shall conclude the first division of the present sketch of Scientific Agri- culture, as we have now finished tlie account ofthe nature and chemical composition of soil, its requi- sites for supporting vegetable life, and the various methods resorted to by farmers to bring it into a fit state for cultivation. Our next paper will therefore commence the all-important and extensive subject of Manure. CORN LAWS. Speech of Edivard S. Cayley, Esq, M. P., on the motion of Mr. Villiers for " A Committee of the whole House to consider Act 9 Geo. IV., c. 60, relating to Foreign Corn.'" March 15, 1838. Mr. Cay LEV, — Sir, I agree with most of the ob- servations which have fallen from the hon. mem- ber who has just sat down in the lucid and dis- passionate speech he has made, especially as they related to the question of our foreign trade. He has shown that other nations have a will of their own ; and that they will retain to themselves the supply of their own market with manufactures, in spite of our ambition to raanufactuie for tlie whole world. In addition to what he has stated on this head, I may add, that France is at this moment putting a higher duty on linen yarn, for the purpose of excluding the j)roduce of this coun- try. Prussia is not confining herself to supply her own internal market; hut is competing with, and occasionally beating us (especially in hosiery) in the American and South American markets. And it is notorious that Belgium and Switzerland have of late years been making amazing strides in the power to compete with us as manufacturers ; so that the notion enteitained a few years ago, that we might create for ourselves a monopoly of the manufac- turing trade of the world, each day discovers to he more vain and delusive. It therefore, better be- comes us to pay, at least an equal share of attcn- * Dr. Corraack's Prize Essay on Creosote. tion to those customers who never forsake us, namely, the customers of the home market. Of those interested in the maintenance of the corn- laws the home market is chiefly composed. An attempt is often made, indeed, to underrate the numbers and importance of the parties connected with the agricultural interest in this country ; but from data which I have, on a former occasion, stated to the house, I do not hesitate to affirm, that (including the provincial towns and the classes which are employed by the agricultural body) those interested in the welfare and pros- perity of the agriculture of Great Britain and Ire- land, amount to, at least, five-sixths of the whole population. No wonder, then, that the honourable member for the Tower Hamlets (Mr. Clay), with his opin- ions, laments the apathy of the people on the sub- ject. But when he states that there are fewer no petitions in favour of a repeal of the corn-laws, he makes the most pointed reply to the speech of the honourable mover for their repeal. That speech was certainly replete with ingenuity and ability ; but it was not convincing ; and it wanted that support which he would have been the first to have made use of, namely, the support of the people. The fact is, that 12 or 15 years ago thei e was a cry raised throughout the manufac- turing districts in favour of a repeal of the corn- laws ; but that cry has now almost subsided. And what reason is to be assigned for this ? No other, I believe, than that the people have be- come more enlightened ; — too much so to be car- ried away by the delusive theories which were then abroad on the subject of cheap bread. Bitter exi)erience has taught the labouring class that they have not been in the most flourishing condi- tion when bread has been the cheapest. Ask any agricultural labourer, at this day, above the age of 50, when he was the best of! ? He will answer, when corn was 8s. or 10s. a bushel. Ask him, when he was worst off? He will answer, when corn was at its lowest price, a few years ago. Even the distressed hand-loom weavers, to whom the honourable member (Mr. Villiers) on this oc- casion, so pathetically referred, are not, in the midst of their poverty, intent on a repeal of the corn-laws. I sat two years on the committee for inquiring into their condition — I think the hon. member was not on that committee — and a more intelligent and respectable set of men I never saw than the weavers who were summoned before us ; or men m )re straightforward and true in the de- velopment of their sentiments and facts. Of these witnesses — I speak from general impi'cssion ■ — 1 should say, at least three out of five were not in favour of a repeal of the corn-laws, althougii their attention was prominently drawn to that subject as one that might influence their condi- tion. I have only had time to refer to the opinion of two of them. Kichard Necdham says, — *' We complain much more of the unjust favour that has been shown lothe possessors of fixed money incomes, than we do of the operation of the Corn liill, which is to j)rotcct the landed proprietors; we have not the same objection to the corn-law as to those men receiving large sums of money as wages, salaries, and so on. We think it more unjust for the government to i)rotect the I'undholder and the monied interest of the country, than the landed in- terest." And Edward Good observes — " Since the decline in the price^, of corn, I do net THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 11 think we have been better oH'. 1 tiiink our wages have kept pace with the decline of corn, and gone before it in many instances." Here is the solution to the change in opinion upon this subject among the working classes. They were taught to consider that the corn-laws were a means of upholding the price of corn, at their cxpencc, for the benefit of the landlords only. They have found this theory contradicted by their own experience ; for they have seen that, with the fall of the j)rice of corn, landlords alone have not suffered, but that all the industrious classes have suffered along with them. The ho- nourable mover has argued this as a question of pure self-interest on the part of the landlord. Experience has shown that it is not so. ISut is there no self-interest on the other side ? Has the fixed annuitant no interest in reducing the price of corn and of manufactures to the lowest possible pitch, in order that his fixed income may go all the further ? I do not know whether the honour- able member be, himself, a fixed annuitant, or whether he be the representative of the fixed an- nuitants in this house; if he be, I teU him, that his interest in the repeal of the corn laws is a much more individual and selfish one, than that of the landlords in the preservation of them. In the prosperity of the landlords, the welfare of the tenant and labourer, and of at least five- sixths of the population, is also bound up. High rents cannot be dictated by the landlords ; they are mere symptoms of prosperity on the part of those who conduce to the paying of them, namely, of the farmers and husbandmen, and their custo- mers. It was this which caused Mr. Locke to de- clare that "an infallible sign of the decay of na- tional wealth is the falling of rents ; and that the raising of them would be worth a nation's care." Take, however, the case of a fixed annuitant. With whom is his interest bound up ? Certainly not with that of the industrious and productive classes ; because he lias only one interest, namely, to buy goods and labour cheap, so that his fixed income may go the farthest. The industrious and productive classes, on the contrary, want to take their goods and labour to a remunerating market. Let us hear no more of self-interest, then, from those parties who are the main originators of the cry for the repeal of the corn laws. One chief argument in favour of the corn-laws is given in an answer to Mr. Oliver, a most intelli- gent witness, before the Agricultural Committee of 1833, and a candidate for the Professor's chair of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh. He was asked what effect the repeal of the corn laws would have on the working class. He went into a minute calculation, and concluded by saying that, if 3,000,000 quarters of corn (of all kinds) were ixgularly imported, in the j)lace of that pro- duced by the British agriculturis';, it would throw out of bread 1,000,000 of people and 2,000,000 of acres out of cultivation. But the importation, to answer the end of many of its promoters, must be much larger than this ; and the mischief and dan- ger and distress would, of course, be proportionate. Every market of labour and of production would be surcharged, and wages and goods would fall in price, bjlow any remuneration ; and the compe- tition for existence would be dreadful. The honourable mover has alluded to the amount of capital engaged in the cotton trade, estimating it at somewhere about 30,000,000/., or 10,000,000/, ; a large sum, no doubt, and I do not wish to see it depreciated in value ; but we must remember that it has all grown up under the existence of corn laws. What, however, is it, compared to the amount of capital sunk in the land.' In an article, I believe, in the Edinburgh Review (and if so, probably written by Mr. M'Culloch), of a few years ago, it was estimated that a very large pro- portion— I think three-fourths — of the landed rental arose from the interest of capital laid out in the improvement of the soil, in buildings, &c. Now supposing the rent of the land in this country to be 32,000,000/.; according to this estimate, three-fourths, or 24,000,000/. is to be considered as the interest of capital laid out in improvements; an interest equivalent, at three per cent, (and it has not paid more), to 800,000,000/. of capital. And is this a capital to be lightly injured, or in- considerably dealt with .' And under what faith, and under what sanction, has this capital been so freely embarked ? Why, under that very system of corn laws— I do not mean any particular act, but the general spirit of protection which it is the undisguised object of this motion entirely to re- peal— a system which has been in existence in this country ever since the beginning of the fifteenth century ; for I find acts passed in 1436 and 1463 to regulate the price at which exportation should be allowed, and importation cease. In UuO, also, an act was passed, extending the exportation price to 53s. 4d. a quarter for wheat, and other grain in proportion ; and imposing, at the same time, pro- hibitory duties on the importation of wheat, till the price rose to 53s. 4d. and a duty of 8s. between that and 80s. So that there is nothing new, at least, in the system of corn laws ; and it is under this system, be it remembered, that all our com- mercial and manufacturing greatness has sprung up. Protection and encouragement to our agriculture is a matter of prudence, also, as it relates to the certainty of a supply of the staff of life. Whilst we depend, entirely, or mainly, on ourselves for the supply of bread corn, nothing but a visitation of Providence can interfere with our enjoyraen of the most necessary article of consumption. On the other band, if we depended, for the most part on foreign nations for our supply of food, we should be exposed not only to the hardships of adverse seasons but of the capriciousness or enmity of man. Supposing us to go to war with the country or the countries that supplied us with the greater proportion of the wheat we consumed, and they followed the plan of withholding the supplies as a method of starving us into a compliance with their hostile demands ; — in what a predicament should we be ! Those whohave already not done so, would do well to read Mr. Huskisson's letter, published, I think in 1814, on the danger of relying on foreign countries for our supply of food. But this is not alto- gether a hypothetical danger. We have alreadv had experience of the advantage a foreign nation might take of our deficiency. And here is a complete answer to those who imagine that, under the pres- sure of a great dearth of corn in this country, vvc could trust to foreigners to sell it us at the conti- nental price, provided we had no corn laws. In 1801, there was a great scarcity of wheat; the ports were opened free of duty. Prussia had the means of supplying us ; what did Prussia do ? Why, finding that we gave up the duty, she put on a duty on the export of wheat from Prussia, the King refused to take it off until he saw whether the price in England would rise high enough to allow him to retain it. 1 he following is an extract 12 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. from the order of his Majesty the King of Prussia, the consumer in a time of scarcity, and the grower dated the 12th of September, 1801 :— in a time of plenty, in fact, nothing can have worked better tor the public than this present law. "TO THE MINISTER OF STATE, BARON VON And oue causc, I firmly belicve, of its unpopuhirity. sciiROETTER. with tlie " no corn-law" theorists, is its practical " With respect to taking off the new duty on wheat well working. If there were a tixed duty, of 10s. or I do not see that the country can sutfer from its con- l5s. per quarter, they know that, under great scar- tinuance to the end of this year, as the sliipments of city, populnr clamour would demand its repeal ; and, the present calendar year, cannot continue much once repealed, it would not be easy to re-enact it. longer, the threshing out of the wheat will not be Whereas the duty diminishing, by the present law, finished before the end of the current year, and there- to the vanishing point, as scarcity approaches, leaves fore the supply to the seaport towns can only begin no room for popular clamour; since, just at the mo- with the month of January next year. ment the clamour would begin, the duty no longer " It is the fault of the merchant himself, if he has exists. The excellence, therefore, of the law, I encumbered himself with a larger stock than he a[)prehend, is the cause of its unpopularity with could send to England before the 1st October, as he those who want a pretext, which they cannot at pre- is sure of a good price to that time; and the new sent rind, for raising a i)Opular cry against corn-laws measure of the Englisli government for reducing the in general. bounty, having occasioned an unnatural rise in the When we talk of steadiness of price, however, prices of the best wheats, will make up to him in where do we find it prevail ? Not in the corn-grow- price what he would oiiierwise have received in ing countries ; witness Dantsic and Hamburgh, bounty. Under these circumstances, I consider it so Not in countries which are constant and habitual much the more advisable to postpone the taking off importers of corn ; witness Rotterdam. In one of the duty on wheat till the month of December, as we the agricultural reports, there is the latest decennial shall then be able to judge with more certainty whe- average from the above places, which has been made ther the report of an unusually abundant harvest in up, together with the highest and lowest prices, giv- Eno-land is founded or not, and regulate our inea- ing the extreme points of fluctuation at each place sures accordingly. within the period : — " Should the prices in England continue to that . , ^ „ . tt- v, » n -^ , .*; , ,.„ ° ^ ♦! ,1 » Decennial Averafre. Lowest Price. Hichest Trice, tune between oOs. and OOs. per quarter, the dut> ^,^^^^.^^ _ _ 323. lOd.. . 21s. 8d. (1826). . 45s. 6d. (1831 ) shall then be taken off, and shall only be continued Hamburgh .30*. 2d.. . 20s. Od. ( 1826)... 41s. Od. ( 1831 ) in full if they rise again to 80s.or 90s. ; should they Rotterdam .37s. 9d.. .25s. 6d. (1826). . 52s. 6d. (1831) in this period rise something less than the last-men- England .. . 56s. Od.. .39s. Od. . . 66s. Od. ticned price, the duty can be modified accordingly. (Signed) ' " Friedricu Wiliielm." According to this, there has been a rise, from the lowest point to the highest, of above 100 per cent, in Thus Che King of Prussia was resolved that the aH ti^ese places, except England ; whilst in England consumer at least in England, should not have the fi^g fluctuation between the extreme points of price benefit of the difference in price between British jg jpgg ti,.,„ 75 pe,. ^^^^^ and Prussian wheat; and took care that Prussia j now come to the only practical objection which should have every advantage she could takeof the tjjg honourable mover urged against the corn-law, then precarious situation of this country, with re- ^.j^.^ that it cripples our foreign trade. Whether it spect to its supply of food. This example certainly does this on account of a higher price of corn, ne- holds out no very strong inducement to us to trust cessarily inducing a higher rate of wages than can to other countries, rather than to ourselves, for successfully compete with the lower wages of the the production of the necessaries of lite. _ Continent ;' or whether we export less to the corn- It is affirmed by some however, that granting .rrowing countries, in consequence of not importing the necessity or policy of the corn laws, the pre- i^pj,. g,;,,jn^ it ^.;,s ^ot, if I remember, very clearly sent system does not secure a uniform and steady j^^^jg ^^^^ j^ ^^.q^I^j almost appear a sufficient prac- price. As far as any corn law can produce steadi- ^ical answer to the charge, however, that our ex- ness of price, the present does. No rational being ^^,,,3 j^.^^g j^^.^-iy doubled in the last 20 years, not- expects that a corn law can prevent the fluctua- ^vithstanding the existence of the corn-law ; and for tion of prices necessarily consequent on abundant i^^if of that'ppriod, of a much more prohibitory '.aw or deficient harvests. But the present law under ,5^.^^^ ^•^^^ present. 1 do remember, however, that average harvests, produces great steadiness ot the honourable member made an appeal to the land- price ; for instance, turn to the price of wheat for j^^ds^ ^ith a view of shaming them into a com- the last si.x; weeks. It is as follows, in the returns p]ia,^ce with his views, on the score of so many of for the 150 towns according to the act :— j,^^, working classes being unemployed a few years ^' ago, which would not, he assumed, have been the Week ending January 26 o4 10 ^^^^ j^^^j ^j^p^ |,gg„ allowed a market for their work — February b j.t 4 j^jj^oad, or had food been cheap enough to have ena- ' — February 9 00 4 ^j^^j them to compete with the low-priced labour of — February 16 00 j ^^^^ Continent. This taunt. 1 must say, is a little too — lebruury -0 o.^ ^ j,.j,j^ when it is notorious that the absence of em- — March 2 00 o ploynient, and consequent distress of the agricultu- Can any state of prices be more equable than this? ral labourers, which, about 1830, drove ihem, in And even under great abundance or scarcity, tliere many cases, to acts of daring insubordination, and is, if I may so call it, an obstructive principle in even to a wide-sju-ead system of incendiarism — it is the o-raduated scale of duties which is at variance notorious, 1 say, that this distress was caused by an with sudden fluctuations in price. 'Ihe duty falling attempt, only partially put into execution, of the as the price rises, tends to the admission of a foreign tarmers, to reduce the rate of wages to a level with supply, and so modify tiie rise. On i\n-. other hand, the reduced jirice of agricultural produce. So that the dtjty rising as the price falls, tends to limit the this very low rate of jirice, which the honourable importation, and so to resist the fall. Thus it serves member seeks for, was the cause of that very dis- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 tress, on account of wliich lie lias so consistently apjiealecl for the sympathy of the landlord. But if the honourable member tliiiilis that the present corn-lan-s have diminished our foreign trade more than any former corn-law, I am prepared to an- swer that objection also, 'i'here is, very opportune- ly, in the Appendix of the Third Report of the Agricultural Committee of 1836, a return of the amount of exports from Great Britain to the corn- growing countries of the world, from 1829 to 1836, \vbich exactly meets this case. The following is an extract : — " An Account of the Exports of British and Irish Produce and Manufactures to the several Coun- tries from which Corn is imported, in the years ending the oth of January, 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1836." I will only trouble the house with the first and last years, and the two or three principal countries : 1829. 1836. Russia £1,849,424 . . £2,376,799 Germany 7,443,714.. 8,678,679 United States, America 6,694,695.. 14,198,900 This is official value ; and the aggregate differ- ence in the exports to all the countries mentioned in this return is — ' 1829. 1835. £20,387,316. £32,828,030. The declared value being, £14,787,104. £21,997,478. And this increase has taken place since 1828, when the present corn-law was enacted. How, then, can the present corn -law be said to have a tendency to diminish the trade of this country vv-ith the corn- growing- countries ? 'I'bis Return, in conjunction with one in the Ap- pendix of the Second Agricultural Report of 1836, shows another curious fact, viz., that we have even exported the most to the corn-growing countries in those years when we have imported the least corn. Take wheat as an example. We imported the fol- lowing quantities in the following years ; and I will add the aggregate quantity of goods we exported to the corn-growing countries in the year : — Forei'jrn and Colonial Total of British and Irish Pro- duce exported to Countries from which Corn is usually imported. Official Value. . 1,364,220 £20,387,316 1.701,885 20,699,022 ,1,491,631 23,533,136 Wheat brought in- to Consumption. Qrs. Years. 1829. . 1830. . 1831.. 1832 325,435. 1833. 1834. 1835. 26,882,959 82,346 27,010,604 64,653 28,855,141 28,413 26,897,431 1836 No Return 32,828,030 Thus, the fact of our importing more or less corn seems to have no effect whatever on the quantity of goods we manufacture for expert. The truth is, that the existence of machinery enters so much more into the comparative cost of manufactures than the price of labour, that the competition with other countries is much more a question of the facilities for mnchinery and artificial power, than a contest to reduce wages — I mean in those instances where foreign countries will allow our manufactures to compete with theirs. In many instances they will not. And nothing can better prove the disposition of other countries to manufacture for themselves, where they have facilities for it, than the great in- crease which has taken place of late years in the ex- port of yarn. Tiie manufacture of yarn requiring large capital and expensive machinery, they at pre- sent apply themselves to the weaving department of the manufacture. The time will come, no doubt, when they will resort to the preparation of the yarn likewise. This disposition to manufacture for them- selves is singularly illustrated by the fact, that, al- though last year there was a great falling off in the exports of all other articles, there was a steady in- crease in the foreign demand for cotton yarn. I learn this from the annual return, entitled " Trade and Navigation," this morning delivered to us. Ac- cording to this, although the export of cotton ma- nufactures bad fallen from £18,511,692 in 1836 to £13,625,464 in 1837, yet the export of cotton yarn had increased from £6,120,366 in 1836 to ^^6,953,467 in 1837. This tendency in some coun- tries to manufacture for themselves is, fortunately for us, counterbalanced by an increased demand from other parts of the globe; but the fact I have stated is sufficient to put us on our guard, that our main dependence ought not to rest upon our foreign trade ; and to teach us, as I said, before, a prudent lesson of respect and encouragen.ent to the home market, which will never leave us, unless the schemes of an anti-national policy shall compel it by poverty so to do, through an absence of the means to purchase. Thank God ! the country is no longer deluded by that wild and chimerical cry for free trade which existed about 15 years ago, when the principal political leaders of both sides, cabinet ministers among the rest, went to school to Mr. M'Culloch, and imagined that the habits and pur- suits of the population were, at once, to be surren- dered to the dictum of some abstraction in political economy. Hon. members on this (the ministerial) side of (he house may lament over their decrease in the number of county members, and attribute it, as long as they please, to intimidation of landlords and other causes ; but the main cause is, that the far- mers, as a body, believe that the Tory country gen- tlemen (the leaders on both sides they have equally distrusted) were less bitten with the insanity of free trade than the Whig country gentlemen ; and after the feverish excitement respecting the Reform Bill had passed away, they relapsed into their previous feelings on this subject. Tlie declaration, however, of my noble friend (^Lord John Russell) at the com- mencement of the session, so strongly in favour of agriculture, will, I have no doubt, have a great ef- fect in obtaining the confidence of the farmers to- wards his government. I omitted to state, in passing, that the honoura- ble mover (Mr. Yilliers) had invoked the sympathy of the landlords in this house towards the working: class, especially, because they had of late been very much out of employment, and he seemed to attri- bute this state of distress either to the corn-laws, or to the high price of corn. I thought it had been notorious to every one in the country, that the state of disemployment among the working classes, within the last twelve months, was owing to the commer- cial embarrassment of the last year. That embar- rassment, it is equally notorious, arose from the sudden contractionof the circulating medium ; a con- traction necessary, no doubt, to the safety of the Bank of England, under the present standard of value. But the ])revious state of prosperity, arising out of an abundance of money, shows that we can have a flourishing trade in spite of the corn-laws ; and proves, also, what I have always contended for, viz., that the corn-laws alone were not sufficient to restore prosperity to the distressed agriculturist. In conclusion. Sir, three very good reasons, oa one \ 14 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. side of tlie question, mny be given for the repeal of tlie corn-laws ; and I will state them shortly, and somewliat more explicitly than the honourable mover: — 1. It would make the income of fixed an- nuitants go farther ; so long as war and famine could be avoided. 2. It would lower rents. 3. It would diminish the influence of landlords at elections; — all which seem desirable objects with many of the par- ties who urge the repeal of the corn-laws. It is made, in fact, a political question. There are also three arguments against the repeal of the corn-laws ; so long, at least, as the interest of the debt conti- nues to be paid: — 1. It would ruin the landlords. 2. It would ruin the tenants. 3. It would ruin the labourers and the country districts. But, Sir, we are in no danger of so destructive a change. The country is wiser than to submit its experience to any such chimera. Poll the whole country on the (]ues- tion of free trade and the corn-law, and I am confi- dent that ten to one would be in favour of the corn- law rather than of free trade ; because the one is an encouragement to native industry, the otJier is not : and it is because I consider the corn-law to be a pro- tection and encouragement to British labour, British capital, and British enterprise, that I give it my best and warmest support. Old Turf. Rent and taxes . . . Manure for one year spreading, bush harrowing, and rolling ARABLE AND TURF FARMING COMPARED Cloveii. s. 10 £4 10 0 10 Profit on turf 1 10 Value of hay crop and lattermath. . Potatoes — Strong LOAMS. Four ploughings, barrowings, and rollings, at I5s. . 3 Two drillings.... 0 Twenty loads of manure at 4s. ... 4 Thirty bushels of seed, at 2s 3 £10 Cutting, planting, and hoeing. ... 0 Scuffling and two earthings 0 Wheat. One ploughing and four tines 0 Seed, three bushels 1 Water furrowing and grooping ... 0 Rent and taxes. . £2 . 2 Average crop. ... 12 0 10 0 0 10 15 10 £11 15 Rent and taxes. . 2 10 £14 5 Average value of an acre of pota- toes 1() 0 Profit on potatoes 1 15 14 4 0 10 10 0 Profit on wheat. ..710 Seed 1 0 Sowing, rolling, and harrowing, &c.. 0 5 £1 5 Rentand taxes. .. . 2 10 £3 15 Value of crop and aftermath ...... 5 10 Profit on bay....£l 15 Oats. One ploughing, and six tines rolling, &c 1 0 Seed, five bushels. 0 15 £1 15 Rent and taxes... 2 10 £4 5 Av. crop, six qrs. 7 4 £2 19 Profit on potatoes. 1 15 Profit on wheat. . . 7 10 Profit on clover. . . 1 15 Profit on oats 2 19 (Years in course, four) £13 19 Yearly average£3 9 9 Profit on turf. . , 1 10 0 Profit on arable lands over turf£l 19 9 On Good Turnip Lands. Four ploughings, rollings, and liar- rowings 3 0 Two drillings 0 10 Manure 3 0 Seed and sowing. . 0 5 Hoeing?... 0 5 Two scufflings. . . . 0 5 Rentand taxes... 1 15 £ 9 0 Average crop... £10 0 Profit on turnips. £l 0 Barley. One ploughing, three tines, roll- ing and grooping. 0 15 Seed, three bushels. 0 12 Water furrowing, &c 0 1 £1 8 Rentand taxes.. 1 15 £3 3 Average croji, six quarters 8 10 Profit on barley.. £5 7 Hay. Seed, sowing, &c. 1 5 Rent and taxes. . . 1 15 £3 0 Average crop 4 10 Profit on hay 1 10 Oats. Seed, &c., as be- fore 1 15 Rent and taxes.. 1 15 £3 10 Average crop five quarters 6 0 Profit on oats £2 10 Profit on turnips. . 1 0 Profit on barley.. 5 7 Profitonhay 1 10 Profit on second years' grass .... 1 0 Profit on oats.. . . 2 10 (Years in course, five) £11 Yearly average profit £2 5 5 On turf. 1 5 0 Profit on cultiva- tion over turf£l 0 5 Old Turf. Rent and taxes. . . 1 15 Manure yearly, &c 1 10 3 5 Average cro] 4 10 £1 5 LOAMY SANDS. Old Turf. Rent and taxes . . 1 5 Yearly manuring, &c 1 10 £2 15 Average crop 3 10 Profit on turf £0 15 Turnips. Four ploughings, &c.,&c 3 0 Two drillings 0 10 Manure or bones.. 2 10 Seed, sowing, hoe- ing, &c., and scuffling 0 15 6 15 Rent and taxes .... 1 5 8 0 /iverugo crop " Profit on turnips. . 0 15 Barley. As before 1 Rent and taxes. . . 1 8 5 £2 Average crop, 4^ quarters 6 13 0 Profits on barley.. £3 7 Hay. Seed and sowing. . 1 5 Rent and taxes .... I 5 £2 10 Average crop 3 15 Profit on bay....£l 5 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 15 Second years' grass 0 16 Third do 0 10 Oats. As before 1 13 Rent and taxes. ... 1 o £3 0 Average crop, four quarters 4 16 Profit on oats.. ..£l 16 Profit on tur- nips 0 15 0 Profit on barley 3 7 0 Profit on hay. .15 0 Profit second year 0 16 0 Profit third year 0 10 0 Profit on oats. .116 0 (Years in course six) 8 9 0 £18 2 On turf 0 15 0 Difference 0 13 2 Clay Fallows. Rent and taxes... 1 10 Manuring, &:c. ... 1 5 £2 15 Average crop. ... 3 10 Profit on turf . . . . ^^0 15 Wheat. Three jiloughiiigs. tines and rollings 2 0 Seed, throe bushels 1 0 Seed furrowing, sowing and har- rowing, and grooping 0 Lime or dung. ... 3 16 0 £6 16 Two years' rent and taxes. •....«•.• 3 0 £ 9 16 Average crop ... . 10 10 Profit on wheat.. 0 14 Clover. As before 1 5 Rent and taxes.. . . 1 10 £2 15 Average crop.. . . 5 0 Profit on hay £2 5 Oats. As before 1 l5 Rentand taxes. .. . 1 10 £3 5 Average crop, four quarters 5 0 Profit on oats,...£l 15 Profit on fallow : Profit on wheat 0 14 0 Profit on hay.. 2 5 0 Profit on oats.. 1 15 0 (Years in course four) £4 14 0 Yearly average£l 3 6 Turf 0 15 0 Difference .. .£0 8 6 £4 14 Second years' grass 0 15 (Years five) £5 9 £1 2 The most profitable ro- tation in the end. BARREN CLAYS OR LEYS. Wheat. Ploughings, &c..£2 0 Lime or dung 3 0 Seed 1 0 Seed furrowing, grooping, &c-.. 0 16 £6 16 Two years' rent and taxes 1 10 £8 6 Crop, 3i qrs 8 10 Cloveh. Seed, &c., as be- fore 1 0 Rentand taxes. .. . 0 15 £1 15 Average crop.... 3 10 Profit on wheat. . . 0 4 Profit on bay....£l 15 Oats. As before 1 15 Rent and taxes ... 0 15 £2 10 Average crop 3^ qrs 4 4 Profit on oats....£l 14 Beans 2 10 Crop 3 qrs 4 15 Profit on beans. . .£2 5 Profit on Wheat.. 0 4 Profit on bay 1 15 Profit on beans .... 2 5 (Years in course, four) 4 4 Yearly average ..£l 1 These barren clays or leys are usually joined with better soils, and the separate value is not known ; in very many cases they are useful only in rotting sheep and affording a sour bite to a few young cat- tle, and not worth a half crown per acre. Complete draining must precede the breaking up ; and it will happen that a loss will be sustained on the wheat crop, and the profit must be looked for on an ave- rage of years. I'he above calculations are made on a low average, and, as if all labour was hired, and the crops sold at current value on the ground, the straw being allowed for the expence of ingathering and not taken into account. Locality and circum- stances will always render many allowances neces- sary in all such cases. The useless and very shameful state of cultiva- tion in which our turfs and leys are suffered to re- main, cannot fail to strike the most careless observer. My own opinion is, that, except in some particular cases, leys and turfs are unprofitable, and the alter- nate system has long ago most fully settled this point, except with those persons whose minds are wilfully shut to reason and conviction. To avow this fact, and to say that hay is not a very necessary append- age on any farm will subject the writer to uni- versal obloquy, and he will be assailed by the whole host of old and fixed opinions, which, like the laws of Rledes and Persians, alter not. These prejudiced notions are little worth heeding — time will work con- viction, though slowly — and though any one person or persons who oppose their doctrines to the preju- dices of a multitude must fail, we know very well that if founded on reason they ultimately succeed. And though such foolish notions in agriculture are sanctioned by ignorance and riveted by power, we may hope that the present intelligent generation will burst the fetters of thraldom, and sweep away the cobwebs of antique ignorance. RUSTICUS. Dec. 20, 1838. THE CORN LAWS.— There is no difference what- ever, I conceive, betwixt consigning the whole of our woollen trade to foreign nations, and giving them as much of our agriculture as brings from the labour, skill and capital of our people the same amount. Except, that by throwing at once the whole of any trade out of work, a greater degree of destitution and distress might happen than when a portion equally large was remov- ed from employment, when there was still a large part left. But supposing half the people employed in the woollen, and half those in the cotton trade, were, by the tiansfer of those trades to foreign powers not wanted, and half the sum annually created by the in- dustry of these trades (viz. 20 millions) lost, I can see no diiTerence, in an economical and national point of view, betwixt that state of things, and our yielding to foreigners the opportunity of producing from their nations to the amount of 20 millions in corn for our use, which portion had been of late produced by our own people, and we finding them, into the bargain, a market for it. The destitution in either case would fall the heaviest upon the people of that trade which had been transferred, but depend upon it the loss to the other would be very severely felt. The reduction 16 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the amount of property annually created, partly by the employment of skill and capital, but chiefly by the labour of the people, to the amount of 20 millions, would in a few years so alter the position we now hold in the scale of nations, that if we did not find ourselves at the bottom of that scale, we should be moved many de- grees downwards. It matters little I conceive, to the nation at large, whether the loss fall upon the loom or the plough. — Baker on the Corn Laws. HARKAWAY. A variety of circumstances hare transpired which render this horse an object of much more tlian ordi- nary interest, particuh^rly the dispute between bis owner, IVIr. Ferguson, and the Turf Club of Ireland, and to which we are in fact indebted for his visit to this country. It would appear that Harkaway made his debut as a two-year-old on Saturday, October 22, 1836, for the Paget Stakes, at the Curragh Meeting ; on which occasion, he ran second to Mr. Kelly's Talleyrand, carrying 21b. more than his successful competitor. At the Curragh Mulgrave Meeting, the following month, (Friday, Nov. 11) Harkaway ctime out for, and won the Constantine Stakes, beating three op- ponents. The following day, he appeared at the starting post for a sweepstakes, and did not get placed ; he carried 7st. 61b. — e-sactly I41b. more than Mr. Disney's Vigo, (both two-year-olds) who proved the winner. On these two occasions, Hark- away appeared in the name of Lord Milltown ; and from the weight he carried in the latter race, it is evident he was regarded at this early period of his career as a horse of a very supeiior description. Fourteen pounds extra on the back of a two-year-old seems enormous ! In the early part of the following year Harkaway continued to run as a two-j'ear-old ; for in Ireland, it seems, the late regulation of calculating a horse's age from Jan. 1, instead of May 1, was not adopt- ed ; and therefore at the Curragh April Meeting (Tuesday, April 25) he thus came out for the Ma- drid Stakes, and ran second to Mr. Osborne's Mer- cury; here also weight told against him, as he car- ried 71b. more than the winner, both being two- year-olds. In this race he appeared in the name of Lord Milltown. On the following Saturday he came out for " the second class of the Madrid Stakes," as Mr. Fergu- son's ch. c. Harkaway, by Economist, 8st." which he won cleverly, beating four others. On Monday, June 12, at the Curragh June Meet- ing of the same year (1837) he came out as :i three- j'ear-old, and in Mr. Ferguson's name, for tlie Kir- wan Stakes, and defeated a numerous field, though carrying his full share of weight. On the following Thursday he appeared again at the starting post for and won the " iVorthuniberland Handicap," carrying one stone more than Cruiskeen, also a three-year-old. The next day he proved suc- cessful for the King's Plate of 100 guineas. At the Curragh September Meeting (Wednesday, Sept. 6, 1837) became to the starting i)Ost foi- the Wellington Stakes and proved successful, beating seven competitors. Tiie next day but one Hark- away paid forfeit for the " Challenge of the Welling- ton Stakes." On the ICth of the following month (Curragh October Meeting) he won the Kirwan Stakes, in the name of Lord Milltown. And the next day but one (Wednesday Oct. 18) won the " Challenge of the Kirwan Stakes," in his Lordship's nomination : Harkaway was opposed by Mr. Stanley's Blackfoot, who came in first; but as the jocke}- was accused of foul riding, and proved guilty, the stewards awarded the race to Harkaway ; Blackfoot, a year older than his competitor, carried one pound less. The same day, Harkaway v;on his Majesty's Plate of 100 guineas. It rarely hapjiens that a racer, and a young racer in particular, can go through half the work which has been accomplished by Harkaway. Elis, one of the best nags that ever appeared on the English turf, both as to power and speed, came out in his third year oftener than usual, repeatedly under great dis- advantage in weight ; but, during that period, he did not start half as often as Harkaway, nor did he race so successfully, tijough the extra weights he carried were not nearly so heavy as those allotted to the Irish nag. Elis " flew to pieces'' after his exertions as a three-)'ear-old ; he came out only once after- wards, for a match with Slane, at the Mewmarket Craven Meeting (1837) which he contrived to win, though he carried 7lb. more than his competitor, and was tottering- in the knees at, the time of starting' ; this was the last effort of Elis on the course. Harkaway's legs must be of the very best quality, or he could neither have carried the extra weights al- lotted to him, which are double, at least, the ordinary average, nor yet have come out so often. His sire, Economist, has good firm legs, or at least such was the cose when he ran at Liverpool, a few years since ; we never recollect handling better legs. Economist was, when we saw him, a fine large horse, with a good constitution, and evidently a good feeder ; his appearance, however, impressed upon the mind of the be!>older, the idea rather of a hunter than a racer, nor were his performances on the turf eminently suc- cessful. Had Harkaway continued in the Sitter Kingdom, his extraordinary capabilities as a racer would have scarcely been credited on this side the water ; many would have thought his oft repeated and almost uni- form success arose chiefly from his liaving " no- thing to beat ;" but from his performances in this country, and particularly from the style in which he won the Goodwood Cup, no doubt can be entertained as to his great superiority. His running at Liver- pool was scarcely equal to his performance at Good- wood ; but, let it be kept in mind that he had crossed the water a short time previously, and a racer can scarcely fail to suffer in a sea voyage, how short soever, be the weather what it may ; yet, we are in- clined to think he would have proved successful for the Liverpool Cup, had not his rider let him out a few seconds too soon ; had he kept him together till within the distance, he would have rendered the struggle shorter, which on a ver)' severe run in, like that of Liverpool, ought to be a weighty considera- tion, particularly under the circumstance of unusual weight ; after all, Harkaway was beaten only half a neck. Under every view of the case, Harkaway must bo considered as a very remarkable horse ; since he possesses not only superior speed, but unusual power also, accompanied by the rare quality of being able to appear very frequently at the starting post — in this respect he appears to excel every other horse on the turf. If Harkawav be not the very best horse in Great Britain (as he has proved himself in Ire- land) there is not one of his year can race success- fully against him ; all preceding nags brought into this country sink into nothingness compared with Harkaway. \ lan. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. l7 THE EAST LOTHIAN STUBBLE RAKE. 18 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TO THE EDITOR OP THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. This machine, whicb is employed for the purpose of raking the stubble of the harvest field after it has been cleared of the stocks, has been in actual opera- tion among the East Lothian farmers for upwards of four years. It is easy and simple in its construction, yet wonderfully effective in the performance of its work, so much so, that it is almost impossible to find a single head or ear of corn on the ground over which it has passed ; it is drawn with the greatest possible ease by one horse, and is usually driven at a good pace ; in East Lothian the horse may frequently be seen trotting in the most lively manner with this im- plement, keeping the man or the boy (it is consi- dered so light and so easy to manage, that a boy is usually set to it) in attendance upon it, stepping out at a very smart pace. The corn and straw which it gathers, called technically " the rakings," is usually laid down in long rows at stated distances from each other across a field ; this is done for the purpose of speedy removal afterwards, for ofcourse, it is much easier to remove " the rakings" thus laid down, than if emptied irregularly over the whole extent of a field. But to proceed to a more minute explanation of this " horse rake," (as called in East Lothian) I beg to refer the reader to the first of the engravings. It is a bird's-eye view as it is termed, in more plain words, the ground plan, a a a is the principal part of the frame or body of the machine, d d the wheels at each end of a o a, to which they are fastened, b h the shafts in which the horse is placed, c c iron rods secured by bolts at either end to the shafts and frame, for the purpose of keeping the machine firm and strong, e e e e e &c. are the wooden pieces to the end of which the iron teeth are fixed by means of nuts or screws, as represented in fig. 2 by the letters e and k ; these teeth are loose and moveable on their axlei «, which axle, or round rod of iron runs along the whole breadth of the machine from wheel to wheel, or from i to i, (in fig. 1) ; on this axle or rod, all the teeth have free liberty to move, and therefore their own weight makes them fall and dip into every little hole or inequality in the ground over which they traverse, taking all before them ; the teeth (marked k in fig. 2) are turned into a sort of curve at the point ; this provision, although seemingly of no use at first sight, is designed for a two-fold purpose ; first, that by being so curved the teeth do not scrape the ground, collecting stones, clods, &c., but instead of this, the bend of the teeth allows them to run on the top, or close to the ground without entering it ; the second advantage is, that it allows the rake to pass freely over water-tracks, or ebb-trenches made for the conveyance of water from the land, without risk of making a forcible impediment or halt in the progressof the rake, or breaking the teeth, as would be the case if the teeth were straight. Turning again to figure first, the reader will perceive the handles for emptying the rake when full, marked by the let- ters h h ; these handles also work like the teeth freely on the general axle l l, they serve to separate a couple of teeth in their respective places in the same manner as those round pieces of wood marked o o &c. likewise on the axle i i, which are placed there for the purpose of separation only. On refer- ence to figure third, where a perspective view is given of a tooth e, and a separator o, on the general axle i i separately, it will perhaps be more clearly obvious to the reader than in the other views, and serve more distinctly to explain the action of the niacliiue. Now lo explain iiow the rake is emptied when full, the reader must eive a glance at tiie hands h h ; it will be perceived that these hands are fixed by bolts to the long piece of wood g g g, which"" lies along the whole breadth of the machine, resting on the backs of all the teeth e e ee &c., the piece of wood g g g is also attached by means of three or four links of a chain to each of the teeth, as seen in fig. 2, where a side view shows the mode of connexion, and also in figure third, where the chain is seen and marked in both views by the letter m. In emptying the rake, therefore, when full, the handles have only to be lifted, which bringing the teeth up along with them through the slight iron framework///, through which the teeth can come, but not the straw or corn from which they are thus extricated, and which con- sequently must immediately fall, and be left behind to form part of the row before alluded to. The emptying is the work of an instant. The iron frame- work/// in figure first is of a very slight descrip- tion, for this, the simplest of all reasons, it does not require to be very strong ; it is fastened to the wooden frame a a a by two bolts in each branch for the purpose of keeping it somewhat steady. There is an arm or small rod placed between every two teeth, as represented in fig. 1 ; this iron frame lies below the long piece of wood g g g (to which the teeth are attached) and just on a level, or nearly so, with the top of the teeth, as in fig. 2. The mode of attaching the teeth by chains to g g g is convenient and useful for two reasons, it allows them free action and is still a method of raising them, and it also pre- vents them from falling or sinking too far down into the ground, if any deep holes should intervene. The " rakings" are always subject to be mixed with small stones, &c., gathered alono- with the more valu- able commodity , which circumstance cannot be helped , and is no fault of the construction of the rake, which is one of the most simple and effective machines with which the agricultural mechanical world is at present acquainted. The " rakings" are generally stacked, thrashed, and winnowed by themselves in East Lo- thian, on account of the miscellaneous nature of their contents. They are generally thrashed twice, or put twice through the thrashing mill, because the ears or heads of the corn are so much mixed, and lying in so many different directions, that the drum of the mill has not " fair play" in thrashing them. The whole breadth of the rake is about nine feet, doing a half of a ridge at a time, (the East Lothian " rigs" being about eighteen feet broad, generally, that is to say, when not drained, in which case two " rigs" are thrown into one) the wheels are about eighteen or twenty inches in diameter, the teeth about fourteen, fifteen, or even sixteen inches long, or from e (in fig. 2) to the point, and from e to the axle i i about eighteen inches. The general price at ■which it is obtained in East Lothian, is 2/. 10s. or 31, ; but, I doubt much if they could be had at such a price in or near " the great metropolis," where labour is so much dearer. I am. Sir, your most obedient servant, JAMES AINSLIE. THE NORTHAMPTONSHIRE SWEEP- STAKES, for green crops, have been awarded as fol- lows :- ■ Mangle wurzel Earl Spencer. Swedish Turnips Mr. Beasley. Carrots Mr. Hillyard. Hedging. — Earl Spencer's Prize of Ten Pounds, open to labourers of any county, was contended for by twenty on Fiiday last. The judges' award was to No. 10, the work sf James Hedges, of Helidon ; No. 3, the work of William Bull, of Wormleightou, was highly commeiuleii. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 19 REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE YOXFORD FARMERS' CLUB, During the past year, ending Oct. 28, 1838. We, your Committee, appelated to draw up a report of the proceedings of the Yoxford Farmers' Club during the past year, have carefully perused the minutes of its several meetings ; and in accordance with our instruc- tions, have prepared the following abstract, believing it will be found to convey the spirit of the conclusion at which the meetings have arrived on most subjects which have come under discussion. The first subject that engaged the attention of the Club, was the consideration of the Act 6th and 7th W. 4th, to regulate Parochial Assessments, with a view to the arriving at some general principles, the acting upon which should secure unity of operation, and consequent equalisation in the mode of carrying out the provisions of the act in the neighbouring parishes. The meeting derived considerable advantage from the remarks of many who were practically interested in the subject, and unanimously arrived at the follow- ing resolution. '' It is in the opinion of this meeting desirable that parishes should, by committees selected from their own rate-payers, make such new assessment on the estimate of the fair annual rental value of the mes- suages, lands, tythes, &c., in their respective pa- rishes, agreeably to the provisions of the act, believ- ing that their own local knowledge would enable them to arrive at such an equitable assessment as would give general satisfaction, and thus avoid the expenses necessarily attendant upon a compulsory or public valuation." Connected with this subject some valuable sugges- tions were made to remedy the inequalities of assess- ments to the county rate, but assuming that an equal- isation of these would necessarily take place on the basis of the new parochial assessments when com- pleted ; this point was for the present left open. We have the satisfaction of being informed that seve- ral parishes have beneficially acted upon the sugges- tions thrown out at the meeting. At a subsequent meeting the subject of the compara- tive advantage to be derived from tUe use of long or short manure, engaged, at considerable length, the at- tention of the club ; and much interesting information was elicited from many practical farmers, tending, however, to show that difl:erent results had frequently been obtained, were under an apparent similarity of practice, arising probably from diversities of soil and seasons ; this being the case, no resolution was moved, but several individuals having promised to make trial of the same description of manure on various soils in the course of the ensuing season, it is with considera- ble interest we are anticipating the reports of these experiments, and avail ourselves of this opportunity, particularly to press this subject upon the attention of all practical agriculturists. At the meeting in February, the subject of the advan- tages to be derived from the use of soot or saltpetre as a top dressing, was fully discussed, when the meeting came to the following conclusion. " That from the remarks that have been made, and from the evidence that has been adduced, it appears that on light, mixed, or thin skinned heavy soils, these artificial manures have the effect of producing much straw, and also an increased quantity of corn ; but that on deep and productive soils, and such as are naturally calculated to produce luxuriant crops, their tendency to force the early growth of the plant is prejudicial to grain crops." The meeting in April renewed the consideration of the subject, when we had the advantage of hearing from Mr. Lewin a detailed account of the result of his practical experience in the use of saltpetre, all which tended to confirm the general pi-inciple recorded in the previous resolution. The enquiry as to the best mode of preparing wheat for seed was another of the practical subjects that has come under the consideration of this meeting, and many interesting facts, the result of individual experience with the detail of several experiments, were offered to the meeting, and much interest was derived from the remarks of some practical chemists exhibiting the cause and effect of the proposed remedies for counteracting • the tendency to smut, so generally complained of. The establishment of the following facts appears to be there- suit of the discussion. " That although on some soils careful selection of the seed alone has been found sufficient to prevent smut, yet on others, (and those the generality of soils) it has been found difficult to avoid its formation on the crop, however careful may have been the selection of seed ; that in these cases a remedy for the evil has been found in a preparation of the seed by immersion, either in salt brine or chamberlye of sufficient density to float an egg, or in some solution of arsenic, or vitriol, sufficiently strong to destroy the vegetative powers of the smut which may have accumulated on the outside of the seed wheat, using, in order to dry the same, lime in the proportion of half a peck to each coomb of wheat, and this practice when carefully done, was acknowledged by all who had tried it, to have had the desired effect of preventing the growing crop from the vegetation of smut upon it. It is also strongly recommended that greater attention should be paid to the selection of the best of wheat for sesd, and also to the proper preparation of the soil by fine tillage, and when practicable, to secure the planting on a stale plough." On the question of the best and most efficient mode of securing protection to agricultural property, after a very full and interesting discussion, the following resolution was unanimously carried. "Tlie subject of the best mode of protecting agricultu- ral property having obtained the close attention of this meeting, and amongst the means proposed that of the establishment of a system of rural police having undergone considerable discussion, it is its opinion, that from the expense necessarily attendant on the adoption of such a system, the establishment of a rural police force, would, in this neighbourhood, be ineligible, but it is desirous to record its opinion that the object of protection may be more fully achieved by the adoption of such measures as tend to the ame- lioration and improvement of the social and moral condition of the labouring classes, and the following modes have been pointedly alluded to which fully meet the approval of the meeting, viz., the improved education of the rising generation, the providing them with increased facilities for intellectual improvement, increased attention to their moral and physical wants on the part of their richer neighbours, and the exer- tions of philanthropic associations, and it is earnestly to be hoped that these measures will be more^and more zealously adopted and actively maintained." In connexion with that subject, we have to acknow- ledge at our next meeting, the receipt of a written com- munication from Mr. Thomas Davy, one of our mem- bers, which for the interesting information it contained, the sound argument it exhibited, and above all for thfe benevolent sentiments which characterized it through- out, was highly valued by the meeting and ordered to be recorded with its minutes. From this we cannot for« bear to quote the following concluding remarks, not doubting they will find a response in the hearts of all who are interested in the welfare of the poor around them. After having alluded in detail to the advantageous effect produced in the welfare of the labouring class through themstrumentality of " the spread of education," the establishment of mechanics' institutions, the exer- tions of agricultural associations, labourer's friend, and horticultural societies, and above all, to the increased exertions of the clergy and dissenting ministers to im- part moral and religious instruction, the writer pro- ceeds to state— "That through these means great im- nrovement has been effected in the humble walks of so- C 2 20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ciety, and consequently a great diminution of crime these causes are neither retrograding nor are they sta- tionary, but I trust progressing and daily producing beneficial results ; but there is still another means which, though acted upon by some, is capable of great exten- sion, is within the reach of all, and calculated not only to increase the social comforts and enjoyments of the poor man, but also to improve his moral condition — I mean individual and personal exertion as directed to his lienefit. Let us then, every one of us in his individual capacity, at all times, and on all occasions, treat the poor man with such kindness, consideration, and re- spect as shall show him that we esteem him as a fellow countryman and a fellow Christian, by doing him all the little acts of kindness in our power (and there are many friendly aids besides pecuniary ones, that are highly prized by the poor man.) By thus endeavouring to ameliorate the privations, to soften down the hardships, and to alleviate the misfortunes incidental to the humble and laborious lot of a poor working man, we shall se- cure to ourselves and to our property a much more effi- cient safeguard than from any rural police, or from any other coercive system whatsoever. It may be said, what is the use of individual exertion 1 It cannot produce much good, but let it be remembered that nations are made up of individuals, and like a community of ant5, who have the instinct to perceive that by every one unweariedly persisting in carrying the smallest particle of sand towards the erection of their hillock of protec- tion, how soon (when compared with the means) a mountain is raised, so by every individual contributing his mite of personal exertion towards the amelioration and improvement of the condition of the poor, the good that will be done will be immense in the aggregate. We trust this interesting subject will not be lost sight of, but that in our future meetings an attempt will be made to organize our exertions to promote these objects. At the time when Mr. Shaw Lefevre's bill, for re- moving the difficulties attending the rating of com- muted tithe, was before the House, it was decided to call a special meeting for the purpose of inquiry and informa- tion as to its bearings upon the agricultural interest. The meeting was fully attended, but during the in- terval the bill had been withdrawn. The following resolution was unanimously adopted: " That this meeting being fully alive to the difficulties whicii from recent legal decisions have attended the rating of commuted tithe, and believing the bill, intro- duced by Mr. Shaw Lefevre, calculated to remove these difficulties, regrets to learn that it was with- drawn. The chairman and secretary are requested to keep their attention directed to the subject, and in the event of any measure being proposed to the legisla- ture to bring it before the consideration of the meet- ing." la the course of the year considerable correspondence has been carried on with tlie secretaries of other so- cieties, and one subject which occupied at some length the deliberations of the meeting was a proposition ema- nating from an association styled the Farmers' Central Agricultural Society, for uniting in one body the farm- ers of England, for the purpose of legislative protection, and requesting the opinion of this club as to the pro- spectus for its organization. The meeting entertained the question and were una- nimously of opinion that the proposed plan, as well as the manner in which it was proposed to be carried out, was decidedly inexpedient : a committee was appointed to prepare a full reply, stating the grounds of its objec- tions. The report of the committee was brought to a full meeting and unanimously adopted. The conclud- ing remarks are subjoined as expressing the sense of the meeting on the subject of agricultural protection. " We have thought it right thus fully to express our opinions, on the ground that it is due to tliose who have taken upon themselves the task of endeavour- ing to centralize the hitherto too much separated agricultural body, that all local agricultural societies should fairly, and openly, place you in possession of their views. We again repeat our opinion, that the establishment of a Central Society, for the legitimate protection of agricultural interests, would be highly desirable, but in order that such society should be efficient, it is necessary that it should embrace the whole agricultural body ; this unity can in our opinion only be secured by such society adopting broad and liberal principles of justice for tlieir basis, by main- taining those principles in the exercise of sound and temperate judgment, by firm yet courteous expression of its sentiments, and by a total avoidance of any- thing like party spirit." In the course of the year, several sweepstakes have been offered for the production of the best beet-root, Swedes, and common turnips. The following parties were the successful competitors . — 1st class. — Beet ; Thomas Man, Darsham. 1st class. — Swedes; Robert Foulsham, Darsham. 2nd class,— Beet ; John Chandler, Middleton. 2nd class.— Swedes ; John Mann, Huntingfield. Common turnip; Samuel Crojs, Peasenhall. Pudding turnip; William Uurling,Peasenhall. It is due to the unsuccessful competitors to state that many of the roots shewn by them, as well as by some others who were not included in the sweepstakes, pos- sessed much merit. With a view to the extension of any benefit that may arise from the practical information to be derived from the discussion of agricultural questions, a resolution to the following effect was agreed to. " That a corresponding committee be appointed to communicate, from time to time, with the Ashbocking and Harleston Clubs, or any others formed on a similar principle, and that provided they agree to the same resolution. All minutes and resolutions of the said clubs shall be open to each other, and the Secre- taries shall be at full liberty to furnish them with ac- cess to the same." This arrangement was fully accepted by the societies above named, and we should hail with satisfaction the opportunity of extending- the rule to any other similar association . We here take the opportunity of expressing our ac- knowledgments to Sir C. B. Vere, to the Secretaries of other societies, and to others with whom we have had occasion to correspond, for the promptness and courtesy with which they have at all times met our communica- tions. Several other subjects have, from time to time, in- terestingly engaged the attention of the meeting, to detail which would carry us beyond the reasonable limits of a report. The following subjects are still before the meeting for discussion : The permanent improvement of poor pastures, ad- vantages of artificial food as a substitute for the growth of turnips on heavy land. Advantages and disadvantages of clod burning, de- sirability of adding our agricultural library to this in- stitution. Having thus given at some length asummary of the proceedings of the society throughout the year, little more remains for us than to congratulate its members on the perfect success with which its establishment has been crowned; this is evidenced in the uniform interest which has attached to the discussion of every question, and the perfect harmony which has throughout pre- vailed. We trust that instruction and profit have been combined with interest in the carrying out of the dis- cussions, and we take some encouragement from the acknowledgments of other societies, that even beyond our own members, the establishment of this club as not been witiiout utility. At the meeting of the 20th November, the report, as brought in by the committee, was unanimously adopted, and ordered to be printed for the use of its members, with the addition ofits record of tlianksto the Chairman, Secretary, nnd Treasurer, for the efficient assistance they have afforded the club in the manage- ment of its affairs. (Signed.) J. G. COOPER, Chairman, Dated26th November. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 21 RUTLAND AORTCULTURAL CIETY. SO- Tlie annual show of this society, for the distribution of prizes, &c. took place at the Riding'-house, Oakham, on Tuesday, Dec. 4. — These exhibitions, which, since the commencement, have gradually progressed, both in the value of stock shown and the extent of the patronage and attendance, would seem almost to have reached perfection. The show of Tuesday last, we are informed by an agriculturist, places the little county of Rutland in tlie situation of a respectable rival to the extensive Smilhfield Christmas exhibition, and greatly outstrips the etl'orts of any local society throughout the kingdom. So much for zeal and perseverance in the cause of agri- culture. We never saw tlie Riding-house so well stocked ; and the company on the two days of exhibition was numerous, and highly respectable. The judges this year were Mr. S. Rennett, of Rickering's Park, Redfordshire, Mr. C. Stokes, of Kingston, Nottingham- shire, and Mr. W. Bartholomew, of Goltho, Lineoln- slure ; and their decisions have, we understand, given perfect satisfaction. — The list of prizes awarded will be found below, in our report of the dinner ; we need here merely refer to it. In addition to the stock, which ex- cited so much and general satisfaction, there were also some very excellent specimens of seeds, roots, ice, and a collection of improved agricultural implements, for- warded at the request of the stewards, by Mr. Grant, of Stamford. The whole exhibition was of the most gra- tifying and satisfactory character. THE DINNER. At about half-past three o'clock, upwards of 150 gen- tlemen sat down to dinner in a temporary room erected over part of the yard of the George Inn, Lord Rarhani, president of the society, in the chair. The noble lord was supported, on his right, by W. M. Noel, Esq., M.P., the Earl of Aboyne, and the Rev. C. Swann, and on his left, by H. Handley, Esq., M.P., the Hon. C. G. Noel, Stafford O'Brien, Esq., &c. The vice-chair was ably filled by G.J. Heathcote, Esq., M. P., and among the company were Gen. Johnson, M.P., Hon. Capt. Edwards, II. O'Brien, Esq., J. M. Wing- iield, Esq., Dr. Doncaster, T. H. Jackson, Esq., R. W. Baker, Esq., Mr. Healy, Laughton, &c. &c. &c. The cloth having been removed, and grace said by the Rev. C. Swann, The Chairman said that he understood it to be usual in meetings of this kind to make no allusions to any po- litical subjects, and he trusted that the custom would be adhered to that day. The first toast which he would submit to them was one which must ever be uppermost in the mind of Englishmen — the Queen. (Applause.) The Chairman. — " The Queen Dowager, and the rest of the Royal Family." (Applause.) The Chairman. — " Success to the Rutland Agricul- tural Society." (Loud applause.J His lordship then called upon Mr. R. Smith, one of the secretaries, to an- nounce the list of prizes, which he immediately pro- ceeded to do, and the awards were made as follow : — Class 1.— Oxen or Steers. 1st premium of 15 sovs. to INIr. Hodgkin, of Edenham, 4 yr. and 3 mo. old Ox, bred and fed by him on oil cake, cabbage, carrots, and hay.— 2d premium of 7 sovs. to Lord Exeter, for his 4 years and 6 months old Ox, bred and fed by his lordship on linseed cake, barley meal, carrots, and hay. — Nos. 4, 6, and 9, were commended. Class 2. — Oxen or Steers. 1st premium of 10 sovs. to Mr. C. Blorris, of Oakham Grange, a 3 years and 10 months old Steer, bred and fed by himself. — 2d premi- um of 5 sovs. to ]Mr. Baines, of Brook, near Oakham, a 4 years old Ox, bred by jMr. G. Royce. Class 3.— Oxen or Steers. 1st premium of 10 sovs. to Mr. Hodgkin, of Edenham, a 3 years and 11 months old Steer, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 5 sovs. to Mr. C. Smith, of Burley, a 4 years and 3 months old Ox, bred by Mr. Thompson, of Tallington. Class 4. — Cows or Heifers. 1st premium of 7 sovs. to Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, a 4 years old Heifer, brrd by himself. 2d premium of 3 sovs. to Sir J. Palmer, Eart., Carlton, a 4 years and six months old Heifer, bred and fed by himself. No. 3 commended. Class 5.— Fattened Dairy Cows. 1st premmm of 7 sovs. to Mr. J. Painter, of Burley, a 9 years and 6 month* old Hereford Cow, bred by himself. 2d premium of 3 sovs. to Mr, Thos. Spencer, of Knossington, a 5 years old Cow, bred by Mr. Wm.Tutin, of WiBton, York- shire. No. 2 commended. Class 6.— To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best pair of Steers. 1st premium of 5 sovs. to E. VV. Wilmott, Esq., of Pickwell, a pair of Steers, under 1 year and 10 months old, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, a pair of Steers, under 1 year and 10 months old, bred and fed by himself. No. 4 commended. Class 7.— Long-wooUed Fat Wether Sheep. 1st premium of 7 sovs. to Mr. W. Sanday, of Holme Pierrepoint, near Nottingham, three 20 months old Sheep, bred by himself. 2d premium of 3 sovs. to Lord Exeter, of Burghley Park, three 20 months old Sheep, bred by himself. This class generally commended. Class 8.— Long-woolled Fat Wether Sheep. 1st premium of 7 sovs. to Mr. Painter, of Burley, three 20 months old Leicester Sheep, bred by himself. 2d pre- mium of 3 sovs. to Mr. Burgess, of Ridhngton, three under 21 months old Sheep, bred and fed by himself. No. 2 commended. Class 9.— Long-woolled Fat Wether Sheep. 1st premium of 7 sovs. to Mr. Burgess,, of Ridlington, three under 34 months old Sheep, bred by hmiself. 2d pre- mium of 3 sovs. to Mr. Bullock, of Manton, three under 34 moMths old Sheep, bred and fed by himself. No. 1 commended- Class 10.— Breeding Ewes. 1st prize of 5 sovs. to Lord Exeter, of Burghley, five Ewes, bred and fed by his lordship. 2d premium of 3 sovs. to Mr. Cheethara, of Hambleton, five Ewes, bred and fed by himself. No. 2 commended, and Nos. 4 and 6 highly commended. Class 11.— Long-woolled Theaves. 1st premium of 4 sovs. to E. W. Wdmott, Esq., Pickwell, five Theaves, bred anrt fed by himself. 2d premium of 2 s-ovs. to Mr. Cheethnm, of Hambleton, five Theaves, bred and fed by himself. This class generally commended. Class 12.— Long-woolled Lambs. 1st premium of 3 sovs. to Mr. Burgess, of Ridlington, five Lambs, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 1 sov. to Mr. Brad- shaw, of Burlev, five Lambs, bred and fed by himself. Class 13.— Pigs. Ist premium of 4 sovs. to Mr. W. Lamb, of Colsterworth, a 11 and a half months old Pig, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 2 sovs. to Sir Thomas Whichcote, a 43 weeks old Pig, bred and fed by himself. No. 3 commended, and No. 1 highly com- mended. Class 14.— Pigs. l$t premium of 3 sovs. to Mr. Guilford, of Somerby, a 6 months old Pig, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 1 sov. to Mr. W. Bull, of Somerby, a 31 weeks old Pig, bred and fed by himseU. Class 15.— The premiums of 10 and 5 sovs. were awarded on Monday the 26lh March last, to JMr. Good- win, of Ayston, for his Stallion. Class 16.— 'i'he premium of 3 sovs. was awarded on Monday the 26th JMarch last, to Mr. Draper, of Oak- ham, for his Boar. Offered by Lord Barham. Class 17.— The premiums of 7 and 3 sovs. were awarded on Monday the 26th March last, to Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, for his Bull. Offered by the Hon. W. M. Noel. Class 18— Heifers. 1st premium of 5 sovs. to Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, a 1 year and 5 months old Htifer, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. Chapman, of Whitwell, a 1 year and 10 weeks old Heifer, bred and fed by himself. Offered by the Hon. Berkley Noel. Class 19.— Heifers. 1st premium of 7 sovs. to Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, a 2 year and 1 month old Heifer, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 3 sovs. to Mr. Painter, of Burley, a 1 year and 7 months old Hereford Heifer, bred and fed by himself. No. 2 highly com- mended, and No?. 5, 7, and 9 commended. Ofltered by the Hon. Charles George Noel. Class 2(».— Steers. 1st premium of 7 guineas to Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, a pair of 3 year and 1 month old 22 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Steers, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 3 gui- neas to Mr. H. Stimson, of Oakham, a pair of 2 year and four months old Steers, bred and fed by himself. Offered by Stafford O'Brien, Esq. Class 21.— Cows. 1st premium of 5 sovs. to Mr. Cheetham, of Hambleton, a 3 year and 3 months old Heifer, bred and fed by himself. 2d premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, a Roan Cow, bred and fed by himself. No. 4 highly commended. Offered by the late Sir Gerard Noel ISoel, Bart. M.P. Class 22. — Cows in milk. 1st premium of .5 sovs. to Thomas Needham, of Egleton, a 4 year and 10 months old Cow, bred by Mr. Tirrel, of Eprleton, and fed by himself. 2d premium of 3 sovs. to William Sherwin, of Langham, a 4 year and 11 months old Cow, bred and fed by himself. Class 23. — Heifers. 1st premium of 4 sovs. to Doro- thy Hickson, of Lang-ham, a 1 year and 6 months old Heifer, bred and fed by herself. Class 24. — Calves. The premiums of 2 and 1 sovs. were awarded to W. H. Faulkner, for a 5 weeks and 1 day old Calf, bred and fed by himself. Class 25.— Pigs. The premiums of 2 and 1 sovs. were awarded to \Vm. Chamberlain, of Burley, for a Pig, bred by Mr. R. Smith, of Burley, and fed by himself. Oats. A premium of 2 sovs. to JNIr. Bradshaw, of Burley. for 4 bushels of Friesland Oats. The others generally commended. Offered by the Rev. H. Neville. Wheat. A premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. Wra. UUett, of Hambleton, for 4 bushels of Wheat. Barley. A premium of 2 sovs. to Mr. Chapman, of Whitwell, for 4 bushels of Barley. Offered by Henry Neville, Esq. Wheat. 1st premium of 1 sov. to .Tohn Barfield, of Ridlington, for one bushel of Wheat. — Also by Mr. Baker.— 2d premium of 10s. to Wm. Wright, of Rid- lington, for one bushel of Wheat. — 3rd premium of five shillings to Edw. Russell, of Ridlington, for one bushel of Wheat. Also by ]\Ir. Baker. Shearling Sheep. Ist premium o f2 sovs. to Mr. C. Morris, of Oakham, a slaughtered Sheep. Also by Mr. C. Smith.— 2d premium of 1 sov. to Mr. Wm. Dawson, of Birthorpe, a slaughtered Sheep. Offered by Augustus Stafford O'Brien, Esq. Labourers in Husbandry. 1st premium of 5 sovs. to Richard Russell, of Tickencote, 56 years of age, and has 10 children. Offered by E. W, Wilmot, Esq.— 2d premium of 3 sovs. to Robt. Manton, of Ridlington, 73 years of age, and has 8 children. 3d premium of 2 sovs. to Thos. Hemfries, of Egleton, 45 years of age, and has 1 1 children. 4th premium of 1 sov. to Thomas Ward, of Edithweston, 43 years of age, and has 11 children. Mr, Painter, a silver medal, offered by Mr. R.Smith, as breeder of his pen of sheep in class 8. Lord Exeter, a silver medal, offeied by Mr. R.Smith, as breeder of his pen of Ewes in class 10. Offered by the Society. A silver medal to Mr. Robert Smith, of Burlev, for a pair of Cart Mares. A gold medal, offered by the Society, to Mr. Baker, for his Ox, shown in the Extra Stock. A gold medal, offered by the Society, to Lord Exeter, forjiis pen of Sheep in class 7. Sweepstakes of 1 sov. each, for the best pair of Mares for Agriculture ; Mr. R. Smith, Burley.— 1 sov, each for the best fat Heifer ; T. F. .Johnson, Esq,, Spalding. — Half-a-sov. for the best Pig; Sir Thos. Whichcote, Bart. The Extra Stock was highly commended. The announcement of the award was received with every mark of satisfaction. The Rev. C. Swann rose to propose a toast which the steward had (he said) committed to his hands, not because he was particularly able to do justice to it, but because he had had the honor of enjoying his friendship who was the subject of it longer than perhaps any man in the county — he alluded to their late lamented presi- dent. CHear, hear.) He wras sure that he was not able properly to descant on the merits of that excellent man, and he dared not trust to his feelings to enlarge upon the theme. This he would say, and all would unite in confirming his assertion, that the late Sir Gerard was a truly loyal man — a truly patriotic man — a man who had the interests of the country at heart, and especially the interests of the county of Rutland. {Hear, hear.) He was sure that all would agree with him in adding, that one of his first desires was to promote the objects of the society, the anniversary of which they were then assem- bled to celebrate. Any thing furtiier he would not ven- ture to say, in the presence of his noble successor ; but would only appeal to the feelings of the company, which must best bear testimony to that regard and affection towards the lamented Sir Gerard Noel, which he was sure would live in their hearts, as it did in his, (Hear.) He then called upon them to drink, in that respectful silence and solemnity due to the subject, the memory of their late deplored president. The Earl of Aboyne, in rising to propose a toast, re- gretted tlie small rhetorical powers which nature had given him. He was a comparative stranger to Oakham, ior though he had hunted frequently in the neighbour- hood, it was nearly twenty years since he was last in the town. He proposed the health of their president, (loud applause) ; although it was the first time that he had met him, he had not now first to be acquainted with his public and private virtues. He had frequently seen his lordships's name in print, as an excellent landlord. (Cheers.) He really thought that he should endeavour to procure a farm under him, which would enable him (Lord A.) to compete for the prizes— and, under the able tuition of Mr. Baker, he did not doubt that he would compete successfully. He gave them the health of their noble president. (Great applause.) Lord Bauham acknowledged the compliment in feel- ing terms, expressing his gratification at the honour the society had conferred upon him in electing him their president. He was sorry to say that he did not know so much about farming as he ought to do, and he believed that he must endeavour to follow the recommendation of his noble friend. At the same time, his lordship assured them, that he was truly alive to the merits of this society, and very desirable that tlic prosperity of agriculture should be promoted as a national bene- fit. He lelt, indeed, so much interest in the sub- ject, that the Rutland Agricultural Society would meet with the same encouragement at his hands, which it had enjoyed under the auspices of its late president. (Apjitause.) His lordship then gave " The judges, Messrs. Bennett, Stokes, and Bartho- lomew," and reminded the society how deeply they were indebted to the kindness of those gentlemen who attended to assist them, many from very distant parts of the country. (Drunk with much cordialitrj.) Mr. Bennett returned thanks for this toast, on behalf of himself and his colleagues, declaring the peculiar pleasure with which he had again witnessed the improve- ment of the Rutland Agricultural Society, Since he last attended it had greatly progressed, not only in the ex- tension of its benefits, the management of its show-yards, but also in the exertions and zeal displayed by the stewards. It was frequently his task — m fact, he con- sidered it a duty he owed his country— to attend these societies in various parts of the kingdom ; but he never witnessed so much good order and regularity as had been shown at Oakiiam, (Applause.) The office which he and his colleagues had filled was an arduous and frequently an unpleasant one : it was almost im- possible to give universal satisfaction, because every per- son is too apt to conceive that his own is the very best animal, and when they saw him alone, it was difficult to persuade them that they would not obtain the prize. There was consequently a great deal of disappointment evinced when they found they were unsuccessful, instead of successful candidates. (Hear.) The best way, how- ever, of judging of the comparative merits of animals, was seeing them side by side ; not cursorily, as the view must have been that day, in the crowded show-room, but to examine them quietly and coolly — to turn them up-side down, (hear, hear); he meant literally what he THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 23 said— up-side down, because animals will frequently deceive a casual observer, seeming' to have good tops, but having- nothing' underneath to carry weight. {Hear, hear.) He assured the company that what they had done had been to the best of their judprment ; and if they had erred, it had been an error of the head, not of the heart. They had, at all events fully satisfied them- selves, and that he took to be always a fair criterion that they would satisfy others. {Applause.) A portion of the stock had scarcely appeared sufficiently merito- rius to the judges, but they had not withheld the prizes on this principle — at the great Smithfield show, which mig'ht be called the institution of the world, he should deem it most infamous in a judge to award a prize where the merit was not sufficient, but in a local society, such a course would only produce a bad feeling, and put an end to encouragement in future. (Hear, and applause.) G. J. Heathcote, Esq., M. P., proposed " The Stewards." (Applause.) Mr. Burgess returned thanks in a neat and appropri- ate speech. What he and his colleagues had done, he said, in furtherance of the arrangements of the society, had afforded themselves much gratification, and they felt amply rewarded, in knowing that they had given satisfaction. This was his (Mr. B's) retiring year, he having filled the office of steward for three years. He would only assure them of the great pleasure he had experienced in associating with other gentlemen in the office, from which he now retired with feelings of the greatest satisfaction. {Applause.) The Chairman. — " The Secretaries of the Society." Mr. R. Smith acknowledged the toast on behalf of himself, and those with whom he acted as secretaries. He felt convinced, however, that t lie prosperous state of the society was not owing to their exertions, but to the bounty and generosity of those who contributed to its funds, and exhibited at its shows. So long as they remained in office, it would be their study to carry out the fulfilment of its duties as they had done. He took that opportunity of thanking the noble president for the use of the magnificent building in which their exhibitions had been huW. He concluded by proposing the healths of the various donors to the society. ( Cheers. ) Stafford O'Brien, Esq., returned thanks as a donor, and assured the committee, that if they were satisfied with the donations, they (the donors) had no reason to repent their gifts, nor to regret their appropriation. The Hon C. G. Noel proposed the health of G. J. Heathcote. That gentleman tliey well knew had al- ways been one of the firmest supporters of the agricul- tural interests of the country, and particularly of this society — a society which was yearly increasing in utility and importance, under the auspices of so many indefa- tigable agriculturists. (Applause.) Mr. Heathcote on rising was received in a very gratifyingmanner. He assured them that he should ever be happy to be of use to the society in any way, and still more so, as one of its vice-presidents. There was one peculiar feature in the compliment which had just been paid to him. He believed, that it was the first time that his young friend had ever addressed them, and he took it to be a very kind compliment that he had began by proposing his health. They did not know Mr. Noel so well as he did— when they did, they would doubtless appreciate him equally. Pie trusted that the virtues and good qualities of which he gave such general and early promise, would secure to him, in afterlife, that happiness which he deserved. (Applause.) He (Mr. H.) had so often spoken to them on the subject — so frequently urged the praises, of that society, in its advocacy of the great interests of agriculture to which they all belonged — that all he could say now, \f ould be but old argument — but an old speech ; but, if there was nothing else new, he would assure them that it was always a new and fresh pleasure for him to come among them, (bud applause) one thing more there was which was new — they had the novelty oUielter times. — He would not touch upon that subject so as to render it disagreeable to the feelings of any. (Hear and cheers.) He should ever continue to direct his best efforts towards the prosperity of agricul- ture. It had been said, that he who made two blades of grass grow where only one grew before, was a bene* factor to the nation : he did not wish to apply any such high-flown i)raise to himself, but this he would say, that he trusted he might aspire to a moderate share of their praises— as a fellow-worker in that cause in which all their interests were united — prosperity to the agriculture ot the country, which must ever secure the welfare of the country. He would, before he resumed his seat, propose to them the toast of " the successful candi- dates ;" and it was no small gratification for him, to be enabled to unite with that toast the name of a gentleman of Lincolnshire, who had taken the first prize in Rutland. He would give them " Mr Hodgkin, and the successful candidates." (Much applause.) Mr. Hodgkin rose to the toast ; he said he felt that he was not competent to its proper acknowledgment, but he would leave it in the hands of Mr. Baker, who was another of the successful candidates. (Applause.) Mr. Baker briefly responded to the call ; he ex- pressed himself as being very happy to find that Mr. Hodgkin had done in the county of Rutland what he (Mr, B.) had done in the county of Lincoln. (Applause.) He trusted to meet him again at Bourn, and again at Oakham, in honest competition so long as they lived. The Chairjian then gave "The Unsuccessful Can- didates." He felt that there was no class which more required the compliment, as a consolation, and a stimu- lus for them to appear in the lists another time. Mr. Handley in rising, begged to acquaint the com- pany, first, that he did not do so as an tmsuccessful can- didate, and secondly, that he hoped a long time would elapse before that cap fitted. (Hear and laughter. J He had a duty devolved upon him of proposing a toast — the health of Mr. Heathcote and the vice-presidents of the society. In doing so, he must beg to congratulate them on the high pre-eminence which the Rutland agri- cultural society had attained under the care of its offi- cers— under the patronage of the nobility of the neigh- bourhood— but chiefly, under the cordial co-operation of the most intelligent and enterprising yeomanry in England. He could tell the yeomanry of Lincoln and other counties, that they might well advantage them- selves by taking a leaf|out of the book of the enter- prising little county of Rutland. (Loud applause.) W. M. Noel, M.P., briefly returned thanks : he be- lieved, he said, that the greatest prosperity of the coun- try was based on the plough. The Chairman gave " the health of the Lord Lieu- tenant of the County,'' a nobleman to whom the so- ciety was much indebted, not only as a warm patron, but as a good friend to agriculture. (Applause.) The hon. Mr. Edwards, proposed " the Members for the County.'' ('Drunk very cordially.) W. M Noel, M.P., in acknowledging the compli- ment, declared his determination of endeayouring to promote the interests of the Rutland Agricultural So- ciety, convinced as he was, that its object was to reward merit, and its effects to stimulate zeal and industry among all classes of agriculturists. G.J. Heathcote, M.P., returned thanks on behalf of his father, who, he said, had long been known among them as a good friend, neighbour, and landlord. It was not, he felt, for him to speak his father's praises, although he might truly say, that none more desired to gain and merit the approbation of his fellow-citizens. There were different ways of patronising agriculture — Sir Gilbert had his; while they paid their attention to sheep and pigs, he bred horses— and if they had been enabled to take the first prize at Smithfield, Sir Gilbert had taken it last year at Epsom. (Hear.) He believed that they were all acting for the benefit of the country, and he trusted that ere long its studs would be as famous as its flocks and herds. (Applause.) Mr. Healey, in rising to propose the next toast, highly complimented the society on the progress it had effected, and on the elevated position it held. As a proof of what perseverance had done in Rutland, they would remember, that a few years ago, the county had been considered as a nun-breeding county — whereas, now it was agreed on all hands, that they not only pro- duced good stock, but also knew where to find them, and how to keep them. The gentleman whose health he was about to propose tg them was Mr, Baker— ^ 24 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. (cheen)—a geatleman whose fame was known, and whose merits were acknowiedg'ecl in all parts of the kingdom. {Loud applause.) He had met with more success in his agricultural efforts than any man now living — and yet, he was not absolutely a farmer ; he was not brought up to the cart-tail ; he was a man of intellect and education, and he had shown that no one could exceed him in ability as a farmer besides. Yet, the merits of Mr. Baker as a shower of prize-cattle were among the least of his merits — look at him in the discharge of Ins duties as an agent — look at him engaged in the improvemeut of his neighbourhood— and who can compete with him? He (Air. H.) believed that good ploughing was the ground-work of farming— that it was a rule, that where the land was ploughed well, it could not be farmed ill : and Mr. Baker had originated all the good ploughing in the county of Rutland. He knew the little county well— he knew the merits of its yeomanry — the good feeling of its landlords, who would be ashamed whenever they had good crops to raise the tenants' rents,— f/fear,)— but he had been rather nettled by a remark of Mr. Handley's. He had said, that they, the yeomanry of the county of Rutland, were the most respectable body of yeomanry he knew ; now it was very curious, but Mr. Handley had told his Lincolnshire constituents at Grantham, that t/iei/ were the most respectable body of yeomanry he knew. (Loud and continued laughter.) Mr. Handley might consider himself fortunate in having so small a number of his constituents present, or he would, perhaps, have been taken very severely to task. Mr. Healey said that he would abstain from any further remarks, but give them " Mr. Baker, and the plougliing at Cottesmore." (Much applause.) Mr. Baker, on rising to acknowledge the toast, said that he felt it a great compliment to have his health pro- posed so early in the evening. With respect to the Cottesmore meetings— their principles — and the pro- gress which they had made — he need not then explain ; he believed they had effected some good, as had also the small allotment system, a system carried on by the exertions of great men by title, and good men by cha- racter. One of these good men they had lost, yet they might hope to have that loss supplied by three or four other good men. (Applause.) He congratulated the society on the excel lence of their present show ; nothing could have brought the Rutland Agricultural Society to its present state of perfection, but that union between great men, the men of middle station, and the cordial co-operation of the poor and labouring classes. They would again take up good animals to Smithfield at Christmas, and although it was doubtful whether they brought away the gold medal, as thay did last year, they would still be no unworthy competitors ; his advice was — go on— go on, 1 f beaten. They meant also to have some- thing for the Waltham show in the spring, and there they should have an opportunity of seeing some of Sir Gilbert Heathcote's horses, of which they had heard so much. He begged to take this opportunity to announce to them, that the hedge-cutting, which had been hitherto carried on on the north side of the county of Rutland, would, by the arrangements made for that purpose, be next year taken into the South; the first would take place at Belton, in February next. He was happy to be enabled to state, that Sir Gilbert Heathcote had given the sum of 10/., to be disposed in prizes to those who should cut and ditch in the best manner. (Applause.) He (Mr. B.) received the compliment which had been paid him, as a yeoman of the county of Rutland should receive it— gratefully and thankfully, and he hoped that all the good which had been effected by his humble means, might be multiplied ten thousand times. In conclusion, Mr. Baker directed attention to the pro- jected English Agricultural Society, and to the exertions used in its formation by Mr. Handley ; he begged to be allowed to express once more his feelings of gratitude, and to propose that gentleman's health. ( This toast was received with much applause.) Mr. Handley, M. P., rose to acknowledge the toast. If he recollected aright (he said), during the last ses- sion of parliament, a bill had been passed for the reco- very of small debts at Oakham and the neighbourhood. He owed one of these debts to Mr. Healey, (laughter), and for fear of having a summary process in execution against him, he would endeavour to clear it off at once, and set himself right, (hear). " I need not tell you (said Mr. Handley), that Mr. Healey is a great wit — and like all other great wits, he has an uncommonly short memory. For while he remembers what I said at Grantham, he appears to have forgotten part of what I said to-day. I did not institute any comparison with re- gard to the respectability — but the enterprise— of the yeomanry of Rutland and other counties ; but Mr. Hea- ley never loses an opportunity of exhibiting that wit which all know he has at his fingers' ends— with regard to respectability, the yeomanry of Rutland may be equal — they cannot be superior to the men of Lincoln. Hav- ing now escaped the terrors of the Small Debts' Court, let me thank Mr. Baker for his mention of me." Mr. H. then proceeded to refer to his connexion with the English Agricultural Society, and bade them bear in mind that all England was not cultivated alike. In one county in which he iiadjust been visiting, for instance, although they could produce a good sailor, one who could reef a top-sail, or man a vessel well, or make a good speech, they were still most destitute of agricul- tural enterprise. He related an instance of what had happened to him while on a visit in Wales. He went to look over a crop of tyrnips, of which the proprietor was very proud— and met with a farmer, one of high repute, as the chronicle of that part of the country. He (Mr. ri.) asked him whether he kept any sheep? No, was the answer, but he had heard so much said of them that he really tcould try, and he would buy one of his lambs if he (Mr. H.) did not ask too much. Oh, he should have one for a guinea. Ah, said the farmer, that's too much ; and he therefore did not commence his new school of improvement (laughter). Mr. Hand- ley next alluded to a discussion which had taken place at Grantham between him and his respectable friend Mr. Healey, with reference to the comparative merits of the wheel and swing ploughs, when they had proposed a premium for the next meeting, by which their respec- tive merits should be tested. Since then, he had had an opportunity of trying one of a series of experiments as to the draught of ploughs of various constructions ; he had had permission from the Messrs. Ransome, with their usual civility, to test their implements, and had had seven ploughs of different makes and principles in the same field, testing them by the aid of an instrument called the Dniomometer: all the ploughs had been set to the same guage — a pair of horses abreast, excepting the double furrow, which had three horses abi-east — furrows six inches deep, and ten inches wide — the field was a stubble field of sandy loam, partly up hill : and on the trial, the following was found to be the mean of four of them: — Description of Plough. Rutland*. wlieelsf ... Bedfordsliire, ^yith wheels Lincolnshire, swing Ditto, ditto... with .i Maker and Mark. Flansome, N. L. . Ransoino, L.L,. . . White, with Ran some Irons, B.M Ditto, ditto, L.H. . We i(.'ht ofl ejicli . ewl .qrs .lbs 1 3 22 1 3 26 1 0 18 1 1 1 Draught, cwt.qrs lbs 2 1 21 2 3 24 3 0 0 3 0 11 So that the dr.iught of the Rutland proves to be 2 qrs. less than the Bedfordshire ivith wheels, and nearly 3 qrs. less than the Lincolnshire swing plough tvithout wheels. (Hear, hear). Another fact obtained was the compara- tively trifling difference in the draught which the weight of the plough occasions, as in adding 1121bs. to the weight of the Rutland it only increased the draught 331bs. To return to the English Agricultural Society, he trusted it had in it the seeds of great utility : there was in gene- ral too much promised, or loo much expected. I'hey were in the habit of seeing flaming advertisements of the wonderful yield of prolific wheats : this was not * Invented by R. W . Baker f For a print ami descriptioT of this plough see the " Far- mer's Magazine" for Ajiril 1835. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 25 their plan ; neither did they go to her Majesty's gardens at Kew, and sow a hot-bed of a yard or two, for the purpose of astonishing the public with the yield ; no, they intended fairly to test the respective seeds, and communicate the results in a cheap form to all agricul- turists. The same with respect to implements ; they would introduce them into those parts where the drill was never heard of, and where the ploughs were of the rudest con-^truction— where they say " Our grandfathers employed these implements, and we shall use no other ;" a principle which would take them back to the spade and the rake, and vote all improvements to be gim- cracks and useless. (Applause), There was one sub- ject which should particularly induce them to co-ope- raie with the English Agricuitui'al Society — he alluded to the branch of which he had the honour to be chair- man, lor developing the medical science with regard to the treatment of sheep and pig?. ( Hear, hear.) E^ery one was aware of the vast utility which has attended the establishment of the veterinary college 40 years ago, for liorses, in the treatment of which noble animal, gentle- men were frequently induced to go to an expense far beyond their intrinsic worth. He did not doubt, too, that if anything had happened to the magnificent animal which had taken the first prize that day — if it had been taken ill last week, his friend Hodgkin would have sent for Sir Henry Halford and the w hole college of surgeons rather than have lost him : but this was only the case with valuable animals— but for the poor pig, for in- stance, if anything ailed it, the only practitioner that was called in was Ihe butcher. (Hear and laughter.) He once told a medical man, that he had managed to get a dose of castor oil through a pig, and he said, " The action was enough to establish a reputation equal to that of Esculapius !" (lAuighter.) He would once more then congratulate them on the enterprise of the county of Rutland : he then saw before him the design for a budding wherein to hold a local society about to be established in the county of Rutland (the Farmers' and Graziers' Club — similar in design with the English Agricultural Society. Their Agricultural Society had been a valuable auxiliary to the great Central Society at Smithfield — their exertions had gained them " golden opinions from all sorts of people" — they had carried the gold medal from Smithfield, and the Derby from Ep- som—(c/ieej-s)— and the new Rutland Club might be- come an equally valuable auxiliary to the English Agri- cultural Society as this has to its brother in Smithfield. He knew of no place (not even Grantham) where they could establish such an institution with better hopes of success, and he trusted that it would meet with the en- couragement which itdeserved. He had only one wish, that they would be induced to extend the macric circle o( 15 miles by wliich they were now bounded : it was not a desirable limit— and if extended would admit some who would bring respectability, if they brought no- thing else. He for one should be happy to have his name enrolled as a member of that society, which set an example worthy of imitation of the country at large (loud applause.) He gave them " Success to the Rut- land Farmers' and Graziers' Club." Mr. R. Smith, the secretary to the club, acknow- ledged the toast, and gave a Hattering account of its funds and prospects, together with the patronas"e it had hitherto received. They had now, he said, 130 mem- bers, and donations towards the building to which i\Ir. Handley had alluded, of 300/. (applause.) Their no- ble chairman had, in addition to his munificent sub- scription of 50/., presented them with the stone for the building, and other members had gratuitously oftered to transport it to the site. W. M. Noel, M. P. gave " The Visitors." Lord Aboyne briefly responded to the toast. Mr. jVicholls replied on behalf of the Bourn So- ciety. The Chairman gave " The Duke of Rutland and the Waltham Agricultural Association. (Applause.) Gen. Johnson proposed " Health and prosperity to the Grantham Association." He was aware that they could not compete, although ever so enterprising, in point of excellence with the Rutland Society — to which, in fact, there was none equal ; it possessed local advantages which others could not attain. Where would they find any place equal for the showing of cattle to the noble edifice they had visited that day? (Cheers.) He only hoped that the committee would also turn their attention to the after-dinner accommodations of their visitors : he had been in many warm climates, but very few of them were warmer than the room they were now in. Mr. Handley responded to the last toast, as a member of the Grantham Association ; he did not quite agree with the gallant General with respect to the ex- clusive local advantages enjoyed by the Rutland So- ciety—for he believed that there was no better laud for cultivation than that which lay between Grantham and the Humher ; though this is not generally the case in any part. Much had been said about English and Scotch farming : now he had seen some of it, and could speak to what that difference invariably was, namely, that the Scotch was the best farming and the best land, and the English was the best farming and the toorst land. (Hear, hear.) Still, where was there any enterprise like that of the County of Rutland ? GeneralJohnson and Mr. Healey might, if thev pleased, lay their heads together, but they would find it diffi- cult to convince him by assertion alone that any enter.- prise could be found equal to that evinced within the last few years in Rutland ! (Applause.) Mr. Healey, in reply, stated the difference exist- ing between the Grantham and Rutland Societies ; the former had been established only through the humble means of a ploughing match, to which had been sub- sequently added premiums for the reward of industry in that part of the county. No society could rival it in the latter particular — in its rewards to labourers and farming men— to servants who had lived the longest period with the same employer— to humble parents who had brought up the greatest number of children without receiving relief— to deserving widows, &c. The Rutland Society might be termed the oi-na- mental society, but the Grantham was the most really useful. (Hear, hear.) He admitted the impossibility of anything like a competition between them, from the vastly extended patronage received by the Rutland So- ciety over their's. Mr. Healey then made a few ob- servations upon what had fallen from Mr. Handley with reference to swing and wheel ploughs, declaring his conviction that the former were much better suited to a good system of farming than the wheel ploiighs. With reference to the trials made by Mr. Handley on the draughts of the respective ploughs, he was by no means sure that the experiments had been fairly tried, as much would necessarily depend on the prejudice of the man who held them. He would have been much more satisfied, also, if the experiments had been made, not with different descriptions of plough^, but with the Rutland plough, with and without wheels. Mr. Handley. — The experiments only went to prove the draught; and with respect to trying the Rutland plough with and without wheels, Mr. Healey must ( he thought) be aware, that ploughs constructed /sr wheels will never do M'ithout them. As for the plough, his opinion of it had always been, that it was simply a wedge, and in its employment, it ought, as the saying was, " to swim as stately as a swan, and as tickle as a mousetrap." He had further had Mr. Ransome's opi- nion on the subject, and he was decidedly in favor of the wheel plough. (Hear, hear.) The Hon. C. G. Noel then proposed " Lord Lons- dale and Fox-hunting." The Chairman. — " The Magistrates of the county." (Cheers.) J. M. WiNGFiELD acknowledged this toast in a pleas- ing and graceful speech, declaring his conviction of the great good which such societies as this eilected on the moral condition of the poor, an assertion which his sta- tion on the bench well enabled him to make. Mr. Handley gave "' Lady Barham." (Loud ap- plause.) Lord Barham briefly acknowledged the compliment. Stafford O'Brien, Esq., then rose to make a iew observations on a subject which he had hoped would 26 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, have been ulluded to before— the extraordinary rise which had taken place in corn. This occurrence ought to induce them to turn tlieir attention to the condition of their poorer neighbours, and to raise the price of labour. Labour was the poor man's capital, and it was worth at least 10 per cent, more to him than it had been three years ago. Were they to tell the poor man, if wheat was too dear for him, he must live upon barley bread? He considered that one of the most useful branches of agricultural societies was to promote a sufficient growth of corn for their consumption. {Heur, hear.) In one part of the country, they were already hearing of riots and incendiary fires ; and it would be only liberal in the farmers to raise the price of labour in comparison with the price of corn. Two or three years ago, he sold corn at 35s. a quarter, and for that same w^ieat he could now get 80s., or at all events, 40s. more tlian he could three years ago. Ought not the tenants, then, to pay the la- bourers more than they did then — especially as land- lords did not raise their rents — which they ought not to do. (Hear.) Mr. Bennett said, that two sentiments had fallen from Mr. O'Brien, which did both honour to his head and heart; the first that landlords should not take ad- vantage of the rise in corn to raise their rents ; and the second, that the tenants should not take to themselves all the advantages of this rise, but let the poor labourer participate in it. But Mr. O'Brien went on rather too broad a principle. He should remember, when he compared the present high price of corn with the time when it was 35s. a quarter, that it was then paid out of the farmer's capital (Hear, hear, J — and at that time it was by no means uncommon tor the labour account of a farmer to exceed his rent. Had those times continued, he (Mr. Bennett) did not hesitate to say, that farmer, tenant, and landlord must have been speedily involved in one common destruction ; 35s. a quarter is not an adequate price for corn under any circumstances that can possibly occur ; but now that it was double that, the tenant might add something to the price of labour. There was an important change in the agricultural po- pulation in consequence of the operation of the new Poor-law; in one village with which he was acquainted there were formerly sixty men upon the roads, whereas there were now not two able-bodied men to be found there ; it had acted as a test to try pauperism in the offer of the poor-house. (Hear, hear.) Mr. Healey stated that he agreed with Stafford O'Brien perfectly, that it was not only the duty, but the interest of the farmer to pay his labourers liberally. If they did so, the labourer would perform liberally. It was the worst possible answer which a farmer could re- ceive who complained of the idleness of his labourer, tliat " You give me nought." (Hear.) 'i here was an inquiry to be raised, as to wiiat had occasioned the high price in wheat. If it was from a deterioration of the crops, it could not be beneficial to the farmer ; nay, it was possible, that the higher the price of wheat the worse it might be for the larmer. (Hear.) But he had no doubt in his own mind, that this high price was oc- casioned by a deficiency in the present crop, and the old stock being exhausted. Nothing, however, could be more disgraceful to the farmer, than beating down the price of labour to the lowest ebb. (Much tiyplame.) Mr. Reeve then gave " The Noel family, root and branch." The noble Chairman briefly responded to this toast, and shortly afterwards left the room, accompanied by Lord Aboyne and the members of his family. The next meeting of the subscribers for fixing the day of showing, settling the bill of premiums, and transuct- ing- other business connected with the show of 1839, vviil be holden at the Crown Inn, Oakam, on the first Mon- day in January in that year. market of Lonsle Saulnier.in presence of the mayor and of several members of the Emulation Society. The prefet also was present at the first meeting. This inge- nious contrivance, easily moved, and of a size which allows its being placed at the entrance of barns or sheds, merely keeping the smoke-pipe, or chimney, on the out- side, works by means of a very simple cog-work, set in motion by a steam-engine of five horse power. The first trial gave a threshing of 73 sheaves, oidinary size, in 45 minutes, and the second 96, much larger, in 71 minutes. Two men are employed, one to feed the ma- chine, the other to hand him the sheaves ; and these two men effect in an hour and a half what ten common threshers with the flail require a day to do. The con- sumption of fuel was about a half-hectolitre (about three quarts) for the two operations. The invention of this machine, of incontestible utility, is due to Peter Lancy, residing at Ney, near Champagnole, assisted by Jean Baptiste Riaele, of the same commune." — Le Temps of Nov. 19, 1838. INTERESTING TO AGRICULTURISTS.-We find what follows in the Sentinelte clu Jura of Nov. 7 : — " A threshing machine, worked by steam, was tried on the 5th and 6th of the present month, under the corn ON AN EXPERIMENTAL FARM, &c. TO THE EBITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Before I proceed to consider the subject of seeds and roots in continuation of our last letter, as contained in your paper of 12th curt., I would pre- viously offer a few remarks, in regard to the ob- jections which you bring forward against the prac- ticability, and utility ofan experimental farm. I am aware, though, I have more than once alluded to the want of an establishment of this nature being a desideratum to the agricultural community, that I have not fully defined the mode to be adopted, to make such an institution of general benefit, as I in- tended at a future period, to enter into the merits and operation ofan experimental farm. But in the first place, with regard to such an establishment only being applicable for, and embracing one particular soil (Sec, and climate if you will, I would observe hat this objection will be obviated by appointing a committee in every district, or county, who would communicate to the manager of the farm, any thing- worthy of remark; and on the other hand, these committees would be instructed b}' tlio manager to try the results of seeds, and roots, &c., on the dif- ferent soils and under the various climates of Great Brittiin, which could not be tested on the experi- mental farm, owing to these influences operating diflferently in different siiuatioss. By this means however, the whole country might be traced out, as it were, into one wide field of experiments, through the exertions of the manager and the ditfereut com- mittecs, or local agricultural associations. I have readily allowed in my former communica- tions, that many valuable discoveries, have from time to time been made by individual agriculturists, but it must also be admitted, that years often elapsed before these became generally known, and it only, in our opinion, requires such a centre of operation as we have pointed out to generate in the minds of both landlords and tenants, a strong and insuperable desire for further improvemeni. These improve- ments obtained, tested and carried into effect, by the manager of this experimental farm, would at once relieve the mind of the farmer from any of those doubts which frequently arise regarding the eflficacy of any new scheme, and the landlords themselves deriving their information from such a respectable source, would the more readily join to assist their tenantry in the accomplishment of those improve- ments which had received the stamp, and approval THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 27 of tbe manager of such an establishment, thus crea- ting- a contidence betwixt these parties regarding their ultimate success and expediency, which could not fail to prove highly beneficial to both. Secondly, — As to tbe possibility of obtaining a person properly qualified to superintend the mana- gement of an experimental farm, I think there would be no great diflSculty, for I believe many in- dividuals could be found who would be both capable and willing to undertake such a charge. If we refer i'or instance to the general summary of the population of Great Britain, it will be found that the number of occupiers of land, employing labourers, amounts to 187,075, and those occupying land, but not employing labourers, to be 168,815. Now it may reasonably be supposed that individuals may be found from among so many, perfectly qualified for every duty, belonging, as manager, to an experimen- tal farm, for it must not be supposed Cas you would seem to infer,) that such a person must be endowed with abilities and genius superior to all his fellows. While indeed we would say that the mana- ger of such an establishment should be a man of practical experience, strict observation, skill and en- terprise, we would however leave it to his own dis- crimination and that of the committee of management to call in the aid of science, when required. It must also be observed that the experience of the most eminent cultivators of the soil, and breeders of stock throughout the kingdom, would be made available to tbe managers by means of the local agricultural associations, which it is presumed might be so or- ganized as to act subsidiary to the principal establish- ment, and thereby render their co-operation for the purpose of developing and disseminating every agri- cultural improvement. This organization is abso- lutely necessary to the success of the scheme, and has indeed always formed part of our plan. The convenience and utility of such art arrangement would be found in its general applicability for speedily disseminating every agricultural improve- ments throughout the country, and from the un- limited encouragement that would be given to the transmission of plain statements, of the most simple facts that may occur in practice. Every facility would thus be afi'orded to those who might be in- clined to assist in the general cause ; and, the ma- nager having no particular prepossession in favour of one theory more than another, but bound by the very nature of his situation to interpret the processes and results of nature impartially to all, by testing evei-y doubtful statement, by comparing and classifying the whole, would be enabled to embody in his pe- riodical reports a map of real practical information upon every subject brought under review, which could not fail to be highly pleasing, instructive, and edifying to the agricultural community. These re- ports would be highly instructive and comprehensive in import, inasmuch as they would contain the views of agriculturists in every county and district thiough- out the kingdom, with an account of the different systems as pursued by them, and these compared and tested with one another would finally be made the subject of direct experiment. "Nothing," says Sir H. Davy, " is m^re wanted in agriculture than experiments in which all the circumstances are mi- nutely and scientifically detailed, this art will then advance in proportion as it becomes exact in its me- thods." '1 he inconrenience and loss which the agri- cultural community have hitherto suffered from the want of an establishment of the nature referred to, will be more apparent if we consider the disadvan- tage which the proprietary themselves are subjected to in the management of their home farms, from hav' ing no tixod data to assist them in their operations, nor any point of reference to guide them in the exe- cution of any new and doubtful experiment; for it is a matter of notoriety, that the individual exertions of almost the whole of them when directed to agricul- ture, whether in the way of improvement or of profit, have very seldom been attended with success. Now when we reflect upon the time which they generally spend at college, and the highly finished classical education which most of them enjoy, still, with these advantages jit always appears as if something more was wanting to enable them, with success, to under- take the management and discbarge the duties be- longing to their estates. There is no trade or pro- fession but what requires some small preparatory practice to render the followers of it conversant with tbe minutias of the different details, neither can it be presumed that the proprietary will be able properly to discharge those duties which they owe, not less to society than to their own credit and future prosperity, unles^ they devote some little time and attention to the science and practice of agriculture. It is, how- ever, not by lectures that this practical knowledge is to be obtained, but by combining these with a prac- tical field of reference, and thereby directing the at- tention of the student not only to the theory, but to the different processes and results as is exemplified in actual practice. Were an experimental establish- ment therefore in full and active operation, these results would be obtained, and the advantages would be as many and as important for the acquisition of agricultural knowledge, as a botanical garden for the acquisition of botany, or the dissection of subjects for that of anatomy. Such an institution might in- deed be denominated a practical school, conducted on such an elegant and at the same time such an ex- tensive scale, as could not fail to give to the young proprietary a relish fer agricultural pursuits, and realize to the full all the expectations of a refined and enquiring mind. Every sound theory on agri- culture would there be exemplified, and the young and inexperienced would learn more of the princi- ples and rainutiaj of the science from the mode of procedure there adopted, than from all tbe hypotheses and vagae generalities that have ever been penned. 1'he study of agriculture also, as is exemplified in practice, is of so interesting a nature, that acquiring the knowledge of it would never be considered as a task by the student ; for we find all those indivi- duals who have turned their attention to it in youth, whether to the cultivation of the soil or the breeding of cattle, have invariably persevered in tbe same course, and in fact delight in such pursuits. W© therefore take but a very partial view of the subject when we suppose that every home farm under the immediate superintendence of an enterprising pro- prietor, would become ^merely a profitable instead of a losing investment for capital. On the contrary, when we take into account the almost indefinite means which we possess of introducing and perfect- ing any requisite improvement, we may fairly and legitimately infer, that the home farm would not only indemnify the proprietor, but that it would take tbe lead in every movement which had for its object tbe improvement of agriculture, and would thus be- come a i)attern for the imitation of the tenantry. The proprietor would also become so well acquainted with the difficulties wherewith his tenantry had to contend, and all tbe unfavourable vicissitudes by which their condition is so liable to be afl'ected, that he could administer relief in the way and at the time which no one would know than himself how to de- termine. With these explanations in reference to your ob* 28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Section as regards theutility of an experimental farm, I would in the meantime confine myself; but I may further observe, that to render the full benefit of those experiments available to the whole countrj', it may perhaps be necessary to have an institution of the nature proposed in England, another in Scotland, and a third in Ireland, with similar laws and regula- tions to each, so as to combine their exertions, and centre them into one grand object. Were these in- stitutions, however, once properly organized and connected with the local agricultural associations in each country, a reciprocal interchange of views and facts relating to the different experiments instituted by the managers of each would be obtained nnd esta- blished, and every circumstance worthy of notice and that had the most distant reference to improve- ment, would be readily disseminated throughout the tingdom. An extended field of observation and ex- periment would thus be opened up, and a practical knowledge of the nature of those districts obtained, which may possess some inherent and natural quality in their soil or situation better ailapted for the pro- duction of certain seeds and roots than that of others, and were these districts once recognized and proved to be possessed of peculiar properties suitable for maturing seeds, grain, roots, &c., then by means of these establishments, and tlie facility of intercourse which now prevails, rendering the inland fanner as easy of access as those on the coast, the interchange would not only be certain but performed with great dispatch throughout every district in tlie kingdom. In fact, the properties belonging to every soil in every district would be known, and become familiar to the managers of those institutions, and a system of exchange of seed, which experience has proved to be so advantageous to every agriculturist, would be matured and rendered so perfect as to form a new era in the annals of agricultural improvement. With reference also to wiiat we stated in our last in regard to a frequent and direct change of seed wheat from England, we would be understood when allud- ing to the first year's growth always proving the best, as not referring generallv, but as more particu- larly applicable to our finest land and earliest situa- tions, for the laws of nature which regulate th.e ani- mal economy, seem also to operate to a certain degree in the vegetable kingdom, and therefore in carrying these changes into effect caution may be necessary to guard against a too sudden transition. And when we refer to the advantage which the Scotch farmers de- rive from procuring their seed wheat from England, we do not mean to infer from this, that an equal and as favourable result would not be obtained by a change from other countries : on the contrary, this is only proved so far as our experience goes, and we are sanguine that similar advantages would be gained, more especially by the English farmer, from as fre(]uent change from favourable situations on the continent. I shall in a future letter resume my observations on seeds and roots, as to continue them in connection with these remarks might perhaps trespass too much on the space of your columns, and I may also have another opportunity of entering more at large into the merits of an experimental establishment. A Scotch FARMEn. THE LATE HARVEST. TO THE KDITOR OF THE DERBYSHIRE COURIER. Sir,— Since harvest a general opinion has prevailed, that the product of the wheat crop will be found very deficient, and that it will consequently be very dear during- the ensuing year, not only in Eng-lund but also throughout Europe ; and so far have the rumours raised by interested speculator^:, and the agricultural journals, operated on the public mind, that the people appear to be looking forward with fearful anticipation of a general dearth. That the product of this year is con- siderably below the average of several last past, no one will attempt to deny, but, that we are likely to endure a real scarcity, is, I believe, as fal-e as it would be inju- rious. It may not be untrue that a deficiency is to some extent perceptible, in some of the European markets, but there will, inallprobability,beat least three millions of quarters imported ; on nearly two millions of quarters of which the duty has been paid, and it has been brought into home consumption, chiefly in fine condition, being- well suited for mixing- with our new, which is mostly too damp to grind alone. Now, I think, it will not be stretching the point too far to suppose that more than a million of quarters will yet be brought into use during the year, and part if not all of it speedily, as the duty is decreasing rapidly, and taking into account the average crop of spring corn with a fair produce of potatoes, ex- cept in a few places where they have partially failed, it does appear by the most accurate calculation that I can make, founded on approved data, that we shall be able to keep the price of bread a very great deal below that of 1812, and ourselves at a happy distance from the s'arvation point. On the principle of Doctor Colqu- houns's computation, allowing for the increased amount of population, it appears that, about fourteen millions of quarters of wheat are a sufficient annual supply for the United Kingdom, exclusive for what is used for seed ; and calling to nrnd, that the annual average importa- tion for the last five years does not, I believe, exceed 53,494 quarters, and sonoe of that has been re-shipped for foreign countries without paying duty, so that during thiit period we have nearly been independent of our continental neighbours. The next thing we have to consider is the lateness of harvest, and that very little foreign wheat came into use until late in September. Hence it follows that about one month's supply for this year has been tak°n from the product of last, then add the supply of two months and a half to which the three millions of foreign would be more than adequate, and suppose harvest next year to come at the usual time, it is thus quite apparent that a supply for eight calendar months and a half is all that would be required from the growth of the present year. In this view of the case, it really appears to me that we shall have plenty of grain of every description, and that the average price of wheat during last week, viz., 73s. lOd.per qr., is not owing to its scarcity , but proceeds from other causes, one of which is, I think, a great deal being unfit to grind is in conse- quence unsaleable ; and for this reason, together with the time of the farmers being taken up vvith their seed time engagements, our markets have hitherto been thinly supplied, but what is brought to market in good con- dition is in request, and commands high prices; and another cause equally important to be considered, is the practice of speculation, co.mivance, and trickery. It is notorious that 20,000 qrs. of British wheat was returned as being sold at very higli prices in Wakefield during one week, since the beginning of harvest, which was probably more by three-tourths than would be offered for sale at this season of the year, and there is no doubt but these fictitious sales are made in times like the pre- sent, to an alarming- extent, by large holders of corn for the ])urpose of enhancins- the price, and bring down the duty on foreign corn. These are " The frauds of law, what dark insidious men Have cumbrous added, to perplex the truth And lengthen sir.2 pie justice into trade." If, Sir, you consider these few remarks calculated to throw a ray of light on this abstruse subject, and tend to allay the fears of the fearful, their early insertion will oblige. Your most obedient Servant, Bartbro', Kov. 24. J. U. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 29 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TURNIP FLEA BEETLE, (Haltica nemorum.J ITS ECONOMY, GENERATION, AND HABITS ; WITH REVIEWS OF THE METHODS ADOPTED FOR ITS EXTERMINATION, OR THE PREVEN- TION OF ITS ATTACKS. By Matthew M. Milburn. " A full history of noxious insects hurtful in the field, garden, and house, sugfjesting- all the known and likely means of destroying^ them, would be allowed by the public to be a most useful and important work. What knowleds'e there is of this sort lies scattered, and wants to be collected ; g-reat improvements would soon follow of course. A knowledg'e of the properties, economy, propag-ation, in short, of the life and conversation of these animals, is a necessary step to lead us to some method of pi-eventing their depredations." — Brown's notes to White's Selborne, }). 115. The name " turnip fly" is one which is applied to several insects which feed upon the turnip, in different stages of its growth, all of which are dif- ferent in their nature and habits ; and thus writers on the insects injurious to agriculture are apt to be misunderstoodr The present essa)'', let it be distinctly understood, refers exclusively to the small jumping- beetles which prey upon the turnip in the very early stages of its growth, and while its seed-leaves remain. Yet these insects are in almost every part of the country, and in every work on agriculture denominated the " fly." It is time, however, that a different nomenclature should be adopted ; whatever name be given to it, it certainly cannot with any degree of propriety be designated a fly. Beetles are an order of in- sects to which that name is never attached, and we never understand a beetle by that appellation. In some counties, it is called by the vulgar but significant name of " hop," and this at once fur- nishes us with a less homely but not less appro- priate term for the insect, namely the " turnip flea ;" which is at once sufficiently descriptive of the habits of the beetle to furnish the practical man with a distinct idea of the insect to which he alludes, instead of the present vague mode of ap- plying the same terra to several orders and genera of insects. The aphis, or plant louse, is often termed the fly, and the term is much more appropriate than ap- plying it to the above-mentioned insect, though not free from objection. In proof of this, an in- stance occurred, which inasmuch as it is connected with the name of a person standing- high in prac- tical science, deserves to bs quoted. The late Rev. H. Berry was applied to to state any infor- mation he had acquired respecting the " turnip fly." In answer, he describes a piece of land once covered with brushwood, &c., and which he cleared and planted with hops and cabbages, and " when the latter were a foot high they became covered, and ultimately destroyed by myriads of turnip flies, which literally blackened the leaves. Having consumed the cabbages they attacked and destroyed the hops." This certainly could not be the beetle, which constitutes the subject of this article, as it never feeds on hops, and never devours the cabbage in the way described by the rev. gen- tleman j they must have been aphides, which aie most destructive to both ; but as more of these appear wingless than in the form of files, they cannot be called the turnip fly. In many cases the perfect insect of the black caterpillar is termed the turnip fly. This Pro- fessor Rennie says, is an improper name, but in the same place runs into the error of calling the jumping beetle a " fly." The writer of this is greatly mistaken if it does not ultimately turn out that the name is to be reserved for one of the muscidcB or blow flies, the larvce of which arc in some cases so destructive to the turnips when they have acquired a size deserving the name of turnip. These observations are necessary for clearing the subject. Of the turnip flea we pro- ceed to treat. It generally makes its appearance wherever there is food on which it can subsist ; it devours indiscriminately all kinds of cruciferous plants, during their seed-leaf state ; and, thus eat- ing them at a period when they have only just commenced their functions, and are the least able to resist such devouring attacks. Often the seed germinates in a speedy and healthy manner, and appears for some days in a favourable state ; soon a few fleas make their appearance, and then con- stantly increase, devouring the leaves until some- times nothing but the stalk remains, and of course the plant dies. The fleas, however, are ready if a second sowing occurs, and commence their ra- vages on the second crop when in the same state as the former. If the young plants survive the attack, the fleas still continue to feed upon it so long as the weather will permit them to be abroad, but then do comparatively little injury to the plants at this stage. Usually they first make their appearance in the months of May or June, but they are occasionally seen even earlier than this on uncommonly fine days, and certainly continue in the beetle state through the whole year; but, whether they are the same individuals, or a suc- cession of the species, it is in our present degree of knowledge impossible to ascertain. If open weather occurs very early in the Spring, and before the Swedes are sown, they attack the charlock, or cabbage, or brocoli, when in their seed leaves, but as soon as white turnips make their appearance, they leave every other kind in preference for them. In hot weather they do the greatest injury, inasmuch as they are stimulated to greater activity, and, if we may use the term, manifest a greater degree of animation, and the plants are less able to resist the destruction of their foliage when ex- posed to the withering effects of a hot sun, as well as deprived of moisture by its searching beams. Cold weather, after the plants have made their appearance, is likewise unfavourable, because although the fleas are neither so numerous nor so active, still the turnip makes little progress, and it is exposed to their attacks for a much more pro- tracted period. Heavy rains are also unfavour- able, for they prevent the growth of the turnip, but do no injury to the fleas, for they escape to jjlaces of security, having that astonishing and un- accountable instinct which impels them to escape to their quarters on the approach of rain. In short, anything which impedes the growth of the jilants renders their destruction more certain ; while any thing unfavourable in soil, climate, or cultivation, which impedes their progress, increases the pro- babilities of their being destroyed. This must ei^er be kept in mind by the farmer, and after all, this will be found the keystone of successful tur- nip cultivation. This is, however, anticipating the subsequent division of this article. In Scot- 30 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. land the fleas are seldom observed, and for a series of years have done no perceptible injury to the turnip crop in that country. The insect belongs to the order Coleoptera (or horn-cased insects, from the wings, when at rest, baing folded under a horny case) ; family, Chry- aomelida (or golden beetles) , and is the Haltica nemorum of lUiger. We shall proceed to describe its peculiarities entomologically, sufficiently brief to satisfy the mere practical farmer ; but, some scientific description is necessary to denote to the naturalist the precise insect to which we refer. Samouelle enumerates not fewer than thirty-eight species, but all feeding on some cruciferous plant. The flea is from a line and a quarter to a line and a half, or nearly one-eighth of an inch in length : it is smooth and shining ; the under parts of the body of a brassy black, with a slight tinge of green when viewed in some directions. The wing cases (elytrm) are black, with two whitish or straw coloured longitudinal lines, extending from the thorax to the extremity at which place they are curved inwards ; the wing cases are wider than the thorax. The antennae, except the second and third joints, and the end of the first of a pale colour ; the thorax thickly and irregularly punc- tured ; the legs paler than the under side of the body — occasionally they are found entirely black, which arc another variety, but their character and habits are similar. The first described, however, are the most prevailing and destructive, and every farmer will instantly identify the insect from the above description. See Duncan. The first peculiarity in the habits of the flea, is its jumjnng, for which it is strikingly adapted by the conformation of its legs. When feeding or settling upon a plant, it remains motionless, except a rapid vibrating motion of the antennae; but as soon as any object approaches, it jumps, by rapidly unbending the hind legs and pressing them against the leaf on which it stands, and thus propels itself to a considerable distance, and generally contrives to fall upon its back, and lays as if dead for some minutes — its under parts being less distinct than the striped elytra. If not further disturbed, the legs speedily begin to move, and it recovei's its upright condition, and again jumps to the plant. This however, is merely the way of escaping from its enemies, but in moving from field to field, or mi- grating to considerable distances, it uses its wings, which are seldom observed. Its mouth is peculiarly adapted to consume the tender cotyledon leaves of the plants upon which it feeds : first, is gnaws them into innumerable holes, and ultimately consumes the whole of the leaves, and leaves nothing but the stem, which if it eifects, there is little probability of the plant having sufficient vital energy to overcome, and it must be destroyed. That the fleas exist, and are found in their perfect state in every period of the year, there can be no doubt. Mr. Henderson states, that during winter he has examined trees, both in woods and standing singly, and in both situations succeeded in discovering them in a dor- mant state, especially on such trees as have rough hark, in the insterstices of which they lodge, and on exposure to warmth soon become active. He states that he caught as many as twelve specimens from one horse chesnut tree, situated in an exposed situation, during the month of January. Other instances are on record of their being discovered in winter in " immense numbers" in a state of tor- pidity. To these we are not disposed to attach considerable weight, for farmers are not generally the best observers of nature ; but, there can be no doubt, that the country is never entirely free from the fleas in their perfect state, as let the turnips be sown at any period of the year, the fleas are certain to make their appearance, and simulta- neously with the bursting of the seed leaves ; this is a fact which has perhaps done more to baffle the scientific enquiries of the naturalist than any other fact, and given rise to various theories of their generation, at variance both with analogy and facts. Its food, we have state:!, is exclusively confined to plants of the order crucifera, and though we have observed it in fields growingcorn and clover, we could never satisfactorily detect it eating them at all. It is supplied with food, doubtless by the charlock, which is found growing in nearly al! situ- ations, and at every period of the year, which ad- mits of that hardy vegetable seed germinating. We have seen the charlock chultered by the fleas at very early periods of the spring — the beginning of May. The method by which the insect is propagated has been a subject of conjecture for a number of years, and ever since its attacks were observed, various theories have been started, but all which have been destroyed by subsequent observation. Tlie DoncasterAgricultural Association sent queries to one hundred and two correspondents, which were embodied in a report published in 1834, and one query was, " Have you ever made any obser- vations as to the mode in which the turnip fly (flea) is generated .' State what these observa- tions have led to." To this query only thirteen correspondents replied, and even from them, some of the first agriculturists and naturalists of the day, nothing beyond theory and conjecture was elicited. On this subject the report they pub- lished states, "It is, however, very remarkable that no entomologist has detected the insect in any other than the perfect one of fly or beetle. If the transformations take place, which by analogy we are fully warranted to expect, they are so car- ried on as hitherto to have escaped detection. This part of our inquiry is by far the most im- portant, and, important as it is, cannot in the pre- sent state of information be fully answered." Who will say after these striking remarks, and no less striking than true, that the practical farmer has nothing to do with the natural history and economy of the insects ? Such subjects of in- quiry, happily, are every day becoming more popular. The different theories of their generation will now require review and investigation, and that in- quiry will be found not [only deeply interesting, but practically useful, for all our plans for the pre- vention of the ravages of the insect, or its subse- quent destruction, must after al), be brought to the test of the natural history of the insect itself, and in passing we shall see that a thorough knowledge of its real character is essential to suc- cess in our plans for eff"ecting its extermination. One plausible theory is, that it is the atmos- pheric production of certain unfavourable seasons. This is just the thing for a class of persons ready to take everything for granted, especially if it tends to excuse their own besotted indolence — for it is quite in vain to attempt any cure for myriads of foes, created by a frosty temperature, an eastern wind, or a sultry atmosphere, and nursed and cradled in our vital air, and fed on the sparkling dew-drops. Fortunately this view is known by observers of nature to be strange both to philoso- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 31 phy and fact, as well as derogatory to the provi- dence of an Omnipotent being ; for if a host of beautifully organised insects could be created by peculiar states of the atmosphere, other fortui- tous circumstances might also create the other or- ders of animated nature, up to the "lords of the creation." We are aware that the bosk of immu- table truth and unerring wisdom, in describing the Egyptian locust-plague says, tliat "the Lord brought an East wind upon the land all that day, and all that night, and when it was morning the East u'ind brought the locusts."* And at first sight this example seems to imply a possibility of insect pests originating in peculiar atmospheric agency. When it is remembered, however, that the above described visitation was altogether miraculous, and therefore out of the common course of nature, the whole face of the scripture authority vanishes, be- sides it is not said that the east wind created the events, but merely acted as an agent in their mi- gration, and the wind had certainly no more to do in producing them, than the " stretching forth of Moses' rod" had ; — the one case is equally forcible as the other. Whatever method of generation they may have, they are certainly not propagated by any kind of weather, though ic is not denied that some seasons may facilitate the depositing of the fe- male's eggs, or tend to render their attacks more vigorous and active ; but as Professor Rennie ob- serves, " it is as absurd" to say they are produced by the weather, " as to say that the wind could bring a flock of cattle, or that the blight could ge- nerate a flight of sparrows, or rooks, without eggs to hatch them from." Another attempt at establishing a system of ge- neration was made by Mr. Hett, a surgeon, of Lin- coln, who contended that the insect was produced from a maggot, hybernated in foreign bones, brought to this country for manure. He says he observed tlrem in abundance with a microscope, both in the grub and chrysalis state in the bones, and especially such as were porous and vascular, and contended that the existence of the flies (fleas) in places where no bones had been used was no evidence against his views, as they might be con- veyed by the wind to a great distance. That bones have not only fostered, but even introduced new species of insects, there can be no doubt, but one very material link in JMr. Ilett's chain of evidence is wanting. He has never established from ob- servation, that these grubs he discovered, ever changed to the turnip flea ; and they may as likely belong to any other species, as to the insect de- scribed. It is, however, quite impossible that they could have been introduced by foreign bones, for they have been a pest to the turnip crop long before any bones were imported, and even before they were thought of as a manure. It is, also, rather improbable that the larva of an herbiverous insect, should feed upon the annual matter contained in the bones. Others have started similar opinions ; Mr.D. Hillocks stated he" thought itwas bred in the dung " but any mere supposition quite unsupport- ed by facts, do not deserve attention ; canvassing these, is raising ghosts for the purpose of laying them. A theory, once very popular, was started by Mr. Sutton of Salisbury, who held the opinion that the flea sprung into its perfect state from eggs deposited in the earth, and that it became vivified by exposure to the sun, by the working of the land. No attempt has, however, been made either by Air. Sutton, or his numerous partisans (^for his * Exodus, 10th chap., 23rd verse. views have made not a f>5W converts) to show that they had ever witnessed the transformation of the insect, or observed it to emerge from the egg to the perfect state, and therefore it is the plausibility and rationality of the view alone which recom- mends it to our attention, and of course any other hypothesis which accounts for t'.ie appearance of the insects in the manner in which they present themselves, is equally credible. The practical entomologist will, however, instantly tell Mr. Sutton that his supposition is alien to all matter of fact, and that no insect has yet been discovered which does not pass through the egg, (ovre) grub, (larva.) adolescent, (pupa) and perfect (imago) states, any other supposition is an outrage upon natural history. Doubtless these opinions have had their origin from the circumstance that as na- turalists up to Mr. Sutton's time, had failed to de- tect the flea in its grub state, and therefore the readiest supposition — and the uncontradicted one — was that it was a monster in creation, and never existed in the grub state at all. Mr. S. doubtless founded his views also upon a plan which had been occasionally effectual in preventing the at- tack of the enemies, and to which we shall after- wards have occasion to advert, but as experience has subsequently shown it to be inefficacious, all evidence derived from it, of course, falls to the ground. But the most probable, straightforward, and seemingly well-supported hypothesis was started by a writer in the Entomological Magazine in 1833, signed " Rusticus," and professing to be written from Godalming, in which he states a series of ex- periments made by himself, and which seem quite conclusive. A wonderful discovery was conceived to be made, and though unsupported by the au- thority of the writer's name, it created no small sensation, and was copied into nearly every pe- riodical of the day at all embracing natural history, or agriculture. From the writer's description of the insect, it is evident he was an observer and knew what he was about, and 'meant the same in- sect which forms the subject of this article. Having thus cleared the way, we shall proceed to detail his experiments nearly in his own words, and then apply them to the test of science and experience. He first sowed some turnip seed, in a flower pot, in earth out of his garden, and fleas in abundance appeared on his plants. Next, he inclosed a pot with pasteboard and canvass, and the same result followed ; but fancying that the minute insect might find its way by some crevice to the plants, he made a light frame, covered it with silk gauze, and carefully stopped every crevice through which the intruders might enter ; still, however, the fleas appeared, but he considered he had established the fact, that they did not come from the surround- ing plants. He then proceeded and baked the earth, and watered the seed with boiled water, to prevent the possibility of the insect's introduction in either of these nerchles in any state, using the previous precaution, and allowing the plants to remain until they had attained a considerable size, and on taking off' the cover he found them all alive with beetle (fleas). This he concluded was a se- cond negative evidence ; at any rate he had upset Mr. Sutton. He proceeds to examine the seed with a magnifier, and discovered upon it numbers of white flattish substances, from two to five on a single seed, and these he concluded were the eggs of the insect. He then proceeds to attack these — states he steeped the seed in brine for three hours, and no fleas appeared, and lias subsequently 32 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. used the same plan with cabbage, and other cru- ciform seeds with unfailing- success. There is something in this very attractive, and Dr. Pearson of Birmingham entertained the opinion that the white specks on the turnip seed were the eggs of the turnip flea, but the question recuri'ed to him. how were the eggs, provided they were such, de- posited there ? as the turnip seed is inclosed in a pod, and consequently unapproachable by the pa- rent insect, and as it is quite unprovided with any instrument to make way for the introduction of its eggs, it it was quite impossible for the specks tobetheeg-gs of the insect. " Rusticus" cannot get over this, by any possible means, and thus this little and seemingly unimportant fact at once de- stroys the fabric he had so ingeniously raised. Sub- sequent experiment has failed to establish his doc- trines, and the strong probability is, that by some means or other the fleas had obtained ingress to his garden pot ; but be that as it ma)'', they could not be produced from eggs deposited on the seed by the parent insect. Dr. Pearson states, " I have since been compelled to abandon this opinion, having had no flies (fleas^ when the seed was sown in soil contained in pots covered with bell glasses." A more secure method by the way than that of Rusticus, for preventing the ingress of the turnip fleas. We now come to the derelopement of the true method of their generation and transformations, as furnished by the discoveries of Henry Le Keux, Esq., which is unworthy of being made public, as eluci- dating a question so long a subject of mystery. The existence of the larvae was for a long series of years a point involved in considerable intricacy. Mr. Duncan, in an article published in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, speaks of the larva; feeding- on the leaves of the turnip plant, but neither de- scribes the larva;, nor states anything respecting their habits, and hence it is probable that that intelli- gent naturalist had made the statement either from analogy, and a very probable analogy too ; or that the inference had been made by some previous na- turalist. Le Keux, on examining- a turnip leaf placed against the light through a magnifier, perceived a larvK, between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf, which turned out to belong to the turnip flea beetle, (^Haltica nemoruni) and subsequently on re- moving the soil from the plant, discovered more larvae, besides some in the pupa state. This in- duced him to make further experiments, by enclosing ten pairs of the perfect insects in a glass tube, in which he placed a turnip leaf, supplied with water to keep it alive, so that he was able to examine the iu- sects, -and watch their operations, without disturbing them. On the following day lie discovered five smooth, oval-shaped eggs, (ova:) attached to the un- der side of the turnip leaf, and of alight green colour. He had previously -attempted to breed the beetles, and had actu-ally confined tliem and kept them alive for seven months, without success, but he h-ad only supplied them with fresh leaves as the old ones wi- thered, and this he conceived had been fatal to the eggs, or the larvaj when hatched ; he therefore placed the leaf in water, and placed fresh ones be- side it when it began to wither. He supplied the beetles with a second turnip leaf, and on the follow- ing day three more eggs were similarly placed upon the second leaf. In ten days the eggs hatched, and the larvae m;ide its appearance, and immediately commenced eating its way into the interior of the leaf, between the upper and under skin, forming a burrow in the inside of the leaf, wliich is of course extremely minute, and cannot be perceived until the leaf becomes dry. This secret and secluded creation of the larvse is sufficient to account for its being so long unobserved, for it is necessarily imperceptible to the unassisted eye. In sixteen days, the larvae gnaws itsvvayoutof its secure and plentiful seclusion, and drops to the earth, making its way into it to the depth of about one and a half inch, immediately be- low the plant, and consequently near the root; the leaves acting as shelter. Thus admitting the plant to be three days above ground before the insect de- posits its eggs upon it, it will be a month before the larviB leave it, and therefore the plant will be in no danger from ttie perfect insects which issue from this wood. Mr. Le Keux states his belief, that it con- tinues about fourteen days more in the pupa or chrysalis state, before it emerges as a perfect insect, but of this fact he has not quite made himself suffi- ciently certain. Thus far his interesting observa- tions are satisfactory, but the question arises from whence do the fleas come which attack the plants sown after they make tlieir appearance, since it can- not arise from insects bred in the plants themselves. We have before shown that even considerable numbers conceal themselves in a dormant state through the winter, and as soon as genial weather arouses them from their slumbers, there is a suffi- ciency of charlock, and other cruciferous plants to furnish them with a nidus, and these emerge in the form of beetles, just in time to meet the Swedes and yellow Aberdeen turnips, which are generally, by good farmers, sown in May. The eggs deposited on them again, after going through the ordinary changes (occupying between five and six weeks,) are just in time to meet the fresh and attractive white ISIorJ'olk turnips, sown usuall}' from the 21st to the 30th of June. Thus if the race of charlock and other cruci- ferous weeds could be extirpated, there can be no question that it would tend more than any other means, to lessen the virulence of the attacks of the beetle in question ; and it is not until the base ma- nagement which admits of weeds luxuriating where something profitable should be growing is extermi- n-dted, that we can hope for better success in com- bating this dreadful enemy to the turnip crop. The very circumstance of the continual attacks which are every year more or less experienced by every farmer, might induce the idea that numerous remedies would be devised for preserving the plants from its attaclis, and the recommendations are so numerous, as to bevi'ilder rather than assist the far- mer. Many are more or less useful, but more are the results of impudent quackery, and tend only by their practical inutility to disgust the experimenta- list, with every plan however natural. It becomes therefore a very necessary part of an article on the natural history of the insect, intended for the reading of farmers, to revise these, and collect evidence as far as practicable of their effects. It may however be borne in mind that every plan recommended which has not upon subsequent trial succeeded is not to be altogether condemned. Partial success may attend a plan devised, owing to peculiar circumstances, which may not be calculated upon, and if these for- tuitously happen in more cases than one, an anxiety to benefit others, may induce the experimenialist to give the result of his trials to the public, but if upon further trial they fail, be is neither to be blamed nor his plans altogether discarded. In similar circum- stances it may be equally successful, while in dif- ferent circumstances It may be ineflicacious. One class of remedies consists m hasiening the germination of the seed. As the saccharine matter which is evolved during the germiuanon of the seed, seems particularly attractive to the insects. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 33 and as it commences its attacks a short time after the plant makes its appearance, but can do no injury after the rough leaves of the plume are developed, it appears reasonable that if the process of germina- tion could be accelerated the attacks might possibly be rendered less destructive. With this view Sir Humphrey Davy made the following experiment. " I steeped radish seeds for twelve hours in a solution of chlorine, and similar seeds in very diluted nitric acid, in very diluted sulphuric acid, in weak solution of oxysulphate of iron, and some in common water. The seeds in solutions of chlorine and oxysulphate of iron threw out the germ in ten days ; those in nitric acid in five, and those in water in seven days." He found however, that this premature vigour was suc- ceeded by subsequent sickliness and weakness, and was convinced that the plan was practically ineffec- tual. Similar too is the recommendation of very early sowing. It is not every farmer who can have his land in readiness at a very early period, and we have invariably found it to be the case, that the early sown ones suffered most, as they attracted fleas from a considerable distance, in the absence of other equally attractive food ; and if sown very early, they are often retarded by the season impeding their growth, and thus allowing them to remain exposed to the fleas' attacks for a much longer period. Some farmers recommend late sowing, alledging that as the beetles decrease in activity in the month of July, there is a stronger probability of the crop escaping, if the sowing is deferred until that period. It must however be taken into account, that the crop even at that period, in a year when the fleas are very numerous is not quite free from them, and it will be a question with the farmer, whether he will sow at the usual time and run the risk of a re-sowing, or defer the operation, until he has a certain prospect of his crop being considerably lighter. In most cases it will doubtless be to his advantage to adopt the former course, in case the soil be ready for the reception of the seed, and the season at all genial, i. e., plenty of warmth and moisture, two conditions necessary to the healthy development of the young plants. Another class of remedies is those which are in- tended either to destroy the perfect beetle, render the plant distasteful or obnoxious to it, or by steep- ing of the seed before sowing it, attempting to give the plant an unpleasant flavour to the flea. Mr. Hett, whose hypothesis is alluded to, when treating of the propagation of the insects, on the supposition that they are generated in the imported bones for manure, recommends sulphur vivum being mixed with the bones to destroy the larvae. As we dis- prove his positions above, of course his remedy falls with his theory, and whatever usefulness to the crop, or to other root insects the nostrum might have, so far as the turnip flea beetle is concerned it will not have greater eflBcacy than mixing the sulphur with the seed ; a plan to which we shall have occasion presently to advert. A mixture of sulphur and lime, which is found destructive to shigs, which attack both corn and turnip crops, was tried on a large scale by the Duke of Bedford, at the suggestion of Sir H. Davy, at Woburn farm. It was sown on one part of a turnip field, the other part being left without it; the result however was, that both parts were equally attacked by the beetle. The application of lime in its caustic state, as soon as the enemies commence their attacks has been re- commended and adopted with some degree of suc- cess. Mr. W. Long says, " I have sown riddled lime at the rate of six to eight bushels per acre, over a drilled crop, and eight to ten over broadcast. I have never failed to prevent the ravages of the fly (flea) by this method of liming, My time for sow- ing the lime, is as soon as sufficient plants for the crop are up." The testimony in favour of lime how- ever is far from being unvarying, but many eminent agriculturists have used it with frequent success. M.. S. Perkins who used it in a very hot state, im- mediately after its being slacked, states that both the perfect insect aod larvae are so completely "burnt, suffocated, or debiltated, that before they can recover themselves, the young turnip plants will be sure to be in rough leaf." Some prefer sowing the lime when the dew is upon the plants, by which means it adheres to the leaves, but care must be taken not to sow too much, or it will increase the evil, by damaging the plant. It should however be remembered that as the lime will not come in con- tact with the under side of the plants, the fleas will find their way to such parts, and though they may be less observed, will no less certainly continue so to consume them, rather than starve ; for it is quite certain that the lime will not destroy the insect, in its beetle state, and as for the larvee and pupa, it can never touch them. Several practical farmers have recorded their experiments, which go to prove that lime, so far from being infallible has repeatedly been tried and has been ineffectual. As however the plan is comparatively inexpensive, and has occasionally been found useful, it is worth a trial, in seasons when the beetle proffers to be numerous. Other trials have been made of lime combined with soot and urine, and there can be little doubt that if such compositions could be made to cover the plants completely, they would put them to no little incon- venience, and even render them less voracious. Mr. J. A. Knight made a successful experiment by dril- ling the ab )ve composition along with the seed. "Whether," he says, " it was by affording highly stimulating food to the plant, or giving some flavour which the fleas do not like, I cannot tell, but in the year 1811 the adjoining rows were eaten away and those to which the composition was applied, were scarcely at all touched. One advantage seems to be the acceleration given to the growth of the plants, by the highly stimulative effects of the food they in- stantly receive, as soon as their growth commences, and long before their radicles reach the dung." In may also be remarked that an effluvia somewhat un- pleasant to the insect, may also arise, and therelore where it has the choice of other plants not so tainted, it may attack them in preference, but might not so reject them, if all were done alike. Frequently the composition has been sown upon the plants, and sometimes with success, but more experiments are requisite before it can be invnriably recommended. The steeping of the seed in train oil has been re- commended, and is said to have prevented the at- tack of the flea at Lord Orford's in Norfolk, for three seasons, but they added to this precaution that of steeping it a whole night in brine. Seven gallons of oil was sufficient for seed to sow two hundred acres.* The drying of the seed afterwards how- ever, is no slight matter, and it is almost impossible to effect this sufficiently to fit it for the drill. We have however known it answer, but it might not he equally effectual, as was observed of the above-men- tioned composition, if it were generally used. Oil, by the way, is generally very loathsome to insects, es- pecially in their perfect state, but how far the plant when germinated, may acquire an oily flavour, merely by steeping the seed, is a question which requires * Ann. A^ric. vol, 14, p. 168. 34 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. moi"e observation before it can be satisfactorily an- swered. Sometimes brimstone is mixed with tbe seed for some time before sowing, for the same pur- pose as tlie application of the oil, and is an old plan ; we have witnessed however its utter inutility. The elder tree is well known to grow leaves disliked by insects generally, and hence not a few recommen- dations have been made, of drawing hurdles made of the green boughs of this shrub over the plants. The extreme improbability of their leaving any offensive aroma upon the plants by such an operation, is suffi- ciently objectionable to induce the practical mnn to reject the plan ; and any supposed efficacy in dash- ing the i'lsects from the plants, is too grossly re- gardless of their habits, either to need refutation or remark. Ashes have been frequently used as a top dressing. Mr. G. Cant of Ickwell, has saved his crop by the sowing of wood ashes, and Mr. Fowler of Jarnerton says, that tbe flea will not attack them so long as the wood ashes remain upon them. In America, ashes or gypsum are mixed with the seed, and thus they act to quicken vegetation, and grow the plant out of the way of the beetle ; and as every- thing valuable in the use of ashes doubtless is in their quickening the growth of the plant, this may be effected by any method calculated for the purpose in the adaptation of manure, &c. A mixture of saw- dust and urine as well as an almost endless list of similar nostrums have been applied ; but hitherto it may be ventured that chemistry has not furnished us with a specific remedy. If any application to the seed could be available nothing is so probable as a decoction of bitter almonds, which in addition to being more readily imbibed, and likely to leave its flavour, is very offensive to almost every kind of in- sect. Before any steep is extensively tried it should he applied to samples of the seed, by way of test ; lest it should prevent the seed from germinating., *' Rusticus," whose opinions are before alluded to, declared a steep of salt brine to be successful in de- stroying the eggs, which he fancied adhered to tbe seed, but as no such eggs in reality exist there, its efficacy could not depend upon that. Imagining that brine miglit still be useful, I steeped several pounds of seed last year (1838), and sowed some in tho same field unsteeped, but could not detect the slight- est difference in the attacks of the fleas. All we can say of " Rusticus" is that he must have been mis- taken, and unfortunately he is not the first person who has adopted a wrong theory, or come too hastily to a decision. The agitation of the question however did incalculable good. The next class of remedies which are proposed, consists of annoying, scattering or destroying the fleas by means of fumigation. The editor of the " Farmer's Journal" recommends the use of brim- stone for this purpose. Lest we should not correctly state his plan, we give it verbatim: — " Let the farmer carefully watch his turnips as they come up, and whenever the fly (flea*) makes its appearance, or rather when its ravages become visible en the rising root, (plant) let him take a certain quantity of brim- stone according to the extent of ground infested by tbe insect, about two and a half or three pounds to an acre ; let this be put into a kettle and melted in the turnip field, in a situation most eligible for the wind to carry the fumes over the ground ; then take any combustible matter calculated to make a consi- derable smoke, wiiich being dipped in the liquid brimstone must be strewed all over the field in a state * Once for all we may observe, we adopt the no- menclature we bufore determined upon, for reasons there stated, in transcribing-. of ignition, and so close together, that the fumes of the burning matter may completely cover every part of the field." Sinclair recommends the burning of stubble, straw, furze, dried weeds, heath, wood, shavings, or any other sort of cheap inflammable matter ;" this however is before the turnips are sown, and he says it is " " an infallible mode of preventing the ravages of the fly (flea) in turnips, for they are either de- stroyed by tbe fire and smoke, or driven out of tbe field." Code of Agric. p. 443. High an authority as Sir J. Sinclair is, we cannot see how this can at all afiiect the attacks of the flea, seeing that how much soever they may be dispersed before the sowing of the turnips, they will soon recover their station when food attracts them, and we seldom see them in any considerable numbers before tbe turnips are sown. With respect to the brimstone fumigation above ex- tracted, we mention it only to warn the farmer against such quackery. The wind will not nine times) in ten, carry the fumes sufficiently near the earth to affect the fleas, and no farmer would be sufficiently fool-hardy to scatter the burning liquid " so close together, that the fumes may cover every part of the field," who had any value for his crop. The next train of remedies to which we shall al- lude, respect the ordering of the seed. It has been suggested and very rationally that if we could sow any other seed to germinate simultaneously with the turnips, which was more attractive to tbe fleas than the turnips, the crop might be saved. For this end the sowing of radish between the rows of turnips, in order to attract the fleas, has been adopted ; but as the fleas feed indiscriminately on both, tho plan has failed. The Ceres' Gold Medal of the Society of Arts, was awarded to Mr. Poppy, an observing and intelligent agriculturist, for an experiment, on the sowing of the common white turnips and Swedes, in alternate rows. The flea was attracted by the former, which were thickly sown in rows between each row of Swedes ; and the result was that tbe former were literally covered with the beetle, while the latter were comparatively free from them. When the Swedes were in rough leaf, the white turnips were ploughed up,* and the former were a good crop. This is extremely valuable, for though it ap- plies only to the saving of Swedes, and leaves us without a remedy for tbe common kinds, the secur- ing of tbem is a great desideratum. Of the accu- racy of the experiment, there can be no question, and Mr. Poppy deserves tbe thanks of tbe agricul- turists, for his enlightened observations. We may remark that the thick sowing of the decoy turnips, for so we may not inappropriately term them, is no further useful than inasmuch as they provide plenty of food for the insects, until the Swedes are out of their reach, for thick sowing is calculated to save the crop ; and Lord Leicester sows a large quantity of seed, with a view to prevent the ravages of the flea, and always succeeds with his crops. He sows three pounds per acre. It has been stated that the flea prefers the white top to the red top variety ; and Mr. Tovrnend of Elberthorpe, had two fields adjoining each other, of these two species, and the former were destroyed, while tbe latter were unin- jured. Much reliance however cannot be placed on this circumstance, for M'e have known a day's diffe- rence in the time of sowing, save a crop, so capri- cious are their visitations. It is doubtless an excellent plan to sow plenty of seed, so that if part of tbem be destroyed, sufficient may be left for a crop ; and when thickly sown they * This is extremely valuable, as the destruction of these plants will destroy the larvae. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 35 tend to draw one anotLer up, and thus more rapidly get out of danger of the flea, and they are easily afterwards thinned by the Loe. It is stated in the Forfarshire Report, p. 363, that Mr. Johnstone, of Hill House, near Edinburgh, thins or pricks out his turnips, as soon as they a[)pear above ground ; and they are sure to be in rough leaf the next day ! There must be some mistake Iiere, for the thinning can have little effect in so wonderfully exciting ve- getation in the roots, as to stimulate them into rough leaf one niglit after " thev appear above ground:" loosening the earth is no doubt useful, but it maybe equally effected by running a hoe between the ridges. Donaldson (Mod. Agric, vol. ii., p. 313,) advises the sowing of seed of two different years' growth ; the steeping one-half of both kinds in water for 24 hours, in order to induce it to germinate 9.1 four dif- ferent periods ; and thus if one crop be taken, he contends the other will escape. No turnip seed, by the way, can be steeped 24 hours, or you will not have seed to sow, but turnips ; and if the seed should so germinate as be describes, the fleas could not have a better provision of fresh food, after they destroyed each successive crop, and that too without the trouble of migration! Mi: Balydon practices watering the plants in dry seasons, and occasionally saves his crops. This can be useful onlii in dry sea- sons, by promoting the vigour of the plants, for the watering will neither destroy nor injure the insects. We fear it savours too much of " whim," as the mill-horse farmers term it, ever to be generally adopted, and thousands would risk the crop sooner than have the trouble: with what wisdom we shall not stop to determine. The last head of propositions for ridding the farmer of this pest we shall briefly review, under the head of mechanical operations — a class to which we are sorry to say has partaken of its share of empiricism. First, we allude to rolling the land, as recommended by seme authorities, to which no small deference has been paid. Sinclair says, " To destroy the flea it has been recommended to roll the land at mid- night, while the dew is on the ground, by means of which these insects may be crushed against the moist earth." We are at a loss to determine why it is to be rolled at midnight, seeing the fleas are abroad sufficient during the day time, and more so as their small bodies would not be at all injured, much less the insects destroyed, by the passing of a roller over them. But how crushing them against the moist earth, rather than tlie hard and dry is to be recom- mended, is a paradox which we may in vain endea- vour to solve ! If rolling be at all calculated to faci- litate the growth of the plants, it may be so far use- ful, and this we very much doubt ; but it cannot Lave the remotest influence in destroying the beetles. Another plan is, to draw a rope smeared with tar above the infested plants, by two persons walking in the furrows, and iis advocates allege that the fleas jumping up from the plants as it passes over them, are securely caught by the tar, from which they can- not escape. Possibly this may be destructive to many — it may even ensnare thousands, but what are they among so many ^ He would be an enthusiast indeed who could even contemplate destroying num- bers sufficient to save a crop, if it were in danger of being destroyed. Some improve ("!) upon the rope, and substitute a tarred board, which they draw across the land, with the same object as the rope. A glance at the habits of the insect will shew the futility of this. It maybe remembered we stated, when treating of the habits of the flea, that it skip- ped from the plant us soon as it was approached, and did not wait to be touched, or even closely inspected. before it sprung to the earth. No better device than the board could be conceived to scare the fleas from the turnips, but we are much mistaken if any consi- derable number could be sacrificed. A machine has been invented, but was never used to any extent, much upon the principle of the fore- going. A board placed in an oblique direction, and extending in length across half the lands, was fixed upon a pair of wheels, the forepart of the board be- ing elevated two feet above the ground, the back nearly touching it, and the under side being smeared with white paint. This was pushed (for if it were drawn all the fleas would be flat upon the earth be- fore it passed over them), and this entangled several in jumping to escape from it, the paint either fasten- ing them to the board, or suffocating, or poisoning them by the mixture ; the paint being renewed as occasion served. We doubt not this might destroy numbers if judiciously worked, but it requires seve- ral practical tests before we should place any thing like implicit confidence in saving an infected crop by such a machine. The outline of a new expedient was given in The Mark Lane Express of Nov. 19, to destroy the turnip fly. Confased as the present nomenclature of the insects obnoxious to the agriculturist are, we are not quite clear which insect the inventor means, whether the saw-fl}'^ of the black caterpillar, or the one which forms the subject of this article. From the proposal he makes of destroying the insect in its chriisalis state, we infer he means the turnip flea, for the black caterpillar does no further injury to the crop after it has betaken to its chrysalis state. Assuming there- fore that this is the insect he means, we would just make a few remarks on the proposal, for we know nothing of the machine, nor do we wish to prejudge its merits, nor injure the inventor, to which so im- portant an Agricultural Paper, with its usual libe- rality, has introduced. He proposes to provide by certain means, for a jet of steam to pass between the rows of turnips, and thus destroy the fleas which have dropped to the ground, as well as their pro- geny in its chrysalis state. Let it be remembered that this is to be effected during the tenderest part of the existence of the plants, and if the steam should come near them, or the hot boiler pass over them closely, they must be immediately destroyed, and thus the cure will be worse than the disease. If it be replied that the steam will not come near the plant, say within three or four inches, we say that such fleas as drop near, or under the plants, will there- fore escape, and thus the object of the machine be defeated ; as to destroying the insects in the chrysalis state this is quite out of the question, for they lie buried at a depth of from one to one-and-a-half inches, and therefore are in no danger from the effects even of steam ! We repeat, we do not wish to prejudge the value of the imple- ment and hope it may be tried, but we shall not admit its efficacy until experience has jiroved it. We rbpeat that no specific has yet been discovered for preventing the ravages of the flea. The subject may be somewhat cleared by the previous remarks, and it is open for experiment and investigation, and it is to be hoped attention will more than ever be attracted to a subject involving so much import- ance. With respect to Swedes, Mr. Poppy's plan above detailed is exceedingly valuable, and until a more certain plan is discovered, let attention be paid to the following particulars, and generally the crop may be saved. 1. Hasten the germination of the seed by all na- tural means, as applying some portion of stimulating manure, sowing when a proper degree of moisture D 2 56 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. exists, and in close connexion with the manure, to secure it at once the benefit of it to the roots, if possible making most of the season when favourable. 2. Sow a liberal quantity of seed, never less than three pounds, and sow it in drills, which will hasten the vegetation after it has come up. o. Clear the land perfectly, that no weeds may spring up to impede the growth of the plants, and give the soil a liberal supply of manure suited to its character. 4. As a preventive, rid the soil by hand weed- ing, horse hoeing, &c. as much as possible of weeds. 5. Select good seed, and test it before sowing, to see how many germinate, and in how little time. Thorpjitld, near Think, Yorkshire, Dec. 3. PLOUGHING MATCHES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE EXETER FLYING-POST. Sir, — It being now an admitted fact that plough- ing matches and agricultural shows tend not only to the increase of human food, but also to improve the moral condition of the labouring classes, aud thereby promoting the national welfare, I have, therefore, intruded myself before the public, in hopes that my suggestions may tend to the improvement of a part, at least, of the county. Mr. Fulford at the late agricultural dinner stated that it was seldom that any cattle were sent from his part of the county to the agricultural show; and as far as I can judge there never will be much sent from the neighbour- hood of Dartmoor, to compete with Exminster, Crediton, Sandford, and such like fertile parishes. The obvious way of benefitting a poor country like this, is to form a district society at Moretonhamp- slead, where seven or eight parishes might unite together for the purpose above named ; where poor soils might compete with each other on an equality; and though the soil is poor and sterile, and it is hopeless to expect sheep of seventy pounds per quarter; yet some as good mutton as any in the kingdom is here produced. It is well known tiiat sheep of from fourteen to thirty lbs. per quarter can be reared here, and that is what commands the best price in the market; our pigs are known lobe of good quality, and perhaps may be improved and brought to greater perfection. The first step towards im- provement in our neighbourhood, I think, should be in ploughing, it being at present almost as bnd as can be. Ihe ploughmen troubling themselves little about the manner in which it is done, provided the piece is gone over ; a most reprehensible practice, which I hope we shall soon get rid of, and our ploughing be performed in at least a decent manner. 1 am emboldened to write this, from the knowing that the principal landowners of the neighbourhood are in favour of such societies, — my Lord Devon and Mr. Fulford taking part in such meetings ; and the Rev. Mr. Gregory has tried it on his own manor, but which, from some cause or other, was dropped again. I am convinced that if a few gentlemen would take the matter up the yeomanry of the neigh- bourhood would join them ; and there would be no lack of funds for the purpose. One thing I would wish to impress upon their minds, which is, that in Scotland where tlie very best farmers are, it is poor land like our own, but improved to the higiiest degree ; there- fore we should not despond, but strive to get forward ; and I think a little money spent by land- owners would be amplv repaid in the improvement that would he proihiced by it. By inserting this you will much oblige A Morkton Farmer. Moretonhampsteud, yov. '.23. ANCIENT WAGES AND PRICES IN SUFFOLK. It has often been a question of deep consideration with statists, and writers upon the science of political economy, whether the English agricultural labourer, and working artisan, are remunerated in modern times in the same ratio in which they were paid by our fore- fathers. In order to place the question upon less de- bateable ground than it appears at present, with regard to our own locality, we intend giving a series of ex- tracts from various sources, of the wages paid to farm- ing servants, carpenters, masons, plumbers, &c., at different times, for labour performed in the county of Suffolk. The first extract has reference to sums paid between the year 1528 and 1538, by Sir Thomas Kytson, for la- bour performed in the erection of his splendid mansion — Hengrave Hall. The wages are those earned by workmen of the first class, as the mansion of Sir Tho- mas Kytson, was of magnificent proportions — " finish- ed cunningly, both within and without," and the gate- way has been spoken of by one of the first Antiquaries of our own age — Mr. Gough — as being of such singular beauty, that perhaps a more elegant specimen of the architecture of the time in which it was erected cannot be seen. Extracts from a book of disbursements containing fifteen successive and annual accounts, the first of which accounts is entitled, •' Costys laid owte and paide by the handes of Thoms. Shethe, for the re- peracyonns and bylding of the manour of Hengrave belonging unto Thomas Kytson, Mercer of Lon- don, Ao. Dni. 1525." Itm, paide John Whitehand j days claying iiijcZ. Itm, paide to Escope the sawer, and his fellow, for iiij days iiijs. Itm, paide to John Liuge, mason, and his son, for v days apiece. . vs. Itm, paide to John Haddenhamfor sarving the mason for ij days, at iiijd. the day viij(Z. Itm, pd. for casting of vij loads of sand vijd. 1526. Itm, paide to Davy, the carvar, foradayes worcke yjd. Itm, paide to Dyriche, the ioyner, and Bartholomew his svaunt, for xvj dayes, at viijd. the day apiece xxjs. iiijd. Itm, paide for Dyrich's horde and his man, for iij weeks vjs. Itm, paide to Rowland the ioyner, for iij dayes worcke of the portall intheparlar xxjrf. Itm, pd. more to him for xxjlb of iron for plor. window and great chamber xxvijs. ixd. Itm, pd. to gret Richard, the mor- tar maker for v dayes %xd. Itm pd. to William Hill of Ick- worth, for xxm. of brick at iiijs. viijd. the m. with carriadge. . ., iijh". xiijs. iiijdf. Itm, pd. for sxij chaulderof lyme, at iijs. \d. the chaulder xljs, Itm, paide to William Rambellow, the xth day of May, for both his tomberells, a daye xviijcf. Itm, payde to the vycher of Ca- venham for cxijlb. wayght of leyde vs. Itm, paide at Thetforde for jc. of leyde iijs. iiijrf. 1527. Itm, paide to John Adams for vj dayes thatching iis. iijrf. 1528. Itm, paide to Walter Fletcher in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 37 XVIJS. VUJS. XXXVJS. X11IJ>'. partie payment for casting of a dytche of L pole long xls. Itm, pd. to John Newman for planching of the stabyll, iij chambers and the windows... Itm, paide to Roberte Wright for xvij foote of glasse Itm, paide for carriadge of vxx and viij load of tymbar, from Denhamwoode vj/t. Itm, paide to the painter, for iiij days 1529. Itm, pd. to Jno. Chapman for a night's watch Itm, pd. for making and setting of ij dytches iiijii. Itm, paid to John Metcalfe, for making of the stove in the vyne- yarde, and for the hording of vj men for a weeke 1531. Itm, paid for hording Robert Wat- son iij weeks at Comby, when he went to superintend the gret fell of woode for the manor place . . 1535. Itm, pd. to Wm. Daye for making iij payer of bryck molds Itm, pd. to him for sealyng the greate chamber which is iijxx xiij yardes, at vjd Itm, paid for a lb. of glue Itm, pd. for carriage of xiiij lodes of woode from Comby to the frame Itm, pd. to Wm. Frysbe for xl tonne of stone at ijs. the tonne, pd. by Robert Watson iiij/i Itm, pd. for niayking mortr for ye littel kichen Itm, pd. for carriage of xxij lodes of stone from ye quary to the wa- ter side, at xiiijd Itm, pd. to Ihone Shingell for car- riage XX tonne of stone from the water side to Woorlington, at xiiijtf Itm, pd, for carriage of xxviij lodes of stone from Woorlington to Hengrave Itm, paid to Thomas Shethe for bordyng of workmen, from My- chaelmas ]535untyl Mychaelmas in Ao 1536, as apperyth by his bookofytyere jc.ij/i. xiiji. 1536. Pd. for XXXV lode of stone carriage from ye quarry to the water side Paide to Willm. Tomlyne for hew- ing" of xl lodes of tymber Itm. pd. for Ij lode of stone car- riadge from King's Clyffe to Gowarde, at xvrf. the lode iij/i. Paide to Robert Bayly for xx tonne stone caryadge from Gowarde to Brandon Pd. to Goodman Bede, of Forn- ham, for iij loade carriage of free- stone from Brandon to Hengrave. Itm, paid to Roger Tom, freemason, xv days work, at iiijrf. per day . . Paid to Stevyng Browne for xv thousande tyle, at iiijs.iijrf. sm. . iiij/i. Itm, pd. to Ambrose the smith for viijc iron worke for windows and doors vj/i. Pd. to William Nap for helping to carry lyme on the holydays Paid to John Vasse, and William Grene, for carriage of xxij lodes of stone from Ixworth. . . , xvixs. liijs, , iiij(i. vs. viijrf. — ■vijrf. xviijrf. ijd. k\]$. iiijd. i}d. viijci. xijd. ■vjd. iijd. vjs. viijd. xxvjs. viijd. xxiijs. iiijd. xxiiijs. vijd. xb. xd. xxxiijs. iiijd. \s. vjd. xvijs. \jrf. vs. vjrf. vs. vs. xjs. iijd. iijd. Paid to John Parker for carriage of ix lodes of ledd from the abbey in the town Paide to Robert Reyner for car- riage of xix tonne of stone from Bertell Bridge to Brandon .... Pd, to William Barber for iij weeks , at the Kmgscliffe, meate and wagis Paide at Thetford for vj weeks borde of iiij men and a month of J man ujs. xxijs. ijd. xiijs. i '}d. xxixs. iiijd. i\]d. PROPOSED MANUFACTURE OF SALT FOR MANURE. (fuom a correspondent.) Manufactories are about to be established in various parts of the agricultural districts, for the purpose of supplying the farmers with marine salt, soda, and lime for manure, at a reduced rate— and this is to be effected by establishing these works, in such situations as are mosteasy of general access. Some pamphlets, which have just issued from the press explanatory of these great objects, we commend to the serious attention of the agricultural interest ; for if the conclusion of many agriculturists, with regard to the fertilizing properties of common salt, and also when the same manure is mixed with lime, or soot, are found to be correct (and recent important experiments of Mr. Bennett, in Wiltshire, go far to confirm the truth of their asserted value) then there can be no doubt but that any plan which shall reduce the first cost of the materials will be in every way worthy of the counte- nance and support of the agriculturists of this country. The proposal works are to be erected it seems under the authority of a patent granted to Mr. Wilson, and to ]Mr. Baylis, or other approved process, and are now introducing to the notice of agriculturists by Mr. Cort, the late Secretary to the Central Society ; a gentleman, who has on several occasions not unsuccessfully en- deavoured to serve the cultivators of the soil. In the 12th edition of INIr. Cuthbert Johnson's " Observations on Salt," just published, are the following remarks of Mr. Kimberley , of Trotsworth . "I have used decomposed salt for upwards often years past, in considerable quantity and with the most satisfactory results, principally in the way now so strongly recommended. I have also used it for cattle, sheep, horses, and pigs with undeviating success, not only as a preventive, but cure of disease ; in fact I am not aware of any condiment equal to salt properly ad- ministered, that so much assists in improving the con- dition of all kinds of stock, while it increases the dura- bility and value of their manure. With reference to the applicability of marine salt for my liquid manure, I have no hesitation in stating that it is one of the most valuable ingredients of its basis, and a material that every farmer should have in his possesson, as one of the most important means of supplying himself with manure at all times, and therefore any measure that will cheapen and facilitate the introduction of salt into the agricultural districts, as now contemplated by Mr. Cort, will confer an incalculable benefit on the landed interest, as I consider salt, in its various combinations, one of the most essential of our artificial manures, for agricultural and horticultural purposes. It also app.ears to me that if the proposed local salt companies could be established contiguous to chalk or lime stone, so that the latter could be prepared with the same fuel, and salt as well as lime could be delivered at half its present price, there can be no question but that an immense cmtinuous increase in the consumption of salt would take place, and the land might be dressed at a cost of from 15s. to 20s. per acre, e»iual to the best horse manure." zs THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE VETERINARY COLLEGE AND THE ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. (From the Veterinarian, Dec. 1) The session of 1838-9 commenced at the Veterinary College on the 19th ult. Professor Coleman looked in much better health than at the close of the preceding session, and, occasionally excited by his subject, gave us manifest and pleasing proof of more considerable bodily and mental power than many of us can hope to possess at so advanced an age. The lecture commenced with the usual history of the horse, and the same rapid but talented sketch of the structure and functions of the foot. He then proceeded to offer some advice to the student on certain subjects connected with his studies. As to comparative anatomy, he said that he had been shamefully misrepresented in what he had been ac- customed to say on this point ; and, as there was now pretty plain, and, afterwards dtrect reference to the writer of this article, he must be forgiven if, without violation of all due courtesy to his accuser, he endea- vours to set this matter right. Not many years ago. Professor Coleman was accus- tomed to devote a portion of his lecture to a direct at- tack on the study of comparative anatomy. He used to say. " I dislike comparative anatomy, for it leads to comparative physiology, and to comparative pathology, than which nothing can be more mischievous." We never could understand the meaning or the object of the Professor ; but we saw the effect of it in the con- duct of the pupil, and in the manner of conducting the labours of the dissecting-room. There was no compa- rative anatomy. The horse was the only study of the pupil ; and he neither wished nor dared to extend his researches farther. The Professor was remonstrated with on this point, and his language was more guarded. He warned his pupils that comparative anatomy might dangerously mislead them— that where similarity of texture and of structure existed, the student might too hastily take it for granted that there would be similarity of disease, and similarity of effect in the remedial measures adopted ; and that there was often an almost incon- ceivable difference in different animals, in the diseases to which the same organs were exposed, and the effect of the same medicines. Had the Professor added that he was warning them against the abuse of comparative anatomy, and not against the guarded study of it, there could have been no objection to this ; but not having done that, the effect produced was the same on the mind of the pupil and the inquiries of the dissecting- room. A few years, however, stole on, and the enmity to, or the dread of comparative anatomy returned, and the language of Mr. Coleman was more unguarded and violent than ever ; for he said in plain language, that, " different as was the structure of the various organs in animals and in man, and varying as they did in the numerous classes of animals, the student might be mis- led by analogy, but never could arrive at any legitimate or useful conclusion. The diseases of the different qua- drupeds were essentially different. It was impossible to predicate the symptoms, or what should be the treat- ment of one animal from what we knew of another ; and comparative anatomy was too apt to lead onto comparative physiology, and comparative pathology." This, I suppose, is the misrepresentation of which the Professor complains ; but tliese were his identical toordi. For the truth of this J* appeal to any or to every student who heard Professor Coleman's introduc- tory lecture in 1836. Having made this triumphant attack upon his op- ponent, the Professor accuses him of having anony- mously slandered him. Now, confessing that for every * For evident reasons I drop the editorial we, and speak in my own person.— Y. communication which does not bear the name of the author I am answerable — (I do not, howerer, believe that there is one,) — and that for every leading article also to which the initial D, or K, or P, is not appended, am answerable, and acknowledge it to be mine, (and every reader of the Veterinarian has long understood this),! publicly call on Professor Coleman to prove the charge jvhich he has brought against me. The Professor follows up his attack, and gives his foe no rest or quarter. " I have been told," says he, " of letters received from those who have been sent into the country uninstructed in the diseases of cattle and sheep that would makel one's heart bleed. I should like to see one of these heart-bleeding or heart-breaking letters. I acknowledge that I have not any compunc- tious visitings about the matter." In a private conversation with the Professor, and when I was speaking to him of the injustice of sending a young fellow into the country totally ignorant of the diseases of the animals that would form a considerable proportion of his patients, and the disgrace, and loss of practice, which he would inevitably sustain, Mr. Cole- man was disposed to laugh at me. I told him that I had letters in my possession which would make his heart bleed. He sneered at me then, and he now re- peated that sneer in his introductory lecture. I wiU reply in language which I used many years ago, and then not labouring under any feelings of irritation. It formed part of my introductory lecture in 1828. " I never met with a veterinary surgeon in the country who did not express his deep and bitter sense of the in- convenience he had felt, and the loss he had sustained, both in reputation and emolument, from being sent into life ignorant of a very important part of his practice. During the course of his veterinary education he had heard little or nothing of the diseases of cattle, the symptoms by which they are distinguished, the causes by which they are produced, or the treatment which they require. He has just arrived at the place of his destination. A wealthy agriculturist, whose good opinion it is of the utmost importance for him to ac- quire, calls upon him. " A sad disease has broken out in my dairy," says he, " and I have lost several valuable beasts. I wish that you would come, and tell me what is to be done ?'' Poor fellow ! What shall he do ? Shall he boldly face the danger ? He will at once be detected as a mere pretender ; and if he is found a pretender in the treatment of cattle, his knowledge of the horse will be more than doubted. He will derive no more assistance than is absolutely necessary from the servants. They view him as an intruder on the rights of the old farrier. The master, the servants, perhaps the farrier snug in some corner, are looking on. Shall he candidly confess his ignorance ? The farmer may appreciate his candour, but he will think slightingly of him and the school from whence he comes. ' Give me the old farrier,' will pass in his mind, if he does not plainly speak it out. The horses • will, in all probability, soon follow the cattle ; and the veterinary surgeon will be consigned to derision and contempt. Is it not cruel to place a young man of principle And of feeling in a situation so painful and degrading ?" From practitioners thus situated, 1 have received many letters containing statements like this, and that would make any man's heart bleed. But no, said Mr. Coleman— and almost in so many words — in the intro- ductory lecture of the 19th ult. — the pupil is not sent away thus unarmed. He has been taught the laws of health and disease. He has been trained to the obser- vation of symptoms — he can connect certain symptoms with the presence of certain diseases — he can draw a tolerably satisfactory conclusion — he knows the usual medicines of cattle, and he can pretty well guess what should be done : or, if he should err in the first case that cotnes before him, he will knew better another time. I will not ask how far this is consistent with the tirade against comparative pathology, and the impossibility of drawing any satisfactory conclusion from it. I will not ask how far it is consistent with common honesty ; but I will pass on to a pleasanter subject. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 39 When speaking of the extension of the knowledg-e of the pupil, and the introduction of demonstrations of the anatomical structure of domesticated animals, he stated that " it was possible that buildings might be erected within the College walls for this purpose, and that he would contribute to the best of his power to follow out the plan suggested hy the English Agricultural So- ciety." I wish that there had not been a damper im- mediately following this, viz., that " he must be forgiven if he feared that the scheme would not answer so well as the Society expected." If the Professor will kindly convince the Society of this, they will go elsewhere. Grateful, however, for the concession which the Pro- fessor has made, and if he does devote himself to the ac- complishment of the purposes of the Society, the writer of this article pledges himself, that, neither as Editor of this Journal, nor as Chairman of the Veterinary Sub-Com- mittee of the Society, will he do any thing to annoy : but rather will he try to propitiate, and to please, and to hasten the arrival of that period when they may be fel- low-labourers in the promotion of a good cause. But the anonymous slandering? Why ! in such a case, it and something else, should be considered as a mis- conception both of meaning and of fact, or should be no more remembered. Y. ON THE PROBABLE FUTURE PRICE OF WHEAT. Subjoined is a letter signed " Veritas," from a correspondent whose sincerity in the advice which he offers to the farmer we have not the slightest rea- son to doubt, and whose remarks are worthy of the serious consideration of the grower of corn. When- ever the price of wheat increases, however that in- crease may result from causes over which the farmer can have no controul, it is not uncommon to hear him loaded with reproaches, more espe- cially if it be known, or even suspected, that he withholds his grain from market in anticipation of still higher prices. These unreflecting censors do not consider that if the price to the grower be en- hanced, the very cause of that increase of price — namely, a deficiency of available produce — is a loss to the farmer. But we hold it to be a propo- sition, the soundness of which cannot be disputed, that the farmer has as much right to hold back his grain in expectation of obtaining an advanced price, as the grower or manufacturer of any other article. Whilst, however, we fully admit his right so to do, it becomes a question to what ex- tent he should become a speculator, and how far under the circumstances (and we are now alluding to the present time), the expectations which he entertains are likely to be realized. As in years of cheapness plenty leads to profusion — we might have said waste; — so, in years of dearth, scarcity t;ives rise to economy. The season of 1835 — 6 is fresh in our recollection, when a large quantity, if not of the best, of the secondary qualities of the grain commonly used for thefood of man, was given to cattle. Independent of tie care with which, in consequence of present prices,every grain at all fit for market will be preserved, can it be doubted that less bread will be consumed in three-fourths of the families in the kingdom, when that article sells at ten pence the loaf, than when the same quantity could he obtained at half that price? The wages of the labourer and the mechanic, although some increase may be made, will not advance in proportion to the price of the staff of life. The salaries of those who are working at annual engagements will not be increased upon an occasion which will, by most persons, be considered temporary ; and the de- pendants upon small fixed incomes, of which it is well known that the greater proportion of those who receive the interest of the funds consists, can obtain no increase. How, then, must all such persons meet the increased cost of this article of subsistence, but by a decreased consumption, and the substitution of other articles. The maintainmg of prices will operate as a pre- mium for the production of supplies from every corner of Europe. Some time since, when the demand for wool was great, and prices averaged very high, supplies of that article were produced from places which had before never been heard of. The landowners in those parts of Europe, where their income is solely derived from the labour of their serfs in the production of grain, will have an opportunity which they have not had for some years, of realising good prices for every quarter they can spare. All these circumstances combined convince us, that, although prices may continue high, there is no apprehension of aa actual scarcity, unless, indeed, that misfortune which we will not anticipate should befal us, namely, another deficient harvest. So long, there- fore, as our farmers keep back the grain from market, they offer encouragement to the obaining an extraneous supply, which will not be lost sight of by the active and intelligent merchant. For the consumer this course may in one re- spect operate well, by bringing forward a sup- ply, and guarding against actual want. But if the home grower should, by over speculation, cause a larger foreign supply to be brought in than the deficiency warrants, he will have to sell hereafter at a reduced price ; the foreigner will have received tlie highest price, and neither the consumer nor the home grower will have been benefited. It must not be forgotten, that, independent of any hesitation which the farmers may feel in bringing their dry corn to market at present, there is a very considerable quantity which is now unfit for use, but which will be in condition so soon as we shall have some good dry wintry weather. Upon look- ing back we seem to observe a somewhat parallel case in the years 1828 — 9. The average price of wheat for the month of November, 1827, was .50s. lid. the Wincheste}' quarter. The season of 1828 was wet; a large portion of the crop in the great corn growing counties was housed in bad condition ; but in the northern districts, the wea- ther having cleared up, it was well secured. The crop proving deficient, prices reached 73s. per Wincheste?' quarter, in the month of November of that year, and the ports became open at the lowest duty. Between the harvests of 1828 and 1829 about 850,000 Winchester quarters of foreign wheat were imported, and throughout the year 1829 prices continued to fall, until in November of that year they had dechned to 54s. 8d. the Win- cheste/- quarter. In the montii of November, last year, Wheat averaged about 53s. Id. per imperiul quarter. In November of this year it will, in all probability, reach 73s. 6d. per quarter imperial. We call the attention of the growers of corn to m THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. these facts as worthy of their consideration, and more particularly as the case seems somewhat analagous. Prices receded through the whole of the year 1829; we shall be curious to see how they will be affected in 1839. Sir, — I am a constant reader of your paper, and care- fully look over the various reports, general and par- ticular, which have reference to the present position of the corn trade, as well as the speculations as to what may be expected to mark the future course of this most important branch of social commerce. That there is a considerable deficiency in the wheat crop, is now indisputable, and upon the amount of this deficiency, hinges the solution of that query, which to the labouring population of our country, is paramount to every other, viz., whether bread is to be at a mode- rate or exorbitant price. I shall not presume to say how high prices are likely to attain, but I firmly be- lieve, that if the farmer pursues his present course they will be almost out of the reach of the poorer classes. From some undefined expectation of realising still higher rates, scarcely any wheat appears at the diffe- rent markets of this neighbourhood, and millers are hard set to get the necessary supplies. Now, this holding back, is based upon the notion of a deficiency so extensive, that neither from our own resources, nor any extraneous additions thereto, shall we be able to reach another harvest. Is this a fallacy or not ? Let lis see, — we have already passed one-third of an average agricultural year, and how are the stackyards going on ? Are they less cheering in their aspect than usual at this period ? Do they exhibit any symptoms of pre- mature exhaustion? — Not they 1 on the contrary, I assert most fearlessly, that many, very many of our larger farmers, have not even thrashed their own seed, but have bought in the market, and now have their en- tire crop untouched. Look at the returns from most of the large markets, and to London particularly, has anything like an average quantity been reported ? Indeed the sup- plies to the metropolis have been so limited, that it only required a couple of speculators on each market day, to deal with them as they pleased ; and has any material deficiency ever been complained of in the counties immediately surrounding London ? Cer- tainly not ; there, quantity is satisfactory, and quality excellent. Why then is London without supply? I answer, because the farmer, infected with a specula- tive mania, believes the future has something better in store for him ; and by reading the exaggerated reports of interested parties, imbibes the idea of a deficiency that cannot be supplied. The speculator is wise in his generation, he creates alarm and keeps it alive, he wants only a nominal duty and he succeeds. We have already had released a million and a half of quarters of wheat besides a considerable quantity of other grain and flour, and there does not appear any reason to doubt our ability to obtain a million and a half more. Our crops of all other grain are abundant, and of fine quality, and will doubtless be appropriated by admix- ture or otherwise, to the purposes of human suste- nance, lu addition to this, the dearness of food will prevent waste or profusion, and greatly economise the consumption. Upon the whole, after anxious enquiry and observation, I see no cause for alarm. I believe there will be food enough and to spare. It may not be amiss to observe, that we have had a fine seed time, and that a greatly increased breadth of land is under the cultivation of wheat, so that if it should please the Almighty to give us " the former and the latter rain" and a moderately early harvest, the hopes of the speculators will be completely frustrated, and the story of 1831 repeated, and those farmers who now withhold their grain from the market, will, as the season advances, find themselves competing with un- looked-for supplies of foreign produce, and a great re- duction in price is far from improbable. I am, Sir, your's very respectfully, VERITAS. Gainsbro'f Nov. 28. UNITED STATES— FLOUR TRADE. FROM THE NEW YORK EXPRESS, 24tH ULT. The trade in this most necessary article is so im- portant, that we have compiled a few tables that may not be uninteresting to the public. The great wheat growing states are New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and latterly Indiana, Illinois and Michigan, — Vir- ginia, Maryland and North Carolina also to some extent. The following is the table of prices for the last forty-four years : — Yi s. P rices. Administration. 1 Yrs. P •ices. Administration. ;^.^f{^§ Washington 1817 $ 14^ 1818 10 1797 10") 1819 8 1798 1799 2 „ )■ J. Adams. 1820 1821 ■^ VMonroe. 1800 10 1822 7 1801 12"^ 1823 8 1802 9 1824 7 1803 8 1825 5-] 1804 1805 8 8 >Jefferson. 1826 1827 5 6 >AdamB. 1806 8 1828 6 *1807 8 1829 8-1 1808 6 1830 5 1809 8^ 1831 7 1810 1811 9 11 1832 1833 6 6 ^Jackson. tl812 1813 ^„ VMadison. 1834 1835 5 8 U814 14 1836 13 1815 1816 9 8 1837 1838 9 ■ o >• Van Buren. o It appears that prices ruled the highest during the administration of Gen. Washington, which was im- mediately after the American revolution. In that of the Elder Adams, high prices were maintained. In the eight years of Mr. Jefferson's term, prices were very uniform at moderate rates. Under ]Mr. Madi- son's administration, and at a period of peace and war, prices were high and fluctuated. Under Mr. Monroe's, Adam's, and Jackson's, embracing a pe- riod of twenty years, prices ruled at least two dol- lars below the previous twenty years. The following table exhibits the receipts of flour down the north river : In 1837. April 12,196 May 49,892 June 27,183 July 52,517 August 30,786 September 62,612 October 148,456 November .... 244,064' December.... 47,685 In 1838. April 26,746 May 100,943 June 99,646 July 84,848 August 74,254 September. . .. 103,305 October. . ,. . November. . . December . . . 680,079 489,741 For the last two yearS' — not including the last three months of the present year, the result of this year cannot be known, but there is no question it will exceed a million of barrels. Last year there was imported into this city upwards of four millions of bushels of grain, this year there will probably be more. It is calculated that the amount of breadstuffs * Embargo. "t" War with Great Britain. ^ Peace with Great Britain. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41 wanted for the Eastern States will be sensibly dimi- nished. The demand from the West Indies and South America will, in consequence of the short sup- plies in Europe, fully make up any short demand from other quarters. Our article, it will be seen, is principally composed of Western supplies by the canal. It is very difficult, in fact impossible, to make up any correct table of the supplies from the mills on the North River. From the South or from New Orleans, as the best criterion of these supplies we give the following table. As the flour consumed m the city is not required to be inspected, this may be added to the table. The city consumption is com- puted at 1,000 bbls. per day, which for 365 days is 36.3,000. The following is the inspection of flour for the last sixteen years : 1822 331 ,670 1830 767,387 1823 409.016 1831 893,846 1824 434,788 1832 998,167 1825 — . . .. 459,113 1833 1,003,446 1826 520,577 1834 1,257,703 1827 597,648 1835 . . . .^. . 1,154,613 1828 695,900 1836 1,138,554 1829 686,696 1837 904,488 The above table shows that there has been no in- crease of flour since 1834 ; and establishes the fact, that the crops during- these years have been short. The operations in Flour in this city are immense, being over a million and a half of bbls., which at eight dollars will amount to eight millions of dollars. We propose to give the general course of this trade and the manner of doing business with the W^est. The principal mills are at Rochester, and have in- creased to an astonishing extent, not only at Roches- ter but at Black Rock, Orange, Seneca Falls, and at various other places. Men of large capitals are em- barked in the business. New York which formerly supplied all or nearly all the wheat manufacturers, now only supplies her quota. Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Michigan furnish a very large portion of the wheat that is manufactured. The quantity received this season will be over a million of barrels. To purchase wheat for this great quantity requires a vast capital, greater than even those engaged in the business, rich as they are, are enabled to supply. The purchase of wheat, the sale of the flour, and the raising of funds, are therefore very important branches of the business. The raising of funds is accomplished mainly in this way. The miller first selects his agent in New York, with whom he makes arrangements for the raising of money. This is done by placing in the hands of the agent ample secu- rity, by mortgages on mills and personal security ; a credi*; is thus established for fifty or a hundred thousand dollars from the New York merchant who comes under a stipulation to accept drafts for the sum agreed upon at usually sixty or ninety days, and this before a bushel of wheat is purchased or a barrel of flour ground. These drafts are made at the plea- sure of the drawer, and the interior banks mostly at Rochester, Buffalo, Canandaigua. Utica, and Albany, discount these drafts. Their bank notes are received with which the purchasers of wheat are made by agents at diflferent points in New York, Ohio, Penn- sylvania, and Michigan. The banks are benefited by thn circulation of their bills. The miller obtains his wheat, — the canals, manufacturers, and commis- sion merchants are all benefited, and the consumer is not injured. The commission merchants, who re- ceive this million of barrels of flour, are confined to a very kw, not probably exceeding ten in number. They must necessarily be men of good credit and great means, as they are during the year under ac- ceptances, one way or another, for eight or ten mil- lions of dollars. Their commission on this large calculation at nine million two and a half per cent.is two hundred and twenty five thousand dollars, — a large sum for the millers to pay — and a liberal sum, but not too much lor the merchant to receive for the hazard he has to run — the advances he has made, and the services performed. We can form little or no calculation ourselves as to the prices of flour for the coming winter. — It has been stated pretty generally in the papers in various parts of the country that the wheat crop has been large. It is now doubted whether these reports have not been exaggerated, and it is much feared the crop has not been as great as was anticipated. Until within a very iew weeks the rivers have been so low, that many of the mills have stood idle. The quantity of wheat grown in New England is greater than ever, and the crops of corn and potatoes in that section have been good. The supplies, therefore, for that quarter will be less than usual. This de- mand, however, must be more than made up by in- creased supplies that will be wanted from South America and the West Indies — a large portion of which cannot be furnished, as heretofore, from Eng- land, and some portion of the Continent — whether prices will advance or not, time must show. There is, we fear, but little prospect that those will fall much from present rates. TO THE MEMBERS OF THE DEVON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. In my communication last week I treated on the profit and loss to the feeder, my remarks shall be now to consider it as regards the consumer, in doing which I will first speak of the wasting joints, which being very thick, must necessarily require a greater quantum of coal than fair-fed meat of less density ; this additional quantity of fuel not only increases the price of the meat, but it also facilitates the solution of the fat to a much greater degree, and being left in the dripping-pan, generally becomes the perquisite of the cook; whether it be or not, it is sold to the tallow-chandler at about one-third cost price, and the joint when brought on the table still contains twice as much fat as is eaten in the parlour, and we need not be told that the kitchen never consumes what is left on the parlour plates. The result is, that half the dressed fat is given to the dogs, and upon a very moderate calculation, not more than half the weight of the original joint is eaten by human beings. I am at a loss then to imagine how there can be two opinions on this head, and I believe it must be obvious to every reflective mind, that has paid but even little attention to the subject, that the system is fraught with disadvantage in every point of view. I am as decidedly averse to slaughtering half-fed stock — the loss is equally clear and evinces a weakness somewhere, generally I expect in the pocket, if so, it may not be under the feeder's con- troul, and may be denominated a sign of the times. It may be a difficult task to determine the exact proper time to kill a bullock, so as to say it is fat enough, and not too fat : 5'et I conceive its arrival at that slate of adiposity, when the fat does not bear too great a proportion to the lean, and that all of it may be fairly calculated on for edible purposes, is the fair criterion to judge of its being then in a proper state to pay the most general profit. Now I contend that were two bullocks fed with 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. natural food of eiactly the same cost as one of these extra-fed ones on corn, &c. the feeder and the butcher would both be better compensated as to profit, and the consumer would not have paid more than half the price for every pound actually eaten by his family. I am willing to admit my argument does not hold good as relative to Swine, fed and consumed by the farmer ; the scale evidently preponderates on the other side: --in the first place, the habits of the bullock and the pig differ very materially constitutionally ; the former is a clean and mostly delicate feeder — tlie latter quite the reverse, so as to merit the appel- lation of the scavenger of Nature. ^Ve have only to view the large heaps of scavenger's manure near the Metropolis, &c. to be convinced from the num- ber maintained, and the proot they make, that they are not over nice as to what they eat, but that they have a natural aptitude to fatten ; when a pig begins to thrive, and has nearly done growing in size, it appears to be perfectly contented and happy, passing its time in laying down, and a considerable portion of it in sleep; this indolent habit and a contented mind naturally produce bulk, and so it will continue to do as long as it can raise itself from the ground, and even when it cannot, it will feed provided its food be brought to it and will also increase in weight, and with this advantage, that the falter it gets the less quantity of food satisfies it, so that the longer it is kept the better it pays ; and when killed, every pound of fat is as valuable to the farmer as the lean, as every ounce is eaten by the family, and tiiereby not an atom is wasted — no conversion into soap and candles— the very reverse of the extra- fed bullock, a considerable portion of which proves a national loss, and although cursorily viewed it may appear but a trifle, yet as an aggregate it is immense, if we calculate the number tiiat reach Smithfield against Christmas only, and considering these as half, the amount throughout the kingdom exceeds credibi- lity. AGRICOLA. JV(M).27t/i, 1838. SIRT. LETHBRIDGE AND THE CORN LAWS. Sir, — The letter of Sir Thomas Lethbridge, in your last paper, will, on attentive perusal, be found to contain a string of propositions most un- connected, and attempted to be supported by the most illusive arguments. No determined adherent to the present system of corn laws could desire an abler document in support of his tenets than this far-famed letter of the Somersetshire baronet, pregnant as it is with error, contradiction, and inconsistency. It is not my intention to set up a justification of the present scale of duties in all their bearings, or to deny that alterations or modifications might be advantageously made ; but I trust I shall be able with little trouble to prove the unsoundness of the hon. baronet's views, and the irreconcileable nature of his several propositions. After many introductory remarks, it is asked — "If your ports arc always open at fixed duties for cotton, wool, silks, timber, and other articles, why should they not be so for corn .'" Is it not notorious, that on the importation of the articles enumerated depends the daily bread of millions of our countrymen ? They are essentially products of foreign climes, and which we are utterly in- capable of producing — even the article of wool in its fine state. Is there the most remote analogy between the two cases .' Could any reasonable man propose to put wheat, the staple production of this country, and upon the remunerating price of which the very existence of so many classes hinges, on the same footing as to duty, as articles of which we stand in actual need, and which it is our policy to obtain at the cheapest rate ? they being the raw material, without which our manu- factures must stand idle, and that portion of the population employed therein reduced to starvation. Does the hon. baronet mean to contend that, on an average of seasons, this country cannot grow a sufficiency of wheat for the consumption of its inhabitants, or with a very small deficiency, of which the present corn laws have always allowed the introduction from abroad upon reasonable terras ? Let him refer back to the years 1833-4-5-6, and mark the progressive fall in each of those years of full crops, with the smallest importations ever known ; and to so low an ebb did prices sink, that, in October, 1836, the average price of Mark-lane was 35s. 8d. per quarter ! with a duty then totally prohibitory on foreign corn ; and so great was the excess of supply, of our own growth, that horses, pigs, cattle, and dogs were fed with bread and corn in order to quit rid of it. If Sir Thomas or some other " friend of the farmer," had recommended the government to have bought up the then superfluous growth, it would have caused a little animation in the markets — some- thing approaching fair prices might have been the consequence, end the markets would have been since regularly fed by our own growth produce ; we should not then have seen millions of English gold paid away for foreign wheat at 66s. or 70s per quarter, nor would our merchants have been compelled to ransack the whole world in vain at- tempt to raise us a sufficiency for our murmuring poor. liut instead of this wise policy being adopted, the food of man was shamefully squan- dered ; and farmers, in despair, abandoned the cultivation of the soils, not of the best quality; and here we are, in 1838, with a fearful deficiency on a vastly diminished breadth of acres. The first and sure eiFect of an 8s. or 10s. duty would be, in a season of average produce, an overwhelming supply from abroad ; they could well aflford to sell, as will be presently shewn, at from 44s. to 48s. per quarter, with this duty. The land now about to be brought into cultiva- tion again would be abandoned — we will assume no more than one-fourth. We are supposed in England and Scotland to appropriate four millions of acres to the growth of wheat annually, which, at 24 bushels to the acre, amounts to 12,000,000 quarters ; take from this the one-fourth aban- doned, we have to crave the tender mercies of foreigners for three millions of quarters, or we starve. Is not this an enviable condition to bring us to ? Left at the mercy of foreign, probably hostile powers, to supply us with the first neces- sary of life, does the hon. baronet suppose they will not ascertain our wants to a nicety, and knowing we must starve, or buy at their price, ensure that monopoly which the hon. baronet contends is now held by our merchants ? En- courage, Sir, the production of wheat at home ; cidtivate some few of the fifteen million acres of now unbroken, unproductive land in Great Britain, and I will pledge myself that on an average of years you will more effectually guardoff famine prices than bymakii;g us dependent on foreign states. There is now, including these now waste acres, sufficient THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 43 wheat to be produced to maintain ten millions more inhabitants, and if Old England, in her present greatness, can ride over the rough seas of trouble prepared for her, until this number is added to our present population, the generation then alive may perliaps be justified in adopting the recommendations of the Somersetshire baronet. Sir Thomas says " that 8s. per bushel is high enough for wheat'" — so say I, and even 7s. 6d. would satisf)' us with average crops ; but how is either sum to be realised with an 8s. or 10s. duty ? Let the evidence taken before the parliamentary committees of 1836 be referred to, and it will shew, beyond the possibility of dispute, that foreign v.'heat can be sold at a profit on an average, in the English markets, at 32s. per quarter, or 4s. per bushel ; taking the minimum duty of Sir Thomas, it will be 5s. per bushel, or 10/. per load ; how does he reconcile his admission that 16/. per load is about a remunerating price — his professed regard for the landed interest, and his advocacy of a fixed duty of 8s. per quarter ? To me tliese points appear totally irreconcilable. Again, the reference to the article of wool, as shewing the advantage of free trade, is of all things the most unhappy. Here again we want the aid of a foreign clime, for be it known to the hon. baronet, it is an established fact, that one-half of our English coarse wools would not be manufac- tured at all but for the admixture of foreign fine wools, the mixing of the two being indispensably necessary to the production of the manufactured articles in which our clothiers are driving so great a trade. Here we have a demand for our own growth of wools indisputably created by the in- troduction of foreign. His argument, therefore, instead of being supported by this comparison, is miserably weakened. Again — " The time is arrived when the land- owners and occupiers can prove to their country- men that they are realy and willing to compete with the foreigners on fair and equal terms." Bravo! Sir Thomas ; here we at last agree to the very letter. I know not the politics of the hon. baronet but, having myself a perfect abhorrence of the principles of Whigs, Tories, and Radicals, I am most anxious to be made acquainted with the means whereby we are to be put on " fair and equal terms" with foreigners. Is Sir Thomas prepared " to go the whole hog'' with ultra-radi- calism in sponging out the debt, battering down the churches, and tearing the crown from the brow of royalty. To make us level with many of our wheat supplying friends, Sir Thomas must do this ; and if the nation is prepared to make this barter for cheap bread, it no doubt can be eaten at foreign prices ; but until this great resolve is made, let me entreat Sir Thomas to weigh more maturely his propositions on the corn laws — to refrain from publicly maintaining the mad scheme of fixing 8s. per quarter on the protecting duty on tax, tithe, and poor-burthened English corn, when it is a fact, clear as noon, that a fixed duty of 30s. would no more than secure what he allows as a remunerating price. The same dread appears to have haunted Sir Thomas, viz., that of being pro- lix, operates on me, or I should with more care, and at much greater length, have commented on his inconsistent and untenable opinions ; but as the present high prices of corn (which are indisputa- bly osving to the ruinous prices obtained by the English farmer in 1835-36), will lead to much agitation on the subject, I trust the advocates of the present scale of duties will not shrink from the discussion, being well convinced, if fair play is given to the disputants, the fatal policy of the repealers will be made so conspicuous to all not wilfully blind, that the result will go a great way towards annihilating that iniquitous spirit which, under a specious cloak of obtaining cheap bread, would still farther enrich the overflowing coffers of the capitalist, and non-producing classes of the community (already freed from their just quota of public burthens), at the expence of the whole pro- ducing classes, whether agricultural or manufac- turing, by depriving them of employment in their several occupations. The story of the Irishman should be borne in mind. He was asked wliy he came to England, where bread was 15d. a gallon, while he could buy it in Ireland for lOd. Arrah ! (said Pat) I can earn lod. in England, but in Ireland nothing; of what benefit then is the ten- penny loaf, if Pat has no tenpence to pay with ? I am, &c. A FARMER. Whitchurch, Dec. 7. TO THE EDITOR. SiH, — As a practical farmer nearl\' 50 years in the counties of Essex and Suflblk, upon a soil what is termed white clay, I am astonished to hear the " hoary-headed swain" assert with such confidence " that a naked fallow is totally unnecessary." I beg to assure him, the lands in the vicinity of Duntiiow, Braintree, the Roodlands, (where they in many instances adopt the system of one crop and a naked fallow for years in succession), and a great part of the Hundreds of Essex were farmed other- wise than the four course shift, that is clean or naked fallow once in four years ; otherwise very little corn indeed would be grown. I contend, you cannot manure a fourth of any ara- ble farm, a year. 12 tumbrill or cart loads per acre, each cart to contain -15 heaping bushels, or 540 bushels to the acre, with no earth, chalk, lime or any other compost with it ; and in many thousand acres so situated no manures can be purchased. I believe, for every 100 acres were you to keep 10 beasts in the yard six months, allow them 500 oil- cake, (31hs. per cake) per bullock, also one ton of hay each, and one bushel of turnips per day each, also five working horses, and two colts, grazin<' 50 pigs a year, 300 carts, or 13,500 bushels of good fair rotten muck could not be annually made. Of course no good farmer suffers any straw to be eaten by cattle, except a small quantity cut into chafi"; also horses to consume 15 tons of clover and Lay, also six acres of tares, consumed in the yard. A good fair crop of straw shall be grown, and I contend not 250 loads, or 11,250 bushels of good fair rotten muck shall be made. It is not uncommon where manure may be bought in towns or had from London, for farmers to buy 2,500 bushels of muck (25 waggon loads) for every 100 acres of arable land, also 500 bushels of sprats every year for the same quantity of land, and yet make i5 acres of naked fallow to every 100 acres, ynd to do otherwise upon these clays, the rents on which are from 20s. to 30s. per acre, tithes, 6s., and rates 6s. per acre, and labour and beer 25s. to 30s, per acre ; to deviate from this system of naked fallows, would be considered very bad farming in- deed. iNIany farmers, it is here admitted, grow from 6 to 10 acres of tares every year, feed or mow them, and 44 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, fallow after them ; also five or six ncres(if they can get a plant of Swede turnips or mangel wurzel) . But all will tell you how dearly they pay for this crop, and say they had better buy cake than grow turnips or mangel. What appears to us clay land farmers so very ex- traordinary is, that this old practitioner says he pro- duces on his light land farm, 39 tons, 14 cwt. and 71bs. of turnips upon one English f 160 square rods. J What sort or kind of turnips are they l When sown ? How many times the land ploughed, scarified, har- rowed, and rolled (of course so good a farmer never grows twitch grass or weeds that are not many times harrowed} ? How many bushels of manure per acre (not carts as they vary in size in different counties)? What is the nature of the compost, what weight of rape cake, or bushels of bone-dust, drilled with the manure, and how many acres of this weight of tur- nips produced annually ? We should be glad to hear these questions answered. Also, are these turnips topped and tailed, and made fit for the beast, when weighed or with roots and tops upon theml I have seen by the river Stour in Suffolk, some ex- cellent turnip land, and Swede turnips grown upon them. I have assisted in measuring and weighing many acres after they have been topped and tailed in a proper state to be given to the beasts in their stalls. But I never saw 22 tons upon one acre in that state when weighed, and I have known the land ■well fallowed and manured with 650 bushels per acre of good rotten muck. But what are we to think and to say to this gentle- man's statement of 51 tons, 17 cwt. I61bs. and 10 ozs., being grown upon one English acre 1 I can say nothing here, but if there is a railroad from Lon- don, to near this gentleman's house, and he will be so friendly as to give me an invitation, I shall be most happy to accept it, to view his wonderful pro- duction, and be content with turnip and bacon for my fare. But on my return I should be silent, as I fear none of my brother clay land farmers would credit what I might assert as a fact, or any of my Norfolk friends who are notorious for growing most excellent turnips. — I remain. Sir, your obliged, An Old Phactical Farmeii. LETTER FROM LORD WESTERN TO EARL SPENCER. Mv Dear Lord Spencer,— In addressing you as the President of the great Agricultural Society of England, I anticipate, with considerable anxiety, the charge of presumption which the subject matter of my letter may incur. I know, indeed, that you will put a favourable construction upon it, as your friendship will lead you to appreciate the motive. But I think that the represen- tation of the attempt which I am about to communicate will, perhaps justly, subject me to the notion of being a visionary projector in that one particular line of farm- ing to which I have, as you know, devoted great at- tention. I will then at once announce to your lordship that I have, for the last four years, applied myself to an expe- riment of the possibility of creating a 7iew and distinct breed of sheep ; and, as far as I have gone, the result has encouraged the attempt; and of this result 1 in- tend to exhibit a specimen at the next Smithfield Show. I shall there exhibit three shearling wethers of my so created breed, and three two shear wethere ; and 1 earnestly request the notice of your lordship and of the other members of the society to their examination. I have a confidence in doing this, because 1 have not only ray own experience, and the opinion of many other most able judges, as to the beauty of their symmetry, and their possession of all the qualities which are gene- rally most admired in the living animals ; but I shall also, without hesitation, submit them to public inspec- tion when slaughtered. I beg you to understand, that, in thus attempting to create a distinct variety among the actual different breeds, I have no idea of disparaging those highly valuable breeds which have been so much improved in the course of the last sixty years ; or of im- pugning the science, the skill, and the energy of many most intelligent persons in various ranks of life, not ex- cepting the most exalted. But I am of opinion that we should never stand still, but rather be always aiming at new objects : and I sincerely think that that for which I am now striving is not absolutely Utopian. There is plenty of room for the introduction of another breed of animals, without trenching upon, or superseding in any way those which are valuable and now in existence. My object, then, may be famiharly stated to be, the placing iVIerino wool upon a Leicester carcase; perhaps not exactly resembling the short finest clothing wool of Saxony, but a fine combing wool, superior to any that has heretofore been grown. It is possible that similar attempts have been made by other persons, but they have not been carried out upon any general principle of extensive application to my knowledge. The means which I use are an intermixture of various breeds of long wool sheep with the pure Merino ; the latter of which, by the attentive efforts of many years, 1 have so improved in carcase, that they have become an exceedingly different animal, in point of substance and size, to those which are generally seen. I have now a flock of about a hundred breeding ewes of this crossed species, and they certainly so closely resemble each other in their countenances, the appearance of their wools, and their relative sizes, that no very variable character can be discerned among them ; certainly I may say, quite as little as is to be found in other flocks which are stated to be of a pure specific breed. With a view to some justification of my purpose, I beg to direct the attention of your Lordship to the breed of the new Leicester sheep. The very name which they have universally acquired — namely, that of the new breed, implies a modern origin. I apprehend that a dis- tinct breed may be created in three ways : — Firstly, by the selection of one or two extraordinary animals— van- ations from their class — which may arise, as in the ve- getable, so in the animal world ; and from thence, if well followed up, a new race may be formed. Another mode is the crossing of various animals ; and among other reports, I have heard that the new Leicester were formed by crossing of the heavy, long wool sheep and the Hereford Ryland. I cannot pretend to vouch for the accuracy of this report ; but I am not sure that I should not date from thence the origin of my present effort. A third mode is, by engrafting a particular breed upon a native stock in away which bears seme analogy to the engrafting a peach upon a crab stalk. For ex- ample, with a view of creating a Merino flock out of any inferior breed of sheep, put a Merino ram to any breed of ewes; and again a Merino ram to their pro- geny in constant succession ; and I think it would not require many generations to efiace all appearance of the original breed. That the new Leicester sheep fifty years ago were very scarce, that the prime s])ecimens were in very few hands— so few, that the breeders sold or let their rams at an almost incredible price— is beyond all controversy. These sheep, so bred, and I may say, so created, were first exhibited to the public by Mr. liakewell, and by a few other clever men who followed close upon his steps; and the late Duke of Bedford and Lord Leicester were the first, perhaps, vvho mainly contributed to spread their notoriety and improve their quality. Their ex- ample was followed to such an extent, that the prices of their rams even arose — to go at ence to the summit — to five hundred pounds for the use only of one of these animals. Since that time there has hardly been a breed of long wool sheep which has not been mixed up with these new Leicestcrs, although, in many instances, the fact is not readily admitted by the respective breeders. Certain it is that an infusion of their blood is found. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 45 more or less, in every long'-wool sheep, and the breeds, so improved by this cross, perpetuated. They have been crossed with South Downs, but not with a view to the perpetuation of a cross breed. I look upon what is commonly called a South Down to be now a very dif- ferent animal from the little pure South Down of 50years ag'o. The admixture of the Hampshire or West Coun- try Down Sheep, crossed with the original South Down, as now adopted and recommended by Lord Leicester, lias created an exceedingly ditl'erent breed of animal. Lord Leicester has further, by his judgment, and by the method of varying a breed by selection, certainly cre- ated sheep very unlike the original South Downs, or any other breed then known. The Holkham sheep are obviously highly valuable in almost every important particular with a view to the grand object, namely, the production of the greatest quantity of sound good meat and useful wool upon the smallest quantity of land. The contemplation of his achievement, instead of any discouragement, has been to me a stimulus to my own exertions. 1 know not that I need add anything fur- ther in justification of what I have undertaken. I have, however, heard of a similar idea having prevailed, to u certain extent, in some other countries, as well as in this. I have been informed that even in Saxony some attempt of the kind has been thought of; and I am pretty confident that some Leicester sheep have been imported into that kingdom. I should be going too far were I to prosecute exten- sively the inquiry into the proceedings which may have taken place in respect to other domestic animals ; but I cannot refrain from calling your attention to the con- templation of one of the noblest animals in the creation, and to the specimens, almost exclusively produced in this country, of his improvement ; I allude to the Eng- lish race horse. Is he not unquestionably the creation of an admixture of breed; ? Can he be the pure Arab, thus altered and enlarged by selection? 1 conceive the decided probability to be, that he must be an admixture with other breeds. Then, again, the variety of English horses, from the superior hunter to the hackney* Is not such a composition, which must have been formed at various periods of time? Is not an infusion of Arab blood into every breed more or less prevalent, and in almost every case useful? To descend from the horse to the lowest animal in estimation, though, perhaps, not the least valuable, namely, a pig : it appears to me that an important change and improvement have already taken piace in some districts in the breeds of this animal to a consider- able extent, and which is further progressive in other parts of the country. This has been accomplished by a breed commonly called the Neapolitan, which race is found in its greatest purity in that beautiful peninsula, or rather a tongue of land which lies between the Bay of Naples and that of Salerno. It has very peculiar and valuable qualities : the flavour of the meat is ex- cellent, I should say superior to that of any other breed ; and the disposition of the animal to fatten, on the small- est quantity of food, is unrivalled. I have so completely engiafted this stock upon Bntish breeds, that I think that my herd can scarcely be distinguished from the pure blocd. Upon a similar principle a great eflxirt, I understand, is making at this time by a few intelligent individuals to engraft the Cashmere upon the Angola goat, so as to grow upon the latter the beautiful wool of the former. This attempt was first made by a French gentleman, ■who, as I have been informed, has advanced a consi- derable way in the accomplishment of his object. I have seen some of these animals, which were purchased of him in order to be taken to Van Diemen's Land ; ■with him I closely inspected them ; and their appear- ance certainly warranted good hopes of a favourable result. But I will no further press the argument, which I have founded upon these, as I consider, analogous cases ; but I conclude with a hope that I may have led your Lordship to the consideration of some interesting point*, which might not have occurred to you, and which, un- questionably, have a tendency to relieve me from the imputation of being unwarrantably speculative in my attempt, as some persons may perhaps imagine. Whether the sheep which I shall exhibit at the Smith- field show will come within any of the rules of the so- ciety, to admit them as competitors for a prize, I do not know. My object will be attained by submitting them to the examination of your Lordship and the public ; at least, if I succeed, as I trust 1 shall, in obtaining your particular notice. Believe me, my dear Lord, yours very truly, Felix Hall, Dec. 1. WESTERN. ON PERENNIAL GRASSES. It has been a constant and universal remark, that of all the arts practised by mankind, none is open to greater improvement than that of agri- culture, and, at the same time, it is always ac- knowledged that none progresses so slowly. The cultivation of the earth must take precedence of every other art — it affords the material of manu- factures, and must be practised before they can e.xist — and, as it produces food and raiment, the indispensable requisites of life, it seems very natural to suppose that this primary art, the very foundation of natural and social existence, and of every comfort and enjoyment of civilized life, •would be jjushed to the utmost extent by every possible and known means. In producing this slowness of progress, no doubt many causes con- cur— causes incomprehensible and indefinable, arising from the course of events, and from that irresistible " something" in the current of human affairs, which seems to baffle all legislation on the subject, and to be absolutely beyond the power of human controul. These disquisitions are foreign to our purpose, as we only intend to call the at- tention of our readers to means within their reach. When we look at our books on agriculture, and our periodicals, our societies general and local, and the exertions of scientific men in aid of agricul- ture, we conclude, that the art has had more than a due share of anxiety evinced for its promotion ; and when we read our weekly discoveries of new plants in shape of barley, wheats, cabbages, &c., we think that the farmer will soon be enriched from some hidden store of wealth. The value of many of these discoveries exist only in the san- guine imagination of the projector — exotic plants, and others forced by some adventitious circum- stance to a very prolific growth, will soon become acclimated, and range themselves under the stan- dard of production fixed by soil and climate. Man- kind always expect too much ; and, when some discoveries fail, conclusions are too hastily drawn against others. Among other discoveries and ap- plications in agriculture, a knowledge more ex- tended of the nature and uses of our numerous grasses, attracted attention, in order to ascertain if a greater number, and of greater value, could not be found for the use of the farmer. The late Dr. Richardson gave us many a long and flaming account of the value of fioren grass (agrostis stolonifera) — circumstances were over- looked, and the situations are few where it could be applied, and we now hear very little of it. The cultivation and relative examination of grasses were undertaken with great zeal by the late Duke of Bedford — the practical part was confided to Mr. Sinclair, his gardener, and the scientific to the late Sir H. Davy, one of the most illustrious phi- losophers of modern times ; and they entered into it from the noblest motive that can influence a hu^ 46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. man being — a desire to reduce philosophy and the ostentation of science to the uses of life, for the benefit of the human race. 'J'he experiments made were on much too small a scale whence to draw satisfactory conclusions ; and the chemical results will not be supported by practice in the quality of the grasses applied as food for animals, the only use to which they are applicable. But, notwithstanding all failures and discrepancies, owing to laws and combinations, of which we are ignorant, their labours form the greatest and most valuable step yet made in a most important branch of our modern agriculture. For, granting that the day is fast approaching when the cultivation of green crops will be much extended, many of our inferior soils are adapted for pasturage, and grasses will be of great value to the former. Having had many years experience of the most common perennial grasses for hay and two years pasture, on turnip and clay soils of inferior qua- lity, I shall state the results as they appear to me, both in quantity and in the other qualities they seem to possess. The farm where they were sown was under my practical charge, on the Duke of Portland's estate in Northumberland. The old leys rotted sheep, from the mosses and weeds they produced, and the weak arable lands were exhausted by a con- stant ploughing, under a four years' course, and when the scanty crop of hay was removed, the fields were nearly covered with that sure sign of poverty, the " common self-heal," or ^^ Prunella vulgaris." The old leys and turfs were all ploughed up, and the whole farm, six hundred and forty acres, was thrown under a course of five or six years, two or three years in grass, according to the produceand appearance of the pasture in the second year ; on all the soils, and especially on the very worst, the *' cocksfoot," " Dactylis glomerata," was invaluable as a pasture grass, affording a fresh, an early, and abundant bite for sheep when no other grass has appeared ; for hay it was equally pro- ductive, and maintained its superior usefulness so long as the pasturage remained. On rich lands, however, this grass, when sown for a crop of hay, grows very coarse and yields a heavy pro- duce ; bulk certainly cannot be got without some degree of coarseness ; in that strong state horses refuse and pick it out, though our practice of cut- ting may obviate that objection. My observations led to the conclusion, that it is rather a pasturage than a hay plant. The "dogstail," "Cynosurus cristatus," took well on these hard barren clays, and during the second, and more especially the third year's pasture, it was nearly the only grass that seemed to thrive, evincing a decided supe- riority over the cocksfoot, in all cases where the soil was of a harder and drier tenacity ; in every case it fully supported the high character given by Sinclair in the " Hortus GramineusWoburnensis" and though its wiry stems are refused by cattle, and its foliage not very abundant, yet it is con- fessed by Curtis and others, that it affords a whole- some and nutritious food for sheep, and is found in the very best and soundest of our pastures ; in autumn and in winter the superiority was most observable. The " catstail," " Phletcm prat ens e," likes a damp and softer soil, and for hay is prefer- able to the two grasses I have mentioned, finer in quality than the " cocksfoot," and as ready in growth, and much more productive than the "dogstail," it failed as a pasture grass, either for early or late herbage ; the arid and stubborn clays seemed too hard for its growth ; on softer soils it formed a principal part of the hay and aftermath. The " foxtail," ^'Alopecurus pratensis," was also sown at the rate of two or three pounds per acre, and on the best soils, possessed of moisture, it grew tolerably well ; on dry and inferior soils it seemed unsuitable. Many of the seeds are abor- tive ; in repeated experiments, the proportion of seeds that vegetated to those that did not vegetate, stood nearly as one to six. This grass is of excel- lent quality, and adapted both for hay and pasture, on rich lands that are moist and damp ; in rich moist meadows it grows in great abundance. The "meadow fescue" " Festuca pratensis," likes a good soil, and produces abundantly ; on the soils we cultivated it fell behind the " cocksfoot and dogstail." The "Festuca duriuscula" suits on a bare hard soil. The " Avena" was not sown, as we had no sandy lands in which it delights. The " Poa pratensis ' and " trivialis'" were both sown, and where the soil was loamy and moist, the ''pra- tensis" grew well, the " trivialis'' not so well ; for both species our soils seemed too hard and poor, as the ''poas" all delight in moist loams. But of all the grasses yet known to us, none can be com- pared with the " ray grass" for a crop of hay. It yields more weight per acre, and of finer qua- lity than any other yet known, the bulk of both being taken into account ; it affords an abundance of good seed at little cost, and it grows readily on a greater variety of soils than any other. For these reasons it will keep its ground in the four years' course, though on most soils a mixture of " catstail," " Poa pratensis," " foxtail," and "fescue" might be beneficial. But for two or three years' pasture, or for permanent grass, it is much inferior to many of the grasses I have men- tioned ; it inclines to run to seed and stem, and is deficient in root foliage, and requires a due mix- ture with the above-mentioned perennials for hay and pasture. In some situations it does not hold well after the first year, and clovers on such soils wholly disappear. A most important improvement followed the in- troduction of these grasses, and the adoption of the pasturing system. The herbage never afford- ing a bite for cattle, sheep were wholly used, and the number kept on the farm was increased every year. The land was improved by rest, bettercrops were obtained, especially of oats, from being sown on the fresh grassy sward of three years' duration. The then wet soils addicted to rot sheep, were fresh seeded after two or three years, in grass ; not one instance of rot ever appeared among the improved Leicester sheep, as they had to eat fresh grasses in place of noxious weeds, the very thin^ that supported and saved tiiem. Salt was also given them. Many old turfs and leys, lying at present in a disgraceful and useless state, might be quadrupled in value by a similar process ; but our farmers are so besotted with prejudice, and enslaved by opinion, that they seemingly on purpose allow a part of the farms to lie in pro- ducing weeds to taint their flock, and plough and scourge the other part in attempting to support them, and when the evil is done, the binme is very gravely laid upon the land. If lands be well wrought and cleaned, a mixture of these perennials will produce a sward on any cultivated soils for grass- ing sheep with safety, if properly renewed. The chalky and sandy downs of our southern counties must be excepted, where, from the hot nature of the soil, and the influence of the sun, it might be impossible to clothe them with verdure, at least within a long period of time. The very hot burn- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 47 Jtig sands may be most profitably managed by green crops and eating by sheep. The great and general mistake committed in sowing small seeds, is the want of cleaning and pulverizing the land. They should be committed to a surface of the finest tilth that can be produced, and pressed in by a roll to make a flat surface and to retain moisture. The want of success in laying down for permanent pasture has been greatly owing to this negligence, arising from the usual dread of expense. Too small a quantity of seeds is sown on an acre of land ; in common cultivation, where produce and profit are required, a greater quantity of the most useful seeds should be sown, rather than the seeds of a number of the finer and of more doubtful success, lawns being excepted, and where a choice permanent sward may be required. On the hot sands I have mentioned, not less than 30 to 401bs. of clover seed should be sown on an acre, to se- cure a close crop for eating on by sheep. To pre- vent waste by trampling by feet of sheep, green crops should be cut by hand, and thrown over the fence into racks. The saving will amply repay the labour. Great praise and gratitude are due to the me- mory of the illustrious nobleman for the zeal dis- played in instituting the experiments, and of the results, for the laborious perseveratice in bringing them to a termination, and of the phdosopher who devoted his time and his talents to benefit the cultivator of the soil. And though the greater part of such speculations and researches may never be applicable to the uses of life, yet that circumstance detracts in no way from the merit of the persons engaged in them ; the motive is most laudable, the object in view most philanthropic ; and some lucky hit, chance, or observation, may be the means of making some splendid discoveries which may amply repay for all former failures and disappointments, and confer an everlasting benefit on mankind. Fcr most of the arts have been wonderfully forwarded by some such single dis- covery, which has accelerated its progress much beyond what might have been expected in a great number of years, and has introduced a new era into its history and application. In the case of grasses, a great step has been made. They are placed before us for our choice ; and for nearly twenty years I have never ceased usiing six or eight of what these results and experience taught me to be the most useful both for hay and pasture, with great advantage and unva- ried success. In laying down permanent pastures, the directions and selections are excellent, and I have followed them successfully, with a little va- riation. The keeping of permanent pastures is a very problematical question. When our wet lands are once improved by the modern system of drain- ing, if the improvement " do not" render these soils capable of producing green crops, it will at least facilitate the execution of the present system of cultivation, i-ender the lands more accessible at certain seasons, increase the produce, and ren- der them more adapted for the mixed system of cropping and grazing by artificial pastures of pe- rennial grasses, which constitutes the best and most profitable mode of cultivation practised in our present knowledge of the art. CULTOR. — Gardener's Gazette. 1695, according to the relation of Dr. Oliver, who was present at the entertainment : — ^There was in the middle of a g'arden of lemons and oranges (which garden be- longed to Don Pedro Velasco, Governor of Gales) a fountain which was set with Dutch tiles in the bottom and sides, and was made as clean as a Japan punch- bowl. In this fountain, on Ghristmas-day, was poured six butts of water, half a hogshead of strong mountain INIalaga wine, two hundred gallons of brandy, six hun- dred weight of sugar, twelve diousand lemons, and nut- megs and sugar in proportion. The Admiral hired the governor's house, belonsring to the garden, and resided there all the winter. He invited all the English and Dutch merchants and officers, belonging to the fleet to dine with him ; there was one hundred dishes of fresh meat, besides many other dishes of rarities ; but such a flesh-feast was never seen in Spain before. He also roasted an ox for the entertamment of the company. Dinner being ended, they marched in order to the foun- tain, or punch-bowl, where on the punch was floatinga little boat with a boy in it, and cups to serve it out to the company. The Admiral began the allies' healths ; and havmg drank what they thought fit, they drew off, and in went the mob, with their shoes and stockings and all on, and had like to have turned the boat, with the boy, over, and so he might have been drowned in punch ; but to prevent further danger they sucked it up, and left the punch-bowl behind. This is a comical but a very true relation and worth noUng.— From Moore's Alma- nack of llll. HOW TO PRESERVE POTATOES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE TEN TOWNS' MESSENGER. Sir,— Having seen in your paper of Friday last, a hint how to preserve potatoes through the winter, which was strictly correct, so far as keeping them in cellars go ; but as, generally speaking, the poor people are obliged to keep their potatoes in Tumps, perhaps the following additional hints may be of some little service to those who have not the convenience of a dry cellar. When the potatoes are ridged up, ready for covering, let a little straw or dry fern be spread over them, after which let afoot thick of earth be added, chopped, or otherwise rendered as fine as coal ashes ; let neither a foot tread it, nor a spade beat it, but leave the whole as light as the soil will admit of; but where the soil is naturally stiff, a greater thickness of it must be added, and the sides of the ridges to be left as steep as possible, and the lighter the soil is put on, the more frost will it keep out. The reason is obvious enough, for when light soil is laid on steep ridges rain never enters deeper, perhaps, than two or three inches, it being held in a kind of so- lution with the fine earth, by capillary attraction ; or, in other words, the air in the light soil keeps the rain from sinking, consequently it runs down the sides of the ridges, and keeps the interior of the mass as dry as pos- sible, and, of course, the frost never enters to any very great depth. When the soil is trodden, or otherwise made firm, the air beats out of it, every drop of rain en- ters, and smks through the whole mass, then Master Frost takes liberty to follow, vowing vengeance to JMr. Murphy. I preset ved some hundred bags of pota- toes through the last extraordinary winter, as above advised. I am, Sir, yours obediently, JOHN PEARSON. Kinlet Gardens, near Bewdley. Nov. 14. CHRISTMAS OF OLD.-An account of Admiral Russel's punch-bowl, and of his noble treat at Gales, alias Ca(hz, in Spain, on Christmas-day, in the year Sprats (Clupea spraftus) abound on the Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kentish, and other coasts, and afford, during the whole of the winter, a cheap supply of food to both rich and poor. " The largest quantities are taken when the nights are dark and foggy. From 400 to 500 stow boats are employed during the winter. Many thousand tons in some seasons are taken and sold at 6d. and 3d. the bushel, depending on the supply 48 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and demand, to farmers, who distribute about 40 bushels of sprats over an acre of land, and sometimes manure 20 acres at the cost of 20s. an acre. In the ■winter of 1829-30 sprats were particularly abundant ; large loads, containing from 1,000 to 1,500 bushels, bought at 6d. a bushel, were sent up the Medway as far as Maidstone, to manure the hop-grounds. Not- withstanding the immense quantity consumed by the 1,500,000 inhabitants of London and its neighbour- hood, there is yet occasionally a surplus to be disposed of at so low a price as to induce the farmers, even so near the metropolis as Dartford, to use them for ma- nure."— Yarr ell's British Fishes. REMARKS ON DRAINING LAND, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE MOLE-PLOUGH BROUGHT FROM ENGLAND BY HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF HAMILTON. BY MR. AITON, HAMILTON. (From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. Draining of land was, till lately, restricted to the opening of outlets for springs that ©ozed from under the surface of the ground, and ren- dered the soil where it rested damp or marshy ; but that subject has already been so often, and so amply treated of, that it need not be resumed here. Every piece of marshy land requires to be drained in a way adapted to local circum- stances, of which, intelligent farmers and labourers ar« qualified to judge. And in all the arable dis- tricts of Scotland, by far the greatest number of marshy patches of ground have been already drain- ed, and every year some of those that remain are laid dry. Much was for some time said and written about Mr Elkington's discoveries, by which springs and stagnated water, forming marshes, were car- ried off, by merely boring a hole, or sinking a small pit in some particular place, to let the moisture sink from the soil to some under strata of gravel, sand, or other permeable matter, through which it could pass to some other outlet. And in other places, the water pent up under the soil was brought to the surface, and the marshy spot laid dry, by tapping or boring a hole from the surface to where the water was lodged. But however well these modes of draining might do in some districts of England, where the strata are little disturbed, and lie nearly horizontal, in Scot- land, where the strata under the soil are generally much distorted, Mr. Elkington's wimble can seldom be used to advantage, and nothing will do but drains filled with stones, tile, &c. through which the water can percolate. The wimble has therefore been but seldom used in Scotland. The only other method of draining land, that seems necessary to be noticed is that of furroio-drainino-, recently introduced into Scotland, by his Grace the Duke of Portland, and now fast extending over all the arable districts of the kingdom. As this is one of the most important improvements ever introduced into the science of husbandry, and as some diversity of opinion still prevails as to the best methods of conducting it, I feel inclined to offer a few remarks on the subject, as well as to describe a draining or mole plough, that has recently been brought by his Grace the Duke of Hamilton, from the county of Suffolk, to his estates in Scotland, and which seems to merit attention. It is well known to every intelligent farmer, that the greatest hindrance to the prosperity of agricul- ture, and the most serious injury done to the crops of grain, roots, &c. arises from the climate ; and espe- cially in the western districts of Scotland, where the fall of rain is copious, and the time it occupies in falling is greater than on the eastern parts of the island. Where the soil is so permeable to moisture, that the rain water can percolate and find a ready outlet, the superabundance of moisture that falls in rain or snow does little injury to the land or the crops, farther than by carrying away part of the finest of the mould. But where the soil is chiefly composed of clay, loam, or soft earthy matter, the su- perabundant moisture, having no ready outlet, re- mains loitering in the soil, and forms it into mortar, — chills the herbage, banishes the richest grasses, or renders them stunted, and raises coarse subaquatic plants, that are neither relished by, nor nutritive to live stock. Wherever the Carex panicea, or others of that family, set up their blue coloured foliage, they serve to point out to all who see them that the soil is overcharged with moisture, and ought to be furrow drained. We have not yet discovered the means of preventing an over quantity of rain from falling. The cold blast will blow, and the rain and snow will continue to fall, even to an injurious ex- tent. But when the soil is improved by culture, enriched by manure, and opened to receive and carry off the rain-water as it falls, it will not be so much injured b}' the weather, because the tempera- ture of the climate will be in part ameliorated. It has been ascertained beyond controversy, that, when clay- soil that would bring 20s. of yearly rent has been effectually furrow-drained with small stones or tiles, it will repay the expense of draining, from the additional produce obtained from two or three crops, and the land better worth 30s. than it was worth 20s. per acre of rent before being drained. I know of instances where tenants have furrow-drain- ed parts of fields of clayey soil, and the first crop of potatoes amply refunded the expense of draining, (about 5/. per acre,) beyond the return of such parts of the same field, everyway similar, and manured and dressed equally, that had not been furrow-drain- ed. And it has been found, that where strong clay soil has been so drained, that it can be green- cropped aud drill-cropped the same as sandy dry land. Such being the case, it must be great misconduct in any proprietor of such land, and especially if it is situated on the western parts of the island, to allow any part of his property to remain undraincd. By draining such land, employment is carried out for labouring people, the ground rendered from onf- fourth to one-third part more productive of human food. When the Duke of Portland began draining on his estates in Ayrshire, he bad difficulty in getting the tenants to pay 5s. per acre additional of rent, as in- terest of the expense of draining. But in a few years after they all struggled with each other for pre- ference, and were quite ready to pay the additional rent. His Grace has not exacted more than five shillings per acre where the land was under lease ; but when the current leases expire, hu will get twice that sum of additional rent, above what the land of equal quality that has not been drained will yield. I have always been afraid that where fourteen or fifteen inches of clay soil was laid over the tiles, which is done to prevent them from being broken or deranged by the feet of horses or the plough, there was danger that the clay would, after a few years, become so compact above the tiles, that the water on the surface of the ground would not find its way to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49 the conduit formed by the tiles, but remain stagnant on tbe soil above them, and render the drain in some measure nugatory. To prevent this, and secure to the water a free passage to the tiles, I have often suggested the propriety of mixing with the clay a portion of gravel, sand, coal-culm, or other such matter as would give free vent to the water from the surface to the conduit at all limes. The people in Ayrshire, however, seem convinced that my fears are unfounded, as where the drains were formed up- wards of a dozen years ago, they are still answering as well as at first. I shall be glad to find that they may always prove efficient. But I must mention that no drains in clay soil will draw beyond six inches, the surface water must therefore find access into them from under the plough furrow. I am of opinion, that when the drains are dug to the depth of fifteen or sixteen inches, and only two or three inches wide at bottom, well cleaned, and filled four or five inches with stones, broken as small as Macadamized road metal, with three or four inches of sand, gravel or coal culm above the stones, the drains may, where stones abound, or rock is near at hand, be executed at less expense, and prove «very way as effectual, or even more so, than where tiles are used ; and I find that many intelligent far- mers concur in this opinion. Some have formed drains with turf, generally termed wedge-drains. These are certainly the least costly of all drains ; but in clay soil, the wedge of clay, trod firm into the drain, must prevent the water from sinking to tbe conduit below ; and if the wedge is not made firm, or if the soil and subsoil abound with sand or small stones, the conduit will soon fill up and the drain become inefficient. The only other mode of furrow-draining that I have heard of, is forming and completing the drain with something resembling a plough, termed a mole- plough ; and as one of these, formed on the most im- proved planofanyl have ever seen, has recently been putin operation on the estate of his Grace the Duke of Hamilton, and is expected to answer the purpose of draining at a very moderate expense, it seems highly proper that an account of this improved implement should meet the public eye, so that proprietors and occupiers of land may judge how far it merits at- tention. The beam of the mole-plough is eight feet long, strengthened with iron on the underside, and having two handles behind, by which it is guided. A plate of iron, ten inches broad, one inch in thickness, and about twenty inches long, is fixed into the beam by iron wedges, like a coulter, and it can be let down or drawn up to make the conduit for the water farther or nearer to the surface of the ground at pleasure. On the lower end of this plate, the mole, or conical shaped sock, about eighteen inches long, three inches deep, and two and a half inches wide, is fixed ; and which, when the plough is moved forward, forms and leaves open a conduit to carry off the water that may fall into it from the surface, by the slit formed by the broad plate of iron, which is thinned away in the fore edge. A slight furrow slice is generally cut by a common plouo;h, in the direction in which the drain is to be formed, and which may be replaced when the drain is finished ; and as the sock is generally fixed at fifteen inches from the beam, and as the beam moves in the furrow cut by the common plough, the bottom of the conduit is about eighteen inches below the surface of the ground ; but this depth can be altered by raising or lowering tbe plate in the beam, as has been mentioned. The apparatus by which the mole plough is moved consists of a strong platform of wood (well support- ed with iron) six feet long, and four broad, sur- mounted on four wheels, one at each corner, those before being thirty, and the two behind, twenty inches diameter. A capstan is placed in tbe middle of the platform, having its upper axle fixed in a strong beam of wood, supported by bars of iron at four feet above the platform, Tbe capstan is four and a half feet in circumference, eighteen inches in length or height, and is moved round by two horses by a shaft placed horizontally on the axle of the cap- stan ; and by means of a strong chain, 58 yards long, and weighing eight and a halfhundred weight, brings up the mole-plough to within two or three yards of the platform, by 22 circuits of the horses, and which they make generally in twelve minutes ; and as the platform can be removed to a new station in the space of three minutes more, a drain can be formed about 210 or 215 yards in length every hour. To keep tbe platform firm in its place, a strong piece of timber, having a prong of iron, is fixed by a hinge to each of the two hindermost corners of the platform, and which, pointing diagonally, sinks into the ground whenever the horses are put in motion. There are besides two anchors at the fore corners of the platform, which keep the platform from being moved backward by the draught of the chain, which draws up the plough at the rate of fifty-five yards in twelve minutes. So that, with two horses and three men, this plough can be made to form a drain in everj-- furrow of an acre of land, where the ridges do not exceed fifteen feet in breadth, in the space of seven hours or thereby ; which is certainly the most speedy and least expensive mode of furrow-draining land that has vet been invented. It appears to me, however, that although the con- duit formed by the plough may generally remain open for a good many }:ears and its dimensions may be sufficient to carry off all the water that can ever fall into it in ordinary weather ; yet I am afraid that the slit formed by the broad plate of iron be- tweeen the surface of the ground and the pipe, being onlv one inch wide, may in a short time, from the vicissitudes of the weather, and pressure of the feet of cattle, collapse, so as to prevent the water from having free access from the surface of the ground to the conduit ; and if so, the draining would be rendered nugatory. If the mole-plough is put in mo- tion in very soft clay, the slit will not remain open for even a single day; and though it may remain open for a time it will close whenever the clay is drenched in moisture. It can only be used in clay-soils, and to the greatest effect in old pasture land. It is fair however, to state, that it is well attested, that the land drained by the mole plough in the county of Suffolk several years ago, has more than answered the expectations formed of its utility. As that on the Hamilton estate was only drained last spring, all that can be said respecting it is, that the drains are in general open, and discharging water that could not fail to injure the soil ; although in some few places the conduit has been obstructed, and the water has burst up to the surface. The season having been wet, the sedge grasses are still growing- over the drains; but some who know the ground well, think the herbage is of darker colour than for- merly. TO LANDLORDS.— I invite the attention of young landed proprietors to a subject on which their incomes, as well as the national prosperity depends. The Highland Society has offered their gold and silver medals without limit as to numbers, to travellers who may notice and E 50 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. repnrt improvement in rural economy abroaJ. And these 3>rizes seem most judicious, the value of such medals may be small, but to tliose in easy circumstances the stimulous maybe great; a blue ribbon is of little in- trinsic worth, and yet it probably has led to much use- ful exertion to merit the distinction. Sea birds are shot by sportsmen who do not even stoop to pick them up , the pleasure arising' from the skill shown in aiming' well being- the sole reward of a toilsome day's work. How much more interesting' then may it prove to an intelli- g-ent youth to notice the customs of the countries he travels throug'h, with the view of his report placing' him amongst the benefactors of his native land. A domestic affliction which befel Sir J. Sinclair, induced him to travel, disinclined him to dissipation, and led him to ob- serve the agriculture of the continent— and to form ac- quaintance with such distinguished persons there as could assist his future researches. And, in endeavour- ing' to confer benefits on others he recovered his own spirits and activity. And the Highland Ag'ricultural Society bears grateful testimony to the extent of his services in promoting' impro^ementSjWhich South Britain is now endeavouring to emulate, J. S. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND. [A letter from Lord Western upon this subject has recently been published by Ridgway ; we give the following extract from it, and strongly recom- mend the perusal of the whole to our readers as containing much useful information. — Ed. F. M.] The system I advise and practice is, in the first place, studiously to drain off the springs from out of the earth by deep under drains (no open gripps), and then lead them by various means, according to the form of the ground, and as far as the levels will permit, together with every drop oi flood water that can be collected, on and over all pasture lands ; not allowing the water to hang certainly, far from it ; on the contrary, care must be taken that it shall be in constant motion, and have free passage to go off; the slower it moves perhaps the better, because it de- posits more of the sediment it brings with it. This sediment is the finer and softer mould of the fields, from whence it comes ; in this country it comes loaded with richness from our fallow fields, and is more efficacious even than the dung cart in giving permanent value, whilst vegetation is hastened, and a beautiful herbage is produced much earlier than in grounds not so treated. The means adopted to lead the water ou and over lands, are not easy to describe. 1 must refer you to the various authors who have treated the science fully, and to whom 1 would wish you to have re- course ; but the practical man will learn more in an hour, by seeing and examining the work that is done, than by weeks of study. Where the lands lay naturally sloping ever so little, catch work, as it is termed, is always easy ; here the springs or floods are caught and turned, as the natural variations of level will admit. Flat meadows must be thrown into arti- ficial inclined planes, like a wide land, or stetch of twelve or sixteen furrows, the water being led along the middle, which is the highest part, in a small channel, overflowing the lips of it regularly as it goes, and trickling down the inclined plane on each side into drains resembling the stetch furrows ; and this, when there is a stream flowing abundantly summer and winter, I shall call irrigation, as dis- tinguished from catching of springs and floods, where the ground is naturally formed into such in- clined planes as admit of its being done. We have then irrigation, catch ivork of springs avd flood water combined, catch work of springs alone, and catch work of winter floods alone ; and here let me observe, that the catching of winter flood water only may be ac- complished very often, and almost always with great facility. I hardly know a farm in which some op- portunity does not occur of rendering flood water available ; and of its utility one experiment will suf- fice to satisfy the most incredulous. The quality of soil makes no difference, because all are benefited by the accession of fine mould, of which these floods are the carriers ; and none are injured by flowing water. Catch work consists simplv in diverting the na- tural course of the water, and leading it in one less rapid; that which you choose for it must be, indeed, falling, but as near a perfect level as will suffice to keep the water on in constant gentle motion ; then, by putting a little stop (a spade full of earth) in this new channel, here and there, it will flow over its lips generally, and water gradually the space between it and its 7ia£itra< channel. To find this new channel, if the case is difficult, an experienced man with a spirit-level must be employed : in common cases, to catch spring or flood water, it may be done by an ex- pert husbandman, who is accustomed to drainage, and has an accurate eye. I have, in some instances, found it practicable to set in a ploughman with a pair of horses, directing him to fix his plough in the natural water-course, and take his line in any direc- tion that appears the nearest to the level where he stands, without making it an absolute and perfect level; he must work out his furrow, however cir- cuitous his course mav be, in such direction as that the water shall slowly follow him as he goes. His course will, indeed, often be very curved, according to the variations of the level of the ground. But this circumstance must not be regarded ; he must follow this sole and simple rule, nor will any loss of ground or injury to the meadow follow. The bottom of this channel must be enlarged and finished with the spade, and will be coated with grass soon, and fed when the floods are gone, or the springs let off • again. I can shew an instance, of which there would be many, no doubt, where a meadow has thus been managed, and flood water effectually laid on, -at the expense of a few shillings. The beneficial effects are immediate and accumulative, if I may so express myself; each successive j-ear increasing the store of wealth thus annually brought. I have one channel thus formed not six weeks ago,* which, watering a piece of grass land, exhibits at this moment, in a most striking manner, the influ- ence merely of our last floods ; the herbage shooting forth so much more vigorously, thick, and beautiful, than in the part of the field not watered. I do not say in poor sandy countries the floods would be so immediately productive, nor, indeed, at any time so productive as here. This is the county of all others in which they must be most charged with value, from the extent and quality of our arable lands ; ac- cordingly, I say, we of all others should adopt and would benefit by the practice. * Written in May, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ;i NEW BREEDS OF SHEEP. COPY OF A LETTER FROM C. T. TOWER, ESQ., TO EARL SPENCER. Weald Hall, Dec. 15, 1838. Dear Lord Spencer — My friend and neighbour, Lord Western, in bis letter to you of recent publica- tion, propounds three modes, by either of "which he states a new breed of sheep may be created. Hav- ing had considerable experience for many j'ears ia breeding Merino sheep and crosses from it, I am induced to trouble your lordship with the following remarks as applicable to some, if not all those modes. In 1810-11,1 imported from Spain a considerable flock of Merino sheep. I also, with a view to an experiment with our native breeds, purchased through the late Mr. EUman, of his Grace the Duke of Bedford, a number of Southdown ewes, and crossed them with a Merino ram. In each successive year, I put the produce to another Merino ram, asd in the course of eight or ten years that stock became so identified, both in appearance and every other quality, with the pure stock kept, and fed together, and distinctly ear-marked as lambs, that in few in- stances could any difference be discerned in them. Finding this, therefore, to be only a circuitous mode of getting back to the Merino breed, I determined about six or seven years ago on another experiment, the object of which was to give permanence to that breed, which would better unite the properties of a fleece far superior to any of the British breeds would yield, on a carcase more readily disposed to receive fat than that of the Merino breed of sheep. For this purpose I obtained from a friend a handsome ram, half Leicester and half Cheviot, which, being put to some Merino ewes, produced excellent lambs. From this first cross I then selected the best rams, and bv putting them to the same breed of first crossed ewes, established a distinct and valuable sort, which I then termed creating a new breed of sheep. It is quite clear, that as long as a similar course is pursued, similar results must follow. 'J"6 give uniformity to any breed so established, it is obvious that the great- est care must be taken in the selection of stock for breeding, rejecting every peculiarity that does not harmonise with the general character of sheep you wish to establish, more especially in the rams. To avoid degeneracy from breeding in, and in the adop- tion of it rather extensively by breeders will become essential, otherwise recourse must necessarily be had again to the original combination. Being a breeder, and not a feeder, I regret that I have it not in my power to exhibit at this show any fat carcase worthy of the public eye. Indeed, my park being close fed with deer and abundance of other stock, and by no means of good quality, affords only a state of store condition to my flock, ill adapted to be placed any where near those gaudy carcases, by which this exhibition is ornamented. Ifyour lordship, how- ever, or any other agriculturist, will do me the honour to inspect these sheep, they will see some useful, pretty framed sheep, wliether for upland or lowland, carryinu; fleeces well adapted for fane comb- ing purposes (a description of wool very much in de- mand), grown on hardy sheep, with carcases little affected by their afiinity to the Merino breed ; a breed of which it must fairly be admitted that, however deli- cious the mutton and invaluable the fleece, a natural tendency to obesity is not its distinguishing charac- teristic.— I am, my dear lord, yours very sincerely, C.T. TOWER. To the Right Him. Earl Spencer, Sfc. &c. IMPORTANT AGRICULTURAL MEET- ING AT MARKETHILL. (abridged from THE NEWRY TELEGRAPH.) Lord Gosford's Farmer's Dinner was held here (Markethill), a few days ago. The tempestuous state of the weather prevented many gentlemen from a distance attending ; and the absence of Colonel Close, of Drumbanagher, of Mr. Mit- chell, of Carrickmacross, agent to Mr. Shirley's extensive property, and of Mr. Rose, an eminent improver from the neighbourhood of Monaghan, were particularly regretted, much practical informa- tion having been expected from the latter gentleman upon one of the subjects discussed — the advantage of furrow draining. The lion of the day, however, was Mr. Van Buren, son to the President of the United States, who ho- noured the meeting by his presence, anxious to add to his knowledge of the highest society in this coun- try, an acquaintance with the habits, manners, and modes of thinking of the middle classes, those who form the soul and substance of the State. Among the other strangers, those most distinguished were Mr. Mollony, a gentleman of property in county Clare ; Mr. Boyd, of Ballymacool, county Donegall ; Mr. Taaft'e, from county Sligo, and Mr. Jamieson, manager of the Waste Land Company's estates, in that part of Ireland ; Mr. Milne, agriculturist to Colonel Close, one of the Judges; besides some of the principal tenants on Lord Charleraont's. and other neighbouring estates, Mr. M'Anally, and several of the gentlemen of Markethill, and the chief tenants on the Gosford Estate, who, together with the successful candidates, are always included in the invitations by his Lordship's desire. The Earl of Gosford, who presided, addressed the company, and alluded to the standing rules of the meeting — that no controversial or political sub- jects should be iutroduced, nor any toasts proposed not sanctioned by the Chair. His Lordship con- cluded by giving the health of " Her Gracious Ma- jesty the Queen, with long life and good health to her and those who wished her well." After which followed the usual standard toasts of "The Duke of Sussex and the other branches of the Royal Fa- mily,"— "The Army and Navy"— and " Lord Lieu- tenant and prosperity to Ireland." His Lordship then called the attention of the company to the un- usual circumstance of having so distinguished a stranger present as the son of the President of the United States of America, from whom he (Lord G.^ had very recently received the kindest reception during his short stay at Washington, where, never- theless, he had had full time to satisfy himself of the friendly disposition, uprightness, integrity, and sin- cerity of the government ; and, also, to observe the kind feeling almost universally existing towards these countries. He trusted, therefore, the company would receive, with the greatest satisfaction, " The health of Mr. Van Buren, President of the United States of America," in whose son he was happy to trace the same talents and friendly dispositions by which his near relative was so highly distinguished. This toast having been drunk with the greatest en- thusiasm, Mr. Van Buren, jun., returned thanks to the noble Chairman for proposing, and to the company for the cordial manner in which thpy had received, this sentiment; and concluded by proposing, "The health of the Earl of Gosford." The Earl of Gosford, having returned thanks in the most feeling manner for the compliment paid E 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. him by Mr. Van Buren and the meeting, concluded by calling on Mr. Blacker to proceed with the busi- ness of the evening by reading out the premium list, and calling upon the successful candidates to state, as usual, the benefits, if anv, which they had re- ceived under the change of system in their mode of cultivation. ]\Ir. Blacker then rose, and, addressing his Lord- ship, mentioned that the practice had been not to continue premiums to those who had already ob- tained them for three succeeding years, as they ought then to be sensible whether the plan recom- mended was or was not worth pursuing for its own sake ; without which was the case, to give premi- ums to introduce it would only be money thrown away. He then read over a long list of names of premium men, who are now only entitled to certifi- cates J and also manj^ others, who, though in a higher rank than to claim premiums, were distin- guished by their adoption of the new system from conviction. He then mentioned that all the candi- dates for the best cultivated farms, being in what is termed the four-course rotation, the judges had been directed to give a preference to those who had the best provision for the winter feeding of their stock, and also the more eminent exertions of the indivi- dual in arriving at his present state ; and after cau- tioning nil the parties to be careful not to state any- thing which they could not fully substantiate, if called on next day, which might probably be the case from so man};^ strangers being present, he de- clared Mr. James Bradford, of Druminnis, as en- titled to the first premium for best cultivation, on a farm of 5 acres and 3 roods, in which there was considerable waste by roads, and the rent 61. 12s. 8d. Mr. Bradford's health being drunk, and success to his exertions, he came forward in the room and stated that, in the year 1829 (before Lord Gosford purchased Colonel Graham's estate, on which he lived) he was in a heavy arrear of 21i., owing to a fever which had attacked himself and a young fa- mily, and had disabled him from paying off what the former occupier had left due on the farm, which was then only 2\ acres ; that he was so reduced he had been obliged to borrow 30s. from the late curate, Mr. Lofty, to keep his family from starving ; that ever since he had come under his Lordship, and had adopted the green crop system, he had been gra- dually improving in his circumstances. He had paid off his arrear and his other debts, and had nearly cleared off the purchase of better than three acres more land. He had, be- sides, made his house comfortable, and had laid out about 10/. worth of lime since then upon his land, and had got two good cows and two good pigs, whereas in 1829 he had no stock of any kind ; and added, that upon a former occasion he had made something of a similar statement, which he was now glad to repeat before his Lordship — only this was better — as he was yearly improving, and he had quite given up sowing one grain crop on the stubble of another, which he strongly recommended every other farmer to do. He concluded by saying lie humbly thanked his Lordship and Mr. Blacker for their kindness, and Mr. Bruce* for his instructions. His Lordship here recommended all occupiers of land to attend to Bradford's example— to leave off the practice of sowing grain crops in succession, and concluded by giving as a toast, " Alternate cropping, the farmer's surest profit." • The sjriculturist for the instruction of the te- nants. Mr. Robert Mitchell, of Drumhee Cross, having been announced as having obtained the second pre- mium for best cultivated farms, next came forward; his farm being 14 acres, at a rent of 14/. IBs. He staled that, in the year 1833, he had but one cow, and an indifferent horse, and his rent then was only 8/. 16s., and he was in 8/. of arrears ; but now, in the year 1838, by changing his mode of cultivation,^ he had three cows, one heiter, and one calf, and a right good young horse ; that he had paid off full 50/. of old debts and all his arrears, besides laving out 12/. worth of lime ; and that, whereas he formerly had scarce two acres of potatoes, and those, from the want of stock and house feeding, badly manured, he now had four acres of potatoes and three roods of turnips, right well manured, and he could pay the advanced rent without trouble, as the company might well believe when he told them, he could, of late years, sell from 40/. to 50/. worth of produce off his farm, when formerly he could not sell more than 10/. to 12/. His Lordship here observed, that the company might readily imagine the comfort which Mitchell and his family must enjoy, now that they were free from debt, and were receiving so much better a re- turn for their labour, and he thought they would all drink, with pleasure — " Peace and plenty to Mr. Mitchell, and long life and good health to enjoy it." Mr. Blacker here pointed out that Mitchel was a strong instance of the truth of what he had always stated — that the man who grows the most turnips would always be able to plant the most potatoes, for the turnips not only gave plenty for their own cultiva- tion, but a great surplus also to be given to the potatoes. Mitchell had formerly, when he had no turnips, only two acres of potatoes, badly manured, and now he had four acres, well manured, and nearly an acre of turnips besides. Many people he had seen who, after first getting into a stock of manure had been foolish enough to rob the turnip crop of its proper share, and put the whole under potatoes. Ttis was like robbing the nest of the nest e^^ ; and of course they fell back the following year, as might be expected, and the second start was always more difficult than the first, except when clover, by house feeding, brought another trial within their power. Mr. Samuel Loudon was then called forward as getting the third premium. Mr. Blacker introduced him to his Lordship as a most industrious tenant, and a most thankful, contented, cheerful fellow, ■whose farm it was a pleasure to visit ; that he under- stood he had more than his rent by the sale of his butter, but that it would be perhaps more satis- factory to hear the account of it from himself — he would only add that he held nearly 8J acres, and paid 9/. 18s. rent. Loudon then confirmed what had been stated as to paying his rent by his butter ; said he had now two cows in place of one as formerly, and would be able to keep a third next year. He said he bad been friglitened at seeing Mr. Bruce as if he had been a boggleboo, the first time he came to him, but now was glad to see him, and he wondered at his own stu- pidity, and freely acknowledged all his former ob- stinacy and ignorance, and said he was now well content. He had a right good crop of oats, two ex- cellent ])igs that would be fit to pay the rent if he had nothing else to do it with ; that he had increased his potato crop since last year one acre, and had no more to say but that he was content and happy, and most grateful to his Lordship and those under him. Mr. Blacker said, that if some of the company were surprised at what they had just heard, he had another case to bring forward, which would surprise THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. S3 them still more, and called upon Robert M'Cammon, who was one of those in tlie list of persons who bad already obtained three prizes, and asked him if it was true what he had heard, that he had sold 71, 10s, worth of butter, made from the milk of one cow, since November, 18371 M'Cammon upoa this came forward and said it was true enough, that he had a cow which had calved at November, he had plenty of turnips to feed her with, and bad sold, i« Armagh, from that time to thcs present, ISOlbs. of butter, at an average of lOd. per pound, which was just 71. 10s. Mr. Blacker here said that he could not help calling attention to the great return which a cow might make if well fed and taken care of. M'Cam- mon had only three acres of land, and his rent was ;3/. 10s. He bad, therefore, it appeared, made more than double his rent by his cow, besides having the buttermilk for his family. If M'Camraon's cow had not been well fed on turnips, she would not have given one-half the milk she did ; and, in place of giving, perhaps, sixteen or seventeen quarts of milk, worth ad. a quart, or 2s. 8d. per day, she would soon have fallen ofl' to six or seven, and ultimately, would scarci^ly have paid for her keep upon straw alone, and the farmer would have only a halt-starved animal to look at, without any thing from her pro- duce to put in his pocket. Mr. B. here observed that time was wearing on so fast that he did not like to occupy the company too long upon any one subject, as there were other important discussions to follow. He would, therefore, omit to call on the remainder of the prpmium men in the class of best cultivated farms, and merely say of Mr. M'Cutcheon, JMr. Beattv, and Mr. M'Parlan, the remaining success- ful competitors, that there could not be better la- bourers, or more thriving, industrious tenants, any where ; and he would only venture to trespass on the meeting to pass a remark on M'Parlan, who would have ranked near the top, in place of being last in the list, if be had not neglected his turnij) crop. The experience of this season, which had been so unusually wet, would show to those who had heavy clay land, that it was better not to stir the ground, particularly where horses were used, during the wet weather; and it would likewise shew them that the turnip crop need never be despaired of, if there were plants enough in the ground, and the crop put in in good time. A crop might be good once, in a dozen years, though sowed late. But the thing for a farmer to consider was not what in an ac- cidental season might succeed, but what in any sea- son icas sure not to Jail. There was always, in the wettest seasons, some dry interval in which the cul- tivation of a turnip crop might be attended to ; and there were many instances of worse crops than M'Parlan's having been recovered by care, and were now most luxuriant. Mr. B. here produced a , small instrument with three teeth, made like a rake, (or drag for weeding hedges), and fastened into the handle of an old reaping hook, which he mentioned to have been of the greatest possible utility in stir- ring the ground between the plants, m the drill which the rain had beat into a solid mass, and the horse hoe could not get at ; it cost only 2d. or 3d., and had nearly doubled the produce on some plots, being applicable where the crop was so far advanced as not to admit of any other implement — and it was the most expeditious and useful little implement that could be imagined ; and by going backwards, when using it, and holding on one side, with one hand, the leaves of the plants, winlst the ground was loosened all round them with the other, the earth was left as open and free from weeds as the day the drills were formed. He also praised very highly an improvement in the pony plough, invented by Mr. Bruce. His Lordship here mentioned the importance that was attached to the turnip crop by his tenants in Suffolk, where, to attempt to hold land without the turnip manure, would be considered an absolute absurdity. He then gave, as a toast, " A speedy- increase to turnip husbandry." After which he briefly, but in a very complimentary manner, pro- posed " The health of Mr. Van Buren, their dis- tinguished guest." Mv. Van Burkn replied in a manner very grati- fying to the company, by saying that he had so many- Irishmen fellow-citizens in the United States, he almost considered Ireland as his country, and cer- tainly felt himself very much at home amongst those who surrounded him. However, as he had already trespassed very much on their attention, he felt it would be justly punishable if he repeated the of- fence, and would, therefore, merely confine himself to simply thanking his Lordship and the company for the honor they liad done him. His Lordship now called on Mr. Blacker to pro- ceed with the list of successful Candidates for best turnip crops, upon which it appeared that Mr. J. Cochran was entitled to the first premium. On his health being drank, Mr. C. fully confirmed the benefit to be derived from the turnip crop, and said he had increased his quantity every year since he began, and would not be without them on any ac- count. Jacob Albin was next called forward as being entitled to the second premium for best turnips, who said he had lately bought the farm he was in, con- taining nearly 62 acres, for whicli iie had paid 70/.; that last year he found so much benefit from the tur- nips he had, that he bought as many as he could get from those who had any to dispose of; that this year he bad sown more, and would have enough tor him- self; that he was increasing his potatoes as well as his turnips, and had now actually as much manure as people he knew with 22 acres, in other parts of the country. Mr. Blacker here again apologized for taking up so much time with the Premium Lists, the details of which, however, he thought would be gratifying to all those present ; but he would now, with his Lord- ship's permission, pass over the remainder of the names, with only a passing remark as to their being all most deserving men. He then read out the names of James Al'Connell, of Cornecrew, entitled to Snl premium for best turnips; William Campbell, of Argonnell, 4th premium ; Robert Maxwell, of Ar- gonnell, 5th premium ; and John Beatty, of Corne- crew, 6th premium ; and concluded by proposing " The healths of Mr. Milne and Mr. Bruce, the Judges.' Mr. Milne rose and spoke as follows : — My Lord and Gentlemen, — Having had the honor of being appointed by you this year, as on former occasions, one of the Judges for the premiums on Lord Gosford's estates, I am happy to state that the improvements are still increasing, with the people's anxiety for the same ; and likewise, their anxious- ness tor a succession of green food for Winter. Having seen the benefit of such in visiting their farms, 1 was surprised to see so many fine fields of turnips, after such a wet season. In regard to the Drumbanagher estates, I am doing my utmost to improve the appearance of the country, by advising the tenantry to dispense with all their crooked inside fences; and, by the encouragement given by Col. Close and Mr. Blacker, in allowing premiums and 54 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. other assistance, there is a daily advancement mak- ing in this and the squaring of farms, &c. The system of house-feeding and green crops has in- creased considerably this season ; and by this prac- tice I find very few but are able to manure the fourth or fifth part of their farms each year ; like- wise, more attention is paid to the Winter saving of the clover, &c., and the ploughing up land intended for potatoes and turnips before the Winter frost. The Vice-President, Mr. M'Anaixy, then pro- posed " The health of Lord Acheson," which was enthusiastically received by the company, and was replied to by Lord Gosford. His Lordship then proposed " The healths of Mr, Molloney and Mr. Boyd, and the other strangers who had honoured them with their company." To this toast both these gentlemen successively replied, in a manner most gratifying to the Meeting. Mr. Boyd made a statement of the success which had attended his first year's exertions, which will be found annexed (see statement, No. 1) with other statements referred to; and Mr. Molloney concluded by proposing Mr. Blacker's health, to the value of whose exertions, and the great extent to which his influence had extended, both these gentlemen bore ample testimony. Mr. Blacker, in returning thanks, said : — I am glad to avail myself of this opportunity to correct a misapprehension which has been, I have observed, in many instances taken up — first, that the turnip crop is the sole criterion of improved farming — and, secondly, that the cattle ought to be kept constantly confined to the house from year's end to year's end. I have never insisted upon either of these points, though I know they have been attributed to me. In regard to the first, you must all know, that in many soils, and under many circumstances, potatoes may be preferred : for instance, in very stiff clay, in soils not well drained, and where the land is but re- cently reclaimed, and not yet pulverised sufficiently for so small a seed — and likewise when there is plenty of fuel, which removes one great objection to the potato as a permanent article of food, because by boiling it is rendered wholesome in constant use, which it otherwise most assuredly is not. Where, however, circumstances are at all favourable, I strongly recommend turnips as the cheapest and best food which can be produced, and I am glad to see that every year not onl)^ on the Gosford Estate but in those surrounding, th:s crop is annually getting into more favour. Several of the Gosford tenants have increased their quantities to one, two and three acres, and, generally speaking, those that are the best farmers are the most partial to them : as in- stances, in the surrounding country, I might mention as most distinguished, Mr. Dougan, of Bellalin, Mr. Scott, of Lurgaboy, and Mr. Pillow and Mr. Dobbin, of Ternascobe. The turnip crop this year is not so good as last, and I would wish to take this op- portunity of mentioning that they should not be used too freely at first, where they are not in great plenty, but kept to April, and May, when the fodder begins to get dry and fusty, at which time a few turnips are invaluable to the farmer who has any re- gard for the condition of his stock, as with turnips cattle will eat fodder of any kind, however bad it may be. In regard to the second point of keeping the cattle constantly in the house, I have alwavs advocated the use of a straw-yard, or a small pad- dock, or even to put them out upon a tether for a certain portion of the day — and where clover will not come to the scythe, or after being twice cut, I see no objection to their being allowed to graze upon what would ptbej-wise go to loss when the ground is dry and the weather not severe. In Berwickshire, one of the best farmed districts in Scotland, I believe the five-course shift is in the most general use, which admits of the cattle being pastured almost entirely on the second year's clover. So that in itself the cattle being allowed to pastare is no conclusive argument that the agriculture is bad — on the con- trary, I would rather recommend the five-course to such large farmers as there are in Berwickshire, because, and I beg your attention to it, they could not keep the requisite stock in the house without incurring more expense in labour and management than the saving in food would pay them for. They therefore appear to me to be right in adopting that rotation, and they make up for the loss of manure by bone dust and by stall feeding in winter, to a great extent, on large breadths or turnips. But in our case, here, I recommend the four-course rotation and the greater confinement of the cattle, because the wives and families of the small farmers can attend to all the stock the farm can support, without entailing on the farmer any extra expense whatever. Another misapprehension has been, that I am partial to the creation of small farms : on the contrary, this is a matter which has been forced upon me by the state of things previously existing, and I am very glad to assist the different premium meninencreasing theirs, which they are almost every one doing. I merely contend that it is cruel to turn out small farmers, en masse, if they can be got to cultivate their farms so as to live comfortably, and 1 think it is impolitic tc do so in any country where tenants, with proper capital to cultivate large ones, cannot always be had. I have known men improved in their comfort and circumstances hy having their farms reduced to what their capabilities were equal to. Having said thus much in explanation of the misconceptions I have alluded to, it may, perhaps, be as well to state that what I have insisted on as absolutely necessary in im- proved cultivation, is to prevent the land being ex- hausted by successive corn crops, and in this res- pect I am not afraid to state to your Lordship and to this meeting that this practice is, I may say, entirely exploded. No one now pretends to argue in favour of it as a practice to be persisted in, although in some i&w cases, in order to bring each field into the same crop, it may, perhaps, be partially adopted to a very small extent. The universal introduction of clover, sowed with the first grain crop after the manure, proves this to demonstration, because it is a proof that is plain to be seen ; and it is only wonderful that the practice should have so long prevailed, for it is well known that a good English clover, cut and carried to the cattle, will feed three cows for the summer months, and sup- posing each to yield but 31. worth of butter, that would amount to 91. per acre for the clover crop, besides the butter-milk and manure, which would be cheap at 2/. more. Thus a good crop of clover is nearly worth two second crops of grain, besides that the crop succeeding the clover is fully equal to the crop after the manure. This is now beginning, from experience, to be understood, and I have found that experience alone will carry conviction to those who stand most in need of instruction, for invariably the more ignorant the person is the more conceited he is of his own skill. This is most strongly ex- emplified in the cultivation of the turnip crop ; several still persist in the practice of not hoeing out their crop until the thinnings are sufficiently grown to afford, as they term it, a bite for their cattle, iKhich may be compared to saving a penny and losing a pound. Others consider their crop as lost because it does not exhibit a flourishing appearance early iq THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 55 the season, and will not believe that, by perse- verance, and keeping' the ground loose about them, their crop may be recovered. Many turnip crops have been lost this year from this cause. Having made these tew observations, I have only to express my hopes that the striinpjers present, should they go out to visit his Lordship's property to-morrow, vphich, perhaps, some may be inclined to do, will not expect to find the entire property improved to the same extent as the farmers in the premium list have described — and will keep in mind that the failure of the potato crop for three years in succession, has materially retarded the small farmers' advance- ment. It must be understood that the premiums and certificate men are the most deserving on the estate, and, of course, the others are not on a par with them ; but any one going out to inspect will see, from the clover now visible, that both the second grain crop, and the useless pasture are ex- ploded, and that a decided improvement is in pro- gress ; and I am always sorry wljen expectations are raised beyond this point. I beg to return thanks for the flatterino- observations which have been made in regard to myself, and will not longer detain the company. The next toast given was " Colonel Close, and success to the improving tenants on his estate," which was replied to by his agriculturist, Mr. Milne, who handed in sundry statements to Mr. Blacker of the progress of the tenants under his care, which will be found subjoined, and are highly creditable to bis exertions. , (See No. 2.) His Lordship then gave " the health of Mr. Binns, and success to the Lancaster Farming So- ciety,'' prefacing his tonst by stating, how much we ought all to feel indebted to that gentleman for the ho- nourable mention he had made of this part of the country in bis interesting work entitled "The Beauties and Miseries of Ireland." Mr. Binns was one of the Agricultural Poor Law Commissioners, and no man could be a more competent judge in such matters, and he was glad to find he had been lately advocating the introduction of the green crop system and housefeeding into his own neighbourhood in Lancashire. Mr. Blacker rose to reply to this toast, and having the pleasure of knowing Mr. Binns, ventured to say, on his behalf, that he would feel highly gratified by the compliment just paid him, and certainly no person had higher claims on the good feeling of this meeting. He (Mr. Binns) was so struck with the almost uninterrupted sheet of grain crops which covered the face of the country, and the absence of pasture, that he seemed to feel a conviction, that there was no safety for the English farmer except in adopting the same system, and he had ordered over several of the little pamphlets on the improvement of small farms, which were familiar to most of the company, for distribution in Lancaster, and the company would be gratified to hear that so many more had been circulated by others in different parts of England, that he (Mr. B.) had been induced to send a number of them to Ridgway's and Groom- bridge's in London for sale ; and certainly it did appear to him, both from his own observation and from what appeared in different farming publications, that there was as great a want of the practical ap- plication of the principles therein inculcated in many pbrts of England, as there was in most parts of Ireland. As the proceedings of this meeting gene- rally found tbei'- way into the columns of the En- glish agricultural papers, he would take the liberty of drawing the attention of the farmers in those parts of the empire to the advantage they would deriye from changing their present system and practising the alternate system of husbandry, which these pamphlets inculcated by arguments adapted to the humblest capacity. He was principally induced to advert to this subject, from seeing in that very useful publication, " the Farmer's Magaziyie" (in the number for November last), an account of the prizes distributed by the Ashfon Farming Society, in which he was almost inclined to think there must be some mistake, for in the adjudication of the pre- miums for the best cultivated farms, Mr. Winder's farm, to which the first prize was awarded, was stated to contain 165 acres, 1 rood and 2 perches, but in the specification of the crops there were only 112 or 113 acres accounted for, and of these none at all were under grain crops, which led him to suppose that the grain crops had, by mistake, been omitted ; but this will only tend to make the com- parison the more striking, for it appeared by a list given him by Mr. Bruce, his Lordship's Agricul- turist (see No. 3), that upon 115 acres, of which 3^ were unfit for cultivation, the tenants here, although having h^lf this land under grain crops, keep a better stock than Mr. Winder is stated to have upcn the 113 acres, of which the particulars are given, besidesal- lowing to him the advantage of all the fodder which might be derivable from the grain and other crops, which it would appearhad been omitted to be noticed upon the rest of the farm, consisting of about 52 acres. The comparison stands thus: — His Lord- ship's tenants have 30 dairy cows against Mr. Wind- er's 19 dairy cows. The heifers are alike, being 10 m each — but there are 9 horses here against his 4, and 30 pigs against his 4, besides a bull and 4 calves — so that the Gosford tenants have the advantage by 11 cows, 5 horses, 26 pigs, with a bull and 4 calves, to set against Mr, Winder's remaining stock of 7 yearlings, 7 calves, and 20 ewes, and 8 lambs ; from which it is evident the comparison is greatly in our favour. And it is rendered still more remarkable by this consideration, that besides the half of the Gos- ford tenants' land being in grain, nearly one-fourth was in potatoes for the consumption of their fami- lies ; and the 9 horses, though fed on the land, were, in point of fact, not employed half their time in the cultivation of tbeir farms, but were engaged in other work ; and it appears Mr. Winder has been obliged to purchase large quantities of manure, whilst we make what is amply sufficient on the farms. The use of all farming publications is to bring such results as these into comparison : even the practice de- scribed as followed on the prize farm at the Lan- caster meeting would not appear by any means su- perior ; more than the half of the entire is inraeadow and pasture; the consequence of which is an immense outlay in manure which the farm itself ought to pro- vide. We are not furnished with the stock kept, and therefore cannot enter into any strict comparison of produce, but I see that Mr. Scott sanctions two grain crops in succession, that is wheat and barley, and he sows his clover and grass seeds with the lat- ter : whereas, we think this to be decidedly a bad practice, and that the seeds, if hE(rrowed well in Spring, upon the growing wheat, or covered with the rake as we sometimes do, would greatly improve the wheat crop and make the clover and grass seeds yield at least one third, or I might say oce half more. i trust neither Mr. Binns nor Mr. Scott will be offended at my making these observations, for I as- sure them they are made in the most friendly spirit, and with the wish to excite a spirit of inquiry and examination, which if it could be made general would be attended with the very best effects ; and without such being the CP,se The Farmers' Magaziric 56 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. would lose half its utility. I am sensible I have trespassed too long on your attention, hut the im- portance of the subject has led me unawares to this great length of observation ; and even now, I can- not sit down without pressing upon the English landlords and Agricultural Societies, that if their farmers are ignorant and uninstructed, the natural remedy is what I have advocated, viz. to get people to teach them ; if they cannot send the whole popu- lation of their district to Scotland, let them bring a Scotchman to them ; if tliey cannot bring the moun- tain to Mahomet, bring Mahomet to the mountain.* By so doing the whole modern improvements in agri- culture are embodied in the teacher selected, and at one stride the march of agricultural improvement oversteps the limits to which, for a century to come, it might otherwise be confined. 1 shall not fail to acquaint Mr. Binns of the compliment paid to him by this meeting, as a fellow labourer in the good cause, and I am sure there is no one whatever who would be more gratified at having such a compliment paid him. The noble Chaikman then gave, " The Earl of Charlemont and his imjiroving tenants." In reply to which Mr. Scott, of Lurgaboy, one of his lord- ship's most respectable tenants, returned thanks for Lis landlord, and stated, that he had been every year increasing his turnip crop, and was every year be- coming more sensible of the great advantage derived by the farmer from the cultivation of that crop. " The health of the Earl of Caledon and the im- proving landlords of Ireland," was then given. Mr. Blacker here rose and said : Although I have so often claimed your attention this evening, I can- not allow the toast just given to pass without re- marking a little upon the observations from time to time appearing in several of the London papers, to the prejudice of the Irish landlords, which having been allowed to circulate, without contradiction, have produced an impression upon the public mind in England, to such an extent that nine persons out of ten really believe the Irish landlords to be uni- versally the heartless extortioners which these papers represent them to be, and are led to consider them as wholly careless of the comfort and welfare of their tenants or the improvement of their estates, and only solicitous to obtain the greatest rent which they can by any possible means extract from them. lam happy to avail myself of the op- portunity which this toast has afforded me to give a decided contradiction to the representations I have alluded to. In every class of society there must, of necessity, be some who will bring discredit upon the rest, but, as a body^ I assert the landlords of Ire- land may challenge competition in the present day with any similarly circumstanced in the empire. The owners of unimproved but reclaimable lands have, I admit, been heretofore indolent in regard to them, from their attention not having been directed to that particular point ; hut I assert they are now, as a body, neither careless of the comforts of their tenants or the improvement of their estates, nor are they extortion- ers in rent. It is almost invidious to mention in- dividuals when so many are entitled to notice. Your lordship's presence prevents me saying what I should otherwise feel called upon to do ; but where will you find, in any country, landlords more ardent in the pursuit of every thing which can conduce to the be- nefit of their tenants, or the improvement of their estates, than the Earl of Caledon, whose name is * See Mr. Rose's letter, who is himself a Scotchman, and ardently engaged in the improveinent of his estate in this country. coupled with the toast, or Lord Clements, Lord Clon- brock,* and a long list of others that might be ad- duced, nor am I inclined to confine myself to titled proprietors ; no person who takes the trouble to en- quire, will fail in discovering numbers of common- ers in every county in Ireland who are devoting themselves 1o the same laudable pursuits. I, by ac- cident, met with lately, some letters, one from Col. Connolly, and another from Mr. Kirwan, of Castle- hacket, which will convey some idea of the exertions now in progress ; the dates will show that they were not intended for publication, but to serve my pre- sent object, as there is nothing of a private nature in them, I feel certain they will not be angry at my having recourse to them to prove my assertion in favour of the exertions of Irish landlords : they are too long for perusal now, but I shall give them to the reporter, with perhaps some others. (See No. 4.) They are not solitary cases ; no one who travels through Ireland, and wishes to seek for information, can avoid learning that every principal landlord, al- n^ost in the kingdom, is occupied in pursuing some plan of improvement — some following the plan adopted here of appointing agriculturists, others con- fining themselves to the lending of lime, or seeds, or giving premiums for best crops, stock, &c.; some employed in the improvement of land that has been under the plough, and others reclaiming that which has never been entered by plough or spade, as Mr. Fetherston, Capt. Kennedy, and Hon. J. Hewitt, &c.- In the latter, as in the former, the different landlords are adopting different plans according to local cir- cumstances. On the part of the commissioners of education, I have located up to Nov., 1837, 53 fami- lies who had been under-tenants or cottiers on their estate, on the uncultivated edges of a large bog in the property, producing a rental of 68/. lis. 8d. yearly, a considerable portion of which is paid up to the ist of Nov. 1838 ; and, except in a few lots which I am afraid are absolutely irreclaimable, this rental mav be considered as well secured by the im- provement made : besides this, there are three more families since taken in, who will not appear in the rental until next year, so that, on the whole, esti- mating the well-secured rental at 65/., and valuing it at 25 years' purchase, it will amount to £1625 0 0 Add to this already remitted , 206 16 4 And this year's rent in course of pay- ment. 68 11 8 The total gain therefore will be. .£1900 8 0 up to the end of this year, without any cost what- ever, or expense to the commissioners, further than a trifling loan, interest free, which never exceeded 1"23L I3s. Sjd., and which is now reduced, by the payment of the instalments, to the small sum of 36/. lis. 2d,, which in due time will be also repaid. An English or Scotch reader will scarcely believe that not one of these poor people have a lease or any ten- ure whatever of their holdings ; and what is still more strange, in laying out their allotments, 1 never was asked by any one individual what rent I was going to charge him ; yet I was an entire stranger, and the commissioners, for whom I acted, were likewise unknown. This shows a confidence in the general good faith of Irish landlords, which is not the growth of a day, but has been handed down from father to son ; with the lower Irish, " acting like a gentleman," is synonymous with every thing that is * See letter from his Lordship's Agent, Mr. Ber- < mingham, No. 5. i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 57 fair and honourable, and to tell a man he is no gen- tleman, is to charge him with everything the reverse. I put the tenants under a small rent after the first year. Captain Kennedy gives his land for seven years free, and for fourteen years after adds Is. a year annually. (See No. 6.) The Hon. Mr. Hewitt gives his land five years free, and five years more at Is. of annual increase. Mr. Cole Hamilton pursues another course. Colonel Conelly's letter will speak for itself. Sir Robert Ferguson affords a very splendid example upon his property ; and Lord Clonhrock also reclaimed largely. The particulars of Sir R. Ferguson's improvements are published in the Irish Farmers' Magazine, It is several years since, in a small pamphlet addressed to the Royal Society, I asserted the possibility of making the la- bouring poor support themselves and their families, by giving them allotments of land to exert their in- dustry upon ; and the advantage, to landlords and the state, by adopting this plan, I conceive to be fully proved by the success which is attending every attempt. The cause of my having succeeded in de- riving a yearly income from these locations so much soouer than others, is not from any superior clever- ness or good management on my part, but from the dense population in the neighbourhood, the want of which makes Captain Kennedy's and Mr. Hewitt's land almost valueless, although intrinsically one acre of theirs in many cases, which they give free, is in- trinsically worth more than three or four acres of the school lands belonging to the commissioners, which are paying me rentj this seems fully to prove the folly of sending to the woods of America so many industrious people, who might be so much more beneficially employed at home. I trust I have said enough to show there is no apathyor want of exertion in Irish landlords at present, whatever foundation there may have been for such a charge formerly ; and the appearance here at this inclement season of gen- tlemen from Clare, from Donegall, and Sligo, is in itself sufficient proof of the spirit that is abroad ; nor is a spirit of inquiry and exertion in this respect con- fined to landlords, for I have no hesitation in men- tioning wJiat appears to me to mark a new era in the history of Ireland — namely, the application of a clergyman, at the suit of his parishioners, to obtain for them an agriculturist, to be paid by funds col- lected from themselves ; a fact which speaks volumes in itself and requires no comment from me. I have still, however, a few words to say as to the charges of rapacity and extortion so liberally bestowed upon Irish landlords ; in this respect I shall just mention one or two facts. Upon this estate a man of the name of Anderson, in old times, had got a lease, which, as is often the case, he and his son after him sublet, until there was little or none left in their own hands ; there was, however, a small portion, which, not being suflScient for their support, the son of the lessee sold to one of the undertenants. This sale took place precisely at the time Mr. Richmond, the land valuator, was on his way to lay a new rent on the land at the fall of the lease ; both parties knew this fact, and yet Anderson was able to obtain for his good will of this small piece of land the rate of 171. the English acre, the purchaser taking chance of whatever valuation might be laid on. I will now mention another fact, and then drav/ the inference which naturally arises. I was some time last year ■ at a farming dinner on Lord Downshire's property, and spent part of the morning in riding over the es- tate which his lordship, who very early devoted him- self to promote the improvement of his property, and I the education of his tenants, and still, perhaps, de- ^ votes more of his tioje and attention to those subjects than any person of bis rank and fortune in the em- pire. His lordship stopped to inquire from one of his tenants whether he had yet got possession of a portion of land from one of his neighbours, which was necessary to square his farm ; the answer was in the affirmative, and the enquiry was then made what he had paid for the good will of it, and it turned out to be 27/. the Irish acre, for land that the rent was 23s. per acre, which is nearly the full value of it without any rent a( all. Now I don't say whether it is right or not to permit this ; nor do I say that the rent was not fully equal to what it ought to be, but I do say that it is a positive refutation of that charge of rapncity which is made; and is net the openness with which we have seen the tenants here this night (scarcely one of whom has a lease) boasting of their additional gains, a sure proof if any were wanting, how secure they feel that their im- provements will not be taken advantage of, and how fully concerned they are that their landlord rejoices in their growing comfort and prosperity ; and as to rents exacted, I think I may say the rents paid in the county of Armagh, are, taking the county generally, the highest in Ireland, and yet where will you find in England any farm where tjje tenant can pay the rent from his dairy, and have half the land under grain crop, and his pigs and poultry, and nearly one- fourth of his land in potatoes besides, for his own use? This evening you have seen this proved, and if it can be done here, I am certain there is not a farm in Ireland under any principal landlord, where the tenant may not do the same, if he chooses to follow the plan here in practice. I trust, there- fore, the conductors of the press will pause and in- quire, before they villify, as they have done, a body of men who may challenge competition as a body, with any in the empire. After which much interesting conversation, relat- ing to the improvement of Ireland, commenced, and was continued until his lordship observing the late- ness of the hour, called on Mr. Blacker to bring for- ward the agricultural subjects appointed for discus- sion. The subjects first in the list were, " the benefit of ploughing in October and November, for the fallow crop of the following year, and the advantage of forming the potato ridges and putting in the manure as soon after as possible, and putting in the seed at the back of the spade in Spring." In opening this discussion, Mr. Blacker observed, these two subjects were connected with each other in this respect, that they both had for their object the forwarding of the spring labour, and if even there was no other advantage, this alone was quite suffi- cient to induce any thinking person to adopt them ; and particularly the poorer farmers, who, not having horses of their own, are often obliged to run the risk of losing their entire crop, because in the hurry of the spring season they cannot get a horse to hire, whereas, if this was set about in winter, they might get the iand ploughed or dug, without the least diflfi- culty. The poor man is therefore particularly called on to be the very first to get his land ploughed, in place of being the last ; but, this is not all, for every experienced farmer will testify, that ploughing before the winter is of the highest use to the land, and that by so doing, the frost is working for the farmer in pulverizing the ground, whilst the farmer himself is sleeping in his bed, and does that for him much better than he would do it for himself. Again, in rejard to putting out the manure, and forming the potato ridges in winter, the manure goes one-half farther ; the land gets the full benefit of it, and by being left dry all the winter, from the trenches being 58 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ppened, the soil is in the very finest state for rflceiv- ing the crop, which is proved by this, that the crop put in in this manner, is ten or fourteen days earlier than when the seed is planted in the common way. There is no fear of weeds, for the ground is turned up at a time when the growing season is over. I have sometimes thought, from seeing the potatoes which had been left ungathered springing up so lux- uriantly in the succeeding crop, that no danger would be incurred by putting the seed in uncut dur- ing the winter, covering it deep in order to protect it from the frost, and to prevent its too early appear- ance above ground. It is evident the danger of failure of the seed from its heating or exliausting itself by throwing out shoots in the bins before planting out, would in this way be completely pre- vented, and I intend to have the experiment tried this year upon a small scale, in order to report the result at our next meeting. I would not wish the practice followed to any great extent, until ex- perience had confirmed its utilitv,but I don't believe there is any fear of the frost injuring the seed, nor do I think frost will injure potatoes, as food, mate- rially, if they are allowed to thaw without being ex- posed to the light, which produces some effect that is not well understood ; and, therefore, if I am right, potato bins should always be perfectly covered, and should not be opened till some time after the mild- ness of the weather had thawed any frost that might have penetrated. Mr. Rennox then addressed the meeting. He said — The forming of the potato ridges and putting out the manure during winter, the seed to be ])ut in in spring at the back of the spade, I have for some years practised, and always found it very beneficial ; in the first place, the ridges can be formed when the farmer has very little work to do, and the manure used will be properly decomposed ; by the time the seed is put in in the spring, tbe soil will be dry, and in a better state to receive the seed early ; it will greatly forward the farmer with his spring work, especially those who have no horses ; it will enable them to have in their crop of potatoes in proper time, they will also be ready for raising nearly a fortnight earlier than those set in the usual way. Mr. MoLi.ONEY mentioned that he could speak also in confirmation of putting out the manure early, for he had tried it, and had dibbled in the seed in spring, and he thought he was safe in saying he had an ordinary crop and a half upon the ground. Other gentlemen spoke in confirmation of the above. After which, I\Ir. Blacker introduced the discussion of the next subject, which was the relative merits of the new method of furrow-draining, compared with the old method of cross drains, which he began b)- remark- ing that much new light had broken in upon this part of agriculture of late years in Scotland, where it had been found that, however useful one or more cross drains (with a tail drain, where necessary,) might be for carrying oflFthe water, which made its way in different places to the surface, there was no way that land could be thoroughly and evenly drained, ex- cept by the principle of furrow-draining, as now practised, the ridges being made from 16 to 18 feet wide, according to the nature of the soil. I attribute (continued Mr. B.) the general prejudice which ex- ists in favour of the old method of cross drains to the not very unnatural mistake, that because when water reaches the surface on the side of a hill, it of course runs downwards ; that it will therefore, in all cases, pursue the same course under ground as what it is seen to do above, and that in either case, the gross drain is therefore th? most effecttiaj w&y of in^ tercepting it in its course and carrying it off; but nothing can be more erroneous than such a idea, for although it is quite clear that water will run down the hill, above ground, it does not follow that it will make its passage good in the same direction under- neath. This is sufficiently proved by the fact, of which every one is aware, that in many cases, the springs break out on the top of the hill — the water underground forces its way in whatever direction it meets with tbe least resistance, and no one can tell in what direction it may approach the surface ; but it is evident cross drains will only catch it in one direction that is the descending ; and furrow drains at every fifteen feet, are sure to tO[) the flow towards the surface, let it advance in what direction it may before it reaches within such a distance of the sur- face as to chill the seat of the manure or injure the growth of the crop, particularly when their effect is assisted by trenching the ground either with the spade or the subsoil plough. The draining and trenching should always accompany each other ; for in most countries the deep trenching and ploughing produce a sufficiency of stones for the drains, and thus a considerable saving in carriage or in cost of tiles as a substitute is obtained. The advantage of furrow-draining is now so well understood, that the landlords in Scotland, are very generally in the habit of advancing 5/. or 61. per acre to their tenants for this work, for which the tenant willingly pays 5 per cent, interest. Thas the draining of an acre will en- tail upon the tenant a charge of 5s. or 6s. a year until the debt can be paid off, but the crop will pay them five or six times that charge. I have seen an ac- count of an exjjeriment where the drains were made at 45 feet, or S ridges asunder, and the result was that the partial effect by the single drain on the ridge right and left, was at the rate of from 7 to 9 bushels per acre more than the centre rid^e, which had not the same advantage. I speak, Gentlemen, merely on the theory of the matter, but I hope some of the company may be able to confirm what I have ad- vanced by the result of their practical experience ; but I am so convinced of the utility of this practice that I have [)rocured his Lordship's consent to ad- vance to any man who wishes to try the experiment upon any field, or part of a field, as much per acre as will pay him a shilling a day for every day's work he is employed at it, provided the work is eflfectually executed, and notice given to me before beginning, that everything may be clearly understood. No man need therefore say he cannot afford a trial nor need any te- nant complain for want of employment. Mr. B. then read a letter from Lord William Bentinck, to whom he had applied to procure from the Duke of Portland, who had first introduced furrow draining in Scotland, some account of the results that had attended the experiment there, which his Lordship had done, and returned him a report made lately to his Grace, by Mr. Sample, who superintended the improvements on some of his Grace's estates, which was as fol- lows : " On the effects produced on those farms where furrow-draining has been applied, the following re- sults on Tenrother Lane Farm, where it has been longest in operation, have been carefully noted dnwn by the tenant, at my request: In a field called Lowerberry Laws, containing 17 acres, 7 were fur- row drained in 18<'M, the field then being oat stubble after clover. The general produce of this field, be- fore being drnined, varied from 12 to 16 bushels per acre when in wheat — that part which was drained, being the best soil, generally produced about 4 bushels more than the other part of the field. f In J835--tbe field in fjtUow, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 59 " In 1836 — wheat. The drained land yielding 12 bushels per acre more than the other, or an increase of 8 bushels per acre, " In 1837 — clover. The drained land producing If ton of hay per acre — being nearly double the pro- duce of the other part. "In 1838 — oats, recently cut and in bulk, one- third more than the other part of the field. " Half another field of inferior quality was drained. " In 1837 — wheat. The drained land yielding 4 bushels more than the other. " In 1838 — clover. The drained land producing full one-third more than the other." JMr. Sample added that he might multiply in- stances, but he had selected these Las being on land where the draining has been longest in operation. Mr. B. was followed by Mr. Gramam, a native of the neighbourhood, who had just returned from Scot- land, where he had been employed by different far- mers, in the execution of drains by contract. He said : My Lord, — I wish to direct the attention of the people of this country to the necessity for, and the utility of, a thorough drainage, as being the first ru- diments, and most important part of farming ; those who hare been brought up in the old school, and have not yet shaken off the selfish chains of opinion with which their minds are fettered, still believe that the old rumbling drain is the only method to be adopted. These drains were cast wherever a spring or spout appeared to inundate the surface. They were cast deep, and from 12 to 18 inches wide at bottom, filled with stones gathered off the ground, and thrown roughly in, or otherwise, having a pipe laid in the bottom with the largest stones, and the smaller ones put on the top. Either of these plans are found, by long experience, to be very unprofit- able, when compared with the present system of furrow-draining. In the former of these plans, the water had such a wide space to spread over, that it could not run with any force, but rather oozed iiS way through the large stones, which were constantly retarding its progress, and leaving a slippery glit or murl behind it, insomuch that in a few years it be- came entirely useless ; and in the latter plan, which is, having an open pipe, there was such a barbour- ance of rats, mice, frogs, &c., which were constantly raising a quantity of mould, and must have inevit- ably stopped the progress of the water in a short time, and rendered the drain of non-effect. Many other proofs I could add of their insufficiency, but I think these should answer my purpose at present. It only remains with me now to shew a more bene- ficial and permanent plan ; but ere I proceed to this, I would wish to impress on the minds of all present that anything once well done, is much better than that which is gene over twice in a slight or in- effectual manner ; and as your lordship has such a desire that your tenantry should be made comfort- able, and every man inherit the land of his forefa- thers, I hope all will duly understand that every shilling expended in the improvement of their land, by means of a thorough drainage, where the third or fourth generation will most undoubtedly continue to reap the benefits, is much more profitable than hoard- ing up gold in a strong box, where it ma;- still fall into the hands of the spendthrift ; therefore I hope whatever the people drain (be the quantity ever so small), they will do it to pprfection, The system I would propose is a regular furrow drainage, from 15 to 21 feet apart from each other, according to the wetness of the surface, and retentive subsoil. These drains need not be cut more than 2^ feet deep, tx- cept when we meet a sand or gravel bed, which must be cut to the bottom, in order to catch the springs, if a fall can be obtained ; but whatever depth they may be cast, they should always be filled to within 15 inches of the surface with stones, broken in such a manner as that they may pass through a three-inch ring in all directions, and then covered with a thin sod, tramped neatly in with the grassy side down ; the clay or subsoil must be spread over the ground, which will renew it very much when pulverised with the frost ; afterwards the ground should be all moved 15 inches deep, either with the spade or subsoil plough. The ground handled in this manner will never return to its former retentive state, as the water will not lie upon the surface, but filter into the drains as fast as it falls. The drains should not be more than four inches wide at the bottom, for the less bounds the water has to spread over it will run the stronger, and keep the drain open longer. The ridges should be always kept in the same form, and the furrows always above the drains. Men should pay particular attention to good ploughing, and sow the seed without breaking in ; when this is attended to they will not have to shovel up their furrows, but have a level crop over all the face of the ground. But, my lord, to give a full ac- count of this system (and enumerate the benefits to be derived from it by an increase of crop, ease of horses, saving of manure, saving of seed, and the advantages of having the ground at all seasons dry and in good order, so that we could put in our crop much earlier, and get it sooner out, which would give us a longer day, and generally better weather, besides it would almost totally destroy weeds of all kinds), would almost swell a volume ; and as I in- tend, in a few weeks, submitting these and many other important considerations to the public, I will not trespass longer at present, bnt I confideuth- hope that all who have it in their jiower will try this sys- tem, and it will afterwards speak volumes for itself; and as your lordship has put it within the reach of all, by advancing money to improve the land, not seeking anything but simple interest at five per cent., which would seldom raise the land more than 5s. per acre — and I am certain, from experience, it would be a pound better — I think the sooner an experiment is made all will have the greater cause to rejoice. Mr. Graham having resumed his seat, was suc- ceeded by Mr. Rennox who said, — With respect to furrow-draining, we commenced trenching last winter, with the intention of doing only a few acres ; but the Rev. Dr. Blacker, on seeing the distress of the labouring class at that time, continued on till we trenched and drained 14 acres. Expense of trench- ing one acre 18 inches deep, 21. 14s. Ditto of drain- ing one acre, the drains made parallel to each other, at 7 yards' distance, sunk 30 inches deep and 14 inches wide at top 21. 2s. Trenching and draining, per acre, 41. 16s. 'i'he sinking of the drains may be assisted in the trenching, by casting off the earth to each side of the place where the drains aie to be made; this will sink the drains to the same depth the trench- ing has done ; in some soils there will be nearly as many stones raised by trenching as will fill the drains. One very material circumstance 1 observed concerning this land that was trenched and drained, that is, — during the very heavy rains of this season, and particularly that of this day, there was no sur- face water to be seen on any part of it whatever ; but as soon as the rain fell, it sunk down to the parallel drains, and was immediately carried oft' to the main ones. It appears evident that furrow-draining is a more perfect system of draining than the old system pf cross drains, as, according to the distance we made 60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. them, the ridges might be formed so as that the drains and the furrows may correspond ; by this it is plain the ridges would be kept free from any superfluous water. The land managed in the aforementioned manner, was planted in potatoes, and only for the good drainage it had, the crop would have been much deficient in produce to what it is ; there was 2^ cwt. per perch, which is 20 tons per P^nglish acre —this may be considered a good produce when the state of the weather last summer is considered with it. The total management of one acre of potatoes, including trenching, draining, manure, lime, seed, labonr, &c., is as per annexed calculation, 15/. 19s. From this calculation it will be easy to trv the profit on one acre, wht^n a price is put to the potatoes, the produce being 20 tons, or about 800 bushels. A calculation of what one acre cost in the total ma- nagement of the orop : Trenching one acre £2 14 Draining do 2 2 Scuffling and harrowing 0 8 Opening and closing drills , 0 8 Carrying out manure and spreading do 0 6 Scouring and grapeing tops off drills 0 10 Stripping and harrowing 0 10 Moulding 0 4 Manure 3 0 Lime 2 1.5 Digging out potatoes 0 12 Rent 1 5 Seed 1 5 £15 19 Several of the company here expressed their ina- bility to understand the advantage of the furrow- drain, which must, in general, go up and down the hill or fall of the ground. Mr. Blacker said it was not an easy matter to explain, and required a good deal of thought to get rid of the prejudice that exist- ed from preconceived opinions of long standing, and made the following additional remarks: — I have al- ready (said Mr. B.) stated that wnier vnder ground does not follow always the coui se of water above ground ("which uniformly runs down the hill), but that it is sure often to rise up, and vent itself at the very top, and make tlie very highest part of the ground the very wettest part of the whole, and this may be pretty well understood by supposing the side of the hill to be covered with a layer of retentive clay which the water cannot escape through ; it is therefore, in such cases forced through some vein leading townrds the top, and in striving to rise to the height of the parent spring, it bursts forth as I have said. Tiiis appears to me all easily understood, and proves that the course of water under ground may be exactly in the very opposite direction of what it takes when it is libercted at the surface, and de- scends of course by its own weight. Now supjiose that in its passage to the top of the hill, instead of being entirely pent up, that a certain portion should escape through any more porous earth, lying be- tween beds of clay, forming the hill in horizontal strata or layers, then the point to be considered is, how you can tap this flow of water passing- through so many veins towards the surface be- fore it can come nigli enough to injure the crop ? Now, suppose the strata of clay to form this hill, as we often see dishes piled, one upon another, in a delf-shop, and that the passage for the oozing of the water between the beds of clay should resemble the passage to the surface aforesaid by the channel formed between one dish and another, then let us see how the two kinds of drains would operate. Let us first take the crogs or hprijsoptal drains, and it appears, I think, quite plain, that if you cany one right round the hill you would only tap the flow of the water between one dish and another, and if you run it diagonally you would only tap two or more, according as the line was more or less slanted, which two or more would have tapped in a much shorter space of drain, by taking it right up and down. But let us consider further, that there must be other cross-drains below those round the hill to catch the other water courses, and suppose these succeed each other at a 10-feet lower level than the one above, then does it not appear plain that unless you sink each upper drain so deep as that the bottom of it will be at the least upon a level with the top of the drain, immeHiately belmv it, there will be an intervening space, on the surface of the liill, between the two, from which the flow of water will not be intercepted at all ; and if you say the diagonal drain will obviate this objection, then yon will have to make these dia- gonal drains within 15 or 16 feet of each other, for in heavy clay soils nothing wider will answer ; and if von do this you will again find that the up-and- down drain will accomplish this with less cutting, and is of course to be preferred ; and every one must see that to cut the horizontal drains down to the level of those below them, must be quite out of the ques- tion. But to pursue this a little further : these hori- zontal drains, if they were made, would be right across the general line of the furrows, and would, therefore, have little effect in carrying away the rain water. Now compare what 1 have said with the effect of the up-and-down or furrow drain — in the first place it taps the flow of every water-course be- tween the layers of clay, at a distance of 15 to 20 feet, (according to the nature of the soil,) at such a depth from the surface that the moistare is directed into the drain before it reaches the seat of the ma- nure, and therefore the warmth of the manure is preserved, and one-half less of it will answer. This effect of the drain up and down, in tapping the flow of water, you may fully comprehend, by supposing the dishes in the pile to be cut through the edges, for an inch or two, frem the top dish to the bottom, in which case it is quite plain any moisture flowing between them tvoiild escape throtigh the cut so made, and none whatever would reach the edges of the dishes which correspond with the surface of the hill they have been supposed to represent. The furrow-drain, therefore, appears calculated completely to carry away every flow of under water before it can do any harm, and the shape of the ridge, throwing the rain water right and left into the furrow ; next over each drain it is eijually effectual in carrying off surface water as it falls, and thereby prevents the mould in the furrows from being washed away. It seems to me, therefore plain, thr.t the furrow draining is the cheapest and most effectual for laying ground dry throughout, and more useful and necessary when there is a rapid fall, than when there is but a gentle inclination of the land. Observe, however, that in what 1 have said I don't enter into the question of what any one single drain may do to carry off any main spout that breaks out in a field, nor do I al- lude to the utility of a horizontal drain, surrounding the base of a hill, to cut off the seepage of it from any adjoining flat ; I speak merely of laying land down in a roaner effectnally and evenly dry, and not of any partial attempt. Before I sit down I should explain that, although I recommend the trenching, or subsoil ploughing to accompany the draining, because m most cases it wdl supply stones enough for the drains, and at the same time break through that hard k-'nd of stratum sometimes met with, called in England the pan, and by this means THE FARMEll'S MAGAZINE. 61 giv« the ground more immediate advantage from the drains, by giving a freer passage for the water to reach them; yet I am fully of opinion that furrow draining, of itself, will, in some little time, destroy the pan altogether ; for I believe it is generally con- sidered that this pan is produced by the effect of some kind of iron ore in the soil, which the moisture forms into a cement, and that by the gradual with- drawing of this moisture, by means of the drains, this pan will be decomposed and crumble into pieces, so as no longer to be injurious. I wish likewise to mention that drains, 2J feet deep, as Mr. Graham has stated, in some soils are not found to be deep enough ; for at the Highland Society Meeting lield at Dumfries, I recollect to have heard Sir James Graham of Netherby (who was said, if I recollect right, to have drained his entire estate 2^ feet deep), regret that he had not sunk the drains 3 feet deep, which he would certainly do if it were to be done over again. Several of the company still expressed the diffi- culty they had in comprehending the matter clearly, so that the subject must be referred to the more ma- ture consideration of the reader, and the sure test of experience. Lord GosFORD interrupted the discussion by say- ing, this was a very dry subject, and as he thought it was now getting late, he proposed that the first ap- plication of the drainage principle shall be to draiyi the jug, for which purpose he gave, with all the honours, " Live and let live." Mr. Blacker then said, the meeting surely would not separate without drinking the health of ]Mr. M'Anally, who had so well and so ably filled the vice-president's chair, which his much respected friend Mr. M'Kee had been prevented from occupy- ing by a severe domestic calamity. Mr. M'Anally gave, in return, " the health of the countess of Gos- ford," to which his lordship having replied, said he would now give them a toast which had attracted his notice in a newspaper lately ; he then gave, " Happy we meet, sorry we part, happy may we meet again." After which his lordship and the other gentlemen rose to withdraw, and the entire company imme- diately separated. No, 1. Mr. Boyd's Statement. " In the Townland of Ballymacoole, containing 386 acres, there have been sowed this year, 1838, being the first year of my commencement on Mr. Blacker 's plan — A, R. p. 16 1 26 of Clover. 11 2 15 of Vetches. 2 0 8 of Turnips. 2 0 32 of land has been reclaimed. 506 perches of drains have been made, and 84 perches of new fences. In the Townland of Tullyguy, containing 294 acres — 19 0 20 have been sown in Clover. 10 2 0 in Vetches. 3 2 6 in Turnips. 1 2 25 reclaimed. 530 perches of drains made, and 130 perches of fences. In these townlands the above crops had been previously almost unknown by name, but had cer- tainly not been cultivated ; and having this year turned out very well, he had no doubt they would be sown to a much greater extent next year. His agri- culturist was a very attentive man, and he consi- dered the appointment of such a person indispensi- ble to introducing any rapid improvement." No. 2. Statements handed in by Mr. Milne, from the tenants on Colonel Close's estate. " Aughantaraghan, Nov. 10, 1838, " My stock for last year consisted of 2 horses, 3 cows, 2 heifers, 2 ewes, and 2 sows, with some young pigs, house-fed upon two roods of vetches, sowed after rape ; 2 roods clover and grass-seed, cut twice ; 1 rood Italian grass, cut three times, and saved four bushels of seed ; 1 acre and 2 roods of pasture, and some kail, was the feeding I bad this summer, and all in good condition. I have about 2 acres and 3 roods of potatoes, a very good crop ; the remainder of my farm I had in wheat and oats, a tolerable crop; with 1 acre of meadow. I can manure one-fourth part of my farm by adding soil and weeds to the ma- nure heaps in summer, 6cc. I am so well satisfied with the four-course, house-feeding, and green-crops, that I mean to continue it. " I have the honour to be. Sir, your humble servant, " Samuel Jem£hson. " To William Blacker, Esq., Gosford Castle, Markethill." " I feel grateful to you for the encouragement you give the tenants in trying to improve the system of farming. From the little experience I have of house- feeding, I can safely say that no farmer, under the old system, can keep his land and stock in good con- dition. I commenced sowing turnips four years back. The first year I had only 1 rood ; the year fol- lowing, 2 roods ; the third year, 1 acre _; and this year, 1^ acre; and 1 can assure you that, from the system I follow, I derive great benefit. I farm 36 acres, I keep 11 head of black cattle, and a pair of farm horses, and all in fair condition ; I keep them through the summer on clover and vetches, and in the winter months, I feed my cows on turnips. Since I commenced this system my cows give a great deal more milk and butter, and are in a higher condition in the end. " In the year 1836, when I commenced the above, my farm was in a very poor state, hardly able to support my family and keep one cow, being a farm containing five English acres ; but now am I glad to state, by the directions given me, I have one cow, one heifer, one calf, two pigs, all fed on Ij acres of clover, and saved off the same a four fathom cock of hay. I am endeavouring to get into the third course, which I think will get me into a better wav. By the produce of house-feeding I will have no difficulty in manuring the third part of my farm every year. I have a very fine crop of all sorts this year, and by the directions given me and my own industry, I trust I will always be improving. — I have the honour. Sir, to be your obedient servant, " Samuel Waddle. " To Wm. Blacker, Esq., Gosford." " Cremore, 27th Oct., 1838. " My farm contains 18 English acres, including nearly one acre of roads, on which I kept this season, 3 cows, fed on 1 acre clover; horse, 2 roods vetches ; ? ?,?' > 2 acres clover, heller, J CROPS. 7 acres oats — 500 stocks ; 3 do, flax — a good crop ; S do. potatoes ; 2 roods turnips. I intend to go by the course 5 rotation as soon 1 2 1 62 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. as my farm is got in right order ; but as the one half is a purchase made in 1836, it will require additional draining and levelling of old ditches, which I intend to complete this winter. I have about the bth part of my farm manured this season, and I hope to be able to add more to my stock next year. I find great benefit by sowing turnips for the cows, and in- tend to keep up the practice. Already have I bene- fitted by your direction, and intending in future to follow the same, I have the honour to be your obe- dient servant, " John IM'Clelland. " Wm. Blacker, Esq., &c." " Since the year 1835 I commenced the four- course system : my farm contains four acres, two roods, and fifteen perches, and at the stated time I had but one cow and two pigs on the whole farm. I had enough to do to feed them, but my farm is now possessed of two cows, two pigs, and a calf, all in good condition, which I am able to have plenty of ifood for both summer and winter, by the practice of house-feeding, green crops, and the increase of other crops. I have no difficulty to manure the fourth part of my land each year. I am so well satisfied with the plan that I do not mean to depart from the directions given me by Mr. Milne. — I have the honour to be. Sir, your obedient servant, " William Mullin. " Corcrum, 24th Oct., 1838. " To Wm. Blacker, Esq." I hold a farm containing ten acres of land ; com- menced the four-course system two years ago ; since that time my stock has increased well. I have by the increase of cattle been able to manure the fourth part of my farm this year; my stock is three cows, one heifer, four pigs, all in good condition ; the sum- mer feeding was one-half acre of clover, saved one cock of hay, one rood of vetches, about one rood of pasture, manured land, two and a half acres of pota- toes, one and a quarter rood of turnips. The rest of my farm was in oats, of which I had a very good crop. I have also levelled 37 perches of ditches, and instead made S7 and quicked, sunk one drain, four perches six feet wide, for clay, had it filled with stones. I have also reclaimed 25 perches of rocky hillock. I am well convinced of the benefit received from the four rotations, and conclude by saying I am content, and look forward to improve annually. — I have the honour. Sir, to be your obedient ser- vant, " Henry Clarke. " Corcrum, October 21." calves. All these are of the short-horned breed, and have been selected with much care and greatly to the credit of the owner's judgment. There are also on the farm 20 ewes, and 32 lambs their produce, 4 good i)igs, 4 work horses, 1 two year's old colt and 1 yearling. Mr, Bruce's return of Stock kept on 115 acres on the Gosford Estate. No. 3. Extract from the Report of the Ashton Farming So- ciety. "The Inspectors award the prize to Mr. Thomas Winder, for his farm in Cleveley. It consists of 165 A. 1 R. 2 p., which they consider to be under very superior management ; and they have great pleasure in inviting the society and other agricultu- rists to a personal inspection of it. A. R. p. Meadow 27 1 29 Pasture 63 2 27 Clover Pasture 14 2 15 Clover Mown 2 2 34 Potatoes and turnips 3 3 13 Summer Fallow 0 2 5 113 0 0 "The quantity of manure purchased is 40 tons ; of lime 600 windles. " The stock kept eu the farm consists of 19 dairy cows, 10 two year old heifers, 7 yearlings, and 7 Names. ■4-> ■-■ (S C3 3%- o 'a to '33 in > M O • CO Ph 1 Samuel Byers, 35 6 — 9 __ 4 4 2 George Beaty, 5 2 — — — — 2 3 Jacob Albin, 6 2 1 — — — 0 4 James Ral- ston, 12 3 — — — — 2 5 James Brad- ford, 5 2 — — — — 2 6 Robert Mac Common, .J 2 — — — — 1 7 Wm. Camp-") bell, one acre of this )- 14 4 — — — 2 4 is too low for cultivation, _^ 8 John Hogg, 12 — 1 — 1 1 9 BarkleyKin-"! ney,2|acres | of this is in | meadow, be- y 23 6 — — 4 2 12 ing too low for cultiva- tion. Total, 115 30 1 10 4 9 30 R. p. 0 27 1 13 2 8 1 36 1 2 2 23 1 28 0 0 3 0 Extract from the Report of the Lancaster Agricultural Society. " TO THE INSPECTORS OF FARMS OF THE LANCASTER AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. " A particular account of the system of husbandry practised on a farm, at Farleton, containing 147 j». 2r. 27p. statute measure : A. Land in pasture 54 Meadow and seed grass 25 Wheat, Summer fallow 6 Barley sown with grass seed.. ..26 Corn 18 Summer fallow 4 Turnips 7 Potatoes 1 Garden, orchard, and wood 3 " All the land I have in oats I generally grow crop, and Summer fallow the year following, except a field that his been turnips in the lastround, this 1 sow with barley and grass seeds to lay one year, the year fol- lowing oats, then green crop or Summer fallow again. I never sow wheat land down with grass seeds, but barley the year following sown down with grass seeds. " Since my commencement on this farm, in 1838, I have burned yearly 700 bushels of lima, the last year but one 950 bushels, out of which 500 bushels was applied to pasture. I have bought 40 tons of manure yearly; the last Spring I bought 80 tons of manure. I have covered with compost 12 acres within the last three years, I have cut 155 roods of stone drains. 1 have diked 150 roods of old and new fences. " Thos. Scott." " Farleton, Oct. C, 1838. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 63 No. 4. Extract of a Letter from J. Kirwan, Esq., of Castle- hacket, dated 26th Dec, 1837. " This Iiaa been a most favourahle year for every thing, I Lave every reason to be tliankful, under Pro- vidence, for the success with which all my under- takings have been attended. In point of advance- ment, we are some years behind. 1 had a great deal to contend witn at first, not only from ignorant peo- ple, but from those who ought to have known better and at least encouraged the people to make a trial. Still I feel I have made some advance, and though I cannot say the system is flourishing (how could it in so short a time!) it has taken root, and is so deeply rooted, too, I trust, that it must flourish. I shall now tell you, as shortly as I can, what has been done. Forty-five sowed clover and rye-grass on potato soil, being altogether thirty-three acres, and no- thing can promise better than the appearance of the young clover. I had much difficulty in getting it sown on the matured ground, but there will hardly be a tenant on the estate who will not have a field next year, and two or three who sowed it after oats and wheat are determined not to do so again, as it entirely failed. Twelve sowed turnips (mostly with bone dust) and eleven mangel wurtzel, and some of them are now feeding a cow, besides keeping an ad- ditional milch cow and a heifer, and there is a gene- ral feeling in their favour, so that if we can succeed in preventing their being stolen, I have no doubt of seeing them extensively cultivated before tvfo years. I cannot tell the number of persons who sowed vetches, but I sowed four tons, which, at 16 stones to the acre, would sow forty acres ; some of this was sown by persons in neighbouring estates, and they were all greatly pleased with them, and I have been paid most punctually. I got three tons from Lon- don and one from ^Dublin, and I sold them, the fornier at 2s. l^d. per stone, and the latter at 2s. 3d., giving time till the middle of November for the pay- ment. Next year I hope to have them cheaper. There were fifteen acres of grey and maple peas sown on fallow and exhausted soils, and the crop was very good ; horses and cattle eat them greedil}^ but they are inclined to sell the peas and give the straw to their cattle, and they ought to pay from six to eight pounds to the acre. One gentleman near this gives his horses no oats, but feeds them entirely on pea straw and peas, and they are always in good condi- tion; and the wheat, whe?e the peas were grown, looks remarkably well now. I also solil flax-seed for 45 acres (late 3s. per stone), but no tenant sowed more than a rood, as they only grow it here for their own use, and not for market. This you will approve of, as I see you are not encouraging it with you. Al- together, I sold nearly 300/. worth of seeds, and all those I have asked have paid most punctually. The above seeds being high, I have given them time for the payment of them till May next, when they will be nearly fit to cut. The grass seeds 1 got from London from Gibbs, and paid too much for them. This year I must make a better bargain. I tried some Italian rye-grass, and it succeeded remarkably well ; It IS as green as any aftergrass in September. Thane, whom you sent me, is going on as well as I could wish. I look upon him as a very respectable man in his station, and the people are now beginning to understand and like him. He is a good surveyor, which has been of use to me in dividing farms, &c., and I find him a steady and experienced man. He brought over his wife and family last Summer. I have had maps made of most farms, and recommend- ed the rotations which we thought advisable for each, and a good number are following our advice : I have forced nothing ; I have done everything by advice and persuasion. I imported 22 cwt. of English white seed wheat, which, I hope, in a year or so will im- prove the samples of wheat, as nothing could he worse than what they had, and there was an evident improvement in the state of their fallows, and in their seed wheat. I took an inventory of their stock at my commencement; and I am sure one taken now would show a great increase. This has been brought about by my loan fund of 600/., which is working re- markably well : it paid 7^ per cent, for the year, and, after paying interest (of one per cent, only), expi^nses, &c., there was a net profit of 3 per cent. This year I expect to get some others to follow them, as our estate is sadly over-populated, though less so than most of our neighbours. 1 have done a good deal in the way of draining, dividing farms, straightening walls, &c., and have commenced a model farm of 13 acres, in the centre of the estate, which I intend to farm on the five-course shift. This year I had 5 roods of very good turnips in it, sown with bone-dust, which is a manure particularly well suited for getting a tenant into the turnip system the first year. I imported one hundred bushels of it, and they were at first all laughing at the idea of growing turnips with it. Next year I can get it at Galway, as they have put up a mill at the Gaol. I got some wcoden ploughs made with metal mould-boards, and they are pleased with them ; but we cannot get a well-shaped mould-board. I have now ordered a few on trial from Scotland. Do vou recommend the small fans for cleaninsr corn, which I see advertised in your premium lists ? Bruce told me they only cost 30s. and I would like very much to try one, as also one of the donkey- ploughs, if made of wood, as I have one made of iron which I got at L'Estrange's. There are many days often in this country when, for want of wind, thev cannot clean tbeir corn. I found great difficulty in getting the turnips and mangel wurzel crop suf- ficiently hoed and cleaned, but now they see the use of it. Bone manure ought to be dibbled in, and not sown with a machine. I had better turnips from some which I broke in this year than from what I got from London. A gentleman sent me nine mangel wurzel potatoes this year, which sowed one square perch of ground, and the produce was 3^ cwt., being at the rate of 28 tons to the Irish acre, and the largest return of any other kind in this country never exceeded 17 tons; and had mine been sown thicker, there would have been a greater return. I look upon them as a valuable root. I see you have got one or two crops of mangel wurzel returned at the rate of 38 tons to the acre, which astonished the fellows very much. No. .5. Extract from Mr. Birmingham^ letter, as to the im' provements on Lord Clonbrock's property. " Carameena, Kilcennel, 29th October, 1838. " I do not despair of yet having the system in full operation here ere long. This country is so wel adapted to grazing, that it is more difficult to get the system of green crops, which requires labour, into operation, and the difficulty of fencing off the pastures is also a great bar, as the sheep get over the stone walls ; I have, however, great reason to be satisfied with the progress we have made, for the tenants sow small patches of clover, mangel wurzel, rape, and Italian rye grass : this latter suc- ceeds admirably, and is very beneficial, indeed ; the arrears on the estate are much reduced, and the tenants most punctually pay for the seed, and lime 64 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and ploughing. 1 heir houses are very good, and Lord Clonbrock buys metal windows for them, from Messrs. Upple, of Birmingham, and gives them timber. The tenant pays for the rest, and I think a roomy good house is a great advantage. I wish we could follow the Belgiaii system in making butter and cultivating the land. You know they have no permanent pasture, and therefore they are forced to cultivate the green crops. Not a spot of land is left unsown. The moment the crop is off, another is put in. The urine from the cattle is preserved in tanks, and spread over the crop growing. In ray mind they make the manure from the dairy yard go further than we do, by putting it immediately under the plant. I have seen this country twice, and am only just returned from it, and am satisfied that were the system pursued in Ireland, a man holding ten acres of land with us might become rich. Above all, the cleanliness and management of the dairy is wonder- ful, The consequence, as you know is that London is supplied in a great degree, with butter from Hol- land and Belgium, though Ireland might gain this trade to the amount of a million a year by a little more attention to the care of the dairy, and the feed- ing the cows. A farmer near Liege assured me that they were so nice about the feed of their milch cows that they gather up the dung off the fields every morning and then it is dried and spread out again on the pasture. They use carrots very much, and a fine food it is. They sow the carrot-seed with the corn, cut the stubble high ; hoe well round the car- rot in Autumn ; carry off the stubble to the straw yard, and have a fine crop in the winter for the horses." No. 6. Statement of Captain Kennedy's Improvements, " Loughash, Sept. 15, 1838. " WM. BLACKER, ESQ. " Being fully convinced of the interest you take in any plans proposed for the bettering of the condition of the poor farmers, permit me to give you a statement of the system introduced on the lands of Loaghash, by J. Pitts Kennedy, Esq., whose exertions have been unremitting in spreading those practices of agriculture which ultimately cannot fail to produce the results which an improved system of tillage is capable of doing. In the Spring of 1834 I was employed by him to superintend a school for the in- struction of the children in farming, and to instruct the tenants to sow turnips, and clover, and grass, who were so much opposed to it that they firmly be- lieved that nothing of the kind could be raised in such a mountainous district. There is a model- farm of four acres attached to the school, where the children are instructed in the proper methods of cul- tivating the different kinds of crops, and the results, compared with the management pursued at home, which the children do not fail to communicate to their parents, are very important. By a simple ex- planation, they make an impression upon their parents' minds, which, perhaps, could not be ef- fected by persons of maturer age. It was a general principle that I followed, never to let them sow any crop where I was not certain of success ; and to let them see, from the previous year, upon the model- farm, the profit obtained of the crops raised upon it, compared with the produce of a similar portion of their own land ; and now, after three years' trial, there are only three tenants on the property who Lave not adopted the rotation suited to their land ; and where the one half of their farms were occupied in grazing may now be seen only the proper propor- tions in clover and grass. The improvement in cropping is not alone confined to Loughash, for on inquiry at the children who attend the School, I find that out of fiftu-eight families who send children from the neighbouring properties, six onh^ have neglected sowing turnips, and the children them- selves are generally the sowers and managers of these crops, and many of their fathers have told me that " the)' would not have sown turnips or clo- ver had it not been for the advice of their children." It is inconvenient for the people to get these seeds, from their living so far from the market town. I purchased most of the turnip seed for them, and sold it at the same price for which I bought it. It is a general principle that to whatever system a per- son is bred in his 3'outh he will not be likely to de- part from it when he grows up : we may reasonably conclude from this that none of the children who have been bred to the proper system of farming will depart from it afterwards. Loughash townland con- sists of 1150 acres, about three-fourths of which, four years since, was under heath, and only giving' support to a few miserable cattle, striving to gather a scanty subsistence. It has now been divided into farms, and let to tenants seven years, free, and after the seventh year, at a yearly increasing rent. It is generally the poorer description of cottiers from the neighbouring properties that take such farms, and such has been their progress, that ninety acres of it have now been reclaimed and giving food and em- ployment to thirty families who have hitherto been depending for three-fourths of the year for their sup- port upon the country. The first thing these peo- ple do when they take a farm, is to build a sod hut, which they live in whilst a stone one is building, for which suitable assistance is given. They re- claim the land in the following manner : — It is formed into ridges of six feet wide, and trenches between, from two and a half to three feet, out of which the bog is dug and laid upon the ridges over the sward to rot it; it then receives from 40 to 50 barrels of lime to the acre, and over the lime a covering of clay is laid, if it can be got out of the trenches, or if not, it is carried on it from the most convenient places. The first operation is generally performed in the Summer, it remains in that state till November, when it receives the liming and claying : in the following Spring the sward is completely rotted, when it is fit for planting with potatoes which, with a little manure, generally produces a good crop. They generally keep an acre trenched a year before they put a crop in it, when the sward is well decomposed, and much easier wrought with the spade, and consequently produces a much better crop of potatoes than if planted immediately after the first operation. In conclusion, I can inform you that there is no one idle in the properiii, and no biggar, nor has there been a single lau-snit or law proceedings against any one on the propetty for the last four years. Hoping that the same may yet be said of the greater part of Ireland, I remain. Sir, your obedient servant. " James IMooitE." " 11th Dec, 1838. " I have made an experiment ef furrow draining on a small piece of land containing one rood and three perches ; the above drains were made in pota- to ground ; the potatoes being dug out, I began to sink the drains in every second furrow, thirty inches deep, nine at bottom, and filled the same sixteen inches deep with stones, which left fourteen inches to the surface ; the stones which filled those were got in the drains or convenient to tliem. " The number of perches of drains put in this piece of ground were thirty-nine, at threepence per perch, or 9s. 9d. in all. Total expence, 9s. 9d. " Wm. Herd. " To WoJ. Blacker, Esq." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 65 ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The first general meeting of this Soociety, was held on Tuesday, Dec. 18, at the Society's rooms, No. 5, Cavendish Square. The Right Hon. the Earl Spen- cer, President of the Societ}-, took the chair. There was a full attendance of members, and amongst those who were present, we noticed his Grace the Duke of Richmond, the Earl of Euston, Lord Moreton, H. Handle)-, Esq.,M.P., T. L. Hodges, Esq., M.P., E. Cayley, Esq., M.P., J. W. Childers, Esq., M.P., E. C. Buller, Esq., M:P., W. G. Hayter, Esq., M.P., Col. Challoner, Rev. J. R. Smitliies, Messrs. J. Ellman, T. R. Barker, C. Hillyard, J. Buckley, D. Barclay, H. Boys, W. F. Hobbs, W. J. Patterson, W. Youatt, F. Burke, T. Chapman, and a great num- ber of other gentlemen of the highest respectability, connected with agricultural pnrsuits. The noble Chairman in opening the business of the day, said, that the present was he might say, the first meeting of the Society since its original forma- tion. During the period which had intervened since the Society was first formed, various committee meetings had been held, and much had been done, but from the shortness of that period, many things were necessarily yet to be attended to. The com- mittee however had agieed to, and prepared a report which would be read to the meeting, and which dis- closed the present state of the affairs of the society. He was sure that the report would be highly satis- factjry to them, as from it, they could perceive that the funds of the society were in a flourish- ing condition, and that it was likely to do well. (Cheers.) After the report should be read, he con- sidered it would not be necessary to detain the meet- ing by any observations upcn the state of the affairs of the society, as the report itself, would be found to be so full and explanatory. It was necessary how- ever, for him to touch upon one or two points, which were not mentioned in the report, and wliich had in fact been agreed to after the report had been pre- pared. It had been agreed that a quarterly journal of their proceedings should be published, the first number of which, he had to announce, would appear as soon as possible. This journal, it was intended, should contain the prize essays, and other matters connected with their institution, and the pursuits of agriculture generally. It had been suggested, and he was glad to be enabled to announce, that the state of the funds was consistent with the adoption of the suggestion, that the numbers of this journal, should be delivered to each of the subscribers, and members of the institution gratuitously, on application to the secretary (cheers), and to those who were not mem- bers, it would be sold at a reasonable price. Per- haps they might consider that the committee had acted rather too boldly in coming to this determination, but it was done for the purpose of disseminating as widely as possible, information upon agricultural subjects, and to give to the members of the society, peculiar advantages of obtaining that information. Such was the inteution of the committee, and he, (Earl Speuc«r) thought the meeting would say with him, that they had decided rightly in determining to de- liver the new quarterly journal gratis to each mem- ber. (Hear and cheers.) It was unnecessary for him to say more and they would row proceed to bu- siness. His Lordship then read the following Report of tfie Committee. " In making this, their first report, your committee cannot refrain from noticing that the short space of time which has elapsed since the establishment of the English Agricultural Society, has necessarily limited the sphere of their labours, and has, in fact, precluded them from doing much more than laying the founda- tion for future operations ; but being anxious that such steps as they have taken for promoting the objects of the society should be submitted to those who placing confidence in them, have entrusted to their care the important duty of conducting its affairs, they deena it a duty incumbent upon them to lay before the sub- scribers the result of their management since their ap- pointment on the 27th of June last. They cannot, how- ever, proceed to the statement of their ovs^n labours without first tendering their thanks to the provi- sional committee for the valuable exertions made by them in framing rules for the general conduct of the society. As, however, must be the case in every in- stitution which embraces an extensive field of opera- tion, it would be impossible for any single committee, however diligent and zealous, to attend to all the details of the business to be transacted, one of the first acts of the committee was the appointment of sub-committees to carry into effect the objests of this institution. One of these sub-committees, whose province it was to frame additional rules for the government of the Eng- lish Agricnltural Society, has suggested many valuable rules, which have been adopted. It will shortly resume its sittings, and will direct its attention to framing such further rules and regulations as the daily-extend- ing connections of the society may render necessary. " Being desirous, as early as possible, to enlist talent in the investigation of those subjects which involve mat- ter of deep interest to the practical farmer, prizes for essays upon a variety of topics have been offered, some of which will^be awarded this day, some at the meeting at Oxford next year, and others at the country meeting to be held in the year 1840. The majority of those prizes are upon subjects directly calculated to 'mprove the cultivation of the soil, an object regarded with special interest by the English Agiicultural Society. The prizes for cattle to be given at the Oxford meeting, and through which improvement in the breeding of stock is mainly contemplated, will be publicly an- nounced in a few days ; aud your committee trust that the owners and occupiers of land in Oxfordshire and the neighbouriug counties will co-operate in rendering the first meeting of this society efficient for the objects for which it was instituted. " Aware of the immense loss sustained in conse- quence of the want of better knowledge in the treat- meut of the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the at- tention of the committee has been turned to this sub- ject, in order, if possible, to devise means for supplying the deficiency. A veterinary school has been long established in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, and it has been most useful in teachiftg the scientific and successful treatment of the diseases by which thousands of horses used to be destroyed ; but its at- tention has been almost exclusively devoted to the horse ; and it was considered that if its labours could be directed with the same success to the management in health and disease of our cattle and sheep, it would be of inestimable advantage to the British farmer. " Application has been made to the governors of the Veterinary College, stating the anxious wish of the English Agricultural Society that this most important extension of its inquiries and its benefits should take place, this society not interfering with the arrange- ments or proceedings of the governors of the college, but contributing from its funds to the accomplishment of this purpose. " A most valuable answer has been received from some of the governors; and a meeting will soon take place between them and a delegation of your committee, from which the happiest results may be anticipated. " Correspondence with agricultural, horticultural, and other scientific societies, both at home and abroad, being ©ne of the means proposed whereby useful in- formation may be obtained, a proposition has been made for opening a correspondence with several societies at home, from most of which, but most especially from the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, your 6(k THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. committee has received tlie strongest assurances of a de- sire to establish a friendly communication with your in- stitution. " 1'hroug'h the assistance of an able member of your society, who has recently been travelling on the conti- nent of Europe, arrangements have been made for opening a correspondence with the Royal and Central Agricultural Society at Paris, the Royal Agricultural Society at Lyons, the Agricultural Society at Geneva, and the Agricultural Society at Lille. " The diffusion of agricultural information being one of the most important means whereby the English Agri- cultural Society hopes to attain the objects contemplated by its establishment, diligent consideration has been given to this subject, and your committee feels confi- dence in stating that early in the coming year a plan will be adopted for circulating as extensively as possible such papers as may be deemed calculated to furnish useful information to the farmer. " Upon referring to the report made by the provisional committee on the 27th June last, it will be seen that at that time the number of governors who had joined the society was 186, of whom 65 were life governors, and 121 annual subscribers of five pounds each. That there were in addition 280 members, of whom 31 were life members and 249 annual subscribers— making a total of 466. That the sum received amounted to 2,526/. Is., and that there had been expended about 130/., leaving a sum of 2,396/. Is., in the hands of the bankers, Messrs. Drummond and Co., besides a further sum of 2,057/. due from subscriber?. " At the present time the number of governors is 206, of whom 68 are life governors, and 138 annual sub- scribers of 5/. each. There are besides 484 members, of whom 46 are life members and 438 annual subscrib- ers, making a total of 690, and exhibiting an increase of 224 since the 27th of June last. " Your committee have the pleasure to announce that a considerable number of new subscribers are about to join the society ; and the attention of local societies being daily more and more directed to it, a further ac- cession of subscribers may be fairly reckoned upon. " The sum alresdyreceived for subscriptions amounts to 3,739/., and there has been expended 676/. 13s. 7d., leavmg a balance of 3,062/. 6s. 5d. in favour of the so- ciety, besides the further sum of 1,196/. in the course of collection. " The income of the society arising from annual sub- scriptions now amounts to 1,128/. The receipts and ex- penditure since the establishment, as exhibited in a ba- lance sheet, examined and approved by your finance committee, stand as follows: — (Here his lordship read the financial statement, the general results of which are contained in the report.) " Your committee cannot conclude their report with- out making grateful mention of those subscribers who have kindly enabled the society to commence the forma- tion of a library by presenting useful works." The Noble Eaul added, that this satisfactory state of the finances would justify them in sparing no expence in the promotion of agricultural know- ledge ; at the same time they should be as economi- cal as they could where expense was not essential. (Hear, hear.) The Noble Earl then said he had to ask the Meeting to adopt the report which had been read, and the question having been put, the report was adopted unanimously. His Lordship next proceeded to announce the prizes which had been adjudged. The first prize was one of fifty sovereitrns, or a piece of plate of that value, " for the best account of the improve- ments which have taken place in the agriculture of Scotland since the formation of the Highland So- ciety." And here, his Lordship observed, he thought it right to state to the meeting the mode adopted by the judges in appro])riating the prizes. The candidates forwarded their essays, with a motto attached to each, but without the name and address of the candidate. The name and address were con- tained in a sealed envelope accompanyiug the essay, and which was not opened until after the judges had given their decision. Upon the decision of the judges being ascertained, the envelopes containing the names and addresses of the unsuccessful candi- dates were not opened, so that they were not known. Three judges had been appointed by the committee, who resided in the country, and had no communica- tion with each other on the subject of the prizes ; the essays were forwarded to them at their respec- tive residences, and they then forwarded their de- cions, sealed, to the committee. The first prize of fifty sovereigns, or a piece of plate, for the best ac- count of the improvements which have taken place in the agriculture of Scotland since the formation of the Highland Society, had been awarded to iVIr. John Dudgeon, of Skylaw, near Kelso. The second prize was for the best account of the black caterpillar, and of the best mode of preserving the turnip from its depredation. The third prize was twenty sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, for the best account of the simplest and cheapest processes for analysing soils. This prize had been awarded to the Rev. W. L. Rham, of Winckfield, Berks. The fourth prize was twenty sovereigns, or a piece of plate of that value, for the best essay on the pre- sent state of Agricultural Mechanics, and on the im- provement of which the various implements now in use may be susceptible. The essays for the second and fourth prizes not being considered to possess sufficient merit, no prize was awarded to them. His Lordship then read the list of prizes which would be given at the next meeting of the Society, at Oxford, in 1839, for live stock (and which list the Noble Earl stated would be published shortly.) Those (continued his Lordship) were the prizes the Society offered for award at the Oxford Meeting, the meeting would see that the amount was consider- able. The prizes oflfered for Live Stock, it might be thought, amounted in the aggregate to more than was exactly consistent with the objects of the Society, wliicii was formed more for the advancement of agri- cultural and scientific knowledsre. Yet when it was considered that it was material to the progress of the Society that the meetings in the country should be well attended, and that it formed the chief attrac- tion of such meetings, it was highly desirable that there should be as good an exhibition of cattle as possible. Though it might appear to be a large sura of money to give for the breeding of live stock, be CLord Spencer) thought it would not only be money judiciously expended, but good economy to do so. — (Cheers.) After the reading of the several documents, which appeared to give much satisfaction, his lordship re- sumed his seat amidst great cheering. The Rev. J. R. Smythies said, that the list of prizes which had been read by the noble chairman was, he thought calculated to give satisfaction gene- rally, but there was one prize which he was anxious to have added to the list — one which he was sure the meeting would consider of great importance. It was to be recollected that the Society was formed more especially for the purpose of promoting im- provement in the science of agriculture. They were all aware that old age brought with it decay in veget- able as well as animal life, it therefore became de- sirable that the quality of grain which was subject to decay, should be improved as much as possible ; that a new grain should take the place of that which was Tvorn out, and exhausted by frequent reproduc- tion. There was, it was well known, a great anxiety THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 67 felt by the fanner with regard to the culture of wheat, the first staple commodity of the country. The proposition, or rather suggestion which he had to make, and upon which he would claim the consi- deration of the Society was, (if the funds would per- mit) that a priise of twenty guineas should be offered for a new variety of wheat. (Hear, hear.) The sample he proposed should be tested by the certi- ficate of its grower, as to its hardihood, productive- ness, and applicability to different soils, and its qua- lity by the miller who should have converted it into flour. (Hear, hear.) He (Mr. S.) thought that this was the most desirable prize the Society could offer, and would, he entertained no doubt, create a spirit of enterprize amongst the farmers, and in the end contribute materially to the improvement of the grain. The English farmer the}' all knew, was libe- ral of his money, and at all times willing to bestow the utmost labour and care, upon the means of in- creasing the productiveness of his estate, but at the same time he was exceedingly sensitive on the score of ridicule, and the unambitious men around were always all ready to laugh at the failure of the expe- riments which their more enterprising neighbours might set on foot. (Hear, hear.) He believed there were no persons more imposed upon than the farmer by the advertising quackery of new varieties of vegetables. (Laughter.) One of these impositions he (Mr. S.) could not help mentioning, because he considered it to be the grossest that ever was prac- tised upon any body of men in the world. He had no hesitation in saying he alluded to the C(csarean Cow Cabbage. (Loud laughter and Cheers.) He had seen it planted in various gardens in the highest state of cultivation, and in every instance it had totally and completely failed. It did not contain any one of the properties it was at first said to possess. He stated this fearlessly amongst them all, as he was an opponent of all humbug, and he wished to expose this imposition wherever he could. (Hear, hear.) He would therefore beg to suggest to the considera- tion of the noble Chairman of the meeting the sub- ject he had mentioned, and when the Society became richer, then offer similar prizes for new varieties of barley and oats. (Hear, hear.) Mr. HiLLYARD seconded the proposition. Earl Spenceu said he admitted he was much of the same opinion as the reverend gentleman on this sub- ject. He however reminded him that the Society had already offered a prize of twenty sovereigns for the most approved varieties of wheat. The Rev. Mr. Smythies observed that the reward offered by the Society was not for a new variety of wheat, but only for the best account of the varieties already known in England. Earl Spencer read the announcement of the prize of twenty sovereigns or a piece of plate " for the bebt account of the varieties of whea; hitherto intro- duced in England." The competitors were to state, 1. The mode of procuring the sorts of wheat de- scribed. 2. Their culture, viz., preparation and quantity of the seed. 3. Hardihood and power to withstand severe weather. 4. Early maturity and time of severance of crop. 5. Tendency to degene- rate, and liabilities to disease. 6. Amount of pro- duce in grain, chaff, and straw, and the relative quantities and qualities of flour and offal. This prize would be given at the Oxford show. The Rev. Mr. Smythies thought the matters stated went too much into detail for the practical farmer, and therefore he feared it would not come to much. Mr. Barker begged to suggest to the Rev. Mr. i, Smythies whether the proposition he had made might not be left to the discretion of the Committee, fie thought the proposition as it now stood would not be productive of the good effect which the rev. gentlemen seemed to contemplate. They would no doubt have samples from all parts of the kingdom, which would look well to the eye, but then they would have no information as to the method of cul- ture, or the applicability of the samples to the dif- ferent soils, and thus people would go away without any accession of knowledge on the subject. Under these circumstances he thought it might be safely left to the Committee, who would decide whether they would offer such a prize for another yf ar. He merely threw out those observations for the con- sideration of the rev. gentleman, and not by way of opposition to his suggestion, with the principle of which he agreed. Rev. Mr. Smythies reminded Mr. Barker that he had at the outset proposed that the quality of the wheat should be ascertained by the certificates of those who had grown it in different soils. He had however no objection to move his proposition in the shape of an instruction to the Committee. A Member thought it was incompetent for the Committee to entertain the suggestion at present. Mr. Dean considered the subject to be of the highest importance to the Society. Earl Spencer thought at all events the suggestion of the Rev. Mr. Smythies should be taken into con- sideration by the Committee, but there were details necessarily connected with the proposition, which could not be entered into and decided upon at that meeting. The conversation here terminated, it being under- stood that the carrying into effect of the suggestion should be left to the discretion of the Committee. A Member moved that the sum placed at the dis- posal of the Committee for prizes for extra stock, implements, seeds, roo'ts, &c., should be increased from 50 to 100 sovereigns. Mr. Dean seconded this proposition. The Noble Chairman saw no objection to the pro- posal. Although the sum of 50 sovereigns had been appropriated by the committee as the aggreg'ate of the prizes for this class, yet it did not follow, even though they had the power to award 100 sovereigns, that they were compeUed to dispose of the whole amount. The committee would however take the suggestion into their serious consideration. W. L. Hodges, Esq., M.P., rose to ask what prizes were to be offered for wool, and the encouragement ef that great staple article of the country. Earl Spence-r said he apprehended that no judge or person pretending to be a judge, would decide upon the merits of the sheep without considering the quality of the wool (hear, hear). It had been suggested by a member that unless the wool was produced the judges would not be able to decide upon its quality. Now this suggested a difficulty as to the period of exhibition, sheep could not be kept unshorn after the 17th of July, and therefore it was intended, as it was stated in the list of prizes, that the sheep sliould be shorn some time pre- vious to the day of exhibition. The judges would thus be enabled to come pretty nearly to a correct decision upon the quality of the wool. As to exhibiting fleeces not attached to the sheep, and which might not belong' to them, he thought that would be a dangerous pro- ceeding. (Laughter). The Noble Chairman observed that he had certainly seen this done, where sheep were sold to be sent abroad, and in such cases, he need not say that the pluce upon which the wool was left was behind the shoulders. Mr. J. Ellman thought that if the exhibitors who produced the wool pledged their word of honour that the wool belonged to the sheep exhibited, the judges would be warranted in givinar their decision upon its quality. There might be a difficulty even in such cases, but he really thought that if the question was fairly put F 2 68 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to the cxliibitor, no g-entleman would pledge his honour to an untruth. (Hear, hear.) Earl Spencer sucrg-ested that the matter mi sessing extraordinary merit, we recommend a bounty of 5 0 To W. F. Knatchbull, Esq.. Babington, for an excellent fat cow, Hereford breed, we recom- mend a bounty of 2 0 To Mr. Thos. Hales, Bath, for a very superior Scotch ox, we recommend a bounty of 5 0 To Mr. Geo. Ferrij, Shrivenham, for a breeding sow, Norfolk breed, we recommend a bounty of 1 0 To Mr. W. Tanner, Kington Lanyley, for a fat pig, Berk.shire, we recommend a bounty of , . 1 0 To Mr. Robt. Joliffe, Long Ashton, for three year old steer and heifer, we recommend a bounty of 2 0 John Parsons, Geo. Senior, Saml. Ferris. To John Frankcom , for the best six fleeces of coarse combing wool, a premium of 5 0 To James Cockrell, for 22 years faithful servi- tude with Benjamin Gray, Esq 5 0 To Robert Gosling, tor 13 years' faithful servi- tude with Mr. Geo. Ferris 3 0 To Charles Townsend, for 10 years' faithful servitude with D. S. Hayward, Esq 3 0 To Susan Vicary, for 45 years' faithful servitude < with Sir T.B. Lethbridge, Bart 4 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 79 HOPS. lO c^ -^i (>* « <>< ai -^ -r* , m O ^ CO CO ■-* t>H ^ r::^ ti.\ F-. t- - - -< CO fM r« CC CO O CD 00 -^ c/ X l'^ O O 1%. -f* (N '3D 1^ «D ■^ (N -Tf »>. O ,-.;iiCO«-'0(Mioc^ M- TTj'rN.'^iO'^co ^ iC Oi C^ CO ^ ^ ao CO G^ ; CO Tj< cs ?o t^ CO •o 2 Ci O »;>^ ^ Ci 1-1 (O ^ ^i -^ O ^ —« i/^ GO (N o iM r^ LO ^^ •— I . . CO C» CO f>J Tf« „Lj'*1«C^COI>.CO'-1* — ~ c-i in o ■^ o o o u- CO to o ro c-i i— ■ X «r» ■a — O "O >-■» M o. to l>» . 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Tj< CO 00 O ^ CO C: — ' f:0 iM hN, >0 O CI -* CJ — CO o in ^ . CO fM -^ — ^ t-H O QO C-' CO (M 9C L*. CO lO ,— , lO in CO in CO Ti -- oi ■-»< X 'M o ^ (r» -^ o 1-^ in — -^ 00 '^ — ,1— ^to'^^com ? t>* CO m — CO -^ — 1 ^ — ■ QO O IM 00 so »>» ■ O CO '^ -— (>. fM — ^ Ci o: CO ^ . (M ^ S^ CD CO O -^ en ^>. CO 'J' ■^ ci o — ' i, o; »>. CO CO CO — -f X' o CO 'n c: t>, CO C-J '71 'O X " M C: rr c^ o — m •♦ m to to -ei (M in ^ o CO -^ o-- — — to 00 52 1^ <^' 0^ 1-0 to o 22 o CO o m »i -* to OS — in —< in — u; CS T — — in c^ 01 00 s 00 00 p— 1 i— " CO —4 to . — X «^ «^ m -J- cs — — ' in o S- to (M Rye Beau? Peas. 72 11 73 10 73 4 73 1 75 6 7S 4 33 34 34 33 34 36 74 6 34 1 0 23 1 23 8 24 1 24 3 25 1 25 5 24 3 10 10 I 10 0 38 11 39 3 41 0 42 5 43 9 48 8 42 4 6 6 40 2 41 0 40 2 40 11 40 6 41 10 40 9 9 6 3 0 42 11 42 8 43 0 44 0 44 5 43 9 43 6 5 0 0 0 2 6 1 2 6 3 0 Od. per I96Ibs. British Possessions, do 3jd.per 1961bs. SEED MARKET. Dec. 24. The arrivals of Engrlish Cloversecd continue exceed- ing' scanty, and the few small lots of red that have hitherto appeared have been readily taken off by the dealers at full prices. Today very little business was 90 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. done,and the value of both English and Foreig'n remain- ed about the same as last week. There were a few orders from the North of England and Ireland, but the limits appeared to be too low to allow of their exeeuiion. White Clover does not meet with much attention, and eur quota- tions can only be ragarded as nominal at present. Trefoil quite as dear. The recent advance in the prices of Lin- seed has been firmly supported. Rapeseed was also quite as high. Canary seed dull, and rather cheaper. Coriander and Caraway of fine quality the turn dearer; other kinds of seed unaltered in value. Ci-ovER KHglisli, red 75 90 wliite 50 75 per cwt. superfine. — S3 — — Dutch — — _ _ FronT: .' : ; : : ; ; } - ^^ ^" p'^'"- ^^ ■« '"""^ American — — — — Trefoil 14 28 Rapeseed, English ^34 .£36 foreign ^28 .£30 per last. Linseed. English sowing. . — — — — per qr Baltic — —crushing 47 49 ,, IMediter.& Odessa— — 46 50 ,, Hempseed, small 34 36 large 38 42 Coriander, new 13 18 fine 18 22 per cwt. Mustard, brown 15 18 21 white 10 14perbualiel new 18 22 12 15 Tumip Seed, new Swedes 20 21 other sts. 28 36 „ Rye Grass, English 30 54 Scotch 18 42 ,, Tares, Winter 5s Od to Os Od Canary, new 80 84 Caraway — — 42 46 extra 47 PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Dec. 24. For all fine Hops we have a good demand at rather higher rates ; the market has again assumed a firm ap- pearance, and the expectation is that Hops will realise more money immediately after Christmas, as it is wpH known the majority of the bulk left for sale are so in- ferior, that fine parcels will command high rates. PRESENT PRICES. .£ s. d. .£ s. d. .£ s. East Kent pockets 4 10 0 to 5 12 0 fine 8 8 Bags 4 4 0 — 5 5 Odo. 7 7 Mid Kent pockets 3 15 0 — 410 Odo. 8 8 Bags 4 0 0—4 10 0 do. 7 7 Weald of Kent pockets 3 10 0—410 Odo. 5 5 Sussex do 3 3 0 — 4 4 0 do. 4 10 Yearlings do 2 10 0 — 3 3 0 do. 4 4 1836 Pockets and Bags 2 2 0 — 210 Odo. 3 3 OWolds 1 1 0 — 110 Odo. 2 2 POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK WATER-SIDE, Dec. 24. We have again to report during the past week a liberal supply of Potatoes to the Water-side ; the wind being still favorable for the arrival of vessels from the different coasts, has brought a supply into the London market amounting to 3,111 tons, of which the follow- ing is a statement — From Yorkshire, 828; Scotland, 627; Devon, 504; Jersey, 455; Wisbech, 33; Kent, Essex, Suffolk, 664 ; being altogether 255 tons more than the receipts of last week. The above supply in- duces the buyers to hang back from purchasing freely, consequently the trade has not been so brisk within the last few days, and the weather being milder operates against sales. PRICES : — Per ton. York Kidneys lOOs. Reds 90s. American Natives .... 855. Scotch Red 858. Devont 85s. Jersey and Guernsey Blues 80s. Per Ton. Jersey Whites 8O9. Wisbeach Blaes .. .. 80s. Do. Red 853. Kent Kidneys 90s. Kent, Essex, and Suf- folk Whites .. 75s. to SSs. "WOOI. MARKETS. BRITISH. Dec. 24. The quantity of business transacted during the last week has been 1«$6, on account of the difficulty which has been experienced in getting Wool off, and also of the near approach of Christmas. The state of the trade generally, however, is sound, and at present no very gloomy apprehensions of a falling off of its briskness are entertained, although at the present high prices the possibility of a brisk demand is not so easily to be de- monstrated, when it is considered that the high prices of provisions must lessen the demand for goods among the poorer classes of society. No alteration has taken place in the prices last quoted. December 1. January 1. Per lb. 8. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Down Tegs 1 7.Uo 1 8 1 7* to 1 8 Half-bred Hogs 1 7J 18 18 1 8j Ewes and Wethers 14 15 1 4A 1 5| Blanket Wool 0 7 Oil 0 8 11 Flannel do 1 1 15 1 U 1 5j Skin Combing 12 14 1 2" 1 4 LIVERPOOL, Scotch, Dec. 22. — The business done in Scotch wool this week has been limited, owing to the stocks being extremely light. Prices, though firm, are still unvaried as will be seen by our quotations. Per Stoneof 241bs. s. d. ». (J. Laid'Highland Wool, from .... 12 6 to 13 0 White do. do. (scarce)... 14 9 15 0 Laid Crossed do 14 6 15 6 Washed do. do 16 0 17 0 liaidCheviot, do 17 6 18 0 Washeddo. do 22 6 24 6 White do. do 34 0 36 0 Import this week 166 bags. Previously this year 17323 do. Total 174S9 The business transacted in Foreign Wool since Sa- turday last was tolerably extensive, and the market has had a very steady tone. Prices generally have a ten- dency to improve, and for the sales of this week full prices were realized. Arrived this week 62 bales ; pre- viously this year 46,771 bales. Total 46,833. FOREIGN. Dec. 24. The result of the last public sales has been in every respect satisfactory to the sellers of the wool, as the ad- vance obtained at the sales which immediately preceded them was established. About 2,000 bales have arrived in the course of the week ending to-day from various parts. « Electoral Saxony wool, from 4s. 6d. to 5s.4d.; first Austrian, Bohemian, and other German wools, 3s. 6d.to 4s. 4d, ; second do., 2s. 4d. to 3s. 2d. ; inferior do. in locks and pieces, 2s. to 2s. 6d.; Germanlamb's do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 3d. ; Hungarian sheep's do., 2s. 4d. to 3s. 2d.; Leouesa sheep's do., 2s. 6d. to3s.2d.; Segovia do.. Is. lOd. to 3s. 2d. ; Soria do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 4d. ; Caceres do., 2s. 4d. to 3s, 2d. ; Spanish lamb's do., Is. 8d. to 2s. 8d. ; German and Spanish cross do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 4d. ; Portugal sheep's do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 3d.; do. lamb's ditto, Is. 6d. to 2s. 8d.; Australian, fine crossed do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 7d. ; do. native sheep's do., Is. 6d. to 2s. 8d. ; Van IDiemen's Land, native sheep's do.. Is. to 2s. 4d.; and Cape of Good Hope do., Is. 4d. to 3s. per lb. Wool on which the Home Consumption Duties have been paid at London, Liverpool Bristol, and Hull, during the last week : — WOOL. Sf3Ln\s\i, London lb. Australian, do lb. Other Sorts, do lb. Liverpool lb. Bristol lb. Hull lb. This Year, Same tin • previous to in the last week. last Vpar. 2018727 1575211 10717969 9225696 151399S7 1 306776-J 9954828 5402 18349948 11339901 ]1];'W]E]LILI^(& MOirSE ke. designed /or Farms , /rc7n 7C(7lo 4 (?{? uteres. BsHmate £300 FRONT ELEVATION A=A M BED ROOM CLOSET SERVANTS ROOM ilSTAIR 1 . ,j ^ ■ - II \ \ \ \ ! il STAIR ■; BED ! ' ' BED ROOM ROO M ROOM _ 'U w SECOND FLOOR COAL WASH HOUSE HOUS E WOOD HOUSE ! BACK AREA 17=^ ^ KITCHEN -tH DAiRY J ^ PARLOUR SITT I NC ROOM 'VV — 1 CROUN C FLOOR IDT^7EIL]L]IF"(& /rcnv 40Vic100C Eshmaic Yroni lACO toiSOO FRONT ELEVATION A-., n. /-\ i BED ROOM 1 ■ '"^ CLOSET SERVANTS ROOM \ STAIR 1 BCD 1 ROOM ' ROOM ( 1 i 1 1 1 ' BED ROOM / \^ ' SECOND FLOOR / \ / \ 1 i 1 II 1 COAL i ! WASH 1 SPA R E LAUNDRY 1 HOUSE j HOUSE HOUSE 1 L_ 1 ■ 1 ' n ' — ' 1 1 BACK AREA ~3 KITCHEN > K tc < u ^ -1 _l -1 hi 3 U 1 r> V) |s r A 1 K DAIRY SITTI N G ROOM PARLOUR ::t^ GROUND FLOOR J Dcnald^cn^. fecit tSSn I I I I ' ■_i_ij 10 20 _l jO _J 'lO _l 50 _1 ( ; es On s ^ THE FARMERS S MAGAZINE. FEBRUARY, 1839. No. 2.— Vol. II.] [New Series. THE PLATE. The subject of our first plate is a Short-horn Ox, bred by Sir C. Knightley, Bart., M. P. for Northamptonshire. This animal formed one of a lot sent to the Smithfield Christmas Market, the whole of which excited universal admiration : it being fully admitted that so complete a lot had never been sent to that market at one time by any single breeder. It would be waste of words in us to offer any commendation of the ox in question. The painter, Mr.VV. H. Davies of Chelsea, and the engraver, Mr. Beckwith, have done credit to themselves in the execution of the plate. The picture is a perfect representation of the animal, and as such we leave it to the criticism of our readers. We regret that we have not been enabled to obtain any particulars respecting his pedigree, Sec. 8cc. ON THE SELECTION OF GRAIN SEEDS, ROOTS, &c. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — I shall again refer to the objections which you bring forward against the practicability of an experimental farm, before I proceed to finish my observations on the utility of such an establishment for testing and purifying our seeds and roots. In advocating the advantages of an experimental farm, we are at all times happy to receive any sug- gestions which individuals may throw out, in fur- therance of the scheme; nor are we ignorant of the many obstacK which require to be surmounted, be- fore such an establishment can be properly matured. You must not however suppose that in our coincid- ing with your remarks with regard to the necessity of having committees appointed in different districts, for the purpose of embracing every kind of soil, and climate, &c. and the inadequacy of a single esta- blishment for this object, that this was a new idea, or that we had not previously considered the objec- OLD SERIES.} tion. On the contrary, and in proof that we had not orerlooked this circumstance, we would refer to a pamphlet entitled, " Observations on the advantages of an Experimental Farm," — published in 1836, Longman & Co ; — wherein will be found the following paragraph : *' It has been objected by some, that no single establishment could be made applicable to the variety of soils, climates, &c. of Scotland ; this objection however may be completely obviated, by attending to what may be termed the working machinery of an Experimental Farm, as fully de- tailed in the original susrgestions. It is there stated that a connected line of communication, by means of lateral branches in every county, is essentially necessary to the success, and, indeed, forms part of the scheme; and we would here further suggest that the ground set apart for experiment by these local associations, and the different museums in connection with them, should be entrusted to the management of an experienced nurseryman or gar- dener. We have no doubt that many among this numerous and intelligent class might be found, both competent and willing to undertake the task, more especially as the details they would be called H [AV. 2.— VOL. X. 92 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. upon to superintend, are so intimately connected with tbe subject matter of their own profession ; and if so, their scientific attainments which have been hitherto confined to a comparatively cir- cumscribed sphere, would be brought to bear upon the rural economy of the country, and the co-opera- tion ^of individuals would be secured, who would be every way qualified both to act as a check and an assistance to tbe parent establishment — as a check, by testing and verifying the report of the chief manager — as an assistance, by furnishing ac- curate and scientific statements of the several matters entrusted to their care. It will thus appear that we had not overlooked the necessity of these committees, this circumstance, therefore, requires no further comment. We observe that you still believe that it would be difficult to obtain a person with sufficient talent for the management of such an establishment. We are sorrv that you should form so poor an opinion of the knowledge of agricul- turists, and although we admit that much ignorance and prejudice prevails amongst them, we yet repeat that we are sufficiently satisfied with regard to the abilities of our Scotch agriculturists, to believe that many individuals are to be found possessed of sufficient knowledge, talent, and enterprise, as to place beyond dispute their capabilities for the suc- cessful superintendence of such a charge. And we still adhere to our former opinion, that however necessary science may be to the full development of certain agricultural operations, that strict atten- tion, skill, and observation will be found quite sufficient for obtaining u practical knowledge of the different experiments instituted. In confirmation of this opinion we would refer to an experiment ex- emplified in practice by Col. Le Couteur, which drew forth the following exclamation from Professor Le Gasca, — ' Is it possible, that in one twelvemonth, you have practically obtained the knowledge of what I have been for five and twenty years studying bolanically V " We will not at present, however, enter more at large into this discussion, for you must bear in mind that we proposed at the commencement of these letters, to shew the share which we believed the Highland, and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and the local Agricultural Associations, have had in im- proving the agriculture of this country, and in order to do this more effectually, we have attempted to trace the progress of agricultural improvement, and give the merit to those who have been the means of in- troducing new and beneficial ameliorations. We have also, so far as our limited information would admit, examined into the present state of our rural economy, and endeavoured to point out the means which we believe might be adopted for its improve- ment, in preference to those which have hitherto obtained the attention of the agricultural community. We do not however intend to blink the objections which have been brought forward against the Institution, but would submit whether this subject may not be discussed with greater advantage after we have exhausted our observations on seeds and roots, the cultivation of the soil, &c., as formerly contemplated, and we shall then be prepared to enter fully into the merits of our Experimental Farm, and the benefits which might be expected to be derived from it. In the mean time we shall proceed with the subject of seeds and roots, in continuation of our letter of 12tli November last, and endeavour to point out the advantages that would result from a proper selection and purification of the different varieties, and, the benefits which would be derived from a judicious and frequent change of seeds and plants from one district to another. What we stated with regard to the necessity of selecting, purifying, and classifying the different varieties ot wheat, will equally apply to all the tribe of cereal grains. We may however observe in reference to our remarks on the probability of a change of s^ed wheat from, the continent proving beneficial to England, that we have since ascertained that the variety of wheat called White Dantzic, has been successfully matured in Kent, for a number of seasons, and has been found to answer very well. It thus appears in accordance with the supposition contained in our letter of 10th December, that were proper means adopted,, our choice of a change of seed grain might be very much extended. In Lawson's IManual of Agriculture, twenty va- rieties of barley are particularized, but we may observe in relation to those grown in Scotland, there are perhaps no other kinds of grain which has received less attention from agriculturists, whether as regards the selection of most prolific ears, cha- racterising the different varieties, or proving the susceptibility of improvement of this grain by mak- ing favourable changes from one district to another. The common big or rough barley has been culti- vated for a lengthened period chiefly in the Highlands of Scotland, and on the Lowlands, on exposed inferior light soils. The common sorts, however, in culti- vation on the more congenial soils, are the two- rowed or long-eared barley, commonly called the Old Scotch. The common two-rowed or English barley, and latterly the Chevalier, Annat Dunlop, Stains, and Golden or Italian Barley. The Annat barley was introduced by Rlr. Gorrie, at Annat Gardens, (hence its name) and is the produce of two ears picked on the farm of Flawcraig, Carse of Gowrie, in 1830. The ears of the Dunlop barley are in size and shape similar to those of the old Scotch, but both straw and grain are a good deal darker in colour. It is however about a week earlier than the common barley, and therefore may be preferred for growing on late situations. Stains barley was sent from London by Lord Lyndoch, to his land steward, Mr. Stain Dalcrue, Perthshire, and is now known in that neighbour- hood under the above name. Though superior in sample to tbe old Scotch, yet it is late in ripening, and therefore may prove unsuitable for this climate. The Golden barley was first introduced into Stirling- , shire by Mr. Smith, of the Deanston works, and is now pretty extensively cultivated in that neighbour- hood. Under the name of Italian barley, it was introduced some years ago into Ayrshire from the Alps of Europe, and hence it is sometimes called Alpine barley. The ear is shorter than the com- mon barley, but remarkably close, broad, and com- pact. The grains are also large, plump, and of a ■ bright yellowish colour. It seems upon the whole a rather superior quality, and deserving of cultiva- tion. 1 he two former of these however, the old Scotch and the common two-rowed English barley, have been cultivated largely for a considerable period, but they have now got so mixed together, - as well as with other varieties, that it is difficult to distinguish the one from the other, or to characterize either of them. However anxious, therefore, agri- ; culturists may be to obtain any of these varieties pure and unmixed, it is now almost impossible for them to accomplish this, owing to the neglect of selection, and of allowing the different sorts to : intermingle to such an extent with one another. ' This is the more to be regretted, for farmers of late years have shown a strong desire to obtain pure and unmixed sorts, and have, thus been induced to try THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 93 new varieties, which in many varieties Lave neither proved congenial to their soil or climate. We have already alluded to the peculiarity of certain districts being- possessed of particular pro- perties for maturing certain varieties of grain in greater perfection than that of others, and it must be acknowledged, that our laiowledge regarding this matter is still limited and circumscribed, and that hitherto too little attention has been directed to so important a subject. For it must be apparent to every agriculturist, that there are certain districts which are more applicable for producing and main- taining the qualities of barley than others, and al- tliough tliis kind of grain is perhaps more suscep- tible of an unsuitable situatien than any other ; yet we know of one variety, the old Scotch, having been grown in one district for the period of fifty years, without the seed having ever been cljanged or the quality of the grain sensibly deteriorated ; and we would here observe that the Scotch brewers esteem this variety for malting, when they can obtain it pure and unmixed. There are other districts, how- ever, completely void of the quality of preservation, for if barley, no matter of what description, be grown, its form, colour, and general appearance will be so altered even in one season, that its former character will not be recognisable. Now we believe barley to have a similar tendency to wheat, that is, it is a native of a warmer clime than our own, and therefore if we would improve its quality and pre- serve its purity and productiveness, we must have recourse to some of those districts in England, where it is matured in greater perfection than in this country. It is not enough, however, as we before stated in regard to the change of seed wheat, that we receive our seed barley from England. Those dis- tricts in England most suitable for a change to the different districts of this country, must first be proved, and every peculiarity connected viith either district carefully noted, as also the properties of the different grain correctly ascertained, whether for coming early to maturity, or any other quality, be- fore the change can be of general benefit : for there cannot be a doubt, had tbese circumstances been more attended to by those interested to procure English seed grain for the Scotch farmer, that much loss and disappointment would have been avoided. The lateness which any variety of English barley may possess is in a great measure counteracted by superiority of the climate, but should the same variety be brought to Scotland this circumstance proves fatal to its success. We have an instance of this in the Chevalier variety, for however valuable it may prove to the English farmer, yet its lateness and slow tendency to ripen render it unsuitable for many districts in Scotalnd. To obviate this incon- veniency attending the English varieties of barley, we would recommend the selection of the most choice ears from among that variety which had for a series of years proved to be of a useful description in Scotland. The advantage of this mode of procedure IS well exemplified in the experience of Colonel Le Couteur with wheat. He states that the only chances of having pure sorts, was to raise them from single grains or single ears, and that the selections which he made amply rewarded his labour, as the produce of his crops was increased from an average of about 2o or 25 bushels an acre to about 34, and since he raised wheat from single ears, or carefully selected sorts, he has increased his crops to between 40 and 50 bushels per acre. To improve the quality how- ever, of these selected ears, we would recommend to be sown in some characterized district in England and again returned to Scotland for seed. If this system was judiciously persevered in, we have no doubt but that the original jiroperties of the variety might be preserved, and productivemess of it by sucli means increased, and at the same time the quality and tendency to early maturity materially improved. It may indeed be thought by those who have not turned their attention to the propagation of new va- rieties, that it would take a considerable time before any new sort could be made generally available to the agricultural community ; but the easy facility of pro- pagating new and genuine seeds will become mani- fest from an experiment instituted by a practical agriculturist in East Lothian. The ears of a single plant of wheat were preserved, and the grains dib- bled into the ground the same autumn, and the pro- duce of the second and third seasons sown broadcast in the ordinary way, and the fourth harvest put him in possession of nearly 40 quarters of sound grain. By this it will be observed that any new variety would speedily be made available to the whole agricultural community, and that the progress of improvement would be as rapid as the most sanguine could desire. We would not at present, however, enter into this matter, but will in the next place direct our attention to the oat. In Lawson's Manual of Agriculture, the different varieties of oats enumerated are thirty-eight, and these have, with i'ew exceptions, been more or less cultivated in Scotland, according to the estimation in which the various sorts are held by agriculturists, i The PotatJ oat was discovered growing in a field of potatoes (hence its name) in Cumberland, in 1788. This variety has received a more extensive cultiva- tion in this country than perhaps any other, but when cultivated too long in one situation without a change of seed, the quality very soon deteriorates. The Hopetoun oat was discovered by accident some years since, by Mr. Sheriff Mungoswells, East Lothian. Its cultivation has extended rapidly throughout the different districts, during the last five or sis years, and is found to be well adapted for certain soils and situations. These however are but imperfectly understood, owing to the want of a general communication being established throughout the country; and many years must elapse before this knowledge is accurately acquired. The com- mon Dun oat, although somewhat later than the former, is a very prolific sort, and is well adapted for certain soils and situations, and is perhaps more deserving of cultivation than anv other of the col- oured varieties. It was much grown in the higher districts of the Lothians and neighbouring districts, as about the Lammermuir and Pentland Hills, and is still cultivated to a certain extent. The quality of this oat, however, when grown for a few years in particular districts, invariably inclines to degenerate and get mixed, and many of the ears be- come affected with smut. Therefore where it was once extensively cultivated, it has now given way to other varieties less valuable in themselves, but not so liable to this disease. There appears however to have been no effectual means used to preserve the quality of the Dun oat, for had this been the case, we do not see but what its quality and productiveness might have been as easily preserved as other sorts, and with regard to the smutty or blackened ears, ibis might perhaps bo remedied by subjecting the grain to a similar process as pickling wheat. Farmers however, seldom inquire into the nature of those ten- dencies to which certain varieties of plants are sub- ject, but uniformly throw them aside when they do not come up to their expectations. The Black Tar- tarian oat is another variety which merits the atten- H 2 94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tion of the farmer. It Las been cultivated in some parts of England for a considerable period, but its introduction into Scotland Las been comparatively recent ; enough however has been learnt to prove its productiveness and adaptation to certain soils. We are aware indeed of the crop of this oat having- in some instances produced at the rate or twenty hundred weight of excellent meal per imperial acre. Like all the other varieties, however, it also spee- dily degenerates and gets unproductive. The Early Angus oat is nearly as early as the potato oat. It is much cultivated in the district of Angus, and northward in some parts of the Highlands; also in some parts of Scotland, but particularly in the late and exposed districts. The Late Angus oat is a well known and superior variety, much cultivated parti- cularly in the central districts of Scotland, in some parts of which it is termed common oat, or common late oat. The Georgian oat was introduced about thirteen years since by Captain Barclay, of Ury, an enterprising agriculturist, to whom the farmers in the northern counties are much indebted for many valuable ameliorations in their cattle stocks. Through Capt. B.'s exertions, this oat in a t>hort time ob- tained a very extended cultivation, but a few seasons determined that it was not possessed of the requisite qualities for either the generality of our soils or climate ; and it was ultimately proved to be decidedly inferior to many of the varieties then in cultivation, thereby showing the degree of depend- ence to be placed in any new variety until it has been rigorously subjected in several districts to the test of experiment. The Rlainsley is another variety of it, which is the common oat of the southern dis- tricts of Scotland, and is extensively cultivated there. It acquires its name from being first raised at Blainsley. The Sandy oat is of more recent in- troduction than any of the above enumerated vari- eties. Like all the others it was discovered by accident, and although it is well recommended, vet the proofs are local, and we cannot say that it will prove generally useful until more is learnt of its nature and habits. We might enumerate many other varieties of oats which receive the attention of agriculturists in different districts in Scotland, but they are so ill assorted and have got so mixed, that it is difficult to give them any distinct character. We would how- ever remark, that while the climate of England seems better suited to the growth of wheat and bar- ley than Scotland, yet that the lattter country must be acknowledged to be capable of producing oats in greater perfection and of a superior quality to the for- mer, thereby showing that tliis grain is more con- genial to a moist climate than any other of the cereal kind. The system of an exchange of seed between the two countries will in this case be reversed, and ■we conceive that a frequent and judicious change of oats from Scotland would prove very advantageous to the English agriculturists. We have already alluded to particular districts in England being more particularly adapted for ma- turing wheat and barley for seed than others, and this view of the matter is equally applicable to the necessity of ascertaining those districts in Scotland, most fitted for perfecting the oat, and rendering it suitable to the different soils and situations in Eng- land. Our knowledge however, of the different districts and their' suitableness or otherwise for maturing seed oats for a change to other districts is but limited, and we do not hesitate to affirm that this important subject will never be properly under- stood, until some centre of communication is esta- blished. For it must notbe supposed that a district, although famed for raising a particular kind of oat for seed, is equally applicable for producing all the varieties in the same perfection. That some districts however are better adapted for this purpose than others, does not admit of a doubt ; and we have an instance in the south eastern part of Scotland, about Lander Hall, and Peebleshire, where oats are produced of a superior description for seed, and prove a valuable change to several other districts in Scotland, From the foregoing remarks it will be observed, that the different varieties of wheat, barley, and oats are much mixed in this country, and that every oat might be rendered more productive, were some system established for the purpose of selecting and purifying tfie different varieties. It will not be denied that a mixed variety of grain, whether of wheat, barley, or oats, can never ripen equally ; neither can it be supposed to produce either that quantity or quality of flour or meal, which a pure and unmixed description is capable of. This fact has been well exemplified by practical experiments, instituted by Col. Le Conteur on several varieties of wheat. By testing the diflferent sorts, and select- ing ears from the most valuable, he has been enabled in the short period of five years, to raise more than twice as much wheat per acre than he formerly did when usins: the mixed and common sorts sown in England ; and the samples which he now produces at Mark Lane, are not equalled by any other, whether of home or foreign growth ; and what is more remarkable, some of these wheats yield about twelve per cent, more fine flour than the common runs in England. This improvement Col. Le Cou- teur ascribes solely to the selection of the seed, and we are sorry that his attention has not been also directed to the oth*.r sorts of grain, as we believe the like means would have produced a similar effect with regard to them. In speaking of the advantages to be derived from these changes of seed betwixt England and Scotland, we have made no allusion to Ireland, as our expe- rience with regard to the nature and capabilities of that country is limited. We however believe that the system would also prove beneficial there, and that the intercourse between the three countries might become of mutual advantage. The Bean and Pea will next merit our attention. The common Scotch or Horse bean is almost the only sort cultivated in Scotland, although there are many other varieties to which attention is sometimes di- rected. The bean culture howevei, in this country has rather retrograded than extended ; and in many districts has been thrown aside nearly altogether. This no doubt proceeds from the texture of many soils being so altered by cultivation, as to allow a greater extension of the potato and turnip husban- dry, but it is also owing to the uncertainty and late- ness which generally attends this crop in this climate. Were this not the case, it would prove a valuable acquisition to those districts where tiie four years' rotation system is followed, as it would be the means of extending the distance between some of those crops of which the soil gets as it were sick, sucli as turnips and clover, and which do not suc- ceed when the crop is too closely repeated on the same ground. Tliere is perhaps no other grain over the shape and colour of which, the climate, soil, and culture has so much influence ^s in the case of the bean : but we are satisfied were an early variety procured, this branch of husbandry would speedily extend itself in those districts in Scotland which are too heavy for growing to advantage potatoes and tur- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 95 nips, and also on those which required a change to prevent a too close repetition of the same kind of crop. Were attention therefore directed to this sub- ject, and proper means used to select and test the different varieties, we have no doubt but that a sort might be procured combining earliness and prolific- ness ; nor would this be a matter of great difficulty, for if we look at the great diversity of appearance in the samples of common beans, we may readily con- clude that this is more owing to a mixture of varieties, than to any other cause. That such a mixture exists, any person may perceive by examining a tield of beans in full flower, when they will be seen to pre- sent an infinite diversity in the colour of the flowers ; and although this may not and does not always pre- cede a diflerent colour or form in the seed, 3-et it doubtless constitutes a variety, and therefore the seeds are more likely to vary than if the flowers were all the same. It is vs-ell known than a bean crop is an excellent preparative for either wheat or barley, according to the nature of the soil ; but it is more par- ticularly valuable for the former on those strong clay soils, where the potato and turnip husbandry can- not be prosecuted successfully. It would therefore be a matter of the greatest importance to the agri- cultural community, to have the different varieties tested, and a selection made suitable to the soils of the different districts. To obtain such a desirable end it will no doubt be necessary to have some field of experiment, where the minutiae attending these selections could be preserved, independent of the whim and ca- price of individual interference; but when this is accomplished, it will also be necessary to have a regular system of exchange of seed matured, for we consider this to be more necessary to the success- ful cultivation of the bean, than perhaps any other sort of grain. The chaas:e of seed from England al- ways proves beneficial, and more so the first season than afterwards; but unless the change is persevered in, the variety will speedily degenerate, and prove worse than those sorts which may be said more pro- perly to belong to Scotland. That much might be accomplished by such means we have only to turn in proof of what we say, to the progress which has been made by horticulturists in the improvement of the (ea, a variety of which with suitable properties for field culture, the agriculturist is as deficient of as in that of the bean. The early Charlton is the oldest, most extensively cultivated, and best known variety of white pea, and is said by some to be the origin from which the most esteemed early garden varieties have arisen, and that they are nothing else than Charlton peas con- siderably modified in character, from the effects of cultivation, selection, &c. Although this idea may seem far-fetched, yet it does not at all seem impro- bable, especially when we take into consideration the susceptibility of change, from cultivation and other causes, which the pea is ascertained to possess. Ihus the early Charlton, or any other variety what- ever, if sown for several years, and only the very earliest and very latest plants selected for seed each season, the difference in the time of ripening be- tween the two will ultimately become so great as to give them the appearance of two distinct varieties ; and by sowing the earlier portion on light early soils, and the latter on strong black or carse soils, the diff"erence will become materially increased. It is therefore probable that the Early Frame may have originated in the Charlton, although they differ es- sentially in their habit of growth. VVe thus perceive when attention is judiciously directed to any object, how easy is the march of improvement ; but it cer- tainly militates not only against the profits of the agriculturist, but against his character for enterprise and perseverance, that he should allow the gardener so far to outstrip him in every particular, whether as regards the cultivation of the soil, or the quality and abundance of the produce. It has been objected to the institution of experiments, that they will be at- tended with great expense ; but if we look to the benefits which would accrue to agriculturists and the community at large, from having every subject connected with agriculture properly defined and understood, vce may safely rely on being speedilv" remunerated for any expense or outlay incurred ; and it is a matter of little consequence whether we attain the object by direct or indirect means. In directing attention in the next place to the Potato, we are aware that we are entering upon a subject that has of late years been often brought before the public. In Lawson's Agricultural Manual, there are upwards of one hundred and fifty varieties of the potato enumerated, and experience has proved that these different sorts are possessed of peculiar ba- bits, such as early maturity, &c.,and that some sorts are better adapted for certain districts and descrip- tions of soils than others. It must therefore be ob- vious, that to obtain a knowledge of the various habits and tendencies of the several varieties, and their adaptation for particular districts with various soils and variable climate, is beyond the power of individual exertion. The want of unity and the in- efficacy of detached proceedings, was indeed exem- plified in the failures which recently took place in almost every district in Scotland in the potato crop. We are aware that many ingenious theories were brought forward by several individuals, as to the cause of these failures, but none of th«m appeared to agree, either in the cause or the remedy ; and in- deed, the most of their reasoning has been com- pletely overthrown by subsequent experience. We however do not hesitate to say, thnt had it not been for the extremely dry state of the ground, both at the period of planting and afterwards, in those three successive seasons when the disease was most pre- valent, that it would never have appeared. Be this however as it may, we have no hesitation in afiSrming that there are certain districts in Scotland that have been proof against this disease, and which seem pos- sessed of some inherent quality for preserving the property of the potato, and are thereby rendered valuable for producing superior seed. The district to which we allude is situated along the highest cul- tivated points on the north side of the Cleish Hills, in Kinrosshire, and in those seasons when the taint threatened the destuction of almost every field in many parts of the country, this district completely escaped the ravages of the disease. jVot only so, but what was more remarkable and merits the attention of every agriculturist, the seed which was procured from this district, was not liable to the taint ; for not only ourselves but all those who received their seed po- tatoes from it, had not a single failure in their crops, while most of the fields around were all more or less affected. We may refer to a report from another part of the country, which seems also to have been proof against this disease. " At Leadhills, in La- narkshire, the highest inhabited district in Scot- land, potatoes are grown to some extent, and, strange to say, no taint has ever appeared there ; in consequence of this, the crop is now getting in great demand for seed, and has been sent for this purpose as far as Kelso, and also to Glasgow, a distance of forty-four miles." Such facts are of im- portance to the agricultural community, for the ad- vantages to be derived from procuring seed potatoes 96 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. from similar situations, possessed of similar tenden- cies, is neither generally known nor understood. Had an experimental establishment, however, been in operation, those situations would have been as- certained and marked for future investigation, which had escaped the first year's ravages of the disease, and by the second season these would have been confirmed, and this would have placed beyond dis- pute the character of certain districts. But even supposing the potato crop was not again subjected to such a severe trial as these three seasons afforded, still there cannot be a doubt that even in ordinary seasons the advantages which the early dry lands would derive, from a change of seed from those situations will be found always to be considerable, though perhaps, unless by comparison, conspicu- ously so. \Ve have only alluded to these two districts, as showing what may be done in this way, but have no doubt there are others which if known, would prove equally beneficial for a change ; and we think there is nothing which more strongly proves the necessity and advantages of an institution of the nature we have been advocating, than those circumstances which we have brought forward. For it will be found that many of those diseases to which agricultural produce is sometimes subject, proceed often from some cause, trifling perhaps in itself, but rendered highly destructive in its consequences, from our having no data to guide us in our operations, nor any public institution to test and inquire into the different causes which from time to time affect our vegetable economy. Our knowledge, indeed, will continue to be limited and circumscribed, and pre- judice and error allowed to reign triumphant, until the agricultural interest bind themselves together for the purpose of reducing those crude and ill- digested theories to practice, and simplifying the different processes which are necessary to the full development of the most simple agricultural opera- tion. A Scotch Farmer. ( To be continued,^ ON PLUG OR CLAY DRA.INING. By W. S. Evans, Esq., of Selkirk House, cueltenjiam. (From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.) The advantages of draining lands subject to springs is well known, and has been ably described by Elk- ington and others in various works on agriculture ; but, as far as I am acquainted with these descrip- tions, they are chiefly confined to the best means of draining peaty and boggy soils, and such as are in- fested with deep-seated or more superficial springs. But there is a description of land of great import- ance as composing a very large portion of the soils of this country, which comes under neither of these denominations, and which has been almost wholly neglected, as the means hitherto recommended for its improvement have been either so expensive on the on© hand, or inefficient in their effects on the other, as to preclude any advantages from their use. This land is capable of yielding remunerating re- turns when judiciously drained and under a good system of management ; but without draining or skil- ful culture, this kind of soil is the most destructive of the capital of the farmer of any land in these king- doms. The land now alluded to is chiefly composed of various depths, or of uncertain depth of vegetable soil of the superstratum or surface, which is incum- bent on a subsoil of tenacious clay, exceedingly re- tentive of water, and rendered dry chiefly by evapo- ration. Gravelly and sandy soils, with ribs or beds of cla)' intersecting in various and uncertain direc- tions, are of no value without draining in a humid atmosphere like ours, and they set at defiance the best systems of farming. It becomes, then, a con- sideration of the first importance to the landlord and farmer, as well as the public, to devise means by which such land can be brought into profitable culti- vation at a moderate expense, and to make these means as extensively known as possible. Plug- draining may be relied upon to effect this purpose, and at an expense so trifling in amount, in compari- son with the advantages to be derived from its use, as will induce every landlord who may possess lands of the dascription in question, to apply a portion of his rents annually to this purpose. The farmer, under a rack-rent in the present depressed state of agriculture, cannot be expected, even if he has the means, to expend his capital in making permanent improvements on another man's estate. Draining should be done at the landlord's expense, beginning- first with the arable land, and proceeding to the pasture-land, until the whole estate is completed. Should the landlord require a word of comfort or encouragement to prevail upon him to begin this experiment, I can assure him, that in numerous in- stances within my own knowledge, where the tenant has had his rent reduced, and has been soliciting a farther reduction, the landlord has been advised to put a value upon bis estate according with the times; and any farther reduction that may be found neces- sary, the amount thereof is employed in paying the interest of the capital which the landlord expends in draining the land of the estate ; and the results have been greatly to the satisfaction and advantage of both landlord and tenant. It is usual to see good crops of corn, or the supe- rior grasses, growing on the tops of the ridges upon this species of soil, and the furrows entirely denuded of every kind of vegetation, except surface-weeds and couch-grass j but, when furrow-drained, and the height of the ridges more or less reduced, the best corn and grasses are found in the furrows. If a calculation were made of the crops lost in the fur- rows, it would be found tliat the increased quantity and improved quality of the crops would more than repay the whole expense of draining in two years, and leave the land in a permanent state of ameliora- tion and improved value. It is not sufficient to describe superficially any plan or practice in husbandry which is introduced to instruct a class of men who, generally speaking, have not had leisure and the means to fit them to in- vestigate and appreciate the advantages and disad- vantages of any new practice, by a mere general de- scription. It must be placed before them in the plainest and clearest manner, because farmers are too prone to abandon, upon the first obstacle that comes in their way, the greatest advantages, rather than by perseverance to overcome difficulties. I have therefore given sketches, and a description of the different implements which are used in complet- ing this process of draining, models of which I shall have the pleasure to transmit for the inspection of the Highland Society of Scotland on the first conve- nient opportunity. These implements will be found to perform their work most efficiently if properly applied. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Fig. 1. 97 Fi?. 2. Fig. 1. is the bit or grafting iron ; a the width of the bottom If inch ; b the side-bit, length of cut 6 inches; c the width of the back of the side -bit, worked out of the main-bit, which must be of the best tempered steel, 4^ inches; d the length of the main-bit from the step to the bottom, 1 foot 6 inches ; e the treading step ; and / the handle, which is about the length of a common spade handle. Fig. 2. ia a section of a main drain, 2 feet deep, filled up again ; o is the water-way left open, 8j inches high ; p is the rammed clay above the suter or plug, 9 inches deep ; and q is the returned turf, with the grassy side uppermost 6^ inches thick. Fig. 3. is the main drain suter or plug ; g the width at the bottom. If inch ; h the width at the top, 4 inches; i the length of the plug, 8^ inches; k shows the length of the suter, which may be divided into any number of pieces, say three or four, which are connected with one another by iron links on both sides, so as to allow the suter to turn a curve, r 7- the iron links which join the pieces III; m the chain which connects the foremost piece with the lever 7i. A furrow-drain suter or plug is mado If inch wide at the bottom, 3.^ inches wide at the top, and 6 inches in length. This will form a drain, the opening of which will be of the above dimensions. Before commencing the operation of draining, the field to be drained should be carefully examined, to ascertain the proper fall ; this may, in most cases, be easily discovered by the eye, but when there is any doubt, the spirit-level, or any other with which the parties are most familiar, may be had recourse to. Should the field be in ridges, and the subsoil com- posed of stiff tenacious clay, every furrow must be drained, to make the draining perfectly satisfactory, begiuning at the bottom of the fall, and proceeding through the whole length of the furrow, and taking every precaution to carry the drain as straight as the land will admit of, as curves or bends in drains tend to obstruct the free passage of water, and to form accumulations of earth at every angle. Where bends are unavoidable, the suter or plug, fig. 3, is so constructed, that, with a little attention, it will adapt Itself to any curve that may be necessary, and where there is no acute anp-'les. It is advisable to use the line to make the first cut, until the workmen become expert both with the eye and hand in finish- ing the work. The turf 12 inches wide and 6^ inches deep must be removed with the common spade, and when cut, should be placed upon the right side of the drain, with the grass uppermost. The cut in the clay is made with the grafting imple- ment, fig. 1 ; and it requires some skill and nicety to remove the second cut properly. The first cut being 12 inches wide, the second should be cut at such an angle down the side of the drain as will lerve the bottom of the second cut the exact width of the tongue b of the bitting-iron fig. 1, at 9 inches in depth. The bitting-iron then completes the cuttings, by taking out the last cut 9 inches deep, and which will, on the whole, leave the opening 12 inches wide at top, 2 feet deep, and If inches wide at bottom, as fig. 2. The earth from the two last cuttings should be placed on the left side of the drain, that from the last cutting being uppermost, which, in fil- ling in the drain, will come readily to the hand to be first returned back. Any loose soil that remains at the bottom of the drain should be carefully and com- pletely removed by a scoop spade, so as to leave the drain perfectly clean before the suter or plug is laid in. Having proceeded thus far in the work, the plug, fig. 3, should be placed with its narrow edge in the bottom of the drain, and which will, if the drain has been properly formed, exactly fit it. Now com- mences the most important part of the process, which is the well ramming in of that portion of the 98 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. clay last taken out by the bitting-iron, as upon tbe proper execution of this part of the work depends the security and durability of the drain. This por- tion of tbe clay having been well rammed, and tbe pieces of tbe cuttings perfectly incorporated into one solid mass, the next cutting is to be returned in a similar manner, and equally well rammed; and, lastly, the turf must be placed as evenly as possible, and fixed in its original place by tbe rammer, which finishes the work, and leaves the drain, when tbe plug is drawn out, with a much larger water-way than can be obtained by any common drainiug-tile. This operation of ramming is performed to the full length of the plug, when the lever n, fig. 3, is stuck into tbe bottom of tbe dr.iin, and the plug drawn for- ward to within 8 inches of the extent of the com- pleted portion of the drain, and the work proceeds as before, until the whole drain is completed. Great care should be taken that tbe whole of the earth ■which has been removed should be returned into the drain, tbe ramming being the hardest part of the work, tbe labourers, when lelt to themselves, are apt to leave too much of tbe soil out of tbe drain. The best criterion that tbe work has been properly executed, is, that tbe whole of tbe soil is returned into tbe drain, without leaving too great an eleva- tion of tbe top of the drain above tlie level of tbe surrounding surface of the field. Four men and a boy (who is employed in returning tbe soil into the drain) are required to each drain, to carry on the work expeditiously, and the men may be changed to different parts of the work, but the stoutest labourer should take tbe ramming process. Never allow a weak man or a boy to be employed in this business. When tbe whole field has been drained, it should be well rolled with a heavy roller, and no cattle or sheep should be in tbe field during tbe operation, nor until the drains have bad full time to become dry and consolidated. There should be as few out- lets or main drains as possible, the outlets should be finished either with tiles made for tbe purpose, or with brick or stone if more easily procured ; and I have found it eligible to spar tbe main outlets with some good oak spars, driven across to prevent rab- bits and other vermin from entering. Never allow tbe drains to be cut across tbe fall, but follow tbe natural fall of the field, in whatever direction that may be. The only exception to this rule applies to main drains, which will, of course, be placed across the fall in the lowest part of the field, at any part where a good vent can be obtained for the water. In general, from 22 to 24 inches will be sufficiently deep to cut the drains upon pasture land ; but strata may occur where the drains will be required to be cut deeper, when the size of tbe plug ought to be in- creased, and the main drain plug should also be made large in proportion to the quantity of water to be carried off, or more main drains must be made. The main drain plug should be larger than the furrow- plug, so that two plugs of different sizes must al- ways be provided. We have recommended that every furrow on certain descriptions of land should be drained, but with level land, and a more porous subsoil, from 24 to 30 feet, or even more, between the drains will effectually clear the land of surface water ; but on compact stiff clays the drains may re- quire to be much nearer each other. The question should not be bow Ceyr, but bow many drains will be necessary effectually to obtain our object. We have seen upon gravelly and sandy soils, intersected by ribs or beds of clay, a single drain, judiciously placed, completely remove the surface water from 7 or 8 acres ; and in fields of this character, where the ribs of clay are pretty regular, great expense may be saved by tbe use of tbe bar, to discover their exact situation, which, having done, we have only to cut drains through them, and give a free vent to the water, which has been confined above, to effect your object. In fields possessing a considerable fall, it will be advisable not to bring too many drains, or too much water, into the main drains, as the weight and velocity of the water may injure them; and where a large body of water in these situations must unavoidably be brought to one point, a covered stone-drain should be constructed with stones of sufficient size and weight to resist tbe velocity and pressure of the water. But, in general, with a little attention, the water may be so divided, in hilly situa- tions, by increasing the number of the main drains, as to obviate any inconvenience from this cause. Plug drains are mor^ adapted to pasture than ara- ble land ; but where stone cannot be obtained, or where tiles are considered too expensive, these drains have been used with very great advantage, and when thus used they ought to be cut full 30 inches deep. I have executed, within the last ibur years, more than 300 miles of clay-drains to my entire stisfac- tion. At the same time, I am aware that some of this kind of drain, made by careless and inexpe- rienced workmen, have failed ; while I can with great satisfaction state, that not one of my drains has given way. To obviate any risk upon this head, I recommend that the workmen guarantee tbe work by giving security for its proper execution, or by leaving a sufficient sum in tbe bands of their em- ployers, to guard against such a contingency. One very necessary precaution should not be dis- regarded, that clay drains, nor indeed any other kind of drain, should never be made in frosty or snowy weather, as drains made under such ciicumstances will not stand ; nor should sheep or any other kind of stock be suffered to depasture on land while it is under tbe draining process, nor should tbe drains be left open even for a night, but the cutting of one part and filling in of another should be simultaneous operations. Tbe advantages of plug-draining are so many and important, that it is quite surprising how little of it has been executed. Pasture land, which before had been deluged with surface water, has, in less than two years, undergone an entire change of character, — the aquatic grasses, with rushes, which, before draining, were its chief produce, having entirely dis- appeared, with various other weeds, whose chief support was derived from water, and their ploces have been supplied by several of the best and most nutritive grasses, with vast increase, both in bulk and quality. Mowing has commenced a fortnight or three weeks earlier than before the land was drained ; and land that bad, in wet seasons, invariably rotted, not only every sheep, but heifers and colts, is now stocked without such casualties occurring. It has given great comfort also to stock, which must neces- sarily be sometimes out in cold and wet seasons, and the chief resting-place for these animals is now in tbe iurrows, which, before draining, were in the winter season several inches under water. There is now no wear and tear of waggons and horses, no cutting up of land in drawing on and off the mate- rials of draining upon the old system. Though last not least, the very moderate cost of executing the work, which will not amount in ordinary cases to Ijd. per yard, is a great consideration for improvers of land in these depressed times. The system of clay-draining-, as practised here, has been carefully examined at two different times, by Mr, Wallace of Kelly in Scotland, M.P, for Greenock, to whom I sent a set of the tools in use here, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 99 have had the pleasure of hearing from that gentle- man, of his having put our plan of operations suc- cessfully to the test on his own estate. It is now therefore within the reach of any of his countrymen, who may choose to apply for farther information on the subject in that quarter. ON THE CULTIVATION OF TURNIPS. (original.) The turnip belongs to the genus " Brassica," of class and order, " Tetradynaniia Siliquosa" of Lin- nseus, and to the order " Cruciforma;" of the na- tural system of Jussieu. We have several culti- vated varieties, produced by cultivation, climate, and by sexual connection, and, with very little variation, admitting of the same mode of produc- tion. It is generally agreed that the turnip was originally introduced into Norfolk from Holland by Lord Townshend, who had seen it there when our ambassador at the Hague ; and this circum- stance, joined with the introduction of the potato by the immortal Raleigh, has conferred incalcu- lable benetits on mankind, but which very seldom are allowed a due share of estimation in the sor- did calculations of the human race. Mankind have ever been deceived by the illusive glare of useless qualities pomp and pageantry, honours and rewards are bestowed with a lavish hand on the plunderers of countries, and on the butchers of our species ; a lazy overgrown priesthood has in all ages gulled and duped the people ; lawyers cheat and deceive them ; and actors, mimics, and buffoons are amply rewarded for holding i^p to them a mirror of their own vices and follies, for laughing at them in their face, and for fleecing them of their money; for corrupting their morals, and debauching their imaginations. But the man of liberal ideas, the jjhilosopher, or the patriot, who devotes his time and his talents in trying to instruct and improve mankind, is passed over in contemptuous silence ; the benefits of his labours are slowly and coldly received ; he is assailed and persecuted with all the jealousy and malice of bi- gotry and interested ignorance, and in many cases is glad to escape with his life. No honours, ex- cept the block, were awarded to the unfortunate importer of the potato ; no statues have been erected to the memory of the illustrious indivi- duals who have in a similar manner benefited the human race ; had they sacked cities, and choked the streets with the dead; had they burned towns and plundered countries, their posterity would have been ennobled by a grateful public, their glorious actions would have been sung by many a sycophant and amply recorded in the page of history. Tardy justice is sometimes done them, when the sluggish intellect of the mass has by slow progression reached the same meridian ; wo- ful and lamentable is the chance that reason has against prejudice, and sure and certain is the fall of that man who allows his thinking powers to publish ideas, even one quarter of a century in advance of his fellow creatures. For my own part, I ever look upon such individuals as being the real benefactors of the human race, and enti- tled to the everlasting gratitude of the latest pos- terity. Most of the an s and sciences, during the progress from infancy to their present state, have * been much advanced by some single discovery, v/hich has accelerated the progress much beyond what might have been expected during a great number of years, and has interj)osed a new era in the history and application. The invention of printing greatly facilitated every improvement ; the discovery of the magnetic needle has brought the most distant nations into a regular system of maritime intercourse — has shortened distances, and introduced civilization into the most remote corners of the globe; while the invention of gun- powder completely overturned the art of war, in- troduced a new system of tactics, rendered the process less bloody, and brought success to be more nearly a matter of calculation. In our day we have seen the mighty effects produced by a combination of science and art in adding to the comforts of civilized life , and in the application of steam power we behold a most stupendous monu- ment of human ingenuity, probably not yet half developed, and capable of much more extensive employment. The introduction and cultivation of green crops constitutes an era in the history of agriculture, not less important, or less valuable than any of the splendid discoveries which have added so much to the value of other arts, and though some real or rather " supposed" causes have retarded a more extensive and easily practi- cable cultivation, the progress hitherto made has doubled our agricultural produce, has afforded a better and more regular supply of food, and has added to the general comforts of every class of society. An extended cultivation of green crops joined with our other modern discoveries would nearly again double our agricultural produce ; and the day is fast approaching when all restrictions and fetters imposed by ignorance, prejudice, and power, must snap before the march of intellect, and our common wants, and allow the cultivation of the earth to proceed with other arts, and to take advantage of every known means of improve- ment to supply the primary and indispensable re- quisites of life. Self-interest and individual grati- fication must ultimately give way to the general good. The method of scattering seeds on the ground from the hand, and then covering them by draw- ing something over the surface, in order to produce a crop, seems to have prevailed from the earliest antiquity, and with some exceptions, forms the general practice of the present day. It is gene- rally agreed that the mechanism of an organ sug- gested the sowing of seeds in drills to the inge- nious mind of Jetliro Tull, no doubt searching for some mode of clearing his crops of weeds ; and about the same time, it would appear, that the great advantages to be derived from a better work- ing and pulverization of the earth had occurred to that acute and original thinker. In conformity with the most approved mode of rewarding such beneficial discoveries, he was allowed to end his days in a prison, as a suitable premium for his suggestion, which, taken up and improved upon by others, has overturned in detail nearly the whole system of agricultural practice. Had he applied himself to any of the useless occupations of life, which minister to the luxuries and personal grati- fications, and pander to the vices of the great ones of this world, how diflferent would his reward have been ! — a coronet might have encircled his brows. At the first introduction, turnips were sown broadcast as other seeds ; and to Norfolk the adoption of drilling, and of ploughs drawn by two horses yoked abreast, and guided by reins with- out a driver, is generally ascribed. Broadcast 100 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sowing is yet mucL practised in the southern coun- ties, and when the land is fine and loamy, and free of small annual weeds, very good crops are obtained. This is much the case, owing to the composition of the soil, and the dryness of the climate. The land is wrought as fine as possible by ploughing, harrowing, and rolling ; the ma- nure is then laid on and ploughed in, the turnip seed sown, and covered by rolling, or by light harrowing, or by both. On clean lands, little dif- ficulty occurs in hoeing broadcast crops ; but on moist loamy soils, in humid climates, where turnips delight to dwell, and where they are most generally cultivated, and with almost certain success, an ob- stacle of no small magnitude immediately presented itself. The small weeds covering completely both the land and turnips, and the season much en- couraging vegetation, a necessity exists of thin- ning the turnips at any rate, and also for a !5pace where to lay the weeds and for the hocr to stand, so as to allow a clean and open space for the young plant. Great advantage is also thought to be derived from the horsehoeings, of which dril- ling admits even in the driest and hottest weather, and with some very favourable and particular ex- ceptions, experience has determined in favour of the drill system. About seventy years ago, a spirit of enterprise in agricultural matters began to spread, and a Mr. Dawson, son to a farmer in Tweedside, visited Norfolk, and carried back with him the mode of drilling, and of yoking two horses abreast. His father's farm not being adapted for turnips, he was baffled in every attempt to introduce them there ; but soon after he rented a large farm in the vicinity of loamy soil, and there he suc- ceeded beyond his most sanguine expectations. The field on Frogden farm is yet shown, where he drew the first drill himself, with two horses yoked abreast, and guided by reins. The advan- tages he derived for the crops as winter food, from cleaning the land for the succeeding crops, and in raising manure, were quickly so apparent as to silence all opposition ; the system spread rapidly, most materially aided, no doubt, by the increasing value of all kinds of farm produce, which stimulated every exertion to meet the de- mand, and without which stimulus it may be doubt- ed if we would have possessed at this day our present improved knowledge of cultivation. So soon as harvest is over, and the sowing of wheat and other autumn work is completed, the lands intended for c;reen crops the following year are ploughed ; and in the spring, so soon as the sea- son admits, they are cross-ploughed, and har- rowed, and rolled, and ploughed again, till re- duced to as fine a tilth as can possibly be effected ; and weeds, and stones, are carefully picked off, after each harrowing and rolling. The securing of moisture is the great object in the management of turnip soils; for on that moisture being re- tained depends the vegetation and success of the turnip plant, till it reaches the manure for support. If it could be attained, I would recom- mend a space of eight or ten days to intervene between each ploughing, during the spring months, and the land to be ploughed, harrowed, and rolled down flat again with the utmost despatch ; all for the purpose of retaining and obtaining moisture. The land being now well wrought, and perfectly cleaned, the drilling commences. The mode of opening drills fiist adopted, and yet continued on sands and fine loams, is by means of a plough with two wings, called a double mould-board plough, which makes a drill in going and return^ ing, and, with a pair of quick and able horses, will drill five or six acres a day. It splits the drills and covers the dung in the same manner. On fine lauds this plough answers the purpose very well ; but the great advantages derived from cultivation of turnips soon induced the attempt on stiff loams, where a cloddy and crumbling surface will result from the best pulverization, and n where the wings of the double mould-board plough prevent its going deep enough into the stiff land, so as to raise fresh soil for the turnip-seed to vegetate in ; and, consequently, the dry cloddy surface was pushed together over the dung by the wings of the plough. On these stiff loams our best and soundest crops are obtained ; but a diffi- culty occurs in securing the braird, and in re- ducing the soil in wet seasons. In many places these soils lie in high and crooked ridges, and, ,, when planted with green crops, are drilled across and water furrowed. The above-mentioned defi- ciency of the double mould- board plough was soon observed, and the common plough was intro- duced to open a drill by going and returning in the same furrow. This method is the slower by performing only about two acres a day, but the best and most effectual yet known. Despatch on large farms being so urgent, another method has been introduced, by opening a drill by one furrow of the common plough, and covering the dung by two furrows, or with one where the land is light and fine. In this process the ploughs are all provided with drawing trees, of 4| feet in length, to stretch over two drills, and the horses are tied by the bridles exactly to the same distance. The drilling begins from a straight side of the field ; one-horse carts bring forward the dung as quickly as possible from a heap in the field, in an ■ intermediate state of decomposition, the fermenta- tion going on rapidly, but not ceased ; it is pulled into rows for three drills, divided, spread, and covered, and the turnip seed sown and rolled down with the utmost possible despatch. In opening the drills the ploughs make two in going and return- ing ; they work at opposite sides of a "break" set oft" for them, and containing a certain number of drills ; and it requires very considerable dexterity in the ploughman to meet exactly, and have no , more space at one end than at the other. In covering the manure the right-hand horse walks in the furrow where the plough went last ; the one on the left hand wallJs on the top of the second drill from the right hand horse ; and the plough splits the drill between, and throws as heavy a furrow over the dung as the horses can move. At the end of the field they turn to the right hand, and, in returning, the horses walk each in a furrow, with the plough in one between, and which again throws a heavy furrow of fresh soil over the dung from the opposite side. This process performs the same quantity of work as the double mould board plough, with the great advantage of j)enetrating to any depth, and raising fresh tilth. The largest arrangement may be — two ploughs, opening drills; four, five, or six carts, bringing forward the manure according to distance ; five spreaders, with a superintendant, and a man unloading the carts ; four men filling the carts, and four boys driving them ; three ploughs, covering the dung — the turnip sower close by them, and the roll every afternoon if the season be dry. From eight to ten acres a-day may be finished by this arrangement. On a smaller scale — four ploughs, assisting each other THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 101 in opening and covering; or, one plough opening, and two covering ; with the other arrangements corresponding. Four and six acres a-day may be performed by these methods. On fine lands, where the double mould-board plough is used, one plough opening the drills and one covering the manure, with corresponding intermediate ar- rangements, should finish five acres a-day. On very large farms, some farmers prefer dividing the 'force into two divisions of four ploughs each, as causing less hurry and confusion. Ten minutes is the time allowed by our best cultivators, from the first opening of the drills till the dung is de- posited ; and other ten from that time till the seed is sown. In managing such dispatch, much forethought and experience is required in dis- posing and combining the force, so that no stop or delay occur, and requires a person of activity, both in body and mind. Much difference is per- ceptible on these points, even on contiguous farms, arising from want of ideas and of clear arrange- ment in the superintendant, though of large ex- perience. In sowing turnips with bones, it is a general custom to sow them on a flat surface by a ma- chine provided with coulters, which make a rut, and deposit bones and seed together. As it is essentially necessary that bones be covered with fresh soil, I have always preferred to make drills with one furi'ow of the common plough, and then split the ridges with the coulters of the bone sower, and thus obtained a depth of fresh soil wherein to deposit both bones and seed. If the bones be not covered, a double mould-board plough may be passed along the drills : six to ten acres a*day may be sown in this way. I have sometimes thought it would expedite the sowing process if our two-drill turnip sowers, now gene- rally used, were provided with a heavy roll behind to roll and finish the drill at once ; but I found it too heavy and cumbersome, and required two horses to draw it : and two horses in length are very inconvenient among drills. In dry seasons, and especially on cloddy soils, rolling is indispensable to press the seed down to the manure, and to level the surface to resist the drought. Our common rolls are much too light, aud I fancy I have often oeen crops lost from fear of rolling, after much expence and labour bestowed. When the turnip plants are nearly fit for hoeing, •a scuflding plough with knives is passed between the drills, which cuts all the weeds in the intervals, and nmch reduces the process of hoeing. In some places, two small ploughs, joined together, are used for the same purpose on stiffer soils, where it is thought the scufiiing plough is too light. The turnips are then singled out to the distance of eight or ten inches ; the scuffling plough works so long as weeds appear, and the hoers again pass along the drills, cut out weeds, and any turnips left too thick before. The practice of earthing up turnips with the double mould-board plough is , now much relinquished, little or no advantage j having been observed to result from ic. Swedes are sown from middle of May to middle of June; yellows during same time ; white globe green and red tops, from middle of June to middle of July. Some hybrid varieties have been lately 1 published, but do not seem to have superseded, in ' any degree, the well-known varieties above men- tioned. The average expence of cultivating an acre of turnips, exclusive of rent and taxes, may be taken at from 71. to 8i. From the after crops much of the profits and advantages must be looked for. On lands improved by paring and burning, turnips are sown broadcast on the surface made fine by harrowing. They might be drilled, but the manure being scattered, little or no advantage might follow. In some soils and seasons, turnips are exposed to a disease at the root, called " fingers and toes," caused by insects. No remedy has been found. The attacks of the fly are principally known in the southern counties, and in many instances the ravages are very extensive. Certain seasons are more fata! than others, sweeping clean a field in a few hours. No cure has been found, all the pre- scriptions published being of no avail. The latest proposition is, to kill the insects by a jet of steam from a boiler, passing along the drills in the man- ner of a water cart. This mode seems very ques- tionable. It is generally recommended to prepare the land and manure as finely as possible ; to push the plants quickly beyond the state in which the fly attacks it. Of late years a new enemy has appeared in caterpillars, which devour the leaves in an advanced state. No efliectual cure has been found ; — rollings are useful ; — but as they and the fly evidently arise from the state of the atmos- phere, a preventive may be difficult to find. J. D. ON SWEDISH TURNIPS. [The immense importance of the turnip crop renders any information as to the growth and keeping of that valuable root acceptable, we there- fore offer no apology for republishing two letters from the pen of that talented agriculturist Mr. Blaikie, which appeared in the old Farmer's Journal some years ago. — Ed. P.M.] Sir, — Although, amongst the various improve- ments in agriculture introduced or brought into general practice of late years, few arc of greater importance than the cultivation of Swedish tur- nips, yet prejudices fapparently well founded) still exist against that valuable esculent ; the intention of the present communication is to endeavour to remove those prejudices, by the means of answer- ing, and pointing out a remedy for the principal objections which I have heard stated, as militating against the still more general cultivation of that inestimable vegetable. The objections I allude to are, first, that when Swedish turnips are grown upon clay soils, or upon loams incumbent on retentive subsoils, they cannot be eaten on the ground, but must be drawn off to be consumed elsewhere ; and as stock re- quire a regular supply of food to keep them in a growing state, it follows to procure that sup- ply, the land must frequently be poached and in- jured by being carted upon in wet weather; se- cond, that when Swedish turnips are grown upon light soils, and stand for spring use, they throw out fresh fibres, and rob the land by reason of drawing additional nutriment from it ; and third, that Swedish turnips are liable to be devoured by game. I have also heard various other objections, but of less importance than those already men- tioned. I hope it will not be deemed impertinent, nor bordering on egotism, if I here give a concise ac- count of the cultivation of Swedish turnips on the Earl of Chesterfield's farms at this place, as that 102 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. will naturally lead to the more immediate object of this communication, viz, the removal and pre- servation of the crop, and in doing so with the least possible injur}' to the land. We here generally prefer deep marley loams for growing Swedish turnips, yet we sow them with success upon various soils, in all the intermediate shades of loam between clay and sand, and fre- quently upon strong loam, incumbent on imper- vious till subsoil. We make it a rule to begin sowing (on the stronger soils) in the last week in May, or first week in June, and continue sowing Swedes till the second week in July; they are all sown in drills in the Scotch or Northumberland method, are horse-hoed letwcen the rows, and hand-hoed and thinned in the rows by women and children. We consider the earl)'^ sown Swedes to be full grown by the middle of November, and in some seasons rather earlier ; we then take the first favourable opportunity of the land being in a proper state for our operations, when all spare hands (men, women and children) are set to work; the turnips are j)ulled up, and the roots cut from the bulbs, (the tops being left on) ; old gorse or bill-hooks, broken sickles, orreap-hooks, and such like implements answer for the purpose, the tur- nips ai'e thrown into carts and conveyed to an orchard, or some other piece or pieces of old turf land most convenient to where they are intended to be consumed, they are there shot out of the carts in heaps, and afterwards placed as we term it, that is, the bulbs are placed close to, and touch- ing each other, with the tops uppermost, and only one turnip deep, fan acre of good turnips from the field occupy a much less space when placed, than can readily be imagined by those who Lave not tried the experiment) ; in this manner we en- deavour to secure one or two months' supply for the stock intended to be fed with them, and find them keep good the whole winter ; if the weather proves very severe a slight covering of litter is thrown upon them. The depots are kept so far sacred as to be only resorted to in cases of emergency, such as when the land is too wet to be carted upon without doing injury, in time of severe frost, deep snow, &c., &c.^ while, at every favourable opportunity in course of the winter, we keep adding to the store in the preserve. As soon as the turnips are removed from the field, the ploughs are set to work, and the land drawn up into such sized ridges as are thought proper ; by this means the strong soils be- come pulverized and the spring work expedited, as the ground only requires to be scarified and harrowed to make it in a proper state to receive the succeeding corn crop, which is always drilled in. We make it a rule in spring, so soon as the turnips begin to strike fresh fibres into the ground, and the tops run up to seed, to draw off such por- tion as are not required for the immediate supply of the stock, and place them in the manner before described, if under the shade of trees in spring, it will be an advantage ; in such situations we have had them keep good till Midsummer, for they are not liable to rot, nor will they become too dry for use. As to the third objection, the complaint must he partial, as it can only happen (in a serious degree) where game is too plentiful, a\)d where the cultivation of Swedish turnips is not sufficiently general ; in such districts the practice here recom- mended of removing the turnips from the field, and placing them in narrower compass, will be found the most effectual means of securing them from the attacks of those depredators. On these farms we have tried various means of preserving Swedish turnips, such as by cutting the roots and tops off, and camping the bulbs in the manner of potatoes ; also by storing them in barns and other out-houses; but have never succeeded so well as by the method here recommended. Should you, Sir, think this detail worthy o» a place in your journal, it will probably be remarked by some of your readers, that the practice here called placing is not new. I am aware such a re- mark would be perfectly correct, but I have rea- son to believe that although not new, it is not in general use ; and it is therefore probable that by your inserting the communication in your paper, it may be the means of introducing the practice to some districts previously unacquainted with it. I am, Sir, vour humble servant, FRANCIS BLAIKIE. Bradby Hall, Jan. 11, 1814. ON PRESERVING TURNIPS. Sin, — In a letter addressed to you, dated 11th January last, I communicated a detail of the me- thod practised at this place for the preservation of Swedish turnips, and as you thought that letter of sufficient importance to be worthy of a place in your journal, I am induced to believe the following detail (as being a continuation of the same sub- ject) may also prove acceptable. In the first weeks of last November we secured the produce of several acres of Swedish turnips in the manner called placing, as described in the let- ter before alluded to; such part of those turnips as were not consumed by stock remained in the depots the whole of this very severe winter with- out any covering whatever, except by occasional falls of snow ; they were very little injured by the severity of the weather, while two-thirds of the remainder of the same crops left in the fields perished and became rotten, and in some parts of the fields where the snow was drifted off, not one turnip in ten remained sound ; we have now (at the date of this letter) a considerable quantity of placed turnips perfectly sound and good remain- ing in the depots ; the bulbs have thrown out young fibres, and the tops are pushing up. Were we to remove those turnips and replace them on fresh turf, the vegetation would be checked, and • they would continue sound for :nonths to come. This detail will probably be thought mysterious by those who have never tried the experiment ; it cer- tainly does appear paradoxical, that Swedish tur- nips should resist the severity of the weather bet- ter, when treated in the manner recommended, than if left in the field where they have the protec- tion of the earth partly round their roots ; such, however, is the fact. I have observed that when turnips from the de- pots are given to stock in the spring months, they do not reject them, but, on the contrary, eat them with avidity ; yet when they are mixed with tur- nips fresh f'om the field, sheep in particular pre- fer the latter ; this seeming ol)jection does not mi- litate against the great advantages otherwise ob- tained bj' securing turnijjs in the manner recom- mended : — These I state to be, 1st, Removal from the field with the least injury to heavy land. 2d, More certain preservation of the root. 3d, The means of obtaining a certain supply for the stock in severe weather ; and 4th, Secui'ity against the destructive ravages of game, In the latter case, if the depots arc not otherwise protected, they THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 103 may be readily guarded by a rough stake and thorn wattled hedge. Hares and rabbits will seldom at- tempt to break through a dead thorn or gorse hedge, although they will soon eat their way through a live one; for instance, such game are very destructive to young quicksets, but if a few dead small branches of thorns, gorse, briars, or other rigid plants be drawn along the young hedge rows, they will be effectually protected, as our ex- perience at this place has demonstrated. I leave it to those better qualified to give a satis- factory or philosohical reason why Swedish turnips are better preserved by being placed in the manner I have recommended, although they are left ex- posed to the subsequent severity of the winter's frosts, than if they were left in the field where the earth partly covers the bulb ; such, however, is the fact, and it may be sufficiently cut for the practical farmer to be advised of it. Although, as I have before stated, the placed turnips keep sound in the depots without any covering, yet I advise that, on the appearance of severe weather, a little loose straw be thrown over a part, as stock will certainly prefer turnips not frozen. T have not discovered any great diminu- tion of weight in the preserved turnips, nor any difference in the stock thriving, when kept on them or on others fresh from the field. I give a detail of the following circumstance as being applicable to the subject (the hint may also prove instructive) : Notwithstanding the unpre- cedented severity of last winter, there now is in the Earl of Chesterfield's kitchen gardens at this place, an abundance of healthy cabbage, cauli- flower, and lettuce plants, which have stood the winter without any protection or covering. His lordship's gardener (Mr. Groves) has made it a practice, when the young winter and spring vege- table plants grow over luxuriant in autumn, topnll them up and expose their roots to the vicissitudes of the weather for a day or two ; he afterwards re- plants them in their former places, and, in some instances, when the weather has been very mild late in the season, he has repeated the operation a second and even a third time ; this practice stag- nates the growth of the plant, hardens it, and in- variably enables it better to withstand the severity of the following winter. To this practice, which was followed last autumn, Mr. Groves attributes his wonderful success in preserving the before- mentioned vegetables, while very few have sur- vived in the gardens in the neighbourhood. The practice, simple as it is, is certainly well worthy of imitation. May not the same cause which operates so ad- vantageously in the preservation of vegetables in the garden, be also assigned as a reason for Swedish turnips being better preserved by the method of placing, than if left in the fields. With this obser- vation I conclude, and again subscribe myself, your humble servant, FRANCIS BLAIKIE. Bradby Hall, April 6, 1814. ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIE'TY.— His Excellency, Andrew Stevenson, Envoy Extra- ordinary, and Minister Plenipotentiary to the British Court from the United States of America, was in December last unanimously elected an honorary member of this Society. ON THE CORN LAWS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sin, — It is the day of agitation, much more so than of amendment. Many things may doubt- less he made better, but there may be change without improvement. With this short but needful preface, I proceed at once to the subject which I wish to bring under your consideration, and that of the public. I do not propose to advance anything new, but I do propose to speak of a question of vast importance — a question which, I trust, neither the ignorance, selfishness, or restlessness of some men will be able to embarrass, nor on which they will be able to mislead the public mind. I must here make one leading observation, upon which the weight of all I have to say, and all that any one can say upon the subject, must depend. It is this — MEN CANNOT do without bread. Men may exist without brandy, wines, or tobacco — women may live without silks, tea, or sugar — but neither men nor wnmen can do without BREAD. This most important fact seems to have been lost sight of b}' those who write, speak, and agitate for a repeal of the corn laws, It is desirable for every country to grow enough bread corn for the consumption of its own population. But it is absolutely necessary for an island, especially for a commercial and manu- facturing island, such as Great Britain, to do so, watched as she is, and envied by every nation in the world. Suppose, for argument's sake, that with the corn laws as tliey are, precisely enough wheat was grown in the Britisli empire for its consumption. Suppos- ing, again, that the corn laws were repealed, a vast number of acres would be thrown out of cultivation, and we should be very short of our supply. The ready answer of the repealers to this is, we can im- port corn cheaper. Certainly, we admit it. We can import corn cheaper now than we can grow it; and we can exchange our manufactures for foreign corn, that is, if the continental growers choose to take them. Let us now briefly consider these two points, viz. >. — 1st, The importing corn cheaper than we can ^ grow it. 2dly, The exchange of our manufactures for foreign corn ; and then, lastly, offer a few hints for the better or more satisfactory arrangement of the duty on wheat, and supply of our population. We buy corn cheaper in foreign markets. Yes ; but that does not prove that we have cheaper bread now, or should have it cheaper if the corn laws were re- pealed to-morrow. The continental grower or mer- chant asks as much as corn is worth in England, less by all expenses, duties, &c. &c. If duties were lowered, he would raise his price, and raise and fall just to meet the demand. But further, if by a repeal of the corn laws a million of acres were thrown out of cultivation in England, and there happened to be a short crop, would our bread then be cheap- ened ? No, the foreign merchant would take advan- tage of our distress, and make us buy at any price. Or, if there was a short crop abroad, they could not sell, and we should sturve. And in the event of a war, they would not sell to us at all, or would not be allowed to do so, even if willing, and our popu- laiion would starve. This is a most serious, an all- important question — people may do without French wines, but they cannot do without bread! Again, if when our lighter lands are thrown out of cultivation, the foreign growers refuse to give us wheat but at a very high price, which they assuredly will, and will not take our manufactures in lieu of com ; we must 104 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in that case send very large sums of money out of tbe country for wheat, thus putting it into the poc- kets of foreigners instead of our own farmers, while at the same time bread is as dear as before the corn laws were repealed. Bread is as dear, and the peo- ple have less money to purchase it with. Besides, in reality we should get nothing in return for the vast sums of money which we should send out of the country for wheat. If we buy foreign timber, it is worked up into various useful articles ; English industry is employed upon the raw article, and we see its results. If foreign raw cotton is imported, it is seen in the shape of manufactured domestic com- forts, or manufaciund articles of export. But if we give a million of money for wheat, when eaten, where is it? It is gone — we have nothing. It will be said, "We have well fed people." True! and such I wish to see ; and such are better than all the cottons, and machinery, and railways, and manufac- tures that ever were invented. But why cannot we have such fed on out own wheat ? Why rob our far- mers to put money in the pockets of foreigners 1 But we can have our own wheat, and ought, and I almost hope, if the fever-brained agitators do not prevent it, that we shall, yes, shall have cheap bread grown in England without a repeal of the corn laws. Secondly. It is said that tlie foreign merchant will take our manufactures and give us corn in ex- change. Yes ; while we do not ivayit corn they will. One article is bartered for another. But let us be i)i ivant of corn, and they will not. They will take ad- vantage of our distress and pinch us : they may do without cottons, but they know that we cannot do without Bread. It is all very well talking about cottons and wheat being both merely and alike marketable commodities. To two merchants with equally full bellies they are ; but to the poor and hungry man there is this wide, this immense differ- rence — that the hungry man cannot eat cotton, though he can eat bread. They are not obliged to take our manufactures, we must get their corn, if by a repeal of the corn laws we throw our light lands out of cul- tivation, or starve. The question is simply this — while we have plenty of bread, we can discuss the matter very pleasantly ; we can sell or exchange (it is all the same) our machinery, our woollens, our cottons, &.C., for foreign money or wheat ; but let England once be reduced to the necessity of get- ting wheat or starving, and the foreign merchant will take advantage of it, and will take money only and sell at starvation price ; or, if it suits the policy of the Government ol the country from whence we get our wheat, will not give it at all. Just imagine a case, a highly probable one, nay, one that is almost certain. Russia has long been doing all she can, and is still doing all in her power, to annoy and cripple England. Her sneaking, crafty policy has changed into a more decided form of injury and aggression. In the Baltic, in the Le- vant, in Western India, in North America, llussia has done all that she could do, without declaring war, to annoy and injure us. Supposing England dependent on a foreign market for wheat ; the Baltic ports are those from which we must look to draw our chief supply. France is very uncertain — the Medi- terranean very distant. Has Russia no influence in the Baltic even in peace'! (Has she had no influ- ence over Turkey?) But in the event of a war, would she not be Lord Paramount in the Baltic ? Most assuredly. Would a single bushel of wheat be allowed to leave the Baltic ? Most assuredly not. The ports abroad would be closed against us. We should not have bread cheaper. There is no cer- tainty that our manufactures would be takea by fo- reigners, but the contrary. If we did buy corn we should have to send vast sums of bullion out of the country ; and worse than all, in the event of scarcity or war, that is, exactly when we most wanted it, we should riot hare bread at all. I would now propose a simple remedy, whereby bread might be cheaper, and yet foreign corn ex- cluded, or nearly so. I should, however, first pre- mise that the duty should never in any case be less than 20s. ; that should be the minimum, and it should rise from that according as wheat lowered in price. But I should fain hope that there would be no occa- sion for importing wheat at all. The plan I would propose would be this. Individuals or a company should be encouraged by Government to purchase wheat in plentiful years at a certain pi ice fixed by Government; that is, the price should be named by Government, and the wheat considered as bought at so much per bushel, whether the man or company bought the corn at less or more. A certain allow- ance, also fixed by Government, for storage, waste, insurance, per centage on capital, &c., should be made to the company or individuals, so that they could not be at any loss; and the corn should then be sold when required by the Government, and at a price fixed by it: they would, in fact, be merely Government factors. Or that the Government itself should purchase up the corn in a plentiful year and store it, selling it in time of scarcity. I know many will sneer at such a proposal. Let them ; they are no true friends to their country. Supposing (which 1 do not anticipate) jthat Government, that is, the taxes or the countrj^ were losers by this trade — suppose they bought two millions worth of corn, and sold it at one million eight hundred thousand pounds, the money lost would only go into the pockets of Englishmen. If Peter lost his money, Paul would get it ; and as tiiey had all things com- mon that would be no real loss. The farmer would then have a swre market for the sale of his corn at a fair price : v\hen wheat was very ])lenty, he would get more than, under present circumstances, he ever can ; when wheat was scarce, it is true that he would get less, because the stored wheat would come to market. But he ought to be glad at this ; for a certain and equable profit is always better to a man of business, than a high price to-day, and none at all to- morrow. He would get on the whole more than he does now, and get it more equally ; more, because foreign corn would be excluded — more equally, because the price would be kept on a level. But though the farmer would get more for his wheat, the tradesman would get bread cheaper. Pa- radoxical as this may appear, it is easy to be demon- strated had I space to do so : but it will be seen at once by tliose whose attention has been alive to the foregoing remarks. The stored corn would ensure the tradesman bread : the certainly of a market for wheat would induce the farmers to grow wheat, and tiius throw plenty into tbe market ; and the money kept at home, which would have been paid for fo- reign wheat, would circulate at home, and help tbe market further still. Besides, the manufacturers and tradesmen would have another advantage, viz., that the money %\hich would have been paid for foreign wheat, would bring in other raw material to be wrought upon by English industry, thus giving em- ployment, and sending out manufactured articles in- stead of gold. Far from thinking this visionary, I think it both simple and practicable ; and to those that are ac- quainted with history, nothing new. I trust that the few foregoing hints, just thrown hastily together, may attract the notice of those better able to handle The FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 105 the subject ; 1 may perbaps take it up again. I do sincerely hope tbat Government may not be induced to yield to outward pressure, but calmly and deli- berately act for the good of tbe country, and not for the bustle of a few hot-headed agitators. Yours, A. P.S. I would just observe that the corn laws, though directly framed for the protection of the far- mer, indirectly affords protection to the manufacturer and tradesman, and must do so as long as the farmer grows what they eat. Besides, the great demand for manufactured goods is at home ; impoverish the consumer of them, and you impoverish the maker of them. [Without entering on the question of the corn laws, we most assuredly do think the plan of our correspondent, for purchasing and storing corn by the Government, quite visionaiy. — Ed. F.M.] GRASS LANDS NEAR LONDON. During my rambles round the great metropolis, I often strolled into tbe grass fields which lie princi- pally on the north side of the city, and are used for affording hay and green food for tbe dairies of cows that supply milk to the inhabitants of our modern Babylon. The fences around them afford a striking specimen of the ancient mode of enclosing, with crooked serpentine boundaries, extending over most of the southern counties ; and the modern repairs show but little improvement, being all done in a temporary and seemingly careless manner, arising, no doubt, from their being so much exposed to the unceasing depredations and damages of trespassers and strollers. The soil all round London is naturally of very indifferent quality ; and with the exception of the alluvial and gravelly soils near the Thames, it is mostly a cold clay on a wet and impervious bottom, which extends over a great part of Middle- sex, and into tbe adjoining counties. Tbe vicinity of the metropolis aflbrds an overwhelming supply of manure, and an immense fertility is thereby obtained, though the fields I have mentioned afford of them- selves a very sober specimen of skill in grass farm- ing. The quality of the soil is certainly very infe- rior, but the supply of manure is such that land may not only be improved to the highest pitch, but almost made afresh. Great bulk of produce seems to be the object in view ; and to produce this result, heavy doses of manure are often applied in a very indif- ferent state of preparation. Jt would seem to be a law of production, tbat if nature be forced and over- strained by artificial applications to yield a great bulk of any article, a degree of coarseness ensues, and on these fields it is very evident that that result has followed. The bottom has become coarse and foggy from repeated mowings and the immediate ap- plications of manure. Draining is much wanted to render the lands fit for winter feeding sheep, which, by eatmg the herbage bare by close stocking, destroy tbe old white remnant which has escaped the scythe for many years, and then, by seeding and manuring in that bare and trampled state, a sweet and vastly improved sward maybe obtained. On these fields the " Aira ca;spitosa" has appeared in considerable quantity — an infallible sign of tbe want of draining, and also of very bad farming. In order to destroy this hassocky and most unsightly grass, I see work- men with a spade dig round and lift up the fibrous mass at the root, and lay it down inverted in the hole whence it was taken, and sow seeds on the top. This may check its growth, but the tendency in the land to produce it is in no wise diminished, and the circumstance of the hole being filled with water dur- ing winter must increase that tendency in the imme- diate neighbourhood of the old plant. Draining is the radical cure, followed by fine top-dressings, and by grazing alternately with mowing, for a time at least, until the old, soft, and white foggage be got rid of, and a sweet and healthy herbage be obtained. The maKure applied on these fields is what we call putrescent ; which has lain a year or nearly so in a heap until all fermentation has ceased, and has become a cold rotten mass. Nature is gorged by the heavy and frequent applications, and though bulk be obtained, it is coarse and the aftermath also. It has been agreed upon by many scientific and practi- cal men, that the warmth afforded to the plants dur- ing winter, constitutes the principal benefit they de- rive from top-dressing ; and hence it has become customary to lay the dung on grass lands rough from the fold yard, and then roll, harrow, collect, and carry off' the rubbish in the spring. Less expense is incurred, and more space will be covered by a quantity of manure. When we touch on the subject of the application of manures, we arrive at that per- plexing point, " What is the food of plants V which, if ever discovered, will prove a mighty step in ad- vance, as it may lead to a better mode of applica- tion. But nature has hitherto eluded our curiosity, satisfied at present with granting us our own obser- vation and experience to lead us by steps to the final discovery, probably sooner than we expect. We know enough of the food of plants to suppose that it must be in a state of solution or most minute sub- division ; in what manner it may be most effectually and most profitably supplied, is an inquiry of the last importance. 1 never can believe that a gross, cold, rotten mass of mixed excrementitious or other matter laid on grass lands, or in a drill, is in the best state for affording food to be taken up by the tender rootlets of plants ; and I never can help comparing it to a lump of raw and uncooked beef set before human beings, who are compelled by hunger to satisfy the natural appetite, and are thus gorged and raised at probably double expense to a large and coarse bloated carcase, upon a quantity which, with a different application, would support two of smaller and much more useful dimensions. But with our present knowledge of application, great loss seems incurred, for the liquid part of the heap seems dis- tilled on purpose into the ditch or roadside. I also observe that tbe cleanings of ponds are wheeled out and laid on these fields without any preparation, as mixing such substances with lime has been objected to, as it is thought to dissipate the vegetable matter. But a query may be again started on the gross and unreduced form of such substances. For top-dressing grass lands I always prefer to have the compost of lime and soil reduced as fine as possible by repeated mixings and turnings ; and for grass lands, and even on inferior arable lands, I pre- fer good compost of lime and soil to an application of lime by itself. I may be wrong, but such is my honest conviction. During my jiractice in Leices- tershire, that splendid county of turfs and weeds, I found a field of thirty-six acres, forming a sort of outer park to my employer's demesne, -which had been mown for years, and had acquired a foggy and very unsightly state, and an herbage which no beast would eat. I had some large fish ponds cleaned, and adopted every means to procure compost in the vicinity ; even clay itself, dug from tbe watering pond made for the cows in the field, became, from lOG THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. being mixed with a plentiful dose of lime and fre- quent turnings and mixings, a compost of very ef- fectual application. I allowed 40 one horse cart- loads to the acre in the winter months, and in the spring bush harrowed and applied the roll liberally. In May, stocked heavily with ewes and lambs, so as to keep the herbage bare as a bowling-green, the sheep seldom grazing on the part undressed. Next year manured the remaining part, and the following season the whole field formed a sound and sweet pasturage of the most beautiful green appearance, equally relished by sheep and cattle, and not one vestige of the old foggy herbage could be seen. Draining was wanted, but I was not allowed the ex- pense. The fields I have mentioned near London, like all our other grass lands, have been sown by nature and by chance, and are wholly wanting in the even and regular appearance now produced by systematic cultivation. The prevailing grasses are few, and not of the best sorts ; and provided bulk be obtained, no attention seems to be paid to quality. In 1837, I observed the grasses narrowly, and found on one field, carrying a very heavy crop, the following va- rieties, viz. — Lolium perenne, Bromus arvensis, Festuca pnitensis, Poa pratensis, Alopecurus pra- tensis.Cynosurus cristatus, Anthox anthum odoratum, Holcus mollis, Hordeum pratense, Lathyrus pra- tensis, red and white clovers, very scarce. On an- other field of a rather drier nature, I found all the above, with the addition of Plantago lanceolata, Aira alpina, Festuca. loliacea, Dactylis glomerata, Holcus lanaius, Phleum pratense. On the first field the Poa pratessis and the Bromus arvensis consti- tuted three-fourths of the herbage, and on the second field the Lolium perenne, Poa pratensis, and Hor- deum pratense constituted an equally large propor- tion, the lolium in particular, with the exception of it, the others grew in a very tufted manner. That rare grass, the Festuca loliacea, grew in clumps in damp places near the margins of the open water cuts. It is very rare to see the Hordeum in such abundance; in many places it is almost the sole grass. The other grasses I have named are found in an extremely small proportion ; the very small portion of clovers existed with difficulty in the bot- tom of the luxuriant crop. The management of any arable land in the imme- diate vicinity is wretched in the extreme. Ridges thrown high in the middle, then hollow in the sides, and high again towards the furrow ; furrows laid at unequal heights, and the plough held deep when ap- proaching the turnmg at the end of the ridge, and held shallow when entering on the opposite side, thus making a high and a low side— all show to the ex- perienced eye a lamentable want of skill, and would nearly persuade one it had been performed by some pastrycook from Ludgate Hill. It may very truly be styled " Cockney ploughing !" RUSTICUS. ON BREEDING SHEEP. TO JOHN ELLMAN, ESQ. Sir,— I am a constant reader of the Mark Lane Ex- press, but being from home 1 did not meet with the one of the 7th inst. until this day, wherein you address a letter to the lit. Hon. Lord VVestern, relative to a new breed of sheep : the part of that letter which it would be exceeding useful to have explained is the following : — " Forty years ago my late father bred his rams too fine for the present day ; then it was necessary to coun- teract the coarseness of the Downs; but now the caseis different, andta any gentlemen who may think he must go into Hampshire to get strength of constitution, I shall be most happy to show him my sheep, bred with- out Hampshire cross, that he may judge for himself." Now you would confer a great benefit on all breeders of sheep, and to myself in particular, to answer the fol- lowing questions : — 1st. By what means your father obtained his rams too fine for the present day? 2nd. As it was necessary to correct the coarseness of the Downs, what cross was used for that purpose 1 Your reply to these questions might throw a great light with respect to raising a new breed of sheep. A FRIE^'D TO Improvembnt. Brighton, Jan. 14, 1839. WALTHAM AGRICULTURAlL ASSO- CIATION. The annual show of hunting horses of the above so- ciety was held in Croxton Park, on Monday, the 7th Jan., when the following: liberal prizes were awarded : — To Mr. Hallam.of Tithby, Notts, for the best four year old hunting horse, 20/., and 5/. for being the breeder of the same ; to Mr. March, of Wartuaby, near Melton Mowbray (second best), 151. ; to Mr. Chamberlin, of Westley, near Grantham (third best), lOL Class II. To Mr. Hallam, of Tithby, for the best three year old huntinor horse, 15/. ; to Mr. Hoe, of Long Clamson, near Melton Mowbray (second best), 10/. Class 111. To Mr. Rose, of Cotham, Notts, for the best brood mare, 20/. ; to Mr. Pinder, of Banowby, near Grantham (second best), 15/. ; to Mr. Adcock, of Oakham, Rut- land (third best), 10/. The judges on the occasion were the Marquis of Granby, Lord Forester, and the Hon. C. S. Wortley, to whom the society are much in- debted for the anxiety and interest displayed by them in awarding the premiums, which gave general satisfac- tion to all parties. Notwithstanding the boisterous state of the weather, an immense concourse of both horse and foot people were brought together. Among the distinguished persons present were — His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, the Duke of Rutland. Lord Bloom field, Lord F. Somerset, Lord Burghersh, Lord Howth, Lord C. Manners, Lord G. Manners, Sir Robert Pee), Sir F. French, Sir Alex. Grant, Sir James ]\Iusgrave, Sir Dav. Baird, Hon. Mr. Pierpont, Hon, W. Bathurst, Baron Kneswick, J. Irvine, Esq., M. P., A. Drummond, Esq., C. Turner Esq., G. Gregory, Esq., C. Croker, Esq., &c., &c. It maybe worthy of remark to observe, that the above society, which has been established but four years, have yearly funds to the amount of 100/., which is alirost unprecedented in the annals of agricultural societies. The society give premiums to a large amount to farming stock, exclu- sively of the breeding class, at their Oct. meeting, be- sides liberal premiums to all descriptions of ploughmen. From the sudden rise of the society to such an extent, it was found necessary to build a room in which to hold their meetings ; in consequence of which his Grace the Duke of Rutland gave the princely donation of 200/. towards accomplishing their object, with which, by an additional subscription from the farmers and graziers of the neighbourhood, they have been enabled to build a handsome and commodious room, capable of dining 250 persons, which they call the " Wallham Agricultural Hall." There can be no doubt that agricultural socie- ties, conducted on similar principles, will prove even- tually of great benefit to the country at large. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 107 ON THE DRILL SYSTEM, &c. &c. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Your paper of 2Gth ult. did not arrive here until tiie week following its publicution, consequently, I Hid not see your account of the Preston meeting' until it had been some time before the public ; I find that one of their subjects for discussion was on the compara- tive merits of the drill and broadcast system, as a ge- neral practice in sov ing agricultural seeds ; and that Mr. Binns, of Lancaster, detailed at considerable len«:tli liis opinions on the question; — he enumerated, several positions to elucidate the subject, and contended in all of them for the superioi'ity of the drill over broadcast, not only for turnips, potatoes, beans. Sec, but also for wheat, barley, outs, and g-rass seeds; indeed, jMr. B. seems to think, and very obstinately too, that broidcast for every crop should be abandoned, for he says it is a disgrace to a civilized country, and tit only for barba- rous tunes. These certainly are severe remarks, and will I believe, universally lie thought so, not only by the farmers in Lancashire, but by the g'reater part of agriculturists throughout the whole country ; because, I believe, that however convenient and proper it may he to drill certam crops, such as potatoes, turnips, mang'el, beans, cabbages, &c., experience and general practice prove the drill not superior to broadcast for wheat, oats, barley, and grasses. It is somewhat amusing, when we reflect, how we farmers are to be enlightened and instructed by such men as Mc. Binns, certainly he can fairly claim some experience as a farmer, and agricultural information too, part of which he may have acquired by a proceeding which not many rent-paying farmers can afford — that is, travelling in different parts of the empire ; and, I am greatly in error, if Mr. B.'s acquirements as an agriculturist have not cost iiini too much money, and that the results of his dexterity have to him been such as cannot recommend his practice to the adoption of a tenantry who have a rent and a livelihood to make by a fai-m. Having made these few remarks, I shall review more in detail, some of the positions and principles advocated at the Preston Agricultural Meeting. Mr. Binns says, land never requires rest, but change of crop, and adds, " whether a change is required, in consequence of the exhaustion of nutritive mattci" in the soil by the repetition of growth of one species of plant ; or as some suppose, in consequence of a kind of excre- mentitious matter left, being injurious to the same plants when repeated ; and is one of the investigations th5.t well deserves the attention of the English Agricultural Society." Now, Mr. Editor a great part of what I have here quoted from Mr. B.'s paper may sound well in the ears of geatlemen, who are ever ready to accuse the farmers of want of knowledge ; and it may be no doubt, will be thought important by such — and there are many of them who are anxious to be regarded as men of scientific acquirements and philosophic research ; yet will not be at the tedious and pains-taking perseve- rance, which is absolutely requisite for anything like proficiency in such attainments ; but, however conse- quential it may be to sucli characters, or to auch as went to see the moiuitain labour %chen it only brought fortJi. u mouse, the question is, in my humblejudgment, of little consequence so far as general information and useful agricultural skill is concerned ; and if the English Agri- cultural Society makes no better use of its resources than pursuing, to practical men, such useless inquiries, the country, though so susceptible of improvement, will not be much ameliorated by that truly patriotic insti- tution. That even good land is exhausted, at all events ceases to grow good crops with ordinary cultivation, is a fact known, 1 should suppose to every individual who di- rectly makes a livelihood from the soil, and the axiom is so universal, thai I am astonished any one connected with rural management should hazard such a statement. A little more on the drill system as applied to growing wheat— we are told by Mr. Binns that in Norfolk seven qis. will be produced on an acre— the statute acre 1 pre- sume j he says this is 2G loads to the Lancashij'e, but he does not inform us, what weight, or measure consti- tutes the load— and I believe the load of wheat is not the same weight throughout the county ; however, I have known upwards of 7000 lbs. of marketable wheat grown on a Cheshire acre,* 6000 lbs. are frequently grown on the same breadth, both in Lancashire and Cheshire. These are broadcast crops, and 1 beg to ask Mr. Binns, who is disgraced by them, or can he adduce instances of better? I have no doubt but good crops of wheat may be grown in the drill, but, if that had been so su- perior to broadcast, as JMr. B. in the most unqualified terms asserts — surely the farmers of England have been stupid, as many Solomons suppose them to be, or they long since would have seen the superlative excellence of the practice. Mr. B. says, he cannot help characterising broadcast as a slovenly and lazy practice. " If," says he, " manu- facturers adopted such plans they would be ruined in a month, but they know Ijetter how to apply labour and power." With due deference to ]\Ir. B.'s opinion of farmers, I would recommend that gentleman to view some farms in the neighbourhood of Manchester, 1 beg to enumerate some of them : — Mr. JNIarslands, Bagaly Hall; Mr. Marslands, Sali Hall; Mr. Deans, Barlow Hall. I could count many others all excellent practical men, and renters of land, none of them grow either wheat, barley, oats, or beans in the drill, yet the in- spectors for tht! Liverpool Society declared at their last annual meeting— some holdings were even more like a well ordered garden than a farm, so clean, so neat, and free from weeds. 'J'he comparison drawn by Mr. B. in favour of manu- facturers, as having better understanding, and more knowledge of their respective callings than farmers have of agriculture, will not abide a candid and fair inquiry ; does not Mr, B. know that the operations of the manu- facturer are wholly guided by artificial power. 'J"he temperature of their rooms — let us call them their fields, can be made the same at Christmas as Midsummer, neither wind nor rain obstructs their movements ; when the manufacturer buys cotton at Liverpool, he can tell to an hour when the same raw material will be printed, or finished goods, and also when he shall offer them in the market ; — it is not so with the farmer, he may do all to obtain a good crop that the ingenuity of man sug:gests, and 5.till be disappointed, particularly on some soils and situations. The success of his endeavours in a great measure depends on causes over which he has no con- troul — the accidents which interfere with his efforts are many, and at times seem to set human ingenuity at de- fiance; to prevent smut, mildew, and innumerable small insects, which sometimes do serious damage to our crops, are subjects which always command more or less the attention of practical men ; and at times, for a long period back, the same hava occasionally engaged the most brilliant talent, not only in this country, but also on the continent, yet these serious maladies, these de- stroying agents are neither perfectly understood, nor apparently within the scope of human sagacity to entirely avert. Have the manufucturersanysuch difftculties to contend with? 1 say they have not. Any sort of man, provided he is sufficiently endowed with the keen and over-reach, will do for a merchant or manufacturer; no man can make a livelihood, bring up, and educate a laniily by farming, unless he pursues the strictest economy, and the most persevering industry. 1 have known many farmers turn merchants or manufacturers, and soon get rich, even persons who from being paupers, in little more than twenty years amass a considerable fortune. Within my immediate neighbourhood the cases are almost innumerable, of individuals — petty tradesmen— such as shop-keepers, hawkers, publicans, &c., men of no educa- tion, who can scarcely write their own names, and with little capital, have within the last fifteen years engaged in the cotton-spinning, and power-loom manulactures. Most of them have lived far more expensively than far- mers, nevertluiless, have accumulated more wealth than an industrious farmer could have done on a moderate sized farm , supposing him not to have any had i ent to pay. * The Cheshire acre is eight yards to the rood. I 108 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I find no fault on that account, I like to see my country thrive, but it grieves me to see so little fjjratitiule, even in well doing-, for many of these very individuals are continually railing- against the landed interest. What will Mr. ii. reply to this, he cannot contradict what is here stated, I sliould not have been so far particular ; my policy is conciliation, but we farmers are assailed from al 1 sides with charges of ignorance, stupidity, laziness, and lethargy. I have said my[policy is conciliation, and most sincerely it is so, I have merely shown something' of the ch'^nces of agricultural and commercial interests ; still I do not like to see or hear the class, of wiiich I am one, calumniated — a class which, witli all their faults, pay the public and private creditor the best, are always ready to communicate their knowledg-e one to another, and by that means— advantage the public ; hare no notices on their farms admittance only on business— are the most candid, the most industrious, moral, and truly liberal of any in her Majesty's dominions. That merchants, certainly mechanics, too, have some advantages for reading in public libraries, and for hear- ing public lectures; but, do these advantages make them better members of society, or more understanding- in their business than farmers and farm labourers — if they are so, my observation has been to some extent thrown away. I presume to know something of the character and habitsof the population in manufacturing towns and villages — their reading ten to one is politics of the lowest grade— of the most extreme, perniciou?, and destructive tendency. In all ages of the world the masses must be labourers ; let an operative turn politi- cian, bis peace, his quiet are destroyed. True, he may obtain some information, yet to him and his family, should he have one, it is worse than ignorance. " Ac- quired ignorance," s-ays Mr. Addison, " is a greater evil than natural." A friend of mine, whose business occa- sionally leads him into the agricultural districts, informs me that the moral principles of farm labourers are far superior to those of mechanics, or workmen connected •with manufacturing establishments. My friend is in the leather trade, he says, he is almost certain of having his accounts duly paid by the shoemakers in rural districts, because farm operatives, though perhaps not earning more than ten or twelve shillings a week, pay for their shoes punctually, it is quite the reverse in manufactur- ing localities — the shoemakers there, or very few of them, will he credit, not so much for their own dishonesty as that of their customers. Though earning double the wages of farming men, many of them get as much as possible without paying for it, they run into debt, and think it not at all disreputable. A manufacturer, though he may have what is called a better address, he may be a greater adept in those arts by which men often deceive one another than a farmer, still, it is no proof of more varied knowledge : call many of them out of their daily beaten tract and you will find them just cyphers. The difference between farm labour and mechanical employments has been well described by a most saga- cious writer of the last century. " The common plough- man," says he, " though generally regarded as a pattern of stupidity and ignorance, is seldom defective in judg- ment and discretion, he is less accustomed indeed to social intercourse than the mechanic, who lives in a town, his voice and language are more uncouth, and more difficult to be understood by those who are not used to them ; his understanding, however, being- ac- customed to consider a greater variety of objects, is ge- nerally much superior to that of tiie other, whose wdiole attention from morning till night is commonly occu])ied in performing one or two very simple operations. Mr. Binns says, let us shake off" the lethargy with which we are justly charged, and be determined as well as we can to keep pace with the manufacturer. Now, Mr. Editor, this cant 1 have often heard and read, but the gentlemen who seem so anxious for our instruction, never say in what we are behind — will any of these gratuitous teachers assert that more weighty crops can be raised on a given space than have ever yet been produced. I contend there never will, until that day, if ever it arrives, when corn is grown by steam-engines, or some great revolution in nature enriches our soils. and at the same time ameliorates the temperature of our climate. Ciiarge tiie farmers of this country with lethargy indeed ! who will gainsay, that as a class they are the most industrious, frugal and persevering ? per- haps in some degree so of necessity ; their work must be done, no shirking of it, when the seed is sown, no one can tell at what period the crop will be ready for the sickle. So far, I confess, we are behind the manufac- turers, for we cannot raise at pleasure the temperature of our fields, nor speed the seasons with the same facility as a power-loom, or a spinning jenny. Mr. B. says, farming is only in embryo, and adds " I hope it is now being called into existence ;" if this is true, obtuse indeed must have been the understandings of the cultivators of the earth for these many thousand years ; an art the most ancient, — I think the most hon- ourable, certainly the most indispensable; — an art, which must be coeval with the creation'of our species, still only in embryo ; if Mr. B. had steered the plough and worked as many, 1 will not say toilsome days, with the spade, for they were cheerful days to me, and in the evenings of those days read as many books on agri- cultural subjects, he would not have ventured such a statement ; however, let it not be supposed that I con. tend there is no more room for improvement, — no, no, the capabilities of our country have been as yet fairly tested to a limited extent only, and miserable will be the lot of that humanity which people this now favoured soil at that stationary and dull period which will inevi- tably soon follow, when to the fullest extent the powers of the soils of this empire have been developed, but sufficient is the evil for the day, it is of no use cal- culating on contingencies which will never happen to us. Agriculture is now fast improving in a pace ac- celerated as any other branch of our national industry, according to its nature and immediate available re- sources. Empty sacks cannot stand upright. Only let us have remunerating prices, and like true patriots the farmers will shew their gratitude by improving their country. Nothing national could have afforded me more solid satisfaction than the establishment of the English agri- cultural Society ; no humble individual can be more sanguine as to its beneficial tendency and conse- quences, but I confess at the same time, that my hopes of improvemement from mere discoveries are nothing, compared with what may be done, and I believe will be achieved, by a careful, a judicious, and spirited appli- cation, and extension of those principles which are al- ready understood. History informs us that civilized society in every age and nation has had its peculiar tastes, perceptions, pre- judices, and dispositions ; these sometimes may have arisen perhaps from trivial and accidental circum- stances, but when a national institution is esta- blished for the most laudable and advantageous of pur- poses, and enlists in its support a great portion of the talent, rank, and wealth of the country, we may have some idea of the sphere of its action, but no conception of its vast usefulness. What then may we not fairly expect from the English Agricultural Society ; may we not anticipate that the proprietory generally will direct their attention to improving their estates, and divert their minds from those expensive hunting establish- ments, those ruining racing studs, which have brought many ancient family properties to be praised by George Robins. How hurtful it is to every English- man who loves his country, who admires her ancient institutions, her ancient families and hereditary dis- tinctions, to see goodly estates sold, and the axe laid to the roots of fine timber, for no better purpose than to pay for past vices, or some contemplated follies. Would it not be w-ell in this age to inculcate more forcibly that useful maxim " want of care ruins more than want of knowledge ?" Scarcely an agricultural meeting takes place, but noblemen and gentlemen confess how little they are acquainted with rural matters ; certainly this is candid, and we may hope for improvement from the acknow- ledgment ; but from many land stewards and land agents we can have no such expectation, three out of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 109 every four of that body I ever yet met with are perfect nonentities as agriculturists, not having the iugenious- nes3 of their masters, for they absolutely affect to in- struct the farmers, when 'tis two to one if they know any thing either of the theory or practice of farming ; most of them are great men only in the bar parlour of some inn, or at an ordinary ou market days ; at these places not discussing agricultural subjects, but horses, dogs, hunting, and shooting. In a late agricultural meeting, at which I was present, one of these pretend- ing gents said that farmers were thankful for any ad- vice given them, and from what he advanced a stranger, if not an agriculturist, would have been led to suppose him to liave been most useful for giving agricultural instruction, for in a most imposing attitude he declared tliat he had never read any publication which correctly detailed one important branch of rural management (draining), yet after all this, what will many of your readers think, Mr. Editor, to be informed that this teacher had for a few years only been connected with landed property in any capacity that could give him an opportunity of knowing the business, and even before he was so connected, he had passed nearly five times seven years of his life. Now if that gentleman had such a box of knowledge as he affected to shew was in his possession, he would have known so much of the infirmities of mankin !, to have known also that we farmers sometimes hear with seeming attention, the agent's knowledge of agriculture, when at the very time we are cocksure that he could not pay a fair rent for any farm. Let us just suppose that gentleman to have beeu asked what authors he had read ; would he have enu- merated a formidable array of agricultural talent ? No. Suppose he had been questioned as to extent of land he had operated on in the capacity of improver, could he have named even a tract of a few acres ? No. Away then with so much pretension and presumption, away with so little candour and common sense. Let the English Agricultural Society establish a board of examiners, let it be constituted of such men as Mr. Blacker, agent to Lord Gosford; of such men, Mr. Editor, as your talented and clear-headed corres- pondent the Scotch Farmer, Mr. Rothwell, of Wiu- wiek, in this county, Mr. C. Hillyard, the Messrs. Ellmann, and many others who might be named. The board ought not to be less in number than twenty-four, and from different parts of the empire, all of them gentlemen of great experience, who early in life began the study and practice of agriculture. Such only as have a high tone, not of arrogant, but truly gentle- manly feeling, in connection with a theoretical and practical acquaintance with their profession in all its va- rious details, of the nature and properties of soils, and the means of improving their constitutional defects ; it would be indispensable also that such a board should collectively understand all the modes of draining as best adapted to different soils in different situations, and under all circumstances. A board of examination being established, it might assemble for a certain period in every year, and every gentleman aspiring to the situation of taking charge of landed property, ought to go before that board, there be questioned as to his aptitude for such an office, and receive such credentials and testimonials, as his gene- ral information and agricultural attainments could command. This being the case it is but natural to supose that all noblemen or gentlemen who were anxious to have their property and affairs conducted in a business like manner, would in the event of requir- ing assistance, avail themselves of such efficient, and fully acknowledged ability, in preference to recom- mendations, which probably have nothing better for their support, than that the party could not maintain a respectable position in fair competition with the world. Then would agriculture thrive, then would the owners and cultivators of the soil, firmly, and exten- sively command that situation, which they have a right to maintain ; but in which I fear thev are losing ground, mainly from their own inattention, and in part, from the persevering agitation of a class, whose interest. Dr. Adam Smith declares to be, " never ex- actly with that of the public, who have generally an interest to deceive and even oppress the public, and who accordingly, have upon many occasions, both de- ceived and oppressed it." I am, sir, yours' respectfully, A Lancashire Agriculturist, and Rent-paying Farmer. December. THE ENGLISH CIETY AND COLLEGE. AGRICULTURAL SO- THE VETERINARY (from the veterinarian.) On the ISthult. the half-yearly meeting of the English Agricultural Society was held. The rooms were crowded. The mo'4 pprfect harmony prevailed, and every one seemed to feel assured that the important objects of that society will, at no great distance of time, be fully ac- complished. We subjoin that portion of tlie " Report" which had reference to us. " Aware of tiieimmgnse loss sustained in consequence of the want of better knowledge in the treatment of the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the attention of the. Committee has been turned to this subject, in order, if jjossible, to devise means for supplying the deficiency. A veterinary school has long been established in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, and it has been mo^t useful in teaching the scientific and successful treatment of the diseases by which thousands of horses used to be destroyed ; but its attention has been almost exclusively devoted to the horse. It was, therefore, considered that if its labours could be directed with thesame success to tho management, in health and disease, of our cattle and sheep, it would be of inestimable advantage to the British farmer. "Application has been made to the Governors of the Veterinary College, stating the anxious wiih of the English Agricultural Society, that this most important, extension of its inquiries and its benefits should take place, this Society not interfering with the arranu:ements or proceedings of the Governors of the College, l)Ut con- tributing from its funds to the accomplisment of this pur- pose. " A most favourable answer has been rcceired from some of the Governors, and a meeting will soon take place between them and a delegation of your Commit- tee, from which the happiest result may be antieijjated." We trust that tiie ultimate result will be a happy one ; but the question will be as to time and arrangements. It will not be the fault of the Society if the time is not almost immediate ; and the arrangements such as to gratify every one who wishes well to the St Pancras School, and to the veterinary art. They who are at the head of the Agricultural Society — the moving powers of it— are well aware of the magnitude of the object which they have pledged themselves to accoiflphsh ; they are aware of their responsibility to the whole agricultural body, and to their country ; and they will do their duty. They will fully accomplhh their uhjec'.— nt the St. Pancras School if ihcy can. There they would rejoice to accomplish it. We trust that no delusive plans will be proposed — no half measures attempted ; but that with good faith, and the kindliest feeling's, all parlies will unite. We were much gratified to hear Mr. Sewel I, at the close of his introductory lecture, in November last, express himself so warmly and so properly with regard to this most desirable extension of the students' iduca- tion. He spoke of the hope with which the agriuclturist was inspire!, that the benefits of our art would be ex- tended to every animal that formed a part of the wealth of the lanner and of the country. He alluded to the circumstanci-s which, without much impeachment of industry or good intention had i)revented the full work- i 2 110 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ino- out of the plan of the founders of the Veterinary College, but which should no Jonarer exert any baneful influence, or, indeed, have existence. He placed the question on its proper grounds, the interests of the ag-riculturist and the country, the claims of humanity, and tiic honour of the veterinary profession. lie ex- pressed himself willing to contribute, to the full extent of his power, to the accomplishment of what now ap- peared to be the g-eneral wish, the general demand. This was as it should be. The Professors and the Governors of the Veterinary College may be assured, and, we trust, are beginning' to see, that every brancii of veterinary instruction must now be placed on its true level. No portion must be omitted — no portion considered as merely subsidiary to others — glanced at, now and then, and that somewhat too rapidly, and then heard no more of for weeks. Each must occupy its full time — each must receive its full and due attention. If the avocations of the present Professors will not admit of this, others must be added. And is there any thing unreasonable in this? Ours has been the only school in which the instruction of the pupil has been thus confined : ours is the only school that has but one professor, and an assistant-professor. Look at the medical schools around us — look at the veterinary schools in every country in Europe. Four, five, six talented men are, in all of them, employed in preparing the student for the efficient exercise of his profession. Where is the reason that, in Great Britain alone, un- rivalled for its horses, its cattle, and its sheep, the veterinary student should be more inefficiently taught than in any other country in the world"! Common sense, common justice, and common interest will now unite many honourable minds in commencing that career of improvement which will gradually, cautiously, and in good faith be pursued until the reputation and honour of the practitioner, and the peculiar interests of the fanner, are secured. THE BEDFORDSHIRE REPORTER, IN REPLY TO SIR THOMAS LETH- BRIDGE'S LETTER ON THE CORN LAWS. Mu. EniTon, — Every true friend of his country will at once admit that the subject on which the worthy Baronet has addressed his brother landowners and oc- cupiers, is of the highest importance to all classes of the community ; and it must also be admitted that, whether we bear in mind the high station and character, of the author, or the temper and spirit in which he has written, that is justly entitled to the most candid and dispassionate consideration. While, then, we are quite disposed to approach the subject in the same good temper as that in which the Honourable Baronet has written, it would be absurd in us to deny, that we consider his conclusion to be totally at variance with the premises hu has laid down, and that it is far too evident, and much to be regretted, that the corn question is not treated so much upon its own ab- stract merits, as it is viewed throughout through the distorted medium oi free trade, and it seems (according to Sir "] homas) that to this goddess (whether right or ■wrong') every creature in the country must ere long bow the knee. It is quite impracticable, however, in the space of a letter to quote the exact words of the Hon. Baronet at any great length, but we pledge our- selves not intentionally to misrepresent him ; and we bear in mind that pledge, when we say that it must be mani- fest to all, that the scope and design of the above letter ia to hold up the present corn laws to odium in the country, to show that they nre justly obuoiiims to the great mass of the people, and that though intended to protect the agricultural interest, they totally fail in ac- complishing that object ; and, moreover, that they ought forthwith to be repealed ; " (and if any regulatitm is neces- sary) that corn ought at all times to come into our mar- kets and be sold (whether wanted or not) at a duty of from 8s. to 10s. per quarter." Now, we call wpon every candid reader particularly to notice the very extraordinary (and to us most asto- nishing) arguments by which the Hon. Baronet arrives at that conclusion. " I further beg to remark (says he) that the market prices of all kind of grain, since the last law was passed in 1827 or 18'28, will show that the home grower has not been receiving a larger price than would just remunerate him for his skill, toil and capital employed in cultivation of his land ; and that now, when the prices are rising, owing to a small and inefficient supply from abroad, added to a deficient crop both of corn and potatoes at home, that he is by no means re- ceiving an exorbitant rate of profit." Well, then (and- we appeal fearlessly to every impartial reader, whether the legitimate conclusion would not be, that therefore you cannot (unless you lessen the expence of cultivation) justly adopt any measure that would lower the price of British grain. But, no ! in the very teeth of these ar- guments (surpassing strange as it must appear) Sir Thomas implores the landowners and occupiers of West Somerstt to join him in obtaining the repeal of these laws, and why? Why, not because the people have been too dearly fed under these laws, for he admits, " at no one time have the farmers' profits been exorbi- tant," but, forsooth, because where the people move in masses they have taken an odd fancy to quarrel with their best friends, those who feed them, and vainly ima- gine that they have only to ruin them, in order to com- plete their own sum of prosperity. But, wa complain not merely at the unaccountable manner in which the Hon. Baronet arrives at his conclusions, but in his fruit- less attempt to please both parties he is compelled to blow hot and cold with the same breath, for after tell- ing the farmers that they cannot aflbrd the corn cheaper than under the present corn laws ; yet he panders to the fullest extent to the popular feeling—" that the people have an undoubted right (at whatever cost to the other interests of the country) to purchase their grain at all times where they can get it cheapest." It is this seem- ing to side with the hare, and at the same time running with the hounds that we most complain of. In fact, it is impossible to tell what the Hon. Baronets wants, ex- cept (at all risks) he wants a change,— whether it be higher prices, or lower prices, or steadier prices, it is im- pos^ble exactly to gather. Now, if he wants higher prices, he must know that the party who are clamouring for alteration would be greatly deceived. If he want lower prices then, with all our good opinion of the Hon. Baronet, we can hardly acquit him of insincerity, when he says, " That the farmers, under the present laws, have only just been remunerated for their skill, toil. &C-" Now, the facts of the case are simply these ; for the first four years after passing the present law, im- posing graduated duties, the British farmers did obtain upon the average within a mere fraction of 8s. per bush, tor their wheat. This, however, was during years when the crops were not abundant at home, but when we re« quired some foreign aid ; for the next five or six years, having a succession of hivourable seasons, the price was much lower, and durin.1,- which time we had scarcely any foreign grain in the market; what little there was, however, paid heavy duties ; and we appeal not merely to Sir Ihomas Lethbridge but to every sensible man in the kingdom, uhether, during those years of plenty, if foreign u-heat hud been all along admissible on payment of eight or ten sliillings per quarter duly, as he recoinmends ; whether prices must not have fallen much lowe)-, and that the ruin from which the English farmers hardly expected with closed ports, must not have been in- evitable. If, however (as we would charitably hope), the lion. bart. really wants a steadier price for wheat, we tell him at once, that his plan would be totally abor- tive in accomplishing that object. In fact, with all the absurd and unmeaning clamour that is raised against the present corn laws, it is not a little marvellous, that during the eleven years of iheir operation i)rices have varied less than in almost any other period of the like extent in the history of this kingdom ; certainly much less than during any such time of peace : and we chal- lenge contradiction upon this point. That corn, how- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ill ever, from the general defalcation of crop, is ^one up in price just now, is not to be wondered at, and we have no hesitation in saying-, that adopt what measures you will to prevent fluctuation in an article so entirely de- pendent upon the seasons, the history of all ag-es and all nations shows that the object can never be effected. We demur also entirely to the hon. bart.'s views, when he says, " That because the Almighty ruler of the uni- verse has cast up his great watery iiig-hway for the ia- terchanpre of the commodities of the earth, that we vmst take articles when we do not ivant them, or else that we have no right to expect them when we do leant t/iem." Tiiis hypothesis is in fact totally at variance'with the uni- versal practice of mankind -n tlie common affairs of life. Take a casein point. We are now shipping pota- toes to America ; but let Brother Jonathan only get an- othergood cropathome, and then, though never so good an Irishman shoukl go with his cargo and stand on the shores of the great Atlantic, and should swear by Jasus and the Virgin fllary, that he would never bring them another tater if they did not buy his cargo, and what, we ask, would Brother Jonathan care for all this bluster? Equally preposterous is it to wish to feed the British people with foreign wheat, when we can accomplish that object at reasonable prices with the produce of our own lands ; and so judicious in principle are our pre- sent corn laws, aad so nicely are the scales of justice balanced, that we no sooner imagine tliat foreign aid will be necessary, than we begin to remit our duties, till at length our wants increase, we open our unre- stricted ports to the whole world. In common fairness, however (for we do not seek to triumph at the expense of truth ), there is one point in the letter of the hon. barf, which is not without some f :ice. In the working of the present system, the great Leviathans in the corn trade have at certain times too much command of prices. This, however, is not at all attributable to ihe principle of the law, but to its details, and we have long thought that the duty rising and falling so rapidly at the lower end of the scale, is too much favouring a gambling sort of speculation in corn ; and by which means, it is too evident, the Government is defrauded of much revenue. This might be remedied by merely allowing the duty to advance or recede in equal proportions at all points of the scale (and we should say one shilling per qr. as the price varied to the same amount in the market). By this simple adjustment, the present great incentives to influence the averages by artificial excitement would be efl'ectually removed, and the Government would se- cure a revenue at all times, when from the low price of British grain, foreign ouglit to pay duty. And we be- lieve we speak the sentiments of all who are worth con- sulting of our agricultural body, when we say, that if, by the alteration of the poor laws and other improve- ments, it can be shown that the expenses of cultivation has kssened since 1828, that with perfect good will they would be willing to give the consumers the benefit of such improvements in the scale of duties. We do not ask, however, for alteration. We cannot, however, close our observations without entering our solemn protest against the wild and vi- sionary scheme of the hon. bart., of opening our ports at all times to foreign grain, on payment of a fixed duty. And we protest against the measure for the following reasons : — First, because wheat being the great leading article of human consumption, and from the unalterable nature of things, being always subject to great fluctua- tions, it cannot with safety be subjected to the same fixed principles as other articles of commerce. Secondly. Because, therefore, if a fixed duty were imposed on the article ot wheat, bearing any just pro- portion to the difference in the cost of production in this highly-taxed country, and other states dissimilarly cir- cumstanced, that from the sensitiveness of tlie people in ;in article of this importance, there must of necessity he trtquent infractions of the law, and that such infractions would often be ruinous to the dealers in home grown corn, and consequently lessen confidence in society at large. Thirdly. Because on the average of eleven years, during which the present system of graduated duties has been in operation, the people of this country have been fed at a cheaper rate than during any former period of the same extent within the last 40 or 50 years, and therefore that no case whatever is made out for al- tering the principle of the law. Finally, We protest against such alteration, because the great probability is, that much greater fluctuations in price would be the consequence. The early effects would be to discourage our own rising agriculture, which must result in the poorer light soils reverting back to mere downs and sheep walks, while much heavy land of costly cultivation would go to grass, and then our people becoming every year more and more dependent for food upon foreiarn countries, in the event of those supplies being cut off by war and other contingencies, we might ere long witness the teeming population of our great mercantile and manufacturing towns with famine at their doors, bitterly reproaching themselves for their present folly, and cursing the day wheri they had been tempted to discourage the agriculture of their own country. For these considerations, as well as all others important and dear to the United Kingdom, we implore every true patriot through the length and breadth of the land, not to sanction the doubtless well intended, but very mischievous, suggestions of Sir Tho- mas Lethbridge. Yours, as ever. The Bedfordshire Reporter. P.S. Though wc assume a signature by which we arc not exactly personated, we can assure you, Rlr. Editor, it is not because we seek an unmanly mode of attack, for we have no interest to serve but that of the public, and you are quite at liberty to give the hon. baronet our real address as soon as you please ; but we do so merely to screen our pocket from a heavy taxation, such as we have formerly suffered from some paltry anonymous scribblers of the anti-corn law associations. ON FARMING ACCOUNTS. It is passing strange, but no less strange than true, tliat in none of the schools at which farmers' sons are educated is attention given to any sub- ject bearing upon the pursuits to which the youths are afterwards destined to devote themselves. There is one subject, fraught with the most vital im- portance to the interest of the farmer, and the ne- glect of which seldom fails to prove fatal to the tradesman, but which is generally managed by farmers in the most slovenly manner, and we fear, in too many instances, not attended to at all, namely, the keeping of accounts. However diffi- cult it may be for the masters of schools to devise a useful plan of general agricultural education, there can be no didiculty in teaching a system of accounts adapted to the management of the farm. Various forms have been published for the use of farmers, but none which we iiave seen ecjuals, in simplicity and comprehensiveness, the " British Farmers' Annual Account Book," by the author of " British Husbandry." This account Book is now announced a second year, and will, if its merits are properly appreciated, meet an in- creased demand. The advantages which youths, instructed in a good system of farming accounts must enjoy, could not, we should think, fail to bring into no- tice any school in which such instruction was judiciously given ; but if this were doubted, we feel persuaded '.hat it is a subject well worthy the attention of agricultural societies, and de- serving encouragement by rewards of some kind. 112 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TO THE RIGHT HON. LORD WESTERN. Glynde, Dec. 26. My Lord, — If your lordship thought it necessary to make any apology lest the charge of presumption should attach to you for bringing before the public the in- teresting experiment made in endeavouring to raise a new breed of sheep, how much more incumbent is it on a humble individual like myself to do so. But, con- sidering the subject to be one of great importance, I fearlessly take my pen in hand, from a consciousness that my only motive is the public good. In common with other breeders and graziers who at- tendefcl the late Smithfield Show, my attention was drawn to the two pens of wethers sent by your lordship ; but from the crowded state of the yard, and the dark stable in which they were put, in common with many other excellent animals, there was great difficulty in finding them out. Having had the pleasure of being at Felix Hall la^t year, I was quite prepared to see a veatly well made car- cass, with very good wool — and I was not disappointed. I will not compare them as to frame with the capital Southdown wethers shown by the Duke of Richmond, or the beautiful J.,eicester ewe of the Marquis of Exeter, both of which were placed near your wethers, and to both of which prizes were most justly awarded as Extra Stock. But, recollecting what Merinoes were twenty years ago, nay, what the Southdown* were thirty years since, I have no hesitation in giving, as my opinion, that they may be called well made sheep. I am quite aware that it is a received opinion amongst all our fir.«t-rate breeders of cattle and sheep, tiiat the first cross generally succeeds, but that if you attempt to go on with the cross, you will breed very inferior animals, and, indeed, that it is impossible to carry it on. I am not of tliat opinion. I am quite aware of the nnceusiiig atlention and grreat skill it will require to counteract tlie great difficulties to be encountered ; but I do not think ihem insurTiioiiutable. Recollecting tliose who have most distinguished themselves in such matters, my mind naturally reverts to my late father's old and highly- valued friend Sir Joiin Sebright; and were any young man to undertake it with tiie zeal and perseverance of that hon. baronet 1 believe he would succeed. It is of course needless to state that there is no natural impediment — all siieep must have originally sprung from the pair in the ark ; their power of procreation beyond the first cross proves this. What can be more dissimilar than the JNIerino, as in Spain, and the new Leicester? Climate has no doubt had considerable effect, but the different views in breeding the respective animals much more. In Spain the wool only was thought of; with the Leicester breeders that formed very little part of their system : indeed I have often heard my father say, that Bakewell (to whom the praise of first improving the frame of sheep must be universally allowed) told him, on his suggestmg to him that he neglected thu wool, that he " would rather have a shesp with no wool at all." Were I a younger man, I would undertake to breed from many flocks on the Southdo^v ns in twenty years a flock resembling Norfolks or Rlerinos in colour, which- ever one might fancy. The Southdown breed of sheep are so much improved, even within the last twenty years, that the same wethers wiiich gained the premium at the Smithfield show at that time would cut but a very in- diflerent figure now. Speaking of the Downs, your lordship notices the crossing with the Hampshire, as practised and recommended by Lord Leicester. 1 should be very sorry to say any thing to annoy tiiat eminent patron of agriculture, to whom we are all so deeply in- debted ; but 1 have no hesitation in giving it as my firm conviction, that the noble lord might haveobtamed every good which he expected from t!ie Hants, without the bad, had he come into Sussex to renovate his Hook. I'he fact is, the Sonthdowns at llolkh;;im were brrd under a Leicester hand, and although excellent in the chine, they lost very much the original character of Southdowns. They had too little wool, and too little lean— faults which some yearssincemany of the highest bred Leicesters possessed. Forty years ago my late father bred his rams too fine for the present day ; then it was necessary to do so to counteract the coarseness of the Downs ; but now the case is different, and to any gentlemen who may think he must go into Hamp- shire to get strength of constitution, I shall be most happy to show him my sheep, bred without Hamp-shire cross, that he may judge for himself. I um, Sir, your obedient servant, JOHN ELLMAN. RtNT DAY AT DRAYCOTT, STAF- FORDSHIRE. PROPOSED FARMER'S LIBRARY, &c. The rent-day meeting of the Draycott tenantry, held at the Draycott Arras Inn, on the IVth Dec, was nu- merously attended. After the usual business of the morning, which proved most satisfactory to Mr.Bond, the agent of the property, the tenants and visitors tat down to a most excellent dinner, provided by Mr. Cope, the respectable landlord at the Draycott Arras. After the removal of the cloth, Mr. Boxd, the chair- man, after given the Queen, and other loynl toasts, the Dowager Lady Stourton, the Hon. Sir E. ftl. A'avasour, Bart., anil family, and other appropriate toasts, informed the tenantry that Sir E. RI. Vavasour, in his desire on all occasions to serve them, had proposed to set on foot an agricultural library, and to contribute liberally thereto. In the course of Mr. Bond's observations, he called the attention of the tenantry to the advantage they would derive from a knowledge of the improve- ments of other counties, of the state of the markets, and a variety of valuable information relative to cattle, seeds, soils, and implements, which such works as the Farmer's Magazine, the Jlla?7c Lane Express, and other agricultural works contain. The tenants were highly gratified with the proposition, and unanimously agreed to come forward and each subscribe his share towards carrying so desirable an object into effect; and to meet on the 1st of January next, to further discuss the sub. ject, draw up rules, and appoint officers. Attention having been called to the manner in which the children of the poor were brought up, it was ob- served, that great inconvenience had resulted from the neglect to apprentice them at a proper age for a term of years, or even to engage them as hired servants for a single year ; that hence, trusting in most cases to the chances of obtaining day labour, they were seldom in any settled employ, and that in the absence of proper control from niHsiers and parents, they were in conti- nual danger of contracting idle and disorderly habits. To remedy this evil, it was suggested tiiat the influence possessed by the agent, inthedisposal and improvement of the cottages, and that of the clergy, arising from the distribution of the charities of the family and the jiarish, might be exerted to induce parents to apprentice their children, or put them out to service, at a jiropcr age. It wns however urged that the old system of parish ap- prenticeship had operated injuriously on the interests of the poor, whose children had been apprsntieed for too long a term, without adequate remuneration during the latter part of their term. 'J'o obviate this inconvenience, it was proposed and resolved, that the committee before appointed should sit at the beginning of each year, to determine what children ought to be put out to service, Avhat wages should be given to each, and in cases of apiircnticesliip, what remi;-sion of the legal term of years should be recommended in recompense of indus- try and good conduct ; and they should hear and exa- mine complaints on either side. Jt was further resolved, that masters shuidd allow the childi'cn in tlunr service to attend to their religious duties and inslnietions : and also, at the proposal of one of the clergy present at the meeting, who kindly oft'ered his services for the purpose, suffer them to attend school one evening in the week, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 113 for instructions in readii>g' and writing. Hope was ex- pressed that, by these means, liabits of virtue and in- dustry mig-lit be implanted in the minds of the children, and that they miirht grow up s'ood christians and useful members of society. The late alteration in the law of settlement made it, it was observed, more than ever the interest of the parish to g-uard against the danger of an idle and disorderly population. The Ctiaihsian would venture to express his hope that they might be able to send three or four youths to Scotland, or some other improved district, to learn and bring home an improved system of agriculture. In the course of the evening, Mr. Binns, of Lancas- ter, the author of the work, " The Miseries and Beauties of Ireland," who was professionally engaged in valuing this, and some parishes in the neighbourhood, under the parochial assessment act, on his health being drunk, made many important observations on the state of the agriculture of the county, commenting upon tiie cum- brous waggons and wheel ploughs, and heavy and hairy legged horses ; the ruinous practice of using three or four horses, one before the other, and two men in ploughing land, that would be better ploughed by two abreast and one man. He strongly recommended to the attention of the tenantry more care in their breed of cattle, by obtaining better males, being decidedly of opinion, which every day made more apparent, that there would be an increasing demand for the improved short-horned cattle both at home and abroad. On this part of the subject Mr. Binns observed — " If I may take the liberty, I would recommend Sir Edward Vavasour and to his intelligent agent, to obtain two or three well-bred Durham bulls, for the use of the tenants, by w^hich a great improvement in the stock might be effected in a short time. 'I'o the respectable tenantry, I will offer a remark or two, which I am confident will be accepted in the spirit in which they are made : — The institution of an agricultural library will be to you most beneficial, aflbrding you a miss of useful information at a trifling co?;t. I would advise you to meet the views of Sir Edward most cordially, not only respecting the library, but in many other matters in which he has proved that he has your interest at heart; for when a landlord's advances are met by the tenant, in the disposition in which they are offered, they lead to further acts of liberality, promoting mutual good feeling between landlord and tenant, without which success cannot be insured." Mr. Binns, amongst fur- ther observations, recommended the attention of the te- nantry to the keeping of cattle in summer, upon mown clover, tares, Ccc, in the yard or stall, in place of pas- turing ; relating successful experiments on this mode of keeping cattle, whereby more than double the number of c;ittle can belcept on the same frround, and the ma- nure be preserved in the most profitable manner. He also hoped the time was no far distant when an agricul- tural society would be established, and ploughing matches become general in the county, which would do more towards correcting the imperfect and expensive system of ploughing than all (he advice that could be given. An animated discussion on these important subjects followed, which was kept up till a late houi', the te- nantry being animated with a spirit of improvement which bids fair for future prosperity. so particular a fetid smell that to a practised person it is sufficient to denote the presence of the disease ; the cracks and sweUings then extend up the leg. In the course of time the skin becomes altered in structure ; prominences, like bunches of grapes or a pine apple, appear; some of tlaem bleed on being touched, whilst others appear quite horny ; the constitution becomes affected from this extensive disease, and the horse be- comes weak, lean and irritable, and instead of good matter being discharged, the before-mentioned fetid sores continue to drain from the heel. Causes, — It was mentioned in a former paper that swelled legs may degenerate into grease. Some horses are more subject to it than others ; for example, heavy draught horses that have no degree of breeding in them, particularly those having white legs, as this mark is sup- posed to indicate weakness of those parts. But bad stable management, as want of exercise ; high feeding without a proper degree of work, is a very common cause of horses running into grease ; deficient cleanli- ness ; allowing the animal to stand in dung and urine which have not been removed from his stall ; all these are very liable to be causes of the disease. Cold and moisture are conditions very favorable for the generation of the disease. Cold weakens the energy of a part, and suspends partially the circulation ; and when this state has been induced, on the return of warmth, the circu- lation is increased, and the vessels weakened by the cojd, are incapable of contracting on the increased quantity of blood which now fills them, and inflammation or some other disease is the consequence. Moisture is in- jurious on the same principle. Hence the impropriety of the practice of washing the feet and legs of horses on returning from work, or leaving them to dry as they may ; if it is employed the feet should be carefully dried afterwards. Removing the hair from the heel is said by some to be a cause, and there has been some dispute whether it is or not ; on the whole the removal has few or no bad effects. If space permitted it, numerous other instances might be brought forward, to show that grease is the offspring of mismanagement and negligence. Care and attention will do more for its prevention, than any other means we can adopt. — The Yitrkshireman. DISEASES OF HORSES. Grease is an undue secretion of the fluid which lu- bricates the heel ; it is aho altered in its properties. Symptoms. — Its fiist appearance is generally a dry and scurfy state of the skin of the heel, with redness, heat, nnd itching, 'i'hc hind legs (which are most fre- quently attacked) begin to swell, a fluid exudes from the part, which gives u it greasy feci ; the hairs of the heels become erect like bristles ; soon after this cracks begin to appear a(-ross the heel, and they discharge a thick, offensive matter, and in dressing, this matter is of STATEMENT OF THE EXPENCE OF STOCKING, OF THE ANNUAL DISBURSEMENTS, AND OF THE YEARLY RE- TURNS, ON A FARM OF 250 ACRES IN AYR- SHIRE, IN SCOTLAND, UNDER A COURSE OF 1 YEARS, VIZ., FALLOW, WHEAT, CLOVER, OATS. STOCK HIiQUinED. Eight liorses, at 30/ £240 0 0 Four ploughs, at 4t., four jiair of harrows, :« 28 0 0 Htrness (N; carts, at 1.5/. per horse l20 0 0 Self-cleaning harrow 14 0 0 Roll and turnip sower 26 0 0 Threshing machine 50 0 0 Fanners, 6/., sacks, 4/ 10 0 0 AVeights and measures 10 0 0 SmaU implements t>0 0 0 Four cows, at 10/ 40 0 0 Dairy utensils 8 0 0 Three boilers 12/., chaff and pota- toe cutters 6/ 18 0 0 Cheese pressers 3 10 0 Permanent stock £587 10 0 Manure 1.50/., lime .'jO/. at entry.. ^00 0 0 Seed & labour on laO acres, at 30s. 225 0 0 Thirty cattle to feed, at 8/ 240 0 0 £1,252 10 0 or 5/. per acre. 114 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ANNUAL DISBURSEMENTS. Four ploughmen, at 30Z. each £120 0 0 Three labourers at 25/., two boys at 14/ 103 0 0 Seventeen (juarters of oats for each horse, at irs Il3l2 0 Three bolls of beans for do. at 20s. 24 0 0 250 stone of hay for do., at 50s. per 100 stone 50 0 0 Cut grass, at 1/. per horse 8 0 0 Keep of four cows, four bolls ©f beans, at 20s., 4/., four bolls of potatoes, at 10s., 2/., & 200st. ofbay at 6d., 5/ 11 0 0 Dairy maids' yearly wages 20 0 0 Hoeing and cleaning 25 acres of green crop, at 10s 12 10 0 Cutting and stacking 46 acres of hay, at 10s 23 0 0 Cutting 100 acres of wheat and oats, at 10s. 6d 52 10 0 Stacking do. at 2s 10 0 0 25 qrs. of seed wlieat, at 44s 55 0 0 300 bush, ot seed oats, at 17s. ]ier quarter 31 17 6 Grass seeds for 50 acres, at 12s. per acre 30 0 0 Seed potatoes for 12^ acres, SH bons,atlOs 15 12 6 Turnip seed for 12^ acres, at os. . 1 17 6 Taxes, tolls, and marketing 20 0 0 Blacksmith's bill 14/., saddler's 10/., wheelwright's 12/ 36 0 0 Lime 50/., extra manure 80/ 130 0 0 Expences of cultivation about 3i. 9s. per acre £869 19 6 Rent of 250 acres at 36s £450 Interest on capital £1,252 10s. at 4 per cent 50 Interest on perishable stock, £587 10s. at 71 per cent. 44 £544—544 0 0 Total expenditure.. . .£1,413 19 6 YEARLY RETUnNS OF SAID FARM. 62| acres of wheat, 250 qrs. at 44s. £550 0 0 62^ do. of oats, 450 qrs., at 17s.. . 382 10 0 314- do. of green crop, at 11/. 4s.. 350 0 0 31^ do. of i'allow 57^ do. of hay, at 200st. per acre, at 50s. ])er lOOst 230 0 0 5 do. of grass for cows, at 10/. per cow 50 0 0 2.50 Yearly produce.. £1,562 10 0 Stock required on said farm in a six years course £1,17 1 Disbursements 1,358 Returns 1,513 Stock required on said farm in an eight years course £1,1 56 Disbursements 1,271 Returns 1,431 This statement was drawn up in 183G, when prices were very low. Circumstances will always make a diflference in such estimates. The dairy system of farming is followed. The only thing very deserving of observation is the sum (<£T30) allowed yearly for extraneous manure, in all situations where it can be got, and the allowance of seven men and two boys to cul- tivate a farm of 250 acres, thus showing what I have often observed, that our northern cultivators apply labour and manuring, and draining, while in England we waste our time in speeches and useless meetings. They apply the known means, and place little reliance on scientific aid ; we teaze our brains about applying chemistry, botany, geology, and mineralogy, and even astronomy, to assist us, and at the same time utterly neglect the means that are known. An allowance of 10s. an acre yearly for the purchase of manure, and the number of hands to work the farm, will startle many farmers ; but how can money be raised from land without produce ? and how can produce be got without cultivation .' and how can cidtivation be carried on without the means 1 To neglect, and even despise the known means of improve- ment, and at the same time to be perpetually meeting and discussing, and speechifying on the subject, without doing any thing, has ever ap- peared to me an anomaly not eas-ily to be recon- ciled with the reasoning powers granted to man. But anomalies and incongruities seem intimately mingled up in our natural and social system, and farming has got a due share. J. D. Dec. 22, 1838. SMITHFIELD SHOW. A furtlier account of the dead weight of the ani- mals exhibited at the last Grand Show of the Smithfieid Club : — The Marquess of Tavistock's 4 years and 4 months old Hereford Ox, purchased by Mr. Druce, of Pitfield- street, weighed 210 stone, and had 28 stone of loose fat, exhibited in Class I. The Right Hon. Charles Arbuthnot's 3 years and 10§ months old Durham Steer, purchased by Mr. Sharp, of Paddington, weighed 192 stone, and had 21 stone loose fat, exhibited in Class I. Mr. Senior's 4 years and 9 mouths old Hereford Ox, shown in Class I, and purchased by Mr. Bellringer, of the Strand, weighed 182 stone, and had 24 stone of loose fat. Mr. Rowland's 4 years and 10 months old Hereford Ox, shown in Class I, and purchased by Mr. Morton, of Great Bell Alley, City, weighed 212 stone, and had 27 stone loose fat. Mr. Mack's 4 years and 10 months old Durham Ox, shown in Class I, and purchased by Mr. Richardson, of Kingsland, weighed 205 stone, and had 31 stone loose fat. Mr. Seabrook's 4 years and 8 months old Durham Ox, shown in Class I, and purchased by Mr. Cooper, of Newport Market, weighed 212 stone, and had 20 stone loose fat. His Grace the Duke of Norfolk's 5 years and 10 months old Sussex Ox, which was excluded from Class I in consequence of over-age, and was purchased by Mr. Smith, of Drummond-street, weighed 233 stone, and had 36 stone of loose fat. Mr. Walker's 5 years and 9 months old Polled Ox, which was excluded from Class I. in consequence of over-age, purchased by Mr. Smith, of Woolwich, weighed 190 stone. Earl Spencer's 5 years and 1 month old Durham Ox, shown in Class II., and purchased by Mr. Strachan, of VVhitechapel, weighed 205 stone, and had 29 stone loose fat. Mr. Rowland's 4 year and 8 months old Hereford Ox, shown in Class II., and purchased hy Mr. Morton, of Great Bell Alley, weighed 203 stone, and had 27 stone loose fat. Mr. Stokes' 4 years and 7 months old Durham Ox, and purchased by Mr. Ford, of Kenton -street, weighed 202 stone, and had 20 stone loose fat. Shown in Class n. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 115 Mr. R. W. Baker's, 6 years and 1 month old Short- horned Ox, shown in Class II., and purchased by Mr. Slater, of Kensington, weighed '200 stone, and had 22 stone of loose fat. Mr. Senior's 4 years and 9 months old Hereford Ox, shown in Class II., and purchased by iNIr. Beliring'cr, of the Strand, weighed 192 stone, and had 19 stone loose fat. Mr. Kowland's 4 years and 7 months old Hereford Ox, shown in Class III., and purchased by Mr. Sharp, of Paddington, weighed 173 stone, and had 23 stone loose fat. Mr. Bailey's i years and 6 months old Hereford ox, shownin Class II, and purchased by Mr. Mortlock, of the New-cut, Lambeth, weighed 185 stone, and had 22 stones 61bs. loose fat. The Hon. Charles Arbuthnott's 2 years and 7 months old Durham steer, exhibited in Class IV, and purchased by Mr. Sharp, of Paddington, weighed 130 stone, and had 15 stone loose fat. Mr. J. F. Johnson's 3 years and 4 months short- horned heifer, shown in Class VI, and purchased by Mr. Croker, of Brompton, weighed 149 stone, and had 21 stone loose fat. Mr. Cowper's 4 years and 10 months old Durham cow, which gained the first premium in Class VJ, and purchased by Mr. Sutton, of Kingsland, weighed 156 stone, and had 21 stone lib. loose fat. Mr. Potterton's 3 years and 6 months old Durham Heifer, shown in Class VI., and purchased by Mr. Shepperd, of the New-cut, Lambeth, weighed 156 stone 61bs., and had 23 stone loose fat. Mr. Richardson's 4 years and five months old Dur- ham Heifer, shown in Class VI., and purchased by Mr. Cowell, of Chandos-street, weighed 190 stone, and had 24 stone loose fat. Mr. Wratislaw's 7 years and 5 months old Durham Cow, shown in Class VII., and purchased by Mr. Moray, Whitecross-street, weighed 166 stone, and had 28 stone loose fat. The Hon. Mr. Simpson's 7 years old Durham Cow, shown in Class VII., and purchased by Mr. Hancook, of Park- street, weighed 164 stone, and had 25 stone 21b?. loose fat. Mr. Wratislaw's three 20 months old Leicester wethers, purchased by Mr. Austin, of the Lower Road, Islington, weighed respectively 14st. 4lb., and together had 361bs. of loose fat. Exhibited in class VIII. Mr. Burgess's three 20 months old long woolled wethers, exhibited in class VIII,, and purchased by Mr. Ford, of Kenton-street, weighed respectively I6st. 4lb., and together had 361bs. of loose fat. Mr. John Painter's 20 months old Leicester wethers, which obtained the first premium in class VIII., and purchased by Mr. Plume, of Carter-lane, weighed 22st, lib., ISst. 71b., 17st. 7lb., and together had 5st. 71b. of loose fat. Mr. S. Grantham's 20 months old Southdown wether, which obtained the first premium in class 10, and purchased by Mr. Giblett, of Bond-street, weighed 13st. lib. N.B. Mr. Grantham's sheep, of which the weight was given in our last, were those in class XI., and not class X., as there stated. His Grace the Duke of Richmond's three 20 months old SouthdowB wethers, which obtained the second premium in class X., and purchased by Mr. Hancock, of Park-street, weighed 16st. 4lb., 14st. 4lb., 16st. 3lb. N.B. These sheep were given as being in class XI. in our previous report, it should have been as here, class X. The Right Honorable Lord Western's three 22 months old Merino and Leicester wethers, which were not classed in consequence of the stewards being of opinion that they could nut compete in class X., pur- chased by Mr. Allen, of Mount-street, weighed I6st. 71b., and 2st. loose fat, lost. 21b., and 1st. e^lb. loose fat, I6«t. 4lb., and 2st. 5lb. loose fat. Mr. Barnard's 21 months old Southdown wether, purchased by Mr, Kent, King-street, Holborn, weighed 15st. 61b., and 2 stone loose fat. The Right Honorable the Earl of Lovelace's three 32 months old Southdown wethers, exhibited in class X., and purchased by Mr. Giblett, Bond-street, weighed 19st. 4lb., 19st. 4lb., 21st. 4lb. His Grace the Duke of Richmond's three 32 months old Southdown wethers, which obtained the second premium in class XI., and purchased by Mr. Hancock, of Park-street, weighed 17st. lib., 17st. 7lb., 16st. 2lb. N.B. These were given as being in class X. in our last report. His Grace the Duke of Norfolk's three under 34 months old Southdown wethers, exhibited in class XI., and purchased by Mr. Hancock, of Park-strett, weigh- ed 20st., 20st. 21b., 19st. 21b. Mr. Redgrave's two 20 months old New Leicester wethers, exhibited in class IX., and purchased by Mr, Ulph, of Regent's Park, weighed 15st. 5lb., 16st. 3lb,, and had together 301b. loose fat. Mr. Chamberlain's three 20 months old New Lei- cester wethers, which gained the first premium in class IX., and the gold medal, as the Destpen of long- woolled sheep, purchased by Mr. Maynard, of Chelsea, weighed 17st. 71b., 17st. lib., 16st. 71b., and had 50lb. of loose fat. Mr. R. Rowland's three 21 months old long-woolled wethers, exhibited in class IX., and purchased by Mr, Piper, of Chelsea, weighed 16st. 5lb., 17st. 4lb., 18st. The Most Honorable the Marquess of Exeter's three 20 months old long-woolled wethers, exhibited in class IX., and purchased by Mr. Slater, of Kensington, weighed 17st. 2lb., ISst., 20st. 2lb. The Most Honorable the Marquess of Tavistock's three 20 months old Leicester wethers, which obtained the second premium in class IX., and purchased by Mr. Guerrier, of Islington, weighed ISst. 6lb.. i9st. 4lb., 20st. 2lb. Mr. Sanday's two 20 months old long-woolled we- thers, exhibited in class IX., and purchased by Mr, Fisher, of Marlborough-street, New Cut, weighed 20st. 61b., 20st. lib., loose fat both together 4st. 2lb. The other sheep, purchased by Mr. Sutton, of Kingsland, weighed 19st. 5lb., loose fat 12lb. Mr. Oakley's three 20 months old Kent wethers, ex- hibited in class IX., and purchased by Mr. Watson, of Strood, weighed 24st 61b., 19st. 5.\lb., 17st. 61b. MR. HUSKISSON ON LAWS. THE CORiN The following letter was written by Mr. Hus- kisson to one of his constituents, in the year 1814:— Mv Dear Sir. — A report has reached me from \ arious quarters, that the part which I have taken in the House of Commons on the corn laws, has given offence to some of my constituents. I have heard this report with great concern, but, con- sidering the misre])resentations which are in- dustriously circulated throughout the country, without much surprise. In opposing, as I did, the scheme of Sir H, Parnell, for laying a prohibitory duty on the im- jjortation of foreign wheat up to 84s. ])cr qr., — and that of Mr. Foster, for prohibiting it altogether up to 100s. I have incurred the displeasure of many, who think that the British grower will not be sufficiently protected by the mucli milder system which I have substituted. On the other hand, there are many others, who think that the scale by which I have jiroposed to regulate the import is too high. I will not pretend to say that the cir- cumstance of some condemning my suggestion as i 116 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, not doing enough, and others as doing too much, is any proof (though I think it affords some pre- sumption) that the middle course which I have steered between the supposed opposite interest of the grower and consumer, is fair to botli. But of this I am quite sure, that the far stronger mea- sures which were proposed in the House would not have been rejected, if an attempt had been made simply to negative them, without substi- tuting some other measure in tiieir stead. It is unnecessary for me to trouble you with my reasons for opposing the stronger measures of Sir Henry Parnell, and Mr. Foster, because I appre- hend that, whatever objections are felt at Chichester against my plan, they are founded on the supposition, not tiiat it does not go far enough, but too far for the protection of the British grower, and that the effect of it will be to jiress hard upon the consumers and the poor. If I were not fully convinced that tlie consumer in general, but more especially that class of con- sumers whose subsistence depends on their own industry, would be benefitted by the proposed alteration, it would not have had my support. My sole object is to prevent (as far as human means can prevent) bread-corn from ever again reaching the late extravagant i)rices. Can any man have witnessed the scarcities and consequent privations of the people, during six or seven different seasons of the last twenty years, without feeling anxious to guard the country against the return of such severe distress ? But if we wish to cure an evil of this alarming magnitude, we must first trace it to its source. What is that source ? Obviously this — that, until now, we did not, even in good years, grow corn enough for our own consump- tion. Habitually depending on foreign supply, that supply was interrupted by war, or by bad seasons abroad. The present war, it is true, is now at an end, but peace is, at all times, too pre- carious not to induce us to guard against the re- petition of similar calamities, whenever hostilities may be renewed. But even in peace the habitual dependence on foreign supply is dangerous. Wc place tlic subsistence of our own population not only at the mercy of foreign powers, hut also on their being able to spare as much corn as we may want to buy. Suppose, as it frequently happens, the harvest in the same year to be a short one, not only in this country, but in the foreign countries trom which we are fed. What follows ? The habitually exporting country, France for in- stance, stops the export ofitscoi-n, and feeds its people without any great pressure. The habitually importing country, England, which, even in a good season, has hitherto depended on the aid of foreign corn, depiivcd of that aid, in a year of scarcity, is driven to distress bordering upon famine. There is, therefore, no ejfectnal security, either in peace or war, against the frequent return of scarcity ajiproachiny to starvation, such as of late years we have so frequently experienced, but in our maintaining ourselves habitually independent of foreign supply. Let the bread we cat he the pro- duce of corn grown among ourselves, and for one, I care not how cheap it is ; the cheaper the better. It is cheap now, and I rejoice at it, because it is altogether owing to a sufficiency of corn of our own growth. Bat in order to ensure a continuance of that cheapness and that sufficiency, we must ensure to our own groicers that protection against foreign import which has produced these blessings, and by which alone they can be perma- nently maintained. The history of the country for the last one hundred and seventy years clearly proves, on the one hand, that cheapness produced by foreign im- port is the sure forerunner of scarcity : and, on the other, that a steady home supply is the only safe foundation of steady and moderate pi-ices. During upwards of one hundred years, up to the year 1765, the import ot foreign corn was restrained by very high duties. What was the state of the country during those one hundred years ? That in ordinary seasons our own growth supplied a stock of corn fully ample for our own consump- tion ; that in abundant seasons we had some to spare, which W3 exported ; that in bad seasons we felt no want, and were under no apprehension ; that the price of corn seldom varied more than a few shillings per qr. ; that we had no years of inordinate gain to the farmer, and of starvation to the consumer; the prices, instead of rising from year to year, were gradually diminishing ; so that, at the end of this long period of a century, during which we never imported foreign corn, they were actually one-fifth lower than at the beginning of it. Would to God that we had con- tinued in this salutary system ! But in 1765 it was most unfortunately abandoned. AVhat has been the result? Precisely the reverse of the former system. Instead of a steady supply, afforded at steady and moderate prices, wc have witnessed frequent and alarming scarcities. Every year our dependence on foreign supply was increasing, till the war came, and by interrupting that supply, greatly .aggravated all our evils ; for a country which depends on enemies or rivals for the food of its people is never safe in war. In the first eighteen years of this war we were forced to pay sixty millions of money (to nations, every one of whom has, in the course of it, been our enemy), for a scanty and inadequate supply of foreign corn ; and when for this jjurpose we had parted with all our gold, and even our silver currenc)', combined Europe shut its ports against us, and America co-operating, first laid an embargo, and then \\>ent to war. J his combination was formed with the vain hope to break our spirit by starving our bodies. We struggled hard, both at home and abroad, but by the struggle we have gained much. Abroad we have subdued our enemies — at home we come out of the war with our agriculture so extended and improved, as to make us at this moment independent of foreign sujjply. We arc so at this moment; and shall 1, who, to the entire conviction of my own judgment, have traced the long sufferings of the people to a con- trary state of things, be deterred from using my honest endeavours in Parliament to prevent the recurrence of such sufferings .' For that purpose we must go back to the principles of our forefathers ; and, by reverting as much as possible to their system, we shall secure to om-selves and our pos- terity all the benefits which they derived from it, I admit that if unlimited foreign import, which the war had suspended, were now again allowed, broad might be a little, though a very little, cheaper than it now is, for year or two. But what would follow .' I'he snmll farmer would be ruined, improvements would everywhere stand still, inferior lands, now i)ro(lucing corn, would be given up, and return to a state of waste. The liome consumption ami brisk dcunuid lor all the various articles of the retail trader, which has so much contributed, even during the pressure of war, to the ])rosperity of our towns (and especially of those which arc net connected with manufac- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 117 turcrs of foreign commerce), would rapidly de- cline ; fanning servants, and all the trades which depend on agriculture for employment, would be thrown out of work ; and the necessary result of the want of work would be, that wages would fall even more rapidly than the price of bread. Then comes such interruption to the foreign im- port, coinciding with the decay of agriculture at home, and corn is suddenly forced up again to a famine price. Such, I conceive, would be the inevitable consequence of again placing ourselves in a state of habitual and increasing dependence on foreign supply. Who upon the long run, would profit by such a state of things ? Certainly not the consumer; but precisely those who have profited too much already from such a state of things — namely, the overgrown farmers, with large capitals. They will be enabled, for two or three years to bear up against the foreign import ; and whenever that import is interrupted the extrava- gant prices they will then be enabled to com- mand, will more than repay the temporary losses which their poorer but not less industrious neigh- bour had not the means to withstand. Every acre thus forced out of cultivation will ensure to them an ultimate increase of profit, and in proportion to that profit will inflict an increased pressure on the consumer. To protect the small farmer, there- fore, at this moment, is ultimately to protect the people. This is my sole object; and, whatever may be the fate of the bill now in the House of Commons, I can most conscientiously declare it is in my opinion, the sole tendency of the plan which that bill is calculated to carry into effect. I have troubled you already at great length, but the subject is far too extensive to be properly discussed in any hasty communication, which my numerous avocations here will afford me leisure to hold with any of my constituents. For years it has occupied my attention ; and for years, 1 can truly say, 1 have forseen the necessity of adopting the principles on which the House of Commons is now acting. If my constituents, upon mature consideration, should differ from those principles, 1 shall deeply regret that I cannot concur in their opinions. To them I owe every respect, and to their wishes it must be my first wish to show every possible detcrence; but, on an occasion in which, alter the most anxious reflection, my own conscientious judgment is satisfied that the course which I have pursued is calculated to promote the best interests ot the country, and to place the subsistence of the people upon a footing more stahic and secure,- icore conducive to regular industry and individual comfort, I should hold myself unworthy of the trust which has been confided to me, and should indeed feel that I had betrayed it, if I were to put even the risk of losing the good will of a part of niy constituents (a momentary loss I should trust) in competition with the discharge of a sacred public duty. They know and value their own in- dcijcndence, but in proportion as it is dear to them, they ought to respect mine. I must frankly say, if 1 cannot be their unfettered representative, I cannot, to any useful purpose, represent them at all. To their services, which is that of the public, my time and attention in Parliament are steady and cheerfully devoted. The only reward I look tor is the kindness and confidence of those who have sent me there; but that reward, however valued, I can neither consent to purchase at the expense of truth, nor to retain by flattering the people to their ruin. If, unfortunately, this be the price which a member for Chichester is expected to pay for that seat ; which I deem it the proudest honour to owe to their free choice, it is a price which neither duty nor honour will permit me to pay ; for I should then hold that seat by a tenure not less injurious to their interests, than degrading to the character of their representative. These feelings you are at liberty to make known in any quarter you may think proper. I have thought that the occasion called for them — 1 have stated them without reserve ; but with an undiminished sense of gratitude for the many favours and friendly offices for which I am indebted personally to you and many others, and generally to all my constituents. Believe me, my dear Sir, very faithfully yours. WILLIAM HUSKISSON. ON BLACK-WATER. BY MR. W. A. CARTWRIGHT, WHITCHURCH. (From the Veterinarian.) Having had an opportunity recently of making a few postmortem examinations in cases of black- water, I have sent them to you. It will appear that there vk'cre not those morbid appearances in the liver and stomachs, especially in the third stomach, that have usually been deemed the cause of the disease. There might have been con- stipation, for aught I know, at the commencement, although I have my doubts about it, but I am in- clined to think there is still a little mystery con- nected with the disease, and that it may arise from different causes, not at jiresent fully under- stood, yet the prevailing cause is probably con- nected with the food taken in and deteriorating the circulating fluid. It is well known that, in manycases of constipation, there is no black-water, therefore this cannot be always the cause of the disease. It has not fallen to my lot to treat many cases of black-water, as they are generally doctored by their owners or by druggists ; but this I know, that numbers die around me. I never lost but one patient, and that, I may say, was no fault of mine. I never saw, in what we commonly call black- water, any blood mixed with the urine, nor was there in these cases. The livers were little dif- ferent from healthy ones, and very like many that we see in fat cattle or others that we consider sound. Here and there they were tinted of a clayey colour, and with a few cysts containing a sort of gritty substance ; but there was nothing of suf- ficient importance, one would think, to affect the health, or the quantity of bile secreted, though it is undeniable that, even in these cases, the gall- bladders were distended with bile different in colour and consistence from what we usually find in it. In a state of health the gall-bladder is sometimes very much distended with bile. I am perfectly aware that in a great many cases, if we can produce purging, our patients get well, or even before that takes place, and sometimes without it. In the following cases there was not the least staking, but, in my mind, the appearance of the stomachs was perfectly natural. As there was no constipation, and the stomachs were full, to what must we attribute the disease .' Are wc to say that there v as something injurious in what had been in the intestines a few 118 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. (lays before, and that absorption had taken place, and vitiated the blood and bile, and so pioduced death ? At any rate, there must have been torpidity in the action of the stomachs, and most probably through the nervous system. Case I.— On Thursday, September 22, 1836, 1 examined a cow that died the niuht before. About a fortnight previously she was, found to be affected with black-water, and thought to be staked. She had a drink administered to her by a person in this town, and was afterwards attended on by a farrier, who gave her several drinks, and, in a week afterwards, she got well so far as the water was concerned, though but little dung came through her during that period, and what was evacuated indicated staldng. For the last week, but especially for the last few days, her faces were as thin as water, but in very small quantities. She ate hay and grass very well ; but latterly her ap- petite failed, she got weaker, and her respiration was hurried. She was a little heavy in her ap- pearance, but did not seem in any pain, or at all uneasy, except that she grunted occasionally. She voided plenty of urine. Examination. — The pauiicli was full of half- masticated food, hay, grass, and water. The third stomach was full, but the food was soft, and the stomach was sound. The fourih was empty and sound. The whole of the other bowehs were inflamed on their mucous coats, and streaked lengthways on their ruga>, just like a riband : the streaks on them were of a black colour. 'J'he cortical portions of the kidneys were softer and more tender than in their natural state, and spotted with brown and black. In this case the intestines would appear to be the seat of disease, or, at any rate, the immediate cause of her death. Case II.— Aug. 27th, 1838. Mr. Cotgreave, of this town, wished nie to go and see a cow of his that he was informed was dying in a field, from the effect of black-water. She had been ill since the 22nd, and, during that time, he had given her two of Hassal's " cure all" drinks, composed of 21bs. of salts, 1 quart of linseed oil, 1 pint of port wi.ne, and plenty of gruel. Si/mpioms. — When I first saw her, she seemed in a dying state, but I was informed that she had suddenly got much worse from having been drenched just before with a pound of salts. She was lying down, and we could not get her up by any manual force, or by enticing her with the call, but by means of the dog we did so. After she bad been up some time, 1 found the pulse from 120 to 130. She was tolerably full, but not at all swollen : in her ears and legs, and all over her, she was warm. The mouth was moist, and 1 may say in its natural state ; the eyes not inflamed, and not yellow, but pale : the respiration was too quick, thougli little more so than in other cows, as the weather was then very hot. Her urine was and had been most of the time since she was taken ill, of a brown colour, not fairly black, and it was now thou ;ht not to be so black as at first. 1 raked her, and could feel the third stomach, which did not appear hard, but full: the dung in the rectum was soft, but bad a few harder lumps in it. As 1 found she had had a great deal pear;mce." p. 30. It is to be remarked, he docs not aver this, but, "is disposed to think it Mould he the case," and in the place of any certificate, &c., he says, it is "judging from previous observations," and his "suggestions are offered to the agriculturists with much diffidence," and after all he is "well aware of the practical objections to its emploj'^- ment." ^Vhy one would have thought that in a practical essay, written for practical purposes, this would have been sufficient to stamp its inutility, and it only can excite the wonder of the farmers, that such a plan, and such language, could he issued forth as a Prize Essay, from a society, the prospectus of which declares that it is one of the principal objects of the Entomological Society of London, to render their labours practically useful. For common decency, they should have with- held this sentence from the essay itself, without they wished to he based upon it a treatise on the diseases of the caterpillar, after so elaborate an anatomy of the depredator. The farmers must be warned — if they need an)' warning on a subject so obvious — against em- ploying Mr. Newport's plan. To water his field well twice a day, ' for several days,' which the plan requires, would exercise sufficient patience, if the farmer were sure of success, but no man in his senses, would so drench his young turnip plants, for it must be their destruction. But to talk of sea-tvater, or salt and water, and to aver that it would "hasten the growth of the crops," manifest a degree of ignorance, which we had supposed no man capable of, who should set about writing a treatise on rural affairs, much less a jP'ize essay. If the caterpillars endanger the crop, Mr. N's plan would certainly finish it. It is a certain cure, doubtless, for the black caterpillar — no certificate is necessary — for there would be no plants for the caterpillars to cat, five days after it was adopted ! But the essayist's previous observations do not justify the conclusion that it would he useful, even if the plants could hear this ' grape shot.' His ])revious observations make out tliat it was not so much the wet, as the cold, that destroys the embryos. For we find page 24 — 5, that when the eggs were deposited the temperature was /.'J° Fab., and subsequently even 80" or 8.')°. But when the rain came, then the temperature fell to (i8", and the following days "much lower;" so tliat there can be no ([uestion it was the cold weather ra- ther than the wet which killed the embryo. He sees this, but suggests that "cold would be pro- duced during its evaporation ;" — he does not even hint the degree of coM, hut it could not be so much as 17°, or " much more," which it seems was the case in the instance upon which he builds his fan- ciful scheme. Well does he to qualify it by, " if after a trial, on a small scale, it be J uund success- ful,"—a.ye, that's the rub. The society may safely offer tta times ten guineas, to the man who ac- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 123 complishes the plan of the essayist. It certainly would be a favour if the farmers could have seen the other "very valuable essay," to which the worthy president of the Entomological Society alludes in his speech to compare them. One other practical point deserves attention, and Mv. N. shall be dismissed. In the conclusion of last May, he says, " should the spring continue favourable to tliem, by the continuance of fine weather, un- til after the period of sowing the turnips, there is great reason to •.^[)j)rehend a repetition of their mischief. He sounds needlessly tlie toscin of alarm, and unfortunately too, without affording the means for escape from it ; but the result has been, that his views are erroneous, as his plans are useless and impracticable. The essay is accompanied by a very good plate, descriptive of the anatomy and appearance of the insects. [For the benefit of our readers, and in order to give extended circulation to the information con- tained in the Essay, we subjoin it in full. — Ed. F.M .] ESSAY ON THE TURNIP FLY; For which a Prize, offered hi/ the Entomological Society and the Saffron Wulden Agricultural Societi/, was awarded to G. Neuiport, Esq., M.R.C.S.,and M.E.S. On the Anatomy, Habits and Economy of Athalia centifoliie, the Saw-fly of the Turnip, IN the different stages of its existence ; AND ON THE MEANS WHICH HAVE BEEN ADOPTED FOR THE PEVENTION OF ITS RAVAGES. Amongst the many enemies which the agri- culturist meets with in the cultivation of one of the most valuable products of his lands, the com- mon turnip, is a species of Saiv-fly or Tenthredo, Athalia centi/olice, Panz. The devastations of this insect have been carried to such an extent during the last few summers as very materially to affect the interests of the farmer, and hence it has become a matter of importance to him that its habits should be closely investigated, in order that some remedy may be devised for the purpose of checking its injurious progress. It was not until recently that the insect attracted the attention of naturalists in this country, and hence it has re- mained undescribed as a British species until within the last few years. But it has never been entirely a stranger to the agriculturist, although its ap- pearance in numbers sufficiently great to occasion much injury to his crops has been at such uncer- tain and distant periods, that v\ hen it began, about five summers ago, to commit serious mischief, it was then almost entirely unknown to the agri- culturists of the present day. It was, however, too well known to some of the older cultivators, who had not forgotten the devastations committed by it in this country about twenty years ago, when it was equally, or perhaps even more, destructive than it has been during the past three or four summers. In its larva state it was known to them at that time, as it is also at the present, chiefly from its colour, and designated accordingly by the terms I/lack palmer, black canker, black slug or cater- pillar, negro or nigger. The fly itself, or perfect insect, was equally well known, and on its first appearance in very large flights on the turnips in the summer of 1833, long before any devastation had been committed by its larva, it was recognised by the older cultivators as the source of coming mischief. This was markedly the case in one in- stance, as communicated to me by H. Wooldridge, Esq., of Meon Stoke, Hants, who has also obligingly afforded me much valuable information respecting the habits of this insect, and which I have been able t') confirm by my own observations. Mr. Wooldridge informed me, that on the first ap- pearance of the insects, before he had himself ob- served them, one of his older neighbours remarked to him, that " the yellmv flies which produce the black palmers were then abundant in the turnip fields ;" but Mr. Wooldridge being unacquainted with the insects did not then regard the observa- tion. In a few days, however, the larva? had ap- peared in the fields in vast numbers, and, as it was subsequently found, at the same period, nearly throughout the whole of that part of the country. Similar observations were also made by other persons in Sussex and Kent, who amply testified to the injuries formerly produced by this insect in the southern parts of the kingdom. Mr. Yarrell,* who has published an excellent paper on this insect, inserted in the second volume of" The Transactions of the Zoological Society of London," and who appears to have been the first to direct the attention of the Entomologists of the present day to the serious ravages committed by it, refers for the earliest public notice of its de- vastations to a paper inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1/83, by W.Marshall, Esq., of Norfolk. It appears from the remarks of that writer, that this insect was particularly des- tructive to the turnip crops in this country in 1782, and that it had been equally destructive also about twenty-two years before that period. Ac- cording to Mr. Yarrell it again made its appear- ance in 1818, and as above stated in 1833, since which period it has been more or less destructive in each succeeding summer. It seems from Mr. Marshall's account, that the jjarent flics were then equally well known with the larva;, and that it was the opinion of the farmers at that time that they were not natives of this country, hut came from the other side of the ocean. Mr. Marshall remarks that the opinion had that year been much confirmed, by the fact that they first made their appearance on the eastern coast, — that they had been washed upon the beach by the tide, — that fishermen had seen them " alight in cloud-like flights," and that they afterwards "lay upon and near the cliffs so thick and so languid that they might be collected into heaps, lying, it is said, in some places two inches thick."' But, as remarked by Mr. Yarrell, whatever may have been the source whence tlie insects were originally derived, there cannot be a doubt but that they are now com- pletely naturalized, although their sudden and almost simultaneous ajipearance at distant and un- certain periods is an ( ccurrence which naturalists have much difficulty in accounting for. It seems, however, to have been almost uniformly ob- served by the agriculturists, and the circumstance * Some Observations on the Economy of an Insect destructive to Turnips. By William Yarrell, Esq., V.P.Z.S. F.L.S. &c.,p. 67. 124 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. is alluded to by Mr. Yarrell, that wherever this species has appeared in abundance, it has always been during a succession of warm and dry sum- mers, and this will be in a great measure accounted for, and perhaps also its non-appearance in cold and wet seasons, by circumstances which we shall presently find to be connected with its develop- ment from the egg, and its subsequent appearance in the perfect state. The injuries occasioned by this insect are always during its larva state ; in the pupa and perfect state it is entirely harmless. The larva attacks the young plant in every stage of its growth, from the first ten days or fortnight after its appearance above ground, until it has become very strong and far developed, and its bulb or root has acquired a diameter of three or four inches; and so extensive is the injury, that whole fields of turnips in their young state have been entirely destroyed by it, and the further growth of those which had acquired a large size before they were attacked entirely prevented. My own observations during the past summer have been confined to the counties of Sussex, Hants, and Dorset, where I have had opportunities of watching the daily progress of the insect. It commences its injury by feeding upon the paren- chymatous structure of the leaf, which it com- pletely devours, leaving only the midrib, with a network of its branches and' their ramifications, and it does not quit the leaf, unless by accident, until it has entirely devoured the whole of the parenchymatous structure. When the larva has become strong, and has arrived at about the middle period of its growth, it attacks every leaf of the plant, so that the respiration and other functions of the leaves, being entirely destroyed, the young plant necessarily perishes, although the root and stems of the leaves be not touched. Even when the plant has become strong, and in a great measure enabled to support much injury, its root having acquired a large dimension, the de- vastations of the insect very greatly check its further development ; and consequently its growth is stinted. In one field where I had an oppor- tunity of watching the daily progress of the larva, this was very strikingly the case. When the parent fly first made its appearance, and a few days'after- wards, the larva, a large propoition of the turnips were three or four inches in diameter, and con- sequently the plants being very healthy, the leaves were large and numerous. The cultivator of this field paid no attention to the presence of the insect, thinking his crops safe from injury ; but within a fortnight after the appearance of the larva, the leaves of the plants over a large extent of the field were completely destroyed, and the further growth of the turnips prevented. In other instances, as in one of a field of more than thirty acres, which 1 saw at Cranbourne in Dorsetshire during the last summer, the whole crop of plants, which were about three weeks or a month old, was entirely destroyed, almost every plant having been completely devoured, excepting the stem and the midribs of the leaves ; and this was the case in many other instances both in Hampshire, Sussex, and Dorsetshire. THE PERFECT INSECT. Theinsect at first sight may readily be mistaken for one of its congeners, Athalia rosce, which it very much resembles in size and general appear- ance. Both the male and female have the head, eyes, antennas and tips of the mandibles, black ; the mouth, palpi, and lower part of the face, yellow. The prothorax, middle portion of the mesa-notum, and scutellum, with the scapulae, are of an orange yellow ; the posterior portion of the meta-notum yellow, with a black spot on each side. The abdomen has eight segments, besides the anal process, and as well as the whole under-surface of the body and legs, is of a bright yellow, and the distal extremities of the tibia; and tarsi are barred with black. The wings are dusky, hyaline, black at their base, and along the anterior margin and the sheath of the ovipositor is of the same colour. The male is smaller and more elegantly formed than the female, which in other respects it greatly resem- bles. INTERNAL ANATOMY. In its internal anatomy this insect affords some very interesting and remarkable peculiarities, par- ticularly in the conformation of its digestive organs. The alimenfari/ canal is formed, as in other insects, of three structures or coats, an ex- ternal, ov peritomcal, which is exceedingly thin and delicate ; a middle, or muscular, which is covered by the first, and in general is thick and strong ; and an internal, or mucous coat, which forms the internal covering or lining of the whole canal. The alimentary canal, commencing at the mouth and pharynx, is encircled at the posterior part of the pharynx, or gullet, by the ganglia of the head, which constitute the superior and inferior portions of the brain through which the esophagus \)^s.%eR. This is a very narrow and transparent tube, which becomes gradually enlarged as it proceeds directly through the prothorax to the middle of the me- sothorax, where it begins to be dilated into a funnel-shaped bag: it then passes through the metathorax, and immediately it has arrived in the abdomen is suddenly dilated into the crop, or honey-stomach, a large irregularly circular cavity, with its under-surface greatly extended in the shade of a pouch, which occupies in the female, before oviposition, the under surface of the anterior portion of the abdomen. It extends backwards nearly as far as the posterior part of the third segment. It is that part of the canal which, as its name implies, serves as a general receptacle for the food, and in which, as in its analogue, the honey-stomach of the bee, digestion does not take place. I have sometimes found it filled with a Ijrownish opaque matter, which appeared to be composed of the pollen of flowers. At its pos- terior part it is succeeded by a rudimentary proventriculus , (fig. b" and 7 e,) or gizzard, which is situated between it and the ventriculus (f). The crop is a muscular structure, in which, al- though but slightly developed, the longitudinal and circular fibres, and the six longitudinal bands which generally exist throughout the whole alimentary canal in insects, are very distinct. The crop is attached to the proventriculus by a re- flection inwards and forwards of the whole mus- cular coat, which, immediately it reaches the anterior margin of the provcntriculcs, forms, covered by the inner or mucous coat, the valve of communication between the proventriculus and the crop. It then becomes greatly thickened, and is again reflected backwards like the segment of an arch, and forms the sides of the proventriculus (fig. 7e). This is of an oval form, being short, and rudimentary, with its muscular coat much thickened. Its lining, or mucous membrane, is also considerably developed. Besides the valve at its anterior part it has one also at its posterior. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 125 which divides it from the chylific stomach (f). This valve it formed by the contraction of the circular fibres of the muscular coat, and by the mucous coat with which they are covered. After the formation of this valve, the parieties of the canal are again reflected forwards and outwards, to form the interior part of the ventriculus, or large digestive stomach, so that the proventriculus is included, and almost hidden, between the reflec- tions of the sides of this i)art of the canal and the crop. This being the case, the proventriculus does not possess the six longitudinal bands, which exist on the other parts of the canal ; they pass over it directly from the crop to the ventriculus (fig. 7 e). When viewed on the outside of the canal, the proventriculus appears within the crop like an elongated nipple-shaped valve (fig- f) e), extending into it from the ventriculus or stomach. The rudimentary existence of the proventriculus in this tribe of insects is exceedingly interesting, since it has beeu believed by some anatomists* that a gizzard, or proventriculus, does not exist in the masticating Hi/menopfera ; but this is now seen tobe in correct. This fact is still more interesting from its constituting in this species a transitionary form between the simpljr elongated portion of the ventriculus in the butterfly, and the well formed and distinct proventriculus of the bee and wasp. The chylific stomach, thus formed at the posterior part of the first segment in the female, passes backwards almost in a 8traig:ht line of uniform diameter along the under-surface of the abdomen, completely covered by the ovaries as far as the sixth segment, where it is turned to the left side of the body, and then forwards and upwards to the right, as far as the anterior part of the sixth segment. It then turns again to the right side, and again to the left, and ends at the com- mencement of the seventh segment in a narrow extremity, the pi/lorus (fig. 6, 8 g), around which are inserted the open mouths of the so-called hepatic vessels (h). This portion of the canal may also be called the duodenal stomach, since it is the true chylific cavity in which digestion of the food takes place. It is lined with a very thick mucous membrane, of a distinctly glandular ap- pearance, and which is more completely de- veloped in this than in any other part of the alimentary canal. The muscular coat is also very strong and thick, and consists of two distinct layers of fibres ; an internal one which is formed of longitudinal and circular or transverse fibres, both developed to the same extent, and an ex- ternal one which consists of six longitudinal bands placed at equal distances around the canal, and continuous with those already described on the esophagus and crop. The pylorus is formed by a considerable thickening of the mucous mem- brane, with an increase of thickness of the circular fibres of the muscular coat, and a contraction of their length or circumference. To the stomach succeeds a narrow and very short intestine, the Ilium (i), as observed by Burmeister in Tenthredo nigra.f In this ])art the mucous coat is less de- veloped than in the stomach, with which it is continuous. The muscular coat is also composed of circular and longituriinal fibres, and it is covered by a very delicate exte\-na\ or perifotireal coat. It ends in a valve which divides it from the colon (j) ; a large obtusely oval cavity, situated in * Buvmeister's Manual of Entomology ( Translalion), p. 348. t Ibid. (Translation), p. 137. the eighth segment of the abdomen. A remark- able feature, or peculiarity of this part, is the ex- istence, around its posterior half, of six elongated oval structures (k), which are thick, opaque, and have a glandular appearance, but their use is entirely unknown. In this part the mucous, or internal lining, becomes very indistinct, and the muscular coat is much thinner than in the pre- ceding part of the canal, although both layers of muscles are still readily observed. The transverse fibres are clearly shown to be connected to the six longitudinal bands by their forming arches, both anteriorly and posteriorly to the glandular bodies, which appear as if placed between them. They are very distinct in the interspaces between the longitudinal bands, and are, as it were, in- flected around the glandular bodies. The colon terminates without a valve in a short straight rectum (\), which is composed of only one layer of fibres, the internal one ; the other, which consists of the longitudinal bands, ceasing with the colon, the bands themselves being continued free from the colon to be attached around the sides of the anal segment, in which the rectum terminates. The use of this evidently appears to be to assist in the expulsion of the foeces. In the male insect, find also in the female, after oviposi- tion, the arrangement of the digestive organs is somewhat different. The chylific stomach, in- stead of passing directly backwards, as in the pregnant female, to allow room for the immensely developed ovaries, is folded in large convolutions, and lies in the middle of the abdomen, while the colon is shorter, smaller, and of a more globular form, and, when nearly empty, the six glandular bodies project on its outer surface. APPENDAGES OF THE CANAL. Salivary Glands. (Fig. 6, 16, m.) — These consist of two set«, which are situated along the under surface of the cavity of the thorax, one on each side of the esophagus. They extend back- wards as far as the posterior part of the meso- thorax, and are formed of an immense number of round, opaque, glandular bodies, aggregated to- gether into small clusters, which communicate by small ducts, inserted at irregular distances, with a long, partially convoluted tube, the common duct, or canal of the salivary organ ; so that each organ resembles a bunch of grapes or currants. The anterior or excretory extremity of these ducts opens into the commencement of the alimentary canal at the back part of the pharynx (b) ; the distal extremity is obtuse, or caeciform (n), but receives a single very fine vessel, which I was un- able to trace to its origin- Each of the globular bodies of these organs appears also to receive an exceedingly minute vessel. These glands lie very closely along the under-side of the thorax, and are not easily observed. The existence of these complicated organs in the perfect insect is sorae-- what remarkable, since we are not yet acquainted with any circumstances in its economy which seem to require so large a quantity of salivary fluid as these parts appear calculaled to produce, excepting only that ot its feeding upon the dry pollen of flowers, which possibly may require to be mixed with a large quantity of salivary fluid when mas- ticated, and passed into the crop, before it is fitted for digestion in the proventriculus, and chylific stomach. HEPATIC VESSELS ("h). These organs, the tiue function of which in in- sects is still much disputed, consist in this species K 2 126 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of from ten to twelve distinct tubes, which are in- sprted around the alimentaiy canal, immediately behind the pylorus of the chylific stomach (g). They are convoluted around the stomach and ilium. Their free extremities are distinctly ctecal, from which I have been unable to trace any vessels. When examined by a highly magnifying power they exhibit internally an appearance as if thickly lined with small opaque glandiform masses, similar to what 1 have noticed in the same vessels inMe- loe, and which I am inclined to regard as the se- cerning structures of these organs. Some, how- ever, regard these masses as the granulated con- tents or products of the organs, but I am more inclined to regard them as parts of the structure of the vessel, from having noticed similar parts within the long salivary organs of the larva of Papilio urticie, the contents of v/hich are not sup- posed to become coagulated. NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system (Fig. 9, 10, 11) in the per- fect insect, is composed of one double supra- esophageal, and of eleven sub-esophageal ganglia, connected together at certain distances by two intervening cords. The supra, and first sub- esophageal ganglia are situated within the head, and together constitute the brain of the insect. The second, third, fourth, and fifth, within the thorax, and, with their connecting cords, form the true analogue of the spinal marrow of verte- brated animals, while the remaining ganglia, to the eleventh, or terminal one, are situated in the abdomen, and are, I believe, in this and other per- fect insects, analogous to the sacral, or caudel por- tion of the spinal marroxv in vertebrata. The dou- ble ganglion, which constitutes in insects the supra- esophageal mass (o), is described by Dr. Burmei- ster* as the cerebrum, and the sub-esophageal (1) as the cerebellum. But in reality the supra-esopha- geal mass is the analogue of the corpora quadri- gemina, and the sub-esoi)hageal of the medulla oblongata of vertebrata. For the sake of perspi- cuity, however, I shall continue to designate the former the cerebrum, but the latter I shall call the medulla oblongata, the true analogue of the cerebellum in insects being entirely absent. , The cerebrum (o) is formed of two rounded lobes, closely approximated, but distinguished in the median line by a deep sulcus, particularly on the anterior surface. The whole mass is slightly convex on its posterior, and concave on its ante- rior surface, and also on its inferior, which lies immediately above and upon the esophagus. The nerves which originate from it consist of the an- tennal (p), and the roots of the vagi, on its ante- rior ; of the large or conglomerate optics, on its lateral ((i) ; the minute, or simple optics, on its vertical (r) ; and of the origins of the sympathetic (s), on its posterior surface ; while from its infe- rior lateral surface descend the two crura, or cords which connect it with the medulla oblongata (I), the first sub-esophageal ganglion, and thus com- plete with the cerebrum and medulla the nei vous ling around the esophagus. The nerves of the antennte (p) originate from the lower half of the front of the cerebrum, at a short distance apart, on each side of the sulcus. At their base they have distinct gpnglionic enlarge- ments, which are in close approximation with the cerebrum. They are directed forwards to the an- * Manual of Entomologv, translated by W. E. Shuckard, Esq., p. 272-5. ' tennae, and, as in all insects, as may be seen more especially in Mariapoda, are the anterior prolonga- tions of the nervous columns. The optic nerves have also a ganglionic enlargement at a short dis- tance from their origin, at the sides of the cere- brum (t), but they are again contracted before they arrive opposite to the margin of tlie cornea, where they are expanded into a fan-shaped bulb, with its posterior margin the longest. From the surface of the bulb proceed the filaments to the organs of vision (q), as described by Professor Muller in his paper on the sight of insects. The nerves of the stemmata (r), or simple optics, nervi optici secundarii of Burmeister, are three in num- ber. They are arranged in a triangle, and arise by separate stems from the anterior vertical por- tion of the cerebrum. The two which form the base of the triangle are the posterior ones, and originate one from each lobe. They pass forwards and inwards, to the median line, until their ex- tremities are very nearly approximated. The third nerve is situated in front of these, and arises very close to the median line. They are each co- vered with a thick choroid coat, and on the exte- rior of the head by a transparent cornea, and their whole structure leaves no doubt whatever of their true use as organs of vision. The roots of the vagus, and sympathetic nerves are observed only with great dfficulty, and I have been unable to trace these nerves to their distribution, owing to their extreme minuteness. The vagus origi- nates as in other insects, at the most inferior part of the anterior surface of the cerebrum, and the sympathetic by a single root from the posterior surface. The medulla oblongata (1), or first sub-esopha- geal ganglion, is of a heart-shaped form, and gives origin to three pairs of nerves. The first is situated on the anterior surface, and is given to the sides of the mouth and lower lip. The second is a large pair, and supplies the mandables, maxillae, and their palpi, and is the analogue of the fifth in vertebrata ; and the third pair is given to the muscles of the neck and sides of the head. From the posterior portion of this ganglion proceed the two cords which connect it with the ganglia of the thorax, and are continuous throughout the whole length of the body, and which, as will presently be seen, are of compound structure. VVhen the cords have arrived at the middle of the pro- sternum, they are united by the second sub- esophageal, or first thoracic ganglion, which is of an oval form, and gives ofFthree pairs of nerves. Two of these are small, and are given to the sur- rounding muscles ; the other is large, and is given to the first pair of legs. The cords then diverge, and pass on each side of a central horny process of the meso-sternum, unto which some of the great muscles of the thorax are attached, and be- hind which they again approach each other, and are united by the third, or great thoracic ganglion, the largest of the whole system excepting the brain. This ganglion also produces three pairs of nerves. The first passes directly forwards, and is joined by a small nerve from the side of the cord (u), noticed by Burmeister in the larva of Callosoma, and also observed by myself in the genera Oiceoptoma, Pro-Scarab(cus, Creophilus, Lampyris, Forficula, Acrida, Blatta, Panorpa, and in some species of Papilio Sphynx, and Bombyx, and even in a rudimentary form in (Estnts, al- though Burmeister appears to think that these connecting nerves exist only in a few genera. After uniting with this nerye, the first nerve from the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 127 ganglion (v) passes forwards, and is given to the anterior pair of wings. The second pair from the ganglion is of small size, but the third is large, and passes directly into the haunches of the second pair of legs (w). The cords are then con- tinued a short distance, and are again united by the large fourth ganglion, having previously given off, behind the third ganglion, the second pair of auxiliary connecting nerves (x), which, like the first, unite with the first pair of nerves from the next ganglion, and are given to the posterior pair of wings. Besides the first pair, the fourth gang- lion gives off a second, third, and fourth pair. The second is very small, and is given to the la- teral muscles ; the third is large, and supplies the third pair of legs (y) ; and the fourth passes back- wards, and is given, in conjunction with branches from the fifth ganglion, to the muscles which con- nect the thorax with the abdomen. The fifth, or last thoracic ganglion (5), is very much smaller than the others, and is situated at the posterior part of the meta-thorax. It is of the same size as the remaining ganglia, which are situated in the abdomen, and like them it gives off two pairs of nerves. The first are large, and given to the sides of the body ; the second small, and directed dia- gonally backwards, and closely connected with the first at their origin. The remaining ganglia, with the exception of the eleventh, or terminal one, are situated in the first five segments of the abdo- men, and distribute the same number of nerves as the fifth ganglion. The terminal ganglion is si- tuated in thf, sixth segment. It is of a heart- shaped form, and is larger than the other abdomi- nal ganglia. It is separated from the tenth only by a very short portion of cord, which in the fe- male lies upon the commencement of the cc mmon oviduct (Fig. 13, 11), formed by the union of the oviducts from the two sides of the body, and Iti- medidtly before a small vesicular appendage of the oviduct, the spermathlca (Tig. 13 f). It produces but one large pair of nerves, which are the con- tiiMiations of the nervous cords. These are divi- ded each into three branches, which are given to tlie extremity of the alimentary canal, and the organs of generation. Structure of the Cords. — The compound structure of the nervous cords is very distinct throughout their whole length. It consists, as described by myself in the Philosophical Trans- actions for 1834, of motor and sensitive columns in both cords, closely approximated to each other. The sensitive columns alone possess the ganglia, which are exceedingly large, and lie nearest to the external surface of the body, and the motor nearest to the visceral, or internal surface. The motor columns are very distinctly observed while passing over the ganglia in the thorax, as well as those in the abdomen, and exhibit in this insect an appearance hitherto not observed in other spe- cies. When the motor columns are beginning to pass over a ganglion (Fig. 11), their diameter is slightly increased, but is immediately diminished again to the original size, after the columns have given off a nerve to unite with the nerve from the ganglion, to assist in forming the compound nerve of the body (z). This enlargement is greatest in the columns on the thoracic ganglia, but is equally well seen in those on the abdominal ones. This is particularly interesting, from its analogy to similar enlargements of those parts of the spinal cord in man, and other vertebrata, which produce large nerves to the upper and lower extremities of the body, and corresponds to the thence greater ne- cessity for accumulations of nervous matter in those than in other regions. The nerves derived from these parts of the column appear to be formed both of the motor and of the transverse, or sup- posed respiratory ; the latter nerves in this insect, and perhaps in most of the Hymenoptera, being closely united with the motor, while a distinct nerve, which is given off from the motor column at the anterior margin of each ganglion (&), unites with this and the nerve from the ganglion itself (z), to form the compound nerve, which is given to the sides of the body, so that in this in- sect, as in others, the nerves appear to be com- posed of three sets of fibres. GENERATIVE SYSTEM. The generative system occupies a large portion of the posterior part of the abdomen, and its ex- ternal organs pass out of the body by a distinct out- let, beneath that of the alimentary canal. In the male (Fig. 12) it consists of a complicated " organ of intromission," with four glandular testes, with their ducts, which open into two very large vesi- culoe seminales. The testes consist of a larger and smaller pair. The smaller (a) are placed one on each side of the alimentary canal, and are each composed of about sixteen very minute, semi- opaque, rounded bodies, into each of which may be traced an extremely minute vessel. They are closely aggregated togetlier, and are connected with one common duct (b) ; but whether directly, or by means of short separate ducts, 1 have been unable to ascertain. From these the duct passes down beneath the alimentary canal, becoming gra- dually enlarged in its diameter, until it enters the second, or larger testis (c) , which is placed close to its fellow of the opposite side, beneath the ali- mentary canal, and with it forms one mass ; but when separated, each is found to consist of a rounded body, composed of five lobes, or very short caeca, in the midst of which the duct from the smaller testis enters, and leaves it again at its opposite side, considerably enlarged ; and, after making one or two foldings, which constitute the efferential vessel (d), becomes much smaller, and enters, near the lower extremity of an exceedingly large, but short caecal bag (e), the vesicula semi- nalis, which is folded so as to resemble a kidney, and is generally filled with an opaque white fluid. It ends in a short funnel shaped duct (f), which becomes joined to the corresponding one from the vesicle on the opposite side, just before the two arrive at the base of the penis (g), into which they pass ; but the canal in each remains separate until just before its termination at the extremity of the external organ, (h), where the two canals then form one short tube, or ejaculaiory duct. The ex- ternal organ is prehensile, and of a complicated structure, and is well supplied with nerves from the extremity of the spinal columns. It is situated beneath the last anal fold, and covered with a kind of preputian membrane. Its external sheath consists of two irregularly conical, two-jointed plates (i), convex on their outer, atid concave on their inner surface, and surrounded at their base by a horny ring (k) . Within these are two semi- coriaceous plaited membranes (1), folded together like a closed fan, and furnished at their posterior margin with hooks of a horny textine, which pro- bably are used for prehension, lietween these, in the median line, and nearest the upper surface of the organ, are two elongated muscular parts (m), which, when applied together, form a pointed body, and enclose between and beneath them the 128 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ejaculatory duct (n), and which together form the true organ of intromission. In the female (Fig. \Z) the generative system consists of two ovaries, each composed of eighteen distinct tubes (a a), which occupy a very large portion of the abdomen. Each tube increases in size from its apex (a) to its base (b), and gene- rally contains one nearly perfected, and six incom- plete eggs in various stages, so that each female contains at least two hundred and fifty-two eggs; while the apices of the tubes always contain agra- nulous fluid, and are collected together in the me- dian line in the second and third segments of the abdomen, beneath the dorsal vessel, to the under surface of which they are attached, as discovered by Professor MuUer in Phasma, and other spe- cies. Each tube empties itself at its base into a common, or uterine cavity (c c), where several perfect eggs arc often collected, when the insect has begun her work of cviposition. From this cavity of the ovary proceeds a short oviduct (d), which unites in the median line of the body with a corresponding one from the ovary of the oppo- site side to form the common, or ejaculatory ovi- duct (e), which, in Hippohosca, has been called by Burmeister the uterus; but in which, in Athalia the eggs are detained only a very short period. On the tipper surface of the common oviduct is situated a small vesicular appendage, the sperma- theca (f), which is the receptacle of the male in- fluence during impregnation. At the termination of the duct is also a second appendage, t\\e poison gland (g) of the aculeate Hymenoptera. It consists of an oval bag, connected by a very short neck with the termination of the common oviduct. At its upper extremity it receives two short, convo- luted, caecal vessels (h), which enter it at the same place as in the poison gland of the hornet. Dr. Burmeister* has suggested that the poison-gland may perhaps be an urinary organ, but its existence in Athalia, in which, as we shall presently see, the fluid excreted from it cannot be used as a means of defence, but is employed by the insect during oviposition, seems opposed to this opinion. The common oviduct terminates in a vaginal orifice, (Fig. 14) in the under surface of the seventh abdo- mhial segment, at the base of the ovipositor and its appendages, which constitute the external organs of the female. The ovipositor of this insect is an exceedingly in- teresting organ, on account of its peculiarity of structure. It is situated in the under surface of the seventh and eighth segments (Fig. 14, b c), or roore correctly perhaps in the eighth, which ap- pears to have been carried forward during deve- lopment, and, obliterating the under surface of the seventh segment, is approximated to the posterior margin of the sixth (a a), the posterior border of which is notched, and has a small process on each side. Four of the tendons of the ovipositor are in- serted into the connecting membrane between these segments (d). That this is what has taken place in the development of the segments appears evident from the existence of the dorsal and dorso- lateral surfaces of the seventh segment (b), while they are entirely absent on the ventral surface, unless, indeed, we consider the two rudimentary plates (e e) on each side of the base of the ovi- positor as their analogues, and by which the obli- teration of the ventral surface of the seventh seg- ment is further proved. The vaginal orifice (f ) is situated a little postc- * Translation, p. 192. riorly to the membrane which extends between and unites the tendons of the two saw-shaped organs which constitute the ovipositor (g). These organs are partially retracted within the body by means of eighc tendons, four to each organ. The ovipositor is of a horny texture, and each half is pointed at its extremity like a lancet (Fig. 1.5), and is furnished on its superior margin with sharp- pointed teeth (i), directed backwards, and along its under margin (k), with about fourteen convex, slightly notched ones. On its inner surface it is slightly concave, with a shallow longitudinal groove, and ou its outer surface (IJ, in the middle line, is a longitudinal ridge, from which extend many transverse ridges to the two edges of the in- strument, so that on its outer surface the oviposi- tor resembles a rasp, while its edges are toothed and serrated likca«nw, and its apex sharpened like tlie point of a lancet. Each half, or saw (Fig. 15), is formed also of two portions, united back to back, which thus form the ridge in the middle of the ovipositor. This peculiar and complicated structure of the instrument is rendered necessary, as will presently be seen, by the manner in which the instrument is employed. Posterior and ex- ternal to the ovipositor are two obtuse processes (Fig. 14, h h) densely ciliated, and situated one on each side of the ovipositor. They appear to form the outer sheath, and direct the organ when employed in the business of oviposition. OF THE LARVA AND NYMPII. Alimentary Canal. — This is far more simple in the larva than in the perfect insect. In general ap- pearance and structure it closely resembles the canal in Lepidopterous larva, both in the cap icity and extent of the great digestive cavity and in the short- ness of the esophagus and sn]all intestines. The mouth, or entrance to the canal, is admirably adapted to the insect's usual mode of feeding, which is by devouring the edges of the leaf, and but seldom the upper or under surface, as is the habit of many other species. The tipper lip (Fig. 18) is exceedingly short and of a heart-shaped form, and the under one (Fig. 17.6) is long and projecting. Immediately behind the upper lip are two thick and short man- dibles (Fig. 17, 3, and Fig. 19), a little convex on their anterior, but concave on their posterior or in- ner surface. Each of these has four indentations or teeth for masticating the food, the second of which is rather the longest. Posterior to these are the two maxilla: (Fig. 17. 4), or lesser jaws, which form the sides of the mouth, and assist in passing the food into the pharynT. Their extremities are developed in this larva into two large five-jointed conical palpi or feelers (Fig. 17, 5; Fig. 20), which are constantly employed by the insect as tactors during the time of its taking food. Behind these, and projecting far beyond them, are two other palpi, which are also five-jointed and of a conicid form, and are attached one on each side of tiie lower lip, which is also long and projecting and forms the posterior part of the mouth. I'he inner surface of the lower lip is co- vered with a thick mucous structure, analogous to the tongue of other animals. This constitutes the floor of the moutli, and leads to the pharynx, a slightly dilated cavity, the proper commenceraent of the alimentary canal (Fig. 21). The ])OSterior part of this is encircled by a nervous collar, formed bv the cerebrum above and the medulla oblongata or first sub-esophageal ganglion below, as in the per- fect insect, fhe esophagus, which is very short and narrow, commences at the posterior part of the pha- rynx, and ends at the anterior of the third segment THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 129 in an immensely cJihted cavity, tbe commencement o{ th^ ttuQ digesttee stomach. Tbe general structure of this part of tbe canal is the same as in Lepidop- terous hirvB, and consists of a peritoneal, a muscu- lar, aad a mucous coat, as above described in the perfect insect. At its commencement it is furnished internally with a valve, which is formed by a fold- ing of the mucous membrane, and a similar structure exists at its posterior or pyloric extremity. The stemach extends from the commencement of the third to the posterior part of the tenth segment, and occupies nearly the whole of the interior of the in- sect. It is followed by an exceedingly short ilium, which is separated by a valve, as in the perfect in- sect, from an immense colon, which is covered with the same glandular bodies as described in tbe perfect insect, but much lesa developed. When the insect has enclosed itself in its cocoon (Fig. 4 and 3), before changing into a nymph or pupa, the first indications of change in the form of the alimentary canal occur in a constriction of this viscus at about its middle portion, a slight elonga- tion of the ilium, and a contracted condition of the colon, as shown in the organ (Fig. 22), just before the insect has assumed the form of a nymph. These changes are ibllowed by an elongation of the eso- phageal portion of the canal when the insect passes into the nymph state, and by a narrowing of what is to become the true digestive stomach of the perfect insect. These changes of structure in the alimentary canal of Hymenoptera, as in the Lepidoptera, take place less rapidly than those of the nervous sys- tem. The appendages of the canal consists, as in the per- fect insect, of two or more elongated salirai-y organs very similar to those of the perfect insect, except that, in the larva, they are considerably larger. I have been unable to observe exactly in what part of the mouth or pharynx thev terminate. The hepatic vessels are exceedingly elongated, and are folded upon and around the posterior half of the stomach and the ilium, as in the larva of Lepidoptera. They are inserted into tbe canal at the very commence- ment of the ilium, immediately behind the pylorus. The whole of the viscera are surrounded by im- mense accumulations of yellow fat, as in the Lepi- doptera. The generative system in these states of the insect I have not examined. The nervous syslem of this larva (Fig. 23) affords one or two remarkable peculiarities. It cons'Sts of the cerebral or supra-esophageal mass, and twelve sub-esophageal double ganglia and coids. The cere- bral and first sub-esophageal ganglia are less closely united than in the perfect insect, owing to the greater di imeter of the esophagus which they en- circle. The condition of the optic nerves is very remarkable. They are nearly in as perfect a state in the larva as in the perfect insect, with one marked peculiarity. They are (.'.erived as usual from the sides of the cerebrum, but instead of being small, as in other insects, and divided immediately into six separate filiments, to be given to six minute ses- sile eyes on each side of the' bead, they form on e;ich side a large single nervous trunk, wbich, as in the perfect insect, in passing outwards becomes at first a little enlarsred and then contracted again in dia- meter, and is given to a large single eye, apparently furnished with a proper choroid, and covered by a single lens not divided into separate facets. This larva, therefore, possesses but two simple eyes, an instance of which I have not before met with in any other family of insects. 'I'he situation of the eve on the exterior of the head (Fig. 17. 8) is indicated by a small black spot. The reason for this deviation from the usual distribution of tbe optic nerves in larva is not at present evident. Of the twelve sub- esophageal ganglia, the first, third, fourth and fifth are the largest. The first pair of nerves given from the third, fourth, and fifth ganglia are united with others derived from the sides of the interganglionic spaces of the cords, and are given to the wings of the perfect insect as in some instances among the Lepidoptera. The remaining ganglia, from the sixth to the eleventh, are small and elongated, and give off each only one pair of nerves; which, liowever, are immediately divided into two others. The ter- minal ganglion, which is larger than the preceding ones, gives ofi' three pair of nerves, the two posterior of which, as we have before noticed, are united in the perfect insect. The double structure of the cords is easily observed on each of these ganglia ("Fig. 24) as in those of the perfect insect. Very little alter- ation appears to take place in them during the deve- lopment of the nervous system. In several speci- mens which I examined at different times during the winter, scarcely any change, beside a zigzag disposition of tbe cords and a slight enlargement of the thoracic ganglia, was observed, until after the insect bad passed into the state of nymph at the end of April. Until that period none of the ganglia had disappeared, and only the fourth and fiftli had be- come slightly enlarged. On comparing the nervous system of the larva with that of the perfect insect, it will be seen that only one ganglion, apparently the sixth, disappears during the metamorphosis ; so that the nervous system of this insect appears, in almost every respect, to undergo less alteration in form in passing from tlie larva to the perfect state than in any other family of insects which undergo a true metamorphosis. Havins: thus examined the structure of the princi- pal organs of the body, I will now pass on to the consideration of the peculiar habits of this species. The perfect insect first makes its appearance about the middle of May, after the continuance of dry warm weather, and this usually happens to be a little before or at the time when the early crops of turnips, in some parts of the country, are just ap- pearing. It is, therefore, at this period that the fly is able to commit the greatest mischief, by dcposit- ino- her eo-gs on the young leaves, and which, if the weather continues warm and dry for a few days, become batched, and the crops are soon destroyed. The f.eriod of the year and the temperature of the season greatly influence the growth of the insect in its larva state. Thus, if the season becomes cold and wet, the eggs are either retarded, or are not de- veloped at all, or the young larva perishes. But if the weather continues fine, the eggs are hatched in about a week or five days, and the larva passes through its changes rapidly. There appear to be at least two broods of this insect dur- ing the year. From the eggs deposited in May and Ju'ne the perfect flies are developed in July and Au- gust, and the broods produced from tbe last laying of eggs make their appearance in the perfect state about" the month of May in tbe following year. Deposition of the eggs.— Mr. Yarrell, in the paper above quoted, has noticed that the female de- posits her egos siugly, about twenty in number, in the under surface of the leaf; but from what we have just seen in the pregnant ovaries this is very far from tbe whole amount deposited, which cannot be less than from two to three hundred by each indi- vidual, hence we cannot be surprised that when the insects are developed under favourable circum- stances their devastations are so extensive. It was in a field of healthy white turnips wbich had been 130 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Bown about a month, that I first had an opportunity of observing the fly in the act of depositing her eggs. This was atMeon-Stoke, Hants, on the 26th of July, on an exceedingly fine morning, when the thermo- meter in the shade at eleven o'clock stood at TS** Fabr. There was a light westerly wind at the time, and the flies, which were then becoming very active, swarmed in the greatest abundance on the turnips, and extended over about an acre, at one end of a large field of about fifteen or twenty acres. Tbey seemed to have arrived in a flight, and their numbers were evidently on the increase for some time after they were first observed. They certainly had made their appearance in this field only very recentlv, not havinwards of 30 per cent. The supply has kept pace witli the increase of population. How then, if we are to go on in the same ratio, can it be possible to find sufficient space for a cattle market, in the midst of a dense population of 1,600,000 people, inhabiting the first commercial city in the world? The propo- sition is too monstrous to be tolerated in these days of improvement. Your insertion of the above in your useful paper will oblige a constant reader and subscriber. An Old Grazier. Dec. 26, 1838. LORD WESTERN'S SHEEP.— The Bury Post, in noticing Lord Western's experiments in breeding sheep, says : — We see nothing impracticable in Lord Western's design ; on the contrary, much to encourage and commend. Look at the marvels which have been wrought in the vegetable world during the last quarter of a century. The gardener " of the olden time" would be absolutely lost among the mazes of our new crea- tions of dahlias, carnations, roses, pansies, and the like. And does not the analogy hold good with regard to the animal ? Assuredly it does. We have within the last week enjoyed the privilege of a visit to Holk- ham, and can enter fully into the views of Lord Wes- tern, both as to the flock and pigs on that celebrated domain ; each of which we had full opportunities of inspecting. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the ewes, which combine the great essentials of quantity and quality of fleece, with a heavier carcass than \% exhi- bited by the old Sussex Downs. The pigs are a cross between the Neapolitan boar and our common Norfolk sows ; these latter perhaps not so good as they might have been ; though let them be what they may, the produce fetched at the late annual sale an average of 5?. 12s. 6d. each, no bad criterion, after all, of their merits. 140 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE SUSSEX ADVERTISER. Sir, — As your Paper of the 17th requests commu- nications on dibbling, from counties in which it is practised, I send a letter from Mr. J. Gedney, near Harleston, in Norfolk, who has made land very pro- ductive on which his predecessor failed, whose ex- ample is followed by his neighbours, and who is land steward to various landed proprietors. He says broad-casting of wheat is almost unknown. The only question being between drilling and dibbling, neither of which uses more than two bushels of wheat per acre, instead of three bushels, as you say are used in broad casting in Sussex, and the price of dibbling varies from seven to ten shillins:s an acre according to the depth and distance of the holes. The most discerning cultivators in this part of Nor- folk, are agreed to make the holes four inches apart in all directions, and to drop three or four grains in each hole, and never more, or it will prevent tillering ; and never less than three inches deep ; and I begin to imagine the great failure of wheat plants to be mainly owing to the shallow sowing of the seed, and from the improved tillage of late years here intro- duced, that it will be found desirable on deep soils, to plant much deeper than has hitherto been prac- tised, otherwise from deep ploughing and frequent stirring of the land, will be so light the grain will be a prey to birds and insects ; and the plants for want of root will be soon liable to injury from the frost, as I apprehend was the case on exposed land last vear ; but from the seed being deposited deep, the straw is less liable to be lodged by wind or rain. In many districts of Suffolk, on rich soils, it is usual to see an abundance of long straw, with a promise of five or six quarters of wheat, but it disappoints the far- mer in the quantity and quality of the grain, and on examining the straw it is weak, and without stiff straw it is useless to anticipate well filled ears and plump kernels. Whereas had the seed been depo- sited deep enough to form plenty of root before it rose into stem, it might have collected sap enough to perfect the grain. Mr. Gedney adds, I do not hesitate to acknowledge I have learnt much from examining allotments of land ; for if there are twenty tenants, hardly two will till alike ; therefore on the same ground in the same season, you see it farmed in different ways, and sea- son has so much to do with crops, that we have fre- quently many years to wait to have proof of the result of any plan on a large farm. These allotments to labourers form so many experimental farms throughout England, and I trust the result will be, that tenants will feel that to flourish, they must cul- tivate well every inch of land, when they will find we have not a sufficiency of labourers, for it is a truism, that they who employ the least, gain the least. Mr. Gedney last year dug 50 acres of land, and says, land I had dug two years ago is quite altered in appearance, and very productive, and he has twelve acres of carrots, and one he sent weighed up- wards of three pounds without the leaves and lower parts of the root. I have tried various plans for forking my land, and in eight or ten years turning up the clay, twelve inches deep, and ridging it up to receive the frost has been most beneficial. If clay land is ploughed or dug deep, flat, the crops are often injured for years, but if ridged up, the frost powders the clay, which then mixes with the previously tilled soil, and deepens and renovates it. This digging costs forty shillings au acre, which is only a quarter part more than three times ploughing, allowing twelve shillings per acre for the first, tea for the second, and eight for the third ploughing. As this answers in Norfolk, why not in Sussex, where we have heavy clay lands ? light down land where heavy rollers being requisite, the dibblers and droppers feet would compact the ground round the seed, and in this work, and in-digging, the very many able-bodied supported now unproductively in and out of the Union establishments, might find work profitable to their employers and their country, for it is a truism used in Norfolk — that those who employ least, gain least. A CASE OF CHOKING IN THE HORSE. BY MR. GEORGE HOLMES, THFRSK, YORKSHIRE. fFrom the Veterinarian.) On the 29th of September, I was sent for in great haste, to attend what was said to be a very urgent case at Ashbury house. I found my patient, a horse, in the most distressing state, breathing with the greatest difficulty, heaving violently at the flanks, and the countenance exhibiting an expression of the intensest agony. He was foaming at the mouth, the ears cold aad lying useless on the head ; in fact, it was evident, that unless instant relief was afforded him, he must die. On hastily inquiring what all this was about, I was told that a ball had been given to him a little vrhile before, and which it was imagined, had stuck in his throat. I immediately proceeded to examine him, but the ball was not to be detected in the cervical portion of the cEsophagus. In my own mind, I was con- vinced that it was in the fauces, or pressing upon the larynx, but the violent heaving of the poor fellow, and the instant suffocation that threatened when he was moved in the slighteat degree, precluded any attempt to pass the probang : I therefore determined on immediate tracheotomy. It was but the work of a few seconds to open the trachea, and to insert a bent tube, with which I am always provided. He experienced instant, although very far from perfect relief. I allowed him a little time to recruit his strength, and then endeavoured to introduce a probang into the gullet. I experienced a great deal of difficulty in accomplishing this. The obstruction was where I suspected, viz., at the commencement of oesopha- gus. After repeated attempts, however, I did re- move the ball. I then bled him, and administered an aperient ball. Still the animal continued to breathe very laborious- ly, and I suspected that a part of the ball had passed into the trachea, and perhaps into the bronchi, and I feared that, after all, my patient would be lost. The pulse remained rapid and hard, and was fully 100 ; I therefore, before I left him, practised a second bleeding, and ordered two scruples of opium and the same quantity of digitalis to be given every three hours. This medicine had an admirable effect in allaying the extreme irritation that had been for so long a time going on. In about fifteen hours after the operation, all unfavourable symptoms had vanished ; the appetite and spirits returned, but the horse was kept under a restricted diet for awhile. The wound in the trachea quickly healed, and the animal now continues as well aad as fresh as he ever was. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 141 ON THE BREEDING OF STOCK. TO THE EDITOR OF THE EXETER FLYING-POST. Sir, — As you have so obligingly inserted a few of my remarks, I am emboldened again to trouble you with another. We must all admit that climate, food, local ha- bits, &c., combine to give a permanent and dis- tinct form to certain breeds of live stock. This is a self evident fact, and exemplified by viewing the breeds of our different districts in England, Scot- land, Ireland, and Wales, and which it may be al- most said, in opposition to the works of art, or incidental circumstances, still remain charac- terized, so as to excite our admiration of the fact, when we consider in the first place, the amazing intercourse between different parts of the king- dom, through which all the varieties of the difle- xent breeds are introduced into almost every county, however remote ; and secondly, compari- tively speaking, how few breeders or keepers of cows (to whom I principally confine my remarks,) pay any attention to keep up the aboriginal breed of that district in which they reside. As farmers generally purchase at a market or fair, those which they consider most worth the money, or such as most suit their pockets, we should cease to won- der at the difference of symmetry so observable in the same dairy, occasioned doubtless by the in- troduction of the non-indigenous breed. My view is to caution the young and zealous breeder from the disappointment that certainly awaits him, not to say the amazing expense he will incur by endeavouring to obtain eclat, by producing a new and distinct breed of cattle, of totally diffe- rent habits 0,nd points. It is obvious to every re- flective mini, that the divine artist, in his uner- ring wisdom and infinite judgment, placed man and every other animal, in such particular spots as were best calculated to perfect and accomplish the great and original design, and selected such particular castes, (though varying in external ap- pearance, yet agreeing in organic construction,) to occupy such particular portions of the globe, as were best qualified to fulfil his design, as well as those most congenial to the habits, constitu- tion, and I may add, comforts of the residents, and also, so as to secure the increase and distinc- tive points of the aborigines. Let the beginner then commence by purchasing the most promising he can select from the best and most esteemed breeds in his own immediate vicinage, I mean the indigenous breed of the county, and keep up his stock from his most favourite cows. I confine m}' present remarks chiefly to dairy farms, being con- vinced that cows, uniting the conjoined properties of milking, and aptitude to fatten afterwards, pay the best, if continued on their native soil, or if I may use the expression, within the limits of their own district, as originally designed by nature. Symmetry in stock is certainly very attractive and desirable, where the expense is kept within due bounds, as it must be acknowledged that keep of young stock has a vast influence on the improve- ment of their points. Only compare a yearling heifer, that has been well kept, (though without corn,) and warm housed, with one that has been turned out all the winter, or even kept in an open straw yard, and fed with barley or oat straw, and though equally fine and clean in their respective points, when separated in the autumn, yet they will bear no kind of affinity or comparison either in size or beauty in the spring. Again pursue the same plan the following; winter, and you then fix the shape for life, the one as a handsome clean grown cow, the other as a coarse and plain one ; this confirms me in the belief that as much addi- tional beauty has been attained by the extra corn feeding, and superior keep of some of the prize stock, as by the wisdom in the crosses : for had these identical stock \Ahen they were calves, been sold to a small needy farmer, kept hard and win- tered cold, they would have attracted very little or no attention, the happy medium is doubtless the grand disideratura — over feeding is certainly an error, and to a certainty, inevitably proves to be more cost than profit : on the other hand it is equally certain that no animal ever pays for starv- ing, if an animal will not pay for proper keep, by far the most politic mode is to get rid of it at once. Your s, AGRICOLA. Dec. 14, 1838. ON THE BREEDING OF STOCK. (Continued.J Sir, — Very justly does Mr. Adam Ferguson re- mark when speaking of crosses, " We may well feel humble when we consider our ignorance upon this, as well as many other branches of rural economy, but it is undoubtedly learning much when we be- come satisfied that we know but little." That a number of men, many of them gentlemen of con- siderable talent as well as property, have paid very great attention to improve the breed of our Eng- lish cattle, is a fact readily admitted : that such pursuit was very laudable and praiseworthy can- not be denied, and has been attended with bene- ficial effects, so far as ascertaining what parti- cular crosses, or indigenous breeds, produce an animal possessing the most valuable requisites, either by its aptitude to fatten, combining product of milk, if a cow, and size with weight, if of either sex. And it is evident that many have wonderfully succeeded in obtaining the object in pursuit, but itisalso unfortunately equally evident that after attaining to the climax of this perfec- tion, not one out of ten has obtained the object which the trader ought always to have most in view — to benefit his purse, if we take a view of the finale of many of our noted breeders of im- proved stock, (I beg to be understood I allude to farmers and not to independent gentlemen) of whom report says they have sold a bull for two or three hundred guineas, a cow for eighty or a hundred, a yearling for forty or fifty, and so forth. Enormous prices, doubtless, and tempting lures to the inexperienced and the tyro, but mark the issue ! The cattle maj', and doubtless have been, very much improved in symmetry, and also many other desirable qualities, but the breeder has decreased in property in the same ratio, till his finances are exhausted, when he has to console himself on the benefit he has rendered to the community at large, the great acquaintance he once made, how many noble dukes and lords have dined at his table, complimented him on his famous breed of stock, his excellent dinners, and capital wines, without perhaps purchasing a single animal. Thus the smiles of the great have stimulated him to continue on, till he could no longer keep up the ball, and at last he sinks into obscurity ; and from the pin- nacle of eminence falls into the otium cum pover- tate, without ever again being enlivened by even the shake of the hand of those noble amateurs, who once enjoyed the hospitality of his roof and the liberality of his table. (Many instances have L 2 142 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. fallen under my particular notice.) Although I by no means wish to disparage, but on the other hand highly to commend the perseverance of these experiments, provided it be undertaken by gentle- men of independent property ; in them it is truly laudable. My aim is to caution the farmer of mo- derate resources from indulging in this hobb)', which cannot fail in terminating in loss, besides a great variety of disappointments, only to be ap- preciated by experience. Let him always bear in mind that a reduced farmer has no proportionate chance with a tradesman of recruiting his circum- stances ; the latter if one trade fails can have re- course to another, the farmer has no such qualifi- cation, he has then but two prospects in view, the one to manual labour, the other a very precarious one to obtain the situation of a bailiif. Cobbett's simile is not a bad one, he says, " Farmers are like oranges, if once sucked dry, they never pro- duce more juice." I believe it is considered to be a generally ad- mitted axiom, that the influence of the male far exceeds that of the female in communicating qua- lities to the oflTspring; too much care cannot be taken to select the best bull, nor should the choice of the female be in the least a matter of indiffe- rence, as it is only by due attention to both that perfection can be looked for, keeping in mind that the selection be made fpora the indigenous breed of the country. For from whatever cause this distinct breed in the different districts arises, it matters but little to our argument whether it be attributable to the will of the allwise disposer of events, that every district should vary from another in its qualifications and productions, and thereby render us more dependent on each other, or whe- ther it be by the effects of soil, temperature, and other local propensities. This is an ascertained fact, too well established to be questioned, that so far does this influence extend, that it appears as though tbe limit was fixed, as in the instance of mule-breeds — "Thus far shalt thou go and no farther" — or, in other words, it is not for man to change the order of providence, since nature does nothing in vain, it will prevail, and the super- ruling power will ever main tain its pre-eminence. Having premised thus much as to breeding, I leave it to the candid reader, either to assent or dissent from the opinion I have stated ; if the lat- ter, and he states his reasons, the same good end may be produced. It wdl occasion discussion by ■which the real truth may be elicited, and my ob- ject will then be attained. Your's, AGRICOLA. Dec. 31, 1838. THE TITHE COMMUTATION ACT. The following petition is now in course of signa- ture by many influential land-owners and others in Kent, preparatory to its presentation to Parliament at the commencement of the ensuins; session : — To the Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in Parliament as- sembled. The Petition of the undersigned Landowners and Farmers residing in the county of Kent, Most respectfully shewetli, That your petitioners fully concur in tke principle of tbe Tithe Commutation Act; though they cannot avoid expressing their extreme disappointment that a Bonus was not granted to them, as they were led to believe, from the observations that were made when the Bill was in progress through your honorable House, that such a boon would have been conferred on them, in consideration of their estates being for ever fixed with a rent-charge for the commutation of tithes ; particularly as the clergy and tithe-owners would be relieved from all the difficulty, risk, incon- venience, and annoyance to which they had lieretofore been subjected. And that consequendy, instead of a precarious income, they would be in tbe enjoyment of a permanent one, and that calculated according to the highest rate of produce, which possibly under any circumstance, a great portion of the soil of Eng- land, now in cultivation, is capable of yielding, par- ticularly in the county of Kent. That your petitioners admit, that since the passing of the Act, very trifling opposition has been offered to its operation, and which can be easily accounted for . — because in those parishes where a commutation has been efl"ected, a composition, both for the vicarial and rectorial tithes, has lono^ been in existence ; con- sequently, little or no difficulty has arisen for the attainment of an equitable adjustment. But, now that the time has arrived for the compulsory clauses to be acted on, your petitioners are convinced, that in many parishes where the tithes have been taken in kind, not only will there be very considerable de- lay, far beyond what the framers of the Act ever con- templated, but that much dissension and animosity will prevail, and that the Bill will consequently oc- casion very general discontent. To obviate, however, in some degree, the objection to the operation of the compulsory clauses, your pe- titioners respectfully suggest the propriety of amend- ing the Act, so that the commissioners may be dis- possessed of that unlimited power which the present Bill gives them ; and that a clause should be inserted therein to the efi'ect, that in cases where the parties cannot come to a satisfactory agreement, the com- missioners should be empowered to appoint a valuer, who should be authorized to act in conjunction with two others — one to be appointed by the tithe-owners, and tbe other by the tithe-payers — and that the deci- sion to which tiaey may come should be final, without reference to any other authority whatever. But in order to ensure the requisite adjustment within a pre- scribed period, your petitioners would humbly pro- pose, should tbe contending parties not have ap- pointed valuers — after due notice had been given by tbe commissioners — that then the valuer appointed by them should forthwith act on h'u own responsi- bility, and that his valuation should be binding, both on the tithe-owcers and the titbe-psyers. Should b clause to this effect he adopted, your petitioners are of opinion that it would render the Bill more satis- factory to those who have property in the parishes where the tithes have heretofore been taken in kind : for there is an impression that the persons in general who are appointed to act as assistant commissioners, are of themselves wholly incompetent to come to a fair and equitable decision ; and likewise from a be- lief, that their prejudices incline them to favour the clergy and tithe-owners, at tbe expense of the landed proprietors. And it surely must appear to your honourable House an act of the greatest injustice, that property should be disposed of, according to the fiat ot men, who want tbe requisite ability to discbarge the important dut)^ with which they are entrusted. Your petitioners therefore beg your honourable House to take their petition into consideration ; and should you he pleased to amend tbe Tithe Commu- tation Act, in conformity to their suggestion, they will, as in duty bound, ever pray. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 143 LORD WESTERN'S MERINO SHEEP. The following letter was addressed to his Lordship by Mr. H. Barwell, of Witham, who slaughtered his sheep : — " My Lord, — Having been the purchaser of the three-year-old Pure Merino Wether Sheep bred and fed by your Lordship, on your estate at Kelvedon, which was exhibited at the last Christmas Cattle Show at Chelmsford, and for which your Lordship won a bet of bl. with Mr. Hicks, of Walton, I take the liberty of laying before you, for your Lordship's information, and the information of agriculturists and graziers ge- nerally, the opinion of the judges relative thereto, also my own statement as to the weight of the car- cass, fat, &c. " 1 am aware that the bet was made in consequence of a challenge thrown out by your Lord«hip to show a Merino Wether at the Christmas Show, against any of any other breed, on the condition only, that size should not pass for merit. Mr. Hicks took it up, and produced a fine South Down Wether, supposed to weigh 20 stone, but the judges were of opinion that the Merino was a superior handling sheep, being exceed- ingly good in all points, remarkably thick on the loin and back, and square at the leg and wide at the bris- ket— that the constitution of the sheep must have been remarkably good to have carried a fleece of wool, weighing 32lbs., twelve inches long in the staple, and of beautiful and fine quality. Indeed, your Lordship, whilst you have so wonderfully improved the carcass, is considered not to have deteriorated the wool : the carcass of this sheep, inside and out, was as good as I have ever had, and in point of colour the Merinos carry generally a brighter red and white than any other breed. St. lbs. Weight of carcass. ... 14 0 (8lbs. to the stone.) Ditto fat and caul 0 12 Ditto gut fat 0 8 and the kidneys remarkably large. I have the honour to subscribe myself. My Lord, Your Lordship's most obedient and very humble servant, HENRY BARWELL. Witham, January 9, 1839. fDod of plants. The phosphoric acid was long considered to belong exclusively to the animal kingdom, but in the year 1772 it was found in the grain of many vegetables, particularly wheat ; this led to a close enquiry into the subject, when, about the same time, Schule, the chemist, found it in animal bones, and since, it has been found in abundance in urine ; still it is the sur- prise of many reflecting men, to know where nature gets the supply of phosphoric acid, to yield >ome por- tion to every grain of corn, as it is not much detected in agricultural soils. The straw which is returned to the land, wetted and rotted into a dung, contains none of this acid, except in proportion to the decomposed corn that may be amongst it ; hence, many farmers have this year had an abundance of straw, but very much wanting in corn, and the remark has been made by many, that they know how to force straw, but they do not know so certainly how to fill out the straw with corn. One farmer remarked, he should only have this year 40 loads of wheat, where four years ago he had 140 loads, and yet his barns looked quite as well filled. To this it was remarked by one of the company, at the George Inn Market dinner, at Basingstoke, a few weeks back, that the farmers ought to return some (as much as they could get) of the decomposed corn ; that is, the bread after passing through an animal, so give to the land, the basis of the corn growing principle. These remarks have been called forth in consequence of having lately analyzed the " carbonacious mineral Powder," which Messrs. Lance and Co. offer for disin- fecting offensive efiluvia, and with which, they say, their manures are prepared. This powder certainly does give evidence of very many matters necessary to the growth of corn and vegetables. The phosphoric acid is yielded in great abundance, carbon and potash in quantity. These are the princi- pal bases of vegetable growths, and if the farmers can get them on their land, they need not fear having their straw well filled. The encouragement now given by the newly formed Agricultural Society, and the pre- mium lately awarded by that Society to a Rev. Gen- tleman, for the best method of analyzing soils, it is hoped will call the attention of agriculturists to the ia- teresting subject of the food of plants. Jan. 16, 1839. An Enciuirer. THE CORN LAWS. The following resolutions were proposed by Mr. Brown, and passed at a meeting of the Barton Ag- ricultural Association held last week. Lord Worsley, M.P., R. A. Christopher, Esq., M.P., and a great number of other influential gentlemen, were present. That this meeting cannot but deplore the resolution of a portion of the merchants and manufacturers of Great Britain, to repeal the present Corn Laws, and reduce the British farmers and labourers to tiie level of the farmers and labourers on the continent, which will not only be injurious to the landlords, the farmers, and the poor, but also to the manufacturers. That the inequality of the taxes.rents, wages, &c. be- tween Great Britain and the continent, renders it impos- sible for the British agriculturist to sanction so unequal a competion, and which is the great aim and end of the repealers of the Corn Law. That should they unfortunately succeed, the tenants with all their exertions, their capital, their industry, and their perseverance, will beeventually ruined, thoughthe reduction of rents would of necessity follow, even to one-half the amount, and when it is considered that per- haps a third ef the lands are mortgaged, the reduction in value will in many instances, place the mortgagees in possession of the estates, and leave the landlords paupers. That a similar ruinous effect will be produced to the farmer who holds borrowed capital, because the con- templated prices will leave him so reduced as to be un- able to pay his debts. That a complete change will then be effected injurious alone in the first instance to the farmers, landlords, and the agricultural poor, but eventually to country shop- keepers and tradesmen, and even to the manufacturers themselves. That the average price of corn for the last 21 years for this country, is only 56s. 4d. and forthe last ten years only 52s. 6d. which the manufacturers say h not too high. That the British agriculturist is necessarily liahle to many and heavy losses, arising from bad weather, frosts, mildew, unfavourable seasons, rot and other diseases in cattle; and that he receives less interest for his capital on an average than the non-speculating and fair trading merchant and manufacturer; and that the landlord sel- dom or never makes more than £3 10s. per cent., whilst that of the manufacturer varies from £5 to £10, £20, or even £50 per cent. That it is well known that the operative manufacturer often makes very high wage?, particularly those with large families, to the extent of from twice to five times the amount of the wages of the agricultural labourer ; and that by working only four days in a week, many of them taking care to be drunk on iVIonday, because they 144 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. can afford Tuesday to sober in idleness, whilst the ag'ri- cultural labourer toils all the week at small wages, and complains not. That the repeal of the present laws will so lower the price of corn as to throw out of cultivation all the poor soils of the kingdom, and will leave us dependent upon foreigners, who, having the power, will inevitably, — in case of scarcity in their own countries, or of war, or the prospect of war, — lay an embargo on corn, and produce frightful consequences to this kingdom . That tills meeting is firmly of opinion that the repeal- ers should be opposed by every possible means ; that the present Corn Laws ought to be equally as strongly sup- ported ; and tiiat it is desirable that petitions to both Houses of Parliament should be immediately obtained from every town and parish in the county. That the sincere thanks of this meeting are due to Lord Worsley and Mr. Christopher, for their attendance this day, their excellent advice, and their promised sup- port to keep inviolable the present Corn Laws. aimed at. In the usual way of keeping a stock of beasts from which profit is to be made by a farmer, I have supposed a short-horn at two years two months to be 45 stone weight, and at 6s. 6d. per stone, will give about 2s. 8d. per week for its maintenance. A beast one year older, to give the same weekly sum, must weigh 67 stone ; and one two years older 87 stone. Taking this estimate, it is evident that the two-year old beast will be the most profitable, its individual risk in value least and the quantity and quahty of land, &c., for its main> tcnance of less value or cost ; and I believe its weight is as attainable as the larger ones. Early maturity then IS the quality we ought first to obtain. But is the present system of exhibition at Smithfield such as to promote tha developement or attainment of that pro- perty ? I think not ; it is tending to the promotion of the exh bition oi rnonstronshj fat old animals. I will add some calculations grounded on your reported weights of some of the cattle shown at Smithfield, showmg the annual increased weight for tlieir ages, which will, per- haps elicit some remarks either against, or in favour of, my remarks in this letter. ON BREEDING & FEEDING STOCK. TO THE EDITOR. Holdernesse, Jan. 2. Sir. — Having entertained an idea that premiums for highly fed beasts promoted the erroneous opinion that the largest animal was the best, and did not clearly lead to the discovery of that sort of animal which produced the least expensive and best supply of meat for the shambles, I have been induced to apply calculation as a test of the relative weights to be aimed at to produce the greatest and cheapest supply to the consumer, so that both the producer and the consumer may partici- pate in the benefit to be derived from the adoption of correct principles of breeding and grazing. As I may in stating my opinions on this subject be taking up much of your space, I beg you will consider the impor- tance of it as my apology for doing so. T would not be understood to disapprove of cattle shows, being an ad- vocate for them, and for the highly feeding of animals occasionally to show the state of perfection to which it is possible to feed them ; but I would modify the sys- tem so as to give scope to the emulation of breeders of more limited means, who wdl endeavour to exhibit ani- mals though not so highly fed, yet showing the symme- try and quality desired, and which ripe for the butcher have been produced at the least cost per stone. It will perhaps be asked, how are judges to know the cost of production ? There was a premium offered at the last Smithfield Show for beasts in class 5, restricting keep ; but in my opinion, the limit to age is too old, viz., four years three months. If my theory be right, tiiis limit should have been three years, with limit as to feeding, that no hand meat should be tivenin grass season, say 13th May to Michaelmas in each year. 1 hope that the not awarding of the premium in this class this year has really been just, but I feel a little jealous that the view of the gaudy specimens in the other classes may have jaundiced the eyes of the judges and public to the prejudice of this class. I was much struck last year by the notice of some show in a southern county where a premium was offered for sheep which were to be fed on green food only. It was mentioned that the show was splendid except only in the class of sheep, which greatly disap- pointed the visitors, some of whom came from afar to see wonderful sheep, but found them to be no better than common food ought to maKe them, and it was in consequnnce resolved the next year's prize for sheep should be unlimited as to feed. This I have no doubt is a fair criterion on which to form an idea of the effsct produced by our present system of cattle shewing ; it exhibits the effect wrought on the spectators by such gaudy creatures as are produced, and that there is a want of a mixture of premiums, the object of which would be to form tke taste and ideas of spectators as to the best symmetry and indications of quality to be Class I. Breed. Age. Dead AnH.W!;ht, Weight I. increased. Yrs. Mo. st- lb. St. Prize 1. Hereford ,.4 8 .. ill 13 25.0 Prize 2. Do. ..4 10 .. no weight given Do. ..4 9 .. 104 0 21.89 Shorthorn ..4 10 .. 117 2 24.2 Sussex ..5 10 .. Class II. 118 2 20.4 Prize]. Hereford ..5 1 ,. 100 0 21.4 Prize 2. Do. ..4 1 .. 127 4 31.0 ShortJiorn .. 5 1 .. 114 4 22.4 Do. ..5 1 .. Class III. 117 7 23.0 Hereford ..4 7 .. 98 12 21.6 Do. ..3 9 .. 86 6 23.0 Do. ..4 6 .. Class IV. , 94 O 20.8 Durham ..3 4 ., . no we igbt given Do. ..2 9 .. Class VI. 74 4 27.0 Durham ..4 10 .. 89 2 18.4 Do. ..3 4 .. 85 2 25.5 I have given the weights 141bs. to the stone; and the annual weight is stone and decimal. If there U not some error in the age or weight of the Hereford in Class II., which got the second premium, he was a most extraor- dinary animal. The young beast. Class IV., gives a large annual weight ; the others varying from 20 to 25 stone for each year, except one as low as 18. These figures, I think, tolerably agree with the supposed in- crease of weights that I adopted, which would be an increase of 22 to 25 stone in a year. I hope what I have advanced may lead to some beneficial result in discus- sion or practice, and I am, Sir, yours, RICHARD IVESON. LETTING FARMS. Mr. Editor, — Seeing a communication from a farmer in Staffordshire, in the Glohe newspaper of the 10th inst., respecting the taxes on land in tiiat county, I beg the favour of your insertion of this letter, containing a state- ment of what farmers and landowners pay here. I left a farm six years agb ; my rent was 425/. a year ; rates of every description in the last year amounte 75 440 7- ,oj and Dec, 1837 S ' Sept.,Oct.,Nov., > ,,, .,, ,. „j and Dec, 1838 5 151,415 10s. 9d. Barley. Imports. Prices. Qrs. per60lbs. Sept ,Oct.,Nov., ) , and Dec. 1 836 S ^'^'^''* ^^* ^"' Flour. Imports. Prices. Sacks, per 240lbs. Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1836 89,200 54s. Sept.,Oct.,Nov., > and Dec, 1837 ^ '* Sept., Oct., Nov., i and Dec, 1838 ' 63,913 66s. Oats. Imports. Prices. Qrs. per45lbs. 79,325 3s. lid. 90,600 2s. lOd. 130,437 49. 3d. Beans. Imports. Prices. Q.rs. pr 480lbs. 5,408 48s. 9,288 38s. 9,235 46s. Oatmeal. Imports. Prices' Loads, per 280lbs. 59,676 35s. Od. 95,461 24s. Od. 106,986 37s. Od. Since harvest the circuit of our vend for Wheat has been constantly enlarging, and latterly we have expe- rienced a more extended demand for this Grain than for a long series of years. Besides an extensive business with the millers of the town and immediate neighbour- hood we have had considerable transactions with those of all the surrounding district, which appears to be more than usually dependent on this market for sup- ply ; large purchases have also been made for York- shire, Cheshire, Staffordshire, and e»en for Warwick- shire, and to these must be added numerous sales to the northern counties, as well as many shipments for Scotland and for Ireland. The month's vend includes some quantity of Danzig with several cargoes of Odessa hard and soft, but the run has been chiefly on good and fair parcels of Baltic red ; Irish new Wheat, though for the most part of inferior quality, has also sold pretty freely, and, notwithstanding that the large purchases made some weeks ago in London for this market — now nearly all arrived, together with the re- cent liberation of the foreign out of bond have afforded us not only a liberal supply but a good choice of quality, prices generally have made a gradual though slow advance. At this moment the best English white Wheat is held at 13s. to 13s. 3d., red at 12s. to 12s. 6d.; Danzig white at 12s. 3d. to 12s. 9d., mixed at lis. 6d. to 12s.; Baltic red at Us. 4d. to 12s.; French at Up. 6d. to 12s. 3d.; Tuscan at Us. 3d. to Us. 9d.; Odessa soft at lOs. 3d. to 10s. 9d. and hard at 9s. 6d. to 10s. 3d.; Irish varies from 9s. 6d. to 10s. for ordinary up to 10s. 9d. per 70 lbs. for the best runs. English-made Flour has met a ready sale ; barrel Flour, especially prime sweet, has also found a fair demand, but Irish manufacture has gone off with some difficulty. The first named may be quoted at 66s. to 70s., the last at 60s. to 66s. per 280 lbs. The choicest brands of foreign — say from Danzig and Trieste — have brought 46s. to 48s., and fair marks of Hamburg and Copenhagen, &c. 44s. to 46s. per brl. United States sour is worth 39s. to 40s., sweet 45s. to 4Ss.per 196 lbs. Large as the supply of Oats has been, the demand has sufficed to take off the whole ; indeed the high value of Wheat and Flour has, now evidently, had the effect of considerably increasing the consumption of Oats and Oatmeal, and the market is at this moment more than usually bare of both articles. Latterly they have borne advanced prices ; good mealing qualities of the former, which at the beginning of last month would not bring more than 3s. lOd., are at present worth 4s. 2d., and the choicest Wicklow are held at 4s. 3d. per 45 lbs. The best Oatmeal cannot be bought under 37s. which is Is. to Is. 6d. per 240 lbs. above the quotations on the 1st ultimo. Besides two or three thousand quarters of Barley received by inland navigation, we have had an import of above 16,100 qrs., nearly nine-tenths of which consists of shipments from the English coast. In the face, however, of so large an influx, almost entirely of malt- ing quality, prices have been pretty well sustained ; the produce of the midland counties — which may be described as fair to good — has for the most part sold at 5s. lOd. to 6s. per 60 lbs.; good samples of Norfolk and Suffolk have reached 43s. to 45s., and Chevalier has commanded 46s. to 47s. per imp. qr. Irish has sold for grinding at 5s. 6d. to 5s. 9d. per 60 lbs. The dis- tillers have been rather extensive buyers, and the ge- neral supply is BOW well cleared off. Malt has been eagerly sought after, as well by our brewers as for shipment. Fine samples are scarce and would com- mand 68s. to 70s. per imp qr. Beans have met a good retail sale at an advance of 2s. to 3s. per pr., the best English old are worth 50s. to 54s. new 47s. to 52s. per imperial qr. Foreign have sold at 48s. to 52s. per qr., and Irish new at 44s. to 46s. per4801bs. The release of 1.100 qrs., of foreign white Peas out of bond has barely kept the market supplied with this pulse, and its value has been moving- upwards ; the best English boilers would bring 56s. to 58s., foreign 52s. to 56s. per qr. Maple were on Friday sold at 47s. per qr. The market is bare of Indian corn ; a little — duty paid — has sold at 50s. per qr. The only transactions to report in lock Corn (of which our stocks are now very lig'ht) are, the sale of four or five thousand qrs., of Oats at 3s. to 3s. 8d. per 45lbs., and one or two lots of Beans at 38s. perqr. We observe from the circulars of many of our re- spected contemporhries as well as from the public prints that the prevalent opinion fixes the deficiency of the late crop of wheat at one-sixth — or from three to three and a half millions below the estimated average yearly produce of the country. Under the existing lack of statistical desiderata on this most important subject, the moit deliberately formed opinions must be considered more or less vague, and it is with this re- servation only that we venture to offer any observation? upon it. From a minute survey through a large tract of country just prior to harvest, and from information since collected with great care and from a widely ex- tended range, we are inclined to believe that the de- ficiency is much underrated. On the other liand it must be stated that harvest was at least a fortnight later than usual, and that we have already had the aid of one million and a half qrs., of forign Wheat and Flour, nor must the economy consequent on high prices be lost sight of ; still we greatly apprehend that we shall require all the Wheat we can procure from every part of the world to enable us to meet another crop. From the previous drain on the foreign depots the supplies thence to be derived must now be small ; — recapitu- lating what we said on this head in our last monthly report — we can expect little from the United States — none from Canada — from the Baltic only the surplus of their last crop, and this not until April or JMay, — and, all we shall receive from the south of Europe will probably not exceed 400,000 qrs. BOOTH, WALMSLEY, & CO. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 155 TUXFORD'S PATENT MACHINE FOR CLEANING WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, &c. Two years Lave now elapsed sii ce we first in- vited attention to this valuable Macbine, invented by Mr, Tuxford, of Boston, in Lincolnsbire, and tbe opportunities which we have had of communicating with millers manufacturing flour upon a very large scale, both in England and Ireland, enables us fo fully confirm the good opinion we entertained of it in the first instance. It is in a season like the pre- sent, when, from the state of the weather, before and during the harvest, a considerable quantity of da- maged and light corn will be found in the bulk of our wheat crop, that the advantages derived from the use of Mr. Tuxford's Machine, in cleansing the sample and improving its quality and marketable value will be most clearly proved. To some the price may seem au obstacle, but it should be borne in mind that a small portion of refuse will deteriorate the value of a sample of wheat and spoil the colour or the flour. A reduction of one shilling per quar- ter upon one thousand quarters of wheat — no large quantity — will pay half the cost of a machine cleans- ing five quarters per liour. The graat perfection of machinery for cleaning corn, is its simplicity and cheapness; hence it is, that the winnowing machine has been pronounced, and certainly is, the most efficient machine now in use for agricultural purposes. We do not hesitate to affirm, without fear of contradiction, that Tuxford's Machines are as great an iniprovement in the clean- ing of corn, as the winnowing machine is over the old hand-fan system. To tbe corn-factor and miller, it must prove invaluable, — to the maltster a source of great gain, as it removes the damaged and perish- ed barley which will not malt, as well as other re- fuse, thereby improving tha quality of the malt, as well as saving the duty on that which is valueless ; and to the farmer who may have lost Ss. or 3s. per qr. on his wheat, because it contained seeds aud filth, which could not be removed in the ordinary way, it will be an object worthy of attention. Where there is a thrashing machine, there would be no dif- ficulty in moving the machines by the same power. And where chaif is cut, malt ground, or any other operation of that kind performed by a horse, the same gear might be attached to this machine ; but, in the absence of such opportunities, we have no doubt that by means of a fly-wheel, the motion could be so distributed as to allow of its being work- ed by hand as well as by steam and water.* When we last saw the machine at work, each sieve was cleaning wheat at the rate of one quarter per hour. One person can attend to twelve sieves, being twelve quarters per hour, or one hundred and twen- ty quarters in a day of ten hours. The Patentee stated that it cleaned oats extremely well, leaving the sample particularly bright and level. It should have been observed that the operation performed by this machine, is that which is called reeing, and is al- ways performed by hand. It does not clean cora from the chaft', but is intended to rid it after it has been cleaned in the usual manner of all the refuse which it is found impracticable to remove in the or- dinary way. Few persons would imagine, without being" eye-witnesses of the fact, that so much posi- tive dirt and refuse could be got out of wheat ap- parently quite clean, and which, if suffered to re- main, would injure the colour of the flour several shillings per sack. DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGRAVING. In the engraving the machine is shown at work, with the attendant. The wheat to be cleaned is in the room or large hopper immediately over the ma- chine, and falls from thence into the sieves by means of spouts. Each spout has two gauges.— the one nearest to the lowest extremity, is worked by a wire • Since our first notice of tlic Machine, we tind tliat a Ma- cbine wa« worked by hand lor sometime, having a fly-wheel as a rcjjulatins power, by Mr. Sanders, corn merchant, of Boston, Lincolnshire ; owing tc his having increased the size of liis Macliiue from a No. 1 , to a No. 4, he has adopted a small steam engine for driving it, &c. M 156 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. rod hanging from a branch lever, which is centred within the rim that is attached to the under part of the floor above ; the other gauge is immediately be- hind the one just mentioned, and is regulated by a thumb-screw : there is another gauge belonging to the machine, situated on the outside of the sieve, but hid from view in the engraving, it is also worked by a wire rod hanging from the lever that is centred within the rim ; this gauge opens or closes a chan- nel that runs from the inside to the outside of tlie sieve, along which the wlieat, after being cleaned, runs for delivery into the round hopper, (shown be- hind the frame and rigger), and from thence is con- ducted, either to the stones, into sacks, or to eleva- tors, as may be necessary. Each sieve is suspend- ed by three rods from the rim above, and consists of two parts — the upper part having a wire bottom, fits into the lower part, which forms a box to it, for receiving the dust, small seeds, mice dirt, &c. , which is screened through the wire when the machine is in motion ; in the wire bottom, near to the side of the sieve, is an opening to the channel, whicl) is 0})ened or closed by the third mentioned gauge, by means of a slide worked by finger and thumb ; this opening can be more or less closed, so as to vary the quan- tity of cleaned wheat passing through it, or, in other words, to keep it longer in the sieve : though the channel passes through the box into which the dust falls, it has no communication with it. In the bot- tom of the box is an orifice opening into a tube witli a sleeve in it, by opening the sleeve, the dust and other refuse is removed, while the machine is at work. Tlie necessary motion is given to the ma- chine bv cranks of a particular kind, the pins of which work through bows of iron, bushed with brass ; each sieve has a bow attached to its bottom. The cranks are capable of being made longer or shorter, by means of screws ; to the upper end of each spindle, (shown below the sieves,) a crank is attached. The spindles work in foot-brasses, fas- tened to the floor, and also in bearings attached to the frame-work. Each spindle has a rigger with two groves for catgut ; by one it receives motion from the preceding rigger, by the other it communi- cates motion to the succeeding one. Over the head of the attendant in the engraving, is shown a handle or small lever, which is attached to a horizontal bar extending across the whole line of rims ; if tliis han- dle be pulled down, the bar is partly revolved, and small tongues are thereby made to press upon the ends of the levers crossing the rims, and they are forced downwards, but the opposite ends to which the wire rods working the gauges are attached, are elevated, and the gauges are thereby opened. MODE OF WORKING THE MACHINE. The following particulars relating to the working of the machine, were obtained from THE Attendant at Pavitt's Mill, Rother- HITHE. Before setting it into motion, see that the cranks ate of proper length for the cjuality of Wheat to be cleaned, (as very little experience accustoms any one to the ))roper adjusting of all the parts), then regulate the sliding orifices on the wire bottoms, ac- cording to the quantitv of cleaned Wheat you wish to pass througli them per hour, and regulate the thumbscrew gauges in the spouts, so that the feed m;iy be pioportionrd to the delivery; there must then be introduced into each sieve a quantity of Wheat, between one and tv.o pecks ; without there always is this quantity of Wheat in each sieve, the Wheat that passes through them cannot be properly cleaned ; this is done by opening the spout- gauges with the hand, and so allowing Wheat to run into the sieves without allowing any to run from them. After attention has been paid to all these particulars, the handle over the head of the attend- ant must be pulled down, and the gauge which closes the spout, and that which closes the channel through which the cleaned Wheat jrasses, will be opened, and the machine properly at work. Without stopping, the machine can now continue at work until the whole of the Vv'heat to be cleaned is finish- ed. From the restricted eccentric motion »( the sieves, the Wheat in them acquires a centrifugal force, and travels spirally from the centre to the cir- cumference ; substances, differing in gravity to the Wheat, acquire a different force, and thus garlic, smut-balls, rat dirt, grown and perished grains, pieces of brick and mortar, and other impure matter, are brought to a head or top in the centre of the sieves, and from thence are removed in regular rota- tion by the attandant. The mice dirt, small seeds, dust, hairy or brush end of the Wheat, and„other small substances, pass through the wire bottom into the bos below^ and from thence are removed by opening the sleeve of the tube. Admitting a coarser sample of Wheat was to be cleaned, the cranks would have to be lengthened by moving the screws, so that in the same time the sieves shall be made to traverse a greater circuit ; then the slides would be altered so as to reduce the size of the orifices, and so keep the Wheat longer scouring in the sieves; and the thumb-screw gauges would be lowered so that the feed to, and the delivery from, the sieves should be in proportion. The motion for working the machine can be taken from any direction. The spindles which give the eccentric motion to the sieves should revolve 85 times per minute. One- fourth of a horse's power is more than sufficient for working a machine of twelve sieves, the cause of the siuallness of power may be readily conceived, when it is known that the weight of the sieves and their contents is supported by the floor above, and the power is merely required to give the eccentric mo- tion to die sieves. The following are the prices of the machines, &c., in Boston ready packed : — Cleans per occupies a space of hour. No. 1. 3 qrs. 9 feet by 7 60 gs. 2. 5 qrs. 9 feet by 9 100 gs. 3. 7 qrs. 9 feet by 13 140 gs. 4. 9 qrs. 9 feet by 17 180 gs. A single sieve may be had for 20 guineas. The room must be 7 feet high at the least. ESTABLISHMENT OF A MODEL FARM IN THE KINGDOM OF PIEDMONT.— We are in- formed by letters from Turin that the Piedmontese are much interested by an act of great importance in politi- cal economy, by which the King, Charles Albert, has sig-nalised the attainment of his eldest son, the Duke of Savoy's majority. He has detached from the regal do- msiinn a large tract of land situated in the most fertile and populous part of Sardinia, and erected it into a separate commune, giving' it the name of Victor Ema- nuel, the name of the prince royal. He has ceded it in perpetuity to a sooiely who are to introduce an improved system ot cultivation, the object of which is not only to point out by theory but by exemple, the superiority of a system of independent and unshackled cultivation, over tliat re^:ultiii!j Ironi the feudal system. This undertaking' which has been in agiiatioii for several years past, is con- sidered to be tlie most imiiortant as to beneficial results wiiich has ever occupied tiie minds of the industrial community. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 157 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JANUARY. For a series of years past, a finer correspondent pe- riod of the season than the last month which forms the subject of this report, has not been experienced ; in- deed, we ourselves are somewhat sceptical whether the oldest man living ever witnessed the commence- ment of a new year welcomed under such favourable and, at the same time, cheerful prospects, viewed with respect to farming-, as has been the present. During nearly the whole of the month, the weather has been unusually mild, which has had the effect of bringing forward the young wheat plants much faster than is often experienced in January, yet it is a source of much pleasure in being enabled to state, from practical intelligence received from all parts of England, that they are by no means winter proud, but exhibit a strong and healthy appearance ; whilst it is admitted, by all persons, that the crops, in general, never looked better than at the present time : and that there is a good earnest of an abundant yield. Out-door farm labours have proErressed favourably, though (owing to the late period at which last year's harvest was concluded) in some instances, particularly in the north, the whole of the wheat has not been sown. This circumstance, however, is chiefly owing to the breadth of land cultivated with this description of corn being considerably more extended than was the case last year. We are happy to find that our farmers are aware of the great importance of producing an adequate quantity of wheat to subsist, without the aid of the foreign grower, the whole of England's rapidly increasing population : for they may rest assured that — though by so doing, the)^ may keep the price of wheat to a low point — in the long run, such a praiseworthy ef- fort will be beneficial to the interests of the agri- cultural community. For instance, when but a comparatively small quantity of wheat is produced in this country, recourse must of necessity be had to that of foreign growth, which has the effect of drawing from us that gold which ought to fill the pockets of our own growers, and consequently of weakening our internal resources and productive capabilities. The high prices obtained for wheat have induced many persons to procure substitutes for it in the shape of Barley and Rye, which latter have been mixed, in large quantities, with wheaten flour. This accounts in a great measure, for the late extensive enhancement apparent in the value of Barley and Rye, notwithstanding that the supplies have been extensive in most of the principal markets, through- out the kingdom. Complaints still continue to reach us, from all quarters of the deficiency, on thrashing out, of the Wheat crop produced last season : whilst the qua- lity is represented as, generally speaking, much infe- rior to that of former years ; yet, on travelling- through most counties, both north and south of the Humber, we find there is an unusually large number of stacks, of most kinds of grain, untouched. The delivery of wheat, on the part of our farmers, ap- pears to have equalled, in quaatity, that noticed on former occasions ; and this leads us to the conclusion that the supplies of wheat which will yet be forth- coming, will prove by far more extensive than is generally imagined. We have to report favourably of the turnip crop : indeed it is calculated that a finer never was grown : whilst, on most soils, the turnips have not ceased to vegetate, during the whole of the winter. The early Lambing season, withafew exceptions, has progressed satisfactorily ; but it is, as yet, not general . In Scotland, out-door farm labours have gone on favourably, without any serious atmospheric inter- ruption. The whole of the potatoes have been raised and secured in most excellent condition, and the return has proved very abundant and good. Most of the Wheat, Barley, and Oats on sale in the Scotch markets have been of inferior quality ; con- sequently, the currencies of the superior kinds have ruled high — the best white Wheat being worth, at Edinburgh, 90s. per quarter. However, lower prices, owing to the extreme depression in the trade, are fully anticipated. From Ireland our intelligence is very satisfactory. The prevailing prices are full)'' compensating any loss which the agriculturists may have sustained in the produce of grain ; whilst the growth of Potatoes has scarcely, if ever, been exceeded in any former year. The rapidly approaching parliamentary compaign is looked forward to with most anxious solicitude on the part of the agricultural interest, as a strong effort will be made, in its early part, to abrogate the present existing Corn Laws. That their entire aboli- tion would be productive of manifest injustice to those whom they more immediately concern, no ra- tional person appears inclined to doubt. The following is a comparative statement of the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market during the month : — The supplies of beasts have amounted to 10,154, of sheep 128,492, of calves 1,128, and of pigs 4,045. As is usually the case for some weeks immediately succeeding the great Christmas Show, but few really prime beasts have been offered for sale ; whilst a considerable falling off has been ap- parent in the numbers of all kinds of stock ex- hibited. About 720 of the Scots, h^mebreds, and runts, which have formed part of the above supplies, have come from Norfolk ; 220 Dcvons and runts, from Suffolk; 190 runts, Herefords, and Devons, from Essex ; 213 Scots, Devons, and Herefords, from Cambridgshire ; 930 short-horns and Devons, from Lincolnshire ; 940 short-horns and runts, from Leicestershire; 412 Devons and short-horns, from Northamptonshire ; 400 Devons, runts, Scots, oxen, and Irish beasts, from Warwickshire and Oxfordshire ; 500 Devons, from Devonshire ; 400 Herefords, from Herefordshire; 212 Scots, by steam and sailing packets, from Scotland ; 90 oxen, runts, and Devons, from Sussex ; 75 cows, Devons, and Herefords, from Surrey ; 50 Devons, cows, and Scots, from Kent. The remainder, from the imme- diate neighbourhood of London. A fair supply of meat h;;s arrived up to Newgale aud Leadenhall markets, slaughtered in various dis- tant parts of England and Scotland, it being com- M 2 158 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. posed of 190 carcasses of beef, 2,500 ditto of mutton, 2,400 ditto of veal, and 6,300 ditto of pork, the qua- lity of which has been prime. A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold iu Smitfjfield Cattle Market, on Monday, January 29, 1838, and Monday, January 28, 1839. At per Qlbs. to sink the offals. Jan. 29, 1828. Jan. 28. 1839. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse & inferior Beasts 2 2to2 4.. 2 6to2 10 Second quality do 2 6 3 0.. 3 2 3 4 Prime large Oxen 3 4 3 8.. 3 8 4 4 Prime Scots, &c 40 44. .46 4 8 Coarse & inferior Sheep 3 0 36.. 3 6 3 10 Second quality do 3 8 3 10. 4 0 4 2 Prime coarse woolled do. 40 44. ,44 46 Prime Southdown do. . 4 4 4 6.48 4 10 Large coarse Calves ..4 8 5 4.. 3 10 4 8 Prime small ditto 5 6 6 0.. 4 10 5 4 Large Hogs 34 4 8., 4 0 4 10 Neat small Porkers .,4 10 5 4.. 5 0 5 4 SUPPLIES. Jan. 29, 1838. Jan. 28. 1S39. Beasts 2,994 2,602 Sheep 26,598 24,941 Calves 140 115 Pigs 380 325 By the above comparison, it appears, that the supplv of Monday, Jan. 29, 1838, embraced 392 Beasts, 1,457 Sheep, 25 Calves, and 55 Pigs more than that of Monday, Jan. 28, 1839. EAST LOTHIAN AGRICULTURAL REPORT.— OBSERVATIONS ON FURROW DRAIN- ING, &c. December has been characterised by all the varied phenomena, incident to the weather of winter, but has been throughout of such a nature, as to admit of the successful performance of the various labours peculiar to the season. The progress of out-of-door work has never been arrested by frost, consequently, ploughing is about as far advanced as is general at this period of the year. The young wheats, owing to the genial freshness of the weather, maintain a healthy aspect ; and in the plants in general considerable vigour is per- ceptible. The corn markets still continue well sup- plied, and prices have recently evinced a disposition to advance. The annual Christmas Show of live stock, under the auspices of the district agricultural society, took place at Haddington, on Friday, the 21st of De- cember. The stock brought forward, particularly sheep, were superior to any thiug shown for some years. Mr. Brodie, Armiefield Manes, was the most successful competitor in this department. A pair of cattle from Biel, property of Mr. Ferguson, of Raitb, M.P., and fed under the immediate inspection of the active and intelligent superintendent of his estate, Mr. Ker, carried off the premium in the cattle department of their class. These aaimals were universally admired, and reflected great credit on Mr. Ker's management. In our last report, we adduced some theoretical notions on the subject of furrow draining, and in the present one it is our intention to give a succinct account of the manner in ■which these drains are usually executed by farmers in this district. The object of furrow draining, is the removal of such water as may be stagnating on, or near the surface of such lands in tillage, as are of a homoge- neous clayey consistence throughout, or those which are superficially of a freer texture, but superimposed upon an adhesive subsoil, and which admit but in a moderate degree of the passage of water through them. An arrangement of the ridges and furrows of a field, however judicious, will not entirely rid a soil of its redundant moisture, as a considerable part of the water ■which falls on the surface sinks into the soil, and if the soil be tenacious to a considerable depth, it is re- tained on, or near the surface, and by lowering the temperature of the soil, exercises a deleterious influence on vegetation, as well as prevents the farmer from ju- diciously labouring his land. The formation of sub- terraneous channels, becomes therefore necessary, to carry off this superabundant humidity ; and the system of draining adopted for this purpose is called "furrow draining," from the drains beiug dug in the fuirows of the ridges — a system of draining, which is now extensively adopted on all clay land farms in this county ; and the extensive introduction of which must be regarded as the greatest improvement which has taken place in the agriculture of modern times. The fields in this county are usually laid out in ridges, be- tween sixteen and eighteen feet wide, the former width being most general on those soils which are of a te- ^ nacious nature ; and the latter are those on which fur- ^ rows are not required to carry off superabundant moisture, but merely to regulate the series of opera- tions incident to seedtime and harvest. By a system of ploughing termed "gathering," a certain curvature is given to the ridge, which serves to conduct the water to the furrows. And in the furrows of the ridges, as has been said, the drains are dug to a depth varying as was formerly hinted, according to individual opinion, and the nature of the soil, but generally from two to three feet deep ; but as shown in our last report, cer- tain advantages would result from their being carried considerably deeper. When the surface of any field undulates, receiving or leading drains as they are sometimes called, are dug across the ridges in the hollows of the field, and into these the lesser drains of the furrows discharge themselves. These leading drains again disgorge their collected water, usually into the open drains or ditches of the farm, which carries the water to some neighbouring rivulet, to be conducted back to recommingle with the wavy water of its native sea. In the excavation of the trench the topmost earth is usually taken out with a broad pointed spade, and when the drains are to be carried two-and- a-half, or three feet deep, another spading is taken out with this implement, and the bottom of the drain ex- cavated with a spade of smaller dimensions. This in- strument is used for the purpose of making the bottom of the drain, only sufBciently wide to hold the tiles, (which are now the chief draining material in use in the district), and to retain them in their place ; but when other substances, such as stones, are to be used as draining material, the trench is entirely dug with the common spade. In the trench thus formed the tiles are placed ; these tiles, which are of a semi-eliptical, or arch-form, are made about 15 inches long, 3 wide, and as many high, and are formed at manufactories, a number of whicli are established in this district. In recently erected works of this description an apparatus, the in- • vention of the most noble, the Marquis of Tweeddale, and usually propelled by steam, is used to form the liles ; and the neatness and dispatch with which it per- forms this is described as being truly admirable, and far superior to the former method, of making them by manual labour. The tiles are usually brought forward to the land, before the work of excavating the drains commences, and when draining is performed at this season of the year the trenches should never be opened until the tiles are brought forward, and when the work of excavation is completed the tiles should be imme- diately placed in the drain, and the trench filled in. By neglecting- this serious loss may be sustamed, for the trench, if overtaken when open by an intense frost, may be entirely closed. The labour and expense of exca- vation will thus be nearly doubled, and the sides of the drain sustain very serious injury. Two methods are adopted in placing the tiles in the field, when they are brought forward before the trenches are opened to receive them. They are either laid singly along the edge of the furrow, where the drain is to be dug, or they are deposited in heaps on the ridges, where they are to be used. When brought forward during the winter season this last is perhaps the preferable, altliough perhaps the more expensive plan, as when tiles lie singly ou the surface of a damp soil they imbibe moisture, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 159 should frost occur when in this damp state they will assuredly be reduced to powder. This is an effect of that expansive force which water is known to exert in freezing, and the evils which result from it may be evaded, by keeping- the tiles dry, and the method of storing last described, will effectually secure this. We have known serious loss sustained from the exposure of ill burned tiles, and no farmer should use tiles of this description, as they will never last so long as such as are well burned. When the trench is formed, and the tdes brought forward, and laid along the edge of the drain, a person, who ought to be a trustworthy man, places them in the bottom of the drain, walking back- wards. When the bottom of the drain is hard and tilly, it is considered unnecessary to use flats or soles, but when from the softness of the soil, a probability exists of the tiles sinking into the earth, soles are always placed beneath the tiles: these soles are sometimes flat, and sometimes of a concave form, which last is considered the preferable shape. Some farmers place stones or other substances above the tiles, but experience has amply demonstrated that this is unnecessary, the natural porosity of the most tenacious soils being of itself suf- ficient to afford a passage to the water, to its subter- ranean channels of egression. A little straw, perhaps, placed immediately above the tiles may be beneficial, as this, although not a durable substance, will serve to intercept any sediment, until the soil assumes its natural compactness When straw is used it should be con- verted into the form of thatch, as this will not only serve to economize it, but enable the farmer to apply easier and more effectively. When the tiles have been placed in the manner described, the next operation is the filling in of the trench. Care is taken, by judicious farmers, that the earth from the bottom of the trench shall be placed next the tiles, as this, if allowed to mix with the surface soil, would greatly deteriorate its quality ; and, if the earth of the trench be mixed with stones, care is taken that it is not thrown in at first carelessly, as by doing so tiles may be broken, and the labour of the farmer rendered altogether nugatory. The soil, after being loosened, having a tendency to assume a dimi- nished volume, the whole taken out should be carefully shovelled over the drain, to provide against this reces- sion of the soil. And here we may remark, that this phenomenon exhibited by the loosened soil, incontestibly proves that all soils must be porous, for the space by which the volume of the soil is diminished must, before the diminution, consist of pores. Such are the series of operations incident to furrow-tile-draining, and the ex- pense attending this improvement, per imperial acre, when the ridges are sixteen ieet wide, may be estimated as follows : — To digging 151 roods of drain at 4d. per rood £2 10 4 " 2,265 tiles at 35s. per 1,000 319 3 " Putting in tiles and filling in trench, Id. perrood 0 12 7 " Carriages 1 0 0 £8 2 2 From the above statement, it must be obvious, that few farmers possess the means of entering extensively upon an improvement attended with such an outlay, and it is satisfactory to perceive that landlords begin to evince a willingness to assist tenants in the execution of this improvement; and in recent leases, where the land was found to stand in need of draining, pecuniary assis- tance has generally been extended to the tenants. Nor are the tenantry the sole gainers from this liberality : for drains; if judiciously executed, and carried to a pro- per depth, will last over a lease of ordinary duration, and when the farm may come to be again let, it will of course be taken at an iacreased rental, and when at the letting of a farm it is known, that assistance in draining is to be afforded, a greater rent is given. To compute the advantages resulting from the thorough draining of wet land, would be no easy task, as a variety of advan- tages result from it, besides an increased produce. But to the latter at the present time we will alone refer. Individuals who have drained extensively, and who on th's account are quite capable of judging of its merits. appear to think that by furrow draining, thoroughly executed, an increased produce may be obtained, amounting to twelve bushels per acre. This will much depend on the nature of the seasons, but in a wet one, and where the drains are carried suflSciently deep, the increased produce will fully reach this quantity. What a pleasing theme for cogitation does this present to the statesman and philanthropist? What might Britain not become from the thorough draining of all the land, within her encircling seas, which stands m need of this improvement? . Instead of living in dread of famine as we do at present, want with us would be totally unknown. Instead of depending on the caprice of the foreigner for a supply of life's necessaries, we might become a grain- exporting nation, and realize the fond anticipations of the Bard of the Seasons, by becoming " The exhaust- less granary of aworld." — Jan. 7. SOiVlERSETSHIRE. The past month is one on which there is little to re- mark of progress in agriculture, and perhaps generally speaking, as little depends on this period as any during the year, either in raising the expectation or clouding the hopes of the tiller of the land ; with graziers it is an animated season, his best and choicest goods come to market, and his honours and profits are realised, or disappointed ; whatever may have been the results as it affects individual expectation, it is generally ac- knowledged that the shows of fat stock have been better than for many years. Those who sold the beginning of the month did pretty well as to price, but up to the end of the month, the depression in the price took off much of the expected profit, and this more particularly ap- plies to mutton from the sheep being purchased so high, indeed the high prices given by the grazier for his stock when bought left liim little prospect of a fair re- turn, notwithstanding the apparently high and steady price of meat, and advance on the offal— owiag to the high price of bread the poor have not been able to afford the usual indulgence of roast beef at this season, and the sale of meat has been not so good in the country. The price of pork also has been on the decline, in con- sequence of an increased supply, it is worth from 8s. 3d. to 8s. 6d. per score. Our best prize beef was worth about 12s. to 12s. 6d. per 20 lbs. to sink the offal; se- cond quality IDs. to lis.; mutton, 6d. to G^d. per lb. Our markets for beef and mutton have been rather better ^ lately, the quantity of both not being very abundant, but the advance of beef at this season is supposed to be eventually more good to the breeder than the giazier. The winter has hitherto been favourable for tlie hay, the stocks of which, particularly of inferior quality, are not over-abundant. We have had but little demand for cheese, and the price has rather gone down, although the supply is by no means large. There was some business done early in the month in wool, at higher prices, but although there has been no material decline in price, there was less disposition to purchase as the month advanced, 17d. to 18d. for long: wools ; 18d. to 19d. for horned and Down of fine combing qualities was had. A scanty supply of wheat at our principal markets most of the month, but it has gradually increased up to this time ; and the millers, although the demand for flour has been good have been increasing their stock, still it must be remembered, the bakers buy as little as they can help, and we must not expect the present sup- ply to be kept up beyond the middle of next month ; last week 10s. 9d. was given readily for new wheat, and lis. to lis. 6d. for old, but I should quote the present prices 10s. to 10s. 6d., and lis. old. of the latter there is very little left, and the quality of the former, except during the damp weather is spoken pretty well of, but I have no improved account to give of the yield. The present high prices have given an impetus to the advo- cating of free trade in corn, and it is argued that if we had been constant purchasers of foreigners, they would have been provided with a better stock to make up our deficiencies. Take the duty entirely off, and no doubt for a few years the price of corn would come down suffi- cient, not only to throw all our poor, and most of our 160 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. inferior lands out of cultivation, but at the same time render our ma-rkets so ntiprofitable to the foreign grower, that tliese causes combined with such a bad teason as the last year is generally acknowledged to liave lieen, the price will ri?e, we should have no stock of our own to depend on, the stock abroad will have also fallen off', and their ports as is now the case in some instances will be closed for exportation; and we shall be likely to suffer move than we ever have during the existence of the present corn bill by real scarcity ; and for what are we called upon to run this risk, and sacrifice of property invested in land and agriculture? that the manufac- turer may get labour cheaper, by the operative liaving bread cheaper, but less money to purchase it with. I believe it will be found, should the experiment be tried, that the parties so earnest for an alteration have griev. ously miscalculated the beneficial effects of a free im- portation of corn, for allow that they will, be able to loirer wages, and there will be an increased demand for goods from abroad in exchange for corn; the raisers of wheat in this country must in consequence, to a large extent employ their capital and labour in manufacturing goods, and thus become competitors in the foreign market with those they had heretofore been exchangers of wheat for cloth, &c., &c.; but in spite of continued exertions that other nations are increasingly becoming our successful competitors in manufactured goods for years past, in consequence of the high price of bread ; our exports have been increasing, the raw material greatly en- hanced in value, and our manufactories flourishing, neither has ^he average price of corn on the wiiole been high, or its fluctuations great since the bill has been in force ; these are facts, and we can gain more useful experience, and it is more safe to be guided by what has passed than by theoretical speculations on the effects of an altered system for the future — but these remarks are digressive from the legitimate subject of my com- munications, and I return to the state of our markets for corn. In barley there has been a great advance, mostly in consequence of its consumption for food, and its being ascertained that the yield is not so good as expected, 32s. to 34s. was the price the commencement of the month, but it gradually, and more recently rapidly ad- vanced to lOs., and in some instances as much as 44s. per qr., and 38s. to 40s. for grmding purposes, with a great sale. 'J"he price of oats has also advanced from 18s. and 24s. to 20s. and 26s, per qr. Beans 4s. 6d. to 5s., and 5s. 3d. new, old 5s. 6d. to 6s. per bushel, in all these crops disappointment being the result of the yield being ascertained. Although in a few instances the wheat plant has gone off free of grub, &c., on the whole it is looking very promising. There are some com- plaints of the lambing season, but it is not yet gene- rally commenced. — Jan. 11. EAST CUMBERLAND. Wheat sowing in East Cumberland, though it cannot be said to be entirely finished, yet it is nearly so, as there only remains a few acres here and there of turnip land that have now to be sown. The oppoitunity for getting in that important crop has, compaiatively speaking, been favourable, considering the cold wet summer, and consequent late season. The fallows were of course in a bad condition, as it was totally impossible to get them properly prepared ; and its being so long before the fields were got clearedof potatoes, that wheat after them was very late in sowing, and is only just be- ginning to make its appearance above ground, indeed much of it has not yet come up. But on bare fallow, where it was got sooner in, it is up, and looking quite as well as could be expected. The breadth sown may perhaps be about an average quantity, as there were patches left for Spring corn, on account of their wet- ness ; to make up for this there may have been some land sown with wheat that, had it not been for the high price which it now brings, would have been left ibr barley. Out-door work has progressed pretty quickly, and the arrear has been got well up, in consequence of the favourable weather since Martinmas. There was perhaps never more stubble land ploughed at this period of the year, the frost being seldom, or never, so severe as to prevent that operation; though it has now set in with a severity, as if determined to make up for past mildness. It commenced on the evening of the 7th, ac- companied by a very heavy fall of snow, and was pre- ceded during the day by the severest storm of wind re- membered by the oldest person living — a complete hurricane, in fact; tearing up trees, blowing down stacks, unroofing houst-s. &c., &c, It is to be hoped tiiat the frost will not continue, should it do so, it will pres'j severely upon the labouring class, from the high prii'e of provisions which would not otherwise be so much felt, as work has been, and likely to continue plentiful ; all extra hands, that could handle a ~;pade, lieing likely to be wanted for some time to finish the draining going on; the quantity of which may be in- ferred from tl)e fact that the tiles at all the different works (about forty in number,) in the county being carted away. These works would produce not less than about 10,000,000 tiles, of one foot in length each, or a qunntity sufticient to form one thousand eight htni- dred and ninety three miles of drain; a pretty fair quantity for one season ; and, much as it may appear, it is no exaggeration, as any one who has an opportunity may ascertain by making proper inquiry. Very naturally anxiety prevails as to the crop of the past year, and how far it is likely to meet the current consumption till next harvest. Though it is undoubtedly deficient, and short of an average crop, yet there is no reason to apprehend that tiiere will be any absolute want, nor is it likaly that prices will range much, if any, higher than at present, unless, indeed that the next season should unfortunately prove as unfavourable as the last, a cir- cumstance that we have no right to calculate upon. In the first place the quality is by no means so bad as it has been known in some previous years; there being very little of it to call unsound ; this is the case in Cumber- land, and the other northern counties where the weather during summer was much worse than in the south of England. And the quantity will not prove so short, as one might be led to think from alarmists and interested speculators. If we consider that the harvest was at least a month later than usual , and if the next should be no later than common, there will consequently be only eleven instead of twelve months supply a wanting. This fact is amply borne out by tiie present state of the stack- yards. There was perhaps never less, if so little, thrashed out at this time of the year. The markets being scantily supplied with wheat, it has exhibited considerable buoyancy during the last two or three weeks ; something similar may be said of oats; barley has been the flattest of the three, this has beeR owing in some degree to the maltsters wishing to procure barley from the southern counties, they being afraid the barley grown in Cumber- land, as the harvest was so late, would not malt kindly. It must necessarily be coarser, and thicker skinned in consequence, but still there is much fair malting barley. Wheal has been ranging from 25s. to 32s. a bag of three imperials; barley from 14s. to 16s.; and oats from 8s. to I2s. As to llie yield, it is impossible to come at any thing like a correct estimate, the accounts are so various. Instances have occurred where four stocks of wheat have produced a bag as above, and it has not been un- common for oats from good land to yield the same quantity. But these of course are on favoured situa- tions. A gain, it has occurred where it has taken seven or eight stocks of the former, and five or six of the lat- ter to give the same quantity. Barley too varies from five to seven, or eight stocks, according to situation, soil, &c. Much of the grain in cold, wet, high lying situations was not carried from the field till late in November, about winch time a cold dry east wind set in, and continued for several days, and brought the outstanding gniin, where the farmers had patience to give it time, into an excellent condition for housing. And, though it had stood so long in the rain, owing to the coldness of the weather, it had not suffered so much as might have reasonably been expected. But from its being grown on cold land, and in an unfavourable cli- mate, it was not at any rate good. In these cold, high situations, the farmers sufl^er much in a season like the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 161 last, as they are not at all compensated by the increascfl price, they having- little to sell. Potatoes are rather scarce, and are selling at about 5d. a ?tone. Turnips were a deficient crop from the first,andarein a rather increased demand for sheep. 'Ihore are tew stall-fed entile, com- pared with last year, and there is a good demand lor iat, both mutton and beef; and it is likely to increase in demand towards the Spring'. The markets for store cattle are now over, and the prices continued to improve till the lust. Pork has been selling at from 5s. tid. to 5s. lOd., and b's. a stone. Young pigs have been rather higher than they were six or eight weeks ago, say from 9s. to 16s., according to quality.— Jan. 9. NORTH DEVON. As the season advances complaints of the last crops become more general, and certainly the wheat has not been so bad in quality for many years ; there is no doubt but the deficiency is great, it compared wilh the pro- duce of several preceding years ; and that many farmers on the Moorlands are e(>i:slderable sufferers by the failure on these parts; some assert that they shad re- quire all they have giown for the consumption of their families, but we are of opinion these reports are exag- gerated, and that the deficiency will not prove so great as represented. The supplies of every kind of grain in our markets has been considerably less than noticed at a similar period for at least twenty years, principally occasioned by an impression on the minds of the farmers that there is a great deficiency in some parts (without knowing wherfi), their grain is therefore withheld, with an expectation of realizing higher prices ; yet, when we see the stackyards better filled than is usual at this season of the year, we cannot imagine our badly supplied markets proceed from a real scarcity, a* it is well known that a considerable numberof farmers have not thrashed a single sheaf of corn since the harvest, though in past years their sales have been large before Christmas. We do not expect to see so great a reduction in prices as in 1818, when 8s. per busliel was refused in this district for thousands of bushels of barley, which were after- wards with much difficulty sold ai 3s. 9d. to .3s. lOd.; yet we should not be surprised to see a considerable difference, for if the price of barley, or other grain is brough-t to a stand, or triflinir declme, tlie pressure of large quantities on the markets will oblige the growers to submit to rates much below what would have been realized if the supplies had been ssentin a regular miin- ner. Barley and oats have been brougiit to market more freel> in the last two weeks, it may be said that oats are now offering in large quaniiiies, but there is still more reluctance to sell barky th:in we have ob- served in any r-' -^son brfore ; thisarises partly from short supplies, and partly from the great demand for this article to make bread; the shortness of the supplies may in some degn 'j be accounted for by the lateness of the harvest, as thr- farmer? have been much occupied since in preparing tlieir seed w heat, sowing the same, and securing the potato crop : this vv'ork was much retarded by the extremely stormy and wet weather that has prevailed since the middle of November, and prevented many from finishing until near Chii-tmas ; yet, although the weather has been mostly wet, we have had some days of very sharp frost, more particularly on the 9th, 10th, and 16th of last month. The demand for barley and oats has been greater than could be supplied, and the eager- ness of some agents to purchase the former article for Scotland, has brought the price to about 40s. per qr. to the growers, though the season commenced at 26s. to 28s. for the same quality of grain. The price of wheat for several weeks has been from lis. to r2s. 6d., and some prime samples have realized 13s. per 67^ lbs.; when such high price* prrvail complaints ans frequently made that do not really exist ; it is now said that barley yields badly; we are ready to admit there is a larger portion than expected very thin and light, but when the quantity of straw is compared with the produce of former years, which were proved to iiroduce full ave- rage crops, we are of opinion that a deficiency of quantity cannot justly be complained of. Oats are also said to iall short in their yielding, yet every person from whom a fair report can be obtained, will allow that the crop is beyond an average, and that the quality and colour is mostly good ; as a quick sale is obtained, the growers are enabled to realize from 9d. to Is. per bush. above what they calculated on at the close of the harvest. I'urnips were never finer, and as they remain uninjured will be found particularly usetul ; the early sown wheat looked remarkably healthy until within the last four or five days, since which the storms of hail and snow have made the plants to look almost as bare as if the fields were newly ploughed. Fat bullocks are suf- ficiently plenty for the demand, at 9d. to lOd. per score ; fat pigs at 7s. 6d.; complaints are made in various parts of the rot and scab in sheep, and many are lost in these diseases; good mutton is worth S^d. to 6d. per lb. Some complaints are found among the working classes of the high price of provisions and lowness of wages ; but as a large portion of the labourers in this district are en- gaged in agricultural work, most of their employers furnish them with wheat at 8s., and barley at 4s. per bushel, with other articles in a proportionate manner, which is found of much assistance to them ; and as they have in general small allotments of land, sufficient to grow potatoes lor their families' use, at an easy rent, they are placed in a better condition than many in other parts wdiere higher wages are given. At North Molton the parishioners have determined on a voluntary as- sessment for the purpose of raising a suflficient sum (o provide bread for the families of the labourers in pro- portion to their numbers instead of increasing their wages ; this method will be followed most probably by other parishes in which it may be necessary. We had written thus far yesterday, to-day we find there was a very dull sale for wheat at i3ideford market at a decline from Is. to Is. 6d. per bushel ; but the sales of barley and oats were firm at rather higher rates. — Jan. 8. CAMBRIDGESHIRE. The weather throughout the month has been change- able, but upon the whole very mild for January, which circumstance is calculated to suit our hay stack-yards, as they were badly stored. The turnip tops on some of the forward soils are beginning to sprout, and will be very forward, should we not have a continuation of severe frost, and which seldom happens, when it does not set in before this ])eriod of the year. Those who have forward lambs will, in all probability, be well sup- plied with green food, which has not been the case these last two or three springs ; and the only means used to procure their existence was a resort to artificial food, consequently were reared at a very heavy expense and loss. ^1 he fat stock markets are well supplied ; our best white-faced fat sheep are now selling from 5d. to to o^d. per lb. But, complaints are heard of the rot in sheep having again made its appearance upon some of the dampest land. 1 understand that Government contracts have been taken for the nwxt two months, over the greater part ot the kingdom at the ruinously low price to the grazier of 4d, per lb. Oar corn markets are rather cheaper, wheat about 6d. per bushel, and bar- ley from 3d. to 6d., peas and beans about the same, with a dull sale. There is a short supply of oats, which fully maintain their former prices. It is calculated that one- third of last year's crop of barley has been ground for bread, to make up for the deficient crop of wheat, and which has caused the rapid advance in that grain ; but had the farmers been left to the tender mercies of the London brewers, and have had no assistance from their friends in the north, they would now have had about 32s. per qr. for their best barley, instead of the present prices; but it is too late for the brewers to influence the markets this season, they will now be looking at each other, to know who is to get the most of what little there is to spare ; as the barley thrashing is very forward, owing to the high price which it has realized, and as- suredly the farmers have nobody to thank for it, as it is only the want of that commodity which has given them this year a remunerating profit. I'he Britis-h farmer ap- pears to be surrounded by enemies. I am happy to learH that a meeting of the Cambridgeshire Farmer's Association is to be held at Cambridge on Saturday 162 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. next, to petition tiie legislature against any interference ■with the corn laws; and it is earnestly to be iioped that petitions will be sent from the owners and occupiers of every parish in the kinBfdom, stating: the number of acres that each occupies, that we may show to the tender hearted gentry of the Manchester Chamber of Com- inerce and elsewhere, wiio confess they " owe no alle- giance to thfj shores of England," that the agricul- turists, as a body, do owe, and glory in their allegiance to these shores ; and, consequently, as loyal and consti- tutional subjects, claim and demand from the legisla- ture a just protection to their rights and privileges, and •who feel determined to resist to the utmost any inter- ference with them, feeling as they do thoroughly con- vinced that any intermeddling with the corn laws would have the efFeot of throwing at least half the land out of cultivation, and depriving the British peasantry of the only market for their labour, and which must always depend upon the supply and demand. It certainly must be a matter of perfect astonishment, that common sense does not point out to the operative manufacturers, that the only object theiremployers can have in view is, first, to have cheap bread, and then to lower their wages in proportion. I would say to these gentry of the Cliam- her of Commerce, who have informed us that amongst a very few of them within the last quarter of a century they have accumulated wealth enough to purchase the whole Peerage of England— if you are dissatisfied with these laivs, which have given you so much in so short a time, the sooner you leave these shores, to which you say you owe no allegiance, the better. As ingratitude is despicable in any shape, one thing the money-manu- facturing lords of ]Manchester may depend upon, that all their agitation against the corn laws will never mis- lead the agricultural peasantry, as they have proof posi- tive before them that they are better oft' now, with the increased rate of wages, than they would be with cheap corn and reduced wai>es, which must necessarily follow, well knowing they have no more rent to pay when they earn from ten shillings to fourteen shillings per week, than they have when their earnings are from seven to ten shillings ; no more for their fuel ; no more for their shoes, &c. ; and he is not only employed in this advance himself, but his family are all employed at advanced wages also ; and this is not all— he is sure to keep this employment with a fair price of corn, he being certain if A will not employ him B will, and this also gives him a little more honest independence. After all, who are the manufacturer's best customers— but the land- lords, the tenantry, the agricultural labourers of the United Kingdom, and their dependents ? (and the lat- ter will include a great number), as only half, or less, of the extra earnings of the labouring population is re- quired for bread, and the surplus must be spent in clothing, &c., and which must ultimately benefit the manufacturers. I will at the same time do them the justice to confess, that they are also our best customers, so long only as they are willing to give us such a price as will remunerate us for our skill and capital. There is one important point, which most closely demands the attention of all agriculturists, whether Whigs or Tories, I would say to them, watch narrowly the conduct of your representatives at the next meeting of Parliament ; and should a dissolution take place, to endeavour to carry this corn law question, and which is apprehended will be the case,— reftn-n such men, only, as hare proved themselves, and are likely to prove, your staunch Bupporters.— Jan. 24. SUFFOLK. Up to the present time we have very open weather, and all kinds of stock have been shipped off, on the pastures by day, and at night taken into the yards or folds, and have done particularly well ; from the same cause out-door work has not been impeded, indeed we never saw so many agricultural improvements going on as at the present time — draining, ditching, carting manure, lime, &c., &c. — ploughing for beans and peas. and forwarding the summer tilths for mangel wurzel and Swedes by laying the land on ridges, have all been performed in most admirable order. The appearance of the young ■wheats, winter vetches (the cultivation of which is considerably on the increase), also winter oats, and the clover layers, are as luxuriant and pro- mising as the most sanguine can wish ; within the last fortnight the wheat markets have had a most salutary check, the merchants and millers act with the greatest caution, and we speak within bounds when we say the difference in the price of wheat this week with that given two weeks since vary from 6s. to 10s. per qr. We are happy to say agricultural wages have very generally been increased to lis. and 12s. per week, and from the quantity of out-door work going on we doubt not many labourers have been enabled to earn from 15s. to 17s. per week with the assistance of a little boy — in fact we know of many cases where the earnings have even exceeded that amount. Since the high price of wheat the new poor law has had a severe trial, but we dare fearlessly assert, notwithstanding the de- clamations of the demagogues who are travelling the country for the purpose of poisoning the rainds of the agricultural labourers, as well as the working manu- facturers, that in the ayricultural districts there never loas less dissatisfaction, the farmers have met the high price fairly with increased wages and given the men additional privileges, besides employing in every possi- ble way as many of their familes as were able to work, keeping birds, or stock, &c. We fear when the tithe commutation act comes into operation, which at pre- sent very few parishes are completed (only 12 parishes to Dec. 1838, in this county the apportionments are confirmed) that that will be a greater obstacle to the working of the poor law than all the declamation of political demagogues. — Jan. 25. WESTMORLAND. The year just closed has been one of considerable dif- ficulty to the Westmorland farmer, causmg him, par- ticularly during the eventful period of seed-time and harvest, great anxiety, and requiring through the whole of it the exertion ot all his energies to combat success- fully the adverse circumstances to which the constant succession of gloomy weather rendered him liable. The long protracted frost in the spring months deranged agricultural operations much; keeping the plough out of the ground to a late period, and thereby causing the seed to remain in the bags longer by a fortnight or three weeks, than has usually been the case for some years, 'i'his tco had a most injurious eft'ect on the growing wheat, and no doubt laid the foundation for that defect in the crops which we now feel and lament. The stock of old corn on hand was, we believe, much worn down during the year 1837, and as the lateness of the harvest in 1838 compelled many farmers to use old seed, who were in the habit of using new, this also contributed still further to exhaust the stock which is now scinty indeed. In the course of a ride taken lately through the princi- pal corn-growing districts of the county, we only ob- served two stacks of last year's wheat, a circumstance unknown for the last sixteen years. There is great va- riation in the newspaper reports as to the productive- ness of the late crop, and while we are led to hope that the Southern part of the kingdom, being favoured with a more genial atmosphere, has secured a fair average crop, there can be no doubt but that through the whole of the counties, north of the Trent, the harvest has been a defective one — in our own county particularly so. The wheat which suffered so much from the continued hoar frost and easterly winds, never rallied as is usual with that crop in May ; the wire-worm was seen in many places to commit fearful depredations, and the waste of root shewed early in the year a certainty of reduced bulk. This was succeeded by a drizzling, damp atmos- phere, and the diseases consequent thereon to that valuable grain, acquired a full force, the frosts of August, together with maggot and mildew, each contributing to impair the value. It is impossible yet to ascertain with any degree of accuracy, the falling oft' in produce, but we have met with very few practical farmers bold enough to pronounce it half an average crop, and many who rate it considerably lower. The fallows have not worked well, owing to the wet weather which prevented THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 163 the ploug'h from operating, except at short intervals : yet we thiiilt there is a larger breadth of wheat sown than was the case for the last two years, and taking- all things into account, its present appearance is not dis- couraging-. I'here are, perliaps, fewer varieties of wheat sown here than in some of the crack counties, but the Westmorland farmer is not backward in availing him- self of what he really sees to be an improvement ; and experiments are in many cases going on with different new species wliich are brought into notice. These in our precarious climate require to be adopted with caution, and we impress on the minds of those who are induced by glowing advertisers to try new varitties, to attend to the advice of Mr. Handley, at the Saffron Walden Meeting, which is, " sow them on ordinary land — not warm sunny banks," so as to be certain of tlieir hardihood before risking- them to any great extent. Barley is a very variable crop, in some of the best barley-growing portions of the county, say the vales of the Eden and Kent, we hold it a fair crop as regards yield, and the maltsters do not report unfavourably, while on the cold soils, the produce has fallen off to a great extent, and the quality is such as to render it very little fit for malting purposes. This grain, which mixed VNith rye, used to form the household bread, with the people of the eastern side of the county, h;is of late fallen into disuse, but in consequence of the high prices, and inferior quality of wheat, much will the present year be consumed by the labouring class, and we hope that the price may remain sufficiently moderate, so as to enable tliat invaluable portion of the cotnmunity to obtain enough of it, until Providence again bless us with more productive seasons — it rules at present from fifteen to sixteen shillings per three imperial bushels. Oats were a general bulkycrop, for though on stiff cold clays the straw was short, yet the greater breadth of that grain stocked well, the extreme lateness of the season had of course an injurious effect on the produce, causing waste and deterioration in the quality : but we opine that through the county there is less reason for com- plaint in this than any other grain. There is, we per- ceive, a considerable degree of speculation in the market for oats already, and many people are purchasing their seed even in its present soft state, under the idea that the price is likely to become exorbitant, a notion in which we by no means concur, and which even tlie present movement may tend to counteract. It is certain that corn of all kinds will be greatly economised, and in none can so much saving be effected as in the article cl oats. Turnips are in general poor, yet not to the ex- tent that has been reported, the favourable weather through the months of November and December con- tributing much to their improvement. The growth of Swedes has increased greatly, and the farmer finds them a main reliance for carrying his stock through the Spring months. It is pleasant to remark on the vast improve- ment that has taken place in the culture of this crop within a few years, the beautiful ribbling, the admirable hoeing, and extreme neatness of management every- where observable, are subjects of remark with all who visit the north, and form a most important feature in Westmorland husbandry. The use of bone dust has very much extended the growth of this plant, giving facilities to the farmer he has not till lately possessed. Potatoes, we fear, cannot be quoted as a full produce, yet we are not inclined to give way to desponding feel- ings with respect to that useful root; the breadth planted ■was large, and on dry good soils, the returns fair. In this crop also much economy will be practised, and we indulge a hope that it will be found equal to tlie wants of the consumers, notwithstanding the deficiency which we are free to confess existed on the damp and poorer soils. Grass-seeds may in general be reported good, and in this branch of husbandry the Westmorland farmer is beginning to excel, the breadth sown is now large, and the quantity applied per acre has of late years been much increased, added to which, a judicious se- lection and mixture is now minutely attended to, as well as a proper adaptation of seed to soil, which has very much improved the pasturage, and consequently enables the farmer to feed more, as well as produce better stock. The practice of under-draining has extended greatly,and the introduction of tiles hits given an extraordinary im- petus to this operation, which may reasonably be called the foundation of all good management. It is pleasing to observe the number of labourers employed in this department of field work, who are enabled to obtain bread by it through the dreary months of winter, and are at the same time contributing to increase the staff of life in future years. Fat stock are in tolerable demand, and as the quantity up for winter feeding is not so large as usual, from an apprehension that the turnip crop might fail (oats and oil cake being also high in price), it is more than probable that the price of meat may be considerably enhanced in a few weeks ; we are likewise led to this conclusion from the knowledge that the sup- plies to be derived from Ireland will fall considerably short of former years. Store cattle have been much in demand at good prices. The markets at Kendal, Kirkby Lonsdale, Temple Sowerby, and other places where the farmer is wont to lay in his winter supply, were well supported, and up to this period lean stock are in ample request. In breeding cattle, the Westmorland farmer is beginning to feel a strong interest, and high prices are now given for good specimens of short-horned cattle. This, we are aware, has existed with a few spirited farmers, whom we could name, for some time, and with deserved success ; it is now diffusing itself generally, to which the encouragement afforded by the lately esta- blished agricultural societies, and also the high rates of stock at some recent sales have mainly contributed. We hail this as an important feature in our farm manage- ment, and have little doubt but that the spirit, perse- verance, intelligence, and industry of Westmorland farmers, will enable them ere long to compete success- fully with the breeders of Durham and Northumber- land. Pigs are also improved much in form and feed- ing quality. A gentleman residing in the northern part of the county, was the owner of a boar, which received the first premium at Penrith two successive years, also that of the Highland Society at Dumfries, and has since been successful at Hexham and other places. This breed is now in high repute, and much sought after. Pork is plentiful, varying from 5». to 6s. per stone. Wool has been in good demand, and is mostly sold up. We would fain hope that the condition of the labourers in husbandry is as good with us as in any other county, employment being plentiful, and trust that our " bold peasantry" will be enabled by their considerate em- ployers to brave ths rigours of winter, and the pressure of advanced prices, without being subjected to those pri- vations incidental to the labouring classes in more popu- lous and less favored districts.— Jan. 1. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.— A college for the education of those who are destined for agricultural pursuits is about being established in the vicinity of Maidstone, under the title of the Kent School of Agri- culture. The course of instruction will embrace the following branches of agricultural knowledge, both ex- perimentally and practically, viz. — Gardening, planting, and the general management of farms and woods ; and with that view the mode of cultivating arable, pasture, hops, &c. ; the nature of different soils, their chemical properties ; the manures proper for each ; and the formation and economy of manure. The different courses of husbandry ; the best rotation of crops in dif- ferent soils ; the knowledge of grains, seeds, &c. Draining, the irrigation and improvement of grass land, &c. The knowledge of useful animals ; how to breed, feed, and treat them ; their points, condition, and dis- eases. Agricultural book-keeping and accounts. Ag- ricultural mechanics ; the power required to draw given weights, and how to combine speed, power, and econo- my in draught ; the construction of farm-buildings, cottages, &c. ; and the construction and the use of im- plements of husbandry. Surveying and valuing lands, &c., &c. Such an establishment could not fail to exert an extensively-beneficial influence on all within its sphere of operation. 164 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET.— There was a fair suppl y of f?ood Sheep, and plenty of buyers being in attendance, nearly the whole were sold at rather bet- ter prices. — The sujjply of Beasts was also good, and maintained late prices; some were turned away un- sold. GRAMPOUND FAIR.— The supply of fat bullocks was not large, and prices were from 53s. to 58s. per cwt. Store* were more plentiful, and high prices were given for them. There was also a considerable num- ber of sheep, which sold from 6d. to 64d. per ponnd. BANBURY FAIR has been a large one. Horses were not so plentiful as buyers, and good ones made capital prices. Beef and mutton were both in great demand, and have gone off briskly at advanced prices — the latter mostly made 7d. per lb. NEW THRASHING MACHINE.— On Tuesday last a new hand thrashing machine was exhibited at the Lewes corn market, the tir*t merit of which is its cheap- ness, (its cost is only a few pounds), and its second, that it will thrash about 4 quarters of wheat daily ; two men are employed in turning it, and two others in feed- ing it and clearing the straw away. This machine, in- stead of diminishing manual labour, increases it, by giving employ to those labourer* who cannot use the Hail, and who in wet days could not be profitably oc- cupied. It is very portable and occupies but a small space. John Eliman, Esq., a few weeks back intro- duced the first machine of this description into the county, and Mr. Chcal, the machinist, has made the one alluded to upon the same principle. As we are led to believe it to be of great utility to the farmer, there is little doubt that it will be extensivelv used. — Sussex Express. FERMENTATION AN ACT OF VEGETA- TION.—M. Turpin has lately published his observa- tions upon certain phenomena which he considers sufK- cicnt to show that the act of fermentation, concerning which chemists have been so much embarrassed, is ow- ing to the rapid development of infusorial plants. He states, that ail yeast, of whatever description, derives its origin from the separation from organic tissue, whe- ther animal or vegetable, of spherical particles of ex- treme minuteness, which particles, after a certain time, rise to the surface of the fluids in which they are im- mersed, and there germinate. Their germination is said to be canseii by a certain amount of heai, and by con- tact with atmospheric air. The carbonic acid obtained by fermentation is ascribed to the infusorial plants. M. Turpin considers the act of adciing yeast to liquids, when fermentation is languid, as equivalent to sowing millions of seeds in a favourable soil. He calls the yeast plant of huer Toriila cerevisiw ; he considers each infusion to have its peculiar plant, and he names the whole race of such beings Levurians. Mr. G. Ferns, of Shrivenham, who gained a large proportion of the prizes at the late Bath and West of England show, assured the company that he had never had such a thing as oil cake belonging to him, and that, with the exception of pigs, he had never given his cattle five sacks of corn in tiie course of the last twelve years. He added, that his custom was to take the calves from their mothers at a fortnight old, and then feed them with three quarts of skim milk a-day, gradually dimin- ishing the quantity till they could eat grass. that is of far more importance to the farmer than how much money can be expended on a single animal, for if all feeding cattle were to be made as fat as the show beast* in Sadler's yard, all the graziers would be ruined in two years. For instance — Which breed of sheep will bear " putting thickest" on a field of mixed seeds ? Which sort of sow will " da'' best on grass only from May 1 to Nov. 1 ? Which sort of "2 years old heifer will thrive best on barley straw, only from Nov. 1 to April 1, allow- ing 9 heifers to one tasker ? Which sort of bullock, 3 years old, will pay best on one acre of good grass land from April 14 to Nov. 1 — allowing also two acres of aftergrass from hay time. W. We often hear of most extraordinary weights of Swedish turnips being grown by our neighbours in Scotland — I fancy 4 bushel to the rod a capital crop within 50 miles of London. 1 wish some of your cor- respondents in the West and Midland counties would inform us through your valuable Miscellany what they generally grow of Swedes, also white. I fancy (both being " done" eijually well), the proportion is 3 bushels of white ta 2 bushels Swedes. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — It rather surprises me, as so many talented and practical men take a leading part in the English and other agricultural societies, that no one has pro- posed prizes for those cattle and sheep, &c. which can be kept in good store condition at the least expence, as GARDENING OPERATIONS FOR FEBRUARY. If a bed was put up for cucumbers and melons, as directed last month, the young plants will now most probably be fit; tor transplanting into nursing pots ; place three plants in each pot, and plunge them a few inches more or less, according to the state of heat in the bed, and give a gentle watering with a fine rose pot, to settle the earth about the roots ; sow a few more seeds in case of accidents ; admit a little air in fine days, and also at night if there be much steam in the beds, but guard against frosty winds by hanging a piece ot thin niatov the aperture ; by the middle or towards the end of the month, if no accident has occurred to the plants, they will be fit for planting out into the fruiting bed ; if the heat begin to decline, apply linings ; CDver up at nights according to the state of the weather. Cover rhubarb and sea-kale, and put up suc- cessional beds for asparagus and potatoes as di- rected last month. The temperature of the pinery may now be in- creased to from 65° to 75*^, and it may be found necessary to turn over the bark bed, and to add a portion of fresh tan or leaves to set again the whole in a state of fermentation ; the plants when taken out of the bed, should be examined to see if any of them require shitting, air must be ad- mitted freely every fine day, so as to j)revent the thermometer exceeding 85*^ from sun heat; shut up early in the afternoon, and sprinkle the floor and flues with water to create steam. If you have not commenced forcingyour vinery and peach-house, now is a very good time to be- gin ; make moderate fires, so as to raise the tem- perature of the former to 50" or 55'', and that of the latter to 40*^ or 45"^ ; admit air and apply the syringe freely upon the branches ; about the middle of the month, tiie temperature of the vinery may be raised to from 5 j* to 60*, and that of the peach-house to 50° or 55* ; give air abun- dantly until the buds begin to expand. iTHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 165 Keep up a succession of ftrawberries and kid- ney beans ; let those wVijch were tal 11409 4 3582 2 138 5 239668 7 1781 1146 7 5078 6 8807 4 5271 3 30317 4 2830 7 1065 5 13887 7 1 3 4 3 3119 2 cwts.qrs.lbs. cwts.qrs.lbs. cwts.qrs.lbs. 8396 2 11 5305 0 8 463 1 0 63603 2 11 56738 0 2 2113 0 20 SEED MARKET. Jan. 28. There was rather a large quantity of red Clo- verseed offering to-day, which met a very heavy sale at a declme of 2s. to 4i. per cwt. White was also dull, and somewhat cheaper. In other descriptions of seed* very little business was done, we shall therefore be short in our remarks. Canary was worth from 82s. to 86s. per qr. Linseed, English, none here ; fine foreign, 48s. to 53s. Very little doing in Rapeseed ; Coriander, 17s. to 25s., and the finest are somewhat in request. Caraways have rather improved, and prices may be noted according to quality, at 50s. to 54s. per cwt., and white Mustard little sought after at 8s. to 12s. per bl. ; brown Mus- tard rules at 10s. to 17s. per bl. CLOVBa English, red 73 100 white 54 73 percwt. Dutch — — — — French ) American — — — — Trefoil 16 28 Rape»eed, English .£34 .£36 foreign ^28 .£30 per last. Linseed. English sowing. . — — — — per qr Baltic — — «!rushiHg48 50 ,, lMeditcr.& Odessa— — 50 54 ,, Hempspcd, small 34 36 large 38 42 Coriander, new 13 13 tine — — percwt. Mustard, brown , 13 — white — — perbushel new — — 8 12 Turnip Seed, new Swedes 20 21 other sts.28 36 Rve Grass, English 30 54 Scotch 18 42 ,, Tares, Winter 6s Od to 6s6d Canary, new ..80 84 Caraway — — 48 50 extra 53 PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Jan. 28. We have no alteration whatever in the Hop trade. .£ g. d. .£ 8. d, ^ s. East Kent pockets 4 10 0 to 5 12 0 fine 8 8 Bags 4 4 0—5 5 0 do. 7 7 Mid Kent pockets 3 15 0 — 410 0 do. 8 8 Bags 4 0 0—4 10 0 do. 7 7 Weald of Kent pockets 3 10 0—410 0 do. 5 5 Sussex do 3 3 0 — 44 0 do. 410 YearliniiB do 2 10 0 — 3 3 0 do. 4 4 1836 Pockets and Bags.... 2 2 0 — 210 0 do. 3 3 OlJalds 1 1 0-110 Odo. 2 2 POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK WATER-SIDE, Jan. 28. We have to report an increased supply of Potatoes to the Waterside during the past week, amounting in all to 3,275 tons, being considerably more than the quantity of arrivals reported in our last ; they are as follows, — from Yorkshire, 1819 tons 5 Scotland, 410; DevonB, 170 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 364 ; Jersey and Guernsey, 669 ; Wisbeacb,220 ; Kent, Essex, and Suffolk. 295. Tlie trade having been very heavy since the commencement of the present year, owing' to tlie unusual mildness of the weather, and many of the vessels having' exceeded their laying' days, salesmen have been oblig'cd to warehouse lara^e quan- tities, and alllioug'h prices have declined, sales are still effected with difficulty, the late extensive supply ena- bling' the buyers to be very choice in their selection. Per ton. Per Ton. York Kidneys 9()8. Jersey Whites ... — s-toGSs. Herts ... — s. to 80s. Wisbeacli 65s. Americ.in Niitives — s. Scotch Red — s. to /'Is. Uevoiis 75s. Jersey an I Guernsey Bines 65s. Kent, Kssex, and Suf- folk Whites .. 60s. te"Os. Kent Kidneys — s. Irish — s. Vl^OOIi MARKETS. BRITISH. Jan. 23. The state of the trade remains dull, no business be- ing transacted. When the stock of Wool in the North shall have been consumed, a brisk demand will spring up again ; and this neeed not be despaired of, as the manufac- turers are generally busy. But the prices that have been given lately have been too high to continue for any length of time, and the present flatness by lowering them again, will only do service to the trade. The dealers generally are not at all alarmed, but are keeping back their Wool for better markets. January 1. Feijruarv 1. Per lb. 8. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Down Tef s 1 7J to 1 8 1 8 to 1 8j Hiilf-bred Hogs 18 1 8J 18 18* Ewes and Wethers 1 4i 1 SJ 1 4^ 1 5| Blanket Wool 0 8 11 0 8 11 Flannel do 1 IJ 1 5J 1 IJ 1 5j Skin Combing 1 2 14 12 14 EXETER.— With respect to this article, the dul- ness that so generally pervaded the maiket was experi- enced here also ; the dealers were not anxious to pur- chase, and their offers from lid. to ] l^d. per lb. That isolated transactions for Yolk Wool on hig'her terms had taken place in the course of the preceding week is unquestionable, but what we have now more particu- larly to speak of, is the proceedings, or rather the almost entire want of such on this day, which forbids us from speaking of it otherwise than nominally. In the mean time our accounts from the manufacturing districts in the North of England, concur in representing "the price of Wool, as firm, tiic consumption great, and the business done in the warehouses very satisfactory." The matter remains then in the hands of the holders of Wool ; it is their affair and not ours, whose only duty it is to spare no painj to obtain correct information, and, let this tell how it may, fearlessly to place the statement before the public. These, however, must not forget that in all questions of this description they, like- wise, have something to do, and we would again repeat, that neither in the county of Devon, any more than has been the case in other parts of the kingdom, can success be hoped for, without a decidedness of purpose and firm perseverance. In most other respects connected with this important branch of trade, things continue firm, as, if sliglit decline has taken place in one direction, there has been advance in another. Thus we have to quote Washed Wool,— Knott Wool, from lOd.to 17d.; Dorset Horn, 17d. to 18d.: and Marsh Wool, i7d. to 18d. per lb. In Sonrs, — of Siioins, — Coarse and Short Coarse, continue at from 8d. to S^d. ; Broad Head, 9d. to 9§d.; Kent Head, lOd. to lO^d. ; Red, Green, and Pinions average from lOJd. to Ud. ; Fine Head, is from ll^d. to 12d.per lb. In Stripe Wool, business been done on somewhat lower terms, and we have to quote Cornish Stripe, at from 15d. tolS^d. ; and North Devon Stripe, 15d. to ISJd. per lb. Fell Wools. — These continue, Long Wool, best parcels, of fine quality, 14d. to 15d.; good lots of Skin Wool, Ti^d. to ly^d. ; ordinary par- cels, lid. to lljd. per lb. Tops, have advanced t© from 204d. to 20id. per lb. LIVERPOOL. Scotch, Jan. 26.— There has been several buyers of Scotch wool attending the public sale this week, but we have not heard of a single sale of laid Highland wool, but as the holders are firm in price, we keep the quo- tations the same. White Highland none at market. Good clean cross wool is inquired for, and readily com- mands our highest quotations, inferior and heavy laid is quite neglected. Our remarks respecting cross v^oo I will equally apply to Cheviots, anything really good and clean i« in demand heavy, and unwashed is quite neglected. Per Stone of 24Ib9. «. d. ». d. Laid HisihUMKl Wool, Iniin 12 fi to 13 0 White do. do. (scarce)... 14 9 15 0 Laid Crossed do. 14 6 15 6 Washed do. do 16 0 17 0 LaidOheviot, do 1/6 18 0 Washeddo. do 22 6 24 6 White ilo. do 34 0 36 0 Foreign. — There \i-ere scarcely any sales effected by private contract this week, owing to the public auc- tion of Friday, which exhibited a numerous attendance of the trade generally. The competition for the various lots offered was spirited, as it is the opinion of most parties that the prices obtained for Australian were Id. to l^d. per lb. higher than those of last November sales. East India Wools were also 10 per cent, dearer. The quantity withdrawn was small ; a few bales of German, for which 23. 2d. per lb. was bid were pur- chased for the importer at 2s. 5d., and a lot of East India was also bought in at very full prices. Turkey, 9id.; Australian, good combing and short clothing, Is. to Is. l^d. ; East India, 6d. to Ud. ; Spanish, inferior, Is. 6d. to Is. Ud. ; Spanish, R., 2s. to 2s. 2d. ; washed Mogadore, lOd. to 15d. Arrivals this week, 3,932 bags; previously this year, 1,770 bags.— Total, 5,702 bags. SCOTCH. Per Stone of 24 lbs. January 1. February 1. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Laiil Highland Wool, from. 12 3 to 13 9 12 6tol3 0 White Uo. Do 00 0 00 0 14 9 15 0 LaidCrossed Do ..14 6 15 0 14 6 15 6 Washed Do. Do 16 6 17 0 16 0 17 0 Laid Cheviots 17 0 18 0 17 6 18 0 Washed Do 22 0 24 0 22 6 24 6 White Do 34 0 36 0 34 0 36 0 FOREIGN. Jan. 28. Exceediogly few sales of foreign Wool have taken place since our last report, whilst, owing to the su- perabundant supply on sale, lower prices have been submitted to in some instances, to effect sales. Electoral Saxony wool, from 4s. 6d. to 5s. 4d.; first Austrian, Bohemian, andother German wools, 3s. 6d.to 4s. 4d. ; second do., 2s. 4d. to 3s. 2d. ; inferior do. in locks and pieces, 2s. to 2s. Gd.; Germanlamb's do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 3d. ; Hungarian sheep's do., 2s. 4d. to 3s. 2d.; Leouesa sheep's do., 2s. 6d. to3s.2d.; Segovia do., Is. lOd. to 3s. 2d. ; Soria do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 4d. ; Caceres do., 2s. 4d. to 3s. 2d. ; Spanish lamb's do., Is. 8d. to 2s. 8d. ; German and Spanish cross do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 4d. ; Portugal sheep's do., 2s. 2d. to 3s. 3d.; do. lamb's ditto, Is. 6d. to 2s. SJ.; Australian, line crossed do., 2a. 2d. to 3s. 7d. ; do. native sheep's do., Is. 6d. to 2s. 8d. ; Van Diemen's Land, native sheep's do., is. to 2s. 4d.; and Cape of Good Hope do., Is. 4d. to 3s. per lb. Wool on which the Home Consumption Duties have been paid at London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull, during the last week : — WOOL. Spanish, />i»n^/on lb. Australian, de lb. Other Sorts, do lb. Liverpool lb. Bristol ll>. HhII lb. This Year, previous to last week. 50654 69000 5.'i6r27 344546 190885 Same time in the last Year. 103729 62780 560589 764073 \.\-.UM;i. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. MARCH, 1839. No. 3.— Vol. II.] [New Series. THE PLATE. The three Wether Sheep, which form the subject of our first Plate, were bred by Lord Western, and exhibited in the Cattle-yard at the Christmas Show of the Smithfield Club in December last. The subjoined description, which his Lord- ship has kindly furnished, will be perused with interest. Lord Western, in accord- ance with his wonted liberal manner, puts the agricultural public in possession of all the information he can to illustrate the course he has pursued, in endeavouring to produce a " new breed" of sheep. The most minute details, calculated to be useful, are submitted. LORD WESTERN'S NEW OF SHEEP. BREED TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SiK, — In cousequence of the desire which you represent to have been expressed by a number of persons, to have some account of the sheep I ex- hibited at Smithfield at the last show, and the por- traits of which you have given in your Magazine, I will endeavour through the medium of its pages to give some information to the public on the subject. It is generally known that they are cross bred sheep, between the Merino and English Long Wool sheep of different descriptions. Before I proceed further I will remind you of their weights and ages, and I will give you an extract from a letter addressed to nie by Mr. Allen of South Audley Street, the butcher who purchased them. Weights. Shearlings. lb. St. lb. 7 fat 2 0 2 .... do 1 6§ 4 . . . . do. .... 2 5 St. No. 1 .... 16 ^ • ■ • • 15 O ■- • • • 16 OLD SERIES.] Two Shears. No. 1 . . . . M • » • • o • • • • St. lb. 17 1 .... fat . 17 2 .... do. . 16 5 .... do. . St. ... 2 . .. 2 ... 3 lb. 3 3 2h " With respect to the sheep I am happy to iaform your Lordship, that they proved better thaa my best opinion led me to expect, in fact, I must candidly con- fess that I have never seen anything that could surpass them when slaughtered. I have pleasure in saying that the Duke of Bedford (whom I have not the honour to supply) sent for a haunch ; the Duke of Somerset also had one, and another went into Derbyshire." I shall now lay before youadetailedaccount of a pure Merino fat wether, sold to and slaughtered by Mr. Barwell, of Witham in this county, and which I can best give you by the insertion of a letter from him to me. " My Lord,— Having been the purchaser of the three-year-old pure Merino wether sheep, bred and fed hy your Lordship on your estate at Kelvedon, which was exhibited at the last Christmas show at Chelms- ford, and for which your Lordship won abet of 5/. with Mr. Hicks, of Walton, I take the liberty of laying be- fore you, for your Lordship's information, and the in- formation of agriculturists and graziers generally, the opinion of the judges relative thereto, aUo my own statement as to the weight of the carcase, fat, &c. N [l\o. 3.~-V0L. X. 172 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I am aware that the bet was made in consequence of a challenge thrown out by your Lordship to show a Merino wether at the Christmas show, against any of any other breed, on the condition only, that size should not pass for merit. " Mr. Hicks took it up and produced a fine South Down wether, supposed to weigh 20 stone, but the judges were of opinion that the Merino was a superior handling sheep, being exceedingly good in all points, remarkably thick on the loin and back, and square at the leg, and wide at the brisket, — that the constitution of the sheep must have been remarkably good to have carried a fleece of wool weighing 32lbs,, twelve inches long in the staple, and of beautiful and fine quality. " Indeed, your Lordship, whilst you have so wonder- fully improved the carcase, is considered not to have deteriorated the wool. The carcase of this sheep inside and out, was as good as I have ever had, and in point of colour the Merinos carry generally a brighter red and white than any other breed. St. lb. Weight of carcase 14 0 (8lbs. to the stone.) Ditto fat and caul 0 12 Ditto gut fat 0 8 And the kidneys remarkably large. " I have the honour to subscribe myself, My Lord, Your Lordship's most obedient and very humble servant, HENRY BARWELL." It is very important to notice specially the won- derful proofs of constitution which this animal displayed. It is true he was high fed and housed, but to stand under such a weight of wool, and to turn out of his fleece quite fat, and at the Christ- mas following as fat in all his points as any sheep can well be nnade, is, under any circumstances very extraordinary, and well worthy of attention. I have had an opportunity of seeing and remark- ing these powers of constitution in the breed very often, and I did not pass them by unheeded, for I felt certain therefrom and other circumstances combined, that if the Merino sheep were cultivated as they ought to be, their value to the country would be very great — if they had been attended to as they ought to have been on their first introduc- tion— if they had been cultivated as the Leicester and South downs have been by persons of the same ability, they would have advanced very far in the estimation of the public before now ; but they fell into the hands of some persons who knew nothing of sheep management, and others who were deter- mined to prevent their further introduction or pos- sible success. I believe his Majesty, George III, who was very fond of farming and one of the warmest patrons of agriculture, first introduced them : Lord Somerville, I think, followed, and a few individuals ; for a short period there was a rage for them and they sold at great prices. Lord S. had a large flock, but he took the advantage of the tide in their favour to sell off" everything, it soon after turned, and much money was lost ; about this time the Spanish Cortes tendered a present to the King, of five hundred ewes to distribute amongst his subjects, this was done under the direction of Sir Joseph Banks who offered nie forty ewes, saying at the same time, that his Majesty had proved by experience of twenty years, that the wool does not deteriorate in this climate, and that it remained only to as- certain how far it would be possible to make them valuable in the meat market. I reluctantly under- took to try what I could do with them, for 1 had a valuable South-down flock, and the appearance of the sheep were discouraging in the highest de- gree ; however the permission being granted to me to go down to Portsmouth forthwith, and se- lect my number out of the whole flock, I proceeded there immediately and made the selection. When I got them home I had them carefully nursed and attended to, and soon discovered that there were, however wretched their appearance, traits of character about them, which well merited all the attention that could be bestowed upon them, though to improve them into a good mutton sheep, and preserve the fineness of the wool, would be a work of many years, and require a great degree of patience and firmness, to counteract the prejudices which I saw I should have to encounter. I have at length succeeded quite equal, if not superior, to my expectations; I have a ready market for them at the best price, and I have never yet sold a sheep to any butcher who has complained of the quality of the mutton. I do not say that they will fat quite so early, or come to the size of the improved South-down, still less to the weight of the Leices- ter, but they give a very handsome small carcase, and as I before observed I have invariably a ready market for them. I have indeed now but few wethers for sale, and those are of the smallest, be- cause I keep all the finest of the males as rams to supply the colonies. It has appeared to me from the first, that the defects in the form as well as the diminutiveness in size of these sheep, was owing chiefly to po- verty and hard travelling — the narrow chest and the pot belly are evidences of poverty in youth — and to raise them into vigour of form and constitution, required nursing through several generations ; but in spite of all these dis- couraging appearances, I saw features which I relied upon. There was a character about them, of high breeding, and high blood, which has pri- mary merit with me, in all descriptions of ani- mals. Their head is small and in many of them beautiful, the eyes bright and lively, and promi- nent, the face covered with a fine satin skin, at least so much of it as is left free from thick curl- ing wool, and the nose a delicate flesh colour ; they have a great deal of muscle in the shoulders and limbs generally, with a strong masculine neck, and are very active and courageous. All these properties arc in my estimation, valuable ; they encouraged me to go on, and besides suggested the idea, which I am now following up, of making through their instrumentality a distinct and valu- able breed ; in fact i)lanting the Merino wool on a Leicester carcase. If the Merino sheep had been so defective an animal as the public imagine, T should never have attempted or thought of such a .^ '^ »v. M ^ .1 to -« 0; ^ ^ K ij ^' ^ :! S^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 173 task, but I have seen as I have now explained, powers in the animal which warranted, as I thought fully my undertaking, and I do not hesi- tate to say, as far as my experience goes, those sheep which are two parts Merino make the hest carcase, the most firm and solid handlers. I de- cidedly think they are more hardy and will thrive on less food than any long wool sheep. It may he expected that I should give a detailed account of the principle upon which I proceed in com- bining the different breeds, so as to bring out the result I have in view ; and I confess upon this point, it is not in my power^ to lay down any dis- tinct rules by which I can advise others who are anxious to follow in my wake ; the fact is, I have myself to work out, and endeavour by degrees to determine the best course to pursue. I have in- troduced every species of long wool sheep into the medley, from which I hope to extract the fruit which I am aiming at. I have taken care of course that every animal of every description which has been introduced into this collection of different breeds, has been of high quality in itself ; so that from whatever pa- rent they may take the stronger resemblance, the animal itself could not fail to be of value. It is rather curious that the offspring of these crosses which I now have, should exhibit so much of the various qualities of each of their several parents as I have found them to do. They are so much like each other, that the eye receives no offence, as it always does from any striking dissimilarity to each other in any flock. And in the sale of their wool I have never had any fleeces objected to. I am sorry to say I cannot give you distinctly the value of the wool, because I sell it in one lot with the pure Merino to Messrs. Legg of Ber- mondsey-street. Desirous to have no secrets from the public, I do not hesitate to tell you, that the price of the wool collectively was two shillings the pound, except the pure Gloucester and wool in grease, last year sold in the early part of the season. I give you still further proof of my desire to afford the public every information by shewing in detail an account of my growth of wool last year. Aver. Wt. PureMeiiino. per fleece. Fleeces. lbs. Ibs.oz.dr. Ewes 3151 washed clean f 1462 4 10 4 > upon the -^ Hoggets 1223 sheep's back C 724 6 1 0 Ram Hoggets. Old Rams , . . Long wool . . . Ewes & Wethers 127 Do. Hoggets Gloucester Ewes 42 2204 lbs. 3> s 292 11 4 0 in the grease 60 10 0 0 I 80 26 10 10 432 lbs. Cross-Bred. 27 659 5 3 0 83 • • 459 5 8 8 time they are getting wrong. In the other breeds such is the course the most intelligent breeders have followed, but by selection only, sometimes them- selves leading them wrong ; confessedly Mr. EUman thus made his sheep at one time too fine and tender. The Leicester breeders did the same, they made the stock too fine and tender, too little bone and muscle, so that they were all fat and comparatively little lean, and that is a failing iu them to a certain extent even now. Now, the merino gives them more muscle, thickens the neck, and better joins it in with the shoulders. The standard I wish to attain is just that of my shearlings, exhibited at Smithfield ; they were got by a half-bred ram, Kent and merino, out of half-bred ewes. This ram I shall probably exhibit at Oxford in July. He actually carries a IVIerino fleece on a Leicester carcass ; he is an old sheep now, I have used him three or four years, — being just the standard I am aiming at. It does not occur to me, that I have anything further to state respecting these sheep, either the pure Merino, or the cross-bred ; but I beg it to be understood, that my cross-bred flock consists of only eighty breeding ewes, from the limited progeny of which, I had to select the wethers I exhibited at the last Smithfield Show, and with these consequently, had to contend against all the most experienced breeders, selecting from all the vast extensive flocks of South Downs in the kingdom. I confess, I thought the decision of the judges against the eligi- bility of my sheep to enter into competition, was of very questionable propriety. The terms of the pre- mium offered, were simply for the best short wool sheep ; admitting for a moment that there might be a doubt upon thequestion, and which I think few will deny, the balance was certainly thrown into the least liberal scale upon the occasion. I am sorry to see the premium offered in class nine, for the sheep at the Ox- ford meeting, is worded exactly in the same equivocal terms as at Smithfield. Itis impossible to know, espe- cially after the Smithfield decision, how far any cross- bred sheep will be admissible. I trust some expla- nation will be given in due time, as it is really ne- cessary, that whatever are the intentions of the society, they should be distinctly known. Seeing an invitation at the close of the table of pre- miums, to enter into sweepstakes, I engage to enter for the best shearling short wool ram, presuming that m^ cross-bred sheep are admissible ; and I am ready also, to enter into sweepstakes for the best Devon bull, and the best boar. — I am, sir, your obedient, humble servant, WESTERN. Felix Hall, Feb. 20. 11 18 lbs. 288 6 Fleeces . . 724 Total weight 4042 lbs» 13 0 I have just told you that I can lay down no prin» ciple to proceed upon in pursuing this cross breed- ing enterprise. I expect to work out by degrees a standard sheep, and then work the rams and ewes of that standard together, and correct tbem if at any DESCRIPTION OF A MACHINE FOR MAKING DRAIN-TILES. INVENTED BY tHE RIGHT HON. THE RIARQUIS OF TWEEDDALE. [We now only give a description of the machine for making drain-tiles, in our next number we shall lay before our readers a full description of the mode of making drains and laying tiles, with a de- tailed account of the expence^ and authenticated N 2 174i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. statements of the increased produce and improved value of land after it had been drained. — Ed. F. M.] The machine which we have now to describe is one of high importance, not only as a novel and ingenious invention, but coming, as it does, to aid the agriculturist in a most important branch of the preparatory steps of his labours, and that too at the time when that branch has acquired a de- gree of importance hitherto unappreciated, a tile- making machine of such commanding powers as this seems to possess, is indeed a boon to this agricultural country ; and when its powers of ex- tending the most approved system of draining have been fully developed, it will be a powerful engine in extending the productiveness of the soil. It is at all times a pleasure to admire the inventions of the ingenious ; it is more so when such inventions are devoted with success to general improvement ; and still more so, when to all these are added the circumstances of a man holding a high position in society, who, after having devoted a great portion of his life to the service of his country in arms, and when it became no longer necessary to wield those arms, has realised the beautiful metaphor, and beaten his sword into a ploughshare ; such may literally be said of the noble personage of whose invention we have to speak. The tile-making machine of the Marquis of Tweeddale, as we have reason to known, has been the result of much patient investigation, and fre- quent experiment. These have at last been crowned with success ; and the fruit of his labours has been effectually secured to the inventor by letters-patent. The machine was first exhibited in public at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show, held at Perth in October 1836, when a working model was exhibited, which excited in- tense interest. Since then, the details have been still farther perfected, and the machines are now at work at Yester, the residence of the noble in- ventor, and at other tile-works. In order to convey some ideas of the machinery, and the principles on which it operates in the for- mation of drain-tiles, the following description, oftheplateis submitted: — Theletterapoints outthe framing of cast-iron, supported on the truck-wheels b, upon which the whole machine can be moved in one direction ; c and d are spindles upon which cylinders of cast-iron for compressing the clay to the proper breadth and thickness, and are turned in contrary directions by means of the toothed wheels e and B, of equal diameters, which receive their motion through the pinion g. The upper cylinder has a provision to slide to a small extent from the other, whereby they can be set to any thickness of tile. The clay, which is previously prepared in the usual mode, is introduced by the feeding hopper, consisting of four or more rollers, turning on pivots, and around them is led the end- less web, i, of moleskin or other suitable substance, to convey the clay to the cylinders. To prevent ad- hesion of the clay to the cylinders, an endless web of like materials with that of the hopper, passes round the cylinders, and is distended over small rollers jji, adjustable by screws for the purpose of keeping the distention perfect. The web of clay formed by passing the mass between the cylinders above described, has its edges squared off as it passes along by means of two vertical cutting wires hung before the two small rollers jj. After pas- sing these cutting wires, the clay is received on another endless web, m, distended over the pulleys A and/,- these being rounded on their periphery, and then through the two inclined rollers, give to the web of clay a degree of curvature approaching to that of a drain-tile ; it is next passed between the first forming roller m, where it is prepared to lake the true shape. These last rollers revolve only from their contact with the clay web, now shaping into a continuous tile. In this state it is received upon the narrow endless belts, by which the clay is drawn through, shaping and finishing on q q q. The motion of the pulleys upon which the end- less web m works is given by the pinion r work- ing into the wheel *, fixed upon the same spindle as i, the pinion k is worked by the wheel e. The web of clay having passed the shaping irons q q q, having acquii'ed the desired shape, is cut off to the required lengths by the apparatus T, having a wire stretched tightly at the end. The lever w is lifted once in every revolution of the spindle, upon which is fixed a lifting finger y on the spindle x, is worked by means of an endless chain working over a toothed wheel fixed upon the back of the spindle g, and passes over the wheel upon the spindle a; : the pinion g has three or more of the teeth omitted, to stop the roller during the time of cutting of t, the tile, to allow the lever w and rod, T, to fall again to its place. The whole machine is put in motion by the band wheel h. The tile, after being cut off, is received on another pair of endless leathern belts, which pass round other pulleys, and is distended over another pulley at the extremity of the alley of the drying- shed, and from which the assistants remove them on a tile-horse to the shelves. The capabilities of the machine are not, however, limited to these processes, for the inventor is at present completing an extension of its powers, whereby the tiles will be laid upon the shelves of the drying-shed by the machinery alone. By means of a railroad extending the whole breadth of the sheds, the machine can be moved on the truck-wheels b, so as to be placed in the open- ing of each successive alley of the sheds in rota- tion, as they are filled with tiles. The main or first mover shaft also extends over a like breadth, and having a chain-wheel fixed opposite to each alley, it is only requisite to move the chain along with the machine. Having thus described the process of making tiles by the machine, it is unnecessary to go into the details of making soles. Suffice it to say, that by a very slight change the purpose is effected, while by other equally slight changes any form of drain-tile can be made. By further slight modifications also, the machine is equally well adapted to the making of brick. The patent also embraces the making of plain and pan roofing tiles, all of which are produced of a very superior quality by the machinery. In reference to the comparative expense of making drain-tiles by hand labour and by this ma- chine, it may be stated, that a machine requiring equal to the power of one hoise, and with the as- sistance of one man and two boys, one of these to feed in the clay and two to remove the tiles to the shelves, will make 12,000 tiles in a day of ten hours, it being understood that the clay is pre- viously prepared and milled, as in the common way, when three or even four men can only pro- duce 1,.500 tiles in the same time. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 175 ON THE SELECTION OF GRAIN SEEDS, ROOTS, &c. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS, SiR,^ — In oui" last, we alluded to the bean cul- ture in this country having been very much ne- glected of late years, for while formerly it entered into the rotation of cropping- in almost every dis- trict, yet in many of them, it is now seldom had jccourseto, and in others has been totally aban- doned. The dislike manifested by Scotch agricul- turists against bean cultivation, may have pro- ceeded from various causes, but their principal reason for neglecting this branch of husbandry, is occasioned by the uncertainty and unprofitable- ness which generally attend this crop in this northern climate. This circumstance, is, no doubt, of itself, sufficient to render its cultivation limited, but we must also take into consideration the value of this crop as an intermediate one between the cereal grasses, and as a i)reparative for Wheat or Barley, especially to those farmers who follow a certain system of rotation, and are therefore com- pelled to have often recourse to turnips and red clover, both of which crops, however valuable in themselves, in comparison with beans, yet when too often repeated on the same ground, are attend- ed with numerous failures. The fact adverted to, is one which experience has so well established in regard to red clover, so much so, that scarcely any description of soil will continue to produce any thing like a remunerating crop if repeated oftener than once in every six or seven years, and in this case, a bean crop must prove of great ad- vantage to those lands termed clover sick, by ex- tending the distance between the different sow- ings. It is however not improbable, but that some antidote in the shape of manure, may yet be dis- covered, which will render this distance betwixt the clover crops unnecessary ; but in the meantime it would be well to turn our attention to the se- lection and purification of the beati, so as to procure varieties of prolific habits, having- a tendency to early maturity, suitable to our different soils and climates. That this would not be a work of great difficulty, though requiring time, attention, and perseverance, we have every reason to believe, more especially when we consider the ameliora- tions which have been effected by horticulturists in the garden pea, by selection and cultivation alone. The susceptibility of improvement of this plant is very great, and has been well exemplified in the numerous varieties which are supposed to have been derived from one origin. The prolificness of some of these varieties when judiciously cultivated, is truly astonishing, so much so indeed, as to make us doubtful whether the subject has ever re- ceived the consideration of the agriculturists at all, more especially when we consider the great dis- parity which exists between the field and garden sorts, not only in the limited number from which the agriculturist has it in his power to make his selection, in comparison to the horticulturist, but also in the immense difference which is shown in their produce and value. Many instances might be deduced, to show the perfection, and almost unlimited extent to which the cultivation of the bean might be carried by judicious management, but in no other way is it more apparent than by comparing the great num- ber of white blossomed, or garden peas, with that of the purple flowered or field sorts ; -while the farmer may be said to have only his three varieties of peas, the Grey, Partridge and Hastings, the gardener has at his command at least one hundred varieties. Therefore, whatever necessity may exist, in respect to more attention being bestowed upon the selection and purification of the bean, it is no less necessary in that of the field pea ; nor is there any obstacle to the successful cultivation of the pea by agriculturists, provided attention was directed to the amelioration and improvement of the more valuable sorts, for almost every kind of soil will answer for one or other of the varieties, if it is possessed of a medium degree of fertility. With regard to the kidney bean, very little is known of it in this country ; but that some varie- ties might prove a valuable acquisition to certain districts, may be seen from the following extract from " Lawson's Manual of Agriculture," wherein a detail of thirty-five varieties is given of this plant. " As a farinaceous seed for the food of man, the kidney bean is considered by the French, as being far superior to any other legume, and next, if not of equal importance with wheat. In this country however, notwithstanding that many of the earlier varieties might be grown to advan- tage on light early soils, their culture has hitherto been scarcely extended beyond the gardens of the opulent. In France, and other countries of Eu- rope, as also in the Canadas, and United States of America, and elsewhere, kidney beans are not only used in a green state to a much greater extent than in this country, but are cultivated in the fields, and by every cottager who possesses a piece of garden ground, for their ripe seeds of which they make various kinds of dishes, and consider them of as much importance in their domestic economy as the cottagers in this country do potatoes. Un- like the common bean, the kidney bean does best in a light, sharp, dry soil of medium fertility, and the produce per acre, even of some of the dwarf varieties, is often more than double that of any other cultivated legume." The light dun or straw coloured, and the dark dun or liver coloured kid- ney bean, are the two sorts best known amongst the cultivators in this country; they are early, very hardy and prolific, but generally the different varieties and habits of the kidney bean are but little known or understood, although we believe, by selecting and testing the different sorts, a va- riety might be obtained, possessed of suitable pro- perties, and of a habit congenial to our soil and climate ; at all events, many of the eax'ly and pro- lific sorts offer an opportunity to the British agriculturist, of adding to our leguminous tribe of plants. The tare or lentil, is said to have been first in- troduced into Britain about the year 1545, but al- though well adapted to our climate, its cultivation has never been attended to. In France, Germany, Holland and other countries of the continent, it is grown to a considerable extent for its seeds and haulm. In this contry, however, the vetch or common tare is more generally cultivated for its forage, although its seeds are sometimes ripened, and these sorts in general cultivation, are the com- mon or summer tare, and the winter tare, which resemble one another in general appearance, but the latter variety is distinguished by being usually of smaller growth. There are others of the leguminous tribe of plants, which are occasionally cultivated for their seeds, but we are not prepared to say that they will either prove successful or profitable ; that all 176 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. such however should have a fair trial and be tho- roughly tested and proved, cannot be doubted, for we have various instances of many kinds having been long neglected, but ultimately proving of the greatest advantage to the agricultural communi- ty. For example, potatoes, although brought into England about the end of the sixteenth century, were long confined to the gardens of the nobility and gentry, and in Scotland were not planted in the open fields, until the year 1792, upwards of two hundred years after their first introduction- So prejudiced indeed, were the Scottish peasantry against their admission, that they attributed the origin of every disease, no matter of what nature, to the influence of this vegetable. Turnips, also, although known in Britain before the potato, did not come into general cultivation, until long after the days of Tull, a Berkshire agriculturist, who introduced the system of drill husbandry, in the year 1701. He obtained very few followers for more than thirty years, and Scotland was the first to reduce his system to practice. In 1760, it was there in pretty general adoption. Hence it was introduced into Northumberland in 1780, and it has since slowly found its way into the more southern parts of the island. Such has been the introduction of two of the most valuable roots that are now in cultivation, and from the great length of time they have been cultivated, we mio:ht be led to believe that their habits and tendencies would have, long before now, been thoroughly in- vestigated, and a complete knowledge of their various qualities obtained, and widely dissemi- nated. But such is not the fact, for although we readily admit that many improvements have been introduced into the culture of these roots since that period, still these have not been carried to their full extent, or to that perfection of which they are susceptible. It may indeed be said, that the introduction of potatoes and turnips took place when education was at a very low ebb, the supine- ness of our agriculturists at its height, and before agricultural associations were in existence, and therefore that any deductions drawn from this subject, are inapplicable now. But we shall shortly make it appear more than probable, that even with all the science and enterprize of modern times, there is yet a wide field of discovery lying before us, and which hitherto has been almost wholly neglected. We allude more particularly to the classification and purification of seeds. Individuals, no doubt, have at different times directed their attention to this subject, but their labours instead of remedy- ing the existing defects, have only tended to shew the almost unlimited extent to which improve- ment in this department might be carried. They have failed, not from the unfruitfulness of the sub- ject, but from the inadequacy of individual exer- tion for the task, and their failure is a powerful practical argument in favour of a combined and collected eff'ort for the full development of the latent, and hitherto dormant susceptibilities of the vegetable kingdom. The grand and distinguishing characteristic of plants over inorganic matter — that which charac- terizes their latent powers and living functions, is their susceptibility of improvement ; animals Lave it to a certain degr«e but not nearly to such an ex- tent as plants, for the productive faculty of the for- mer cannot be increased like that of tlie latter. As is well remarked by Mr. Sharon Turner, most agree- able and surprising transformations have arisen from this property. The rose is the product of cultiva- tion ; the original plant from which all our beautiful varieties have proceeded is considered by botanists to have been the common wild briar. Our plums are cultivated descendants of the sloe ; the peach and nectarine of the common almond tree; filberls are tlie impi-ovements of the wild hazel ; the delicious apples whose species may now be reckoned by hun- dreds, are the cultiviited successors of the small austere crabs and wildings, which swine will scarcely eat ; the original pear is a petty fruit, as hard and crude as the former ; our cauliflowers, cabbages, and other domestic vp"eta.bles, may be recrardifl as almost artificial products, so much has human skill had to do in their production. If then so great a susceptibility of improvement exists in the productions of horticulture, it bt'cumts a question of great interest and momentous import- ance to ascertain whether or not the different species of grain, roots, and grasses, emj)loYed in agriculture are possessed of a like inherent susceptibility. It is a well known fact that grain, if allowed to degene- rate, returns into a state very similar to iluxt o.''some of our coarser grasses, which of itself is a very strong argument, as respects the point at issue. But we have still more unequivocal evidence that wheat, even in what may be denominated its ])resent im- proved state when compared with the inferiority of its supposed original, is possessed of the principle of productiveness to an extent fully as great as the vegetables mentioned in the above quotation. In proof of this we would refer to the experiments in- stituted by Colonel Le Couteur on the different va- rieties of wheat as fully detailed by him iii a valuable pamphlet which we have just perused, and which we would recommend to the careful consideration of every agriculturist. Colonel Le Couteur began seriously to cultivate the important plant of wheat so as to procure the several soils distinct from each other, and at the same time not the experiments made on the culture, produce, weight of the grain, and qualities of the corn, flour and straw. He has kept a most minute account of the experiments, and taken the greatest care to preserve the best sorts in their purity, and the result of his experience is, that be believes the proper mode of cultivation of wheat is yet unknown or unpractised. The Colonel, before he turned his attention to the selection and purifica- tion of wheat, considered his crops tolerably pure, yet on Professor Le Gasca, a celebrated botanist, examining them, he selected from them, twenty-three sorts of which some have since been discovered to be three weeks later in ripening than others, which circumstance accounts for the many shrivelled, ill- grown grains in a sample of wheat, arising no doubt from the unequal growth of the many varieties that link in the purest crop. The importance of ascer- taining the qualities of the different varieties of wheat is well exemplified by Col. Le Couteur in re- spect to their relative value as to produce of straw. The quantity of straw produced from a single ear of one of his best varieties, No. 1, Jersey Danzig, was 31b. 3oz. of wheat and 31b. 9oz. of straw, only six ounces more straw than wheat ; No. 2, " Album Densum,'' produced 21b. 12oz. of wheat and eight ounces more straw than wheat ; No. 5, "Coturaneum," six ounces more straw than grain ; and No. 8, " Koelen," 41bs. 4oz. of wheat and only 31bs. l3oz. of straw. The next, No. 9, the Ked Compact, pro- duced only iilh. 9oz. of wheat fromSlbs. 15oz. of straw, an excess of one pound six ounces of straw over the grain in this last, whereas the former. No. 8, a most excellent and superior variety, there was an excess in grain of seven ounces over the straw. Col. Le Couteur justly observes, that by a proper THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 177 system of culture, it must appear obvious from these facts that wheat should be brought to such perfec- tioD, as to produce more grain thaa straw ; Nos. 8, 10 and 13, varieties selected and tested by actual practice, having done so. Now by reterence to the article " Biitish husbandry" chap. — page l54 of that excellent work, the farmer's series of useful know- ledge, we find it stated that " the straw is generally reckoned to be about double the weight of the grain." We believe this may be perfectly correct as far as regards ordinary husbandry, yet if the results ob- tained by Gol. Le Couteur's experiments are of any value, we must conclude that the proper culture of wheat if known is unpractised. These experiments however were not confined to the weight or productiveness of the different va- rieties of wheat, on the contrary the Colonel conti- nued his researches from the straw and grain, on to the meal itself, in order to be fully satisfied which of the sorts under experiment contained the greatest proportion of meal or flour, and the result nearly proved that the most productive sort in grain was also the most farinaceous. A circumstance of a very important nature was elucidated in the progress of these experiments and proves the comparative ad- vantages to be derived from actual practice, skill, and observation, to that of science alone, for the pur- pose of testing and proving the merits of the different varieties of grain. Professor Le Gasca with all his experience and botanical research, was impressed with the notion, that a variety of No. 14 was one of the most productive, while it was proved by actual experiment to be the most inferior of the fourteen sorts tested, evincing the positive necessity of com- parative experiments to ascertain the relative pro- duce of wheat, which the theory alone, even of the learned Professor, could never have discovered, he merely having judged from the external appearance of the wheat, its squareness and compact form ; than which, nothing could have proved more deceptive. We have frequently in the course of these letters inculcated the advantages of a change of seed grain, and the adaptation of certain districts for producing the different varieties in greater perfection, than that of others, and we are glad to observe, that Col. Le Couteur arrives at the same conclusion. It in- deed must inevitably stand to reason, that the fine white wheat which is grown oa a rich fertile loam suitably retentive of moisture, can never be the pro- per sort to be sown on a poor black soil, such as Bagshot Heath, which of itself is incapable of re- taining or attracting moisture. But it will not be denied that if a red or coarse variety, equally pro- ductive as to quantity, though perhaps less farina- ceous, could be grown on such a soil, it would be an end greatly to be desired, and of much national im- portance. An observation made by Col. Le Couteur leads him to believe that such will be the result. In a piece of land which had been ill prepared, and was poor and out of condition, a crop of white wheat had been sown ; it scarcely grew three feet in height, but among it was a plant of fine, tall, rich brown wheat, with a large round, but rather coarse grain. It proved a highly productive variety. Had be happened to have sown the field with all such, in- stead of having only had twenty bushels per acre, subsequent experience has shown him that he would probably have had forty. We would here refer to the allusion which we made in a former letter, with regard to the benefits to be derived from a change of seed wheat from En- gland, by the Scotch farmer, and also the necessity of the English agriculturist having recourse to a warmer climate than their own, so as to make the change beneficial. This view of the matter has also occurred to Col. Le Couteur. He observes " It is important to procure seed that may ripen a fortnight earlier, for the chances are, that such wheat will have attained its full state of maturity, and therefore not only prove the most productive in farina, but also the fittest for seed." At page 71 of Col. Le Couteur's pamphlet is de- tailed an interesting experiment, in regard to the cultivation of wheat from the Cape of Good Hope. While that which was sown on flat land in November, suffered much from the cold and wet, another parcel of the very same sample sown so late as the 29th March, on a warmer slope, exposed to the rays of the sun, found a genial and somewhat similar climate to its own, and succeeded perfectly. Col. Le Couteur therefore believes that the produce of this last, sown, with judgment a little earlier, and on a warm exposition, may become a valuable importation and preserve early habits for more northern climates. In fact, the great first principle which Col. Le Couteur advocates, is a judicious change of seed, and the proper adaptation of varieties of wheat to the various soils and climates, since it is the suitable- ness of each sort to each soil, that will enable the f^irmer to augment his produce. If this end can be obtained, the productiveness of the soil will be enormously increased, in as much as many unpro- ductive lands may be made to grow wheat suited to them, which under present circumstances is not at- tainable. This view of the matter will not only ap- ply to wheat, but is equally applicable to all the cereal tribe. Col. Le Couteur observes, however, that it is only by slow approaches a perfect know- ledge of agricultural experiments can be obtained, and that nearly a whole twelvemonth must elapse, before the seed which has been put into the ground, can be convertible into bread, the only valuable proof of the experiment. The length of time, therefore, necessary to ascer- tain the perfect result of experiments, renders the prosecution of them by single individuals very ex- pensive, laying aside altogether the uncertainty arising from occasional absence, and the sacrifice which the individual experunenter has to make in his time. Therefore how useful soever these isolated experiments may prove they could not be compared with the utility of a national establishment, founded for the purpose of quickly ascertaining such import- ant facts, where the results of many years of appli- cation by one person may be attained in one or two seasons. In Colonel Le Couteur's observations on the se- lection of seed grain, he remarks — " It has fre- quently puzzled me much to imagine, upon what principle some writers have recommended for seed a sort of inferior grain, the refuse of a crop, after all has been sent to the market. How a principle so entirely contrary to the whole economy of nature could for a moment obtain it is difficult to conceive. For even from the finest of seed, after five years of experiments, I am persuaded that for a crop one-tenth of the best grain perishes, or is destroyed by birds, mice or insects ; but from some sorts which looked sickly, and were purposely sown singly, grain by grain, in 1833, I found that a liver-coloured variety which, from the appearance of the ear, promised to be highly productive, though the grains were ill grown, thirty-three grains out of seventy-two died, which induced me to discard it as being too delicate, its grains being poor and lean, though grown on a rich »nd well prepared soil. Another variety also from 178 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. poor ill-fed wheat, lost forty-nine grains out of sixty- two. A sample of golden-drop, which I got at Mark-lane, tolerably well grown, bad seven varieties in a handful, and thirty-four of these died out of seventy-two grains. Whereas from other healthy plump grains of several varieties, only nine, ten and twelve died out of seventy-two grains of each varie- ty. In 1834, the " Belle Vue Talavera" was so well grown and plump, that of three rows of seventy- two grains each not one died ; of No. 1. Danzig, only three to four in three rows of the same number; and of No. 2. " Album Densum," only eight from the same number died. From one hundred and forty- four grains of a new white Spring Wheat, a very rare, hardy and promising variety, only ten d:ed. My general observations lead me to believe that when wheat appears to grow lean and poor looking it should be discarded from the locality, after a fair trial — say after the third year, as the second only might be the result of climate, or the want of being naturalized to the soil. The first trial should be made from seed of the best quality ; if this fails after the third year, it is evidently unsuited to the soil and climate, and a new sort should be introduced. It must be obvious that lean and shrivelled wheat is not so likely to nourish the young plant just starting from its embryo state into life, with a mere misera- ble skin of a parent to live upon, as the fine rich nu- triment to be met with in a plump, round, farinace- ous grain, full of meal." The nice discrimination and care requisite to ma- ture a pure and distinct variety of grain, is well ex- emplified in Colonel Le Couteur's own practice, for in the progress of nibbing out the grains of four ears of wheat which were selected to him by Professor Le Gasca, he remarked a great discrepancy in the grains of each ear, they were not even of the same colour, and differed greatly as to form, some being round, some oval and peaked, some plump but very small, some more elongated, some with the skin or bran much thicker than others ; there were also many with liver-coloured yellow, and dark grains among the white. Colonel Le Couteur therefore re- commends the selection of a single grain of a pure and known variety, for the purpose of procuring a sort with a distinct character and of prolific habits ; but this subject is so nice, and admits of so many distinctions, that to arrive at this he believes it may be necessary to destroy every female blossom, ex- cepting one, on the plant, which may be selected for impregnation or future experiment ; and there can be no doubt that, with due attention, the practice can be established as satisfactorily, as the success that has been met with by those who have attended to the intercrossing of geraniums, now grown of all shades and colours, almost at will. Indeed, the care which Colonel Le Couteur took in making his selec- tions, and the great number of sorts he found of all shades and colours, forming varieties and sub-varie- ties, as they were termed by Professor Le Gasca, confirmed him in the opinion that the only chance of having pure sorts was to raise them from single grains or single ears. In reference to this matter. Colonel Le Couteur observes — " It is but fair to add, that even the pains I took in making these first selections amply rewarded my labours, as the pro- duce of my crops was increased from an average of about twenty-three or twenty-five bushels per acre to about thirty-four ; and since I have raised wheat from single ears or carefully selected sorts, I have increased my crops to between forty and fifty bushels the acre. Hence I have no doubt, that with extreme care in obtaining the best and most suitable sorts of wheat, that land, in high tilth, with fine cultivation may be made to produce sixty or seventy bushels per acre.'' Colonel Le Couteur further remarks, that " much has been judiciously written on the growth and cultivation of wheat, which has tended to a material improvement in those farms where care has been taken, perceptible even to superficial ob- servers ; but no writer has yet called the attention of the agricultural world to the cultivation of pure sorts, originating from one single grain. It is con- tended that this has been the root of all the evil ; many have attempted to begin well, but few, if iiny. have thought of commencing from the origin. il, and persevering and keeping it pure. This idea struck the author so powerfully on the first conversation which he had with the Professor Le Gasca, that it has never quitted him. His project was considered visionary and unattainable. Old farmers said, that as no farmer in the world had ever thouglit of sepa- rating and classing wheat it could not be done ; it was impossible to get a pure crop ! The bees would mix the farina, mice would mix the grain, birds would do the same ; if it had been feasible, it would have been tried before. Corn-factors assured him, that the climate of England was not calculated for the growth of such fine skinned wheat as that of Danzig, Volhynia, and Sandomir. Professor Le Gasca alone perceived and approved of the author's project. The learned Professor had been theoretically em- ployed in the classification and scientific examina- tion of wheat as a plant, in the research and consi- deration of all its varieties ; but it had escaped him to consider it in its properties, with relation to the good of man. This practical view the author took of it, and he determined to attempt to discover which were the most farinaceous and productive varieties, by comparing their character and produce one with another. From the foregoing ohservatiens we will arrive at the following conclusion, viz. — That the wheat in this country is much mixed, and therefore is ren- dered less productive than a variety or varieties with distinct characters, distinguished for their suit- ableness for our different soils and climates, and the practicability of obtaining such varieties is clearly demonstrated in the practice of Colonel Le Couteur. Also, that when we procure a pure and suitable va- riety of seed wheat, it is absolutely necessary to guard against the admixture, and that this can only be accomplished by unremitting care and attention. It will farther be observed, that it is not enough to select varieties that may appear valuable in the eye of tbe botanist, but that they must be tested and proved by actual experiment before their merits and qualities can be properly appreciated or understood, and that in fact the want of these practical tests have hitherto proved the root of all the evil. Lastly, although Colonel Le Couteur has directed his experiments solely to wheat, yet sufficient is known to render it probable that the different seeds and roots at present in cultivation in this country would be susceptible of a like improvement, if sub- jected to a similar process and the test of experi- ment. " A Scotch Farmer." (To be continued.) THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 179 ON THE RURAL MANAGEMENT OF THE FORFARSHIRE PART OF THE WESTERN DISTRICT OF STRATH MORE. By Mr. Robert Pillans Newton, Hallyburton. [A prize of Ten Sovereigns was awarded to the writer of this Essay by the Highland Agricultural Society.^ The Vale of Strathmore is proverbial for its beauty and magnificence of scenery. It runs be- tween the two great chains of the Southern Gram- pians and the Sidlaw Hills ; Strathmore, strictly so called, being understood in general to com- pose the flat of country extending from about Montrose to Perth, although some are not dis- posed to yield to it so great a compass. The soil of this district abounds much in black- ish loam on a substratum of rock, producing turnip and potato crops of the finest quality, and not easy to be surpassed in the production of barley and oats, especially the former. It is a soil much of which may be said in technical language to be sharp, repaying well for liberal manuring with judicious management. Although the mode followed in cropping the land, necessarily varies with circumstances, — opinion of the farmer, &c., yet the five-shift ro- tation is that most commonly adopted, viz., oats, green crop, barley or wheat, grass two years. We have sometimes thought that in the rota- tion of crops there is in some soils often a great propensity among farmers to over-plough- ing the land. If on many farms where a^wshift rotation is adopted, a «.r-shift were followed instead : that is, three years under crop and three years in grass, — or, in professional language, three out and three in, — land could be made more profita- ble, and in the end frequently to produce as great a proportion of straw and grain as with the five- shift management. In the first place, the items of expense on an arable farm are more numerous than may gene- rally be taken into account. Servants' wages, the keep of horses, tear and wear of carts, ploughs, harrows, harness, &c., the cutting up of roads and fields in driving home the produce of them, and otherwise ; and, though last not least, the decreased powers of growth and vegetation which continued ploughing must effect, are all to be considered in the cultivation of arable land. In a district like this, so well adapted, from various causes, for the feeding and rearing of stock, and particulai-ly in a district where the management of live stock is, generally speaking, so well un- derstood, cattle and sheep husbandry might, with advantage, be carried in many cases to a greater extent than even it is at present. By following the six-shift course of half in crop and half in grass, farmers, while in all probabi- lity they would clear more profit by the additional live stock which it would enable them to main- tain, would as before hinted, be at last no losers even in the quantity of grain produced as compar- ed with what the farm yielded under a five-shift course of management ; because the superior crops which the land ought to yield under the five-shift rotation, should prove as abundant as those produced under the more extensive crop- ping involved in the five-shift management. Much less manual as well as horse labour would be re- quired, and the farm thus carried on at a con- siderably reduced expenditure. Wheat has not been very extensively raised in this district of Strathmore of late years, though formerly attempts were made to grow it on a much more enlarged scale than is now practised. The inroads of the wheat fly are very much blamed for the unproductiveness of this crop, but the real truth is that our land is scarcely strong enough for wheat, though of course to this we find ex- ceptions. The breadth of wheat sown in the district this season (1837) has been vastly less than for many years past ; but the cause of this did not proceed so much from any apprehensions of failure by the ravages of grub already noticed, as from to- tal impossibility of getting the land prepared and sown in time, on account of the extreme incle- mency of the weather at the proper season. But indeed the comparative value of wheat and barley in the market has of late been so very difterent from what we have been used to consider their relative price, that we should imagine that those who may have been disappointed as to any part of their wheat crop this year need not consider it as a subject of great regret. Barley may be said to be the crop most con- genial to the soil of this district, and Strathmore barley is rapidly becoming almost proverbial in the country. Until of late years English barley was in general sown, which for malting and weight is undeniably far superior to the Scotch barley. Within tlie few last years, however, Scotch barley has been a good deal sown, and the weights produced from it are sometimes very con- siderable. The Scotch is found to ripen consider- ably earlier than the English barley, and a greater return of straw is produced. On good barley land there are instances where the Scotch kind has been sold to brewers, to whom it has given great satistactio!). Chevalier barley is also now becom- ing a favourite variety in this district, although only introduced within the few last years from Eng- land. The ears very much resemble those of the common English barley, but contain on an ave- rage two or four more grains in each ; the grain being rounder and more plump. It has the dis- advantage, however, of being eight or ten days later in ripening than the common barley, and is therefore not so well adapted for inferior and late soils. Oats are also extensively and very successfully cultivated in this district. The potato oat is the sort most generally sown, but in many farms common oats are cultivated to some extent. On poor soils the common oats are perhaps most to he recommended, and indeed there are many soils in this district on which the potato variety would scarcely grow. The Hopetoun oat has also been very much sown for two or three years past. No doubt the straw is both longer and stronger than that of the potato oat, and the grain is found to lipen a few days earlier; but when we consider that this cat is much more liable to smut than the other, and not so well coloured, it is not much to be wondered at if the more common varieties shall still be more generally liked. Before quitting the subject of grain crops a mode of paying the reapers of the corn crops in this district, more commonly j)ractised here than in any other, deserve our notice. Wc allude to that of paying shearers by the threave. A threave of oats and barley is reckoned two stooks of twelve sheaves each, or twenty -four sheaves, and a 180 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. threave of wheat is reckoned two stocks of four- teen sheaves each, or twenty-eight sheaves. For the barley and oats the common allowance is lid. per threave, and for wheat 4d. Each sheaf of oats and barley must be 32 inches, and that of the wheat 36 inches in circumference at or about the corn-band of the sheaf, and the grieve or overseer generally carries a gauge with him, by which when necessary he is enabled to check the girth of each sheaf. This method of paying the reapers is attended with considerable advantages, if a steady and at- tentive overseer is constantly in attendance upon them. It is evident that a better day's work will be obtained than on the day's-wages system, be- cause the more the reapers cut down the more they will earn. Again, in a district like this, where harvest labourers are not numerous in pro- portion to the quantity required, and where con- sequently a farmer has not the advantage of the choice of hands which ports (hiring markets) of shearers afford to farmers in the Lothians, it is much fairer to both parties that the reaper should be paid according to the extent of work performed. This system too, affords a chance to man, woman, and child, to earn a little in harvest, and it is the grieves business to see that the reaping is pro- perly executed. No victuals are furnished by the employer as in the Lothians, so that taking every- thing into account, a saving of expense is effected by the threaving method of cutting the crop. The stubble will be found in general to be closer cut, because the more closely grain crops are cut to the ground the sooner will the sheaf be made up, and therefore of course the more the reaper will earn. It may be interesting to observe, that the differ- ence of prices between shearing by day's-wages, and according to the threaving mode is not great, although for the reasons already stated the latter is here almost universally preferred. It is calcu- lated that on a fair average of harvest-wages, the crop should be cut at about 8s. per imperial acre by day's wages. Now a tolerable shearer ought to cut down about eight threaves of oats and barley pnr day, which at 3d. per threave is 2s. ; and as thirty-two threaves may be said in round numbers to be a fair average quantity of these kinds of grain per imperial acre, this would just bring it exactly to 8s. per imperial acre. Again, six threaves of wheat is reckoned a fair average shear per day, which at 4d. per threave, is just 2s., and as twenty-five threaves of wheat are reckoned a fair average crop per acre, this would bring the expenses of shearing the wheat to about 8s. 4d. per imperial acre. Of course bandsters' wages are not included in the above calculations. With regard to the green crops most cultivated in this district, potatoes and turnips may be said to take almost exclusive precedence. Both, in a feeding country like this, are most important crops, and there is perhaps no agricultural district where the husbandry of both is better understood. In the potato crop, the variety called the Perth- shire-red is still decidedly the favourite for field culture, although many of the other varieties are to be met with, sometimes over a considerable ex- tent. To dwell upon these, in speaking of a plant of which there are now 14() known and established varieties, would be alike tedious and uninteresting. Of the varieties of turnips sown, the Yellows and Swedes (Rutahayu) are considered the best. Dale's Hybrid was very much in vogue two or three years ago, but its fame seems by no means to be on the increase. In the turnip husbandry it is a practice very commonly adopted here to eat one half of the field with sheep on the ground, — and the effects of such management never fail to shew themselves most materially on the succeeding crops. The turnips when intended to be consumed on the ground, arc manured when sown with generally from 12 to 16 bushels of bone-dust per imperial acre. For the introduction of this very valuable manure the dis- trict is indebted to Mr. Watson at Keillor, and for which a very handsome public acknowledgment was made to him soon after. The bone-dust and sheeping together form a most ample and rich preparation for the barley crop, which generally follows the turnips. The land ought to be riftZiecZ iumiediately upon the re- moval of the sheep from the ground, which is the most effectual method of amalgamating the dung and urine while yet in a fresh state, with the soil. The land is ploughed for the seed-furrow after- wards. The practice of eating turnips on the ground in this way cannot be sufficiently urged upon farmers, particularly u])on lightisli dry land. The ground receives a rich and wholesome manure, and the compressure of the soil by the sheep's treading is an additional advantage not to be lost sight of. Bone-dust manure, too, previously sown with the turnips, is more lasting in its effects than many suppose. In support of this we have the testimony of Sir Humphrey Davy, who says that the earthy matter in bones pievents the too rapid decompo- sition of the animal matter. Considering it quite unnecessary to dwell longer on the varieties of crops cultivated, there being little that is new which can be said in regard to them, we shall now give some account of the live- stock management of the district, a department of rural business at once the most interesting, and properly conducted, often not the least profitable. There is no liranch of their profession to which Strathmorc farmers in general pay so much atten- tion as to that of live-stock management. The fact is that there are inducements and facilities from the local circumstances of the district, which render it matter of no surprise that the manage- ment of live-stock should be so well understood. The distance from large towns renders the disposal of green food, otherwise than by feeding at home, quite out of the question. The increased facilities lor the disposal of stock, too, may be mentioned as an additional and not unimportant inducement in this department. Besides numerous mai'kets, most of them of considerable extent, the steamers from Dundee to London carry both cattle and sheep in great numbers; and so easy has the in- tercourse with the London markets for the sale of stock become, that what is shipped on Wednesday from Dundee is sold in the London market on the Monday following, and a remittance of the pro- ceeds is obtained on the Thursday. In the Glasgow market also, cattle and sheep from the district meet a ready sale. Pure breeds of cattle of any kind are only to be met with in the hands of two or three individuals in the district ; but as the Angos polled cattle are the peculiar breed of this county, it may be pro- per to give some account of them. The Angus polled, or as they are called by the country people, dodded cattle, are well known to the Scotch dealers and to the country generally. They have long been the breed peculiar to the county of Forfar, though some remains of the original horned Angus breed are still occasionally to be met witli. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE; 181 The prevailing colour of the horned Angus cattle was black, and they had a considerable resem- blance to the present Aberdeenshire breed. They are, however, shorter in the leg, thicker in the shoulder, rounder in the carcass, and fully straighter in the back than the Aberdeenshires, and they are acknowleciged to carry their head bet- ter. Thev are supposed to have originated in a cross between the Highland and Low country or doddcd breed. But to return to the daddies. The origin of the Angus doddies is very remote, and indeed can scarcely now be traced. They were rendered attractive to agriculturists at first from their extreme docility and quietness, a quality more or less peculiar to polled cattle in general, and they were found advantageous also on account of the few accidents sustained from injury to each other, either in the straw-yard or the stall, as compared with the horned kind. The Angus dod- dies bear a very marked resemblance to the Gal- loway cattle, and are often mistaken for them. An experienced judge, however, discovers that the Galloways are smaller, shorter in the legs, and thicker in the shoulder than the Angus doddies. The treatment in the bringing up of the two kinds is very different. The Galloways have to endure the hardship of a moist climate, and are generally winter fed in the open field, whereas the Angus cattle are always wintered in the straw-yard, be- sides having the advantage of a comparatively mild and genial climate. This difference of treat- ment renders the Galloways more hardy looking than the Angus kind, and the latter is found to handle more kindly than the former. The pure Angus polled cattle are generally black, and it is considered by the very few in the district who possess pure stock of this kind to any extent, so important to preserve the colour of their stock, that they do not allow an animal of any decription whose colour is other than black, to be near their cows when stinted by the bull. Perhaps the largest and most successful breeder of this stock is Mr. Watson at Keillor, who gave an in- teresting account of his mode of management, in a letter to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, which is also important, because the system detailed in it is in many respects applicable to the successful breeding of Short-horns also. Mr. Watson states that " The cows intended for nursing, generally calve early in the season, about the month of January or February, when a strange calf is procured from some of the small tenants in the district who have dairies. This calf is suckled with the others by the same cow, and although the cow at first shows great dislike to the stranger, in a few days she receives it very quietly, care being taken that both are put to suck (one on each side) exactly at the same time, by tying the calves' bands to the stall, or the band of the cow, so as to keep each calf at its own side. They remain with the cow for fifteen or twenty minutes, by which time her milk is per- fectly drawn away. As the calves advance in age, they eat hay, sliced potato, porridge, and other food they are inclined to take. By the 1st of May, or as soon as grass is ready, they are weaned and turned out from the byre, when two fresh calves are immediately put into their stalls, and receive the same treatment, cxctpting that they are turned out at 12 o'clock, after they have sot their suck, to eat grass, and are brought into the byre again in the evening, when the cows come in to be sucked. This set is ready to be weaned by the 1st of August, and a single calf is put into the feeding-pen, and fattened for the butcher, the season being now too late for rearing. As these are fed off, the cows are let ofi' milk, having each suckled five calves. It is necessary to have a very steady and careful person to attend to the suckling, which has to be done three times a- day, viz. early in the morning before the cows are turned out to grass, at mid-day, and in the evening when the cows come into the byre for the night, and get a little cut grass, tares, or other green food. The byre is arranged so that the cows have each a stall of about four feet wide, with their heads to the wall ; and on the opposite wall the calves are tied up, two in a stall exactly behind the cow, so that there is little trouble in putting them to the cow, and no chance of mis- placing them. The fat calves have in some seasons, been sold at bl. each, this being the scarcest time of the year for veal." But though formerly the Angus cattle were chiefl}'' reared and fed in this district, and in the county generally, they have of late years been decidedly not ihe favourite stock. The superior weight and qua- lity obtained by the feeding of sboit-horns, have now rendered this description very generally pre- ferred by the farmers of Strathmore. And certainly the make and points of the short-horns render them much preferable in general to tl]e Angus cattle for the feeding-byre, though they rei]uire abundance of the best keep and the most careful attention at all seasons. To those who have not at their command a plentiful supply of good keep and comfortable ac- commodation for feeding, the more hardy Angus ought to be preferred. To those, on the other hand, who possess these advantages, the short-horns will be found the most profitable feeders. It should before have been stated, that what are talked of in general as short horns in this district are not the pure improved Teeswater, but merely crosses (generally with the Angus) with a large dash of Teeswater blood in them. In one or two instances, however, the pure short-horns are to be met with. Mr. Hood at Ilatton near Glammis, Mr. Dalgairns at Ingliston, Mr. Anderson at Newton, Mr. Nicoll, Littleton, and Mr. Campbell, Balbrogie, have all exhibited very superior specimens of the short-horned pure breed. INIr. Anderson at Newton has probably now more pure short-horns than any other breeder of them in the district. Cattle for feeding are generally tied up for stall- feeding at the age of thrte off, but many even at two years. They are fed on turnips and potatoes, generally wholly on turnips at first, then turnips twice a-day and potatoes once ; and as the turnips begin to get scarce twice potatoes and once tur- nips. Often towards the end of the season cattle are fed wholly on potatoes. Of course a bite of dry straw is constantly \ie\it at their command. Fat cattle are generally ready for the market in March and April. Having thus, though perhaps imperfectly, given some account of the live-stock management of the district in reference to cattle, we shall before con- cluding the subject, brieflj- advert to that of iheep. It is now universally allowed that there is no manure which diffuses itself more equally, or which is more viiluable in its effects than that produced by sheep, whether as applied on pasture land or in turnip feeding on the ground ; farmers in this district are now so satisfied of this, that they al- most invariably make a point of grazing their pasture land oneyear with sheep, and of consuming generally the one-half of the turnip crop by sheep on the 182 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ground. It is aa old remark that where you have plenty of sheep, plenty of oats follow. There are comparatively few in tiie district who have it in their power to carry on a breeding stock of sheep, but there are some who do. Unless, in- deed, considerable advantages of hill-pasture are possessed, a trifling slock of sheep will be found most profitable on a farm in this district. The mode of management generally adopted with a shifting stock seems to be this : a stock of ewes suited to the keep which the feeder may have for them, are bought in the autumn in middling condi- tion, and put on turnips. They get the tup about the middle of or end of October, and the lambs are sold fat off their mothers. The ewes are tlien fat- tened off the grass, and ought to be ready for the market about the beginning of September. If the farm affords a sufficiency of keep, sometimes a stock of lambs are bought in, fed through the winter, and sold off hoggs early in the grass season, after being dipt. The ewes bought in are often of the black-faced kind, and crossed with a Leicester or Cheviot tup, produce a very heavy description of lamb. Cheviot lambs are often fed and sold as hoggs, but the Leicesters are not quite so generally dealt in. The Leicesters are an expensive stock at first, and they do not seem to take the market like the other kinds, at least they do not so readily yield a profit proportionate to the outlay at first and ex- pense of feeding. The high price of wool, how- ever, of late years, has made a considerable differ- ence in this respect. We shall now offer some general remarks as to the district in question. In contemplating the circumstances of an agricul- tural district, there is nothing whicii so naturally suggests itself as the state of its roads, and there is no subject connected with country matters now-a- days better understood than road-making. Our turnpike roads, both in this and the sister kingdoms, are unexceptionable, thanks to the labours and dis- coveries of Macadam. J3ut simple though the sub- ject now appears to us, there are few subjects which have given rise to more discussion and difference of opinion than road-making. Farey, Walker, Telford, Stevenson, Fry, jNlarshall, Paterson, and Edgeworth, all maintained their separate theories on the subject, but the superiority of Macadam's system, as a whole, is now almost universally acknowledged, and not less universally adopted. Since the introduction of his system. Macadam has made a most valuable im-- provement of it in the reduction of the size of stones laid on the road from 6 ounces to 4 or 4 J. By the latter a much more angular stone is got, the stones consolidate more effectually in the road, and thus the bad effects of rainy weather are much lessened. But it cannot be said that the improvement of our parish roads in Scotland progress in anything like an equal ratio with the turnpike roads. If the present Act of Parliament relative to the statute labour is to continue in force, a better system than that generally followed with our parish roads might be adopted with advantage. In general, they are committed to the charge either of some farmer in the neighbour- hood, or some common labouring man, either of whom is most probably allowed to lay out the road- money at bis own discretion. In the one case, the objection is, that the farmer, whoever he may be, will be so much taken up probably with his own affairs as to be unable to bestow that attention upon the roads which their importance demands ; and in the latter case, as experience in many instances has shown, the labouring man will very likely be grieve or foreman over other workmen belonging to some proprietor in the neighbourhood, and this man at- tends to the repairs of the bve-roads as a secondary considf ration altogether, exactly as it may suit his own convenience, without regard to time or place. Now, to rectify both these evils, we would pro- ])ose that the bye-roads should in all cases be com- mitted to the charge of the same individual who su- perintends the turnpike roads of the district. The trustees will no doubt take care that this individual be thoroughly conversant with his business, and as men must be constantly kept on the turnpike roads, how easy would it be for the superintendent to keep an additional man or two for the parish roads also. This would be the person most likely to make the parish road-money go farthest in keeping the roads in repair ; and were this system more generally adopted than it is, we have no doubt a marked change would soon be perceptible in the parish roads in Scotland. In the Carse of Gowrie the system just alluded to has been adopted with the best results. It is much to be feared, however, that, as the law now stands, re.dly good bye-roads cannot be looked for. Let Government put them in a tolerable repair by levying a small temporary tax for the purpose, and afterwards put on a small toll at reasonable dis- tances, and then bye-roads worthy of the march of improvement in other things might be expected. The bye-roads in this district are, by care and ma- nagement, gradually getting into as gooil order as small funds will allow. The whole scenery around this district of country is beautiful in the extreme. The extensive planta- tions of Lord Wharncliffe and Lord Douglas Hally- burton enhance the scenery not a little, and the nu- merous other gentlemen's seats in the district cannot but attract notice for the taste and neatness with which they are generally laid out. But perhaps no gentleman, for a great circle round, has done nearly so much for a single estate, in pro- portion to its size, or in every possible way promoted a spirit of improvement in the county generally, as its present representative, Lord Douglas Gordon JIallyburton. For a period of not less than twelve years, Lord Hallyburton employed from eighty to a iiundred extra labourers on his estate alone. His Lordship has accomplished many very arduous and extensive improvements in the way of draining, ditching, dyking, trenching, and planting, of which last, perhaps the most conspicuous and extensive, is the planting of his fine hills, forming part of the range of the Sidlaws. For an extent of more than 500 acres these hills are now covered with thriving larches, and on the east part of the property an ex- tent of about 200 or 300 acres comes in, planted with hard wood of various kinds, much younger than the former, but mostly in a very thriving state. Through these hill plantations good carriage or cart roads are formed in everj' direction, which are not only valuable as affording most delightful pleasure- drives, but particularly so for the conveyance of the annual thinnings of the wood from the plantations. There are now so many large larch plantations coming up in this country, that their proper manage- ment is a subject of some importance. It is of the greatest consequence in the manage- ment of larch plantations of any extent, that every pains be taken to keep the trees so dispersed over the wood as that each may be duly relieved fiom the oppression or crowding of its neighbour. This re- quires the plantations to be thinned every three years at least, until the wood arrives at maturity. The way in which this is best accomplished is by hiring in for the season an extra number of men and women merely for this operation. The best season extends THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 183 from about the middle of May to about tbe 6th of August, because at that time tbe sap of tbe larch is in the condition best adapted for barking it. It is doubted by some whether tbe barking of tbe larch is either profitable or useful ; but to those who so doubt we can confidently state that it is both profitable and useful -, for it is profitable, inasmuch as it will, if properly managed, yield a return of about 20 per cent, upon the outlay ; and it is useful, because it is of decided advantage to tbe wood to want the bark. The way in which the operation of barking the larch is carried on is this : females, in the proportion of about two-thirds of the number of males employed, are provided with small wooden broad-pointed chisels, shaped somewhat like a wedge, and an old dinner or large clasp-knife. These females and boys are stationed on the road, or part of the plantation most suitable for the after-carriage of the bark and wood, as near as circumstances may permit to where the men are thinning. Very frequently in working up the hill there is no way of getting the trees out to the road but by carrying them across men's shoulders, but where it is at all practicable it will be found to be a great saving to collect a number of trees toge- ther, hook them en masse in a drag-chain, and draw them out with a horse. A good steady horse soon gets accustomed to the work, and the saving of ma- nual labour is great. The moment the trees are laid down on the road, the females and boys commence to peel the bark oflf them, by first taking the knife and making a cut up tbe middle of the tree; and then by inserting the wooden chisel, already noticed, in the slit or cut previously made with the knife, the bark comes easily from the tree in one long sheet. It will then be the peeler's busiaess to scrape the outside of the bark-sheet carefully with the knife, so as to clear it of the mossy stuff generally more or less collected on it> and also of the corky matter which is unavailable for tanning purposes. The bark is now conveyed to as airy a place as can be found within a reasonable distance, and there hung across booms, as the labourers call them, consisting merely of the thinnings of the trees, supported by three trees set up in the form of a tripod. These booms mav be placed from eight to twelve or four- teen feet ap. '■t ; and where a favourable place for a (fe/jot of bark IS fallen in with, they are sometimes continued to a great length. If the weather be dry, the ,bark will be ready for turniiig in from ten days to a fortnight, and when completely aired, by being rendered as brittle as bone, it is conveyed to a house of some kind, where it is chopped into small pieces and made ready for sale and delivery to the tanner. Larch bark is chiefly used for sheep-skin tanning. In thinning a wood, so many of the men are em- ployed in cutting down the larches, and so many in pruning the branches from the trees before being carried out ; and when the trees are to be barked, the pruner will be careful to lop the twigs close to the trunk, which will greatly facilitate the peeling of the bark. In this district, as in most, the proper management of pasture lands is of very great importance, and there is no doubt that, on lands laid down either to permanent pasture, or for a series of years, some- thing more might be done towards their amelioration than is generally attempted. On a property in this district, of considerable magnitude, about sixteen to twenty enclosures of pasture of various sizes are an- nually let for the grazing season, and in order to keep them in good heart a system of top-dressing is pursued worthy of imitation on other estates, and which may here be shortly explained. In the numerous, extensive, and thriving young plantations on tbe estate in question, there is annu- ally a very considerable quantity of grass, which, from the growth of the plantations, cannot be depas- tured, and which, therefore, must either be cut or allowed to lie waste. The grass in these young plantations is regularly mowed every year and made hay of, the greater portion of which, however, is ne- cessarily very coarse, and indeed ill adapted for any other purpose than that of litter. In almost all the grass inclosures already men- tioned, substantial and commodious cattle-sheds have been erected. The pillars which support the roof aie of cast-iron, and cost about 10s. each. The roof is slated in the ordinary way, and the walls of stone, placed within the pillars and under the roof, are built dry, excepting at the corners and sconcheons. Two openings of six feet in width are left in the shed for the ingress and egress of the cattle. With the coarse hay made as already described, these sheds are kept during the grazing season re- gularly bedded, and they prove a great acquisition to the pasture fields, since they afford shelter to the cattle in cold, rainy, or stormy weather, retreats through tbe night, or protection from the discom- fort and annoyance to cattle of a scorching sun. At the middle and close of the season, these sheds are duly cleared out, and the manure is conveyed to some spot for a dung-hill, convenient for the field on which it may be intended to apply it. As soon after the cattle are all removed from the grass fields for the season as may be convenient, women and boys are employed to go over them and collect in heaps in the respective fields, by means of spades and wheel-barrows, the cattle and horse droppings. This is carted away to the dung-hill to be mixed with the manure from tbe sheds. About the month of March, the dung-hill is care- fully turned and mixed with the park dung, and any that is rank or long, well shaken out ; and it is found of great advantage in preserving the essential pro- perties of the manure, to cover up the dung-hill with a coating of good mould to the depth of about four inches. Between the months of March and August or September, a quantity of good earth is driven to the dung-hill, which there is never much difl^culty in procuring, either from the scourings of ditches, foundations of houses or dykes, reducing of roads, or the like. About the month of August this earth is carefully mixed up with the dung in the propor- tion of three-fifths of earth to two-fifths of dung, and as soon as the field is clear, and the weather pro- pitious for the purpose, it is applied as a top-dress- ing to the grass, in the proportion of 20 cart loads to the acre, each load containing about 30 bushels. This will be found not only a most effectual system of top-dressing, but as cheap a one as can well be devised, since there is no actual outlay but in manual labour. The cattle-sheds too are found to be a con- siderable inducement to graziers and others who rent the parks. The Jiora of tbe district deserves a remark or two. The county of Forfar as a whole presents a diversity of surface, which renders the jjlants found in it of very varied description. Part of it is high, rocky, and mountainous, comprising a portion of the ranges of the Grampians on the north and north-west, and immediately to the southward of the valley of Strath- more the Sidlaw range of hills rise in many in- stances to a height of 800 feet above the level of the sea. These high tracts of country, and more espe- cially the former, taken in connection with numerous peat-mosses, afford favourable localities for many of the more rare alpine and bog plants. There is also 184 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a considerable proportion of the country low-lying, both arable and pastoral, with old plantations scat- tered over it here and there, in which much moist land frequently occurs. This portion of the country contains many botanical advantages, such as undu- lation of surface, diversity of soil and climate, toge- ther with some extent of bleak moorland. There are also many fresh-water lakes and considerable rivers, such as the Isla, North and South Esk, Tay, &c., thereby affording habitats for many of the aquatic and lacustrine families of plants. The county like- wise possesses the advantage of a sea-coast thirty miles in length, on and about which are found many of the marine genera and species. Viewing, there- fore, these features, we think it reasonable to pre- sume, that, on a more careful examination of the county than has as yet been made, many discoveries may yet be made of known native plants, and pro- bably some also quite new ; and further, we cannot err far in saying that it will be found to possess as rich and varied a collection of native plants as any single division of Scotland. We may subjoin a few names of the rare plants found in this county. Hippuris vulgaris (mare's tail) plentiful ; Veronica Aliionii (creeping speedwell) ; Utricularia intermedia (intermediate hooded milfoil) ; Eriophorum gracile (slender mountain cotton grass) ; Alopecurus ulpinus (alpine foxtail grass) ; Ph)eum Micheiii (cat's- tail grass); ^4rM7!do stricta (smallest close reed); Artindo arenuria (sea-side reed) ; Hierecloe borealis (northern holy grass) ; Poa alpiva (alpine meadow grass) ; Avena planicuhnns (flat oat grass) ; Hordeum mari- timum (sea-side barley) ; Scabiosa columbaria (small scabious) ; Galiuvi spnriunt (smooth fruited bed- straw) ; Potamogeton lanceolatum (spear-leaved pond weed) ; Radiola miUegrana (all-seed) ; Myosotis ru- picola (rock scorpion grass) ; Azalea proc7imbens (pro- cumbent azalea) ; Lobelia rforf?na?!7!a (water gladiole) ; Atropa Belladonna (deadly nightshade); Tulipa sil~ vestris (wild tulip); Ornithogalum luteum (yellow star of Bethlehem) ; Convallaria verticillata (whorl- leaved Solomon's seal), fo.und by Rev. J. Barty of Bendochy. Junciis arct^cus (hard rush) ; Juncus biglumis (two-flowered rusli) ; Paris quadrifolia (herb Paris) , found in the Den of Airly ; Subularia aquatica (awl wort) , found by Mr. John Lowe, gar- dener at Hallyburton ; Stmchus cterulens (blue sow- thistle) ; Hieracium cerinthoides (honeywort-leaved hawkweed), and some others. The geology of the district may merely be noticed in passing. TheSidlaw hills, which form the south- ern boundarj', belong to the transition series, sur- mounted with trap. The rock through which the trap rises is the grey inferior sandstone, wliich, in some instances, contains vegetable impressions. The soil has not resulted from the disintegration of the adjacent rocks, but has been transported from an- other locality. The subsoil is a ferruginous clay. Details on this part of the subject will be found very ably laid down in Mr. Buist's late most excellent paper on the geology of Forfarshire and Perthshire. We must not conclude these remarks without ad- verting for a moment to the character of the tenantry of this part of the country, and certainly tliey cannot be spoken of in terms too flattering. For industry, intelligence, and respectability, no district can boast of a more desirable class of men, and none more ready at all times to give fair weight and trial to whatever may be put forth as an improvement on the agriculture of the country. The rents of farms in many cases here are regu- lated by the fiars prices of the county, and difterent systems on this principle are followed. The prin- ciple upon which this system proceeds, is by sup- posing a certain price as a fair average per quarter of grain. The farm is valued first at a money-rent, and the amount, whatever it may be, is converted into grain at the price fixed. After this, the fiars regulate the rent, which is just the number of quar- ters of grain calculated for the capabilities of the farm multiplied bv the fiars price, whatever that may be. Some fix a price beyond which the rent can never be calculated, and it may fall as low as the fiars in any year. Others again, fix a minimum, medium, and maximum. The medium is the sup- ])osed average rent of the farm. The minimum fixes the price below which the rent can never fall ; and the maximum that price above which the tenant can never be charged. Land in this district may be said to average al)out lV2s. per acre. ITie peasantry of this district also demand our no- tice. They are, like the Scottish peasantry in gene- ral, a sober, hard working, quiet race. We think, however, that the system with the farm-servants here is not quite so good as in the Lothians and some other places. There each hind in general has a bouse and an allowance of potatoes, meal, &c. as part of his wages. But farm-servants in this quarter, un- less they are married, are generally huddled together in what is called a bnthy. Each man has his allow- ance of meal and milk ; and brose constitutes his breakfast, dinner, and supper. It is sometimes alleged, and with some truth, that the morals of tlie farm-servants are not apt to be improved by the bothy system. There is abundance of stone in the district, and the fences are in consequence generally most sub- stantial. The farm homesteads too are remarkable for the varied accommodation whicli they afford, combining in an eminent degree all the conveniences necessary for the proper management of a tillage farm, with those most approved of for the purpose both of the breeder and feeder of stock. ON THE NATURE AND PROPERTFES OF LIME. Sir H. Davy says, that " quick lime (Hydrate of lime; in the pure state, is injurious to plants ; that when mixed with moist fibrous vegetable matter, there is a strong action between the lime and the vegetable, and they form a kind of compost of which a part is usually soluble in water ; but that car- bonate of lime is a useful ingredient in soil, that it acts upon the decomposing vegetable and animal matter in the soil, so as to render it more fitted for the purposes of vegetation, that it prevents the too rapid decomposition of substance already dissolved, but has no tendency to form soluble matter." Quick lime is a combination of lime with one- third of its weight of water, in which state it is called Hydrate of lime ; when it is exposed to the atmos- phere a sufficient time it reabsorbs from the atmos- pliere the carbonic acid gas which it lost during the process of burning, and in this state it resumes all the properties it had before it was burnt. This effect is soon produced after it has been slaked and spread on the land in a dry state, and it has very little time in its caustic state of quick lime to effect any alteration on the soil ; it must therefore be in its original carbonaceous comminuted state when inti- mately mixed with the soil, that it can have any effect either on the soil or on the decaying vegetable matter therein. The effect which it produces on the soil must THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 185 therefore be as an alterative in changing its texture by the addition of so much carbonate of lime to it in a very finely divided state. Dr. Anderson and Du Hamel are of the opinion that powdered marble or powdered limestone has a good effect on grass land . Anderson says, " that lime is no sooner slaked than it immediately begins to absorb its air and return to its former mild state ; or in other words, it becomes effete, in which state it possesses the same chemical qualities in every respect as limestone. " If this be spread out thinly upon the surf ice of the earth, it absorbs its air in a very short time. A few hours in this situation, restores a large pro- portion of its air ; and in a day or two, at most, it becomes perfectly effete, as masons experience when they sweep together the scattered particles that have lain round their heaps of lime and attempt to use it in mortar by itself, for it is then no morie coherent than sand, or moistened eart'i. " Hence then it must follow, that in every case, lime is converted into the same state witli limestone, in a few days after it is mixed with the soil ; so that if it produces any effect at all as lime, as a saline substance, it must onlv be at the very first, when it is applied, and it must act ever afterwards merely as powdered limestone. " But it is well known, that lime produces scarcely any sensible effect as a manure, at the beginning. Even the first year after it is applied to the soil its effects are inconsiderable, i.i comparison of what it produces in the second and succeeding years. From whence we must conclude, that it operates upon tlie soil, merely as a mild calcareous earth; and that its calcination is of no farther utility in preparing it for manure, than as a cheap and efficacious method of reducing the limestone to a fine powder." Other chemists say that it requires exposure to the atmosphere for a considerable time to render it completely effete or to receive its full quantity of carbonic acid gas. Kames, Young, Brown, and others say, that long experience has convinced them that lime is as eflicacious in its effete as in its caustic state, and Kames thinks it produces little effect on vegetables till it becomes effete, it therefore appears not only from their opinion, but also from the experience of practical farmers, that the efficacy of lime on some land does not arise from any effect it may produce when in a caustic state, but from those qualities which it possesses in com- mon with all other calcareous matter. It must be evident that lime, in a dry, slaked, or pulverized state, can be more easily and intimately mixed with the soil, than when it becomes wet, and in a state like mortar. Is lime only a stimulant exerting its influence on something that is already in the soil? and if so, does its influence tend to exhaust this something ? or, is it an enricliing manure which gives nourish- ment to plants ? or does it, by becoming a portion of the soil, improve its texture and composition by making the soil more capable of supplying the food necessary for the production of vegetables'? Dr. Anderson says, " Writers on agriculture have been long in the custom of dividing manure into two classes ; viz. enriching manures, or those that tended directly to render the soil more prolific, however sterile it may be. Among the foremost of which was reckoned dung, and exciting manures, or those that were SHpposed to have a tendency to render the soil more prolific, merely by acting upon those en- riching manures that had been formerly in the soil, and giving them a new stimulus, so as to enable them to operate anew upon that soil, which they had formerly fertilized. In which class of stimulating manures lime was always allowed to hold the fore- most rank." " In consequence of this theory, it would follow that lime could only be of use as a manure, when applied to rich soils; and, when applied to poor soils, would produce hardly any, or even perhaps hurtful effects." *' I will frankly acknowledge, that I myself was so far imposed upon by the beauty of this theory, as to be hurried along with tlie general current of mankind, in the firm persuasion of the truth of this observa- tion ; and for many years did not sufficiently advert to those facts that were daily occurring to contradict this theory. I am now, however, firmly convinced, from repeated observations, that lime and other calcareous manures, produce a much greater pro- portional improvement upon poor soils, than on such as are richer ; and that lime alone, upon a poor soil, will, in many cases, produce a much greater and more lasting degree of fertility than dung alone. " In direct contradiction to the theory, I must add, that I never yet met with a poor soil in its natural state which was not benefitted in a very great degree by calcareous matters when administered in proper quantities. " But I have met with several rich soils that were fully impregnated with dung, and therefore exactly in that state in which the theory supposes that lime would produce the greatest effect, — but upon which lime, applied in any quantities, pro- duced not the smallest sensible effect." And again, in another place, he says : — " I have often heard it urged, as an objection to the use of lime as a manure, that although it does indeed pro- mote the fertility of a soil, in a higher degree at first, yet, in the end, it renders it much more sterile than formerly. " This, like many other objections to useful practices, takes its rise entirely from the avarice and unskilfulness of those who complain. It is chiefly heard of in those parts of the country, where it is not uncommon for a farmer, after once liming a poor soil, to take fifteen or sixteen crops of oats successively, without any other dressing or alteration of crops. It must be a good manure that enables these soils to produce such a number of successive scourging crops of any sort ; but it would be a marvellous one indeed, if it should pre- vent those fields from being exhausted by them. " But is it not well known, that in all the richest and best improved parts of the country, lime has been long employed as a manure 1 — yet so far are these soils from being rendered sterile by it, that it is doubtful if any art, without the assistance of lime or some calcareous matter, could ever have brought these fields to their present degree of fertility. Those, therefore, who complain of the hurtful effects of lime as manure, proclaim what they ought to con- ceal, that they have had in their possession a treasure, which might have enriched their posterity, but which they have idly squandered away in their own lifetime." Although lime produces a great effect on certain poor land which has been in a state of nature, vet where lime is applied to poor worn out arable "land which has been limed and exhausted by severe cropping, it has, from practical expe- rience, no effect whatever. If lime be a stimulant, there are roots in the soil of poor land in state of nature for it to act upon ; but in poor worn out land exhausted by severe cropping, there are none. Again, such worn out land may, from the very cir- cumstance of its worn out state, be so loosened, that an application of lime, may as an ingredient in the 186 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. composition thereof, only tend to increase the evil by making it more loose and friable. Brown says, " It is sufficiently understood, that land which has been long in grass contains much vegetable matter, and that the trouble and expence of liming it would be amply repaid to the cultivator ; but the propriety of applying lime on old arable lands, has been fjues- tioned, and with much justice, by the most part of practical agriculturists, and their doubts on that head are confirmed by the fullest experience. " Were lime a manure, it would be a noble sub- stance, for enriching and restoring fertility to lands worn out by a succession of corn crops ; but as worn out land is not restored to fertility by the application of lime, we are warranted to consider it in a differ- ent light ; or, in other words, as an article to bring certain principles into action, previously possessed by the soil. This conclusion is sanctioned by expe- rience ; and experience is a far better guide than the most plausible theory. " When lime duly operates, the whole powers of the soil are put in a state of requisition, and may be forced to act till the very soul of vegetation is ex- tracted. It is scarcely practicable to restore fertility to land, even to the best natural quality, which has been thus abused ; at least, a considerable period must elapse, before it can be restored to its original fertility ; but thin moorish soils, after being exhaust- ed by lime, are not to be restered. To lime them a second time, is not only a useless expenditure of la- bour and money, but also productive of serious mis- chief. Soils of this description, after a second liming, are apt to singe and burn the grain that is sown upon them; and, even when dunged, not to make such a return as would have been rendered under different circumstances. " Lime has been long applied by British husband- men, as a stimulus to the soil; and in consequence of such an application, luxuriant crops have been produced, even upon soils of apparently inferior quality, and which would have yielded crops of trifling value had this auxiliary been withheld. In fact, the majority of soils cannot be cultivated with advantage till they are dresssed with lime ; and whe- ther considered as an alterative, or as a stimulant, or as a manure, it will be found to be the basis of good husbandry, and of more use than all the other manures put together. Wherever lime has been pro- perly applied, it has constantly been found to prove as much superior to dung, as dung is to the rakings of the roads, or the produce of a peat mire. " From a pretty long experience, and consider- able attention to the operation of lime, we are in- clined to think that it acts both as an alterative and as a stimulant ; operating in the one case as a medicine that changes the nature of the soil, and in the other as arousing or bringing into action tlie ve- getable powers contained in the soil, which without such an application would have remained dormant and inactive. These opinions, we know are different from those maintained by several ingenious men but they are supported by tlie result of numerous trials, undertaken to ascertain how, and in what measure, lime operated upon the soil," It is evident that lime, when applied to land in however small quantities, will tend to change its texture; and when there is vegetable matter in the soil, it may produce a greater decomposing disposi- tion in it than before. In this case, it will act as a stimulant, hastening the decay of vegetable matter, and thereby furnishing the elements of vegetable life. Lime also acts powerfully on any irony matter in the soil, and on the gravel sands, and clay soils of the diluvial formation, and on the soil of the plastic clay, the new and old red sandstone, and the basaltic formation, the effect produced by the applica- tion of lime is very great. This may be owing, as we have said before, to neutralizing the pernicious effects of the sulphate of iron, and converting it into a useful soil ; and every fresh application of lime may therefore convert an additional portion of sul- phate or oxid of iron into an additional portion of good and useful soil. When there is a deficiency of carbonaceous matter in the soil, a fresh portion of lime must increase the productive powers of the soil. The effects whicli lime, as an alterative, has on the soil, must depend in a great measure, on the com- position of that article, and also on the composition of the soil to which it is to be applied ; for the com- position of the various limestone formations, and also the chalk and marls vary greatly. The nature of the ingredients being different, the lime from the sili- cious limestone contains a considerable portion of silicious particles, and may answer best on strong clay soils, as it will furnish both silicious and cal- careous matter to the clay soil; and the lime burnt from the lias limestone, which contains a consider- able portion of clay, will produce the best effect on light sandy soils. But there are some soils on which lime when applied, has never produced any beneficial effect. This is the case with the soil on the oolitic formation, and other calcareous soils. This is evi- dently owing to the superabundance of lime already in the soil, so that an addition of calcareous matter only increases the evil ; but where there is no cal- careous matter in the soil, and also a great quantity of iron, as is the case in the soil of the new red sand- stone formation, the lime has an increased effect on every fresh application. This is so well known in the neighbourhood of Taunton in Somersetshire, and over all the soil of the new red sandstone, that the farmers lime their land every time it comes in course of fallow for turnips, and this produces excellent crops even without dung. It is most astonishing that writers on agriculture have retailed an opinion, that quick lime, when mixed in a mass of earth containing the live roots and seeds of weeds, will destroy them. Any attempt of this kind will meet with a complete failure ; for the roots and the seeds of weeds cannot be destroyed by the fermentation or any heat that can be produced in such a compost. The same writers have also stated that lime hastens the decay of vegetable matter; whereas the fact is, that it retards the process of the decomposition of vegetable matter. If straw of long dung be mixed with slaked lime, it will be pre- served, while if mixed with an equal portion of earth the earth will hasten its decay. It has been shown that although vegetables are composed of mucilage, starch, sugar, albumen, gluten, and various other substances, yet all of them are reducible into carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen; and that water and air are composed of these substances ; — that vegetable and animal manures are decomposed into the same elements, as those of water and air ; — that any of the simple minerals which compose the surface of the earth, when unmixed with any other mineral, are unfit for the growth of vegetables ; but that when these simple materials are intimately mixed together, that this compound when exposed to the influence of the sun and atmosphere, produces an abundant crop ; — that there is no process going on at the surface of the earth amongst the materials which compose the cultivated soil which changes any of the mineral component parts of it into a new substance ; — that none of the materials composing the soil, enter into the composition of the plants; — and that the application of manure does not always cause productiveness in soils. — Mortoii on Soils. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 187 COLCHESTER AND ADJOINING HUN- DREDS' AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIA- TION. On Tuesday, Jan. 15, a meeting of the Members of this Association took place at Colchester Castle, to consider the propriety of eifecting some important changes in the Constitution of the Society, and for ex- tending the objects thereof, by giving prizes for fatten- ing Slock, for agricultural productions, &c., &c. The meeting was numerously attended. We noticed the following gentlemen present:— Sir G. H. Smyth, Bart., M.P. ; C. G. Round, Esq., M.P. ; J.G. Rebow, Esq. ; J. F. Mills, G. Round, T. L. Ewen, J. Bawtree, J. W. E. Green, P. Havens, — Maud, T. Blyth (Langbam), and S. G. Cooke, Esqrs.; the Revds. N. Forster, and E. H, Green; Messrs. W. F. Hobbs, Lythgow, D. Green, R. Green, Gripper, sen., Gripper, jun., Whitaker, Layzell, S. Harvey, E. Harvey, Am- brose, Bloomfield, Pearson, J. G. Fenn, J. Fenn, Far- row, Mason, Constable, Partridge, Gray, T.May, jun.. Baker, Cooper, Taylor, &c., &c. Sir G. H. Smyth was unanimously called to the Chair, and opened the business of the meeting. Mr. Ewen then stated, that the Committee had been diligent in drawing up rules and regulations which they considered would render the Association perma- nent and successful. Mr. E. read the rules and regu- lations, and a list of the different prizes recommended by the committee. The Rev. N. Forster, of Mersea, wished to oiFer a remark upon the resolution recommended by the com- mittee, in regard to the prizes for fattening beasts. The resolution did not specify, as some others did in societies established in the West of England and else- where, the manner in which such beasts were to be fat- tened ; he meant in regard to the food that was to be given them. (Hear, hear.) It was very material, that the point should be clearly specified, whether upon hay and roots only, or upon corn and cake. He should like to have prizes for either mode of fattening, and should say, that a prize ought to be given to the farmer tvho produced the best fat beast, fattened fiom the pro- duce of his own farm only, and thought that such a regulation ought to be introduced, and he should re- spectfully take the sense of the meeting upon it. Mr. Rebow said, that when the matter was discussed in the committee, he suggested that the farmer should produce the best beast, fed in the cheapest and best manner that he could discover. He considered, that the best beast fattened in the cheapest manner was the most meritorious, and profitable to the farmer ; there- fore the committee had decided upon making no dis- tinction as to food. (Hear, hear.) Mr. Forster said he would not press his proposi- tion. Mr. Hobbs begged to offer one or two observations. He thought the annual subscription was too small ; he found that a subscription of 10s. per year constituted a member. He would propose that the annual subscrip- tion should not be less than a sovereign, except for those who become meaibers only for the encouragement of meritorious servants and deserving labourers. But those who exhibited their stock for the prizes, he thought the least they ought to subscribe was a sove- reign. (Hear, hear.) The Chairman was of the same opinion ; and not less than lOs. from any other member. After some discussion, Mr. Hobbs's proposition w-as put and carried. A Member here asked if a subscriber of 10s. a year •was qualified to introduce his servants as candidates for the different prizes. The Chairman said, " certainlv.'' Mr. Hobbs then proposed, " that the words ' and roots' be added to his proposition, after the word ' stock.' " The proposition was seconded, and on being put was lost. It was then agreed, that 10s. subscribers shoul.l be allowed to show roots. Mr. Hobbs observed, there was another circumstance that he begged to call the attention of the meeting to, viz., that he found by clause 3. that rams and stock sheep were to be exhibited at the December show. It was not usual to show rams and stock sheep at Christ- mas time, for it was a very unfavourable season of the year for that purpose, as most of the rams were not at home at that time, and like the breeding ewes, were not in a proper condition for exhibition. He should there- fore propose, that clause 3 be excluded, as far as it re- garded the exhibition of rams and breeding ewes. The proposition, on being seconded, was carried without opposition. The Chairman here observed, that a paper had just been put into his hand from some gentleman pre- sent, which suggested that no member should show- stock for prizes, which had gained the first prize else- where. (Hear.) A desultory conversation here took place, which ended in Mr. May, of West Mersea Hall, offering a proposition, " that no member should shew stock for prizes, which had gained the first prize elsewhere during the year.'' The motion was seconded by Mr. Green, and car- ried by a considerable majority. But after some fur- ther conversation, Mr. May consented to withdraw the resolution. Mr. C, G. Round said, there was one rule that he observed was recommended by the committee, which he considered a very useful one, viz., " that no ques- tion of a political tendency should be introduced or en- tertained at the meetings of the Association." (Hear.) He would therefore suggest, that the meeting should decide upon a party, who were to determine what was a political question ; and he thought tliey could not appoint a more competent party than the Committee. The Chairman said he was quite sure that they had better not introduce politics, for they had much better talk about fat bullocks. (Laughter.) Mr. C. G. Round then proposed " that it should be in the power of the committee to decide what questions could be entertained by the Soriety at their meetings." Carried. iMr. Hobbs proposed " that the Committee have power to revise the present rules, and submit them to the Society at their next general meeting." — Agreed to. Mr. Rebow had a pleasing piece of information to communicate to the meeting ; he hjd to announce to them, three gentlemen who wished to become mem- bers of the association, viz., Lord Western, Lord Rivers, and P. Honeyvvood, Esq. (Cheers.) He should pro- pose that Lord Western and Lord Rivers be patrons of the society. (Cheers.) Tlie following gentlemen were chosen Patrons: — Right Hon. Earl de Grey, proposed by John Bawtree, Esq.; Right Hon. Lord Western, proposed by J. G. Rebow, Esq. ; Right Hon. Lord Rivers, proposed by J. C. Rebow, Esq. ; Sir G. H. Smyth, Bart., proposed by John Bawtree, Esq. ; Sir John Tyrell, Bart., proposed by G. Round Esq. ; J. E. Mills, Esq., praposed by Sir G.H.Smyth, Bart. Vice Presidents.— C G. Round, Esq., proposed by John Bawtree, Esq., J. G. Rebow, Esq. proposed by Sir G. H. Smyth : T. White, Esq., proposed by J. G. Rebow, Esq.; John Bawtree, Esq., proposed by Sir G.H. Smyth; 1'. L. Ewan, jEsq., proposed by J.G. Rebow, Esq. ; G. Round, Esq., proposed by Rev.N. Forster. The fellowing gentlemen were then appointed a com- mittee for the ensuing year : — Mr. W. F. Hobbs, Marks Hall; Mr. Dixon Green, Greenstead Hall; Mr. E. Rarvey, Copt Hall, Wigborougii ; Mr. A. Whiltaker, Boxted; ]\Ir. E. Gripper, Sen. Layer Breton Hall ; Mr. Hicks, Walton ; .Air. T. JMason, Brightlingsea ; Mr. J. G. fenn, Ardleigh ; Mr. Lythgow, Stanway ; Mr. Shearman, Berechurch ; Mr. Constable Womiingford ; Mr. Green, Fingringhoe. The Chairjian wa« sorry to announce to the meet- ing, the retirement of tiieir Secretary, Mr. Howard, from office. (Hear.) He had no doubt that Mr. Howard had the best of all reasons for retiring, as his <) 188 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. time was fully occupied in his professional engag'ements. He (the Chairman) therefore, should be happy to hear any gentleman proposed to fill the vacant office. The Rev. N. Forster said that before that proposi- tion was offered, he should submit a vote of thanks to Mr. Howard, for his past efficient services to the asso- ciation. Carried. Mr. Howard expressed his regret that he could not properly attend to the duties of the office, as his time was fully taken up in his profession. Under these cir- cumstances, he felt that he was doing- the association more justice in retiring. He sincerely thanked them for the compliment just paid him, and he heartily wished the association every success. Mr. Rebow said he saw a gentleman in the room he wished to elect for the offics, he meant Mr. Ewen. (Cheers.) He would propose that gentleman as honorary secretary, if he would have the kindness to ac- cept the office. Seconded by Mr. Lythgow. Mr. Ewen said it had been hinted to him on a for- mer occasion, that he should take upon himself the office, but he felt at the time, that the office might be filled with more benefit to the society ; but notwithstand- ing that, if it was the wish of the meeting, he would take office. (Cheen.) Mr. E. was then unanimously elected. Mr.BAWTREE was proposed by Mr. G. Round, for the office of Treasurer. — Carried unanimously. The Chairman then observed that it would be neces- sary to appoint an assistant secretary, as they could not ask Mr. Ewen to do all the work, although it was most advantageous to the society to have him as their secre- tary. ( Hear.) Mr. D. Green proposed Mr. S. Tillett, which was seconded by Mr. G. Round, and carried unanimously. Mr. Bawtree was highly gralined to find, that the manner in which he had executed the duties of the office of treasurer had met with their approbation, and he felt highly complimented by his re-appointment. (Cheers.) He thanked them for the compliment paid him, and a? he was elected into office, he should like to commence the duties immediately, by receiving their subscriptions. (Laughter.) Mr. Rebow thought it a very good hint, and ob- served, that under the former system, lie gave two prizes, but under the present regulations he thought it better not to pursue that plan ; therefore he should sub- scribe five guineas annually, instead. (Cheers.) The members present then paid their subscriptions, and the Rev. N. For«ter moved a vote of thanks to the Chairmafl, for his efficient conduct in the chair. — Carried. The Chairman returned thanks, and the meeting separated. THE PRINCE DE ROHAN POTATO.— A NEW VARIETY. In the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, for June, 1835, is the copy of a letter written from Geneva, of tlie date of the 25lh of April, 1834, from Prince Charles de Rohan, to M. Jacquemot Bonnefont, Annoney in the Ardeche, which is as follows: — "I send you, through my friend, M. Romilly, the potato which I promised you, and to which my name has been given in this country ; the history of this potato is not less singular than the potato itself; he who obtained it from seed four years ago, shews it but will not give it to any person — he has refused it to King William ; he has cultivated it in a walled enclosure ; he only wishes to see it in perfection ; and the seed of the following year he makes them to be taken up in his presence, keeps them under lock and key, and to be cooked for himself and cattle before his face : it is with great difficulty I have been able to obtain two tubers ; this exclusive amateur having learnt that I had got some Cactuses, which he wished to have, begged me to give him some ; I wished no money, but very much to have some of his wonderful potatoes, — he gave me two of them, and made me give my word of honour that I would not send any of the produce to Holland, Belgium, England, Prussia, or Germany ; happily he has not thought of Switzerland or France, for without this omission, I could not have had the pleasure of offering them to you. This is the mode of cultivating this potato — the earth is dug to the depth of twenty inches, make the distance between the holes four feet, and put two or three eyes or sets in each hole, earth up frequently ; the stalks reaching six or seven feel high, should be supported on transverse stakes ; this kind being late, the tubers, which are very farinaceous, should be taken up about Martinmas, when the stalks wither." " To give you some idea of the extraordinary produce of this potato, I quote three examples at random. M. E. Martial, at Alais, gathered last autumn, tubers weighing 131bs. 7oz., lllbs. 9oz. and 91b. 13oz. M. de Mentet, a proprietor near me, asked for tubers, v.'hen I could not give him more than a small tuber having four eyes ; he weighed it for curiosity , and found it wanted a few grains to make it half an ounce ; however this small tuber being planted, produced 48^1bs. The attorney of the Abbey of Auterive, Canton of Fribourg, to whom I had given two tubers two years ago, and who, de- lighted with his first harvest, after having eaten and given some to his friends, and either before or after planted the rest, obtained last autumn, six double-horse cart loads and eight scuttles full : it is not the largest tubers that succeed best as seed." — Le Cultivateur, Journal des Pr ogres Agricoles. Having heard from some friends then travelling on the continent, of the above-mentioned potato, and having subsequently read the above account, I was induced to try by every means in my power, to obtain a few for seed, which I did without success ; however, in the autumn of the year 1836, I was informed by friends then living in the vicinity of Paris, that they had occasionally purchased potatoes in Paris which weighed upwards of lOlbs- each, for which they gave one franc ; that they purchased it as a treat, and that cut in slices of about two inches thick, it boiled well, was very farinaceous or mealy, and of fine flavor. The gentleman who wrote me this account of the potato, having left the neighbourhood of Paris for Spain previous to his writing, I was at a loss where to obtain some seed, and I applied to one of the first houses in London, to try through their agent in Pans, to get me a few of the potatoes, and after considerable delay, I obtained two small tubers, with the information that they were very dear and difficult to get. About this time I had a friend arrived at Paris to spend the winter, one whose active mind I knew would be rather stimu- lated than deterred by any difficulty arising in obtain- ing what I wished — he at once kindly undertook if possible to procure me some Rohan potatoes for seed ; and after a great many enquiries, a most diligent search, and considerable expense also in the purchase, he ob- tained and sent me in a small basket, sixty moderate sized tubers; these I compared with the two tubers I had already received, and found them on inspection to be exactly the same sort : these tubers, though they ar- rived late in the planting season of 1837, 1 immediately planted as before described, but being under trees they suffered severely from the dry weather, yet the stems were eight feet high, and the produce was twenty -four bushels full measure, and some of the tubers very large : my object however, being to know what they would produce cultivated with the common field culture, I ploughed in the twenty-four bushels, with a moderate quantity of manure in rows, four furrows apart, or about thirty -six inches, on the 10th IMay last, 1838, without any other preparation than was bestowed on several acres of potatoes in the same field; — they again suffered from the dry weather, indeed to such an extent did my whole crop appear to be injured, that I had given up the hope of any satisfactory result, and I found by reference to my day-book it was not till the night of the 10th of June, and the morning of the 11th, that we had any rain sufficient to lay the dust ; we took up the Rohan potato, October 18tb, and the crop THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE: 189 very large ; they much amused the persons taking them up, and other observers, by their extraordinary size and produce — many of the tubers weighing from 25lbs. to 3;Jlbs. ; they are very farinaceeus, and delicately flavored ; and I have no doubt, cultivated on good land and in the way mentioned, they would reach the size specified : of this we mny however rest assured — and I can recommend them as yielding: the most abundant produce under ordinary cultivation — that the produce is fit for the table of the most fastidious person. One of my old men observed, when he saw the crop lying on the ground, "why master, I never m all my life saw anything like this— why they would answer well to cultivate if it was only for the pigs!" And I quite ajgree with him ; I certainly never before saw such a crop, nor potatoes so grenerally of such a large size ; — and when we consider that they are excellent in qua. lity, I cannot but think they will prove a desirable ac- quisition to the public, to whom I now offer them for seed the ensuing season. The Ilohan potato may be purchased at 10s. per bushel at Trotsicerth, Egham, Surrey, where specimens may also be seen. G. KIMBERLEY. Trotsworth, Egham, Surrey, Nm. I3lh, 1838 THE CORN TRADE. The Farmers and handlords of Worcestershire and Gloucestershire have adopted the following Petition to the Houses of Lords and Commons, That your petitioners, lia ving read the resolutions of the Manchester merchants for tlie repeal of the corn laws, deeply deplore the short-sighted views of men in their station of life, whom they had hitherto looked upon as not only of superior wealth, but of great intelligence, in which opinion they now much regret to find themselves mistaken. That your petitioners, after such declarations from such a quarter, are compelled to oome forward and en- deavour to resist their designs, by showing the evil ten- dency of a repeal of the corn-laws, not only to the agri- culturist, but to the poor also, and even to the manu- facturers themselves. That, first, the free importation of corn cannot fail to reduce the value of corn grown in this country, which is the express object of the corn law repealers. That, after this, a reduction of rents to the landlord, and a reduction of profits to the farmer, must of neces- sity follow. That the consequence of these two reductions would be the inability of the farmer and landlord to employ the poor to the same extent that they do now. That the farmer and landlord would not be able to purchase manufactures to the same extent as they do at present. That the farmers would not be able to give the same wages to their labourers, so that what the poor would gain in cheap bread, they would lose in the diminution of wages. That the farmer, finding the arable land not capable of repaying the expense of cultivation, would convert it all into grass. That the conversion of arable to grass would throw out of employ a multitude of labourers. That, by depending solely upon foreign countries for our supply of corn, we put ourselves completely in the power of our enemies. Tliat, in case of war, those countries will shut their ports against us, and leave us in danger of famme. That the landlord, by the reduction of his rents, will be compelled to reduce his establishment, and to discard part of his horses and carriages, thereby diminishing the amount of the assessed taxes, and the amount of the profit of those trades which depend on luxuries. That he will also be compelled to dismiss part of hi< servants, by which not only will the amount of assessed taxes be lessened, but a great addition be made to the number of idle persons already out of employ. That the annual purchase of corn is a positive annual loss of circulating medium to the country, if actual money is paid for it to forei^ers ; (or, as soon as one year's corn is consumed, more money is required for the next year's purchase, and so on annually, which, of course, must form a constant drainage of gold and silver. That it is the duty of the legislature and government to keep as much money circulating in this country as possible, for the sake of the poor. iiut if, as some supporters of this appeal affirm, the money does not go out or the kingdom, but only manu- factures are exchanged for corn, then the whole and sole gist and meaning of the outcry for the repeal of the corn laws is, that tiie manufacturer may be able to put in his own pocket the profits which the farmers and landlords now receive. And will the legislature consent to such injustice] Will tiie landlord, the farmer, and agricul- tural labourer submit to it? Your petitioners humbly submit that every person has a right to live upon the fair produce of his capital. That if the landlord has no right to live upon the pro- duce of his capital, neither has the fundholder any right to four or five per cent, as the produce of his. That the produce of landlord's capital is only from three to three and a half per cent,, while that of the manufacturer and tradesmen varies from 10 to 100, 500, and sometimes 1000 per cent. That the landlord, notwithstanding this small return for his capital, is taxed with the support, not only ot his own agricultural poor in their old age, but also of the manufacturing poor. That out of the small produce of their capital the land- lord and farmer support the greater part of the burdens of the state by the malt tax, &;c. That from these burdens the landlords cannot run away to another country, like the manufacturer. Your petitioners pray for two laws — one to compel all manufacturers to support the poor labourers who ac- quired their money for them, from the moment they are unable to work to the end of their lives ; and the other to prevent their transferring their capital to foreign countries. And your petitioners pray that, if any repeal of the corn laws lakes place, your honourable house will at the same time pass a law that all land shall be free from half the present and future taxes, which half shall be laid upon the capital of manufactures. That if the corn laws should be repealed, a law ought to pass to reduce all interest of mortgages, of trusts, annuities,and other mcumbrances to half the present in- terest. That, if manufacturers congregate together to make direct attacks upon the stability and prosperity of the farmers, the farmers wUl be justified in petitioning the legislature to prevent the undue extension of manufac- tures. That the greater part of the landlords themselves are descended from manufacturers of former days, who, having acquired as much money as they wished, chose to invest it in land, and become, in fact, manufacturers of corn instead of cotton. Lastly, that the majority of tlie present landlords, being descended from tradesmen and manufacturers who originally bought the land, are surprised the manufac- turers should be so short-sighted as to establish a prece- dent for future manufacturersagainst their own children ; for there is not much doubt tiiat the descendants ot the present Mr. Gregg, and the other gentlemen of the Man- chester Chamber of Commerce, will quit trade, and in- vest their capital in land, and thus subject themselv«s to the encroachments of future manufacturers. Dec. 27, 1838. ON CUTTING WHEAT BEFORE IT IS RIPE. — I am well aware that I am now adrancing n subject upon which the generality of farmers have made up their minds ; and that il is very probable I may be o 2 190 •THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. thought singular in my opinions— nevertheless it is by agitating opinions and exchan<:iag thoughts that the truth is elicited. With regard to the cutting of wheat, the assertions which I have found most prevalent are, that wheat maybe cut some time before it is ripe ; that it ripens at least ten days afterwards in the field. It frequently happeus with farmers who grow a great breadth of corn, that they find it convenient to begin a certain portion of it, in order to employ the labourers they have engaged, and whom they wish to keep in constant work until the harvest be finished ; under such circumstances, it is a happy belief that you are doing no harm in persevering. The miller also tells you that the sample is brighter and he likes it. But does the farmer find that he can sell a shrivelled, and almost green sample for the same as one more bold ? I never found it so— on the contrary, the purchaser ge- nerally does not fail to find fault with the corn — yet the corn cut before it is quite ripe is thinner skinned, and contains no doubt a smaller portion of bran. But de- pend upon it, corn thus sold, neither yields a propor- tionate profit to the grower nor consumer. Taking into consideration vreight, and bulk, and price, the ripe corn will be found most profitable — I name this matter now, bccaure the last harvest has atForded very abundant examples of the different states of grain, be- ing in many cases of two growths, half green, half ripe; and the farmer may, if he will take trouble, success- fully scrutinize my assertions. Many years ago I in- stituted some experiments as to the value of bright unripe wheat, compared with that fully ripened ; and the result was, that it was not so glutinous, and did not imbibe nearly so much water in the flour, and con- sequently made a much less weight of bread. I regret that I cannot state the trials more particularly, but like many young men, I was careless of noting down par- ticulars, and did not expect they would ever be made publiC' — indeed, I now think, to the public, the experi- ments are original, for my observation and reading have never disclosed them to me from any other source — I trust there are others who will consider an exami- nation of the matter worth pursuing. \Vhat I contend for is, that wheat, when the ear begins to droop, is then only fit to be cut ; that though the sample may look coarser, the produce to the farmer will be greater, and more particularly so when he is himself the con- sumer ; but if it be cut earlier, it should by all means have plenty of time in the field before housing, for it will not ripen in the rick ; and who is not tempted, if the weather be fine, to bring it iu too soon ? An Old and Practical Farmer. THE CORN LAWS, (From a Correspondent.) A FEW CONCISE HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS OFFERED FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF THE AGRICULTURISTS AND LAND PROPRIETORS OF THE UNITED KING- DOM. It has been said of the Duke of Wellington that he never allowed an important movement to take place in the position of the enemy opposed to him without seizing the critical moment at which they were most exposed to an attack, and which his penetration always enabled him to perceive, without striking a decisive blow to the advantage of his country. The present movement of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce and its followers, for the avowed purpose of entorcing the abolition of all corn laws, has so com- pletely exposed the weakness of their cause and the inconsistency of their demands, that a union among the agriculturists and land proprietors, together with judicious measures summarily acted upon, it is pre- sumed, would rescue them for the future from all such unwarrantable attacks upon their interests and pro- perty. In the Morning Herald of the 22nd iast. (Jan. '39) is inserted a letter, subscribed " An Underwriter," which contains a narrative of a visit to one of the Manchester petitioners, an old acquaintance, who had, in conjunc- tion with a partner, commenced the cotton trade or manufactory within the last twenty years, in which time the capital brought into the concern had increased from 5,000Z. to 500,000?., notwithstanding he found his friend living in a style of princely magnificence, equal at least to 10,000/. a-year. In the acquisition of such almost incredible profits, the manufacturer neither spares sex nor tender age, as long as they can administer to his pampered wants and passions — but when worn out by long continued daily, and nightly exertions, and that often in contaminated air and without adequate sustenance and rest to sup- port such enfeebling labours ; demoralized as they then are, the only recompence awarded to them for such services is a committal to the care of their respec- tive parishes, and thence to the union workhouses, to be there maintained chiefly at the expense of those very agriculturists and landowners, denominated by these cotton lords " blood-sucking vampires." Al- though these poor wretched creatures, in every sense of the word, have been reduced to their present state of woe, chiefly by the introduction of untaxed ma- chinery as a substitute for human labour, no remorse seems to have been felt by these petty tyrants, nor means taken even by the legislature to obviate the in- jury done either to the persons thus thrown out of em- ployment, or to those on whom the burthen of main- taining them ultimately falls; This privilege and exemption of liability being of unlimited extent, so are likewise the evils attendant thereon. Surely while the manufacturers are receiving on their capital annual profits averaging 30 per cent, and upwards, they ought to be called upon by the legislature to make provision for the aged, exhausted, maimed, and even those thrown out of employment by the introduction of such machinery ; and this can perhaps be efi^ected in no bet- ter way than through the same medium. It is therefore here proposed, that each engine used as a substitute for human labour be assessed towards their maintenance, at the rate of say is. a-day per horse power, when the average earnings of the persons employed in the ma- nufactory are only equal to the value of a peck of wheat per day, of not more than twelve hours duration ; but in case the average wages do exceed that value, then the rate should be reduced according to a graduated scale. In order to give the masters the advantage of machinery, when, and in proportion as the advance of wages increases the expence of manufacture, till they shall attain the value of two pecks, when the rates should cease altogether. Under such regulations, with frugality, considerable savings might be effected, especially among the children employed, and adults without families, which, being deposited and accumu- lated in savings' banks, might, by a judicious arrange- ment on liberal principles in favour of the depositors, be converted into Government life, and long annuities, as jointures, to a limited amount, so as to insure to each individual and their families the means of subsist- ence in old age, sickness, &c., without having recourse to parish aid and union workhouses. As it it is well understood that manufacturers have more to fear from the rivalship of frugal, steady workmen of good cha- racter, than from any other description of individuals, it is not to their interest to encourage provident habits among their work-people, unless their savings could be so disposed of as not to become available for the purpose of commencing and carrying on business on their own account. It is therefore with a view of rais- ing the condition of the labouring classes, without ex- citing the jealousy and opposition of their employers, that these observations are here made. Supposing the agricultural labourers to be paid on the above principle, and perhaps at the same rate, they would then not only be able to keep themselves and families in comfort, but might become considerable consumers of the manufacturer's goods to an amount altogether probably much beyond our present foreign THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 191 export trade, which has recently been calcu- lated to amount to about cue-sixth of the whole of our manufactured productions. It has also been stated, that " if the people of Eng- land, Ireland, and Scotland were but enabled to spend one penny per day more than they now do, it would be equal in amount to all cur foreign exports, and make as large returns to us as a nation as we de- rive from our foreign trade.'' Our legislators ought therefore to pause, and consider well the consequences which may be the result before they risk a change of measures of such doubtful policy as the encouragement of foreign agriculture at the expense of our own. So little do the petitioners for a free trade in bread corn imderstand the nature of their interests, that while they are clamouring at Sheffield for free trade, their intended petition admits that foreigners, " even after the payment of eur import duties, actually undersell our own manulacturers in this country, and especially in a great number of articles formerly the exclusive production of this town." Does not this chiefly arise as a natural consequence from our liberal system of supplying them with coals duty free, and at a cost lower than our London manufactories can obtain them ? And supposing the duties on the articles above alluded to were taken off on the free trade principle, together with the duty on corn, in what manner would they be the gainers by the change } When it is taken into consideration how much wheat has been consumed within the last five years in feeding stock, for the want of a market and remunerating prices, and the great improvements now taking place in the cultivation and selection of the best wheats, there can be little doubt that, under the system of storing the surplus grain in abundant seasons, and the protection from foreign competition under the regula- tions now to be proposeJ. Great Britain would actually produce sufficient for its own consumption, at mode- rate but remunerating prices. It will be necessary, however, first to notice some of the suggestions already put forth on this important subject. The first proposition requiring consideration is, that as the present averages are not made out from the di- rect sales of the agriculturist's produce, but often from fictitious purchases among' the corn-factors, the selling price of the grower alone should regulate the averages. Tills would unquestionably be a great improvement but all such arrancements must necessarily incur con- siderable expense to the country and without materially benefitting the revenue. The next proposition, taken from The lilorning He- rald of Jan. 26th, comes from Lord John Russell, in a letter dated the '21st inst., to Mr. Stanton, of Stroud, in which he states that it is desirable not to maintain a sys- tem of duties, which, as experience has shown, increases the high prices of dear years to the consumer, and de- presses the low prices to tlie producer, and that it is de- sirable not to alter too frequently the laws by which the direction of capital and the channels of industry are regulated. It is his cpinion that a moderate fixed duly would be more advantageous, not only to the trade and manufacturer, but likewise to agriculture than our pre- sent fluctuating scale. It must be admitted that a fixed duty on the importation of foreign wheat, sulilcient to protect the agriculturist, so as to enable him to maintain himself and family out of the profits of his farm, would materially increase the revenue ; but how it is to act alone in preventing fluctuations, so much complained of, is difficult to surmise, when the innumerable incidents which may occur to influence the supply of our mar- kets, are taken into consideration. If, however, go- vernment should come to the resolution of fixing also the price at which /ore^^-H wheal shall be sold out of bond, — say at 68s. per quarter, neither more nor less, — there would be little fear of the price of British wheat ever exceeding that amount, consequently tiic quartern loaf of best bread ought not to reach at any time 9d., but might be aff"orded much lower; which, it is pre- sumed, would be a very material point gained by the mechanic and agricultural labourer, at their present wages, and certainly the farmer ought not to complain, as he would be sufficiently protected against foreign competition. Thus far we may safely advance without incurring any risk as to consequences, notwithstanding the threats held out by the cotton lords, that they will transfer their capital to other shores. The last proposition to be considered here, in addition to the fixed price for foreign wheat is, that a chartered company be established for the reception into store- houses at a fixed price, say 56s. per quarter of all sound British tuheat of not less than a given weight, that may be offered, beginning to receive new grain on the 1st of May * : and for supplying all demands for wheat at the rate of 64s. per quarter, till the store shall be ex- hausted ; from which it is calculated the best bread might be made and profitably sold at 8d. the quartern loaf. The capital of this company should consist of 100/. shares, but witiiout limitation as to the total amount, so long as the whole may be profitably invested, in ac- cordance with its charter, antl without preference to any party, so that no shareholder should be permitted to dispose of any share, otherwise than at its original value, nor retain an undue proportion of shares to him- self, after having received his dividends for the year just ended, and a timely notice of the number of shares re- quired to be given up for the use of new subscribers. The intention being to give to every individual in the kingdom, possessing the means, the advantages which may result from such investment, and which would be greatly enhanced to females, could they in law retain it (a single share) as a jointure without further expense in case of marriage, as a security against pauperism, and a resource under adverse vicissitudes to which all are liable. Besides the increase to tke revenue and the protec- tion which would be afforded by these measures, as well to the consumer as to the corn-grower, and other advantages already enumerated, an unerring s(a?i(ianZ of value v^ovlIA be established on the principle advanced and recommended by Adam Smith, who observes in his M'ealtli of Natio)is, 15. I. chap, xi., " Labour, it must always be remembered, and not any particular commo- dity, or set of commodities, is the real measure of the value, both of silver and all other commodities ;" and " that equal quantities of corn will, in every state of society, in every stage of improvement, more nearly represent, or be equivalent to, equal quantities of la- bour, than equal quantities of any other part of the rude produce of land." " Corn, accordingly, it has already been observed is, in all the different stages of wealth and improvement, a more accurate mea:»ure of value, than any other commodity, or set of commodities. In all those diffisrent stages, therefore, we can judge better * It lias been suggested, by an experienced Agriculturist, Jliiler and Corn-factor, that new Wlieat might also be ad mitted from November till May for immediate consumption, at a reduction in price of Ss. per (juiirter below the value of the better S','asoned grain ; that, by due care in turning it over frequently, and by disposing if it tir^t, greater bent'lits would result to the community, and to the agriculturist in particular, by allowing him at all times the opportuiiily of converting his wheat int'i money, when most required. He, however, stroniily objects to any system which would have tlie effect of fixing the price of agricjltural produce, as farmers are a speculating people, and wish to take advantage of fluctuations. Should this be really the case, it is difficult to conceive bow unobjt-clionablp legislative measures can be framed, which will (rove satisfactory to them. Indeed it be- comes very questionable what claim these speculators have upon the legislature at all, if it be only to interfere when they liiid the current has si't in against ihem. As the above ob- servation cajKiot apply to the necessitous agriculturists, who form the great majority, we may rather consider it to be the opinion only of speculating capitalists, whose interests we are certainly not now espousing. As'our proposition com- prehends only the heavy, well seasoned wlieats, for the obvious reason, that a deviation in price would open the door tn abuses and frauds, and thereby invalidate the whole sclieme for establishing lixed prices; yet, the advantages which the reception of new and inferior wheats at the reduced price of 83. per quarter would afford to the more necessitous class of agriculturists, by enabling them to meet their engagements, is worthy the consideration of landed proprietors, who might give their sanction and support towards the establishment ef a second company, on the above principle. 192 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the real value of silver, by comparing it with corn, tlian by comparing: it with any other commodity or set of commodities. Corn, besides, or whatever else is the common and favourite vegetable food of the people, constitutes, in every civilized country, the principal part of the subsistence of the labourer." Wheat being then the rude produce of this country, which affords the chief article of subsistence to the labourer, his earnings should be at all times such as to secure him from de- privation of that most essential article of support, while following his daily avocations. Nothing would so effec- tually accomplish this, as making wheat the standard medium by whicli the value of labour should be ascer- tained and regulated. In which case it will be of little importance to the labourer whether the price be high or low, provided it could be made stationary, so that other commodities may, and retain permanently their relative value. Among the beneficial results to be anticipated from the foregoing proposed changes, would be a gradual correction of the injurious effects on the landed inte- rest, produced by the alteration in our currency, con- sequent upon what is usually denominated Peel's Bill. THE TROTSWORTH MANURE. Sir, — As an agriculturist I am anxious to learn as well as numberless other persons, the precise time that may suit Mr. Kimberley to publish his pamphlet on the Trotsworth Liquid Manure, which he says shall contain the entire particulars of the various ingredients of which it IS composed, and also the benefits ta be derived from the application of it. These declarations are certainly somewhat different to the announcements of those extra- ordinary discoveries we 'often see advertised to assist the farmer, but the ingredients of which are always kept from the public, and are only to be procured in a ma- nufactured stale. I have conversed with persons who are well acquaint- ed with Mr. Kimberley, and who *peak highly of his reputation as an agriculturist, and one whose integrity may be relied upon. And likewise that he has amply convinced hundreds of persons (and many of them noblemen of the first re- putation as warm friends of the farmers,) of the great benefits to be derived from the use of the ingredients he employs ; especially by shewing his own crops on naturally poor land 1 But he tells us in his advertisements, that the publi- cation of his pamphlet depends upon whether he gets sufficient subscribers to remunerate him for the trouble and expence he has incurred in ascertaining by long continued experiments the due proportions of the various ingredients to suit the different kinds of soil. Now, if all this be true, and that hundreds of persons have been perfectly convinced of the benefits oflFered to the country at large, how is this delay in the publica- tion accounted for ? It is said that the landlords should investigate the truth of these assertions and if satisfied subscribe for each of their tenants ; this Ithink is a very reasonable suggestion, and would very possibly bring this cheap manure into earlier use. Some persons I find are also of opinion that the bene- fits to be derived from the economy and the fertilizing properties of it, that the increase in the crops will render the corn-laws a perfect dead-letter ; and that England may, if she chooses, become a corn exporting country ; and for 1/, (the amount of the subscription for the pam- phlet) we may find the way to enlarge our barns, ex- tend our rick-yards, and fill our pockets. For such advantages I willingly si bscribe my pound, and as no monopoly is attempted, by keeping back tlie materials used, five pounds wouM not have deterred me from subscribing. — I am, Mr. Editor, Jan. 11. A BERKSHIRE FARMER. COMMUTATLON OF TITHES ON FRUIT PLANTATIONS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MAIDSTONE GAZETTE. Sir, — In your report last week of a meeting of fruit growers ia the market-room at Maidstone, Mr. T. Selby introduced a petition to be signed by landowners for the commutation of tithes on fruit plantations. It will be seen by viewing the case in its proper light, that an equitable rent-charge will be fixed on fruit planta- tions as on other land, without any other act being passed for that purpose ; there can be but little doubt, but that the framers of the acts now extant and in ope- ration on the commutation of tithes, took the fruit, and all other produce into consideration ; so that this peti- tion will be seen to be entirely superfluous. In the first place, we will consider a certain parish or district in which there is a quantity of fruit plantation, hop, arable, and pasture land ; again, suppose the rectorial and vicarial tithes are awarded either by voluntarv agreement, or by the tithe commissioners, the next step will be to award an equitable tithe on all the land of that parish. The whole of this land that is titheable will bear a portion of rectorial and vicarial tithe, and an extra charge on all hop land, but no extra charge on fruit land, as it may be fairly contended that fruit plantation (of whatever kind) is not worth more tithe from the time of planting till the period of its being ex- hausted or worn out than arable land, provided the land be of equal quality. If planted with apples, pears, plums, or filberts, it will be from seven to twelve years before coming into bearing, during which time it can pay ao tithe : and when arrived at maturity, these trees last but from thirty to forty years before decay takes place. Gooseberries, currants, &c. will come into bear- ing in three or four years ; let it be remembered the tithes are to be awarded according to the real and ac- tual value they are to the tithe receiver, and not what they may be estimated to be worth to the landowner ; it will be clearly seen that the expense of collecting fruit tithes in kind must be immense, and perhaps in many cases actually greater than the worth of the pro- duce collected. An extreme case shall be put to de- monstrate this view of the adjustment of tithe. Sup- pose 1,000 acres of land of equal quality to constitute any given parish or district, belonging to three distinct individuals A, B, and C ; say A, 50 acres of fruit land ; B, 100 acres of hop land ; C, 850 acres of arable land. Suppose a commutation of tithes effected ; the rectorial at 425Z., the vicarial at 175/., it is plain there is no rectorial tithe due from A or B, so that C is subject to the whole amounli of 425Z. Let this amount be paid on the whole of the 1,000 acres, which will amount to 8s. 6d. per acre, to make up this deficiency in C's tithe Is. 6d. per acre must be added, which again extended over the 1,000 acres would produce 75Z. for the vicarial tithe, leaving 100/. to be paid by the extra charge on hop land, which would be in this case \l. per acre. The case would stand thus : — A, small tithes SI. I5s. great tithes 2 U. 5s. total 25/. B, do. 107/. 10s. do. 42/. IDs. do. 150/. C, do. 63/. 15s. do. 361/. 5s. do. 425/. 175/. Os. 425/. Os. 600/. It must be evident to any person, if the rent charge is laid on in this equitable manner, it will not affect the land, whether it becomes arable or grass laud at any future period. If there was to be an extra charge on fruit land as on hop land, it would amount almost to a prohibitory tax on planting young plantations, whereas if the tithes on fruit land are laid on as on the arable land, the titheowners will be receiving as much from it as they have hitherto received, and the fruit growers on their part will be satisfied with the adjustment, and no liberal tithe owner or land owner will dispute its equity. A LANDOWNER. Jan, 19th, 1839. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 193 ON SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. TO THE EDITOR OF THE PRESTON PILOT. Sir, — The accompanying paper, was intended to have been read at the late meeting of the Preston Agricultural Society ; but owing to the length of the proceedings it was withheld. Should you consider its circulation as likely to prove beneficial to the agricultural community, you will perhaps give it a place in your columns. I am, Sir, yours, &c. A. B. Jan. 15th, 1839. ON SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. Considering the subject fixed upon for discussion by the Preston Agricultural Society, of " the benefits to be derived from the iatroduction of the subsoil ploug'h," of the very first importance to this district, I am induced to put together a few observations, in hope they may be (in lack of better information) of advantage to those, who have never had an opportunity of witnessing the beneficial results attendant upon its use. The subsoil plough, as invented by Mr. Smith, is constructed wholly of iroa, and varies in weight, from two cwt to four cwt ; being solely adopted for Uoosening the subsoil, without bringing it to the surface, or mixing it with the incumbent earth, it is not provided with a mould board. It is indispensable that the land should undergo a thorough drainage, previous to tiie introductioa of the plough ; as deep ploughing in undrained retentive soils, is the worst possible thing. The method of using it, is first to take a furrow with the common plough.to about six inches in depth, follow- ing immediately with the subsoil plough, to the depth of sixteen inches ; to effect which in strong soils, will require six horses. After the substratum has been exposed to the action «f the atmosphere, for five or six years, it may then with considerable advantage be incorporated wiih the active soil, and although previous to the drainage and subsoil ploughing, the subtratum was of the most tenacious nature, still experience has proved, that the active cultivation of water and air, in connexion with a suitable rotation of crops, renders even the most stab- born clays, as friable as the lighter loams, and at the same time as permanently produclivc. The success of the operation depends in a great de- gree, upon the perfect execution of the drainage ; which, in retentive soils, can only be cfl'ected by having the drains at intervals, of from four to seven yards, (ac- cording to its retentiveness), and which should be cut to the depth of at least two feet and a half, and filled in with broken stones a foot deep : thereby leaving suf- ficient space for the perfect operations of the plough. The drains should, if possible, be executed when the land is in grass, as the work can then be done so much more neatly ; and as drains have frequently been rendered entirely useless, by the soil working in at the top, every precaution should be taken in their execution to prevent it, by placing tliin sods (taken ofl' the surface) on the lop of the stones, with the grass side downwards, and overlapping at the ends ; in case tile drains are adopted, they should be filled three or four inches deep with either stones, course gravel, or cmders. The operations of the subsoil plough, are not to be considered as alone confined to the strong soils ; but may be used with considei^able advantage, down from the most intractable clays to the lightest sands. The winter months, in ordmary seasons, arc considered the time when the subsoil plough, can be most advanta- geously applied. So convmced am I of the importance of a perfect system of drainage, in connexion with subsoil plough- ing, as the means of most effectually and readily in- creasing the fertility of the soil, by giving to it a porous substratum, allowing the redundant moisture a more free and effectual passage, and giving to the roots and of plants a greater facility of extension in search of healthy and invigorating food, that I sincerely hope the society will see the importance of encouraging the system, by offering liberal premiums as an inducement for its adoption. A. B. Sept. 1838. PLOUGH DRAINAGE. The following correspondence has lately taken place between the Marquis of Chandos and Sir C. M.Burreil, Bart: — "My dear Sir Charles, — I have delayed writing, because I was desirous of giving you a full report of the Pearson Plough. I have now drained about sixty acres of deep clay, with a full complement of men and horses ; the former 19, the latter 8. The average draining has been about 4^ acres per day ; the ground made use of has been for many years left entirely without any attempt at draining ; consequently, the top water was considerable. Nothing can have done better than the plough, as far as it has been tried ; and the quickness with which it has worked, and the clean cutting and perfect draining, certainly, are most obvious. The expence, no doubt, is greater than our shoulder draining with turf; but if the drains stand, which are made by the plough, its success must be beyond all doubt. As to its doing for light soils, it clearly cannot ; we tried it on a loomy soil, it failed instantly, tearing the land, and not making the clean cutting, which upon clay is always the case. The farmers like it, but are afraid to face the ex- pence. By continued use, which will be the case with me, I hope to give them courage. Upon ihe whole, I am well satisfied with it, as it is obvious it will far exceed in point of labour the work of {men ; and upon a clay soil I have no fear of the drains failing. Your two men have worked well, anxiously evincing the greatest attention with civility, and have done all in their power to please me, and do credit to their plough. They will eat their Christmas dinner here, and then return with, I hope, no bad opinion of Buckinghamshire. '•The men take to the plough well, and work kind- ly. I am sincerely obliged to you for your kindness and attention. "And I remain, very sincerely yours, "CHANDOS." Wootton, near Aylesbury, Dec. 18, 1838. "My dear Lord, — I have shewn your letter to two intelligent tenants of mine, one of them (Mr. Michael Bolting, of Dial-post Farm, West Grinstead) having when a youth worked en his father's farm at shoulder turf draining, and his opinion is that putting it at the lowest scale of price of 3s. per score (20 rods) it would cost infinitely more per acre than the Pearson Drain- ing. For if the shoulder draining were done at half- rod distance, as done on my land with the Pearson Plough, ii would cost 24/. per acre ; whereas the Pearson Drainage costs less than 3/. per acre, shew- ing a balance in favour ot the latter of 2lL per acre ; and if both were done at whole rod distances from the drains, thereby reducing the quantity of drainage to one-half, then the relative cost would be less than 1/. 10s. per acre for the Pearson Draining, and 121. per acre for the shoulder turf draining, leaving a balance of 10/. 10s. in favour of the Peaison Drain- age. And if the costs of the shoulder drainage were 4s. per score ('or more as in some parts) the balance would be still greater against the shoulder draining. "C. M. BURRELL." Knepp Castle, Dec. 2Ut, 1838. 194 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CORN LAWS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE ADVERTISER, Sir, — It will perhaps be deemed presumptuous in me addressing you on the subject of a " Repeal of the Corn Laws," or it may be attributed to in- terested motives, but perhaps I am the only person in this county who has imported foreign corn to any extent. I have been engaged in the corn trade for_ upwards of twenty years, the latter part of which time I have been farming a considerable quantity of land ; I ought, therefore, to be com- petent to know some little of the matter, without being liable to the charge above stated. IMy de- sire is to warn landlords, tenants, and tradesmen of the danger that awaits them, if the now all- absorbing question of a repeal of the Corn Laws, or a low fixed duty, (which would amount to the same thing) should become the law of the land. You, Sir, and some of your readers, perhaps, will feel a little startled when I inform you that I have, within the last four years, had some of the very best qualities of both white and red wheats purchased in the Baltic ports at 21s. to 22s. 6d. per quarter, with a freight to Hull of 2s. (id. per quarter, and Is. per quarter for other expenses ; so that you see it is possible to have wheats laid down in our own stores at 24s. fid. to 26s. per quar- ter; beans, 13s. to 14s. ; barley, 13s. to 15s.; and oats, 9s. to lOs. 6d. per quarter ; and within the last eighteen months, njost of the above grains might have been purchased for a few shillings per quar- ter more money. Now, Mr. Editor, let us try how we can grow corn in this country to meet the above prices. Suppose we take wheat, the staff of life, for our guide, and I think it will be allowed by all experienced persons, that in this county, and I might add throughout all England, the average of years will not exceed three quarters of wheat to an acre, or scarcely so much, but sup- pose we take it at three quarters, which at 2tis. per quarter would equal £3. 18s. and the cost of growing that quantity would be £ s. d. Seed, 3 bushels to an acre, at 3s. 3d. per bushel 0 9 9 Ploug-bingandsowingoncloverleysperacre 1 0 0 Weeding and water-furrowing ditto 0 2 0 Reaping and thrashmg ditto 1 4 0 Getting, thatching, and carting to stack- yard and market 0 7 0 Poor rates 0 2 6 3 5 3 leaving 12s. 9d. per acre to meet rent, tythe, taxes, interest of capital, wear and tear of implements, and the expense of the next year's fallow, which land sown on clover leys always requires ; but presuming it sown on a fallow, (and more than one half of the wheat sown in Staffordshire is so,) then the case would stand thus : — £ s. d. Team work, &c., in fallowing land, say, at a low calculation, is four ploughings and harrowings. Chut strong land requires more than this 3 0 0 Seed, three bushels per acre, at 3s. 3d. per bushel 0 9 9 Manure, or lime 3 0 0 Weeding and water-furrowing 0 2 0 Reaping and thrashing 14 0 Getting, thatching, and caning to stack- yard and market 0 7 0 Poor rates for two vears 0 5 0 8 7 9 So you see this three quarters of wheat would cost the farmer, on a fallow crop, without any rent, Cwhich would be two years) tythe, taxes, or interest of capital whatever, 8/. 7s. 9d. or 21. 15s. lid. per quarter. Now, Mr. Editor, I will ask the tradesmen of all our inland towns (and of this county in particular,) although it is the second county in England as a mining and manufacturing one, whether they would like to lose their best customers, agriculturists, farmers, tradesmen and labourers, for it plainly appears that an alteration of the corn laws, as above, would destroy not only the farmer, but also the tradesmen dependent on him ; and render us wholly dependent on a fo- reign nation for our supply of daily bread ; and reduce this now respectable class of men to a level with the poor farmer and labourer of Ireland, or of some of the foreign nations, where they appear deprived of every comfort, and raised but one step above the brute creation, their principal (and in many instances only) food being rye or barley and bread and potatoes, scarcely ever tasting animal food. In some parts of Germany the far- mer and his horse when at work share the same loaf! In the course of my business I have within the last few years had opportunities of talking with many respectable corn merchants from Ger- many, some of them Englishmen, who have for some time past been settled in Hamburg, who have called on me, and with whom I have had dealings, and they all sa}' that wc never can com- pete with them until we reduce our farmer and his labourer to the level of theirs, and which they hope will never be the case. I call upon every landowner, farmer, farmer's labourer, and trades- man, yes, I add tradesman, (for they are equally interested with the landowner and farmer) to step forward and use every endeavour in their power to stay the destroyers of the national wealth. Should the opposers of the present corn laws succeed in their destructive endeavours, it will be a death blow to this happy and highl3'-favoured country ; and thej^ who are loudest in their calls for a repeal, will, when too late, acknowledge that the corn laws as they now stand, are the bulwark of our nation's prosperity. The produc- tive industry of this country yields about 520 millions pounds sterling annually, of which, as was well stated at the Liverpool meeting on Wed- nesday, the 16th inst. by my friend, Mr. C T. Dunlevie, a highly i-espectable corn merchant of that port, that 246 millions were produced by agri- culture alone, while that of the manufacturing interest was 148 millions sterling. The whole amount of the export of the country, in the average of three years, ending 1837, as could be proved by parliamentary documents, was only 48 millions. The number of acres of land in culti- vation amounted to 48 millions, the number capa- ble of being brought into cultivation 15 millions, and the number of unprofitable 16 millions, making altogether 77 millions. Besides, who are these factious declaimcrs against the corn laws ? I'he great cotton lords and manufacturers of Lan- cashire and Cheshire ; men, it is well known, who have acquired and are acquiring immense fortunes; men, some of them, whose incomes vie with the nobles of the land. They have no decent pretence for a complaint. I doubt not but that, besides their political motives, which they vainly attempt to conceal, they are desirous of divertiiig public attention from the horrors of their own mills, where the poor children are worked to death in a temperature of 86 degrees. They have THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 195 no bowels of compassion for these unfortunates ; but surely a time will come when part of their enormous gains will be taken away, by compelling them to work shorter hours. Negro slavery is nothing: to the present system. Depend upon it the public are not to be put upon a wrong scent in this way, or be induced to consent to abandon the corn-laws for any such purpose as these men have in view. I once more, therefore, call upon landowners, farmers, manufacturers, tradesmen, labourers, and all who have any regard for the welfare of their country, as well as respect for the J ights of property, not only in this county, but in all England, to assemble together to petition the legislature firmly to maintain and uphold the ex- isting corn laws, the repeal of which would be, as I have already stated, the forerunner of general want, misery, and ruin. I beg leave to subscribe myself a well wisher of my native land and its prosperity. I am, your obedient servant, JOHN YATES. CcUon, near Rugeley, t'ind Jan. 1839. THE PROPOSED ACT FOR ENCOU- RAGING THE CULTIVATION OF CONTINENTAL SOILS, THAI' OUR OWN MAY KETURN TO THEIR PRIMI- TIVE DOWNS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE COUNTY NEWSPAPER. Sir, — Some of our editorial farmers have made the discovery, that land lying in a state of nature will at any time be as a national granary of corn ; and that the best way to cripple powers which might be opposed to us is to purchase all the corn they can grow, that their lands, by constant crop- l)ing, may be rendered unfit for further grain crops, whilst our own would be fresh for the plough. There arc two trifling objections to the practical illus- tration of this brilliant discovery, which it may be as well for these office farmers to learn. They may be pleased to recollect tliat an Act for the Commutation of Tithes received the assent of the Legislature some time since, imposing a rent- charge in lieu of tithes — such charge on land they have kindly advised should not be cultivated, but be suifered to lie in grass, being from 4s. to 5s. an acre ; having heretofore, by dint of a large outlay and the rotation of artificial food crops, borne good averaj;e crops of grain- We may safely cal- culate that the feed to be obtained under the novel system of natural grass would not exceed the value of the rent-charge and poor's rates, leaving the owner minus simply his land. Another objection (equally futile with these agricultural projectors) would be that, of the labourers now employed on this arable land — averaging at about three families to every 100 acres — two would be dispensed with in grass land, or ten individuals. In a parish consisting of 4,000 acres of arable land, 400 would be without employ, until they were (as some of these cool speculators would have us believe) absorbed in the labour of our manu- factories. Perhaps such provincial towns as Win- chester, Salisbury, Andover, &c., may suffer from the ruin of the landowners and the depopulation of villages. What matter, it must end (say these philanthropists) in national regeneration— or in revolution, which ? To be serious, Sir, is not the latter their final object.' When it is falsely as- serted that 40 to 50 per cent, of tithes and poor rates, in proportion to rental, paid from the pro- duce of our soil (setting aside other ta.xes, viz., land tax, malt tax, &c., which may be assumed as equivalent to the taxation on land abroad;, is no bar to putting that soil into direct competition with foreign productions free from such burthens, and we are advised to throw our own, our native soil out of cultivation, and our experienced and hardy ploughmen out of work, that foreigners may with the money paid to them for corn, in lieu of our own, buy our manufactures, is it not evident of some sinister motive and intent beyond even the wickedness on the face of such proceedings ? Is not that ulterior object the abolition of all taxes, and to defraud the national creditors ? Can we presume any plan more likely to accomplish those objects than that which would impoverish or beg- gar the entire agricultural population, and which may reasonably be supposed to end only with re- volutionizing the country, and the destruction of her institutions ? Hear by what admirable argu- ments the proposed new system is supported I " Instead (say they) of the yeomen applying them- selves, as formerly, to the study of things con- nected with their occupation, their vanity has tempted them into aping the habits of fine gentle- men ; so that Hodge and Dobbin, instead of being found at the plough's tail, are roaming the country at the tail of the hounds, or drinking- claret and talking dissolutely with the squire." Again, " INIanufacturers say that they are so farfrom being dependent for their posterity on the home corn growers, that it is a matter of entire indifference to them vvhether England produces one peck of wheat or not !" Are there respectable people, with two grains of common sense, who can read such false trash as this hireling has dared to pen, with any feelings but of contempt and disgust ? In order to enlist the ignorant on their side, they are assured that, in expending one shilling for bread, they pay threepence to the landlords, for- getting at the same time to inform them, that one half of the landlord's estate is mortgaged (if I may so term it) for the tithes and poor's rates. If they had followed up their remarks on other necessa- ries of life — such as malt, tea, and sugar — they might have discovered that the consumers of those articles are charged from 30 to 150 per cent, to pay the fundholders. But this would not, at present, suit their purpose — it would create alarm where they wish to lull even suspicion, wellawarethat if their present plan could be carried out to its full extent — if they can obtain one object, the other, the overthrow of the funds, must follow. If we so re- duce the value of agricultural produce that the producers shall from necessity fall back on the other taxation of the country, a revolution in every property takes place— we escape the ruinous con- sequences to those two classes, and benefit by cheap ])rovision and a revolutionary reduction of the debt. This is the real quarry at which they fly their hawk. The viper is most dangerous when concealed in the grass. A fixed duty on corn could not be per- sisted in — it is meant as a fraudulent decoy. The landowners and farmers have ever shown them- selves to be staunch su])porters of honest govern- ment. They wish for no revolutionary changes, though it is evident that their properties would be- nefit were all taxation to cease to-morrow, and the corn trade thrown open to the world. The weak- 196 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. est must then go to the wall — that party is the fundholder. By coalescing with the landowner, and securing such a protection from foreign pro- duce on the present principle as may he equal to his extra taxation, thej' secure their own pro- perty ; by joining the enemies of the landed in- terest, they pave the way for their own downfall. The prelude has commenced, we shall see who best survives the after play, I am, Sir, &c. A Farmer. THE CORN LAWS. TO THE niGHT HON. LORD VISCOUNT MELBOURNE. M\ Lord, — Having, for the last quarter of a cen- tury taken an active part in the several discussions on the corn-laws which have been brougrht before parliament, and more especially in urging on the legislature the adoption of the present principle of protection in lieu of the prohibition of the law- of 1815, [ venture to address vour lordship on the re- ports we hear on all sides of another alteration. I am. the more induced to do so from the circumstance of my having, in 1826-27, urged the adoption of the principle of protection by graduated duties, in op- position to the general opinion of my brother agri- culturists, and of having in consequence been dt that time considered as a renegade from their interest. It has given me no little satisfaction to have found that my views on the subject have proved to be cor- rect ; and, I believe, all those who deprecated the present system, on its first introduction, are now ready to confess that they were mistaken in its ef- fects, and that, using the prophetic words of the late Mr. Canning, on introducing it in the House of Commons on the 28th of February. 1827 — " That if the importation u ere free, taking securitii against the inundation of the home market, the supply would be always adequate to the demand." I would ask any one who has looked into the case whether the present corn-laws have not protected us against inundation when we did not want foreign corn 1 and also whether they have not opened the doors as wide as possible to admit it when we did want it ? The only objection that I can conceive to be reasonably urged against the present system is, that the duty takes off too rapidly, and that in conse- quence the importers are induced to keep their corn back, and the revenue loses the dutv. I foresaw this when I laid the plan before government in 1826-27 ; and, therefore, my scale was to take off Is. or 2s., as the price rose Is. or 23. Govemment, in 1828, na- turally wished to have the opinion of merchants on the subject ; and by the advice of a most respectable one, whose name carried great weight with it, my scale was altered so as to let the duty, above a cer- tain price, take oS three and four, to one shillino- rise -in price. Your lordship will remember, that in the year 1827 the bill was thrown out in the House of Lords, or at least abandoned by Mr. Canning in consequence of an amendment carried there. In 1828, the Duke of Wellington being Premier, the bill was passed. I took the liberty of writing to his Grace during its passage through parliament, stating my objections to the too sudden lowering of the duty, viz., that merchants would be induced to hold by the double motive of rise in price and fall in dutii, at the time when for the general interest of the con- sumers it should be brought to market, and that the revenue would thus lose the duty. The Duke of Wellingkon, to whom I Lad not the honour of being personally known, by return of post acknowledged the receipt of my letter, nnd expressed his regret that the measure was so far advanced, that it was then too late to alter it. The experience of the last few months has proved the correctness of my views. Had the duty, when above 66s., only lowered Is. as the price rose Is., a million quarters of foreign wheat would have come on the market when wanted, several lueeks sooner than it did, and the revenue would have had at least half a 7iiilUon of duty, instead of ffty thousand pounds. I am so well aware of the impossibility of your lordship being able to attend to one-twentieth part of the matters laid before you by private individuals like myself, that I will not attempt to state the dif- ferent arguments which mav be urged in favour of protection to the agriculture of the United Kingdom, but content myself with laying before your lordship a letter written by the late Mr. Huskisson, in 1814, to one of his constituents, to be made public as a vindication of his proposing, as he theyi did, the s«me principle of corn-laws as the present, but which were then overruled ; and in the next year the principle of prohibition up to 80s. per qr. on wheat was adopted. To a letter coming from one who had made himself completely master of the subject, J eavTiestly entreat your most serious attention. It will repay well for reading, for it contains the gist of the whole question. A few weeks since, at ray request, the letter was published in Bell's Weekly Messenger, from whence I understand it has been copied into the Standard and Morning Herald. Probably your lord- ship has already read it ; but lest it should have es- caped vour notice, I send a copy, from a conviction that it had better be read twice than not at all. 1 have no doubt it will be said that Mr. Huskisson was then member for Chichester, but that afterwards, when he became member for Liverpool, his senti- ments were different. Let us now see whether this was the case. In 1821 a select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the state of agriculture. It is well known that Mr. Huskisson drew up the report of that committee. He was then member for Liverpool. What does the report say about the amount of a tised duty, if par- liament should ever propose one? " That it would be indispensable that such duty should be calculated fairly to countervail the difference of expense, including the ordinary rate of profit at which corn in the present state of this countrxj can be grown and brought to mar- ket within the United Kingdom, compared with the ex- pense, including also the ordinary rate of profit, of pro- ducing it ill any of those countries from whence our principal supplies of foreign corn have usually been draum, joined to the ordinary charges of conveying it from thence to our market." I would ask, is this any change of sentiment in the late right hon. gentleman ? He had been mem- ber lor Liverpool long enough to obtain from the first merchants there the fullest information on the subject, and what is the conclusion to which he came? Tliat if wehad a fixed duty, it must be ajj ample one, or this country would hecome habitually dependent on foreign supply for its first necessary of life, an evil which he so much deprecated. In 1827 the late Mr. Canning, on introducing the question as to the best mode of agricultural protec- tion, in speaking of a fixed duty, spoke as follows : — "I have given to the committee the reasons which induce me to think that a fixed duty is not the duty to be adopted — that a fixed duty without reference to variation of price, must at one time be too high, at another too low; and by the very circumstaoce, that it does not itself vary, while the other quantity THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 197 is perpetually varying, it would be introducing perpetual inequalities. I conceive that a scale of duties which should vary inversely as the price might vary, correcting the excess and catching up the deficiency and tending to their general eijiialisntion, would be that ivhich would carry in itself the best chance of steadi- ness— a property which is, perhaps, the first thing, perhaps even before occasional cheapness, to be considered ii legislation." In 1828 Lord Glenelg, then Mr. Charles Grant, President of the Board of Trade, again brought for- ward the question ; and in his speech, whicli is now before me, I see no new view of tlie subject, except his giving as a reason whv a fixed duty sufficiently higli to protect our agriculture would be difficult of attainment, viz.— the fact that since the resolutions were brought forward the previous year, 500,000 quarters of foreign wheat had come into our market under the scale of 1822, paying duties of ll. 2s. 8d. aad ll. 4s. 8d. per quarter. The alteration made in the resolutions from those proposed the year before by Mr. Canniag was, that the pivot, as it was termed, was raised -Is. per quar- ter on wheat, or from 62s. to 66s., the duty ihen to be 20s. 8d.— the duty to fall to Is. at 73s.i in both cases ; but in the scale of 1828 as the pivot was higher, the duty was to fall two, three, and four to one shilling rise in price, in order to reach the same price as the lowest duty. As far as regards the two plans, I consider the regular falling, pari passii, of the duty inversely with the price, for reasons before stated, preferable. Your lordship will perceive that I have stated the duties according to the imperial measure in both cases; whereas in Mr. Canning's the Winchester measure was taken, which makes the apparent variation. In 1828, I\Ir. Huskisson, in supporu'ng the present system of graduated duties, said, as appears in a parliatnentary report now before me : — " The Right Hon. President of the Board of Trade (Mr. Grant) had stated truly to the house, that it was their duty as practical men to look at the measure of the present session as one which teas (d settle %chat the rule and what the law was, by ivhich all the transactions of the country reletting to the land were to be regulated. The question was truly one, the final adjustment of which was not merely deeply desirable, but a matter of para- mount neoessity ; for it was one by which all the acts and business of men's lives wereinfiuenced and governed. The object, as it appeared to him, of the house should be to pass a measure tohich menmight believe and look upon to be A CONCLUSIVE one." The resolutions were carried through parliament by an overwhelming majority, amounting almost to unanimity ; and the agriculturists, who, on the faith placed in the opinion thus expressed, by a man con- fessedly the best judge of the subject, as between the agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial interests of any man in the empire, have entered into contracts, in which thev have embarked their whole capitals, are threatened with a total alteration of tlie system, amounting to confiscation of their property — a system which has been found to work better for all classes than any other ever tried. In common with the agriculturists of the kingdom I hailed with joy the manly exposition of vour lord- ship's sentiments last year, as to the working of the present system of corn-laws. Your lordship, in Hansard's Debates, is reported to have said, " That It was lar from your intention to introduce any measusre for altering the ]^K-esent corn-laws, or for disturbing the system which at present existed. Holding these views, that yon certainly would not attempt to alter the system which bad been esta- blished, nor would you ever introduce any new system of corn-laws, founded on a different principle from the present, unless a decided opinion was expressed by a large majority of the people. That you believed the system to have operated well, and that it would be dangerous to touch it." Let me entreat your lordship not to be deceived by the petitions which will no doubt be presented to parliament, numerously signed, for an alteration of the corn-laws. I should not be surprised if, comparatively, petitions were presented by agricul- turists, apparently signed by few in number, in favour of them. The agriculturists cannot bring themselves to believe that vour lordship has seen anything to alter your mind "expressed so lately and so decidedly. I cannot understand tlie reasoning which would attach weight to merely the numbers of sis^natures to petitions, except in the minds of those who are advocates for universal suffrage. The only grounds that I can conceive to be urged against the amount of protection granted in 1828, are, that we have received considerable relief by the Poor-law and Tithe Bills. For bringing for- ward and passing two such valuable laws, I consider the country deeply indebted to the administration ; but allowing a saving of four millions on the poor- rates, of which three would fall to the land, it would not amount to Is. per quarter on the corn grown in England annually. This is saying nothing as to the rise of wages which it is said, and trulv, that the measure would effect. And as to the Tithe Com- mutation Bill, I consider that as a reason why we should increase our cultivation at home, rather than diminish it — saying nothing of the injustice to the owners of tithes, who, on the faith of the present corn-laws, have had their future incomes fixed by that standard. Since writing the foregoing, I have seen a letter written by Lord John Russell to one of his consti- tuents. Being well aware of the great improve- ments in agriculture introduced and brought to per- fection— remembering also the millions of acres brought into tillage — principally through the patron- age and encouragement given to agriculture by the late and present Duke of Bedford, I cannot believe that the son of the one, and nephew of the other, will lend a willing hand in undoing all that these great benefactors to their country have done, and again throw into their original unproductive state those millions of acres which have given food and employment to so large a proportion of our popula- tion. In the letter alluded to, Lord John Russell states, as his individual opinion, that experience has shown the present system of duties increase the high prices of dear years to the consumers, and de- press the low prices of cheap years to the producers. I am quite at a loss to imagine the ground for the latter opinion. If it is from the fact of the low price of corn for several years, I would remind his lord- ship, that it was stated by nearly all the members of the last agricultural committee to have arisen from abundant crops, and therefore the Marquis of Chandos obtained no parliamentary relief from it. As to it raising the price to the consumer in dear years, that arises entirely from the duty falling so rapidly. I will not say more than that I am deci- dedly of opinion, if parliament alter the present system, they will be sacrificing the best interests of the kingdom. If it listens and acts upon the views of the principal movers in getting up the petitions, who would reduce not only the agricultural but the manufacturing labourers to the same wretched con- ditition as those abroad, they will do that which will ruin the agricultural interest without any eventual eood to themselves. 198 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. If our protection is to depend only on fixed duties, they shonld be high enough, as stated by Mr. Huskisson, to counteract the difterence of ex • pense in raising- corn here and abroad. There is no chance of a fixed duty to anything like that amount. Unless we have duties fixed on the principle stated —I would say, abolish your corn-laws altogether. Let us have no half measures, no lingering death, as would be the case with a 10s. or los. duty. But with such an act the legislature is bound to pass another, releasing all tenants from engagements entered into on tl e faith of the present system—all tithe commutations— and, in fact, all understanding by which (as was so well said by Mr. Huskisson) the acts and business of men's lives are influenced and governed. I have the honour to be Your lordship's most obedient servant, JOHN ELLMAN. Glynde, near Lewes, Jan. 26. ON SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. " O fortiinatosnimium, sun si bona norint, Agricolas!" TO THE EDITOR OF THE NEWCASTLE CHRONICLE. Sin, — Such of your readers as are interested in the pursuits and improvements of agriculture may re- collect, that at the meeting of the Northumberland Agricultural Society, held at Wooler, in October last, a discussion took place, as was reported in your paper, upon the utility of subsoil ploughing, on which subject, opinions somewhat at variance, were expressed by the Marquis of Tweeddale and mvself. There are few men to whose zeal and example the ao-riculture of the northern parts of the kingdom is rnore indebted than to those of the noble marquis — few, to whose judgment and practical experience I am inclined to yield a more perfect confidence, and none whom I have been accustomed to meet on such occasions with greater pleasurt> and advantage. If, then, I ventured at the time referred to, to express opinions in opposition to his, it arose from a strong conviction that his Lordship was in error, not as regarded the subject of his own experiment, but in the application of a general principle, without due consideration for difference of circumstances. The object of subsoil ploughing, as you must know, is to break up a hard and retentive stratum, often found at the depth of a few inches below the surface, but without mixing it with the soil, by which means it is rendered pervious to water, which being with- drawn from the surface, the land is left in a fit con- dition for the nourishment and growth of plants which hitherto were apt to be injured by superabun- dant moisture. This, however, is a very expensive process, as the subsoil plough is an instrument of great strength, and requires four, or frequently six, horses to work it, while two more precede it, turning the surface furrow with a common plough. Lord Tweeddale did not deny tho efficacy of the subsoil plough, but condemned its use as unnecessarily ex- pensive, seeing that results equally beneficial might be produced by trench ploughing, which is merely following with a second plough in the furrows which the first has made, but at a greater depth. I also have practised trench ploughing to a considerable extent, and in some cases with good effect j but, whether the result was beneficial or injurious, de- pended upon the quality of the subsoil, which, by this process, is brought up and mixed with the surface soil. And my experience leads me to know tliat some descriptions of subsoil possess properties so pernicious to vegetation that the productive qua- lity of the land with which it lias been mixed, has been materially injured for years afterwards, and that it caused diseases in young stock after being restored to grass. This, then, brings me to the ])Oint which, at the meeting in question, I endea- voured to enforce — that no general rule can be applicable to all situations and circumstances, and lliat we are but working in the dark, and often mis- applviugour means, and wasting our money, till the elements of science shall be brought to bear upon the ]iractice of agriculture, and the qualities of our soils and manures be equally subjected to the test of chemical analysis. The subsoil in which Lord Tweeddale's experi- ment of trench ploughing proved successful, was, I presume, devoid of anything injurious to vegetation, and, therefore, after being exposed to the atmos- phere, and intermixed with the soil to which it gives a greater body, it became useful, besides that the greater depth of ploughing would render the land drier and more friable. In other districts the sub- soil may be not only harmless but beneficial, as in the neighbourhood of Rlorecamb Hay in Lancashire, where it is mixed with so much shelly and calcareous matter as to operate usefully as a manure, if applied in quantities suited to the character of the soil. But there is a description of subsoil very prevalent in this country, which is neither beneficial nor yet in- nocuous, but in a high degree pernicious, commonly called mcorband, a strong ferruginous concretion of gravel and clay which it is difficult to break through ; and being perfectly impervious to water, holds all the wet on its surface in rainy seasons, which in drought, being soon exhausted, leaves the crops to languish from want of moisture. I had lately an opportunity of witnessing the operation of the sub- soil plough, in the vale of the Till, upon land of this description. The surface soil was light, and easily turned over by a common plough with two horses ; that was followed by a subsoil plough, and by the united strength of six strong horses, the moorbaud , was shivered to pieces, but without being brought up, or in any way mixed with the surface soil. The etiect was extraordinary : it was a stubble field ; in riding over which, before ploughing, the horses' hoofs were scarcely found to make any impression ; but on turning to the land that had undergone the operation — woe betide the luckless fox-hunter that encounters such a field, he will find his horse sink to the depth of 18 or 'JO inches at every stride, which will soon " tahe the go out of him." I have procured tlie analysis of two different portions of this moor- band, which is as follows : — First — lyO parts afforded oxide of iron 34, silex; 74, alumin or clay 6, water and loss 6=120. Second— Oxide of iron 43, silex 64, alumin 8, water and loss .5^120. It is unnecessary to observe that such a combina- tion must be most injurious to vegetation, and there- fore pernicious, if brought to the surface ; and on this 1 rest my argument, that the practice which may be gcod in one case is bad in another ; and that to make the progress of agricultural improvement at all commensurate with the rapid advance in manu- fiicturts, to which the application of science, in its various branches, has so greatly contributed, more is requisite than the knowledge elicited, or the emulation excited, by our local agricultural associa- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 199 tions. We must call to our aid the principles of science, under the guidance of educated and scien- tific men : we must test by analysis, and prove hy experiment, and endeavour, by the applicaUoa of suitable manures, to stimulate the productive qua- lities of our soil, and to correct those ti)at are crude and pernicious ; and so look for remuneration for its culture in the abundance of its produce, and not in restrictive regulations affecting its price. A pro- spectus is now abroad for establishing an agricultural college, connected with an experimental farm, in Kent. It is a laudable and interesting undertaking, and I heartily wisli it success; but one naturally asks, is the subject not one of vast national import- ance, deservinn' of a national instead of a local insti- tution? An agricultural society for England has been es- tablished under the presidency of Lord Spencer, a nobleman eminently litted for the office, not merely by the ardour with which he has long pursued, and the great knowledge whicli he has acquired of agri- culture in all its departments, but also by that extra- ordinary candour and freedom from prejudice which characterize his mind. Would an agricultural col- lege, founded on liberal principles, and on an exten- sive scale, witli able professors in the different branches, not be most appropriately and beneficially connected with such a society, and best managed by a committee of its members, comprising the most intelligent as well as the most influential of the land ? I find that I have greatly exceeded the limits which I proposed to myself in beginning this letter, and shall not further encroach upon your paper ; but hoping the subject of a National Agricultural College may excite such interest as its importance merits, and meet with more able advocates, I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Di/stoH, Jan. 14, 1839. JOHN GREY. ON ASSESSING COTTAGES TO POOR RATES. Sir, — As Parliament did nothing last year to relieve the poor from the demand made on them to pay poor rates, I again offer my suggestions on the subject, believing, taking the times into consideration, that there is scarcely a subject that requires more early attention on th 3 meeting of Parliament. To tax the poor to pay the poor, surely must be most inconsistent. Summonses for payment have been issued in the parish I reside in, and in other neighbouring agricultural parishes, but the tax cannot be collected. My propo- sition to relieve the indigent poor from paying poor- rates, is as follows : — The occupiers of tenements, with or without garden ground attached, the rent of which does not exceed 4/. per annum, to be exempt from pay- ing poor-rates, on their signing, and sending to the overseer of the parish on or before a specified time, a printed declaration, which on their application will be furnished them, that they do not, in any way, pay more than 4/. per annum rent ; and the owner of the tene- ment pays all expences arising from repairs. Poor- rates levied on tenements with or without garden ground attached, the rents of which do exceed 4?. per annum, but do not exceed 8/. per annum, to be paid by the owners of the property. Above 8/. per annum, to be paid by the occupiers. No occupiers of their own freeholds, or copyholds, to be exempt from paying poor rates. The amount to which they are to be assessed to the poor-rates, to be fixed by the overseers and churchwardens of the parish. I remain, yours, &c., C. HILLYARD. President of the Northamptonshire Farming and Grazing Society. Thorpelands,near Northampton, Jan. 24. THE CORN LAWS. A series of propositions from the pen of Mr. Preston, of Lee House, written expressly for the use of the landed and agricultural interest:—- 1. It is the bounden duty of every Government to give useful employment to the industry of the country by a preference of the labour of its population before the la- bours of other countries. 2. It i* a consequent right of the agricultural labour- ers to be employed in raising corn and other articles of food, to be used by themselves and their f imilies, and of tliose individuals who derive their means of subsist- ence from supplying them with shoes, stockings, and other articles of clothing. 3. 'I'he British farmer cannot, by any possible exer- tion, be a competitor, even in his own domestic markets, with persons employing large capitals in the purchase of foreign corn, and who can turn their capital several times in each year, and will sell as often as they can realize any profit, however small, by the sale of one sup- ply, as the means of obtaining the next supply. 4. The price at which foreign corn can, from time to time, be sold in the British markets will necessarily control and govern the salable price of British-grown . corn. 5. On the principle that supply and demand govern prices, and considering that the principal cities and sea- ports, and the manufacturing towns to which there is easy access by canals, &c., would be supplied more easily by foreign than home-grown corn, the Britisli grower would be excluded from his best and most ex- tensive markets ; the markets which prevent a glut, and depreciation in markets of very limited demand. 6. An importation of corn, free of duty, would so ma- terially reduce the market price of corn that its growth would cease to be profitable, and the quantity of home- grown corn would be greatly reduced. 7. As a consequence, farmers would be ruined, land- lords would be distressed, labourers to the extent of an immense number, thrown out of agricultural employ- ment. The money circulation of the country would be greatly diminishecl, the public credit would be endan- gered, and the value ofmoneybeso changed that, as on a former instance of depression of prices, the mortgagees having lent only half the value of the land, on its secu- rity, would be compelled to take to the land itself; and general creditors who could obtain payment would ob- tain an undue advantage over their debtors. 8. A direct tax on corn, &:c. would be a tax on food, and is incompatible with all sound policy and principles of judicious finance. 9. The people would not tolerate a direct tax on food ; and if such a tax could be imposed, it could not be enforced at those periods when most wanted ; i. e. in times of deficient harvests and short crops. 10. Such duty would enhance the price of corn when deficient domestic harvests had increased the demand for foreign corn and increased its value and price. 11. The existing duty is not a direct tax on corn. It is, in truth and intention, a license to sell corn in the British market when the price of British corn advances beyond limits deemed reasonable for the consumers. It is a protection to the people from higii prices, and to the farmer from prices ruinously low, and especially from an unfair competition with the untaxed and un- tithcd produce of foreign countries. 12. A greatly diminished demanfl for agricultural la- bour would necessarily increase the supply to manu- facturing labour, and add to the distress of labourers in manufacture, by reducing the value of their labour. 13. All experience establishes the fact that the en- couragement of British agriculture, so as to render the supply equal to the demand, is the only safe and cer- tain mode of providing food at moderate prices, and with as little fluctuation as seasons and the visitations of Providence will admit, and is the only security, either in peace or war, and especially in war, for avoiding scarcity and even famine prices. 200 THE FARMEIVS MAGAZINE. THE CORN LAWS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE INTELLIGENCER. Sir, — I nm sorry to have to mention a typogra- phical error in that part of my letter wbich you did me the favour to insert last week. In the report of the commissioners you printed the quantity of cul- tivated land in Ireland as 10,600,000 acres, whereas it should have been 14,600,000 acres. Having dis- missed that part of my letter which was written in self defence, I now proceed to the general business of the meeting. The highly respectable individual who moved tlie first resolution asks, are we or are we not more es- sentially a manufacturing than an agricultural people ? Assuming an answer in the affirmative, he proceeds to say — if we are a commercial and not a corn-grow- ing country, and so forth. Now had I been present, with all deference I should have answered — most certainly we are not. 1 have shown in that part of this letter, which ap- peared in your paper of last week, that the property annually created by agriculture is 250 millions, to which I might, bad I wished to enlarge the sum, have added 10 millions for wool, hides, and other agricultural productions. This is fifteen times as much as is created by our woollen manufactures, (after de- ducting raw materials,) and nine times as much as cotton, and more than all our manufactures (except- ing agriculture) put together. I can show liim, if he will take a ride with me at the proper time next summer, (extending over many thousand acres) such abundant and fine crops of corn and other crops of vegetables, now in cultivation ; and such excellent and beautiful sheep, cattle and horses, compared to which the like cannot be found in any other corner of the four quarters of the world; and I can intro- duce him to farmers so respectable for their property, their talents, and their independence, that he will say, all the learning and all the knowledge is not on the side of the commercial gentry, and I tliink he will then say we are essentially a corn growing- country, — we are essentially an agricultural people. The number also of the people dependent on agri- culture is a very large majority of the whole popu- lation ; Mr. Cayley, who is no mean authority, said, in his place in the House of Commons last March, " I do not hesitate to affirm, that including the pro- vincial towns and the classes which are employed by the agricultural body, those interested in the wel- fare and prosperity of the agriculture of Great Bri- tain and Ireland, amount to at least five-sixths of tl\e whole population." Marshall's analysis of the occupation of the population of Great Britain, taken from the census of 1831, gives to agriculture 6,300,000 ; to manufacture 2,400,000. I hope I have, therefore, established my position, that we are not more essentially a manufacturing than an agricultural people. This gentleman says further, " I believe no oiher country has risen in importance equally with this." Certainly there is not, and this importance has been occasioned by the labour, skill, and capital of its people, and if that labour, skill, and capital were re- moved, its effects would be severely felt. Farm produce is as much a manufacture as broad cloth. A quarter of wheat cannot be produced witliout la- bour, skill, and capital, any more than a piece of woollen cloth, and as far as I am able to judge, it matters not to the nation at large whether we cease to produce goods of one kicd or of another, to a cer- tain amount, by which there is a corresponding cre- ation of property, whether it be agricultural, woollen, cotton, or hardware ; and for which there had been a ready market either at home or abroad, and by which 10 or 20 millions less is produced, by labour, skill, and capital, and 500,000 or a million of people thrown out of work. Mr. Oliver, a gentleman of high reputation, and not long since a candidate for a Professor's chair at the University of Edinburgh, states, that for every three million quarters of corn of all kinds, regularly imported, one million of people would be thrown out of bread, and two mil- lions of acres out of cultivation ; consequently if three or four months' supply was imported, say twelve million quarters, four million of labourers would be destitute, and eight million of acres return to waste. The Corn Laws are not the creation of the present season, they have existed in their full force for the 40 years, during which, this impor- tance, so just boasted of by the mover of this reso- lution, has been achieved. To me. Sir, it is, as sure as anything can be, which has not already happened, that if the Corn Laws happened to be repealed in accordance with the present movement, in less than one-fourth of that time, this importance will be no more, and the greatness of England will be lost for ever; other great nations have fallen by their indis- cretion, why may not this^ There is at present a duty of 30 to 40 per cent, on the import of foreign silk and linen cloth, of 20 per cent, on cutlery, and all other articles of iron or steel, and of mercery, and 15 per cent, upon worsted and woollen goods. Per- haps we shall be told these branches of our trade would have risen equally without this protection. Surely none but hired lecturers dare to make such an assertion. I say, without fear of contradiction, had no such protective duties as those on worsted and woollen goods existed, the towns of Leeds and Bradford would at this time have occupied a much smaller space than they now occupy. I never heard an agriculturist complain of these impositions, they have been and are as necessary to the prosperity of tbese trades, as the Corn Laws have been, and are to the successful prosecution of agriculture. My admiration and applause of the manufacturers and merchants of this country have never been with- held, greatly are we indebted to the first for their ingenuity and perseverance, and to the others for courage and alacrity which have carried our com- merce into every habitable part of the globe, nor will I refrain from giving to Master Clodpole and his family the merits due to them who have cultivated the earth with so much spirit and skill as to make two blades of grass to grow where there was but one. I learn from undoubted authority, that previously to 1800, our average imports of wool did not much exceed 3,000,0001bs. In 1800 our imports amounted to near 9,000,000lbs., and they have since eone on s:raduallv increasing, till in 1834, they amounted to between' 25,000,000 and 40,000,000lbs. In 1837, the quantity imported and retained for home con- sumption was 41,718,514 lbs. In 1838, it was 43,148,297 lbs., during which time there has been an increase of native wool amounting to 20,000,000 lbs., yet there has been no increase of the exports of woollen goods. According to Mc Culloch, in 1802, the official value of exports of woollen manufactory rose to 7,321, 0l21bs., being the largest amount they ever reached till 1835, when they amounted to 7,777,952 lbs. In 1836, including woollen and worsted yarn, they were 426,408. In 1837, they became 7,671,785. In 18.38, it was 4,820,621Z. ; this is official value. Now, without taking 1838, the deficiency of which year may be accounted far from particular circumstances which then happened, the amount of our exports of woollen and worsted THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. 201 goods has been nearly stationary for 30 or 40 years, notwithstanding which an immense increase of the raw material has been somehow or other required ; this is an astounding- fact, and it is a fact, the trutli of which no one can doubt, and to all those who are little acquainted with the demands of JMaster Clod- pole and bis family, and of the home trade, it will occasion surprise, but perhaps not conviction, that we ought to support our home trade. Repeal the Corn Laws, by which the landlords must be content with half their present rents, the regular farmers with less than half their present profits, and the poor husbandmen with half their present wages, and most assuredly there will be no need of this large supply of wool. I break off here again, though the whole of my letter was written on the aist, as the remaining part will not occupy a larger space tlian the part I now send you. I hope I may be favoured with a corner of your following paper, and I assure you it is my intention to say no more publicly on this subject for some time to come. — I am. Sir, your obedient servant, Leerfs, /an. 31, 1839. JOHN BAKER. the cause of the hig-h state of cultivation in England, and the prosperity of its agriculture. If the great men had the lands in their own hands there, every now and then an improvident one would skin the soil and run it out; bein' let to others, he can't do it himself, and he takes plaguy good care by his lease his tenant shan't do it neither. Well, then, there he his, with his capital to make great improvements, substantial repairs, and so on, and things are pushed up to perfection.'' AGRICULTURE.— The following statement of the comparative modes of farming in England and America, is extracted from that amusing publication. The Clock- maker : — The barne of this country. Squire, and, indeed, of all America, is havin' too mucii land ; they run over more ground than they can cultivate, and crop tiie land so severely that they run it out. A very large portion of land in America has been run out by repeated grain crops ; and when you add that to land naturally too poor to bear grain, or too broken for cultivation, you wvll find this great country in a fair way to be ruined. The State of Vermont has nothin' like the exports it used to have ; and a plaguy sight of the young folks came down to Boston to hire out as helps. Tlie two Carolinas and Virginia are covered with places that have been given up as ruined, and many other states.— W« hav'n't the surplus of wheat and grain we used to have in the [/-nited States, and it never will be so plenty again. That's the reason you hear of folk's clearin' land, makin' a farm, and sellin' off again, and goin' further into the bush. They've exhausted it, and find it easier to clear new lands than to restore the old. A great deal of Nova Scotia is run out : and if it war'n't for the lime, marsh- mud, sea-weed, salt sand and what not, they've got here in such quantities, there'd be no cure for it — It takes good farmin' to keep an upland location in order, I tell you, and make it sustain itself. It takes more to fetch a farm too that's had the gizzard taken out of it than it's worth. It actilly friglitens me when I think your agriculture in Britain is progressin' and the land better tilled every day, while tliousands upon thousands of acres with us are turned into barrens. No traveller as I've seed have noticed this, and our folks are not aware of it themselves to the extent of the evil. Squire, you and I wont live to see it ; but, if this awful robbin' of prosperity goes on for another century as it has pro- gressed for the last hundred years, we'll be a nation of paupers. Very little land in America, even of the best will cary more than one crop of wheat arter its cleared a'fore it wants manure ; and where it's cleared' so fast, Where's the manure to come from, it puzzles me ? (and I won't turn my back on any man in the farmin' line ;) the Lord knows, for I don't ; but if there's a thing that icares me it is this. * * * Yes, too much land is the ruin of us all at this side of the water. Afore I went to England I used to think that the onequal divisions of property there, and the system of landlord and tenant, was a curse to the country ; and that there was more dignity and freedom to the individual and more benefit to the nation, for every man to own the land he cultiva- ted, as with us. ,But I've changed my mind ; I see it's ON THE EFFECTS OF DRAINING. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sin, — In your very able leading article of last Mon- day, and in the very interesting report of your East Lothian correspondent, a few inadvertencies have crept in ; and as the suggestions on draining will have great weight amongst agriculturists, I trust you will permit rae to offer a few observations, arising from a consider- able acquaintance with the Scotch system of manage- ment. In the " Mark Lane Express" it is stated, that, land which, with difficulty, had been let at Five Shillings per acre, became worth two guineas to the landlord, by the mere operation of draining. This I know to be the act, on many large estates in Scotland. The statement is followed up by a remark, that in many cases, the value of land (or rent) has been increased from 20 to 50 per cent ; which remark, however satisfactory in it- self, may greatly lessen the just impression conveyed in the first announcement of no less than 800 per cent, and so great a diflfcrence might discourage those agri- culturists who are not familiar with the subject. The vast benefit to the farmer need not be enlarged upon, since it must far exceed the relative increase of rent. It is mentioned in tiie same moderate tone, that an increase of twelve hnsliels per acre may be counted upon as one result of draining; but. Sir, I can appeal to the principal agriculturists in East Lothian and Ayr- shire, (the counties where draining is most advanced,) whether the increase of crop consequent upon that pro- cess may not more properly be put at double, and even treble the previous produce of the land. On the collateral benefits derived from working well- drained land, instead of such as will not bear the horse's feet but at certain (or rather uncertain) times, I shall not dwell ; — they will easily be estimated by every farmer. Your East Lothian correspondent mentions that drain tiles may be expected to be destroyed by frost, if left above ground. The tiles however, which are made by the Marquess of 'J'weeddale's machinery, are so com- pact and (so to speak) metallic, that they will no more sustain injury from exposure to weather, than if they were formed of hard stone. Instead of merely lasting over a lease of 19 years, the ordinary Scotch term, they will survive as long as the celebrated Roman brick, which seems rather to be strengthened than impaired by the "tooth of time." I beg leave also to assure your very judicious and in- telligent correspondent, that so far from the lower stra- tum which is dug up in forming a drain, being perni- cious, tliis sort of till or " sour clay," has latterly been ascertained to act directly as a manure to the neigh- bouring ridges, if spread lightly over them. I cannot conclude these remarks without expressing my cordial concurrence in the patriotic and enlightened views which you have taken as to the National and in- dividual benefits to be derived from the adoption of an universal system of thorough draining. 1 am sanguine enough to think that by such adoption, the ngricnltural interest could aff'.rrd to forego all the boasted protection of the Corn Laws '. I am, Sir, your very faithful Servant, SCOTUS. ]8t/t January, 202 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. NEW, QUICK, AND HUMANE METHOD OF SLAUGHTERING ANIMALS. I take this method of announcing to the public, that I liave discovered, and, after a long series of experiments, matured a new, quick, and humane method of slaughtering- animals for human food, which promises to be of the greatest benefit to man- kind, and for which her Majesty the Queen has been graciously pleased to grant me her royal letters pa- tent. The physiological principle upon which this dis- covery is founded, and the existence of which was first ascertained by myself, is, that a power, of great and extensive use to animal life, is derived from the stretch in which the lungs are held both in the living and recently dead animals, in opposition to thflir elasticity. In consequence of this power existing after death, while the antagonist and controlling power derived from irritability was destroyed witli life, the blood, lympathic and lacteal fluids, are all drained from the arteries and smaller veins of the larger circulation, and from the Ivmpathics and lac- teals into the viscera and blood vessels within the chest, and into the roots of the larger veins ap- proaching to it. It is impossible, and would be unseasonable, to enter fully into the physiological doctrine in an ad- dress of this kind. Such as may wish to be better informed on the subject are referred to a paper of mine, printedinthe PhilosophicalTrayiscictiomi {or 1820, on the Elasticity of the Lungs ; to another paper of mine, printed in the Trajisactions of the Medico Chi- rurgical Society of London, for 1821, on the Vacuity of the Arteries after death ; and to the articles Respira- tion, Motion of the Blood, and Absorption, con- tained in the second edition of the Inquiry into the Causes of the Motion of the Blood, published in the year 1833. The object of themode of slaughtering recommend- ed is, to remove the impediments which nature has set up against the elasticity of the lungs, on the ex- istence ofwhich impediments, life, in a great measure, depends, and, of course, to allow the lungs to resili- ate into their natural dimensions, or in other words, to collapse, while the animal is still alive. The method of removing these impediments in the circumstances stated, to break fully and at once what may be considered the mainspring of life, in all ani- mals with elastic lungs, in the most humane manner, has been the object of long and anxious consideration and of much varied experiment. The result has been effectual and conclusive. The effect of this method of slaughtering is to re- tain the lympathic and lacteal fluids, and, indeed all the finer juices of the body, at the same points and in the same propoition in which tliev existed while the animal was still alive, instead of being accumulated in the large vessels and discharged out of the body in a mass, and becoming a nuisance. The result is an increase of the edible parts of a carcase to the amount of at least one-tenth beyond that which it would supply by any mode of slaugh- tering hitherto in use. The meat thus obtained is more juicy, tender, and far better flavoured. It sets sooner, and, of course, is earlier fit for use. It keeps much longer sweet and untainted. This remarkable and important property is evidently derived from none of the vessels being empty so as to admit the external air, and from an oozing of juice or lymph from the full vessels, when any portion is cut, upon the raw surface of that portion, and, by its tenacity, forming a sealing cement. This property is of great importance to butchers, who lose a great deal of meat in certain states of the weather ; to the public in general ; but particularly to mariners and to the in- habitants of warm climates. The time to which this meat will keep in difierent states of the weather has not been ascertained, for it has always been used before any marks of approach- ing putrescency have been discovered ; but, in the course of last autumn, this meat continued sweet and untainted for many days after ether meat, killed at the same time and placed in the same circumstances, had given such proofs of spoiling as to render it necessary to cook it. The meat, the produce of slaughtering in this mode, is more economical. In the first place, it never shrinks, but, on the contrary, enlarges in cook - ing ; the fat, being supplied with the juices which enrich the muscular or red portion, is much more savoury and is more acceptable to delicate palates, and is, therefore, the less wasted. It requires less time to cook. The centre of a large joint is done nearly as soon as tlie surface. These properties are derived from the meat being less spongy and a bet- ter conductor of heat than meat obtained by any of the modes of slaughtering at present in use. It preserves well and requires a much less quantity of salt. Other valuable properties will present themselves to those who use this meat, and the method in question is also attended with advantageous results affecting- hides, skins, &c., upon which it is not necessary now to dilate. Such of the public as wish to make a trial of what may be called the p-atent butcher's meat, upon a short notice being given, may be supplied by any of the butchers whose names will be given. Any butcher who wishes to be instructed in the manner of slaugh- tering may obtain that and any other necessary in- formation appertaining to the patent, by applying to Messrs. Carson, Brothers, the patentee's agents for Liverpool. I may, I trust, be permitted to state, that the ad- dition of one-tenth, at least, to the edible portion of animals slaughtered for human food, with a high de- gree of imj)rovement in the quality of the whole, with the property of keeping much longer, and with a diminution of the expense of cookins:, as well as less waste in the substance cooked, will not be deemed one of the least important boons which science has, at any period, been found to yield to the exigencies of human life. The development of a plan by which a great ad- dition of animal food may be said to be, as it were, created, will be considered peculiarly propitious at a time in which the vegetable food of the country is apprehended to be deficient, and, if timeously and extensively embraced, may be the means of pre- venting, or greatly -alleviating, that distress which is always felt in seasons of scarcity. JAS. CARSON, M.D., T.R.S. Liverpool, 24th Dec. 1838. THE NEW POOR LAWS. From the last report of the Commissioners up to the 25th March, 1837, comparing the results with those of 1834, it appears that a diminution has been effected in the expenditure for the relief of the poor for England and Wales, amounting to 2,702,484/. — nearly three millions of money, which has been left in the pockets of the rate payers ! THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 The total expenditure in 1834 was 7,511,219/., ia 1837, 4,808,735/., showing the saving effected to have been at the rate of 36 per cent. Much of the saving appears by the return to have been made under the head of law charges, removals of pau- pers, and travelling expenses of overseers, items which in the year 1834 amounted to the enormous sum of 258,604/. In 1837 the charge under these heads is 126,951/. a difference of more than 50 per cent. The population of England and Wales, according to the census of 1831, was 13,897,187. The poor rates, therefore, which in 1834 amount- ed to more than seven millions, were equivalent to a tax of more than ten shillings a. head upon the whole population of the country, men, women, and children. COUNTIES. Sussex Bedford Buckingham Nortaampton Kent Leicester . . . Oxford Suffolk Berks Hertford . . . Norfolk Surrey Hantingdon . Southampton Wilts Essex Middlesex Warwick . , . Cambridge . . Gloucester . . Derby Worcester . . Salop Dorset Hereford . . . Lincoln Rutland Stafford Monmouth Nottingham . Somerset York, West Riding Chester Lancaster Westmorland . . .. York, East Riding York, North Riding Cornwall Cumberland .... Durham Devon Northumberland . . Totals of England Totals of Wales . Totals of England and Wales . , . Population in 1831. 272,340 95,483 146,529 179,336 479,15.T 197,003 152,156 296,317 145,389 143,341 390,054 486,334 53,192 314,280 240,156 317,507 1,358.330 336,610 143,955 387,019 237,170 211.365 222,938 159,252 111,211 317,465 19,385 410,512 99,130 225,327 404,200 976,350 334,391 1,336,854 55,041 204,253 190,756 300,938 169,681 253,910 494,478 222,912 Total Expenditure for the Relief of tlie Poor, Law Charges, &c., and for other purposes in the Years ended 25th March. 1834. £285,436 85,549 139,883 156,613 406,961 1 18,420 136,752 273,030 1 15,238 100,043 345,644 341,384 40,958 232,263 193,400 270,560 789,884 186,186 110,485 190,147 90,702 95,982 93 842 93,927 64,409 195,604 11,204 148,235 33,039 83,834 204,076 304,932 118,439 334,069 24,830 105,241 86,713 109,133 50,513 93,811 236,384 83.410 13,091,005 806,182 13,897,187 1837. £131,364 39,105 69,499 79,616 215,499 63,767 72,402 150,214 61,611 54,054 196,996 200,040 24,053 139,242 114,077 161,035 .543,795 115,326 68,806 122,199 61,076 64,064 63,821 64,034 43,439 133,767 6,845 104,081 21,758 57,511 137,938 219,716 85,482 251,542 17,775 76,479 66,644 82,705 37,588 72.426 174,838 66,922 7,181,165 4,533,151 330,0s4 275,584 7,511,219 4.808,735 TO THE LANDOWNERS AND OCCU- PIERS OF THE COUNTY OF ESSEX. Friends and Fellow Farmbrs, — I cannot resist an attempt to awaken you to the danger that threatens and the daily insults that are poured out upon us on the subject of the corn-laws. That you have hither- to been silent, ma}^ be the consequence of your contempt for the great majority of anti-corn-law chieftains, who substitute slander and abuse for argument, and who exhibit a degree of virulence and vulgarity that I think is perfectly unrivalled : but, my friends, unhappily there are persons of rank, and station, and character, and great talent in the country, who, in my opinion, are at once the pro- moters and dupes of free trade theories, and whose influence is justly to be feared. First, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who, in a letter to his constituents, has passed a sentence of condemnation of the exist- ing corn-laws, and his opinion in favour of free trade, with a small duty. Vou all know my attach- ment to the present government founded on political principle, increased by personal regard and sincere and warm friendship for many of the persons com- posing it. I have particularly felt the highest confidence in Lord John Russell, his integrity, high honour, and good sense ; and I think tlie coun- try owes to the present government a debt of eternal gratitude for their Tithe Commutation and Poor-law Acts; but the opinion expressed by his lordship, and the vote he intends to give on the corn-law question, appear to be at variance with all practical views of the subject, and indeed a most rash and hazardous experiment upon the vital interests of the country, to abandon a system under which agricul- ture and every interest in tbe country has flourished for centuries, and to adopt its opposite is a proceeding which we, who have the more solid and closer tie to our country, ought to resist by all legitimate means. I am inclined to think that the best plan will be to send up a petition from every parish in the county, with signatures of names and residence ; and their trades or professions should be given, as I trust we shall heve nearly as many tradesmen in proportion as agriculturists, aye, and labourers too, for they most of them know thatybreig/i corn is in effect foreign labour introduced amongst them ; that away goes employ- ment at home and down comes wages, that they generally go down faster than the corn markets, the fraud practised on the working classes by the great capitalists and political economists is the grossest and most egregious of any that ever was palmed upon them. 1 am astonished that tbey do not see that low wages is their object — is it not avowed ? How can any operative feel any certainty that a fall in the price of flour shall be so much more rapid than the declension of the rate of wages — for such it must be to benefit them. Do they not see that the agricultu- ral labourers will by distress themselves flock into the great towns ? It is true that comparatively few can turn their hands to manufactures — but some can, and their children can, and in numbers suflBcient to depress the demand for labour. It is the very thing that millowners would like; it really does astonish me that they, the working classes, should be the dupes of imposition so audacious, and to the degree of making them an absolute cat's paw, with danger of more seriously burning their fingers than in taking chesnuts out of the fire : they are actually stirring up the working classes to riot in favour of foreign corn, to which many a victim may suffer, but the instigators will take care not to be of the number. I am not easily alarmed, for the English people have 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a stamina of good sense which nothing can over- come ; but we may suffer much, and I foresee very painful consequences from the possible success of the free trade men on this occasion. If vanquished by such means as have been had recourse to, the landed interest must bid adieu to that salutary in- fluence which they have hitherto possessed in the councils of the nation. Insulted, vilified by the economists and capitalists, slandered in the most unwarranted manner by the licentiousness of a press that dishonours its freedom — we must, I say, fight, and the battle must be won, or make up our minds to sink into utter and irredeemable contempt and insignificance. There is not a moment to be lost. — Believe me, your faithful friend and fellow subject, WESTERN. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MORNING HERALD. Sir, — Perhaps my name, as formerly a convey- ancer and barrister in London, and one of her Majesty's counsel, may be known to you. The public also may recollect the part I have taken on the corn-laws in parliament, and especially in the pamphlets addressed to the fundholder, &c., and on the state of agricultural distress, which pamphlets may be found in the Pamphleteer. An examination of the resolutions of the Manchester board of commerce is written, and may be com- manded by you or any other public journal advocating the interests of agriculture, &c. At present I transmit to you a string of proposi- tions in the form of resolutions, which may assist the minds and aid the determinations of meetings con- vened for the protection of the landed and agricul- tural interests ; and you may publish these propo- sitions (with or without my name, as you may think fit). My object in framing these resolutions is to present to the public eye, in the most simple manner, a correct view of the subject. 1. It is the bounden duty of every government (o give useful employment to the industry of the country, by a preference of the labour of its popula- tion before the labours of other countries. 2. It is a consequent right of the agricultural labourers to be employed in raising corn and other articles of food, to be used by themselves and their families, and of those individuals who derive their means of subsistence from supplying them with shoes, stockings, and other articles of clothing. 3. The British farmer cannot, by any possible ex- ertion, be a competitor, even in his own domestic markets, with persons employing large capitals in the purchase of foreign corn, and who can turn their capital several times in each year, and will sell as often as they can realise any profit, however small, by the sale of one supply, as the means of obtainint^ the next supply. " ^ 4. The price at which foreign corn can, from time to time, be sold in the British markets will necessarily controul and govern the saleable price of British-grown corn. 5. On the principle that supply and demand govern prices, and considering that the principal cities and sea-ports, and the manufacturing towns to which there is easy access by canals, &c., would be supplied more easily by foreign than home-grown corn, the British grower would be excluded from his best and most extensive markets ; the markets which prevent a glut, and depreciation in markets of very limited demand. 6. An importation of corn, free of duty, would so materially reduce the market price of corn that its g-rowth would cease to be profitable, and the quan- tity of home-grown corn be greatly reduced. 7. As a consequence, farmers would be ruined, landlords would be distressed, labourers to the ex- tent of an immense number, thrown out of agricul- tural employment. The money circulation of the country would be greatly diminished, the public credit would be endangered, and the value of money be so changed that, as on a former instance of de- pression of prices, the mortgagees having lent only half the value of the land, on its security, would be compelled to take to the land itself; and general creditors who could obtain payment would obtain an undue advantage over their debtors. 8. A direct tax on corn, &c., would be a tax on food, and is incompatible with all sound policy and principles of judicious finance, 9. The people would not tolerate a direct tax on food; and if such a tax could be imposed it could not be enforced at those periods when most wanted; i. e., in times of deficient harvests and short crops. 10 Such duty would enhances the price of corn when deficient domestic harvests had increased the demand for foreign corn and increased its value and price. 11. I'he existing duty is not a direct tax on corn. It is, in truth and intention, a license to sell corn in the British market when the price of British corn advances beyond limits deemed reasonable for the consumers. It is a protection to the people from high prices, and to the farmer from prices ruinously low, and especially from an unfair competition with the untaxed and untithed produce of foreign countries. 1!2. A greatly diminished demand for agricultural labour would necessarily increase the supply to manufacturing labour, and add to the distress of labourers in manufacture, by reducing the value of their labour. 13. All experience establishes the fact that the encouragement of British agriculture, so as to render the supply equal to the demand, is the only safe and certain mode of providing food at moderate prices, and with as little fluctuation as seasons and the visitations of providence will admit, and is the only security, either in peace or war, and especially in war, for avoiding scarcity and even famine prices. RICHARD PRESTON. Lee House, Chalmleigh, Jan. 3, 1839. TITHE ON HOPS.— By order of the Tithe Com- missioners, a meeting was held a few days since at Bentley, which adjoins the parish of Farnham, where the " Farnham hop" is grown, and the hop being also extensively cultivated in the former parish, considerable interest was excited. A composition had been received by the tithe-owner during the years 1829 and 1830, and he proposed to give in evidence that the tithes had then been valued at a certain gross sum, for which a larger sum was de- ducted for rates than was actually paid, and he claimed the full gross sum for those two years ; but the assistant-commissioner (Mr. WooUeyJ ruled that the evidence must, on the present occasion, be con- fined to the composition received, and the poor-rates actually paid in respect of the tithes, and that the other question must be gone into under a notice to increase the averages. This the tithe-owner said he should forthwith give. For the next five years the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 205 tithes were taken in kind. The tithe-owner pro- duced his accounts of receipts, which showed for the hops an average of 84 cwt. per year for the five years, and an average produce of 5611. 6s. 6d. per annum, or 61. 14s. per cwt.; and for the other tithes an average produce of 861 i. per year for tlie five years. These accounts, after making a deduction for agistment of after-pasture, which had been ren- dered by mistake, were admitted by the landowners to be correct. The titheowner proposed to allow 20 per cent, for collecting and marketing the tithes, ex- clusive of hops, and the landlords demanded 25 per cent. The point was referred by consent to the as- sistant-commissioner, and he gave his decision in fa- vour of the landowner's demand. Evidence was then given that the expense of collecting, drying, and marketing the hops, including duty, bailiff's ex- penses, and commission to an agent for selling at Weyhill, was under 30 per cent. The landowners would neither admit or deny this evidence ; they con- tended that the extraordinary charge for hops was not to be arrived at in this manner ; that a district must be assigned, and that it must be governed by the average rate of past compositions in that district. The assistant-commissioner observed that the net sum received by the tithe-owner for the hops would be taken into consideration with all other circum- stances, and that it was to the interest of the land- owners to reduce it by evidence as much as possible ; that Bentley was in a peculiar district, and that other places would not govern it ; that the commissioners were not at all prepared to say what ought to be the extraordinary charge on this district, and that if the parties could not agree amongst themselves probably it would be a considerable time before the matter could be settled. The tithe-owner offered to allow 30 per cent, for the hops, leaving a net average sum of 392/. 9s. per annum, which divided by 126, the average number of acres of hops per year during the five years, shewed a return ofo/. 2s. per acre per annum. The parties could not agree, and the meet- ing was therefore adjourned for three months. In the course of the inquiry, the assistant-commissioner stated that the ordinary charge would be the same as the ordinary charge on the best wheat land in the parish. ON PORTABLE MANURES. " IMPERIAL COMPOST." In a short article, in your last number, I offered an opinion regarding the nature and operation of bone-dust, which I perceive has attracted some no- tice ; and I wish to follow it up by a few observa- tions on the importance of fixing the attention of agriculturists on the sources from which portable manures of equal value with bone dust may be de- rived, at less than oue-half the present cost of that substance. That the introduction of bone manure has been of incalculable benefit to this country is undeniable ; but, when we consider the enormous sum we pay to foreigners for supplying the constantly encreasing demand, it would be well to look at home, to at least lessen this drain on our already too much di- minished resources. The declared value of bones imported in 1821, was, 16,500/. In 1831, it encreased to 72,000/. ; and in the returns of 1832, being the last to which I have access, to 92,000/, We may fairly conclude. that during the last seven years, from the prodigious demand for bone dust, the imports have increased in the same proportion — and that we are now paying, at least, 200,000/. per aanum to foreigners for this article of manure. The late Mr. Huskisson stated in the House of Commons, in 1827, that the sum then expended on bone dust occasioned an additional produce of 500,000 quarters of corn. It is not too much to suppose that the quantity has since been encreased four-fold — for the high price of bones has led to a most careful collection of them in every part of the United Kingdom ; and although this branch of industry deserves every encouragement at home, it would be for the general interest of the country, and of agriculturists in particular, if substitutes could be provided for the supplies obtained from the continent. In my former article I stated, that the most active ingredients in bone dust are phosphoric acid and am- monia, combined with lime and carbon ; and, that it is to the action of these upon eich other, and the influences of the changes of the atmosphere, and of sunshine, and rain, in producing and maintaining that action, both above and in the ground, is to be attributed the extraordinary results attending the ap- plication of bone dust. Now, it appears to me, that a portable manure may be prepared, very easily, and at little expense, in every farm-yard in the kingdom, which shall con- tain the elements which enrich and stimulate the soil to the highest pitch of fertility. As follows : — 1 ton of turf or peat dust— (if ashes, still better,) 1 cwt. soot. 1 cwt. common or agri- cultural salt. 1 cwt. quick lime, (reduced to pow- der.) 14lbs. East India saltpetre. (Nitrate of pot- ash.) The ashes, soot, and lime, to be well mixed together. The salt and saltpetre to be dissolved in urine as it may be required to saturate and keep moist the heap. After the salts are expended, urine to be continued — new ashes to be spread on the top to intercept the vapours. A composition may thus be formed for less than twenty shillings per ton, which, weight for weight, will be as valuable as any bone dust— nay, for gene- ral use, for all kinds of crops, or top-dressing, more serviceable. The ingredients in the mass, supply all the elements for which decayed vegetable and animal substances are used, such as alkali and carbon — as recommended by Arthur Young ; and oil, by Sir John Sinclair. In forming ordinary composts, by adding one-tenth of this preparation to farm-yard manure, their ferti- lizing power and durability in the soil would be doubled. Many years' careful observation on the eflects of a variety of portable manures, particularly in alkalis, has led me to these conclusions. "The powers of lime, carbon, soda, potash, ammonia, with an infinite variety of these substances in the stomach of mother earth, will produce — must on unerring principles, yield life and nourishment to the vege- table kingdom. The expense may be stated as follows :— s. D. 1 ton of peat-dust, or ashes, taken at. . 5 0 1 cwt. of soot 1 0 1 cwt. of lime 2 0 1 cwt. of salt 1 6 14 lbs. saltpetre 5 0 Allow for urine and labour 5 6 £10 0 The quantity prepared in this manner for twenty shillings, will certainly go as far for a turnip crop, as 40 bushels of bone dust, which costs from 3/. to p 2 2C6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41., will prove as efficacious in the first crop, and more lasting and useful in the ground afterwards. I sball now specify the grounds on which the effi- cacy of this compost rests in a chemical point of view, that the practical farmer may satisfy himself that he is not led by blind chance, but follows the unerring laws of nature, by adopting what is here ofiered for his benefit. The turf dust, or ashes, contain carbonaceous matter, in a tit state to imbibe and retain the active properties of the other ingredients ; and serves as a receptacle for the performance of the chemical action of the conflicting substances; until the whole mass becomes impregnated with elastic juices of various kinds, in a highly concentrated state, which are given out gradually, when applied to the soil, ac- cording to the influence of the atmosphere, and of sun and rain. The lime imparts the calcareous pro- perty essential to all soils in various combinations with acids. The salt and saltpetre yield the mineral and vegetable alkalis united to nitric and muriatic acid, both of which exert a most powerful influence when separated from their bases — which the contact of caustic lime slowly, but certainly eflfects. The urine, of all sorts, furnishes animal matter, and am- monia in abundance. The soot adds much strength to the carbonaceous matter, and encreases the am- monia. I think this preparation may justly be termed the " Imperial Compost." We have all heard of the wonderful eflfects pro- duced by lime, by salt, by saltpetre, separately ap- plied, under circumstances which have never been satisfactorily described, cr accounted for, so as to establish a data to snide to similar results. We have much oftener heard of the application of these three substances to land, without any beneficial effect, but absolutely causing sterility for a time — and the reason for such failures remains iu equal obscurity. It is evident, therefore, that instead of separate applications, a combination is advisable to secure a certain benefit without the risk of failure. The grateful soil cannot receive a benefit without returning it in some shape, with more than compound interest. I address this more to the common sense and ex- perience of practical farmers than to men of science — though I believe my views will bear the exami- nation of the latter class — whose aid is very much required in support of agriculture, which, as a sci- ence, is yet iu its infancy. — Irish Farmer's Magazine. D. M'C. Larch-Hill, County Dublin, Jan, 1839. ON THE CULTURE OF THE POTATO. By Mr. Toweus, C. M. H. S. (From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,) " The subject of the potato culture is yet quite open to the experimenter. Experiment on it by all possible varieties of ways is our advice ; and when a sufficiency of facts have been collected, we shall then, and not till then, be warranted in theorizing on the nature of the potato plant." It is neither a loss of time, nor useless repetition, to copy ver- batim the closing paragraph of the editorial note, p. 110 of the last number 41 ; for, by so doing, attention may be rivetted to a very grave subject. and also to the other papers, in the same number, to which the note refers. Considering the admonition to experiraentize in all possible varieties of ways as most sound advice, I believe that I shall be acting in accordance with it, by entering into a detail of the various methods of culture which I have pursued during a period of eight or more years, and noting down, as far as existing documents permit, the corresponding results. I will premise that, previous to 1830, my practice was regulated by that of ordinary cultivators in the west of Wiltshire, where I then resided ; but that subsequently, in consequence of the frequent intercourse by letters with the vene- rable (late) President of the London Horticultural Society, and of receiving numerous varieties of po- tato from that gentleman, the product of his own unremitting experiments, I altered my practice, and have met with great success. At the period when the public press was burdened with alarming notices of " failure," I never saw an unhealthy plant, with one most singular exception, which I will, in its place, adduce as such. If this article fail to announce, or give weight to any new and important facts, it will at the least, offer a pledge of what has been, and may again be successfully attempted. The opinions and theory of the la- mented president shall be referred to, and thus the reader will be placed in possession of some valuable extracts from original letters, which are by me esteemed very precious relics, for they are now all that remain of one of the most candid, liberal, unselfish minds that ever adorned the world of science. In the cultivation of the potato, the chief object ought to be the production of the utmost quantity of that mealy substance which constitutes the nu- tritive property of the root. This substance was formerly called the farina, a term which, if re- ferred to qualities resembling those of meal or four, can by no means be admitted, because of the total absence of that peculiar gluten which dis- tinguishes the flour of grain, and qualifies it to undergo the panary fermentation, and become bread. Amylum and starch, on the contrary, are correct terms : and with this remarkable sub- stance the potato abounds, but to a greater or less extent, according to the ground in which it grows, and to the routine of culture to which it is subjected. By the analysis of Einhoff, referred to by Sir H. Davy, in his Agricultural Lectures, the following results were obtaiiied: — From 7680 parts of potato — Of Starch (amylum) 1153 Fibrous matter, analogous to starch .... 540 Albumen 107 Mucilage, in a state of saturated solution. 3l2 2112 Residue, or loss, must have been worthless fluid =5568 Thus the starch, to the extent of about 1700 parts in 7680, constitutes the chief material of food, because the mucilage in solution, represents only just so much gum-water, and the vegetable albu- men can hardly be admitted to be equal to a like quantity of the " white of egg," animal albumen. My own more simple and familiar analysis, described in the " Domestic Gardener's Manual," under the article " The potato," gives, from eight pounds of washed, but unpeeled potatoes finely rasped, — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 207 lb, oz. Of amyluin or starch , 1 6 Of pulp, after pressure by hand 1 11 Loss in water, or soluble matters 4 1.5 The amylum, whether it exist in the state of powder, or in the form of ''fibrous matter" is the substance which confers excellence upon the vegetable. Potatoes will grow in any soil, from that of the loosest sand, if it be united with some reduced vegetable matter, to the strongest clays of agriculture ; but what is of still greater moment to the subject under consideration, — the produce in amount or quality appears to be materially influenced by local agencies, even in the soils of the same constitution. Thus the sands which bring fine mealy tubers in Somersetshire, fail in other quarters of the kingdom. On this ground only can we account for the discrepancy which we meet with in the papers of the many cultiva- tors who have given publicity to their practice and opinions ; one asserting that the light and dry lands bear the best crops, while another maintains, that stiflF and clayey soils are most congenial. The operations of soils, therefore, are contingent ; and it is proved, almost to a demon- stration, that potatoes which are excellent in West Wiltshire, as for example, the varieties there termed the " Early Purple-eyed," and the " Prince's Beauty," became deteriorated in Berk- shire, treat them how you may. Lancashire is famed for its varieties, which boil to a meal that crumbles under the foi-k, and is nearly as white as flour, but the varieties change in the Midland and Southern counties. That soil, and routine of culture, which produces the strongest haulm, and most expansive system of foliage, will yield the greatest bulk of tubers ; hence the opinion which we constantly hear expressed, " that the potatoes run away into haulm," is a fallacy, because expe- rience proves, what physiology teaches, that the tuber is the product of the foliage, by the quantity and breadth of which its comparative substance is regulated. But experience and facts also demon- strate, that when the foliage is rendered too mas- sive, and the stems become too high, and there- fore unable to support the weight of a luxuriantly rank herbage, the tubers, though large in size, numerous, and weighty, are poor in quality, defi- cient of amylum, and frequently hollow. A.medium growth, wherein the balance of strength is sup- ported between the stem and the leaves, is the result of a well prepared and healthy soil, recipro- cating with the stimulus of the sun's rays, and the decomposing agencies of atmospheric air, and of water. Such a soil will yield sound tubers, be it sandy, light, and easily pulverizable, or unctuous, and adhesive. And on these grounds, quality, firmness of texture, and mealiness, ought to be the standard, rather than weight of tuber. Thus, in the west, we find the return from the seed sown in the sands, however sound and ex- cellent it may be, is still little more than half what may be, and is produced in the rich loams of Berkshire. In the latter, I have been told, of 700 bushels, of 60 lb. each from the statute acre ; whereas I have seen little more than from half to three-fourths of a bushel, digged up from the rod or perch, in the grey sands of Wilts, which is in the proportion of little more than 100 bushels per acre. Mr. Knight has calculated that 1000 bushels, imperial measure, each weighing 80 lb., may be produced ; and experiment goes far to shew what can be eff'ected. Nevertheless, take one county with another, the utmost average might perhaps be rated at 300 bushels of ordinary weight, four bushels to the sack. To conclude this view of the old treatment, and its results, it will be only needful to state, that potatoes of the smallest medium size, were cut into sets, each containing from one to three eyes, — the rose, or crown ends being frequently rejected ; the sets were then sufi'ered to become dry under a shed ; the starch setting and coating the wounded sur- faces, and the texture becoming soft and flaccid, in consequence of the emptying of the cellular tissue by evaporation. Could robust growth, or large healthy produce, be reasonably expected to result from treatment so diametrically opposite to sound philosophy? Disease, however, is not now contemplated, — that perhaps was purely local and epidemic ; but it were as rational to expect vigour and strength by the operation of agents purely debilitating, as to hope for great bulk and prolificity from mangled fragments of tubers rendered inert by exhaustion. My correspondence with Mr. Knight upon the subject of potato-culture commenced in 1831. A letter dated 4th February of that year is now before me, and from it I extract the following connected particulars entire. These I imagine will now prove a source of valuable information to others, as they did to me at the time when 1 de- rived the first correct knowledge of that improved culture which must finally, if it be duly appreci- ated , supercede the old and faulty routine. " 1 obtained," says Mr. Knight, " from the as/t- leaved kidney, last season (a bad one), a produce equal to 670 bushels, of 80 lb. each, per statute acre ; and I entertain no doubt of having as many this year. To obtain these vast crops of the ash-leaved kidney, I always plant them whole, selecting the Largest I can raise, and from very early crops ; those ripened early in the preceding summer are kept dry. I usually plant them upon their ends, to stand with the crown end upwards, and place them at four inches distance from centre to centre in the rows, and the rows two feet apart, and always pointing from north to south. I plant large potatoes much in the same way, but with wide intervals, according to the height which the stems acquire. " Thus I plant ' Lankman's potato' (a noted vari- ety, then 1 believe, the subject of experiment,) " which grows a yard high, six inches distance from centre to centre, and three feet six inches or four feet between the rows ; never catting any potato, nor planting one of less weight than a quarter but general- ly half a poimd. By using such large sets, I get very strong and large plants, with widely extended roots, early in the summer ; and I begin working, as it were, with a four-horse, instead of a one-horse power. I do not despair of getting 800 bushels of potatoes from an acre of ground, if I live long enough to see the produce of some new varieties which I have formed, and which are of very vigorous growth, whilst they do not expend any thing in blossoms. The blossoms take away a good deal of sap, which may be better employed in forming potatoes ; and whenever a potato affords seeds freely I think it al- most an insuperable objection to it. As a general rule, I think potatoes ought to be planted in rows distant from each other in proportion to the height of the stems ; the height of the stems being full three feet, the rows ought to be four feet apart, and the sets (tubers) of the very largest varieties olanted whole, never to be more distant from centre \\, centre than six inches. By such mode of planting, the greatest quantity of leaf (the organ in which alone the vital nutritive fluid is made) is exposed to the light. I 208 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. have this year obtained many seeds of the ash-leaved kidney potato, crossed with another early variety, from which I expect some valuable early varieties, though I scarcely hope to get any thing preferable to the ash-leaved, if that would not wear out." The foregoing passage may I conceive, be re- garded as a compendium of philosophical culture. The extract which follows is from a letter dated 5th July in the same year ; it contains interesting observations on the means to accelerate or retard a crop of potatoes. Speaking of the earliest variety, Mr. Knight observed — " The tubers which have ripened early in one season are alone proper to plant for a very early crop ; those which have ripened late, being not sufficiently excitable, though more eligible for a late, or rather mode- rately early crop, the produce of which will be proper to plant for a very early crop. By attend- ing to these circumstances, and by planting tubers large enough, and near enough in the row, with proper intervals between, according to the height to be attained by the stems, you will be able to obtain much larger crops per acre, than are usually obtained." As respects the age or condition of seed-tubers, Mr. Knight says — " Potatoes somewhat immature are quite as good for planting in the following year as others ; and in some cases, perhaps in many, better ; for a particular disease formerly well known under the name of ' curl,' appeared on plants raised from mature tubers, and not from those raised from immature tubers." During the years 1830-1-2, Mr. Knight had raised by cross impregnation a great many vari- eties, fourteen or fifteen of which he sent to me as specimens ; they all possessed the characteristic mark of excellence which it was the object of the originator to obtain, — that of developing no perfect flowers ; the flower-stalk would rise with its germs of blossom, but these would suddenly be- come yellow and fall off without expanding, con- sequently the plant had all its energies devoted to the subterranean expansions. Of the enormous yield of several of these varieties I hold by me the written proofs. One which was numbered 4, Mr. Knight states to have produced 23 cwt. 1 qr. 76 lb. per acre. With these and other facts before me, it was natural that a course of experiments should be immediately instituted ; and these have been per- sisted in with some modifications to the present day. My practice therefore, differs from that of every ordinary cultivator, and its results, which will now be stated, cannot be reckoned unsatis- factory. I have not, however, adhered rigidly to the system of Mr. Knight in planting entire tubers, because it sometimes required more seed-stock than could at all times be conveniently spared. But there are cases which require certain modes of practice, and these ought to be clearly under- stood by those who cultivate several varieties. A few lines will render this sufficiently clear. Every county has its own peculiar favourites ; and local names are applied which make it diffi- cult to identify varieties. All persons, in England at least, appear to understand and appreciate the qualities of the e?Lv\Y ash-leaved kidney potato , and therefore I assume it as a standard for the treat- ment of varieties intended for the earliest summer supply of the table, rejecting as irrelevant to the present inquiry, any reference to artificial excite- ment, either by frames and glasses, or by warm beds of fermenting materials. The growth of every plant must imply the pro- duction of heat, and of this heat there are ample sources to be found in the decomposition of water, and vegetable or animal matter in the ground, by the agency of that enormous volume of the elec- tric elementary fluid, which holds the constituents of those substances in a state of natural union. In planting the ash-leaved kidney, it is my prac- tice to provide for early development and ample security from spring frost, by digging trenches six or eight inches deep and nearly a foot wide, throwing the earth in the form of a ridge on either side of the trenches. Into the soil at the bottom of the trench, three or four inches of half decom- posed stable manure, with leaves used for linings, are digged, and then a little light earth if required is raked in, sufficient to leave the surface when settled about four inches below the level of the ground. The ash-leaved potato has very few eyes, therefore it is desirable never to cut it into sets ; the potato is pressed into the soil upright, the eyes being uppermost, and the potatoes standing five inches asunder, accordinij to the directions by Mr. Knight. Earth from the ridges is drawn over the crowns to the depth of an inch, and occasion- ally half an inch of sifted ashes or of light linings' manure is superposed, thus making the first covering an inch and an half deep. It is the usual method to place the potatoes or sets four or five inches below the surface of level beds, and when the shoots appear to draw earth to the stems. But by the trench planting which may be performed in March or even earlier, the crowns and advancing buds are quite sufficiently protected from the frost, unless it happen to be of very severe character, and then an inch or two of light litter may be lain in the trenches. The great mischief however, which befals the earliest plots is occasioned by frosts in May. Now the trenches afford protection to the tubers while under ground, and as soon as the shoots are seen above the surface, fine earth is raked or hoed from the ridges so as to cover the first developments. As the shoots advance again more earth is drawn down, till at length the trenches being filled the level of the surface is again produced, and with it a sufficient and ample depth of earth is afforded to the tubers and their fibrous processes. All then that remains to be done is to dig the ground between the rows to the depth of three inches, sufficiently to give freedom and openness of texture. I am averse from ridging and earthing- up as I can see no utility in it, and never once found an additional potato from its adoption. I have seen whole ranks of potatoes blackened by the frost of an hour or two ; and even in the present season have been told that great destruction was produced by the frost of the 16th of May. My thermometers gave proofs of at least six degrees, but the potatoes re- mained safe ; and if any persons be inclined to cavil against the practice recommended, I can only in self defence observe, that frost has never hurt me ; — my potatoes have lost no shoots, have run their course uninterruptedly, and have evinced neither failure nor disease. In 1836. March 16 to 19. — Four rows were planted in trenches between single asparagus rows, and about eight feet asunder ; they yielded 72 J lb., from 12| lb. of seed-tubers. In 1837. March 3 to 7. — Twelve poands were set in a single trench twenty-four yards long — abreast, and four feet in advance of a wall with an aspect south by east. From this row were digged 72 lb. of excellent flavour. In planting this vari- ety I have never been very particular as to the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. :^09 direction of the rows, but have planted them widely asunder. The j'ield has rarely exceeded six times the weight of the seed. There are so few eyes in this potato, that extensive herbage cannot be expected. Indeed on some occasions blanks were observed ; yet a progeny of potatoes was found to have been produced, without the protru- sion of any superficial herbage. It is however, of great moment to protect the foliage from frost, as soon as it becomes visible, because a shoot lost cannot so readily be re-supplied as it is by other varieties prolific in eyes. 1 am aware that I have trespassed considerably upon the time of the reader, on a subject not strictly connected with the farm ; yet it appeared essential not to over- look the garden varieties, in an article which is designed to furnish a standard of comparison. I pass, however, to the store varieties, without further remark. Winter Potatoes. — Such are all that are not digged for use till after Michaelmas, and of these every county — nay, almost every parish — has its own peculiar favourite. Some, however, are in prime condition before, and two months subse- quent to Christmas, while others ought not to be cooked till April. I lately cultivated a round po- tato, which bore the title of Cornish rough-red ; it was hard as a cricket-ball, and almost as round, and never started an eye till June, while it re- mained out of the soil. The pushing of the ej^es affords a pretty correct guide as respects the time when a potato is in season, and when it ought to be planted. If during the winter the tubers be kept in a dry cave or pit, where the utmost degree of equable cold can be maintained consistent with the exclusion of actual frost, the quality and fla- vour will remain more pure than when they are covered by any moist or fermentable material whatsoever. If, under this simple, unexciting treatment, any variety protrude its eyes, that va- riety is not a keeper. This is the only complaint which can be advanced against that truly excel- lent and widely cultivated potato — The Early Shaw. — Its skin (testa) is of pale buflf, covered with a rough, russety membrane ; and herein it differs from the Champion. Both of these capital varieties possess the defect or vice of blossoming and fruiting copiously ; yet they are too finely-flavoured to be rejected. In all countries there are A?cf?iey5, red, white, or mottled, which possess qualities adapted to soil and atmos- phere ; but, with the exception of Mr. Knight's crossed seedlings (of which the Downton Yam is a fine specimen), I know of none that cast the blossom-buds ere the flowers expand. All these medium and long keepers are fur- nished with a number of eyes, distributed over the greater part of the surface, yet abounding most at that end which is opposite to the point where the organic process or funis entered, which supplied the tuber with nutriment derived from the parent stem. The end where the eyes are chiefly con- gregated is termed the rose, or crown ; while that which was connected with the parent is termed the root-end. Many persons reject the former, believing that it produces too much haulm ; but the fact is, that, as in the shoot of a tree, if one or two good buds break, they push on, leaving the inferior buds silent and unexcited. Thus, reject- ing the root end, it is advantageous to cut a large potato that abounds with eyes, into sets, to com- prise not fewer than tivor.ov more than three eyes, and, in cutting to distribute the crown eyes fairly, as may be, among other eyes situate below them, by making the cuts in a diagonal direction. I know, by experience, that Mr. Knight acted \\\)on sound and secure principles when he recommended the planting of entire tubers, because he knew well that an ample yield might be assured, one or more of the eyes of each being sure to break. Moreover, ia the event of that shoot or shoots being cut off by frost, other eyes till then inactive would be ready to produce successional shoots. Two facts of importance in physiology now pre- sent themselves to our notice : — First, All the eyes of entire potatoes do not push at one time, therefore it is a mistake to suppose that a plot be- comes crowded by useless haulm if the potatoes be planted whole. Again, Persons have imagined that weakness of the root is occasioned by the destructive action of frost upon the earliest shoots: this also is a mistaken notion ; for, if any eyes remain unexcited in the tuber under ground, the loss of one shoot is speedily supplied by the substitution of another. Time indeed may, to a certain extent, be sacrificed, but that is all. Of this any one may convince himself, by endeavour- ing to exterminate a straggling potato ; he may hoe, or pull off the first shoots, and think his ground cleared of the intruder ; but in a week or two the spot will be again occupied, and it will be perceived, that nothing short of the complete re- moval of the tuber can prove effectual. U sets, with one or two eyes, have been planted, and have sent up all their shoots, then the destruction by frost may prove fatal ; but it may happen that a shoot shall appear to be killed to the ground, and yet produce a fruitful plant, though late in the season, from embryo eyes seated round the stem, near its point of emersion from the potato. Since it appears a demonsti-able fact, that tvhole potatoes rarely develop all their eyes, it becomes a question of economy whether it be not better to plant cut sets of the keeping varieties. Many per- sons cannot spare a large stock for seed ; and in that case it will be prudent to employ sets, with two or three eyes, taking especial precaution to guard the plants from late frosts, and jjromoting the utmost activity of vegetation Ijy a wise system of culture, the general principles of which are found in the extracts before given from the letters of Mr. Knight. These principles refer chiefly to the influence oi-light upon the foliage ; and it certainly is a fact, that, by making the rows in the direction of north and south, the sun at mid-day shines along the entire line, exerting his greatest power of attrac- tion, in a way which tends to retain the upright position of the haulm. But there are other con- siderations which refer to soil and nutriment, and these must be always kej)t in sight. The texture of the soil should be naturally free, if possible; but as the desirable medium is not always at command, it will be prudent to set up heavy land in ridges, during the autumn, to ex- pose a great surface to the frost. The manure re- quired should be introduced at the same time, with a quantity of sea-coal ashes, if obtainable. Sand, even in excess, will frequently fail to me- liorate heavy, binding earth ; but ashes, which contain a large proportion of finely divided silex, some red oxyde of iron, and a little alkali, pro- duce the happiest effects. In alluding to this autumnal pi-eparation, I have a double object in view, dependent upon the habits of the potato. The plant affects a light and moderately enriched soil, wherein its fibrous roots and tuber-bearing processes may wander laterally, but not deeply; 210 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. - therefore, whether the plough or spade be used, the manure ought to be blended with the earth prior to its being thrown into ridges, that the whole mass may be mellowed by the winter's ex- posure. Six inches of well laborated earth, over a more solid subsoil, is amply sufficient for the play of the roots, consequently the ridges ought to be raised to the height of twelve inches. After the winter, the soil cannot be too much broken down, nor the manure too intimately incorporated with it ; but for these purposes a dry season should be chosen, otherwise the labour of the pro- vious operations will be thrown away, and the main object defeated. I believe that the quality of potatoes is much injured by strong recent manure. Autumnal preparation effects every purpose ; the manure is laborated, bnt not dispersed ; it loses rankness, but is brought to the condition of what is fancifully called /mmus, a hydro-carbonous sub- stance, brought to a condition which fits it to sup- ply vegetable aliment when exposed to the decom- posing stimulus of the vital principle. Sands, however, ought not to be raised into ridges ; they decompose manures rapidly, and whatever or- ganic substances are applied to them in autumn should be placed some inches below the surface. It has been shrewdly conjectured, that the straw to be converted to manure ought, as far as is possi- ble, to be brought from land of an opposite quality — thus, if it be intended to meliorate a poor and sandy earth, the farmer should endeavour to ob- tain his straw from such situations where the staple is a strong or clayey loam. Facts are wanting to establish the implied theory, but it merits investigation. It was customary, as before observed, to keep the sets till much of the moisture had evaporated, and the substance become flaccid; this drying is perfectly needless, and may prove detrimental. It has been a regular practice nich me to plant as wanted, fresh from the knife, row by row; and in order to absorb the moisture which exudes from the divided cellular substance, and at the same time to prevent the attacks of grubs and subter- raneous vermin, the set has frequently been dipped in powdered lime, fine ashes, plaster of Paris (gyp- sum), as conveniently at hand. The lime has been recommended, and certainly no mischief of any kind has resulted from the practice. My po- tatoes, in garden or field, have always done well, excepting, as I stated, in one solitary instance, of which the following is a faithful narrative : — A few potatoes, with a dark mulberry-coloured skin, but extremely white pulp, were planted as a trial. From two or three a number was raised sufficient to plant one row, in the spring of 1835. On the same bed, and not four feet distant, an- other variety was set at the same time, and in the same way. The plants of both rose without fail- ure; but when the purples had attained the height of six inches, the foliage lost the healthy hue, — it first changed to a purplish green, then faded off to a sickly yellow. The ground was hoed, lightened by the spade, and every common means was re- sorted to, but vegetation could not be stimulated — the plants died, and at the season of digging not a vestige of a potato remained — the destruction was total. As every other variety remained healthy, and yielded fairly, and as the soil appeared in good condition throughout the season, no one ex- isting or traceable circumstance tended in any degree to elucidate the mystery. I have never seen nor heard of that variety since ; and it is just possible, on the theory of Mr. Knight, that its term of life was come, and ex- tinction the consequence. Entire Potatoes were used by me during two or three seasons subsequent to the receipt of Mr. Knight's specimens, and I selected tubers, of the average weight of four ounces, always placing them upright, and regulating the rows, and the distances between the tubers, by the ordinary height of the haulm. As the stems advanced, earth was drawn against them, till at length it formed complete ridges, a foot high on the two sides. Good crops invariably resulted from powerful and healthy growth ; but the yield never corresponded with the great bulk of seed-tubers planted, for it averaged about a six-fold proportionate increase. Thus, if 8lbs. were set in a row five yards long, the crop produced would weigh about 48lbs. In 1835 I adopted the practice of planting sets, with the exception of those varieties, early or medium, which are naturally furnished with but few eyes, situated about the crown. I found the yield to be quite equal to that obtained from en- tire tubers, so that the weight saved was strictly au economy of seed-stock. I believe this remark may be applied even to ash-leaved kidneys, wherein the lower, or root-ends, have very seldom any good eyes; and that of the rose-ends, with an inch of the pulp of the potato below, were cut as sets, two-thirds of the substance of tubers might be saved for the table; but the experiment remains to be tried. From the annexed statement of the plantings and proceeds of 1837, some opinion, however, may be formed on the subject ; and if ash-leaved potatoes can thus be eco- nomized, a considerable saving of expense will be effected, as the dealers sometimes demand ten or twelve shillings per bushel (often not weighing above 521b.) for seed potatoes. Experiments of 1837. 1. A lon^ medium-early potato, a variety of kidney, which assumes curious twists, and carvings. The tu- bers become very large occasionally, but appear to be always of superior quality. This potato is good at aoy season, from the time of digging m September, to June following. There were planted in trenches 26 lb. of whole potatoes. 12 lb. in the garden between March 30 and April 5. 14 lb. in an orchard plot, April 6 to 8. The total yield from tliese 26 lb. was 354 lb. 2. In the orchard, at different dates, between April 8 and 24— Early Shaws, chiefly cut sets of 4 oz. tubers, two and three eyes, limed ; a few 2 oz. whole tubers, were used separately — total 30 lb. The crop was digged, November 6. — weighed 520 lb. 3. Downton Yams. — (Knight's.) The seed from three or four years succession, in my own garden or field. Cut into two and three eyed sets, 22 lb. 12 oz. The crop digged at the same period as the shaws — 215 lb. 4. Early Champions. — Their first crop, being an ex- change with a person whose soil is extremely different from mine. Sets cut by the division of the tubers from the crown to root end, picking out the central eye, and after liming, laying the cut sides downward, so that the broad surface of eyes lay uppermost. Sown April 20, 13 lb.— Yield in November, 150 lb. 5. A reddish-brown, white mealed-hidney, which I have reason to believe was originally brought from Wales, by the late Pascoe Greenfell, Esq., new to me at this planting ; received from a distance. The eyes are numerous, and pretty equally distributed ; therefore tho potatoes were divided tramversely , so that there were crown-end and root-end sets in different rows. The actual comparative result was not, however, ascer- tained, because the man employed did not notice the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 211 markers at the time of digging, and mixed the whole crop. By this oversight, 1 am prepared only to state that from 24 lb. of these kidneys I obtained a return of 3561b. It is now left to the experience of the reader to determine whether these crops surpass those of com- mon culture ; and it remains to observe, that all the early varieties were trench planted, and among those, I include the first variety of kidney, at the head of the list. The keepers (2-5) were planted row by row, during the process of digging, and the rows generally four feet asunder. TliUS the ground, which had previously been under broccoli, was digged to the extent of five feet ; then a line being stretched, a drill-trench was chopped down with the spade, drawing the loosened soil forward, six inches deep. The sets were herein deposited, five or six inches apart, and were covered with earth made very fine and light ; then another space was digged, and a se- cond trench struck out and planted. I have, in the present season, made a further improvement, by sprinkling an inch-deep layer of light hot-bed ma- nure, over the surface of the ground which covers the tubers; thus each row is clearly marked, the soil protected and enriched, to the width of a foot, with- out bringing manure into contact with the potatoes. After a time, when the haulm has become six inches high, the intervening spaces are fork-digged, or the soil otherwise, by hoe or spade, rendered light; the little manure which remains is thus intermixed with the surface, and about two inches of earth is drawn over it, and against the stems on each side ; this is all the earthing I allow. The soil remains loose and free at top, over a more solid stratum beneath. This is the actual condition the plots are in at the moment of writing (July 29). It has been conjectured by many, who have accordingly adopted the practice, that potatoes may be planted year after year in the same land. I have never risked the trial to an extent sufficient to decide the question, and, indeed, the difference of soil would at once throw an obstacle in the wav which could not be surmounted ; but as far as I have seen, a loam constituted as mine is, does not appear to bring two successive crops of the same potato to a corresponding degree of perfection. It is not to be doubted, that all plants convey into the soil mat- ters either gaseous, fluid, or solid, — for the odour diffused will prove the fact to a demonstration ; therefore, without dwelling upon the theory of ra- dical, fecal exudation, or claiming the admission that, by analogy, whatever a plant throws off from its system cannot become salubrious food for another of its own species, it certainly appears reasonable to vary the crops according to the order of rotation, either in the field or garden. I have acted by this princi- ple, and, whenever it has beeu in my power, have planted one or other of the cabbage family after po- tatoes. But in reasoning by the rules of rotation, we must not be led away from particular facts. The tubers of the potato-plant do not appear to derive support from the soil, they being appended to processes which are conduits of supply downward or laterally from the leaves and atem ; the sap-fibres which convey the fluids upward are wholly independent of these processes. Just in proportion to the amplitude of foliage, duly exposed to the sun and air, is the bulk of the crop ; hence, although manure, or hiumts, be- comes decomposed by the action of the proper roots, and is by them conveyed in the form of raw sap to the herbage, the ground does not become impover- ished by the potatoes themselves, however numerous they may be, they being organic bodies (propaginesj , or systems of life, — a congeries of new plants im- bedded in a pulpy and amylaceous mass, which has no connection whatever with the soil. Hence, also, as the potato is thus viewed as a product of the leaves, it becomes the recipient of the exudation, which it thus prevents from contaminating the ground to any considerable extent ; and thus, upon the the- ory of fecal exudation, the potato may be planted year after year on the same spot of ground, with comparative safety, but by no means advantageously. Little remains to be said. The crops I have pro- duced, and their excellent quality prove, that the rows may stand widely apart, and thus furnish ample space for the horizontal expansion of the ra- dical processes, without causing any diminution of the yield ; for what is lost in space one way, is made up by the proximity of the sets in the rows. The loam (as a staple, naturally) is composed chiefly of a griiti/ gravel, containing a little chalk, more iron, and a moderate portion of alumina — the matter of pure clay ; its vice is the condition of the sand, or siliceous constituent, which renders it bind- ing, under the influence of a hot sun, after rain. A perfect loam requires the silex to be in a state of mi- nute division. |If this fine silex abound, even to the extent of five-sixths of the whole bulk, leaving the remaining sixth to be composed of alumina, sub- oxide of iron, of a light ochre tint, and chalk (carbo- nate of lime) , the loam will be rich, unctuous, and of high quality ; but if a considerable portion of the silex is coarse (the detritus of gravel), the texture of the loam becomes vitiated, and it sets like a brick. Those loams wherein iron exists, in the form of a per-oxide, assume a purple or red tint ; they are abundant in Somersetshire, and are the staple of permanent fertility. Agriculture, or the science of cropping and rota- tion, will never be duly understood, till the constitu- tion of all loams, and their power of decomposing manures "under the stimulus of the vital, vegetable principle be accurately determimed by experiment.* ON THE LAW RESPECTING DERED HORSES. GLAN- TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER S MAGAZINE. If I understand the English law, as it is at present constituted, it allows any person to sell any animal laboring under any infectious disease or any number of them, but will punish him if such infected animal should do any mischief to his neighbours' stock, par- ticularly in the above disease as being the most com- mon, and deserving the immediate attention of the legislature. Theie are many persons who, if they had a glan- dered horse would not like it to be known that they sold it, but would employ some jockey fellow who has no character to lose, to dispose of it in some fair or market, thus securing himself from detection if he well fees the scamp who has been his tool. I will * When Mr. Towers was explaining the character of the JEgrostis segetum, in p. 89 of this volume, we ex- pressed a doubt of the insect described being an JEgTos- tis. It is but justice to Mr. Towers to take this oppor- tunity of staling that from the facts which he has since furnished, regarding the character of the insect he de- scribed, we are quite satisfied that it is the jEgrotis segt» turn, and no other. — Editor. 212 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. imagine a case or two : — A gentleman or farmer in a fair sees a pretty showy horse, buys lum and puts him in the stable along with others ; in two or three months he finds he has glanders in the stable, and half his horses are infected, and then for the first time suspects his "pretty purchase." These fellows when they have a glandered horse (or as they call him a captain) will turn him in hy night where there are some colts, or on a common or moor where it may not be so soon discovered, always selecting a field far away from the farm house, and from whence they may remove it in the morning, and thus they may go 100 miles without being detected; but in case the horse should be taken and pounded, such horse is seldom or ever owned. 1 have known three instances of the above within these six months, and the evil is greatly increasing at least in the West of England. Let any proprietor of horses only for a moment imagine what mischief a single horse may do, and they will at once see the necessity of an imme- diate remedy. The English Agricultural Society is the best body to take the matter up, and I liave ad- dressed a few hasty lines to them on it, I hope they will at once see the great evil of the case. In France it is different, the horses are all subjected weekly to the inspection of the police, and every suspected horse is seized and examined by a veterinary surgeon appointed for the purpose, and if sound after due trial returned again to its owner, but otherwise des- troyed. Only imagine what mischief a single horse may do in one day in a journey of sixty miles, being placed in half a dozen stables on the road ; the dis- charge from the nostril tickles the nose and the first thing the horse, on going into the stable, rubs his nose backwards and forwards on the manger, leav- ing matter on any spinters that may be there enough to infect a hundred horses, that may rub their noses there and prick themselves with such spinters, for what difference is there between a horse being inocu- lated with a splinter of wood or lancet, the effect is the same. I can assure horse proprietors that I have only drawn an every day case, and I should think there is no veterinary surgeon who has been in practice seven years but has often known such cases as I have related. As I have now broken the ice, I hope some one more able will take the subject up, the horse being our servant of business and pleasures, is entitled to our utmost care, and as such demands it from the gentleman, the farmer, and the trades- man.— I am. Sir, your most obedient servant, S.V.GREGORY. Veterinary Surgeon. Sherborne, Dorset, Jan, 15, 1839. ON DRAINING. Sir, — Seeing several accounts in your paper at different times, describing various systems of drain- ing land, and thinking it to be one of the most im- portant subjects in husbandry, I wish to acquaint some of my brother farmers through the medium of your real agricultural paper the plan pursued by most of our best farmers in this neighbourhood, which I have practised several years and find very much the best, combining economy with the best and most lasting drain. The soil is a stiff clay which without draining would be very wet, indeed unabk to be worked in winter at all, and growing very bad crops, but by efficient draining it is made tolerably good land : the plan pursued is this, after opening very deep furrows with the plough from 4 to 7 yards apart (5§ yards is the most common distance) in whatever direction, the best fall for the water can be got, the labourer digs a drain 20 inches deep, about 16 inches wide at the top, and 12 at the bottom, he then digs 10 inches deeper with a tool not more than 3^ inches wide at the top, and 1^ at the bottom, called a land drain spade, a section of a drain when cut would appear thus : — Should a bed of stones be met with so that the bot- tom spit (as we call it^ cannot be dug narrow enough, they must be taken out the width of the upper part of the drain, clay then rammed in, and the drain dug as if the clay had been originally there, pieces of turf 3^ inches square, and about 12 or 1-i long, are then just placed in the narrow part of the drain ; (this turf is dug in the Fenny ground on pur- pose, but is much like the turf burnt in many places by the poor) a section of the drain after the turf is in would appear thus : — From the drain being narrowest below they cannot be forced down so as to impede the water, and being a description of earth that will not decay during a man's life ; in fact, there is no saying how long they will last, the drain is then filled up with the earth in the common way ; the expense varies according to the distance, the turf has to be carried, it is often carted 30 miles and would pay in my opinion for cart- ing much further. Tiie following is the expence 8 miles from the Fen 5^ yards apart. Per acre. £ s. d. 1 14 0 8 score rods (of 5^ yards) digging and > filling up the dram at 4s. 3d. per score. 5 2§ Thousand turf at 6s. 6d. per thousand. 0 16 3 Carting 2 J Thousand turf 8 miles at Is. per mile. 0 8 0 2 18 5 Every mile further costs about Is. an acre more. Where the land is very wet the extra corn grown the first year after this draining, would pay the expense and the outlay not being so very great most tenants could bear it. I beg to subscribe myself, A Plain Practical Jan. 29. South Country Farmer. P. S. I shall be happy to give any further parti- culars in my power should it be requested, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 213 ANSWER TO QUERIES RESPECTING ITALIAN RYE GRASS. In the year 1836 I purchased one bushel of Italian rye grass, from Mr. T. P. Wilson, of Burgh Quay, Dublin, and sowed it on one Cunningham acre of excellent land, after drilled potatoes, the ground having been sowed with black Tartarian oats the preceding day, this occurred in the third week of April, the field of oats turned out the most luxuriant and productive that had been seen in this country, three Cunningham acres and a-half having produced 440 Winchester bushels of oats ; the crop was re- moved on the 27th September, when the Italian rye grass was seen to rise like a crop of oats about to shoot into ear. The winter of 36 and 37 was not severe, and the Italian Crest of the field was laid down with Pacey's perennial^ had a most beautiful appearance at the latter end of July 1837, the crop was cut for seed at that time six feet long, the pro- duce in cleaned seed 48 bushels; there was a great bulk of hay, and had it been saved without regard to the sale of seed would have produced from three to four tons on the acre of sweet, rich, juicy flavour, adapted for black cattle and horses for slow work, admirable for cutting as chaff from the number of joints ; it was very full of saccharine matter and substance, but much softer than Pacey's ; the second crop was also reserved for seed, and cut in Septem- ber ; it produced about one ton of hay not more than two feet and a-half long, with thirty-two bushels of seed superior to the first crop in quality, making in the whole 80 bushels of seed sold at 10s. per bushel, the original having cost 17s. 6d. ; the field was ploughed for wheat, one ridge was left for ex- periment, the grass on it in November would have cut a third time being two feet long, the winter of 37 and 38 was very severe, the grass melted away, and in my opinion, dissolved and rotted the root ; I was very deep in the Italian rye grass, the acre above mentioned having been so profitable, had in- duced me to lay out eight acres with it, and having observed that the sole thickened and spread by being cropped, I had turned my calves into the fields after the grain was removed ; to this circum- stance I attribute the great success of my crops in 1838, as some of my neighbours who had not taken this precaution, lost their grass in the same way that my ridge disappeared. Calves are the best stock for this purpose, their teeth are sharp, and they take the top off; for soiling, no grass answers better, it grows so quickly, half a bushel Italian rye grass, lOlbs. of red clover and 4lbs. of trefoil ; if the land is stiff, more seed will be required; it is delicate at first in heavy soils, but when rooted, seems to thrive well; half a bushel of Italian, half ditto cocks foot, 71bs. white clover, 51bs. trefoil, with 21bs. of yarrow, make a beautiful sole for pasture, and these succeed each other in bloom, which causes the field to have a varied and beautiful appearance. I have always sowed with spring corn, Tartarian oats is the best crop to lay out grass with, it stands up so well, but both the grass and oats must have rich ground. I have never known the grass to injure the grain crop, it grows up thin, and it is not until the crop is reaped, that you can judge whether you have sufficient roots or not, it spreads so amazingly ; certainly the Italian is a biennial and in an irrigated meadow thrives well, and for so far, appears a triennial, and is a most valuable productive grass much relished by cattle. After three years cultiva- tion my objections are, 1st, The difficulty to save as hay from its nature and in a wet season, second crop rises so rapidly, that the groundi s always damp, the hay is of a soft nature. 2nd., In strong lands if dry weather sets in, it sometimes misses and is delicate until it takes root ; my plan is to roll the ground, then sow, accompanied by a harrow, which followed immediately and serves as a guide, then the roller when the season permitted this Cwhich does not always happen in this climate) ; I never was disappointed. THE CORN LAWS. Sir, — Agricultural meetings, Christmas shows, and all other information interesting to growers of corn, must now be secondary to the question of " alteration or no alteration" in our present corn laws. Whether they are abolished, or a fixed duty of 10s. be substituted for our present graduated scale, it must cause ruin to landowners, renters on lease, and tenants at will. Let us consider how the fixed duty would affect the farmer as that is supposed to be the least destructive measure of the two. I believe no one expects we should then realize more on the average than 40s. per qr. for our bread corn. Let us suppose a farmer has obtained a profit of" one rent," on a mixed farm of 300 acres, at 300/. rental, and that on the " fixed duty law" coming' into force his landlord reduced him one-third, he of course would immediately lower his labourers in the same proportion ; but would his wheelers, his black- smiths, his collar-makers, and nine out of ten of his other farm expenses be altered in the same ratio ? No. Then I am sure I am not deducting too much from his profits when I say he will then only receive 200/. per annum for his 1,800/. capital. If he had a family he could barely bring them up on his pre^ious profit, and with his reduced income I am sure he could not, for would his grocer's, his tailor's, his linen-draper's, and nine out of ten of his household bills be reduced one third ? Certainly not. Then what could he do t He could not at a short notice, more especially if he has arrived at the mid-time of life, turn to another business with advantage ; and if he could, his capital, instead of being 1,800/., would at the utmost be only 1,200/., but most likely not near so much, as in all probability many of his neighbou»'s would be doing the same. He must leave the land of his fathers for ever to clear the wilds of Australia, or in a few years seek a refuge in his union workhouse. What would his landlord do? One-third of England they say is mortgaged. Must the mortgagees be our future landed aristocracy? The Jews, the manufac- turers, the fundholders? The men who have obtained thousands by looking closely to units? May we expect the same liberality from tiiem as we have experienced from the " old English gentleman," for which he is proverbial? who was born among and grew to manhood with his tenants, who love and respect him as their friend and landlord, who has assisted them in bad times, has rejoiced with them in good ones, and who is anxious for their welfare at all times. How many hundreds of thousands are expended on improvements which repay only in years on land held on the word only of the landlord? Will that continue under the mortgagee proprietor? What must become of the labourer ? His pay would be one third less, but not so hit expenses. But would he find employment at all, when all the cold clays, hot gravels, and poor sands are returned to grass and waste, as the reckless demagogoes declare they ought to be? No longer would the country towns present the pleas- ing scenes they now do on a market-day — the shops no longer decked with brilliant coloured goods, to catch the eyes of country women, come to spend their hard- earned savings; but bills "to let" would show how awfully the loss of home trade was retaliating on " the manufacturers for the world." Brother Farmers, — Let me impress on you the neces- sity of uniting to a man on this point— our very exist- 214 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ence. Let no difference of politics divide you. In every county, in every parish, copy the good example shown us at Barton, and hold meetings to arrange the best manner of petitioning Parliament immediately on its assembling, to continue to us that protection which is our due. To every name append the number of acres owned or held, that it may be shown the land- lords and tenants of all England stand foi*ward for that law which realises the good old motto of " live and let live." Your constant reader, W. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE HARLESTON FARMERS' CLUB. At the annual meeting of the Harleston Farmers' Club, held at the Swan Inn on Friday the 25th January, 1839, C. Etheredge, Esq., in the chair, the following report of the proceedings of the Club, during the past year, viras unanimous- ly adopted : — At the first meeting on the 9th February, " the use of SALTPETRE as a manure," was discussed. It will be in the recollection of those members who were then present, that but little practical evidence of the benefits arising from the use of saltpetre was offered by those who advocated a trial of this manure. Here then was a subject to test, at the very onset, the value of the new soci- ety,— for, observed some, of what use can it be to meet and talk about a manure of which those who recommend it have had no experience ? We have no hesitation in affirming, that considerable bene- fit will arise from this our first discussion — for al- though the advocates of saltpetre could not from their own knowledge speak decidedly of its results, yet they produced such authorities in its favour, together with the best information they could ob- tain, upon the quality of land to which it was most beneficial, the quantity to be applied and the time for applying it, that several members of the club were induced to promise to give it a fair trial; and your committee are enabled to state that at the next discussion of the subject in the ensuing spring, a vast body of practical evidence will be produced, which they have no doubt will fully establish the value of saltpetre as a manure on certain soils. At the second meeting on the 9th March, two subjects were discussed. The first was " on the use of GYPSUM," and to the debate on this ques- tion most of the remarks we have made with re- gard to that on saltpetre are applicable, with this exception, that whilst the advocates of gypsum relied on other authorities rather than their own practice, strong evidence that it was not suited to many of the soils in this neighbourhood was of- fered by a member, who had made some experi- ments with it in the preceding year. On this subject then we think we cannot do better than quote the report passed at the meeting, and at the same time state that the " further ex- periments" there recommended, having been since tried by several members of the club, we antici- pate that with gypsum, as with saltpetre, a con- siderable quantity of evidence will be forthcoming when the subject is again discussed ; and we here take the liberty of recommending to those mem- bers who introduced these questions last year, to bring them again before the club at an early meet- ing in the present season, thereby enabling those who may wish to benefit by their experience, to take advantage of it immediately. REPORT ON GYPSUM. "A discussion on gypsum having arisen, very strong evidence was produced of the great bene- fits which it had conferred on clover and other similar crops in some districts, but that it was not suited to all the soils in this neighbourhood was also proved by some experiments tried last year by one of the members of this club. It therefore appears to this meeting that further experiments are necessary to decide whether or not gypsum will prove a beneficial manure in this neighbour- hood." The second subject brought forward was "on the comparative advantages of light and heavy MANURES." On this question a very interesting discussion ensued, embracing a variety of opinions as to the best method of making and applying yard manure so as to preserve all its virtue for the land, unimpaired by too much previous fermenta- tion. The hour for the termination of the meet- ing having arrived, long before the subject was exhausted, a report w.is deferred on it till it should have undergone further discussion, and the pressure of other subjects having prevented its being resumed, we can only hope that the intro- ducer of it will take an early opportunity of again bringing it forward. At the third meeting on the 6th April, one of the most important subjects that has yet engaged the attention of the club was discussed, viz., '* on the management and cheapest method of keeping CART HORSES." On this subject, so interesting to every farmer, so much information was given, and the results stated were so various, that it was thought worthy of another evening's debate, and it was accordingly adjourned till the Fourth meeting on the 4th May, when the subject was resumed, and another interesting discussion ensued. Your committee in common with every member of the club, was astonished to find that amongst a body of farmers all residing within four or five miles of the place of meeting, all consequently using a similar breed of cart horse, and cultivating a similar description of land, such an astonishing difference in the expense of maintaining their cart horses should exist, amount- ing in authenticated statements to upwards of fifty per cent., whether estimated at per head for each horse, or per acre for the arable land. What greater proof could be required of the necessity for discussion ? and if no other subject had ever been brought before your club, we are of opinion that by debating this question alone, it would have rendered incalculable benefit to the neighbourhood ; for what member who now learn- ed for the first time that his neighbour was culti- vating his land at much less cost than himself, in one of the heaviest items in a farmer's expenses, but would go home and improve on his former management ? We have not space to enumerate tlie different methods recommended, but with regard to the ex- pense, we find by reference to the report passed at the close of the debate, that on an average of farms in this district four horses are required for every hundred acres of land, the cost of keeping THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 215 which will be about 8s. per head per week during the winter months, to which the discussion was principally confined. We find also a recommend- ation attached to the report, that it would be ad- visable to diminish the quantity of hay usually given in this district, substituting an increased allowance of corn. Before dismissing the subject we may state that it was the means of leading to two other very interesting discussions, viz., — On the advantages of cutting hay into chaff, and — on substituting in the latter a small portion of straw for hay. The next subject was that of " spade hus- bandry," and here we had the advantage of having the question introduced by a member who had practised this mode of cultivation very exten- sively, and whose arguments went strongly to prove its advantage in absorbing all the surplus labour of any district. The result of the discussion was convincing that the substitution, to a certain extent, of the spade for the plough, would have been highly useful under the old poor law system, when it was frequently impossible to find employment for all the labourers in a parish ; and there is no doubt that the permanent im- provement of the land, by the deep tillage of spade husbandry judiciously applied, would have amply repaid the extra expense of the spade over the plough. But now that the general employment of the labourer would render it difficult to procure a sufficient number of hands to cultivate by the spade, and also the invention of the subsoil plough will enable deep tillage to be obtained at a cheaper rate, spade husbandry will probably never come into general practice, — such appears to have been the opinion of the meeting ; the report stating, " that the surplus labour of any district may be ad- vantageously employed in spade husbandry." At the fifth meeting on the 1st June, another important subject engaged the attention of the club, that of " the best method of improving the breed of neat cattle in this district." The in- troducer of this question first showed by a com- parison between the value of " homebreds" and other breeds, of similar ages, that improvement was necessary — next by a reference to particular cases that it was attainable; and concluded by giving his opinion, that as it would take a long time to improve our present breed, keeping it pure the cheapest and most speedy plan would be to cross the Norfolk and Suffolk cows with Durham or Hereford bulls, giving a preference to the for- mer as likely to produce the best milkers, and also because they can be more easily and cheaply pur- chased. A long and spirited debate ensued, which was closed by a report agreeing with the views of the introducer ; but as there were several staunch advocates for keeping the original breed pure, on the ground of their excellent qualities as milkers, it is probable the question will be again brought forward. On the same evening another question was in- troduced, but it was adjourned to the next meeting that time might be allowed on this to take into consideration a circular received from a society, called " The New Central Agricultural Associa- tion," with its " Address to the public," request- ing the co-operation of the different local Agricul- tural Associations and Clubs. It appearing from the address that the New Central Association was formed for political purposes, and such matters being wisely prohibited from the discussions of this club, the following resolution was passed without discussion. — " That the Harleston Far- mers' Club, adhering strictly to its third rule, (prohibiting all political subjects from its discus- sions) refuses to unite, or in any way to sanction the proceedings of the Farmers' Central Agricultu- ral Society, which in page 17 of its address, avows ' that its views are undoubtedly political,' and the projectors of which have publicly stated ' that they hold the English Agricultural Society to be delusive in principle,' an opinion from which every member of the Harleston Farmers' Club dissents; feeling assured that a society formed on the mo- del of the West Highland Society, cannot prove a delusion." At the sixth meeting on the 6th July, the subject of " SHOEING HORSES," which had been introduced, and adjourned from the last meeting, was resumed. Much valuable information, with regard to the struc- ture of the horse's foot, and ths best methods of pre- venting the usual evils arising from bad shoeing, was disseminated amongst the members ; and your committee cannot here refrain from congratulating the club on its possessing several medical, chemical, and veterinary gentlemen amongst its members, from all of whom, on many subjects, and particularly the one discussed this evening, they have received great sup- port. The debate, though rendered highly interest- ing by the union of theoretical and practical know- ledge adduced, was, from the nature of the sub- ject, necessarily closed vpithout a report. The nest three meetings, occurring at a season of the year when farmers are engaged in the evening as well as throughout the day, were thinly attended, in anticipation of which no subjects had been fixed upon for debate J but at one of them an interesting discussion arose " On the diseases of wheat, par- ticularly smut," introduced by a member who had observed some curious facts regarding the latter, and who promised to institute some experiments on the subject, from which we expect much light will be thrown on this interesting question. At the tenth meeting on the 26th Oct., the subject of " stall-feeding" was brought before the club. — The introducer of this question confined his argu- ments principally to the advantages of stall-feeding cattle on artificial grasses, such as clover, tares, &c ; and as the debate was chiefly confined to the same view of the subject, we cannot do better than quote the report passed at the close of it. " The subject of the advantages of stall-feeding having been this evening discussed, only so far as relates to the feeding of stock on artificial grasses, the evidence adduced has led to the conclusion, that great advantages result from this system, the most prominent of which, is the facility for producing a greater quantity of manure, — but the advantages of stall feeding off permanent pastures, and soils con- genial to the growth of turnips is a question re- served for a future meeting, and the attention of those members interested in this subject, is request- ed to such facts as may elucidate it in its general scope and bearing.'' Following up the above report, we have great pleasure in announcing, that the subject of" Stall- feeding and soiling in all its branches," is amongst the list of subjects now on the books, for discussion during the present year. A proposition was this evening made to the so- ciety, by the Yoxford Farmer's Club, that a corres- ponding committee of the Harleston Club should be formed, which should act with similar committees of the Ashbocking and Yoxford Clubs — that through such committees, the discussions and reports of each club should be open to the other two, and that the 216 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. chairman and secretary of each should occasionally meet, (accompanied by any other members who might wish) for the production of the minutes of the proceedings, and of otlier books which might throw- light on the transactions of the three clubs, and also generally to further the views of the resolution. We congratulate the club on the acceptance of this proposition, considering that it will materially for- ward the views with which the Harleston Farmer's Club was established, viz., the distribution of know- ledge in agricultural affairs. Eleventh meeting on the 30th Nov., the subject before the meeting this evening, although unfavour- able to discussion, was one of great importance, viz. " The best method of keeping farming accounts." — The introducer, after stating the obvious necessity of farmers keeping accurate accounts of all their transactions, gave to the meeting the heads of that plan which he considered best calculated to effect that purpose. The discussion was not protracted, the subject admitting of but little debate, the remarks generally, were in accordance with the views of the proposer ; but it was thought that the matter could not be fully entered into with advantage, unless spe- cimens in writing, of the plan recommended, were laid before the club at some future meeting. Upon a renewal of the subject, which the im- portance of it well demands, we anticipate that some concise and yet accurate plan may be suggested, useful to those who have not previously paid much at- tention to this most importantbranch of their business. This subject having been dismissed, the club had an opportunity of putting in force the resolution passed at the previous meeting, enabling it to ask for the production of any papers or documents connected with the Yoxford Club, — and having the plea- sure, this evening, of the company of the secretary and several members of that club, and knowing that they had lately issued their first annual report, it was produced and read to the meeting. We need scarcely add, that it afforded strong evidence of the utility of such associations, and elicited from the meeting much deserved commendation. Another subject was also commenced this evening — one of the two formerly alluded to, as arising out of the debate on the keeping of cart horses, viz. " Whether or not, it is beneficial to consume by STOCK, any part of the straw the produce of the FARM," — We give the question as proposed ; but the introducer confined himself to that part of it relating to the cutting a portion of straw with the hay, as chaff for cart horses. Upon no subject discussed by the club, has greater difference of opinion existed than upon this, and the debate was necessarily ad- journed to the twelfth and last meeting on the 28th Dec, when the subject was again resumed with great spirit. — If space permitted, we would willingly extract, from the minutes of the meeting, all the ar- guments used by those in favour of the proposition, but must centent ourselves with giving the substance of the report, which although strongly opposed, was carried in favour of the question, viz. — that notwith- standing the difference of nutriment in any given quantity of straw compared with hay, yet that in the feeding of cart horses, a limited quantity of the former (not exceeding one fifth) may be substituted for the latter with economy and advantage. The last subject which occupied the attention of the club, was that of " CHArF-cuxTiNo". This ques- tion like the last, arose out of the debate on " Horse keeping" — it appeared that those persons, who kept their horses for the least money, cut all their fodder ; and it was then contended, by those who fed with rack hay, that however apparently economical the former method, yet that it was not so advantageous to the horse, as he could not extract so much nutri- ment from the hay cut for him, as when he cut and ground it for himself. To meet this objection, the question was brought forward in its prtjsent shape; and we congratulate those members who had the op- portunity of hearing the able way in which the sub- ject was introduced ; clearly showing, by an anato- mical and physiological description of the horse's stomach, and of the processes of swallowing and di- gesting the food, that the latter, when cut, was equally available for the extraction of its nutriment, as when left for the horse to bruise and masticate. This being granted, there can be no doubt of the advantage, in all other respects, of feeding with cut food, viz. the prevention of waste, and the saving of time — the latter no slight consideration to horses that work all day, and who thereby gain more oppor- tunity to rest. A report in accordance with the above views was unanimously carried. We have thus taken a slight sketch of the sub- jects which have been brought before the club during the year; and although (as might be expected in the early stages of a society like this) it was impos- sible, in all, to arrive at satisfactory results, yet in some we have attained that desirable object ; and in others, where further experiments or further discus- sions are wanting, we trust that the ground has been dug and the seed planted, which will in good time bring us fruits worthy our exertions. In looking back upon this, the first year of our existence, we do so with an unmingled feeling of sa- tisfaction.— If the Harleston Farmer's Club was an experiment when first started, you have proved that it is no longer to be considered as such, — you have at least convinced yourselves, that farmers can meet to talk over subjects more interesting than politics or the weather ; — there has, throughout the year been no lack of questions for discussion, and if some of the most interesting have been selected, others of vital importance remain ; and so long as those who have greater opportunities of obtaining information, or longer purses to try experiments, will freely im- part that information, and cheerfully detail the re- sults of those experiments, so that the successful may be practised, and the unsuccessful shunned — so long as our theory shall be kept in control by prac- tical knowledge, and our practice assisted by theory, and both unite for the permanent improvement of agriculture — so long as the same spirit of mutual forbearance and mutual assistance shall exist amongst our members, as we have witnessed during the last year — so long shall the Harleston Farmers' Club con- tinue to flourish. In enumerating its advantages, let not that be forgotten, of its bringing the large owner and the small occupier frequt^ntly together, on a field where the subject is equally interesting to both, and where the total exclusion of every subject connected with pctlitics, has removed that rock upon which so many similar associations have been wrecked. In allusion to this subject, we think it high time that the politics should give way to the science of agri- culture,— our object is to learn how to make the land produce more ; and although deeply sensible of the protection which all native industry requires, we shall yet hail with pleasure the day when agriculture shall be able to protect itself. We have reserved for the last, but not in our opinion, least important part of our report, the sub- ject of the library attached to the club. — Although, only part of your subscriptions have at present been expended, yet from the liberal donation of several valuable books, and the purchase of others, you have THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 217 already the nucleus of a valuable library. In addi- tion to some of the best agricultural works, your funds enable you to take all the periodicals connected with farming, and we need only refer you to your secretary's accounts to prove how eagerly they have been sought for — indeed we hail the circulation of books, as one of the leading features in the formation of your society ; and we have no doubt but that the trifling annual subscription of five shillings, enabling a member to command a choice of interesting and valuable reading, has been the means of inducing many persons to enter the club ; for, should no benefits arise from our meetings and discussions, here is a decided advantage obtained at a very trifling ex- pence. When the club was first established, it was thought by many, that the subscription was too small, but the experience of a year has proved it to be amply sufficient ; and if any thought it too high, we trust that having seen the benefits derived, they have al- tered their opinion, particularly when they consider, that from the absence of all forfeits for non-attend- ance, Can excellent regulation) no other expence is necessarily incurred. * We have examined your secretary's accounts, and find, that the receipts from 105 members, have amounted to 26/. 5s., and the disbursements for books to 15/. ISs. 6d., and for expences to 2L Is. only, leaving a balance in hand of 8/. lOs. 6d., which, with part of the new income, we recommend to be immediately expended in such books as may bo thought desirable. With regard to themanagementof your society, as the time is arrived for choosing new officers, we would advise the appointment of a permanent chairman for the year — as you must all have experienced the in- convenience and occasional loss of time in selecting a different chairman for each evening. We have another recommendation to conclude our report with. — Seeing the spirit of enquiry which exists every where, on all matters connected with agriculture, and the probable institution of experi- ments relating to the same, we have hailed with sa- tisfaction the formation of" The English Agricultu- ral Society,' which by encouraging the former and directing the latter — by collecting and disseminating all the information which every day is now adding to the science of agriculture, must, we think, be pro- ductive of immense benefit to the cause we have so much at heart. We have no doubt but these bene- fits will be greatly increased by the general institution of farmer's clubs similar to our own in connexion with it ; and furthering this view, we recommend that the Harleston Farmer's Club be enrolled imme- diately amongst the subscribers to the English Agri- cultural Society ; and as we observe by its last re- port, that it is intended to publish a quarterly record of its transactions, to be presented to the subscribers, the members of our club will thus become possessed of those valuable documents — and we shall at the same time mark our wish to support an institution so promising to the best interests of agriculture. For the committee, ROBERT B. HARVEY, Secretary. machine that every nobleman, gentleman, or even extensive wheat growing farmer, should possess. Its advantages are incalculable, particularly to a seed grower. Mr. B. makes them of all sizes, but that which I would prefer would be six feet long, and diameter of cylinder 16 to 20 inches. The price varying from 51. 10s. to 81. 10s. being fully 25 to 30 per cent, lower than I ever saw them any where else. To Mr. Bolster is due the merit of the invention. I have the honour to be, Gentlemen, Youi obedient servant, EDWARD CARROLL. This machine is in a cylindrical form with a sheet iron screw running round a drum built on a shaft, which runs through the centre, and on which it works. Over all, or on the outside, is a wire web cover of diff'erent sized spaces, over which the feed is carried by the screw, and thereby selected into its diff'erent qualities. There is a circular brush working on springs and regulating screws, on the outside, which prevents any grains from sticking in the wire web, and keeps it perfectly clean. The first of these machines was made by Mr. H. Bolster, of Cork, in the year 180S, when conducting business for Mr. Thomas A. Barnes, when they got very generally into use amongst millers, brewers, and distillers. They can now be had in an improved style and plan at Bolster's Machine and Wire Web Manufactory, 21, Bachelor'a Quay, corner of Duncan-street, Cork, who has con- siderably improved on them since his first making this most useful machine. — Irish Farmers' Magazine. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. (from a pamphlet bearing this title.) We should suggest, that a sum of 10,000/. be raised by shares of 25/. each, as a loan, upon which in- terest, at the rate of four per cent, should be paid, and that this should be applied to the purpose of purchasing a piece of land of eight or ten acres in extent, and erect- ing and fitting up upon it buddings suitable for such an establishment as is proposed. This land should adjoin the property of some nobleman or gentleman, who would engage to let to the establishment any number of acres, from 100 to 400, upon a long lease of twenty- one years, at a fair rental.* In any of our large agri- cultural counties it would not, it is conceived, be difficult to find 200 or 300 children whose parents now pay 25/. per annum and upward? for their education, who would be happy to obtain for them the advantages which such an institution would afford, provided they could do so without any larger pecuniary sacrifice than they now make for what is so totally inefficient. Supposing, then, that 250 children entered the school at first, the parents of each of whom paid 25/. per annum, this would give an annual income of 6,050/. It can be proved that boys can be boarded upon good substantial food, with plenty THE CORN SEPARATOR. A MOST USEFUL MACHINE FOR SEPARATING THE DIF- FERENT qualities OF GRAIN. Gentlemen, — I send you a description of "a se- parator," manufactured bv Mr. Bolster, of Cork, a * If either there could be raised, or the governaient would give, a sum sufficient for the pui chase of an estate, it would be very desirable. An institution of the public character of that proposed ought aot to depend fof its efficiency upon the manner in which the neighbouring proprietori of land were disposed with regard to it. 218 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of it even when food is purchased, for the sum of \5l. would be continually inspecting, they could, in the per annum each. Supposing, then, that this sum be event of any gross mismanagement, call a special meet- allowed 3.6591. will be applied to maintaining the chil- ing, and oblige him to give an explanation of his con- dren A staff of ten masters would, we should conceive, duct at any time. But it is suggested that it would be be requisite for the government of such a school ; and highly inconvenient to permit any parent or shareholder we should propose that their salaries should be as fol- who chose, to have the power ot intermedd ing with i-_„ and obstructing the course which it seemed to the master fit to pursue. The absolute power of the master and A head master o^n ^^^ superintendence of a society might thus, it is con- Second master 250 ceived, be advantageously combined. Third master or head baihft 150 ^ ^^y^ however, be desirable that we should state Fourth master ..•• 100 more at length our reasons for placing the appointments Six assistants, at 50<. per annum each . . 300 ^f ^^^^^ masters and assistants in the hands of the head '"^^''^^r- All societies which have the disposal of y-ood Making a total, per annum, of £1,300 pja^es have a tendency to job. This will be most ef- Supposing the borrowed capital to be 10,000/., 400Z. *ectually checked by giving the appointments to a person would have to be paid annually for interest ; 300/. per ?^ho is responsible for and whose character is involved annum might be applied to meeting any unforeseen ex- >" their efficiency. If the subordinate appointments penses, and making such additions and changes as cir- ^^re to be made by the body of shareholders, nume- cumstances might suggest. This calculation leaves en- fo^s inconyen.ences would arise. Firstly, it would be tirely out of consideration all profit to be derived from ™POssible to fix the responsibihty anywhere. Members the cultivation of the farm, which, as it would be culti- of the society would then be privately canvassed : and vated by the pupils, and upon the most approved prin- f * '' ^""'^ not be the peculiar business of any one of ciples, ought To be very great. This profit, whatever it ^^"1 ^o scrutimze the qualihca ions of the candidates, might be, should first of all be apphed to the payment ^ey would vote in favour of those in whose success of interest, and afterwards, together with all other sur- th^y had been interested from other causes than that of plus, to the admission of the children at as low a rate fi'ne^j- , Bad appointments would thus take plaee : nor as possible. When the school shall have been made ^^'^ ^^'TaZ """^ ""^ u a .f'^""^^ ^hat when one efficient, this should be the great object to attain ; as ^^^d one had been cancelled the appointment which the greater the number who can be made to participate succeeded i should be any better. Secondly supposing in the advantages of such an establishment, the more Jhe greatest anxiety on the part of all the shareholders certainly would its effect upon agriculture be generally ^o make good appointments, no person could be so good felt. The sum of 25/., which must necessarily be re- ^ judge ot the qualifications which ought to be required quired in the first instance, would, without doubt, serve f.* ^e who, from the circumstiince of directing, must be to confine the school too much to the higher class of thoroughly acquainted with al the deficiencies of the yeomen ; but the process of saving, such as has been ^^hool ; added to which, the head master would have marked out, together with the gradual increase of num- the institution more completely under his control in all bers and the profits of the farm, would, after a time, re- '^ bearings, if the under masters depended upon him duce the sum required from the parents to 20/. or 15/.; ,f}j' . . • . .• .u as, when it is considered that the food will be directly ., ^ h^sf reasons for not intrusting the appointments to supplied from the land cultivated by the boys, the sum ^he body of shareholders apply also, although not with indicated as being required for their maintenance will e^"^! force, to the committee of management. A be deemed too large. f '^'f^^ authority with them would, we think, P ace the It would not, then, be hard to find the funds for the ''^ad master in a .alse position. It is true that the establishment of such a school as has been proposed, committee would probably attend to the suggestions of provided that the parents of the children could be made ^he master, but they might not. The utmost direct au- to feel a confidence that the advantages proposed would ^hority that should be given to the committee in this be really afforded. This confidence, it is conceived. Particular should be that of exercising a veto, might without difficulty be obtained ; and for this pur- The success of the school will then entirely depend pose it is suggested,— 1. That the shares by which the "Pon the choice of the head master. But who is to capital is to be raised should be small, say 25/. each, so choose him 1 A most important question. Certainly that a large proportion ot the yeomanry and farmers not the body of shareholders, for they might job this all- might be possessed of them. This arrangement would important situation. The appointment should be made not prevent those noblemen and gentlemen who were by a number so few that they might be pointed at as anxious to further the object in view from taking ten or responsible for it. The committee of management twenty shares, or any number they might please. 2. That should, we conceive, perform this duty ; but under re- thedirectingcoramittee or council should be chosen out strictions as to the class of persons troin whom the of the shareholders, and that the holder of each share master should be selected. The body of shareholders, should be entitled to vote at their election. although for the reasons before stated, not those with That constitution would bring the proposed establish- whom the appointment of the individual should rest, are ment within that denomination of schools called pro- precisely the persons who can best determine the class prietary. These schools have in many instances not been from he ought to be selected. And it may be as well successful, owing, as we have reason to believe, to an to observe, that in order that the institution should, indiscreet interference on the part of directors and pro- from the period ot its foundation, command that respect prietors in their immediate management. This, as may to which, for the sake of the great object it would be easily be conceived, is an evil of considerable magni- directed to, it is to be desired, that it should obtain,— tude, and such a one as no master, fitted for the high the head master ought, it is conceived, to be looked up office of superintending an establishment of the cha- to as a person not only distinguished for those high racter proposed, eitherwould or ought to submit to. As moral quahfications which are indispensable for the this, however, is a known evil, it might be provided schoolmaster, but also for his scientific acquirements, against at the first establishment of the association for He should also, it is conceived, be conversant with the obtaining the object in view. The utmost discretion application of some department of science ta practical should be used in the selection of the head master ; but, purposes. having selected him, the whole government of the esta- Although we would thus vest absolute power in the blishment should be vested in him : and for the purpose head master for the purpose of enabling him to direct of effectually giving it to him, he should, it is conceived, efficiently the studies and employments of the school, have the power of appointing and dismissing the under we would relieve him entirely from any trouble or re- masters and assistants. Having thus the sole control, sponsiblity with regard to the pecuniary affairs of the the head master would have the entire responsibility, society. These we would place entirely in the hands of and should annually give an account of his stewardship the committee and the officer whom they might appoint to the body of shareholders ; and, as the committee for the purpose of assisting them." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 219 [We are always anxious to devote our columns to practical subjects, but at the present moment, when the Corn Laws are attracting so much in- terest, an apology will scarcely be necessary for introducing the following long letter upon that sub- ject. It is not merely important for the arguments which it contains, but will, from the quantity of statistical information on our agriculture, manufac- tures, and commerce, be found valuable for refer- ence. Thepolilical observations are wholly without our province, but it is difficult to erase them.] — Ed. TO THE RIGHT HON. LORD MEL- BOURNE, &c. &c. My Lord, — The deep interest which the first and the highest official servant of the monarchy of Great Britain must necessarily feel for the prosperity of all the g^reat interests of the United Kingdom, more especially for that greatest and the most stable of all those interests, the agricultural, which in this coun- try, as well as every country under heaven, is the basis of all civilization, national comfort, pros- perity., and power and greatness, induce me to trou- ble your lordship at tliis time with the following re- marks. JMy purpose is to lay before you, in the shortest possible space, the statements and facts re- garding the relative magnitude, and value and im- portance, of agricultural property and productions, as compared with themanufacturing property and pro- ductions ; and also the real extent and value of the fo- reign trade of this country ascompared with the extent of trade for the home consumption thereof. The facts to be adduced may be of some service in tending, by the disclosure of truth, to defend the great inte- rests of the country, when, as in the case of the agri- cultural at present, these are either singly or toge- ther assailed by self-interest, clearly ignorant of the facts and bearings of the gieat question, and at the same time utterly reckless of the consequences which may, which must follow, the adoption of the mea- sures which that self-interest instigates public cla- mour, not the public voice certainly, so rudely to call for from the executive government and the legis- lature of this country. The references and the facts about to be adduced are drawn from the most authentic public sources of information, generally government and parliamentary documents and inquiries. The general statements will stand the strictest scrutiny. The limits to which I am obliged to confine myself prevent me from going into every minute detail on every subject. AGRICULTURAL PROPERTY. T>. t I Valueat 30 Kental. , yeurs'purchase. Great Britain & Ireland, land .£63,395,684.£1, 901 ,8/0,520* Do., do., residencies, proprie- tors, &c 5,000,090 ISO.OOO.OOOf Do., do. ,timt)ei produce yearly 3,000,000 90,000,000 Do., do., land tax. 1834 1,203,578 36,107,340 Do , do., yearly valus ef titlies 4,841,053 145,231,590 Do., de., pooi-rales perpetual cliarge, exclusive ef rent... 5,434,890 163,046,700 Do., do., mines, minerals, and •i^lieries 3,991,031 119,820,9.30 Praperty of proprietors j 85,665,658 2,604,077,080 * According to the property-tax schedules, the num- ber of landed proprietors in Great Britain ia 1812 was 589,374, of whom 114,778, having incomes assessed under 50Z. per annum, were exempted from the tax. The number of lauded proprietors has since that period certainly increased. t Par. Ret. No. 53 of 1823 gives the number of houses occupied by landed proprietors in England and Wales, 43,484, and in Scotland 10,820. X Exclusive of the value of the sites of towns and farmer's capital. Horses .. .. 1,770,544 44,452,365 Black cattle 15,400,000 215,600,000 Sheep 53,258,668 66,573,335 Swine 18,270,000 18,270.000 Poultry, rabbits, game, &c. 9,800,000 Dead stock 102,938,000 Wages and supplies for only part of the year 197,200,000 654,833,730 Total value of capital in land ... £3,258,910,810 To which vast sum may be added, part, if uotall, the capital which the farmers require to purchase household furniture, even at lOOl. for each establish- ment ; that would amount to 52,000,000/. PRODUCE OP AGRICULTURE. Grain of all sorts, yearly, wheat at 50s., &c £134,000,000 „ Potatoes 20,000,000 Total grains iri 54,000,000 Hay, grasses, turnips, straw £120,300,000 Natural pasture . . 63,502,000 183,802,000 Butcher meat, from cat- tle, sheep . . . . 58,283,759 Do. pigs and pork 21,000,000 Poultry, game, rabbits, &c.* .. .. 3,500,000 fisheries, food from .. 12,000,000 • 94,783,759 Milk, butter, cheese .. 32,500,000 Vegetables and fruits . . 16,000,000 Allowed for consumption ^ by farmers in some arti- > 2,500,000 tides not enumerated t ) 51,000,000 Wool, British .. ., 13,979,166 Hops and seeds . . . . 2,000,000 Flax and hemp .. .. 2,500,000 Timber 3,000,000 Mines,mineral3Ccoals,&c.) 33,970,276 55,419,442 Total produce agriculture .. 539,036,201 DIRECT POWER EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURE. There are two ways of stating this, jiroducing as to human labour the same result. According to the last census of the po)>ulation, the families occupied in agriculture stood thus : — England 761,348 Wales 73.195 Scotland 126,591 Ireland 884,329 Total families .. 1,845,463 This number of families, at b\ persons to each fa- mily, gives 10,040,101 persons.and will give a direct villages, and the rental of the houses of landed proprie- tors and others immediately dependent on them in these towns. * A well-fed hen will produce 240 eggs yearly. Take the average at 200, then allow some for wastage, and 10 per cent, for reproduction. The number of eggs produced in France yearly is 7,380,925,000. The num- ber of eggs imported from Ireland in 1837 (see Irish Railway Report 1838) was about 125,000,000. The number of poultry (dunghill fowls) in France is about 75,000,000. There cannot be fewer in the United Kingdom. t The tallow produced yearly is 100,000 tons, 4,500,000/.; hides 5,500,000/. Proportion of these from farmers' consumption remains with them to sell, and some small produce, such as cabbage gardens, &c. 220 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. human strength employed in agriculture of 5,500,000 mines, &c. .. .. 7,000,000 effective men. It may be stated otherwise thus, ac- Wages to persons engaged cording to the census tables, &c, : — in fisheries . . . . 9,000,000 Class 1, occupants and other male persons 1,015,111 4-,'i;'.8,74o „ 2&3, do. do. labourers, do. .. 1,464,608 Cost, manure, bone-dust, Then 2,480,111 direct female servants, lime-shells, &c. . . 5,200,000 equal to .. .. ., 1,860,083 Animal manure .. . .* 59,860,000 Farmers' families, and other servants, Wastage, and replacing • male and female .. .. 1,400,000 livestock .. .. 30,295,280 Ditto ditto dead stock . . 21,560,000 Equal to total effective men .. • 5,739,802 • 116,915,280 The classification of the last census gave an appa- „, . , -.„ r.^.- ^r^^t rent and very unfair advantage to the manufacturing ^ , Charges on agriculture . . . . d48,976,104 branches, as this is in manufacturing arguments and De<^"<=t '\«t ^'em mcluded in indirect statements brought forward. It classes the remain- aoour, &c ^l,abU.uuu ing families of the population thus — m . , t ■ ■, „r,^ aa^ .n^ ^ ° * *^ Total charges on agriculture . . 527,416,104 Families — Trade and manufactures .. 1,684,232 Do. All other families .. .. 1.269,5S6 summary— agriculture. Total produce . . . . £539,036,201 Total .. .. .. 2,953,768 Total charges, rental 3 per cent. 527,416,104 But in these classes, and chiefly in the former. Farmers' apparent profit £11,620,097 there are the following : — rr i Artificers, builders . . . . 650,000 payment to poor-rates of England and wales Millers, bakers, butchers .. .. 900,000 for year ending march, 1833. Tailors, shoemakers, hatters .. 1,000,000 ^and. . ..£5,434,890 7 0 Shopkeepers 2,100,000 Manorial profits Clergy, legal and medical professions 450,000 navigation . .' 183,874 0 0 Proprietors, annuitants .. .. I,116,o90 Dwelling-l^ouses2,635,257 11 0 ^«"P^^^ ^10-"0Q Mills and factories 352,472 10 0 Total .. .. 6.406,390 ^ ^ , -— f''^':'''!,^ Payments (neat) to income-tax stood, in 1814-13, Three-fifths of these and their families most cer- thus: tainly live by agriculture, work for agriculture, and Land in property, schedules are wholly dependent upon it ; leaving of the whole A and B 6 473,475 population a much more limited number than is sup- Tax on houses, occupiers '. . l',625,933 posed dependent upon and engaged in manufactures, 8,099,414 especially for the export manufacturing trade. Funded property, schedule C 3',004',861 SUMMARY OF POWER EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURE. i"^^ „ . " 2,000,000 . Professions „ „ 1,021,187 Direct human power, efiective men 5,500.000 3 021 187 Horses 1,609,176, each equal to 6 men 9,655,068 Provincial offices, &c. E 188,932 Oxen 500,000, do. 5 do. . . 2,500,000 JVaval and military, &c. „ 924,312 ■ ______^ 1 113 344 Total effective power direct 17,655,000 Supplementary accounts 80,000 CHARGES ON AGRICULTURE. Overplus dutics aud penalties 7,008 _. .. . , J Add fractions 6 Direct property, land- nr niA. lord ^2,141,8t;9,520at3percent.i£64.256,0S5 ot ,uxt Tithes, property in.. 145,231,590 .. .. 4,841,053 ' Land-tax 36,107.340 .. .. 1,203.578 Total .. .. 15,325,720 ^''^J:^':':^:::^ 119,820,930 at 5 percent. 5.951.046 Deduct charges>nd allowances ..780^ Farmers' capital in ___— ^_-^ stock, &c 654,833,730 ,, .. 32,741,686 Neat produce t -• 14,545,580 „ ^ , , c J XT .T^T^TTTTI According to the Chancellor of the Exchequer Total charges on fixed capital 108,993,408 ^^^^^^ ^^ Commons, March 6th, 1816), the families Wages and food for direct engaged in trade, returned under the income-tax, labourers 140,000,000 were in number, 1,129,049 Ditto for indirect labour Only of which number paid . . 156,542 and supplies . . . . 93,000,000 Food for 1,609,178 horses 41,838,628 Number who did not pay . . 972,507 Ditto 500,000 oxen .. 6,000,000 The following details of the comparative contribu- „ , , , 280,838,628 ^■^q^^ ^^ ^j^g m. ^^^^^ f^j. ^jq y^^,. /g^y iqoS) in Seed, one -tenth produce ^^^^ counties in England, is curious, important, and grams .. •• •• 15,400,000 instructive:- Ditto for grasses, rruits, and wastage . . . . 2,643,750 ...„,. „ , ... , :, .l i j Church-rates and highway. * Exclusive of the quantity dropped on the land ^ ° ^ O/fifimR yearly. An mtelhgent proprietor aud cultivator in rates . . . . . . z, iou,iuo Scotland told me that this amounted to 2^, or nearly 3 Poor-rates, England and tons for each cow. "ales 5,4o4,890 ^ The amount paid by Glasgow in 1815 to the in- Stipends, clergymen and come tax was 82,219/. 15s. The brave defenders of school-masters, Scotland 300,000 their country paid nearly half as much as trade and Wages to labourers about commerce. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 221 COUNTRIES CHIEFLY TRAL INC. Families Families On On Total Agricul. Trade. Land. Trade. Charged £. £ £ Lancasliirfl 22723 152271 167790 49376 326477 W. Rirt. Yorkshire. 31613 108841 185658 21825 281908 Staffordshire 18255 42425 99715 6021 j 140257 Warwickshire .... 16770 30189 89725 9618 139666 Derbyshire 14582 20505 75068 1727 90386 Nottinghamshire .. 13684 21832 57613 2862 81321 Cheshire 1S220 27105 89796 5219 117212 COUNTIES CHIEFLY AGRICULTURAL. Essex Kent Lincolnshire Suffolk Norfolk boaiersetshire Northam\)t!)n3hire. CoinwiU Devon 33206 17160 225493 6204 30169 39130 267917 8258 20381 13134 166760 4067 26405 15180 214660 5225 41451 23082 224977 4295 27472 23732 136481 11993 15285 12400 132002 58n 19302 15543 87235 2196 37037 339S5 170412 2623. 277013 373786 193117 259757 282158 174582 145516 112.1.37 227421 During the operation of the former poor laws in England, the manufacturer and manual manufac- turers in Scotland and Ireland, where there were no poor laws, laboured under the greatest disadvantage. The latter were reduced to starvation wages, especi- ally the hand-loom weavers, while their employers could afford to give them no more. In Scotland, while such were earning only 5s. per week, those in England were receiving double the sum, a moiety from their employers, and assistance equal to as much more from the poor rates. In this way the English agriculturist was to a large extent the manu- facturer without any profits from it ; and the manu- facturers gained so much over their fellow manufac- turers and labourers in another portion of the United Kingdom ; in fact, the extent of the poor rates paid by agriculturists and others in England, not manu- facturers, was an actual bounty on manufactures, and confined to the export trade, which was more espe- cially benefitted by it, equal to 10 per cent. Thus the very interest which is represented a* at all times robbing the poor and the labourer, was a'',tually the interest which kept both in comfort, and far supe- rior, indeed, to multitudes of their fellow subjects both in Scotland and in Ireland. How unjust and how wicked, therefore, is it to level against the agricul- tural interests the false and the cruel charges which are now directed against them. The prosperity of the land is so much connected with the prosperity of commerce and manufactures, that no landed pro- prietor can ever sanction or seek legislation that is really hostile to these interests. CAPITAL IN, CHARGES ON, AND PRODUCE OF, MANU- FACTURES, 18.'M. Capital and Charges, Cotton manufactures . . .£40,973,87:2 Woollen ditto 36,000,000 Linen ditto 12,000,000 Silk ditto 11,000,000 Leather ditto 1 3,000,000 Hardware & cutlery do. 25,000,000 Copper and brass ditto.. 3,600,000 Glass, china, and earthen- ware ditto 8,600,000 Paper, books, colours, furniture, &c 10,000,000 Spirits, CBritish), por- ter, &c 37,600,000 Sundry smaller manu- factures 8,000,000 Produce. £52,513,586 44,250,000 15,421,186 13,425,510 16,000,000 31,072,600 4,673,186 10,892,794 14,000,000 47,163,847 10,000,000 Total £205,773,872 £259,412,709 It is necessary here to observe, that of the raw material requisite for the preceding branches of manufacture, fully 50,000,000L are the productions of the British soil and immediate British industry. It is further necessary to observe that the propor- tion of these manufactures consumed in Great Bri- tain and Ireland, and that which is exported, are as follows : — cotton, two-thirds consumed and one- third exported ; woollen, four-fifths con.sumed and one-fifth exported ; linen, ditto, ditto; silk, &c.,&c., on an average nineteen-tweniieths consumed and one- twentieth exported. DIVISION OF CAPITAL, &c. PARTS. INTO PROPER Capital Capital in British Capital Blanch. Total m Pos- in trade to Capital. Home sessions Foreign trade. trade. Countries £ £ £ £ Cotton manufacture. 40973872 27315915 5463182 8194775 Woollen ditto 36000000 28800000 2880000 4320000 Linen ditto 12000000 9600000 960000 1440000 Silk ditto 11000000 13000000 10450000 12350000 220000 260000 330000 Leather ditto 390000 Hardw., cutlery, &c. 25000000 23750080 500000 750000 Copper, brass, &c... 3600000 3420000 72000 lOSOOO Glass, china, &c. . . . 8600000 81/0000 172000 258000 Paper, books, co- 1 lours, &c 10000000 9500000 200000 300000 Spirits, porter, &c. . 37600000 37-148361 101092 50547 Suniirics 8000000 7600000 160000 240000 Total 205773872 178404276 10988274 16381322 In several of these sums also allotted for capital to foreign countries, the sums so allotted exceed the reality, as a comparison between the amount pro- duced and the value exported will readily testify, to any one who takes the trouble to look into the table of exports to different places in the world. A few selections in proof are subjoined: — SUNDRY MANUFACTURED ARTICLES, Produced. Exported. 1834, Cotton goods £52,513,586 £20,513,586 „ Woollen goods 44,250,000 5,736,871 ,, Linengoods 15,421,186 ,, Silk ditto 13,425,510 „ Butter and cheese.. 20,.500,O00 „ Coals and culm .... 17,984,887 „ Iron, hardware, and cutlery 38,170,600 „ Brass and copper.. 4,900,192 „ Leather 18,000,000 „ Beer, ale, 6c spirits. 47,163,847 ,, Cabinet wares, pa- per, &c 14,000,000 2,579,658 (i.'J7,013 281,881 218,205 2,869,437 961,606 248,302 192,698 377,941 Totals 274,186,193 34,617,198 The power employed in the British manufactures, as connected more especially with the foreign trade, will stand thus: — According to the report of the Factory Commissioners (Tab. Rev. and Com., part 4) the total mechanical power, by steam and water, employed in all the cotton, woollen, silk, and flax manufactures in the three kingdoms, was about 72,500 horse-power, equal at six men eacli power, to 435,000 bfl!"eciive men. About these factories there were employed, males, and females of all ages, 355,373 persons, 50,000 of whom were children. The whole therefore, of this human power, cannot be taken at more than 300,000 effective men. In all these four branches of mnnufactures there is em- ployed and engaged about them about 2,960,000 persons of all ages additional. The total number of families engaged in every department, strictly speak- ing manufacturing, is, according to the best and most accurate accounts which can be obtained, 1,500,000 families, or say 8,200,000 persons, one* Q 2 222 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. half of wbicli may be taken as effective men. This number, with the above-mentioned steam-povrer, would be, in round numbers, 4,500,000 effective men, or very nearly onlj' one-fourth of the effective power whicli is employed directly in agriculture, while nine-tenths of the whole employed in manufac- tures work exclusively for the agriculturists in Great Britain and Ii eland, and their transmarine possessions. Since 1834 and 1835, the years for which the pre- ceding general tables were constructed, tliere has been an increase in the cotton as well as in other branches of business. This of course requires ad- ditional capital, and which, together with some items in the various branches, more especially those connected with the home consumption trade, which cannot be exactly got at, may give, at the very ut- most for all, 12,000,000/, additional capital and charges, and say the same extent of additional pro- duction. With this addition the capital and produce of agriculture, as contrasted with the capital and produce of manufactures, will stand thus : — Capital. Produce. Agriculture ..£3,258,910,810 £539,036,201 Manufactures. 217,773,872 271,412,709 or 15 to 1 ill capital, and double in produce, with this further superiority, that in the agricultural capi- tal, it is all fixed and real ; whereas in the manufac- turing, a considerable portion is made up of wages to be given, and interest on value, buildings, &c. ; and, moreover, in the general produce of manufac- tures there is included a very consider;ible portion (at least 20,000,000/.) for raw material paid to fo- reign countries, amongst which at the present day and rate of price is probably 15,000,000/., in one ar- ticle alone, cotton, which goes into the pocket of the agriculturists in foreign parts, the United States chiefly, which states are become almost the sole gainers by the cotton trade. The exporting manufacturers, more especially those connected with the cotton trade, speak as if theirs was the most important interest in the country, and that, in fact, her revenues, her prosperity, her wealth, and her power, rest in and are dependent upon them alone. The preceding statements will shew the fallacy of this. But these are not all. There yet remain several other important interests, nearly all of them much superior to them — thus : — Propertii. Gross rental. Property in houses £604,733,278 £40,929,940 Ships— tonnage,2, 864,493 33,573,032 Bridges, turnpikes, canals, railroads, docks, &c.&c. 1 18,000,000 12,000,000 Horses not agricultural . . 20,000,000 Public Funds, Chancery Funds, Loans to various powers 987,474,831 35,000,000 A very large proportion of this is real pro])erty, wholly unconnected with manufactures or commer- cial business ; and of the remainder not above one- third can belong to that portion of the population which may be technically called the manufacturing ; while only one-tenth of what remains belongs to, or is connected with the manufacturing trade for foreign nations. The manufacturers for the home market, nine-tenths of the whole, are to a great extent depen- dent upon the interests just alluded to. A large portion also of the above rental of houses belongs to the great agricultural proprietors located in towns. A considerable amount of the value of horses above- mentioned belongs also to them, which draw their splendid equipages along the streets of the metro- ]iOlis, and consume yearly a very considerable amount indeed of the value of the agricultural pro- ductions which their industrious tenantry raise. Beside these, there is yet another very important class who carry on the trade which is technically known in the ))ublic returns under the name of the " Foreign and Colonial Produce" export depart- ment. What this class, and all connected with them, or dependent upon them, are, may be judged of by the amount of the exports for 1837, which were as under : — Foreign and colonial merchandise ex- ported from Great Britain £13,223,331 Ditto ditto Ireland 10,291 Total foreign and colonial . . 13,233,622 This business, and the important class which car- ries it on, are wholly to that extent unconnected with manufactures. To the extent of 10,000,000/. at least of the general imports, must also be their property — thus making their capital more than the capital of the export cotton manufacturers. The manufacturing interest, therefore, exclusively connected with the trade to foreign countries is, both in capital and production, but a small portion indeed of the component parts of the numbers, the capital, the wealth, the strength, and the producing powers, of this great country. '1 hey are readily acknow- ledged to be important in their place, and equally with other classes entitled to obtain and to require the attention of the government, and the fostering care and piotection of the nation; but no more; not protection at the expense of any other interest in the community, and especially at the expense of an in- terest so immeasurably superior to theirs, and which is, moreover, in fact, the main prop and stay, not only of their manufacturing establishments, but of every other manufacturing establishment and interest in this nation. The capital, then, which may be called the pro- ducing capital, in the whole British trade of every description, and the real capital vested in the strictly speaking foreign trade, will stand as un- der : — British. ForeigH. Agricultural .. .. £3,258,910,810 Manufactures.. .. 178,404,276£l6,381,322 Do. for British possessions 10,998,274 In For. and Col. pi'oduce, export 10,000,000 All other branches above stated 1,163,781,141 Total .. .. 4,626,084,501 16,381,322 COMPARATIVE PRODUCE. Home Use, 1834, S^c. Export, 1836. Agriculture .. .. £539,036,201 Manufactures .. 218,044,137 Do. for British possessions 15,535,566 37,833,006 Importsl836,less 10,000,000 of it For. and Col. pro- duce exported . . 47,230,968 Totals . , 819,846,872 37,833,006 In noticing the statements made by the anti-corn- law manufacturers on this occasion, tlie proceedings of the great Manchester convocation require the first notice. The statements which Mr. Johnstone, the deputy from Glasgow, made at that meeting are par- ticularly deserving of notice. This gentleman is an acute and practical mannfactuiing proprietor, and, connected with that business, no man is better able to give useful and correct infoimation than he is. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 223 Aware of this, and knowing that his statements con- nected with that business may be relied on, I the more readily bring these under your lordship's re- view, and appeal to them in proof of the accuracy of my statements and the correctness of tbe opinions which, from this and other practical information, I have formed on the important subjects now under consideration. Mr. Johnstone fells us that he is a landed propri- etor to the extent of lOOOZ. a-year rental, and also a cotton goods manufacturer, employing, besides ma- chinery, 1700 hands yearly. As a landed proprietor he emplo\-es 40 effective labourers on hisy'eiy hun- dred acres, yielding the rental just stated. His man- ufacturing establishment throws off 25,000 yards of cotton cloth daily, or 7,800,000 yards per annum, the whole of which he exports ; his " concern does not ask Great Britain to purchase a single yard of our production," but sells to " America, Brazil, Cuba, Manilla, Chili, and the like." He adduces the following returns to show how much viore he, as a manufacturer, pa3's in taxes than as an agriculturist, leaving it as a mater of course to be supposed and believed that all manufacturing establishments are equally and taxably superior to the agricultu- rist: — £ s. d. Duty on 974,400 lb. cotton wool . . 1087 10 0 Ditto on dye stuffs, oils, &c 160 0 0 Ditto on 1200 barrels fine flour, at 20s. 1200 0 0 Ditto stamp for fire insurance, 85,000L 127 10 0 Ditto on marine insurance, 150,000/.., 327 10 0 Ditto ditto on returns, 150,000/ 375 0 0 Ditto on bills of exchange 100 0 0 Total 3367 10 0 Adding that on taxable objects, such as tea, sugar, spirits, sive of machinery, which pays no taxes, would be 1,185,905/. ; for if 17,183,167/. the value of the cot- ton goods in yards exported, produce 381,828/., the total exports 53,368,571/. will produce the sum stated, 1,185,905/., while the agricultural cultivators produce 16,500,000/. Again, there is fire insurance duty paid on 85,000/. yearly. This may be assumed to be not only the value of buildings and machinery, but to a certain extent for stock in hand also. Now if this sura covers these things on 7,800,000 yards yearly, 6,948,942/. will cover the whole of the same items in the total production of 637,667,627 yards; one-fourth of which sum also may be deducted as the value of the stock on hand, leaving 5,186,705/. as the capital really vested in buildings and machi- nery for the whole cotton cloth export trade of this country, according to Mr. Johnstone. The Customs returns give us the following facts with regard to the state of the cotton export trade : — Official value. Declared value, 1820 exported .. " .. £16,517,748 1832 do. .. £43,230,921 20,854,243 1836 do. .. 58,491,731 24,632,088 The same tables give in quantity as under : — COTTON GOODS EXPORTED. Yards. Value. 1820 . 248,370,630 .£13,153,529 1828 . 363,328,431 12,483,249 1836 . 637,667,627 17,183,167 Twist— lb. Falue. 23,032.325 .£2,826,639 50,505,751 3,595,405 88,191,046 6,120,366 Where then is the decrease complained of? In 1837 the export of cotton twist rose to upwards of 100,000,000 lb., and last year it has been 115,000,000 lb. The difference in value between the official scale and the declared value stands thus very con- spicuous, and also very ridiculous. So long as it would suit a purpose — so long as any particular or accounted minor interest, such as the shipping and the colonial, were to be beat down bv a comparison of the magnitude and importance of their produce with the manufacturing, so long the official scale, the bitterest delusion ever practised upon any coun- try, was resorted to by the manufacturers ; but now that a similar objectis sought against other interests, that scale is thrown aside and the declared value is resorted to in order to show a declining trade ; but neither does this scale show this but the contrary. The official scale as regards the cotton trade in par- ticular is this — the Customs value every yard export- ed at the following rates : — * * This, it is presumed, is the scale by which those returns were made out which Mr. Villiers in the House of Commons the other night designated as fallacies. It 224 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. England. Scotland. Ireland. s, d. s. d. s. d. CalicOjWhiteorplain, per yd. 13 2 0 16 Do. printed or checked, do. 16 2 0 16 Muslins, wbite and plain, do. 18 2 6 3 4 Do. printed and checked do. 1 10 2 6 3 4 Fustians, velvets, &c., do, 2 6 2 6 Counterpanes, each . . . . 10 0 5 0 &c. &c. (PaTl. Paper, No. 385, of 1826, p. 11.) Thus an article intrinsically not worth od., is entered at these enormous rates. According to the declared value returns for 1836 the average value of yards of cotton goods exported was 5jpd. per yard (Mr. John- stone's scale by his exports and insurance gives 4Jd. per yard) while the official scale returns them all at a rate about six times higher, and thus as yards ex- ported are multiplied, the official value is increased, and a gross delusion imposed upon the country ; yet even in this excessively magnified state the value of the animal manure laid on the land yearly by the farmer far exceeds the value of the export cotton trade, and is in reality considerably greater than the true production of the whole of that trade. The export manufacturers complain that they are beaten by foreign competition, but they do not tell the exact nature of that competition, nor the cause of it. That has been kept secret, and was despised and ridiculed as long as possible with the scoflf, " We can defy the world — Give us free trade — We fear no competition!" Well, how do matters stand under it? The other nations of the world conceive wisely, that it is better to employ their own people than to keep them idle and dependent upon foreigners for the raiment that is necessary to cover their nakedness. They have taken our cotton yarn* and weave it them- selves for themselves. The quantity of cotton twist exported last year 115,000,000 lb., value 7,431,000/. nearly half the amount of the whole cotton export trade in 1820, will make 1,150,000,000 yards of cot- ton scoods such as those which are at present exported. To this extent, or at any rate to a very large extent of this, is our working weaver and manufacturer de- ])rived, or almos: double the whole number of yards of cotton goods at present exported. Yet how is this to be prevented ? Not surely by stopping the spin- ning mills. 'J'his great export of cotton yarn acts in two ways, equally injurious to our manufacturing labourers, and the manufacturers for the home mar- ket. First, to the extent mentioned it employs con- tinental labour and capital instead of British labour and capital ; secondly, by the increasing demand for cotton yarn, the price of the raw material is Vept up to an undue price, to the detriment not only of the home market manufacturer, but also of the export manufacturer, all the advantage going to the fo- reigner, and to the American agricultural interest in particular. Again the British manufacturer is beaten by fo- reign competition. Why ? Let us take the account given by Mr. Greg, one of the best informed of the manufacturers, to the Manchester meeting the other day. The United States, which he says, manufac- tured only 100 bales in 1814, now manufacture is indeed a most fallacious test. Coffee, for example, is valued, per cwt.— England, 140s.; Scotland, 56s.; Ireland, \0l. ! ! Wine is valued— Portugal, 251.; French, 22/. 10s.; Madeira, 31/.; Rhenish, 28/. lOs.; Canary, &c., 34/. per tun, old measure, in Englaud ; in Scotland, Rhenish is 82/, lOs.; in Ireland, 25/. 10s.; Spanish, 31/. 17s.; &c., &c. What just idea can such returns give of trade ? * Russia and Russian Poland take a very large quantity of this yarn— in 1836 the quantity taken was 19,178,483. .S00,000 bales, as much as tre did tben; furtlier,16 years ago, the forest of Low Hill in the United States, echoed no sound but that of the cataract ; but now there is a water-powek of 5000 horses there, applied to cotton manufactures, spinning 40,000 bales yearly. The United States, he adds, not only manufactures to consume but to export ; they send 34,000 bales of cotton goods to South America, and 17,000 to the Cape of Good Hope, Calcutta, and Canada. Well, this is free trade — the thing Mr. Greg and others called for. Had the Americans not been permitted to go to the last mentioned places, British cotton goods would have been taken in lieu of theirs; as regards also the bales sent to South America, they were most probably British goods slaughtered in some consigning slaughter-shop in New York. Mr, Greg must know little if he does not know that this is often and to a great extent the case; sold at New York at 60 per cent, loss, the American purchaser can under-sell the British exporter 30 per cent, (such Mr. Rawson says is the extent of his loss on shipments made to every port in South America,) and yet have 30 per cent, profit. The only way to prevent this is not to send so many goods to the place mentioned. When the quicksilver in the barometer sinks to 28 an serial hurricane from the westward is nigh and inevitable. Whenever it is boasted in Ame- rica that the customs at New York have been un- usually productive, that the revenue return'? there are more than half the whole revenue of the United States, then a hurricane in the manufacturing es- tablishments of this country, which will shake the whole to their foundations, is equally near, and equally inevitable. Such a reference is an un- erring guide, and in its principles equally infal- lible as the weather barometer. America manufactures 300,000 bales, instead of 100 bales, her former quantity. Russia, Mr. Greg further informs us, manufactures to the extent of one-third the quantity that Great Britain now does — pei'haps 350,000 bales. France, we know, ma- nufactures 300,000 bales, and Germany, &c., about 200,000 more, altogether 1,150,000 bales— a num- ber greater than our whole cotton manufactures. Now, who can help this "! No one. So long as these nations are wise and understand their own interests, they will employ their own subjects, and their capital, instead of the capital of Mr. Greg, Mr. Rawson, &c. &c. A manufacturer, Mr. Hind, I think, stated at Manchester, that the agriculturists of this country must be made to know that there were numerous, and very populous, nations in the world, and that their whole population had both hands and feet. Well, surely after this notable discovery this will not be forgotten. One thing, however, Mr. Hinds in his enumeration of the parts of the bodies of the people of other countries forgot to mention, namely, that they had heads also — heads, at least as wise, if not wiser than his ; because these heads think it wise and just to pro- tect the operations of the hands, feet, and heads of their own people in preference to those of other nations. Further, the manufacturers do not tell us the whole truth why they are beaten. First, it arises from some nations resorting to a restrictive sys- tem in order to protect their own industry without reference to Great Britain or any one else. Se- condly, they are opposed by water-power, both in the United States, in Germany, in Switzerland, &c. This is the true secret of the success of the oppo- sition. Steam, the power the British manufactu- rer employs, and which he thought]|would give THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 225 hira the command of the commercial world, now not only drives the machinery of various nations, but also carries the raw material cheaply, and with speed and safety, into countries formerly imprac- ticable to carriage but at a most expensive rate, and again brings back the manufactured goods at an equally cheap and rapid rate, and thus fa- cilitates the application of water-power in places where that power could not formerly be resorted to for manufacturing establishments. Such is the case up the Rhine and the Rhone into Switzerland and by the former river into Baden, Bavaria, &c. ; by the Danube into the heart of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary ; and by the Elbe and Oder into Prussia, &c. This is the fact, and who can help it ? No one. It might have been foreseen and partly guarded against, namely by keeping our own markets to ourselves. The diiference of this power to steam (see evidence Mr. J. Kempton, Committee on Commerce, 1833) is as 2/. 10s. by water to 121. 10s. by steam. In this way our raanufactin-es are beaten, and will be beaten in many countries, unless they have recourse to a similar power. And why should they not ? Amidst the innu- merable valleys in the west of Scotland, and in Wales and Ireland, what multitudes of fine streams flow with rapid courses, to the mouths of which steamers could go with perfect ease and safety, and carry quickly and cheaply the raw material and the manufactured goods to and from Liverpool and Glasgow ! streams running through fertile valleys into beautiful, navigable, and safe arms of the sea where fish can be had in myriads with little labour and at a low price, and other provisions as cheap as in any part of the Continent, and cheaper than they are in the populous parts of the United States. This is an object worthy the attention of both the government, the landed proprietor, and manufac- turing capitalists, and this resorted to, there will then be no necessity for Mr. Johnstone, of Glas- gow, to transport his manufacturing establishments from the banks of the Clyde to the banks of the Hudson, as at Manchester he seemed to think he would be obliged to do. These are the causes, or some of the causes, that are operating against that universality of manufac- turing supply which our generous and liberal ma- nufacturers call for, — causes, my lord, with which our corn laws, or rather just protection to our agricultural interests, have nothing to do, and which are beyond the power and the province of either the British govei-nment, or any other go- vernment to interfere with or to control. Admit- ting that the corn laws were abolished and grain admitted from all quarters, free and unfettered, and that the manufacturers took advantage of their free scope to export goods so cheap, that they would, as they assert they can do, beat all the world, what would be the consequences ? First, so much as the income of the landed interests and all connected with them is cut off, would the defi- ciency [of consumption in cotton goods at heme (all those finer descriptions, too, whicli require most manual labour, and which only the most wealthy can buy freely) and the sale of the manu- facture of that and of every class for the home market fall off, while a greater quantity of cotton goods would be thrown into the markets of the Continent which do not want them, and also into other countries, into which markets, when once brought, they must, as in the United States, be sold, — slaughtered wholesale, — purchased low in one place to beat the British manufacturer with his own goods in another. Does any sane man amongst the export manufacturers mean to say that they will export to various markets of the world (it is this portion of manufacturers alone, be it observed, who complain so loudly) goods equal to the extent of the reduction of rental which would follow the free admission of grain 1 It would extend to 1,150,000,000 of yards addi- tional of such goods as they now export, at the very lowest computation ; while the other portion of our manufactures would just lose, to an equal ex- tent, of their more valuable trade — I say valuable, because the home consumption trade is always well paid, the foreign rarely, if ever. The real truth is, there are more goods made and exported, than the market of the world can buy and consume or pay for. The consequences of this system are, that whenever an undue export takes place, terrible distress and wide-spread loss ensues, and goods in glutted markets are sold at such ruinous prices, that no more can be exported but at a great loss, until these are cleared out of the way. Let me place before your lordship, from the official tables taken from the Finance Accounts of each year this state of the British trade for a period of 12 years, contrasting the exports, &c. for six years ending 1830, with those for six years ending 1836. These will serve to give you a clear idea of the cause of the present cry about distress amongst the exporting manufacturers. TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. IMPORTS. Official value. EXPORTS. Official value. Declared do. 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 £ 44,137,482 37,686,113 44,887,774 45,02S,805 43,981,317 46,245,241 £ 47,166,020 40,965,735 52,219,280 52,797,455 56,213,041 61,140,864 £ 38,877,388 31,536,723 37,182,887 36,814,176 35,830,649 38,251,502 TotalB 261,966,732 Foreign&Col. Grand total.. 49,713,889 44,586,741 45,952,551 47,908,931 47,463,609 55,733,418 310,502,395 57,995,954 218,493,325 57,995,954 368,498,349 276,489,279 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 60,683,933 65,026,702 69,989,339 73,495,535 77,932,616 84,883,276 37,163,649 36,444,524 39,667,347 41,286,594 46,926,370 53,015,430 Totals.... 291,359,139 Foreign&Col. Grand total. . 432,011,401 69,351,944 254,503,914, 69,351,944 501,363,345 323,855,858 1831—1836 1825—1830 INCLUDING 1 291,359,139 261,966,732 FOREIGN AND 501,363,345 368,498,349 COLONIAL. 323,855,858 276,489,275 Excess . .. 29,392,407 ' 132,864,996 47,366,583 1831 — 1836 1825—1830 EXCLUSIVE ( 291,359,139 261,966,733 )F FOREIGN S 432,011,401 310,502,395 C COLONIAL. 254,503,914 218,493,325 Excess . . . 29,392,406 Total 121,509,006 29,392,406 36,010,589 150,901,412 Total, Inch 1 Foreign & Col. 164,257,402 226 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, These tables require no comment and no obser- vation— he who runs may read them ; and if the truth were told, the loss sustained on the sums mentioned in them would show that all the relief which free admission of foreign grain would give, or could give to the exporting manufacturer — re- lief to be obtained at the terrific loss on the part of all the other great interests of this country — would not nearly make good, nor enable him to compete successfully with his foreign rivals. Admitting that foreign grain was admitted free, and that the agriculturist is no longer to have any protection for his capital and his industry, the re- duction of rental could not be less than 25 per cent. We have seen what this rental is— 81,000,000/. This would give 20,000,000i. loss to the landholder — a capital of 615,000,000?., equal to the whole national debt, and three times as much as the capital vested in every species of manufacture. So much less must every landholder consume of every other article and produce imported into, raised, manufactured, and consumed in this country — so much would his property be dete- riorated, one-fifth — and so much in proportion would the capital of every establishment dependent upon home trade and consumption be lessened. The manufacturing labourer for export would gain nothing, for just so much must his wages be low- ered to enable his employer to export without a loss — for it is impossible he could export to beat the foreigner ; and so much must the wages of every tradesman of every description throughout the United Kingdom be lowered, while these would all be lowered to a still greater extent by the number of additional labourers which will be thrown out of employment in agriculture, and forced into the manufacturing market, when those who work for the home and our colonial markets will be found discharging a large portion of their hands, instead of employing additional, even at reduced wages ; while the exporter has recourse for his ideal greater trade to the steam engine to produce goods to be slaughtered in markets which either do not want them, will not take them, or which, if these take them, cannot pay for them. This would be the result of the present crusade, if successful, even amongst the manufacturing population themselves, and also amongst the agri- cultural. But the evil to the nation does not stop there. Twenty millions yearly revenue, and 615,000,000/. capital taken from the agricultural proprietor alone of this country will add so much more to the property of the landed proprietor on the Continent, and his increased prosperity and capital will enable him by banking, and other similar establishments, to foster and support his native manufacturers, like as British landed pro- perty, formerly put in a state of activity, fostered, supported, made, the manufacturers of Great Bri- tain ; for it is a fact which cannot be disputed, that it was real property banks, not manufacturing mercantile ones, that gave the impulse to all our national industry, and which in fact now maintains it. Withdraw that, and the fabric will tumble to pieces. Yet what is sought will not only withdraw so much capital from Great Britain, but plant so much disposable banking capital in the hands of rival nations. But this deterioration of the property of one class is not the whole of the evil. In the estimated value of the produce of agriculture, wheat, the price of which for various reasons regulates that of all other agxicultural produce, is taken at 50s. The introduction of foreign grain, unrestricted, would bring down the price of wheat at least one- fourth, or 12s. 6d., all other kinds of agricultural produce must be reduced in a sitiiilar manner, be- cause every one connected with their production, or dependent on that production, must find their means proportionally reduced. In grain the re- duction would, at therate mentioned, be38, 500, 000/. yearly, and on all agricultural productions 137,000,000/, even at the above ratio in price, but much more at a higher or at its present ratio. So far the farmer has relief against this to the extent of 25,000,000/. reduced rents, but beyond that the producer and all connected with him must reduce wages and expenditure to theextent of 112,000,000/. Let all the other interests of the country, especial- ly the producers of iron, beyond the manufactur- ing exporter to foreign countries, not British, look to this and think of this; and let the monied in- terest, the landowner, and the government — the two former, as it will affect the value of money or real capital, and the latter, as it will affect the produce of taxes. These latter must be reduced in proportion — and, if the consumption of this coun- try is in all things 660,000,000/., and this produces 50,000,000/. revenue yearly, then one-fourth (for so it is nearly) consumption reduced will produce only 38,500,000/., which, deducting 20,000,000/. for the yearly expenditure of the indispensible national peace establishments (to say nothing of war), leaves only 18,000,000/. instead of 30,500,000/. to pay the national annuitants their interest ; or procuring a confiscation of nearly half their pro- perty— and which deterioration of their income and property must again, to the extent of 12,500,000/. yearly, diminish the trade of every human being who works for the home market. On London the results will tell in this manner : — Half the rental of the land at least is spent in London. Therefore, half the reduced rental, 12,500,000/., on the part of the proprietor; the whole of the deficiency or deterioration of funded property, 12,500,000/. more ; and at least an equal sum of the general diminution, 112,000,000/., on agricultural returns, finds its way to London in indirect expenditure — together, 37,500,000/. year- ly, half her yearly resident consumption and ex- penditure in all things thus taken away and trans- ferred to foreign countries. Such would be the state of London — half-pay at all the public offices ; her clubs deserted ; her bankers, capitalists, and professional men, all half idle; her butchers, bakers, tailors, dress-makers, shopkeepers, artisans, &c., working half-tides, and reduced to half their customary comforts and al- lowances; the rental of her houses diminished one-half; the splendid mansions of the nobility deserted ; Regent's Park uninhabited ; solitude reigning in her docks and wharves ; and a weekly newspaper, from poverty and necessity, substituted for a daily one. The fourth estate of this realm may emigrate, especially from the metropolis, to another hemisphere, and carry their types along with them. Now, does any one mean to say that these losses will enable the exporting manufacturer to beat down all foreign competition, and give them, even if the world were inclined to allow them, the com- mand of every market of the world ? One tells us that he is beaten by 30 per cent. Another, that he is beaten, even in a British market, 45 percent. Either the one must be untrue, or the calculated relief must be a dreadful delusion. Besides, even to gain this inadequate relief, the cotton export THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 227 manufacturer must sacrifice 20 per cent, of his fixed capital ; he must strike that off his property as a dead loss, to stand on equal ground with the new capitalist, who would come into the market of production on the cheaper terms ; and not only the export cotton manufacturer must strike off as a dead loss this amount of his fixed capital, but every other manufacturing interest, and in fact every other interest, shipowner, houseowner, &c. &c., must, together with the farmer, do the same thing. And in this general reduction and adjust- ment does the fundholder really tbink he can es- cape ? He will, after the land, be the next victim of the political economists, who, the more they destroy, the poorer they will find themselves in the end. Moreover, in this general reduction, Mr. Johnstone seems to have forgotten that the cotton spinner will have his share in the general saving, which is calculated upon in the reduction of the price of food, &c. &c., and he will accordingly send a greater quantity of yarn to foreign countries, and thus keep every other cotton manufacturer and exporter in the same helpless state — if helpless it really is— that they now are. Of the statements made at these manufacturing convocations take the following: — Mr. Brookes stated at the Manchester assembly, that where he used to sell 1000 pieces of goods per week to Ger- mans, he now only sold 100 pieces, and that he sent goods to no less than 100 places. From this state- ment it might he supposed that the British trade to Germany had actually decreased in that ratio. Let us, therefore, attend to that which the official Custom House returns say on this point both as to quantity and value. COTTONS EXPORTED TO GERMANY. Declared Value, Goods. Twist, including Hosiery. 1820.. 47,658,283 11,627,328 4,168,458^. 1836.. 37,558,457 31,323,478 3,132,114^. TOTAL EXPORTS TO GERMANY. Declared Value. 1827 .. .. 4,654,618i. 1836 .. .. 4,463,729/. Whatever decrease there is in goods is clearly owing to the increased exportation of cotton yarn ; and thus, though Mr. Brookes does not export so many pieces of goods as he did, some others export articles to an equal value. This, with the deter- mination of the Germans to manufacture for them- selves with their cheaper water-power, and also by their protecting duties, are the causes why our trade with Germany must remain stationary — per- haps decrease ; but it may here be observed, that if they do not take so many cotton goods as they did, they take more of something else. Moreover, our corn-laws have nothing to do with the argu- ment of the cotton manufacturers, that if we will take their corn, Germany will take our goods, be- cause I never heard that Germany had much corn to spare, if any, after supplying the wants of her own population, so numerous and so industrious. The Times of the 31st ult. in its arguments for the repeal of the corn-laws, gives as an irresitible and unanswerable reason, " that the British labour- er can exchange his week's labour for a much larger quantity of corn abroad than he can get for it at home." Now, this is a very specious argument, and is, in fact, the essence of all the statements, assertions, and oratory of the political economist and the manufacturing exporters to foreign coun- tries, embracing about one-tenth only of our raanufscturjng trade; but when attended to and examined, it is a miserable fallacy and a sheer de- lusion. The British labourer can do no such thing ; for if he had corn or food at the Continental prices, he would, neither in the manufacturing, nor in any other department of life, receive so much wages as he now does, and it is not a little sur- prising that a journal so acute and able as the Times is, should not see this. Since the commencement of British manufac- tures they have ever been protected, and strongly protected, against foreign competition in all the British dominions. It was right and just that these should be so. The clamourers, however, on the present occasion, supported and called for a different state of things. To a certain extent their wishss and demands were complied with. Mis- chief to themselves and others was the result. Still in favour of every British manufacture heavy pro- tecting duties exist. The present protecting duties on cotton goods, even those made in British ter- ritories, is 20 per cent., and on j'arns 10 percent., and other things 40 per cent., and even higher. During the war the direct taxation of the nation fell heavy on the agricultural interest, and but light on the manufacturing : the nature, extent, and result of that war tended to increase our manufactures, and the large profits obtained, being then without competition, enabled the manu- facturers to do that which they never could under other circumstances have done, namely, perfect their machinery ; when borne off their feet by their success they proclaimed themselves invincible, and said to the world, " Come and take as much of this perfect machinery as you please ; we defy your exertions, and scorn your puny operations !" Behold the result — the world proceeds to beat them ; and yet, while enjoying protection them- selves, they say, " Come, crush the greatest in- terest in the countrj', that on which all others, even the manufacturing, depends; withdraw all protection from it, and continue it to us, in order that we maj'^ proceed in our Will-o'-the-wisp career to crush the rising and united manufacturing energies and exertions of the civilised world!" This is the language held — this the object avow- ed. How wild, how ungenerous, and how unjust ! How totally opposite to their own principles and doctrines blazoned to the world, namely, that every one should buy at the cheapest market. Then, why should the greatest interest in the country, outweighing all the others put together by 15 tol, not be allowed to go and buy from our continental neighbours their so nmch cheaper wares ? Why do the agriculturists not call for thi ~ ? Why, but because they are not so " stupid" (so a Common Councilman the other day designated them), as not to know that if they bought foreign manufactures instead of British manufactures, they must throw their countrymen idle, and lose a market for one- third of their produce. The manufacturers must act to the agriculturists as the agriculturists act, and are willing without accusation, reproach, or menace, to act towards them. The corn laws, or, fair protection to the agricul- tural interest, are asserted to take from the pockets of the British consumers 25,000,000/. yearly. This false, fallacious, and ad captandum argument, if argument it can be admitted to be, is a two-edged sword, which cuts more deeply tbe assailant than the assailed. The population of this country con- sume to the extent of 245,000,000/. in manufac- tures. All these, the manufacturers tell us, could be purchased in other countries 40 or 50 per cent, lower than in this ; consequently, even at 40 per 228 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cent., the people of this country lose, by the same mode of reasoning, 98,000,000/. The protection given, if protection is wrong and unjust, costs the people of Great Britain and Ireland, taken by the scale of production, nearly 11,000,000/. yearly. The case, my lord, is a very plain one : shall that portion of our foreign trade, say, on the average, 26,000,000/., dependent on foreign countries (above one-half of this moreover, different nations cannot dispense with), or rather under a moiety of this sum, be left to itself, and the struggle its owners courted ; or, in order to make it as profitable as its owners wish, shall the whole remaining manufac- tures— manufacturing and agricultural interests, producing to the extent of 770,000,000/., be pros- trated, and be compelled to yield up a large portion of its capital, in order to enable the other portion to carry on its operations to a greater extent, and with a greater profit, against the wisdom, the energy, the industry, and the municipal restric- tions of an opposing; world .' This is truly the point at issue, and it is too absurd, even glanced at, to be thought of or tolerated for one moment, by any human being without the precincts of Bed- lam. Further, in order to ascertain the extent of the justice of the cry of the export manufacturers, about the danger and losses consequent upon fo- reign competition, it would be proper to know how much of that competition is produced by the fo- reigner bringing to market "better" goods. Mr. Flint, of Leeds, informed his Manchester hearers that bis former American customers told him they *' could buy a much cheaper and better fabric (woollen cloth) in Prussia'' than in Yorkshire. The Frussian cloth costs 8s. to 9s., the Leeds 10s. per yard. It is in vain for the manufacturers to deny that foreigners do make, in many kinds of goods, superior articles to the British ; and this superiority in fabric, more than cheapness in price, as a matter of course, gives these foreigners a preference in different markets. Such has been the opposition amongst the manufacturers them- selves, so eager were many to oppose and under- sell their neighbours, that articles, shamelessly bad, were produced and shipped to foreign markets, and the general character of British manufactures thereby deeply and seriously injured— false colours bad cloth— the foreigner once taken in was not going to throw away his money on similar articles ; or articles which, coming from the same quarter, he had good reason to calculate would be the same as the other. With all this the corn laws and pro- tection to the agricultural interests have nothing to do ; nor do these laws at all militate against various branches of manufacture, such as machi- nery, which, for the cotton and other establish- ment's rising rapidly on the Continent of Europe and elsewhere, are, to a great extent, made in this country. When the political economists, to which school the exporting manufacturers generally belong, de- cried bounties and protecting duties, and when they called for unlicensed competition, they were blind to the consequences of their own folly. So are they now in running a muck against the best friends of the country, the agricultural interest ; and in withdrawing their attention and their eyes and their thoughts from the niarc'i of events, from the extension of an old power on new principles, and the application of a still older power in a new manner to their business, which, together, will go to change the whole structure thereof, and plant it in other countries, and also in other parts of this country, and under, perhaps, if they do not look around them, new hands. I allude to the exten- sion of steam power to navigation, to the construc- tion of railroads, and to the application in many countries of water-power, instead of steam power, to all descriptions of manufactures produced by machinery. The speed and cheapness with which the raw material and the manufactured article can be conveyed to parts the most distant by steam navigation and by railroads, will lay open exten- sive and eligible districts of this country which were before impervious to manufactures. This change will also tend to separate establishments into more convenient and cheap districts, far from the turmoil, the proflicacy, the vice, the misery, and the poverty, which the fluctuations to which all manufacturing districts, places, and persons, are liable and exposed, when vast multitudes of men are collected together, as at present ; and thus leave the industrious manufacturer to spend his days in comparative comfort, tranquillity, and peace, weaving cloths instead of weaving consti- tutions for states and nations, improving the coun- try to which he goes, and improved himself by being separated into smaller bodies in it. This will be the case unless foreigners are allowed to supplant us in every branch and in every country, even in our own, by the application of the same means of conveyance, and the new power applied, or rather extended, to manufacturing machinery — water, so abundant in all their countries, and also very abundant in various eligible spots and dis- tricts in this, and which might be made available if looked after in time. The export manufacturers would be much better and more profitably em- ployed in directing their thoughts and attention to these subjects than in condemning, calumniat- ing, and reviling, and seeking to injure, their ge- nrrous and inoffensive fellow-subjects, who, though far more numerous than they are, and, in compa- rison as to real wealth, as thirty to one, yet being necessarily widely scattered over the country, and comparatively isolated from each other, are on that account less powerful in popular agitation than their opponents. Amongst other things it has been proclaimed that the duty on the raw material in Britain gives the foreign manufacturer a decided superiority over the British. Without entering into the ques- tion whether such a duty is wise or unwise, bear- able or unbearable, it is simply necessary to observe that the obstruction it offers to the British, and in favour of the foreign manufacturer cannot be cor- rect, because in France there is a similar duty, and yet no such complaint is heard in that country, nor any impediment from it found, to the increase of the cotton manufacture. The duty on the impor- tation of cotton wool into France last year was 10,852,550 francs— 434,102/. The duty received in England in 1836 was 430,000/.; showing, that when the respective amount of importations into the two coimtries is considered, the duty on cotton wool in France must be nearl 3' treble to that which is paid in Great Britain. The business of the agriculturist, and the purely manufacturer, does not stand on equal grounds as to capital. The agriculturist must be jjossest^ed of capital to purchase all his stock, whether live or (lead stock, and with funds sufficient to carry on all his operations, at least for twelve months as to direct wages, &c., and six months as to indirect supplies; with credit we shall suppose for the re- maining six months, under the latter head ; before he can obtain any return from his crops, even by THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 229 a bill which he can convert into cash, at the regu- lar discount rate of banking establishments. The mannfacturer can turn his yarn, bought at six months' credit, into goods in a month, and into cash by receiving bills tor them, which he discounts in a week more ; and this, even in his regular mode of conducting business. Consequently the manu- facturer turns over his capital four times or even six times in a year, while the agriculturist can only turn his capital once. In truth, the banking in- terests are to a great extent the manufacturers of this country. The owner of works and machinery can act in the same way as the manufacturer in all his future operations, with the exception of the capital vested in such buildings and machinery ; while it is clear that the manufacturer is not sub- jected to greater drawbacks in his business on ac- count of bad markets than the agriculturist is on account of bad seasons. The unfettered introduction of foreign grain would not only occasion a deterioration of all ren- tal, ail labour, and all property in this country equal to the difference between the decline of price and the present price of grain in this country, or the future price it will be got at from those coun- tries from which the supply is expected ; but the attack upon property would render everything un- settled and insecure, shake all confidence in both the landed proprietors and the farmer ; improve- ments on the part of both would necessarily, and from necessity, cease ; and the latter would only give, and could only give, such a rental for the land as would to the utmost secure him from those future changes and depreciations which fresh in- roads and fresh laws of a description like those now demanded would subject him to. The dete- rioration of rental and the depreciation of agricul- tural property would be even greater from this cause than from the former, and, united, could not be less than 25 per cent., if not a still greater amount. With this reduction, or rather a depreciation, in the value of all agricultural property, a similar re- duction must take place in the value of all other property, real or personal, all other rental, every other income, and the value of money, — every other thing must be in this manner reduced, but the national debt due to the lawful creditor; and it is scarcely necessary to observe that it could not, under such circumstances, stand a day at its pre- sent extent and value, but that it must, from the force of circumstances, be reduced even more in proportion than any other property, naj', probably be swept away altogether. It is easy for manufacturers to complain and theorists to declaim : it is easy for all such to tell us, Throw one-third of the lands now cultivated in grain out of cultivation, and put these into tillage, and an immense advantage would therefrom ensue to the general interests of this country. AVhat blindness! What infatuation 1 Such a step would throw 550,000 horses, 160,000 oxen, and 3,000,000 human beings out of agricultural employment (but a small portion could he taken up in grazing con- cerns), and, moreover, throw all these on the labour market of the manufacturing and other departments at the moment when, owing to the discharge of the power mentioned, from its proposed useful employ- ment in agriculture, every such department, or business, or individual in the kingdom would, from necessity, be engaged in discharging to a certain and to a similar extent, the power they now em- ploy in their diflferent avocations. Are the export manufacturers, the steam-loom and steam-engine owner manufacturers prepared to state and to show that their increased foreign trade would ab- sorb to equal advantage and at equal wages all this labour 1 With the result mentioned, the step would lower the value of all the present grazing establish- ments and returns, by bringing an additional ex- tent of production into the market, which could not he used or consumed from the general reduc- tion of capital and wages in that as well as in every other branch of business in the kingdom. Such reduction of wages is inevitable, and such reduc- tion of all wages, manufacturing and otherwise, would reduce consumption in every thing. Such must be the result. In fact, the manufacturers tell us that without a reduction of wages they could derive no advantage, and they consequently call for a reduction in the price of provisions, as the means of enabling them still further to reduce wages, already in many instances, for the sake of attempting to beat foreign competition, reduced to the starvation point. The result of the step re- commended, nay demanded, would to the extent coolly contemplated by cold-blooded political eco- nomy calculators, first, deprive the landlord of at least 20,000.000/. (more probably 24,000,000/.) of bis income : secondly, curtail the expenditure of the farmer in direct food and wages 45,000,000/., and in indirect wages and supplies 31,003,000/. ; all other fixed incomes such as rental of houses, funds.&c.&c, 17,585,988/.; together, 112,585,988/.; independent of the reductions which would follow in the shipping interest, the employment of horses not agricultural, and the manufacturing depart- ments of every description engaged in working for the home market. Yet unless the few exporting manufacturers can increase the foreign trade of this country, at present, say, average 27,000,000/. yearly, so much that from its extent and profits they could make good all the foregoing losses to other classes of the community, such must be the residts to the country, and to all her great interests, agricultural, commercial, manufacturing, political, and social, were the present demands of the export manufacturers complied with. Does the wildest and most extravagant amongst them mean to say that they could, in their small field — a field limited, too, by the wisdom, the interests, the energies, and the activity, of all the remainder of the civilised world — make good to the nation the above loss, or even the value of the yearly depreciation of gi-ain only (at 20 per cent., 30,400,000/.), which would ensue by listening to their /e/o clese counsels ? We have seen the enormous injustice, and the enormous loss, which would be inflicted on all our national interests by the adoptioii d' the system required by the exporting manufacturers, and let us next turn to look at what they would gain by it. Their avowed object is a reduction of the wages of their labourers, already sufficiently low — at least a reduction in proportion to the reduction of the price of bread ; for surely they do not propose that these should eat .grass and hay, like Nebu- chadnezzar in the days of his insanity and debasement ; and as they look for no reduc- tion of expenditure where taxation is concerned, but only in the price of food and other manu- factured articles necessary for clothing— which reduction, be it observed, whatever it may be, is made at the expense of the comforts of their fellow-subjects and fellow labourers— this is the amount of the saving which they seek and call for. Admitting that the export manufacturer, by the reduction of the value of all other property, and cost of manufactures, &c., in this country, ob- 230 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tained his food and supplies of every kind, exclu- sive of taxable cost, say 25 per cent, cheaper — which certainly is the very utmost that he could do, or that he could expect — what will be the results as to our foreign trade, and those connected with it — or who labour directly for it ? In the first place, the labourer, or artisan, for this department would find his situation not one whit better, inas- much as whatever he saved in food and clothing by the reduction alluded to, he would lose in wages just so much reduced ; or else his employer, ac- cording to his own account, can obtain no advan- tage whatever. Secondly, suppose the wages of every manufacturing labourer, of every description, to average 10s. per week, or 26^. per annum, and that the whole sum so paid yearly is 130,000,000/., and that on the half of this 25 per cent, is saved ; the amount so saved is 16,250,000/. yearly. Now, how will this aifect our whole manufacturing in- terests— for the whole must then be taken, not a part. On 270,000,000L, the whole production of manufactures, the saving would be 6.1 i)er cent., while the manufacturers tell us that they would re- quire from 40 to 50 per cent. Moreover, this is not all — they propose to export a greater quantity of goods ; and suppose they double these, then the above saving would be reduced perhaps one-half, showing, either way, that the relief they demand, and in their own way — admitting, too, that every- thing else stood the enormous sacrifices necessary to accomplish the object mentioned, but which could not be the case — is quite inadequate to make them masters of the trade of the world, or even to bring them to compete with foreigners in those markets where all goods, or the goods of both parties, are fully admitted upon equal terms. But, if we confine this savingto thecotton exports alone, the results will be more unfavourable to the manufacturers. Mr. Johnstone gives us excellent data to ascertain this. He spins and throws off 25,000 yards of cloth daily, with 1,557 efl^ective hands. Now at this ratio, the whole export of cotton goods as given in yards, require 120,270 labourers. At 261. per annum, their united wages would be 3,127,020/. Twenty-five per cent, saved on one-half of this is 390,877/. The total quantity of goods exported is 17,183,167/., on which the preceding saving is just 2.29, or 21. 5s. Jijd. per cent.'.! There would, indeed, be the interest on the saving of the capital, which would arise from the general leduction of all wages and supplies on the sum laid out in buildings and machinery to add to this, which, according to the scale furnished by Mr. Johnstone, is about 5,211,706/., in machinery and buildings ; the interest on 25 per cent, saved in establishing these which will amount to 72,500/., not quite a half per cent, more; or, the whole ac- tual saving under three percent. — quite inadequate to gain the object which the export manufacturer has in view, admitting that there was no other ob- jection to the experiment to be made. But the manufacturers cannot be relieved to the extent of 25 per cent, by the reduction of the price of food from the unfettered introduction of foreign grain ; because that unfettered introduction would tend to raise the price of grain in those foreign ccintries which have it to spare, and prevent it from falling to that extent in this country. Let us take the rise in these countries — in Poland for example — to be 40 per cent. ; then to half that amount the fall in this country will be prevented. Twenty per cent., then, will be the loss to the British farmer on all his productions, and also on the value of his stock ; but from the uncertainty and state of inse- curity in which everything regarding the agricul- tural interest will be placed, by the pressure from without, rents will fall to a greater extent than the rate just mentioned and probably exceed 25 per cent, the rate which has been taken. Let us next look at those foreign co\mtries to which ours exports, in order to ascertain if these really could, even if they were inclined so to do, supply us with corn of all descriptions. EXPORTS, 1836. — declahed value. Foreien Countries. Russia 1,742,432 Egyptand Ports Sweden 112,309 Mediterra- Norway 79,469 nean 216,930 Denmark .... 91,302 Tripoli, Bar- Prussia 160,622 bary, and Germany .... 4,463,729 Morocco 29,322 Holland 2,509,692 Arabia 16,358 Belgium 839,276 Sumatra and France 1,591,381 Java 234,852 Portugal 1,085,934 Phillippine Is- „ Azores .. 53,574 lands 51,778 „ Madeira... 52,168 Hayti 250,663 Spain & Balea- Cuba and other ric Isles .... 437,076 For. W.Indies 987,122 Spain — Cana- U.S.America.. 12,425,605 ries 40,370 Mexico 254.822 Italy and Italian Guatemala 764 Islands . . . 2,921,466 Columbia . . . 185,172 Turkey and Brazil 3,030,532 Greece .... 1,775,034 Rio ue la Plata 697,334 jMorea and Chili 861,903 Greek Islands 12,003 Peru 606,332 Syria and Pales- tine 33,650 £37,833,000 British Possessions. Gibraltar .... 756,411 Cliina 1,326,388 Malta 143,015 New S. Wales, Ionian Islands 109,123 &:c 835,637 Western Coast Brit. N. Ame- of Africa 467,186 rica 2,732,291 C. Good Hope 482,315 British W. In- Cape Verde dies 3,78G,453 Islands 418 Guernsey, Jer- St. Helena 11,041 sey, &c 318,609 Mauritius 260,855 _. East Indies and Total British...£15,535,566 Ceylon 4,285,829 The exports to the British possessions do not vary much. The excess or difference which ap- pears so great in this year beyond the average, arose from excessive speculative exports to all foreign countries, especially to the United States, exceeding the general average by 12,000,000/, China is accounted as a British possession, because the trade with that country is conducted upon a peculiar and separate footing. Even a cursory examination of the preceding return will show the fallacy and the absurdity of the cry raised about exchanging goods with coun- tries which would give corn in return. Prussia and Russia excepted, not one of them have any to spare, and these countries pursue a wise policy to manufacture and work for themselves in every thing as far as they possibly can. Nor could they spare the supply which this country would require to make up the deficiency contemplated and called for. The United States cannot give us grain. The cheaper grain of continental Europe, Dantzic, &c., is superseding that from the United States in the general markets of the tropical world. Holland, with 3,000,000 of people, takes three times as much from us as Belgium with 5,000,000, and New South Wales nearly as much as the great empire of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 231 China — proofs that it is to the consuming powers and industry of nations, not to multitudes of man- kind, that this and every other nation ought to look for the maintenance and increase of their manufactures and their commerce. To crown the humanity, the patriotism, the jus- tice, and the wisdom of this export manufacturing conclave at Manchester, the chairman hinted that sugar could be got 50 per cent, cheaper in the Brazils than in the British colonies (adding that his honest assistant Liverpool brawlers carried this from Brazils to the Cape of Good Plope, and thence brought it into Liverpool as British colonial pro- duce!^, and coffee at one-half the price, which, as a matter of course, ought to be preferred and exchanged for cotton goods. This is well ; this is consistent indeed on the part of those who clamour for the free introduction of the Polish and Rus- sian corn, which, like the sugar and coffee of Bra- zils, is produced by absolute personal slaves ; and to outrage truth, honour, justice, and consistency, and humanity more, it was also adverted to at Bir- mingham, amidst a similar conclave, how much had been effected by union in the question of the emancipation of the West Indian slaves. For any- thing or any one in Birmingham to boast of what they did in that momentous question, where they succeed in despoiling a portion of their fellow- subjects, without making themselves rich, is a piece of the greatest impudence, and the bitterest insult ever offered to human reason. Birmingham has, above all other places, contributed to inflict deeper miseries on Africa, and to lead into personal slavery, internal and external, many millions of her unhappy sons infinitely more than any other place or people on earth. The African slave-trade, its state and extent, will speedily come before the country, as it has already come before your Cabinet, from a quarter and authority which will claim the attention of this country, and even of Birmingham itself; and when the public find that about 180,000 Africans are yet yearly, as this number has yearly during the last 30 years been, carried away from their country (treble the number carried away 40 years ago), and at an expense of human life almost to an equal extent annually, they will inquire, they will listen when they are told, as they are now told, that all these unhappy creatures are pur- chased by the most worthless description of goods made by particular individuals in Birmingham, Manchester, aud Glasgow ; and in many instances these goods not even shipped to their destination in Africa by a circuitous route. The goods I al- lude to are goods that, when rubbed or wetted in the slightest manner, appear in fabric like so many unglazed window-frames in a deserted dwelling ; and when subjected to the vapour arising in a tropical ci'owd or assemby, assume colours such as the rainbow never saw, and no designer ever imagined. Such goods, I repeat, are made in the places mentioned, and with a full knowledge of the place and the traffic for which they are intended. In particular Birmingham is the great emporium for the manufacture of muskets for the coast of Africa, the great medium of slave barter, and the means of procuring slaves. They cost 7s., and are sold in the markets on the other side of the At- lantic for 2§ dollars. They will hurt no one but him who uses them, and whose brains are not safe if he charges them with good powder. The humane and considerate exporters and manufacturers of such wares, however, do the best they can to pre- vent this catastrophe, by getting powder made as big as peas, which, even were the muskets filled with itto the muzzles, would do no harm to any one, neither him who is shot at, nor him who fires the piece. But in this instance, as in others, these hu- mane exporters do not see the consequences of their preventive check, because the poor people who in the national African wars are armed with their muskets and their powder, and who with these go against another nation armed with good powder and good muskets, bought from other na- tions, have no chance for victory ; but are either slain in the field of battle, or in whole armies at once reduced to slavery, and sold as slaves to the foreign slave-trader, or sacrificed on the bloody altars of the bloody African deities, it being always the policy and the practice of African chiefs rather to catch their antagonists for the purpose men- tioned than to kill them outright like civilised people. The arms and ammunition exported to the west coast of Africa, in 1836, were to the value of 137,678/., and to Brazils, and the West Indies 56,536/., together 194,214/. Sierra Leone received that year 285,0001b. of gunpowder, and the year preceding 20,000 muskets. Speaking of the slave- trade at Lambatiklia, a town not far from Jimeto to the north of the Central Kong range, De Caille, vol. 1st, p. 312, says, " All the goods which are sold at the European settlements on the coast are destined for this infamous traffic ; the slaves are not exported, it is true, but they are no better off than if they were." The value of a musket and a few pounds of gunpowder will purchase a slave in the interior, and be the means of bringing a dozen individuals more into that state. How many Africans, therefore, do certain Birmingham anti- corn-law agitators thus tend to enslave annually, independent of the dishonesty of cheating to the poor African, to the loss of his liberty or his life, or both ? Instead of assemblages such as this taking credit to themselves for humanity, to which they are not entitled — instead of reviling and endeavouring to despoil their fellow-subjects in pursuit of idle, dangerous, and impracticable theories, they ought to be engaged even for the sake of their own self-interest in opposite conduct. What has been done or thought of for India or for Africa, for the welfare of both, about which the ears of this country have been stunned for years past, and especially from the same quarters ? To the cotton portion of these conclaves I more especially address myself. Both India and Africa, the latter in an especial manner throughout all her borders, pro- duces, and can produce with even common care bestowed on the cultivation and preparation, cotton, of a quality as good, nay, generally better than that which is obtained from other quarters, more especially from the United States of America. Let us examine what the latter quan- tity is, and how much this country pays for it, and, lamentable to say, ho,v completely she is dependent upon it. The imports this year stand thus : — Bales. United States * 1,124,120 Brazil and Portugal 137,770 East Indian 107,480 Egypt 28,240 West Indian, &c 31,180 1,428,790 * From the 5th January to the 5th of December, 1838, the quantity imported from the United States 232 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The value of this at the market price must con- siderably exceed 20,000,000/. paid to foreign na- tions : but nearly wholly to one particular rival manufacturing foreign nation. Will our manufac- turers, the government, and the people of this country not open their e3'es to these appalling facts ? Not only is our wise, and, as they would have us believe, far-sighted and superior-sighted manufacturers, wholly dependent upon the United States for a supply of cotton, but every few years the keen-sighted dollar-making people of these states and their connections established in Liver- pool, by speculations artfully got up, fleece En- gland, manufacturers and others, of at lea5t 4,000,000/. of money ; and at this moment they are sucking the heart's blood, not only out of our manufacturers, but out of the labouring popula- tion, especially those engaged in the various de- partments of the cotton manufacture, by keeping up from iniquitous and almost invincible money combinations the price of the raw material, while the prices of goods not only do not rise, but can- not rise ; because that high price of the ravv ma- terial in this country not only puts money into the pocket of the American agriculturist and capitalist, but enables the American manufacturer to manu- facture from the raw material at a lower price, and which, with his other advantages, such as •water-power, must daily tend to circumscribe British manufactures from finding a market, both in the United States and elsewhere, and tend to extend their manufacturing establishments, and to embarrass and to cripple ours. If our manufacturers are so blind as not to see this — if the country is so stupid as not to see it also — then both are more stupid and ignorant than that very " stupid" common councillor of London who asserted that the working agricul- turists of his native country (what has he done to remove this ignorance?) were the most "stupid" people on the face of this earth ; and seeing it, and not taking sane, and proper and early mea- sm-es, to prevent it, both the country and the manufacturers deserve the fate which, by re- maining under apathy, and ignorance, and de- lusion, misled by rogues and fools, inevitably awaits them. Did Great Britain pay to Africa and India 20,000,000/. yearly for cotton, it is plain that these quarters, more especially the former quarter, could take, and would take, to an equal value of our manufactures, and pay for them too ; while such an improvement in the social condition of Africa would enable her in other ways to take double the value of other mercantile articles from us. These are the quarters for our manufacturers to look to for real and permanent relief, and not from blind and destructive crusades led against the agriculturists of their country, whose destruction would infallibly draw down on the heads of all our manufacturers, of every des- cription and degree, utter ruin. The shipping interest are, amongst others, ap- pealed to for sympathy, assistance, and support, as tending thereby to benefit their interests on this occasion. What matchless effrontery, to come from a quarter and a class which, more than any other, and before every other, has for many years been doing everything in their power to em- barrass the interest in question, nay, to ruin it altogether ! The shipping interest will scarcely was, in pounds 444,000,000 ; two-thirds of this is brought in American ships, and one-half of it also actually as American coasignments. be so simple as to be caught by such a bait, or to run into the pit which has been so officiously dug for them. On that interest it must bring loss. The grain would be, if brought at all, carried by foreign ships. Besides, the shipping interest know well that 10,000/. value, carried in sugar, or coals, or timber, emply more tonnage than 400,000/. in cotton manufactures. Attend to the United States. In their exports of about 20,000,000 dollars in provisions, lumber, timber, stores, and fish, &c., to different countries, and the returns in produce obtained from the countries to whifh these exports are sent ; these states employ four times as much tonnage as all our cotton manufac- tures put together, inwards and outwards. It was the carriage of heavy articles that increased the tonnage of the mercantile marine of Great Britain ; and it is the carriage of such that is increasing so rapidly the commercial marine of the United States, and to a degreethat will render these states, in the event of another war, most dangerous enemies to Great Britain. Nor is this all. The security of the fundholder rests wholly on the land. When that is shaken, im- paired, and endangered, the machinery of cotton mills is little worth, nor could the Chancellor of the Exchequer borrow so much money on them, under the circumstances mentioned, as would give your lordship, your colleagues, and official servants about Downing-street, their dinner. Strike off one-fijth from its value, and will not the security of the fund- holder be so much weakened — destroyed, from the possibility, nay, certainty, that the same power which had struck o&th\s fifth, m;»y strike off another fifth, at its pleasure, and call on the fundholdei'S also to be content with the half of their present income ? Inroads once made into private property, at the voice and at the command of a self-interested, perhaps unprincipled, multitude, never stand still. It ren- ders the invader of it worse off than he was before ; and, consequently, hurries him on to call for a greater sacrifice to satisf^- his theory or fill his pocket at the expense of another. With such a diminution and destruction of real and lawful property the taxes of this country cannot be raised. VV^ithout these are raised, how can the national establishments be sup- ported, or the national creditor paid? Look around you while there is yet time, and avert by judgment and decision the ruin of our common country. The na- tional resources once seriously impaired, the national credit once doubted and lessened, where then will be the Bank of England, the prop and stay of all the com- mercial interests of this country in the day of pros- perity as well as in tLe day of danger? Where, I ask, will it be — how will it be—situated with its load of government securities shaken, discredited, depreci- ated ? Can your lordship or your colleagues calmly contemplate the results ? Yet you are asked to in- vade that which must shake these securities — this bulwark — and leave them liable to be further and at pleasure invaded by the same rude, senseless, and reckless array more easily than at a previous period. The banking interests in this country are, as has been stated, to a great extent, the manufacturers of this country. Without their aid and assistance, raanufactures could not be carried on to the extent they are, and they have been. The stability of all these (jstablishments is based upon fixed property-— the land, and the public securities of the country. Any banking establishment otherwise constituted may go on, and be of service in the hour of pros- perity ; but when the day of battle and of war— when the hour of severe and unexpected pressure comes, it is only on banks erected on the foundations men- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 233 tioned, that the manufacturing and the commercial interests can depend. Touch the property, therefore, on which these latter banks are established — annihi- late, as the measure proposed would annihilate, one- fourlh of all the real property in the country, and while everything and every interest in it was cover- ed with loss and dismay, these banks would not only be unable to render the assistance required^ and which they otherwise could have given, but they must contract even in quiet times their business above one-fourth, and thus curtail to an alarming ex- tent all manufacturing and commercial operations. The corn-laws do not deprive the population of food as has been wickedly represented; but, on the contrary, they not only furnish that food for them, but afford them the means of procuring it. With- draw these laws, or rather that protection, and both food and wages would vanish from the grasp of our population, and manufactures of all descriptions would in this country be annihilated. Such would unquestionably be the result of enriching the foreign cultivator at the expense of the British cultivator. The fact is self-evident to any but error the most obstinate, and prejudice the most blind; and it is quite lamentable to see intelligent and respectable manufacturers every where — men with practical knowledge, industry, and fortunes like Mr. John- stone and Mr. Greo; — suffering themselves to be made the mere cat's-paws of idle theorists, and mi:j- chievous politicians, whose aim is mischief, and v/ho can only live amidst turmoil and agitation — the curse and destruction of all peaceful and profitable pursuits, agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing. Were her Majesty's government to call for an as- sessment upon all the capital of this country in order to pay off the national debt, it would quickly be found how the capital in manufactures would shrivel up and evade the touch as compared to what is vested in land and other fixed property. Such a measure csuld only place the British manufacturer and agri- culturist, as to cost of production, on anything like an equal footing with the foreign, for instance the Polish cultivator ; but till such a measure has been carried into effect, till the national debt is fully paid, let no British tongue ever pronounce the words — free trade in corn, a free trade in every thing else. Such a state of things cannot be without robbing to his last farthing the national creditor. That step taken, a division of landed property will follow as a matter of course. In the prize then sought after, the seeker would be urged on by necessity, the temptation would be irresistible, and I deeply regret to say, that the power put in operation would under such cir- cumstances be commensurate with the work to be performed. The instigators of the present crusade see and understand this. Much also as a call for a portion of all capital, in order to pay off the public debt, would shake and deteriorate all property, still such a call would really be less injurious to real property and capital than the act which you are cal- led upon by the anti-corn-law advocates to do. How long, my lord, is this nation to afford the melancholy spectacle to the surrounding nations of this world, of a people tearing themselves to pieces, of one interest attempting to preserve itself, or en- lich itself, or to raise itself into notice and importance by destroying another class of their fellow-subjects 1 To day the shipping interests are assailed, to morrow the colonial, the next day church property is attacked, and the day following the land — the prop and stay of the whole; and be assured, the next step, if this last is successful, or allowed to be successful, will — must be, the fuads, and then the crown and the monar- chy of Great Britain. No natiouin this world pursues a course such as this nation does. Each tries more than another to support, protect, and to unite, every interest that composes the whole, and this too with- out evincing any hostile feelings to other powers, in preference to anything connected with these powers. Why does not the people of Great Britain pursue the same course ? and why does not her government instruct, and fearlessly tell them, that they must do so? The intention of Alexander and Napoleon, avowed to conquer the world, was sanity compared to the design promulgated by a small knot of export- ing manufacturers, led by a few wrong-headed poli- tical economists to monopolise the whole manufac- turing business thereof. The world repels the sense- less step with derision, and every right-thinking mind in the United Kingdom repudiates the design with scorn and indignation. The day, my lord, that you yield to their clamour, and submit to their dicta- tion, on that day you tear to pieces the title-deeds of all real property in the United Kmgdom ; you ren- der the securities for funded property not worth the cost of the paper on which they are drawn ; you sever by injustice to Ireland the last link of the chain which connects Ireland* with Great Bri- tain, and you render the crown of England not worth 12 months purchase, even to the hand which may under such circumstances be found sufficiently daring and bold to bid for it. I am, &c. JAMES M'QUEEN. London, Feb. 9, 1839. ANTI CORN LAW DELEGATION. The following is a copy of the queries submitted to and approved by the delegates, for circulation through the country, addressed to persons engaged in commerce and manufactures. The series which follows is ad- dressed to persons engaged in agriculture : — " ANTI CORN LAW DELEGATION. " Sir— The deputies for obtaining the repeal of the corn laws request your answers to such of the follow- ing queries as your sources of information may enable you to furnish, in aid of their important object— a le- gislative repeal of the duties and restrictions on the import of all articles of food. "1. Have the existing laws, which interfere with the free importation of articles of food, any and what effect on the foreign trade of Great Britain and Ireland, in limiting our exports of mauufactures or other articles of commerce ? " 2. What are the staple manufactures of your dis- trict ? " 3. To what foreign markets have you been accus- tomed to export ? " 4. Has there of late years been an increase or de- crease of such exports, and in what articles ? *' 5. Has such increase or decrease affected quantity or value, or both, and to what extent ? " 6. Does the increase or decrease appear to you to be progressive ? " 7. To what cause do you attribute such increase or decrease ? " 8. Has the increase taken place in those articles on which the least cest of labour has been expended ? " 9. Has there been a greater progressive increase or decrease in the corresponding foreign manufactures which compete with British ? — stating particulars. * According to the Irish Railway Report of 1838, the imports and exports of Ireland, the latter almost wholly agricultural produce, were: — 1830 Imports.... £15,337,097 4 6 . .... Exports.... 17,394,813 7 11 234 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. " 10. Are any foreign markets formerly supplied by this country, now supplied by rival manufacturers of other nations, to the exclusion or diminution of our ex- ports ? — name the articles and extent of diminution. "11. Are there any foreign markets in which our trade, not having declined, has not advanced in the same proportion with the competing trade of other countries ? In what articles, and to what extent? " 12. Is such extinction, diminution, or smaller rate of increase in our export trade, attributable to the cheapness or superiority of foreign over British manu- factures ? " 13. Are you aware of any facts showing the trans- fer of capital in any foreign countries from agriculture to manufactures— especially any instances in which the capital of such foreign countries would revert to agri- culture if a free trade in corn existed in Great Britain ? " 14. Are you aware of any peculiar or recent en- couragement given by foreign nations to the extension of their manufactures, or to the export of such manu- factures ? "15. Are you aware of any late acts of foreign legis- lation hostile to the introduction of British manufac- tures ? " 16. Do you know of any case of investment of Bri- tish capital in foreign manufactures, or in establish- ments for making machinery for manufacturing pur- poses ?— stating particulars. "17. Do you know any cases of the emigration of Bri- tish manufacturers, machine makers, or other trades- men, with their capital, to foreign countries } " 18. Do you know any facts relative to the expor- tation of British machinery or tools to foreign coun- tries ? — specify particulars. " 19. Do you know any faets relative to the evasion of the laws prohibiting the export of machinery, or the contraband trade and seizure of such machinery.'' " 20. Do you know of any emigration of skilled ar- tisans to foreign countries ? "21. What knowledge have you of foreign establish- ments for the making of machinery — of what kind — to what extent — when established — and if increasing ? " 22. Are the exports of raw materials, for the pur- pose of foreign manufactures, on the increase ? State facts. " 23. Are you acquainted with any facts showing the number of foreigners sent to Great Britain for edu- cation in mechanics and manufactures ; and from what countries, and what particular trades ? " 24. From what countries are manufactures, speci- fying such manufactures, now imported into the United Kingdom for home consumption — in bond for exporta- tion— and to what extent ? with such information as you can obtain as to the increase or decrease of such imports. " 25. What is the present amount of duties and charges on such imports of foreign manufactures ? spe- cifying particulars. " 26. What enables foreigners to undersell us — greater economy iu wages of labour, cheaper raw ma- terial, or cheaper or superior machinery .' " 27. Can you give any information on the compara- tive money wages of foreign and British labour, and the comparative cost of the necessaries of life in foreign countries ? " 28. Can you give any other information on matters connected with the subject of these queries likely to advance the objects of the Anti Corn Law Delegation ? " 29. Name the gentleman in your locality, or of your acquaintance, qualified and willing to give evi- dence on these subjects. " Your immediate attention and reply to these queries, addressed to J. B. Smith, Esq., chairman of the Anti Corn Law Delegation, or to your own delegates. Brown's Hotel, New Palace-yard, Westminster, will oblige. Sir, Your obedient servant, " JOHN BOWRING, " Chairman of the Sub-Committee of Evidence. " Brown's Hotel, New Palace Yard, Westminster, Feb., 1839." QUERIES ADDRESSED TO PERSONS ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURE. 1. In your opinion, are restrictive duties upon the importation of foreign agricultural produce necessary to the protection, and instrumental to the prosperity, of the British agriculturists, and how ? 2. Have the existing laws restricting the importation of foreign agricultural produce benefitted the British agriculturist? If so, in what respects. 3. At what expense can wheat, barley, and other agri- cultural produce be raised in your district, and brought to market, exclusively of rent. 4. What prices do you require for these articles, in order to furnisii you with what you consider a fair rate of profit on your capital, after disbursing rent, labourers' wages, and other necessary expenses ? 5. If it be proved that wheat of a quality equal to English cannot be procured in foreign ports at less than an average of 35s. per quarter, the additional charges up to the time of delivering at the port of discharge in this country being 10s. per quarter, — do you think, with your own knowledge of the expense at which you can bring your produce to market, that there is any reason to apprehend such competition from foreign agriculturists as would prevent your ob- taining an adequate remunerative price and fair rate of profits ? 6. Would not a fair and natural level of prices, be more beneficial to the farmers than prices suliject to frequent and great fluctuations, and better adjust rent, wages of labour, and other outgoings of the farmer ? 7. Has the operation of the restrictive system of corn laws been to keep prices steady ? 8. On a balance of years and prices, do not profits almost invariably fall as prices rise, and rise as prices fall?— State facts. 9. What extended tillage, in consequence of the operation of the corn laws, has, within your personal knowledcre, caused loss to the landlord or farmer. 10. What tracts of inferior land have passed out of tillage during the low prices under the existing corn laws? 11. Can you give any examples of the extra sum re- ceived for corn in consequence of the high prices of the present season ; and per contra, the extra sums paid for seed-corn, keep of horses and cattle, extra wages, poor-rates, tithes, or other outlay ? 12. Have you had an opportunity of observing the efiect produced upon Scotch husbandry by the Scotch farmers being forced to sell their grain at the same price with English farmers, who enjoy a more genial soil and climate. ? 13. Has not the effect of this competition been, that in Scotland husbandry, as a skilled profession, is more advanced than in England?— State facts. 14. Is there not reason to expect that the same bene- ficial effect would be produced upon English husban- dry, if the English were brought into competition with the foreign cultivator? 15. What has been the effect of applying the system of free trade to the wool production of this country ? Has the admission of foreign v\ ool diminished English growth ? Any facts showing the extension of this branch of agricultural industry. 16. Have you remarked the advantages derived by the farmer from the proximity of his land to great com- mercial and inanufacturmgtovvns ; first, from the greater facilities of obtaining manure and other artificial aids to production ; secondly from the wider and more opulent markets opened to him ? If so, specify examples. 17. Can you communicate any facts showing the tendency of improved communication, viz., by steam navigation, canals, railroads, &c., to benefit the agri- cultural interest? 18. What proportion of the agricultural produce of your district is shipped coastwise for market? Stating quantities of each description of grain and markets to which sent. 19. Will you state any facts showing how the de- pression of trade and manufactures operates to the pre- judice of the agricultural oonomunity ? THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 235 20. Are there not many ways !n which the import of foreign corn would give an increased demand for the employment of agricultural labour, directed to the ex- tension of other products of the soil?— State particulars. 21. Have the existing corn laws, while they kept up the price of bread, kept up proportionally the wages of agricultural labour?— Give examples. 22. To what extent would the free importation of articles of food benefit the agriculturist by diminishing the cost of all other articles. 23. To what extent would it benefit the agricaltural labourer. 24 Is not the condition of the agricultural labourer in manufacturing districts, superior to his condition in districts wholly agricultural? — State facts. 25. Would not a free trade in corn, equalising the prices of corn in the British and continental markets, necessarily give to the British consumer the benefit of importation when there was a deficient crop, and to the producer the benefit of exportation when there was a redundant crop ? 26. In your district, are any of the agricultural la- bourers or their families engaged elso in manufacturing processes, weaving, or the like? — Give particulars. 27. Does such employment enable them to pay larger rents, or to pay their rents more readily ?— State facts. 28. Have you noticed any falling off in the employ- ment of these individuals in manufactures of late years ? 29. Has this been attended with loss to their landlords as well as to themselves? 30. Have any, and what improvements in agricultural machinery (the result of the improvement of our manu- facturing machinery) have been introduced in your vicinity? 31. What is the average produce of wheat per statute acre in your district ; and has there been any increase or decrease of late, and to what extent ? 32. Has there been any emigration of the agricultural population of your locality, either to foreign countries or to manufactunng districts, and of what class of agri- culturists?—State particulars. 33. Is it not a fact large tracts of land are in a state of deplorably backward cultivation in consequence of the direct of indirect action of the corn laws? — State examples. TO THE RIGHT HONORABLE LORD JOHN RUSSELL. My Lord, — From the tenor of your Lordship's letter to the constituency of Stroud, and from what has transpired since the meeting of Parliament, I am apprehensive there is a danger that your Lord- ship and colleagues of Government, may be inclined to yield to the obstreperous clamour from without, for a total repeal of the Corn Laws. I trust, there- fore, your Lordship will pardon me for presuming to address a few observations to you on this topic. The avowed object of the Anti-Corn-Law Agi- tators, is to reduce the money price of food, and to obtain, as they say, two bushels of wheat for the price at which the now obtain one. That the abolition of the Corn Laws will have the effect of reducing the price of wheat in this propor- tion, is clear and undeniable ; for it is fresh in the memory of us all, that only two or three years ago, when the present protecting law had been in opera- tion at least seven years, the best English wheat might be purchased at less than 35s. per quarter. If this was the case when foreign corn was virtually prohibited, and not a grain of it in the market, what may we expect when all restriction shall be done away with ? It may perhaps be said, that foreign wheat will never be offered in the English market, but at a price to remunerate the speculator for the outlay of his capital, and the cost of transit. But we shall find in practice such will not be the case. When wheat in the continental markets shall bear an unusually low price, reckless adventurers will always be found to hoard large stocks of corn in British warehouses, to hang in terrorem over the home-grower. The same fact will operate to retard the purchases of the con- sumer. Thus the English farmer through need, con- sequent on the reduced value of his produce, presses his grain on the market. The speculator, hopeless of prices getting higher, or from pecuniar3'^ embar- rassment, is compelled to do the same. The pur- chaser, seeing the supply exceed the demand, natu- rally becomes cautious, and to what the prices may be reduced in plentiful years, is impossible to calcu- late. It is well known that the foreign wheats are far superior in quality to those of English growth. Yet in numberless instances have foreign merchants offered to deliver any required quantity of the best foreign wheat in English ports, at 30s. per qr. It need not be told to any one who knows wheat from other grain, that in the average of years, there is such a difference in the qualities of English wheats, that the inferior sorts are not worth more than two- thirds of the value of the best. In case then of a free importation of foreign corn, when the best Dantzic wheat shall be had for 30s. per quarter, what will the inferior sorts of our own growth be worth? Our corn letters even now, occasionally state grain of a certain quality, and from certain counties, at such a price, and of other qualities, or from different counties, unsaleable. What they will say of the indifferent qualities of English wheat, when they shall have to quote the best Dantzic at 30s. per quarter, I do not know. If we are to have a free importation of wheat, I apprehend we must have the same of every other description of grain, and the same reduction in the price of these as of wheat, according to their relative values. But we are told, England must become a grazing country, and we must turn our attention to the pro- duction of beef and mutton. Be it so ;— shall we be any better off? It is contrary to the nature of things, that there should be for any length of time, a considerable disproportion between the price of bread and of animal food. If a greater number of cattle are to be bred, and fed, and our inferior corn used for that feeding, a greater supply of mutton and beef must consequently be brought to market. On the other hand, so long as any disproportion exists between the price of bread and of animal food, the consumption will naturally be more of the cheap than the dear food. The consumers, on the aggre- gate, will naturally be inclined to purchase of the kind of which they can obtain most for their money. Thus with an increased supply, and a diminished demand, we should speedily have the price of this, reduced to a level with that of the other great neces- sary of life. It may be said, that if a part of our corn were devoted to the feeding of cattle, it would have the effect of keeping up the price of that article. But how this idea must vanish, when we reflect on the insignificance of the quantity of grain which could be used for feeding cattle, in three small and isolated patches of land called Great Britain, compared with the produce of the boundless territories of Russia ; with the contents of the inexhaustible granaries of Po- land, Germany, Holland, and other European States, in favorable and productive years. The merest frac- tion of the produce of these countries, in addition to R 236 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. our own, would always have the effect of keeping the prices in our market down to the level of those on the continent. The superior quality of the foreign- er's corn would in ordinary years always be equiva- lent to the expense of transmitting it to this country. Seeing then, that the abolition of the corn laws will hare the effect of reducing the prices of corn, and consequently of every other description of agri- cultural produce in England to the level of the prices which these commodities bear in the neighbouring European states, let us enquire what section of the population of this country will be benefited by the change, and whether the good or evil result- ing therefrom will preponderate. It is, I think, admitted by all, that the farmers will not — that their labourers and mechanics, such as smiths, joiners, wheelwrights, &c., will not — that the landlords, with their domestics and de- pendants will not ; together with the multitude of others who derive their support directly from the labours of the agriculturist. It is undeniable, that all these must suffer in a greater or less degree, from the reduction in prices, which must result from the abolition of the corn laws. If the produce of any particular farm would, at the present market prices sell for 1,000/. sterling, it re- quires no great mathematical skill to discover what the same produce would fetch if the prices were re- duced one-half; it would then amount to 500/. in- stead of 1,000/. It is clear in this case, that some- body must fall short, and whether it be the landlord, the farmer, the labourer, or the mechanic, all who do so come short — must have so much less to expend with the manufacturer. But it is said, the landlords must lower their rents. If they do, what then ? Mr. Huskisson and other political economists have stated that farmers must make five rents in order to pay all outgoings, and receive a fnir return for their capital employed. The farmer, tlien, who pays 100/. a year in rent, should make 500/. a year of his produce, so that after paying his landlord, he would have 400/. to meet his other engagements with. But if the value of his produce in the market were reduced one-half, instead of making 500/., he would only make 250/. Supposing then, the landlord to forego the rent entirely ; somebody else would come short consider- ably, for there is a wide difference between 400/. and SJ50/. No reduction, therefore, nor even the entire cancelling of all rents, would compensate tiie far- mers for the reduction of prices. Some may, perhaps, say the statement is exaggerated, that it is not neces- sary the farmer should make five rents. I will con- cede an}' thing ; I will not confine myself to giving the pawn and move, for half the pieces and half the moves on the board, may be given in the game. I will say that four — that three — aye, that two rents are sufficient. This farmer then, who has 100/. a- year to pay his landlord, must make 200/. a-year of his produce. But if by doing away with the corn law the value of his produce be reduced to 100/., how does he stand ? If the landlord forgives him his rent, he may seem to stand as before. The land- lord, however, being deprived of his rent, can be no customer to the m.anufacturcir — the manufacturer being deprived of so good a customer, could not pur- chase the farmers' corn and mutton. Then, our Own produce, without one ounce from the fo- reigner, would glut the market, and fall in price be- cause of the inability of the manufacturer and others to purchase. If then, the repeal of the corn laws will not bene- fit, but injure the farmer, and his dependants, will it benefit the manufacturing operative? If I under- stood the anti-corn law argument, it is not intended so much for their benefit. The masters say " we cannot compete with the foreigner because of the bread tax. The foreigner, in consequence of the low price of provisions can get the labour cheaper ; whereas if the price of provisions were lower in Eng- land, labour would be cheaper, and we could then meet the foreigner on more equal terms." It is evi- dent therefore, the operative need not expect to de- rive anv benefit from cheap hread, as this will only supply the master with a pretext for screwing down his wages accordingly. Cheap labour is the object of the cotton lords — cheap bread is but the stalking- horse. But will not they be worse off in consequence of the influx of labourers from the agricultural to the manufacturing districts, resulting from certain de- scriptions of land being thrown out of cultivation and others cultivated less perfectly 2 The supply of labour wdl assuredly exceed the demand, and wages must go lower, and still lower ; for a principal tenet in the creed of the political economist, is to buy where it can be had cheapest. The manufac- turer will not give a workman 2s. per day, if he can get one as go„.i for ls.6d. It may, perhaps be said, the increased demand for manufactured goods will be equivalent to the in- creased supply of labour. This is undoubtedly a fallacy, for it is quite certain there must be a most woeful falling off in the means of the home customer, which no increase in the foreign can make up for. If the total annual value of farming produce be two hun- dred millions sterling, and this by the contemplated change, should be reduced to one hundred millions, will not the money to be expended in manufactured goods be reduced in the same ratio, and nearly to the same extent ? Whoever may receive this two hun- dred millions, whether the landlords, the clergy, or the farmers, none of it is laid up in a napkin ; some- body expends it, and the bulk of it ultimately goes through the manufacturer's hands. If then, the manufacturer would lose home custom to the amount of one hundred millions a-year, is not this many times more than all the exports put together, which have probably never yet amounted in real value to more than 40 millions a-year ? But the foreign trade will increase, say they. Perhaps it may ; I have however, great doubt of its ever ma- terially increasing beyond what it is at the present moment ; for, notwithstanding all our boasted in- dustry, skill, capital, and all our other means and appliances to boot, foreigners have the same. We are equalled in ingenuity, we are equalled in perseverance by one nation or other, and when required, capital is not wanting. The perfection of our machinery we cannot monopolise — the ma- chinery can be exported, and the maker of it can emigrate. Many nations are equal to us in local advantages, some indeed far superior. Without steam we could do nothing, but coals are not to be had without labour ; engines are costly and will not last for ever, and boilers want repairing. Other nations have a cheaper agent — America for instance, has available water power sufficient to drive all the eno-ines in England, with their jennies and power looms, and the buildings that contain them root and branch into the Atlantic together. Is it not then, unreasonable to suppose, that we can materially increase our foreign commerce, when other nations are wisely cultivating their own re- sources, and possess superior natural advantages ? Is it within the bounds of probability that we THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 237 should long continue to fetch the raw material from the antipodes, to Manchester, to be there manufac- tured, and then carry them half the way back again, and sell them to a people who have the same means of preparing them that we have, and which means must sooner or later be called into activity 1 No ! cheap bread will not enable us to do this whatever wonders it may perform. For if the manufacturers could induce the workmen to live with tiie chamelion, they could not work impossibilities. England has had her day, and mav have her mor- row. Other nations have had the same, but the}'^ are gone by. The same fate awaits this country. But if we could retain our foreign commerce, or even if we could double it, which is morally impossi- ble, what would it be worth ? If the exports now amount to forty millions a year, is this all profit "! One cheap article of export is manufactured cotton, but have we not first to pur- chase the raw material, of this and other things ? Before we can have goods that will sell for forty millions, we must give perhaps fifteen or twenty millions for the stuff to make them of. I will say, however, that the material costs only ten millions, and the remaining thirty is clear and absolute profit, and that the aforesaid cheap bread would make this thirty into sixty millions. What would it be if di- vided among the thirty millions of our population ? — 2/, per head, — nearly sufficientto keep each individual in the union workhouse fourteen weeks. We must, therefore, look to something else than foreign com- merce for our support, for it seems that if the most visionary and extravagant ideas about the increase of it, could be realised the whole fee simple of it would not keep the population one-fourth of the year. Our home resources therefore, at the lowest pos- sible estimate, must be three times more valuable than our foreign. But in reality, they are, and must be, ten times more valuable. Who then would fling- away, a great and valuable treasure in possession, for a trivial one in expectance ? W'ho would wilfully sink the ship, for the uncertain chance of saving the boat .' Neither master nor operative then, can be at all benefitted by the change. The first, because no in- creased demandj in the foreign markets could at all make up for the decreased one at home ; and then " filthy dowlas" would be a drug. The second, be- cause the increase of their numbers, together with the decreased demand for their services, would cause Tvages to settle to the starvation point. If then the farmers and their dependents, — • the mamifacturers and their dependents, are not to be benefitted, who are to be so ? — There is one party, — the idlers. I do not use this as an oppro- brious epithet, but only as a convenient term. — Bv idlers I mean all such as have fixed and settled in- comes,— all who live out of the taxes, — the interest of mortgages and other securites, &;c., — these tvill be benefitted, for as the mone}^ price of the necessaries of life are decreased, so are the incomesof these parties enhanced in value. The individual who possesses 50/. a year, could make it go as far again, if every thing he has to buy, should be reduced in price one- half. Therefore the inevitable conclusion is, that as you reduce the price of British produce, you ac- tually increase taxation, and all otber fixed incum- brances. Our settled and unalterable engagements, such as government taxes, poor-rates, tithes, county- rates, interest of mortgages and of other securities, &c., &c., will amount I have no hesitation in saying, to one-hundred millions a year. Now, if faith and honesty are to be respected, these engagements we must fulfill. Suppose then the whole produce of the labour of the British population, food, manufactures and merchandise, of every description, will realize at the present prices, 400 millions sterling annually, we must yield to the fundholder and the idle party, as I have for convenience termed them, one-fourth of the proceeds of our labour! But if the money price of these commodities shall he reduced one- half, we of course can make but 200 millions, instead of 400 ; still our obligations will he the same. We shall have the same 100 millions of cash to hand over, which instead of being one-fourth, will then be one-half the produce of our industry. Let not then the advocate for low prices stultify himself by complaining of the oppressiveness of taxation. Let him bear this indisputable fact on his mind, that as tfte prices are diminished, taxation in the same ratio is virtually increased, and vice versa. The cheap bread party, however, tell us taxation must be reduced. If by reduction, they mean re- trenchment, I would say, no Joseph-Humish-penny- farthiag-economising of the estimates, or the pension list, can be sensibly felt as a relief to us. Or if by reduction they mean what is termed equitable ad- justment, alias palpable robbery, then I would say, noman that believes in a hereafter could countenance such a proposition for a single moment. Every one who does not live by picking and steal- ing ought, one would think, to scout the idea of per- petrating such a fraud on the national creditor, when he can so easily preserve the public faith inviolate. — Yes, inviolate! We have the power to discharge not only the interest, but fairly and effectually the very ])rincipal of the national debt. We pay now fifty millions a year in taxes. Some thirty years ago we paid eighty or ninety millions a year ; and why could we not do the same now 1 We are immediately descended from the race of men who did pay this amount. We inherit, 1 apprehend, the same degree of skill and industry, — the same fertility and productiveness belongs to the soil. Why then can we not do what our forefathers didi The prices won't let us. — Legislative bungling won't let us. The principal hearing of the corn-law question lies between the produt tive and the non-productive classes. It is simply ibis ; are the drones of the hive to be satisfied with one-fourth of the sweets v which the working bees produce, or are we to give them one-half! In other words, are the fundholders and others of that party who have fixed money in- comes, to be contented with so much as their 100 millions a-year will purch&se, at the present prices of the necessaries of life which the country produces, or are we to vote them double that quantity by re- pealing the corn laws 1 When great political questions are agitated in the extraordinary manner that this now is, it is difficult to ascertain what moving power is behind the scenes to stimulate the excitement, The impression on my mind is, that the great ca- pitalists are not neutral in this struggle, that they are secretly encouraging this commotion with the selfish view of enhancing the value of their capital, at the expense of the landholder and industrious classes. But they may strain one point too far. The saddle may gall beyond the powers of endurance, and a convulsive effort may dislodge the burden alto- gether. These gentlemen may then find themselves in the same situation as that renowned youth who having a goose that layed him a golden egg every day, killed her with the view of possessing the whole at once, and only discovered his mistake when too late. I will say nothing of the folly of relying on the foreigners for the supply of our daily bread. An ar- R 2 238 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. gumenton the propriety of this cannot be maintained between two persons who are free from the restraint of strait jackets. Although we have the periodical assurance of the friendly intentions of these foreigners from the lips of royalty. It is a grand mistake to think that the manufac- turer's interest clashes, and is at variance with that of the farmer. What is good for one will not be bad for the other. And if the farmer be oppressed the manufacturer will not flourish. Indeed I will risk the assertion (if I stand alone in the opinion) that the all-absorbing interest, and only occupation of man, is agriculture. Maimfactures and commerce are only helps and auxiliaries to this grand occupa- tion of mankind ; the same as the hedger and ditcher are to the farmer. An agricultural labourer may be employed exclu- sively in hedging and ditching, and neither sow the seed nor reap the harvest ; jet the end and object of his labour is to raise food. The man who makes the spade and the man who uses it have the same aim, namely to raise the sustenance of life. The same may be said of the man who makes the labourer's clothes, as of the man who makes his tools. And so of the endless variety of trades and manufactures. Indeed the whole catalogue of the puisuits and bu- sinesses of life form but the most extensive exem- plification of the division of labour. If the assistance of five and twentypair of hands be required, each pair to perform its separate and distinct part of the work, before a piece of wire can be made into a pen, need we wonder at the infinitude of trades and callino-s which ingenuity and experience of man have con- trived to facilitate the production of the staff of life ? All who have read the adventures of that renowned personage yclepted Robinson Crusoe, must have a strong idea of the character and occupation of that man who may either from accidental circumstances, or individual inclination, be compelled to live inde- pendent of the rest of his species. He must be essentially an agriculturist. Although he may find it indispensably necessary to have tools, it is only that he may the more easily obtain the support of his existence. Although he may find it desirable and perhaps necessary to contrive shoes, clothes, habita- tion, &c., all these are but to promote his comfort and convenience in following his principal aim — the acquisition of the staff of life. He is therefore to all intents and purposes an agriculturist. If a dozen Robinson Crusoes had lived on the same island, and they had been anti-socialists, and severally indepen- dent of each other, they would have been so many farmers, and nothing else. On the other hand if they had been social and united, one undertaking to make the agricultural tools, another the clothing, another the habitations, and so on, and each receiving as compensation for thus devoting his labour, an equal share of the pro- visions raised by the whole, they would have been individually and collectively agriculturists. And there would have been no divisibility of interests. As it is with one man independent of the rest, so it is with a society of a dozen, —as with a dozen so with a nation's population. As with a nation's population so with the whole human race. The multiplicity of trades is only the extensive divisions and subdivi- sions of labour, and from the time of our first parent, who was put into the garden of Eden, "to dress and to keep it," down to the present moment, we have been an agricultural community and nothing else. " We are tillers of the ground as all ourfatliers were." Holding it then to be incontrovertible that agri- culture and manufactures have one and the same in- terest, and that the question of a repeal era modifi- cation of the corn law lies chiefly between the pro- ductive and the non-productive classes, I call upon you, my Lord, to be cautious, and not rashly to pur- chase a temporary possession of the power and emo- luments of place by conceding to popular clamour a scale of low prices. A convulsion brought about by the expediency of party politics is not to be relied on. The matter is too important to experiment upon, or to play at shuttlecock with, for the uncertain tenure of office. Without using the hyperbole of parliamentar}'- phraseology, it may said that the Reform Bill, the Municipal Bill, the Tithe Bill, or any other bill, good or bad, sink into insignificance when compared with the Corn Bill. A dreadful responsibility there- fore attaches to the person who undertakes to abro- gate a law of this importance. My Lord, you can- not be sure you will be right, and you may be wrong. You may conscientiously think that an alteration in the corn law and low prices would be beneficial to the country. But with all becoming deference I must remind you that as wise heads as your own conscientiously believe that a free importation would ultimately eflfect the entire ruin of it. The party against the corn law may be strong, but the party in favour of it are equally numerous, though more apa- thetic. Therefore you cannot be sure that you are right. The wisdom of our forefathers who devised and supported the different corn laws is against you, and you maybe wrong. Historical facts and expe- rimental tests are against you. With high prices we have fought through difficulties that would have sunk any other nation in Europe. My Lord, you may be wrong. With high prices we have attained the most distinguished position in the scale of na- tions, for national power, national wealth, and domes- tic comforts. My Lord, you may be wrong. In nations where bread is uniformly the cheapest, Rus- sia and Poland for instance, the boors of the one, and the serfs of the other, are almost entirely unac- quainted with the use of it. Even in Ireland where bread is always cheaper than in England, the pea- santry live almost entirely on potatoes. My Lord, you may be wrong, and I call upon you to pause. It is a bold stroke enough if a man sets his own life on a cast ; but it is fearful to contemplate the respon- sibility that attaches to that man who would risk the comforts if not the lives of a great portion of his country's population on the hazard of the die. And I as a humble unit of the thirty millions of the popu- lation of this country, protest against your gambling with the means of my existence. Let me implore you to rise superior to the petty considerations of place and power. If the conditions of your holding office be to risk the sacrificing of the energies and prosperity of the nation, stand aloof from the party who " know not what they do." If the phrensied clamour of " away with him, away with him," is to be yielded to, wasli your hands of all responsibility, " have nothing to do with this just man," let them see to it. I have the honour to be, Your Lordship's very humble servant, Beverley, Feb. 11. 1839. J. A. The New Waterproof Clothing. — In the vari- able climate of England, it has long been a great desideratum to obtain an effectual means of rendering clothing impervious to rain, without impeding the free escape of perspirution. This important object has at length been most completely attained by an THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 239 invaluable discovery first publicly introduced by Mr. Walter Berdoe, tailor, 69, Cornhill, and now coming into o'eneral use. In consequence of its having hitherto been viewed as an utter impossibility for a o-arment to resist water, yet to admit air, this dis- covery will by many be viewed with mistrust ; but as seeing is believing, those who dosbt are invited to do as we have done, examine and judge for them- selves, the result will amply repay them for their time and trouble. We were shown a great variety of samples of all kinds of cloths, gambroons, cam- lets, merinos, doe-skins, &c., containing water, and having retained it from oae to three months, without the least appearance of even dampness on the under- side. Boiling- water may be poured on the surface of the material, when the steam will pass through while the water is retained. The breath will also freely pass through perfectly unrestricted, as may be seen ao-ainst a mirror. Such results must at once remove all doubts as to the deficiency of the waterproof, as well as its entire freedom from what is so justly ob- jected to the unsightly and unhealthy Macintosh, namely, its being air-tight, and consequently pre- venting the escape of the insensible perspiration. This inestimable discovery will prove to the public of more real benefit, than three-fourths of the inven- tions which are daily being emblazoned forth. The advantages attendant upon the use of clothing thus waterproof, must be so self-evident as to render it a work of supererogation to point them out, yet there are man}', who in the enjoyment of both youth and present health, who lightly think of the serious ail- ments and afflicting results which may be traced to what is termed " only a cold," or " a slight cold," too often considered as not worthy of serious thought, a kind of thing that will " soon go oflf." Yet what numbers are ever after suflferers, and to what a me- lancholy extent have gone to a premature grave, from diseases originating in these " slight colds," which instead of " soon going off," are the cause by which the unsuspecting suflFerer himself " goes off" in the end. Of the various illnesses incident to cold, too innumerable to mention here, setting aside those which terminate fatally, where is there one so trulv painful and distressing, and so difficult to eradicate, as a confirmed rheumatism 2 What being can be placed in a more helpless and pitiable situation than the one who is " eaten up with the rheumatics'?" Yet all this suffering is the consequence of a cold carelessly caught, and more carelessly attended to. The great consideration in all human movements is not so much how to cure an evil as how to avoid contracting it — and where one cold occurs from cir- cumstances over which the sufferer has no control, fifty takes place where he has. In this respect more particularly does the evil arise from a want of due precaution against wet or damp clothing. Now that an expedient has been devised by which a person can, without any great coat, simply in his ordinary dress, pass for several hours, through the most piti- less storm, without the wet penetrating through his clothes, it is to be hoped that the most incautious and imprudent will profit by this invention, especiallj"- as the additional expense is so trifling as to place the benefit within the reach of all. We hope that the Government will evince the liberality, nay, the hu- manity, to allow all those who are in their employ, such as soldiers, sailors, police, ?ic., and are exposed to all weather, the advantages of this inestimable discovery, as the cost thereby entailed is a mere trifle, whilst their health would be preserved and their efficiency increased. — N. B. We refer our readers to the advertisement in our advertising sheet. ADDITIONAL NOTES, Sec. to an auticle entitled "hints and suggestions" (from a correspondent) in page 190. The following notes not having arrived until after the article in page 190 had gone to presS; we insert them here : NsTE 1. [4th Paragraph, 7th line, after the tvords " enfeebling labours."] In legislating for the benefit of the artisan Gaskill's account of the condition of the manufacturing population of England would give most valuable information if consulted. Note 2. [4t/i Paragraph, 34t/i line, after the words " Is. a day for horse pmoer."^ One shilling a day per horse power, is named merely on principle ; two shillings would probably have been more consistent with the great object in view ; i. e. in the first place, as a wholesome check to the unlimited and often un- necessary use of machinery as a substitute for ma- nual labour, while thousands of artisans in the trade are almost perishing for the want of profitable em- ployment : — and secondly, to force upon the manu- facturers, the choice of either keeping their work- people employed at remunerating wages, or maintain them when the)' choose to employ machinery in their stead ; which is no more than the agriculturist is compelled to do : It is therefore too bad that the latter should also have to maintain the discarded mechanics, who have been rendered totally unfit to assist the agriculturists in their labours, while under judicious management they might be made useful to the manufacturer in some way or other to the last. Note 3. [4(/i Paragraph, 37th line, after the words " twelve hours duration."] A peck of wheat appears to have been about the average value of one day's earnings of the labourer for ages past, as far as the researches of the writer have enabled him to make a fair computation ; consequently, out of such earnings he may be expected, at all times, under ordinary circumstances, to maintain his family ; so that when his wages exceed that value, provision might be made, by the Legislature, for transferring the sur- plus earnings into the Saving's Banks, instead of the Gin palaces, till a certain moderate provision shall have accumulated, for the purposes now to be proposed. Note 4. [4t/i Paragraph, 54th line, after the words "Unioji workhouses."] Supposing the amount re- quired for the purchase of Government Life, and Long Annuities to he fixed at, and limited to an in- come of 8/. each, and permitted to become universal ; the last named security to be paid to the authorized survivors, till the respective annuitants would have attained the 100th year ; the total amount would become immense, and might be converted into a medium for the gradual liquidation of the national debt. In order the more certainly and expeditiously to accomplish this great end, means might probably be devised of imposing an obligation upon all trans- fers of stocks, to relinquish a certain small percentage out of the total amount, for the above purposes, at par, at the rate of .3 per cent : There can be little doubt, from the nature of the above securities, that every male possessor of both kinds, might be safely entrusted with the elective franchise, in which case, universal suffrage would be thus conceded, as nearly as could be rationally desired ; and we might soon see restored that union among all classes which would make such a nation as ours invincible, instead of being torn in pieces through agitators and dissen- sions, by which we know not how soon we may be- come an easy prey to our jealous rivals abroad. 240 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Note 3. [5th paragraph, I9th line, after the words " at the expense of our own."] The great errer in which our agriculturists and landowners have hitherto involved themselves, is their inability to perceive that as long as they shall continue to act in concert with the corn-factors, they can neither ac- quire remunerating profits in any season whether of abundance or scarcity, nor obtain the sympathy of the consumers iu their distresses, for this very ob- vious reason ; in deficient seasons, these speculators buy up as much bread corn as their capital will admit of from the necessitous farmers, who are obliged, early in the season, to dispose of their produce, in order to meet their pressing engagements, while thc3 more wealthy agriculturists uniting with the corn- factors, hold back their produce from the markets, till the price is raised beyond all bounds of justice and moderation. Toobviate these pernicious practices is therefore the great desideratum, and ought to en- gage our utmost efforts. It has been lately hinted through the press, that at this juncture, the corn- factors are endeavouriag, by most unfair means, to get down tlie averages with a view of depressing the country markets, by inundating Mark Lane with mere refuse, so that they may be able to take the ad- vantage of buying up at the lowest price, all they can get hold of, for the purpose of creating an apparent scarcity, and consequently of selling ofl' their stocks at their own price. Should the prospects of the cur- rent year's crops be generally unfavourable, the con- sequences may prove truly deplorable. Mr. Huskis- Bon says in liis letter to his constituents at Chichester, in 1814, " To protect the small farmer, tberelore, at this moment, is ultimatelv to protect the people." Those who are desirous of perusing the most forcible and convincing arguments which have, perhaps, ever yet been advanced in favour of agricultural protec- tion, should read the whole of his letter, a copy of which may be seen in the Farmer's Magazine for the present month (Feb. 1839.) jN'ote 6. [8th paragraph, 23rd line, after the words " neitlier more nor less."] To fix a price too low, would be a greater error iu the administration, than to lix it too iiigh, because the lower the price of com- modities the greater is the value of money, conse- quently in the same proportion would our national debt be augmented, and vice versa. In on! r to se- cure the importers of wheat from great losses, in case ol not being called upon for a seriesof years for their bonded corn, a certain per ceiitage might, after the second year's detention, be taken off tlie import duty, and permission should be granted them to exchange their old grain for the same quantity of new, of Bri- tish growth, they receiving the difference in the value. On a similar principle, should the supply of British o-rain be srreater than the demand, in that case it would become absolutely necessary to put such a duty on the importvition of foreign hemp, flax, and tallow, as should divert the surplus cultivation into the production of those most essential articles also, by which the revenue would be materially bene- fitted, as well as the agriculturists and landowners. But since experience has taught us the inconvenience of making greitt and sudden changes, it would pro- bably be advisable to commence from the present time with a duty of one per cent, on their value now, one per cent, in addition when tlie first deduction of duty should be required for the detention of foreign corn, as above proposed, and one per cent, more as often as the amount of a month's supply, i.e., a given quantity of British wheat, shall remain in the store- Louses on the 30th of April. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL RE- PORT FOR FEBRUARY. The weather of a large portion of this month has been exceedingly mild and open for the period of the year, consequently favourable to rural affairs in ge- neral ; in fact, all farm labours are well in their place. In noticing the appearance of the young wheat plants, we cannot but observe that all persons agree in statins: thnt they never witnessed them look- ing stronger and more healthy than at this time; and in most, it not all, parts of England, exceedingly regular. Should, therefore, the reports of the next month jjreve as satisfactory as the past, the present year's crop will, doubtless (in the absence of any serious atmospheric change) be much more exten- sive than for some years past ; and this opinion is considerably strengthened and cocfiriued, by the breadth of land under that description of grain, being more than usually large. Two causes have tended materiall}' to stimulate our agriculturists to increase the breadth of wheat sown, viz., the late deficient harvest and the prices realized. Notwithstanding that last year's harvest throusfhout the kingdom was prolonged to an unseasonable time, and that the weather proved somewhat unpropitious at its close, it has been intimated that, on threshing out the corn, the grain lias not appeared so sprouty or otherwise out of condition as might have been reasonably an- ticipated. With respect to the stocks of wheat in the hands of the farmers, it is pretty generally considered that they are much larger than some would lead us to imagine. We grant, that in the counties of York- shire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and Leicestershire, they are rapidly decreasing, and smaller than at many corresponding dates. The accounts which have reached us from Essex, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and Kent agree in stating, that an unusually large number of stacks of wheat remain untouched, consequently no scarcity is to be apprehended in those most important corn-growing districts. In scarcely a single instance has either the slug or wire-worm committed extensive ravages, on any description of natural herbage, whilst it is a well at- tes'ed fact, that more favourable auspices for the forthcoming general crop could not possibly be ex- perienced. During nearly the wliole of the winter, turnips, even in exposed situations, have not ceased to vegetate, and they have proved an exceedingly good and weighty crop. An excellent fall of hiinbs has been produced, by the early lambing season, and the metropolitan mar- ket has had exhibited in it some very fine Dorsets which have found purchases at 6s. to 7s. per 8lbs. But a comparatively small number of lambs has been lost owing to the favourable state of the weather. Depastured fattening stock have fared exceedingly THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 241 well, whilst there has been a superabundant quantity of both dry and succulent winter food. In some of the Highland districts the early sown wheats have assumed a sickly appenriince ; still, on the whole, there are no well grounded a])prehensions of a deficiency. Potatoes are very plentiful and cheap, notwithstanding the extensive shipments to the port of London. The prospects of the fanners, in Ireland, are by far more clieering than for many years ; whilst their present returns, of most kinds of produce, place them on a firm and, at the same tiire, respectable footing. Since the commencement of the year, very mild and genial weather has been experienced, which has ena- bled outdoor farm labours to be carried on success- fully. A most excellent bed has been secured for wheat, and the breadth of land -f»hich will be brought under cultivation, in the Spring, is expected to be much extended. More than ordinary economy ap- pears to liave been used in the consumption of pota- toes; and nearly the whole of even the small farmers have still a stock on hand. The following is a statement of the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market, during the month. The suj)plies of beasts have amounted to 12,459 ; of sheep and lambs, to l'iO,4D'2 ; of calves, to 904 ; and of pigs, to 3,041 ; whilst the prices of beef have ranged from 2s. 2d. to 4s. 6d. ; of mutton, 3s. 4d. to bs. 4d.; of lamb, 6a. to 7s. ; of veal, 4s. to 5s. 4d.; and of pork, 4s. to 5s. 2d. per 81bs. to sink the offal. About 2,500 of the Scots and hon)ebreds, which have formed the above supplies, have arrived from Norfolk ; 400 Scots, Devon*, and runts, from Suf- folk; 320 lunts, Scots, and Herefords, from Essex; iiOO Devons and runts, from Cambridgeshire ; 2,900 short-horns and runts, from Lincolnshire ; 2,000 short-horns from Leicestershire ; 900 short-horns and Devons, from Northamptonshire ; 700 Devons from Devonshire ; 800 Herefords, from Hereford- shire ; 500 runts, Devons, and Irish beasts, from Warwickshire and Oxfordshire ; 530 Scots from Scotland, by steam vessels; 200 oxen, runts, and Devons, from Sussex ; 20 cows, Devons, and runts, from Surrey ; 120 Devons, Herefords, and Devons, from Kent. The remainder of the supply came chiefly from the neighbourhood of London. A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold iu Smithfield Cattle Market, on Monday, February 26, 1838, and Monday, Feb- ruary 25, 1839. At per Qlbs. to sink the offah. Feb. 26, 1838. Feb. 25, 1839. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse & inferior Beasts 2 4 to 2 6.. 2 4 to 2 6 Second quality do 2 8 3 2 .. 2 10 3 2 Prime large Oxen 3 6 3 10 .. 3 6 3 10 Prime Scots, &c 42 46. .42 46 Coarse & inferior Sheep 3 2 34. .3 10 42 Second quality do 36 38.44 48 Prime coarse woolled do. 40 44. .4 10 50 Prime Southdown do. .46 48.52 54 Lambs 6 0 7 0 Large coarse Calves ..4 6 5 2.. 4 4 4 10 Prime small ditto 5 6 5 10.. 6 0 5 6 Large Hogs 32 38. .40 48 Neat small Porkers .,48 5 2.. 5 0 5 2 SUPPLIES. Feb. 26. 1838. Feb. 25, 1S39. Beasts 2,822 2,415 Sheep 21,035 19,456 Calves 102 138 Pigs 695 587 By the above comparison, it appears, that the supply of Monday, Feb. 26, 1838, embraced 407 Beasts, 1,579 Sheep, 36 Calves, and 108 Pigs more than that of Mon- day, Feb. 25, 1839. There has been a decided improvement apparent in the general quality of both beasts and sheep exhi- bited on each market day ; whilst the trade has not been to say very brisk, but the prices have been well supported. The arrivals of slaughtered meat, up to Newgate and Leadenhall Markets, from Scotland and various distant parts of England, have been, for the time of year, somewhat extensive, they having been com- posed of 350 carcasses of beef; 5,950 do. of mut- ton; 6,000 do. of veal; and 8,000 do. of pork; a portion of which has come to hand in middling con- dition. BIRMINGHAM, Jan. 31. In our last monthly circular, issued on the 4th of 12th month, we ventured to express an opinion, that a mil- lion and a half quarters of Foreign Wheat and Flour would probably be imported previous to n.ext Midsum- mer ; and although the prohibition of export from France, and some other countries, added to the extreme scarcity of shipping may somewhat lessen the supply, we still think that near this quantity will arrive, by about that period, provided the duty continues long as at present. In addition to what was in bond on the 5th ultimo, the import last month amounted to upwards of 212,000 qrs. of Wheat, and 63,000 cwts. of Flour. Al- though the deficiency in our own crop may exceed one- fourth of an average, we have little doubt the purchases made on English account, in Foreign countries, are sufficient to meet the consumption until unoiher harvest; but should the next crop be deficient, (and the history of the last half century shows that several productive and unproductive seasons have generally followed in succession), we may have much difficulty in obtaining an adequate supply, on any terms, for another year. Our most recent foreign quotations will be found below. A review of the Corn trade for the past year, presents some features of an unusual character; the productive- ness of our own crops, and the favourable seasons since 1830, added to the large importations, and accumulated stocks, in the Spring of 1831, have, untd last Summer, very much concealed from public view, the fact, that our average growth of Wheat is inadequate to the wants of a rapidly inci'easing population, and that we cannot expect an ample supply from other nations, on an emergency, while our laws, by the imposition of an enormous duty, effectually prohibit the sale of their produce in our markets, on ordinary occasions. We would hope, however, that the suffering inflicted on the poor, from the present high price of Wheat, may be in some measure compensated by the widely spreading conviction, that the plan of taxing the necessaries of life, is alike impolitic, unjust, and cruel. That an im- mediate alteration in the system is urgently called for, is the more evident from the fact, that the supply of Wheat from Ireland since 1832, has decreased more than one half, say from 552,740 qrs. in that year, to about 210,000 qrs. in 1838 ; while even productive sea- sons are not adequate to the wants of our present popu- lation, which is augmenting at the rate of nearly half a million annually. The late decline in the London mar- ket has produced an indisposition, on the part of our millers, to purchase beyond their immediate wants, and we apprehend few foreign orders have been recently transmitted from this country. Our present nominal prices are , for English Red Wheat 9s. 8d. to 10s. 2d. ; white 9s. lOd. to 10s. 4d. ; fine Dantzic 10s. 6d. ; hard Odessa 9s. 2d. to 9s. 4d. ; French red 9s. 4d. to 9s. 6d. all per 621bs. at Birmingham. The opinion that the crop of Barley was fuUy equal to an average, both in quantity and quality, is con- 242 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. firmed, since large deliveries from the farmers have taken place ; but the demand has been quite equal to the supply, and the price gradually advanced to the end of the year, when it rose suddenly about 8s. per qr. ; but during the present month it has receded again 3s. to 5s. Our present quotations are 38s. to 42s. per imperial quarter, and there appears every prospect that they will for some time be nearly maintained, as the prohibition of the export of this grain from France, will delay any considerable foreign supplies, till late in the Spring. The crop of Oats has also, we believe, proved above an average, and those of Irish growth, upon which we are mostly dependent for our supply, are very superior, both in quantity and quality, particularly in the South ; tout such has been the demand for Scotland, and the shortness of the stocks in hand in London, and other English ports, that they have met a free sale, at ad- vancing prices. We have at present scarcely any in the Port of Gloucester, to supply the immediate wants of consumers, and when the farmers' deliveries fall off, as they will do a month or six weeks hence, they will probably bear a high relative price in our market, as very few are coming forward. Our present quotations are 26s. to 27s. for light, and 27s. to 28s. 6d. per 312 lbs. at Gloucester, for heavy. It is expected that the Foreign now in bond, will come out at a moderate rate of duty during the Spring, or Summer. From the relatively low price of Beans all the sea- son, notwithstanding the greatly increased consump- tion, both to mis with Wheat, and for horses, it is evi- dent the stock of old at harvest, must have been very great. The crop of new must also have been good, as our supplies continue large ; and we do not look for any material improvement at present, in any descrip- tion ; although they are certainly a safer investment than any kind of Corn, at our present rates of for new 15s. tol6s.; old I6s. to 18s. per 1961bs. at Birming- ham. For Peas we have a slow sale, without any material variation in the price, for some time past ; they are at present much the cheapest feed for horses or cattle, at 14s. 6d. to I6s. per 1961bs., which rates they are now realizing with us. We have little doing in Boilers; they are nominally worth from 44s. to 52s. per imperial qr., and fine Danzig yellow would bring considerably more. Below are the imports into Gloucester since the opening of the Gloucester and Berekley canal, showing a falling off in all kinds of grain, except Wheat, Fo- reign and Coastwise. JOSEPH & CHARLES STURGE. An Account of the Amount of Corn, Grain, and Flour, imported into the United Kingdom in each year, from \stJan.\8l5, to 1838. Imported Imported Imported from from the from all Total Vear. Ireland. B. N. A. Colonies. other parts. Imported. Qis. Qrs, Qrs. Qrs. 1815 821192 25 333041 1154258 1816 873865 3 319203 1193071 1817 699809 25877 1775353 2501039 1818 1207851 56618 3474051 4738520 1819 967861 14257 1693255 2675373 1820 1417120 40897 1300953 2758970 1821 1822816 40916 216738 2080470 1822 1063089 23439 102365 11SSS93 1823 1528153 209 53432 1581794 18:'4 1634024 891 609147 2244062 1825 2203962 95059 962718 3261739 1826 1693391 30500 2218830 3942721 1827 283*314 61035 2550310 5441659 1828 2826988 21600 1272396 4120984 182() 2307817 7335 2680414 4995566 1830 2215549 796.34 2355412 4650595 1831 2466721 225240 3316760 6008721 1832 3026541 129470 668422 3824439 1833 2700375 117745 336524 3154644 1834 2740098 66829 492071 329499S 1835 2655799 25016 296189 2977004 1836 2847800 18561 625032 3491349 1837 2938519 19060 1306870 4264449 1838 3151001 19479 1515250 4185730 Average Wales 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1S37 1838 Price of Grain per ■', for 7mieteen years, Wheat. s. d. 67 11 56 44 S3 64 0 68 58 56 9 60 5 66 3 64 3 66 4 58 8 52 11 46 2 39 4 48 9 55 10 64 4 Barley. s. d. 33 10 26 0 21 11 31 7 36 5 40 1 34 5 36 6 .32 10 32 6 32 7 38 0 33 1 27 6 29 0 29 11 33 2 30 4 31 5 quartet • rn Eng land an ending 1838. Oats. Beans. Peas. s. d. s. d. s. d. 24 9 43 4 45 11 19 6 30 11 32 9 18 2 24 6 26 5 22 11 33 1 35 0 24 10 40 10 40 8 25 8 42 10 45 5 26 9 44 ."! 47 8 27 4 47 7 47 7 22 6 38 4 40 6 22 9 36 8 36 8 24 5 36 1 39 2 25 4 39 10 41 11 20 5 36 5 37 0 18 5 35 1 37 0 20 U 36 7 33 0 22 0 30 0 30 3 23 1 38 4 37 3 23 1 38 7 37 9 22 5 37 4 3S 8 CO CO OS CO CO 5 o S S « o •< 2 ^ -^ S -^ cfi ^ > '^ a o '^ - ^ zogu — CI HO o O to -Tf (N <>. — c: CJ O |N» h^ o ■^ QD -.- c^ -- — » *0 CO o f>*.— ■j • (M Ift CO .-^ CO0Dt>*i«-^ OO ^jr-e^Gicxjo on IN — OS (N — o C^M tC* lO •<* (N — OJ to ■* O! <0 c5y , . * -a H.-^o-, ooiooiro ~ ox— CO coo •* to Q tH O'— IN ^ •fl- OO Ol 1^ CO as • iri o t>. O o> "^ j9 o^a^ — — • (N — OIN —I CO O "^lo IM -s — OC 1^ -3 . -fl-lN.— . 00 '^ *^ LTi m ^^ :«^«o ■^fo . W-T 5 • — — O INf^rl" aiii (NT)..?)-. Maize. Qrs. B. 4 4 216 1 1430 2 746 6 762 7 3122 2 • fN «0 .^ -^ "» 'S" ■>;ca Z «o CO >noD •« CO -,; c^ (M OD l>* W ■.*» . u •OT)o) UO — O in .cooioo -,— — O-^OOiO-^WC^OOtOO 0*t^.#t>.OC5L0-^Ci00rto on M — liS CO «N.lO •^ r^ ^ O -^ O lO (N lN,N*^ «Si — O O "" sdi r*^ wH t-.^ /-r. i,^ (^i» . »^ rr^ rv t^ n^ -J^^OOOOOCiCX^OOfNO — *'iO t-^ CO iJ^ coai<:oa>cr-^oMGo^TjJO S aocO«CCI^'. (N -^ rf CO C^ TJ» »0 lO -^ « C^ ©^ (N (NfNC^'MMMMCOCOCOCOCOCO OOODGOOOOOOOOOaOOOOOQOCXlOO c .M TT C^^- CO«! (N ' H urs lO O 00 CO O < ^ ^N00cs— 'OS o O " oj «£5 ic wco— ' O' ^J^osco- . •©! ffO<» CO o lii " W t>»— 00 — uoco iJ OCO «D* CO «^tO (N (N CO «; o N to Tf" CO CO -2 Oi tN. CO »o «> o S jroicncoi-or^co ~". .« .— ■ I fV^S f/^ o eo ^f" »ri tc r^ 00 CO CO coco coco 00 00 00 to 00 00 A Comparative Statem.ent of Gi-ain, in the of the Monthly Avei-age price year 1837 and 1838. Wheat Bablev. Oats. 1837. 1838. 1837. 1838. 1837. 1838. s. d. s. d. s. o: s. d. ». d. s. d. 1st Mo.. 59 1 53 5 35 8 28 9 24 8 20 0 2nd 57 2 55 3 34 8 28 10 23 10 20 2 3rd 56 3 56 4 32 3 29 0 23 1 20 10 4tli 56 0 58 10 3) 5 29 10 22 7 21 8 5tli 55 0 61 4 29 10 30 4 23 3 22 4 6th 55 10 65 0 28 10 31 2 24 9 22 8 7th 56 8 68 4 28 6 31 10 24 9 22 9 8tn 59 6 73 8 28 1 33 11 24 1 23 10 9th 57 2 64 9 28 4 32 8 23 5 23 0 10th 54 9 65 8 29 9 31 3 22 6 22 6 nth S2 5 72 6 30 5 33 6 21 3 23 7 12tb 53 1 77 7 29 5 35 2 20 19 25 8 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 243 Beans. Peas. Rye. 1837. 1838. 1836. 1837. 1837. 1838. 8. d. 8. d. s. d. s. d- s. d. s. d. 1st Mo.. 41 7 33 3 40 6 32 6 42 0 29 5 2nd 39 8 32 6 3S 1 32 7 40 7 28 5 34 37 5 33 0 36 5 33 0 35 8 30 10 4th 57 2 34 5 3G 2 32 11 35 0 31 10 5tli 37 8 36 2 37 11 34 2 34 11 32 2 fitli 39 3 37 6 39 8 36 0 35 0 34 9 7th 40 7 37 7 40 6 35 8 35 8 35 D 8th 40 11 40 1 39 10 36 11 37 11 38 11 9th 39 11 40 2 35 11 38 8 34 1 36 1 1 0th 39 4 39 3 36 4 40 9 32 1 34 1 llh 36 4 43 3 35 6 42 9 30 1 39 9 12h 36 0 41 3 34 5 44 0 29 3 48 10 i c u be • 00 (N a o i— ( u. d • ilO a. u 11 9 ^, = H S.£l • t>»co o o o t^in S?' C^ TJ» ;d o o Dca cy (>.— — c Z O (N — — i--JI>. ^'=' • iM M C-. O t^ re •fl' •^ -N o t^ c: X cy ^ z >- — IN • a . O 0000 C^ll^ rt « 00 -V CI o c e O cc '- n n K-^to . OQ o « o ^.»«D (o Sl Z C '* "^ S t^ ""'' <4j a" & •U o -e o — "S — — a ■< . o ^ 0!.:; c •- O' C*o O O 3 O to — CIO o 5^ C (N u-i « o --= t^ » ; n ■» : !M 1^ ■* — >^ ■-• O '.C ti tc . o — o uo -r^ — r: ^ s O" >>. — u-5 m c to c^ rt o^ .- »^ w ^ to (N » GO rx IN "? 00 C4 1>.0C — 1 — to tcr»c , —1 C5 — to' CO ^ r« — • OD 00 CO In. ^ to X to t>.x 2 uo X X C to C^ — CO •^ to .^ ci r-. C-. C-. CO .n t>, O O O 04 " 31 XiM •^ Ci »o O* >.2 (>.tOQO(N<0 tOCl— Xffl-J- — ■>*oxt>. ^lO^-IXOSClLOMWCOtN* — -M ■M — •>! rM -< tl CD o £ » to X o eocii^ o — — to T). -.J" -^ l/^ u^ to -^ ^ ^■?' u^tOteO'.^OCOODi^XtO >-??2£2— '^"^cotooito '^ — C) CO CO CO Ol -^ SSr*® CO — CO to •> S!?*^^ citxx>o •_ cot^xto to« — o ,-o CO d ^^ CO ^^ to xtrso— "(Mco-^iotot-^x e H oj K in tn OB V) w ». uo — to CO lo r>. o < to O 1^ »>• O (M o a CO ^o to X ^ — (1, -.-. O — w »^ ^^ t>» CO • ^(N^NCOl? — O CO o . to o . • _• J,^ : : : : : 7 •:■•.::• • t=^ >A z £ £ 2 ?■ £ ."" £ I TcaSJS*- ■■*•«'— =' i.*.coto^i^.s«^^^ {^ „ — M cs I iCCMCCcC 5 Ji • . . . • • o rt JCC 5°^ » „ T. M * o ;; X — to t^ to o — ' to — o 03 3 6 a , 7* li tn ic N. ;o or — « -?■ lo Zi ..— 1-^ ^^ ;^ ^5 (TPi o n t>.tc:sirs'^to— 'OO r I I ; I ' ■ C'2 o T, tn t/1 CB Qo M -yi (fl ^ u* r^ 00 00 vj cn cn cA vO>co-.r — ^to — to i'^'^Sxxtoo'M "■X-*l?Xt^t>wtOT« b» O CO — C^ W Ci ? IM — cococococ«cococo QOXXXXXXOO Corji, Meal, and Flour impcn-ted, entered for home con- sumption, and duty paid since 1823 inclusive, the first year it was levied on corn. Qrs. Qis. for Duty Paid. Imported. Home Cons. £ s. d; 1S23 53866 12362 10310 4 3 1824 612594 677195 176383 15 6 1825 1060837 834425 304919 15 5 1826 2252271 2098944 442755 14 9 1S27 2622283 2998866 792934 15 8 1828 1294378 1237494 196834 0 2 1829 2694432 1959355 907320 5 5 1830 2691884 2649318 790877 0 0 183! 3570569 2265392 547509 0 0 1832 668422 475680 309676 0 0 1833 481506 112408 36252 0 0 1834 56005S 236902 9941S 0 0 1835 321206 439988 201673 0 0 1836 64331S2 40&217 152791 4 0 1837 1325930 842326 5S9200 0 0 1838 1534730 1960175 183000 0 0 ESSEX. Our report this month must vary little from those of correspondiag months, beyond that the season has been one of the most charming we ever remember, frost and snow have delightfully commingled their welcome appearance with weather of extreme mildness, forming on the whole that pleasing surety so valued by the agriculturist ; the verdure of wheat, vetches, grass, turnips, Sec, has undergone little or no change, fill is promising, all wear the unspotted livery of Nature's God. Stock has done remarkably well, the yeaning of lambs early and fortunate ; markets, independent of the last week or two, have cheered the hearts and blessed the houses of many a family ; wages have continued to rise, the labourer has been made more happy, not only by an increase in wages, but by the hand of well-timed charity ; work has been plentiful, and harmony and good feeling has prevailed all classes. But in the midjt of all this a war cry has been heard from the trading masses of the North, reverberating to almost every town and village in the kingdom. Manufacture versus Agricul- ture must now be the question before the jury, soon to be impannelled to try the question, and give to us the mighty, the momentous decision. The landed interest yet comparatively sleeps over its defence, the aggressive interest has hitherto unmolested advanced to the last barrier of our defence. Its army of delegates meet under the walls of St. Stephens, and directing the as- saults of their decision, will watch with a deadly hate the opponent party. But we believe, and every market assemblage of farmers confirms the opinion, that their is strength yet sufficient in the country to repel their unjust, the selfish, the dominal intentions of these cot- ton lords. Ve only wait to see the motto of theia un- furled standard and see where the scaling ladder is to be placed, and with the united forces of landlord and tenant we will rally as one man, and resist, we have no doubt successfully, the base designs of so iniquitous an aggression upon our homes and property. — Feb. 15. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. Sir, — Can you or any of your numerous readers fur- nish me with the information sought for in the following queries as to the cultivation of linseed, viz. — The soil best adapted for its growth 7 What crop should it follow ? Does it or not require a fallow 1 Is it best drilled or broadcast? Wliat quantity of seed is required per acre? And when is the proper seasonjfor sowing ? With a few general observations as to its management, and also the probable returns to the cultivator, as com- pared with other crops, and you will greatly oblige yours, &c., A Subscriber. Winchester, Feb, 5. 244 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. At DREWSTEIGNTON FAIR, there was a good show of Oxen and Steers, and those disposed of, sold well, but there were many things left unsold. LIFTON FAIR was well supplied, indeed, the shon of 'stock was very good, and it was altogether a selling fair, but at strong prices ; — thus a pair of half fat Oxen were sold at rather over 45/. Plough Oxen were i;-om 18/. to 20/. a pieced Plough Steer?, from 141. to it)/, a piece. Good Store Heifers were from 6s. to 7s. per score. At SILVERTON FAIR, there was a good show of Sheep, and all the best lots were sold at deserving prices ; with a view to guide the judgment as to which, it may be mentioned that a fine lot of wethers, estimated at 24lbs. the quarter, fetched 50s. a piece, or 6jd. per pound. BIDEFORD FAIR was very thinly attended with fat cattle which sold at from 9s. 6d.to 10s. per score ; store diltto, 7s. to 7s. 6d.; prime cows and calves sold as hiu;-h as 14/. 14s. to 16/. 16s. each. Fine fat wether sheep, 6d. per lb. ; ditto ewes, 5§rl. to 5^d. There was very few store sheep which sold tolerably brisk, and the fair was cleared early. In the Horse Fair there was scarcely a good horse to be seen, and middling ones sold at very low prices. TORRINGTON GREAT MARKET was very well supplied with both fat bullocks and store cattle generally. Prime lat beasts sold at high prices, 9s. 9d. to 10s. 3d. per score; and a large number of store beasts were sold to jobbers at, we hear, good prices, averaging 7s. 6d. per score ; and cows and calves sold readily at good prices, and as high as 15/. 15s. to 17/. each, and the inferior from 9/. 9s. to 12/. 12s. each. In the Sheep fair fat wethers fetched about S^d. to 6d. per lb.; ewes, 4^d. to 5^d. lier lb. ; and store sheep sold at 4d. per lb.; the supply of sheep generally was very good, and the fair cleared early. At DORCHESTER CANDLEMAS FAIR, there was ii plentiful supply of beef of prime quality, the de- mand for which was limited, at from 9s. to 10s. per score, and we bKlitve 10s. 6d. was realized in one or two instancrs. Fresh barreners brought from 10/. to 14/. a head, the supply not being large. Cows and calves were in inion between that gentleman and the IVIarquis of Tweeddale. Mr. Grey is well known as an emi- nent breeder and cultivator, and one of the most influential and intelligent gentlemen in that part of the kingdom, and Lord Tweeddale is no less conspicuous for his,iudgm«nt and practical expe- rience, and great zeal in agricultural matters. The variance had arisen from his lordship hav- ing succeeded by trench-ploughing and by mixing the upi)er and under strata without damage, and from the consequent generalizing principle too common in the unthinking world, and with per- sons of sanguine dispositions, which supposes suc- cess in all cases of similar application, without adverting to the combination of different circum- stances under which that application must be made, and on which the whole matter hinges. The quality of the substratum must at once decide if it should be turned up or not, and to this point his lordship had not adverted, as he had found it rot hurtful in the course of his practice. Reason- ing from analogy has in many such cases led to the most fallacious results, and circumstances must ever direct if any application be plausible and likely to produce the expected result, assisted by the judgment and experience of the persons concerned. Mr. Grey's letter sets the matter in its true light. Mr. Grey ndverts to the great importance of an agricultural college, and very justly observes that the subject must be a national instead of a local undertaking. It is certainly a very curious fact, that we have colleges and schools for education in all its branches, and none for instruction in agri- culture, an art on wbiclj every other depends. Agriculture must precede every other art — we must have corn, wool, and cotton before manufac- tures can exist ; they are the consequents, not the antecedents of agriculture, though both must flourish better when mutually assisted and sup- ported by each other. Tlic suj)ply of food and rai- ment precedes every other want — in vain will we attempt to teach a starved human being — the phy- sical wants must be su])])licd before the moral — if the means be not afforded of sending the boy to school, the schools are useless. The present prac- tice of agriculture is wholly composed of the for- tuitous results of observation and exi)erience, and has not yet derived any assistance irom chymical or physical theory. Nothing can be more " A. The soot-distributor is represented in perspective in the cut, Fig. 1, while Fig. 2 is a trans- verse section, shewing more distinctly the relation of those parts that are but partially seen in Fig. 1. The section is taken on a plane passing through the middle of the machine, and at right angles to the two cylinders afterwards described, the horse shafts being represented as broken oflF. The let- ters of reference apply to corresponding parts in both figures. The machine consists of a bed frame or body. A, to which are attached a pair of horse- shafts, B, and is mounted on a pair of low wheels, C, twenty-two inches in diameter, and four inches broad in the sole. These wheels are fixed upon, and turn with their axle, around which there is built a wooden cylindei , D, about eight inches in diameter, and six feet in length, fluted longitudi- nally. A chest, E, six feet in length, is appended THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 263 to the body, and descends so as to half embrace the cylinder, D, and is surmounted by a semi-cylindri- cal lid, hinged on one side to the edge of the chest. (The lid is left out in Fig. 1, but is seen in section in Fig. 2.) In the interior of the chest there is placed a cylinder of sheet-iron, F, about twenty-two inches in diameter, perforated all over, giving it the character of a riddle, the perforations being about one-half inch in dametcr and as much apart. This cylinder is closed at both ends, and is divided into three compartments by divisions of thin deal, besides being furnished with a trap door, opening longitudinally on hinges, as seen in Fig. 1, which can be secured by hook-and-eye fix- tures. An axis of iron passes quite through the cylinder, having journals which rest in bearings in two jointed bars, GG ; and on one end of the axis, produced beyond the bar G, is mounted a wheel, H, of eighteen inches diameter. The axis of the carriage wheels bears a toothed-wheel of nine inches diameter, which acts upon the wheel H through the intermediate wheel I. The progres- sive motion of the machine, therefore, gives mo- tion simultaneously to the two cylinders. The use of the fluted cylinder is for distributing the soot upon the ground, while that of the perforated one serves to separate stones, mortar, &c., that frequently are found mixed with tlie soot, and ready to retard and injure the effect of the fluted roller, while the curved lid of the chest prevents the soot flying oft' by the agitation of the cylinder. The operations of the machine are eflfected in the following manner. The lid of the chest being thrown back, the door of the upper cylinder is opened, and a charge of soot introduced. The machine is then put in motion. The revolutions of the upper cylinder causes the soot to fall through it upon the fluted cylinder, which, in its revolutions, discharges in succession, the soot contained in the grooves or flutings. In order to regulate with more precision the quantity of soot discharged by the fluted cylinder, and to assist in keeping the cylinder clean, a brush equal in length to the cylinder, is applied to and presses against the grooves, with more or less force, according to the quantity required to be discharged. When the soot has been discharged from the upper C)'linder, the latter is lifted out of the chest by means of the jcinted bars, GG, and while in this elevated posi- tion, it is supported by the elbow-joint rods, seen on the side of the bed-frame, Fig. 1 ; the trap door being now opened, the cylinder is turned round till the opening comes downward, when the stones and mortar which have been separated from the soot are discharged ; the cylinder is then returned to the chest, a fresh supply of soot is introduced, the cylinder is closed, the lid of the chest brought down, and the work proceeds as before. Though Mr. Main has found this machine to fulfil the chief conditions of the distribution of soot, he is aware that it is imperfect in one re- spect— that of discharging with tolerable precision, the smallest possible quantity per acre that may be held beneficial. The fluted cylinder and brush can hardly accomplish this. It has therefore been suggested to combine an arrangement on the prin- ciple of the broadcast sowing-machine, along with the perforated cylinder ; and there appears no reason to doubt that such a combination, properly arranged, would eff'ect the object. Indeed, a ma- chine could be constructed on this principle that would not only answer the purpose of distributing soot, but rape-dust to any quantity per acre 5 and it might also serve as a broadcast machine for sowing grain. Mr. Main's experience of the efl'ects of soot as a manure is thus given in his own words : — " Previously to using soot, I was in the practice of applying: saltpetre refuse, but this was an expensive stimulant, and, on recommendation, I made a trial of soot. I have now used it for three years, and every year has strenj^thened my conviction of its utility as a manure. In 1838, to make a fair trial, I ma- nured eighteen ridges of grass, alternately, with soot and saltpetre, the saltpetre being applied at the rate of two cwt., and the soot forty bushels per Scots acre. The result was, that the ridges dressed with soot were more luxuriant than those with salt- petre. This experiment satisfied me as tofts effects; and when to this was added the difference in price, the saltpetre at 10s. per cwt., costing 20s., the soot at 2d. per bushel, making it only 6s. 8d. per acre, it recommended itself at once as the more useful and profitable application. I have tried the same experi- ment on wheat, and with the same effect. I may add, that I have compared the effect of soot with that of other stimulants, and the result has been equally satisfactory in its favour. In 1838, I applied soot to a field of wheat which, at the time, seemed in so very precarious a state, as to make me even despair of its recovery. After applying the soot, however, it rallied ; and, when cut down, there was not a bet- ter crop on the farm. I cannot ascribe this result to any other cause than the effects of the soot ; and in this case it was only applied at the rate of twenty bushels per acre. Soot does not seem to injure grass in the estimation of sheep ; and, in proof of this, I tried its effects on a small piece of pasture, upon which a few sheep were afterwards put to graze. Tiie result was curious. There were many other ridges in the field besides those dressed with soot, and all good grass, but the sheep continued to eat the sooted ridges until they were completely bared. With faces quite blackened, they fed heartily on the soot-dressed pasture. " As to the precise quantity of soot necessary for a dressing, I cannot speak positively. I have found forty bushels to have a great effect, and, in one case mentioned, twenty bushels have succeeded. How- ever, some of my neighbours do not scruple to apply sixty and even eighty bushels per acre. But I in- tend, this year, 1839, to muke some experiments on quantitii, and the result I shall communicate with much pleasure. " From the short time that soot has been used in this quarter, its effects on qttality have not yet been cor- rectly ascertained, and some farmers object to its use on this account ; my experience leads me to look upon this objection as groundless, for, as regards hay, that grown with soot is eaten with as much avi- dity as any other hay ; and as for wheat, though the grain of soot-dressed wheat is certainly larger than the grain grown upon land without soot, still it re- mains to be proved that it is thereby injured or deteriorated in its mealing qualities. Perhaps, how- ever, the time ®f applying the soot may have an effect on tlie quality. It is my opinion that the soot should be applied when the grass and wheat are young, or about the end of April, or the first week of May, and not later. If applied later, the plants are then high, and do not admit of the soot falling freely to the ground. By an early application this evil is avoided. I may add, in conclusion, that 1 have always found damp weather the best in which to apply the soot, though, when the soot is used, it should be quite dry, otherwise the machine will not distribute it with regularity." 264 THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. ON BREEDING IN-AND-IN. [It is well known amongst the breeders of stock, that there is no question more warmly disputed than the effect of constantly breeding from the same stock, and the necessity of occasionally in- fusing new blood. We believe we shall be fully borne out in stating that the majority of breeders are in favour of introducing new blood. If the sub- joined statement be correct as to facts, and from our knowledge of Mr. Barford we are ready to vouch tl)at it is, this can no longer be considered a " vcxutd guestio." We shall be much obliged to any of our readers who may feel disposed to favour us with their opinions upon the subject. — Ed. F.IM.] FOSCOTE SHEFP. The following is a pedigree of the flock of sheep, bred by me at Foscote, near Towcester, Northamptonshire ; descended from sheep of the first repute, from the Dishley flock of Bakewell and Honeyhorne, from the year 1783 to 1803 in- clusive ; through the flock of the late Mr. Joseph Robinson, of Wellingborough Lodge, Northamp- tonshire ; who was a member of the Dishley So- ciety from its commencement in 1783 to 1803 in- clusive. Valentine Barford. May, 1837. Sheep used in 1789 A two-shear by a Disbley sheep, used by Mr. Robinson in 1786. 1790 A two-shear by a Dishley sheep, used by Mr. Robinson in 1787. — ironically called Lumber. 1791 The same sheep as last year. 1792 Mr. Pvobinson, A. F., by the Dishley A. 1793 Another son of the Disbley A. 1791 Long Tail, by a Dishley sheep, name un- known to me. 1795 A son of A. F. 1796 A son of Long Tail, dam by A. F. — (a sheep of my own.) 1797 A son of the Dishley Q, K., and S. a grand- son of a Dishley sheep. 1798 Another son of Q. K. 1799 A sheep of my own. 1800 A shearling, grandson of a Dishley sheep, name unknown to me. 1801 G. of 1797, by Dishley Q. K. 1802 A shearling, by a grandson of the Disbley I., dam by Q. K. 1803 The same as last year. 1804 A son of Dishley, six of 1802. 1805 Twin G. N. (by G. N. of 1797, a son of Q. K.) 1806 Little G., a great grandson of G. of 1797, used by me 1801. 1807 Little G., as above, and Flaxdresser, sire of Little G., and grandson of G. of 1797. — Flaxdresser, by G. H., a son of G. 1808 Cambril, a son of No. 11, of 1804.— No. 11 by Dishley C, alias Cade, alias Cuddy, of 1802. 1809 Cambril. 1810 No. 4 of 1810, by a grandson of C, alias Cade, alias Cuddy, of 1802, and Lumber a sheep of my own, by Cambril. All the above-named sheep were hired of Mr. Robinson, except those used in 1796, and 1799, •which were my own, descended from the above- named. The following are bred entirely from my own flock, sire and dam, without an interchange of male or female from any other flock. Sheep used in Sire. Dam by 1811 Blue Cap Cambril Little G. No. 10, of 1810. Cambril .... Little G. 1812 G. C Cambril Little G. Crooktail No.4,ef 1810 Cambril Cade No.4,ofl810 G.N. of 1805 1813 G. C. No. 10, of 1810. Cambril.. .. Little G. Rumps Blue Cap. . . Cambril 1814 G. C. Crooktail G G. C Flaxdresser 1813 G. C. Crooktail G. 1816 G. C. Cade G. Crooktail Br. to Blackfoot, of 1814 Cade Cambril 1817 Crooktail Cade G. Br. to Blackfoot, of 1814 G.N G.C G.N. of 1805 1818 Crooktail Blackfoot By brother to Blackfoot of 1814... Cambril Symmetry G.C Crooktad 1819 Crooktail Symmetry Blackfoot as above Woodstoke . . . . G.N. of 1817 Crooktail 1820 Cade Cade Crooktail Symmetry Woodstoke Blue Cap Crooktail... G.C. 1821 G. P., alias Gra- vel Pit Crooktail... Lumber Blue Cap Blackfoot as above And Blackfoot . Crooktail... G.C. 1822 In-aad-In Crooktail... Crooktail Blue Cap G. P. Blackfoot Crooktail... G.C. 1823 Blackfoot Do Do. VV oodstoke G. P. Chine Blackfoot, by Crooktail . Crooktad 1824 No. 9, of 1821 . Blackfoot, by > b. to Black- ^Crooktad foot of 1814 3 Darti of Chine Woodstoke Wellington.... Woodstoke. G. Blackfoot ...i. Crooktail... G.C* 1825 Blackfoot Crooktail... G.C. Chine Wellington Rumps Cade of 1820 by Cade.. Crooktail G.N... Woodstoke. G. P. Tll£ FAUMER'S MAGAZINE. 265 Dam hit Sheep used ill Sire, 1326 Cliine White Nose... Blackfoot, by G., dam of Crooktail . Wellington Posthumous . , . Cade of 1820 by Cade.. Crooktail No. 9, of 1821 Komulus No.9,ofl821 G. P. 1827 Chine White Nose Romulus 1828 Romulus Little G Wellington. G. P. Posthumous Chine 1829 Komulus No. 3, of 1826, alias Deceit. . No.9,ofl821 Old Rumps G.N Woodstoke . G. P. Little G. 18J0 Deceit Little G. G.N. 1831 Cantab Little G.... G. P. Litde G. Cadland Little G No. 9, of 1821 Cambril Little G . . . . Blackfoot, by Crooktail 1832 G.N Romulus... Blackfoot, by Crooktail, d. of Cambril Cadland Union Little G . . . . Romulus Cantab 1833 G. N,. Romulus... Blackfoot, by Crooktail, d. of Cambril Union Cantab Drayman Cantab G. P. 1834 G.N Romulus... Blackfoot, by Crooktail, d. of Cambril No. 27 Little G.... Posthumous G Little G.... G. P. No, 163 G.N Little G. 1833 Grendon Union Romulus Drayman Little G . . . . G. P. No. 163 G.N Little G. Black Lip Union Whitenose 1836 Black Lip Union Whitenose No. 163 G.N Little G. No. 238 G.N Hobler No. 330 G.N Little G. N.B. — This flock which are bred from the nearest affinities, which is considered breeding Ih- andln, have not experienced any of those defects ascribed to the practice. The males and females have been selected and paired on the principle upon which improvement depends ; have been kept entirely in a state of nature, fed upon vege- table food only, and are at all times in the year open for inspection. WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE IN SIBERIA. — In the middle of one of these newly arisen birch- woods is situated the manufacturing town of Telma, consisting of two rows of log houses, erected on the sides of a lag road covered with smooth planks. A handsome stone church, in the Italian style, and spa- cious barracks, give the place an air of importance. But the workhouse of Telma is the wonder of Siberia. It is with constantly increasing admiration (sa^'s M. Ermann ) thai one approaches the workbouse, a fabric of two stories, and wliich is, no doubt, the largest and finest specimen of arcLitecture iu North Asia. The front of it has a length of 364 feet, and is adorned with massive columns, between which, in two rows, are the windows, of the purest plate glass. The low- er story is divided into three apartments, in which are carried on the manufacture of cloth. Above, dwell tlie officers who manage the institution, on the account of the Crown. Stone warehouses, and mills of different kinds, are situated along the banks of the stream which drives the machinery of the workhouse. The advantages of the locality were discovered a century ago, by private speculators, since which time Telma has been famous for its cloth manufac- tory. More recently, glass, paper, and linen, have been added to its productions. The inhabitants of Telma are about 2,000 in number, of whom 800 find employment in the manufactories. They are persons exiled for crimes, but whose manners, nevertheless, are irreproachable in their new and more fortunate situation, in which they are neither pressed by want, nor goaded by despair. They are supplied gratui- tously with meal, and receive besides an amount of wages proportioned in each instance to the value of the labour. The wool required for the manufactory at Telma is procured chiefly from the Buraets and Tunguses, who wander with their flocks over the southern borders of Siberia. The machinery for combing and spinning the wool was originally pro- cured from England, and was afterwards made in Siberia, according to the English model, at one-fifth of the cost of the latter. Telma produces annually about 30,000 yards of woollen cloth, and half that quantity of linen. The former is sold at a price not exceeding half-a-crown a yard. Among the causes operating to depreciate it, one of the most influential is fashion. So decided a preference is given to Eu- ropean cloth, that nothing short of a very great saving in the price can reconcile the Siberian to the manufacture of his own country. Pains are taken, notwithstanding this discouragement, to improve the wool, and in 1330 a flock of 480 Spanish sheep were driven from Moscow to Irkutsk ; and notwithstand- ing the length of the journey, and the plagues of the Barabinskian steppes, 300 of them reached their destination in safety. — Travels in Siberia by a German, CAPTAIN BARCLAY OF URY.— It will be recol- lected that, in September last, this spirited agricultu- rist sold off, without reserve, the whole of his justly- celebrated short-horn stock, consisting of about eighty different lots ; and stated at the time, that his object was not to give up the breeding of short-horns, but on the contrary, by procuring some animals of the best blood, without regard to expense, to lay in an entirely new stock, so as to produce, if possible, a still superior aoimal. We now learn that he has obtained from Mr. Wetherell, auctioneer, Durham, in whose hands he had placed an unlimited commission for the purpose, twen- ty-two heifers of the Durham breed, which cannot be surpassed in England or Scotland. He has also re- purchased from Sir Francis M'Kenzie of Gairloch, for One Hundred Guineas, the celebrated short-horn bull, Mohammed, by Monarch, dam, Lady Sarah, which Sir Francis had bought at Captain Barclay's sale, in 1836, being then a calf, for 70Z. HEDGE-CUTTING.— The annual competition for the prizes offered by the Banbury Agricultural Associa- tion to the best cutters of fences against sheep and oxen, took place on Tuesday last in a field belonging to Mr. Gulliver, of Bloxham. There were seven competitors for the prizes offered for sheep fences, and five for the ox fences. The following were the successful candi- 266 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. dates for the sheep fences ; to the hedge-cutter, recom- mended by a member of the association, and usually employed by him for such purpose, who shall cut 12 yards as a fence ag-ainst sheep, and scour tiie ditch in the best manner, within the space of six hours: 1st prize, 21: to Thomas Cox, employed by Mr. J. Middlfcton, of Upton; 2nd prize, 1/. lOs. to 11. Pettipher, employed by Mr. R. Greaves, of Fritwell ; 3rd prize, 1/. to Wm. Hartwell, employed by Mr. Horwood, of Steane. To the hedg-e-cutter cutting 12 yards, as a fence against oxen, withm eight hours (under the same regulation as for sheep fences). — First prize, 2/. to Wm. Gunn, em- ployed by Mr. J. Greaves, of North Newington ; se- cond, 11. 10s. to John IMiller, employed by Mr. I'homas Wilson, Brackley ; third, II. to John Wilkes, employed by Mr. W. E. Boyes, Alkerton. DON JOHN (the property of the earl of chesterfield.) WINNER OF THE DONCASTER ST. LEGER, 1838. Don John, whose portrait embellishes our present number, varies irom the generality of racers in the length fiom the hock to the ground, which in him is greater than usual, a formation regarded as inimical to speed ; but inconsiderately so, beyond all ques- tion. The fleetest, the most powerful, and far the best racer the world ever saw, was long from the hock to the ground — we allude to Eclipse, whose rate of going vras never accurately ascertained : however, be could not only beat, but distance with the greatest ease, all his competitors ; yet he was never touched with either whip or spur, but held in band in all his races. Further, if we leave example out of the question, and resort to comparison for an elucidation of the subject, we shall find much in favour of the form in question ; the more forward a horse can bring his hind feet every stride, the greater or more swift must be his progressive mo- tion, and the point at issue is, whetlier a long or a short hind leg is best calculated for the purpose. The hare is the fleetest quadruped in creation, by comparison ; she is long from the hock to the grounci, aud brings her hind feet more forward every stride than any other four-legged animal : if, therefore, we perceive this formation presented by this extraor- dinary little creature, it cannot fail to assist her stride, and why not assist that of the horse also 1 The quarters of Don .John are widely spread, and very powerful, with sufficient laxity of loin to give freedom in the action of the gallop ; round carcase, brisket deep, and low dropping, shoulders well formed, neck light, head handsome, and manifesting in an unusual degree the characteristics of the Eas- tern original, arm long and powerful, pastern longer than usual, but wiry. Hence Don John must neces- sarily possess superior speed, and superior powers of endurance — abundantly testified by his perform- ances. His colour, a good bay, stands fifteen hands three inches. Nature acts by laws equally wise and equally wonderful, and hence we find the organization of the incalculable varieties of creation adapted to their wants and their habits of life ; if therefore we look at the horse in a sca:e of unlimited freedom, existing in the plains where he can find pasturage, and offering no violence to any other animal, swiftness has been given him for the purpose of outstripping his enemies, and particularly to enable him to avoid the attack of ferocious animals, while leaping to any gceat height or distance was not necessary ; the pro- gressive motion of the horse is more fleet than that of any other animal ; but leapi.ig is not his forte ; he is rarely able to leap his own height j while feline animals can bound many times their own height, as exemplified in the domestic cat ; such creatures, be it recollected, seize their prey by springing upon it, and therefore nature has kindly endowed them with the power for that purpose : however, if they thus excel the horse in leaping, they are far inferior to him in progressive speed, clearly indicated in their conformation, while the shape of their hinder parts shows whence they derive their surprising spring ; their quarters are very widel)"^ spread, much elon- gated, tapering to the hock, whence to the ground they are short ; they are thus enabled to draw their hinder parts under their body, and spring to a very great distance or to a very great height. It would therefore appear, that short hind legs (from the hock to the ground) are better calculated for leaping, than conducive to progressive speed, all feline animals being thus formed, all of them remarkable for the extent of the bound or spring, while their progressive speed is of a very inferior description ; their gallop, unlike that of the horse, consists of a succession of bounds, distressing to the animal, and by which it very soon becomes fatigued. If we recur to the greyhound, we shall perceive that he is short from the hock to the ground, as we have already noticed ; he is fleet, but his leaping is more extraordinary than his speed ; he can bound to a very considerable distance, and leap several times his own height. The hare, on the contrary, whose formation of the part in question is the reverse of that of the greyhound, is immeasurably fleeter than the latter, (being not more than a sixth of his weight) but makes a poor figure in leaping. May it not, therefore, be reasonably concluded that short hind legs are intended to assist the impetus in leaping, rather than accelerate progressive motion 1 If these conjectures be correct, and the preceding analogous observations point strongly to their accuracy, it con- sequently results that the length of Don John's hind legs must be considered rather as a perfection, than as detrimental to speed. pedigree of DON' JOHN. Don John was bred by Mr. Garforth, and was sold when a foal to JMr. Ridsdale, for 100 guineas. At the sale of that gentleman's stud be passed into Lord Chesterfield's hands (being then a yearling, we believe,) for 140 guineas. He is by Tramp or Waverly, out of a Comus mare, (bred in 1820 or 1821 by Mr. Garforth,) her dam Marciana, by Stam- ford, out of Marcia, by Coriander — Faith by Pacolot — Atalanta by Matchem — Lass of the Mill by Oro- nooko — Sister to Clarke's Lass of the Mill, by Traveller — Miss i\Iakeless, &c. performances of don JOHN. 18.37. Won the two year old Stakes at York Spring Meeting easily, beating Alzira, f. by Jerry, out ot Purity, Wee VVillie, Ares, and Vertumnus. Won the Champagne Stakes at Doncaster in a canter, beating Barbarina, The Fairy Queen, Miss Fanny colt, Apollonia filly, and Charley Boy. Won the Claret Stakes at Ileaton Park, beating The Fairy Queen with the greatest ease. 1838. Walked over for a Sweepstakes of 200 sovs. each, in the Newmarket Craven ftleeting. Won the Great St. Leger on Tuesday, September 18, going at his rate, beating Ion, and five others. On Thursdaj', Sept. 20, he carried off the Gas- coigne Stakes without a struggle, no competitor coming out to dispute the prize. The same day he won the Doncaster Cup in his usual style, beating Bee's Wing, The Doctor, and Melbourne. On ^Vednesday in the following week, Don John walked over for the Heaton Park St. Leger, k I s- I I ^ S^ o ^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 267 SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT ON THE FARM OF SWAYTHORPE, THE PROPEHTY OF LORD HOTHAM. Sir, — I have observed iii some of the late num- bers of your publication, several letters on the propriety and practicability of establishing experi- mental farms, in conjunction with schools for common and useful education, where the youth of this country, (especially those destined for agri- cultiu-al pursuits,) might have the advantage of receiving not only that instruction whicli would enable them to take their station in society, as men of respectability and intelligence, but of be- coming practically conversant with all the varied minuti of that occupation by which they are to subsist. Establishments of this description, if put on a good working plan, would undoubtedly be useful in more ways than one : and it is not at all im- probable that such institutions may be com- menced either as private, or as joint-stock specu- lations, when it is to be hoped they may be at- tended with success, and conduce to the public benefit, beyond the most sanguine expectations of the proprietors. But as it must be a work of time, before any scheme of this kind can be brought to maturity, I would suggest with a view to the same end, namely, the dissemination of information, and the general improvement of the system of agri- culture, the propriety of admitting to the columns of the " Farmer's Magazine," a detailed report of the particular modes of management practised on farms, selected in different parts of the United Kingdom, which may be conspicuous fur good management in their districts. An article of this description in each number, would probably be interesting to most of your readers, and to some jjerhaps instructive ; for however good a manager a person may be on the whole, he will certainly not be the best in every point ; and both good and bad farmers might oc- casionally derive hints from reports of this des- cription, which might be turned to good account. As an attempted specimen of wliat I mean, I beg to hand you a short account of the farm Sway- thorpe, which obtained the first premium value 20L at the meeting of the Yorkshire Agticultural Association, at York, in July last, against five competitors, as being the best managed farm in the county, which will be a sufficient guarantee for its being entitled to a distinguished place in the scale of well managed farms in England. SAaythorpe, — the property of Lord Hotham, and in the occupation of James Hall, Esq., is situate in the parish of Kilham, on the most elevated part of the Yorkshire wolds, about 10 miles N.E. of Driffield, and eight u'iles W. of Burlington. It contains 774 acres in a ring fence, of which 170 acres are in grass, and tlie remainder in tillage. The soil, — not naturally very fertile, is what would perhaps be provincially understood, by a strong, heavy wold, free from any admixture of flint, or gravel, and resting at the depth of several feet on a chalk rock. About fifty or sixty years ago, Swaythorpe was chiefly what is termed a sheep-walk, studded over with patches of whins, and ling, the in- jurious effects of which may be occasionally seen to this day, in the partial grubbing of the crops, where these patches have formerly been. Soon after the time mentioned, it began to be progressively brought into cultivation, by plou2:h- ing out certain portions every year, which after producing two or three crops, chiefly of oats, were laid tlovvn again, and so continued in bad grass, or ley, for the purpose of freshening, or of restoring its exhausted fertility. After lying in this state a few years, each portion was in fixed rotation, again taken out and cropped as before. This land was then thought to be incajjable of growing wheat, and almost all attempts to cultivate that grain were unsuccessful. But it will require no argument to convince those who have wit- nessed tlic crops at Swaythorpe of late years, that the soil there will grow wheat as well as other grain. The more liberal application of capital of late years, together with the march of agricultural improvement, have wrought a miraculous change in the appearance and pro- duce of this farm. The management of Swaythorpe is entirely under the direction of Mr. Hall, who is fortunate in having in Mr. John Fields, the resident bailift", a person who can so ably superintend the multi- farious and diversified operations necessary on a farm of this magnitude. It is divided by quickwood fences, into fields of from 40 to 70 acres each. The tillage is managed in a four crop course of husbandry, that is to say; 1. Fallow, with turnips. 2. Barley, and oats, in alternate rounds. 3. Seeds, eaten with sheep. 4. Wheat. A naked or summer fallow is not required here, nor is it ever practised. The family of quicks, docks, thistles, charlock, &c., so troublesome to farmers generally, are so nearly extirpated from this farm, as to render the operation of fallowing comparatively an easy task. Besides this, a green crop on wold laiul, has been proved by long experience, to have a bene- ficial, rather than an injurious eff'ect. It is considered essential that the requisite ploughings, harrrowings, and even the sowings, should be performed as much in dry weather as possible. The amall harrows are perhaps less used here than on most other farms ; it seems to be better that the laud should be lightly laid up by good ploughing, and cross draining, so as to be raost exposed to the mollifying influence of the sun and air, than that it should be levelled and trodden down by the horses, and small harrows, particular- ly when the land is clear. The sowing of turnips is performed principally in the month of June. The quantity of seed, is of Swedish 2.Ub, and of white 31h to the acre. Very early sowing is not practised here, it being considered better that the plants should grow away from the first, although later, than that their growth should be checked by drought, mildew, &c., to which they are more liable when sown vevy early. Tbey would too, if sown very eariy, and not interrupted in their growth, in consequence of the large size which they usually attain on this farm, have a tendency to become light and spungy, and thereby much deteriorated in value, as an article of food for sheep and cattle. The turnips are drilled, always on ridges, about 27 inches apart. 25 bushels of half inch bones and dust is the minimum quantity used per acre for Swedish, and 20 bushels for white turnips. The drill here used, is 4.^ feet wide, sows two rows, and is similar to those in common use, ex- cept that the seed is conveyed by a set of funnels or spouts, separate and a few inches behind those T 268 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which convey the bones. The bones are first de- posited at the bottom of the seam made by the coulter. As the machine progresses, a light co- vering of soil falls over the bones, and on this soil, there being still a seam, the seed is dropped by the second row of spouts. This method of sowing the turnips, is here esteemed a great improvement on the common practice of running the bones and seed down the same spouts, where the seeds from their small and globular form, must necessarily fall lo the bottom of the seam, and the roots con- sequently strike downwards, and from the bones ; but when the seeds are dropped on the finely pul- verized soil by which the bones are covered, they have the benefit not only of the moisture which may be in that soil, to start germination, but im- mediately on the roots ])resenting themselves dowDwards in search of food and support, they come in direct contact with tlie bones which are placed there for the purpose of giving them that support. Aiinthcr advantage is:, in liaving the seed depo- sited so near the surface, when the least eftort is required in the young plant to emerge, and the more quickly it receives the simultaneous assist- ance of the atmophere to the leaves, and of the manure to the roots. At all events, it may almost be said, that in tolerably favourable seasons, the young turnip plants are so vigorous, and their growth so rapid, resulting from the fine tilth of the soil, the method of sowing, and the liberal appli- cation of manures, as to bid defiance to the attack of the turnip H3'. When the turnips have attained their proper growth, they are skimmed, or scuffled, and then very carefully hoed, and singled out, about 12 inches apart. The hoeing is never done by con- tract, but always by the day labourers. The advantage of this, is in having the work better, and even more cheaply performed. The day labourer does not require the vigilant and ■watchful eye of the superintendent to be constant- ly prying over his work. He has not the prospect of an extra 6d. per day, to induce him to scramble over a greater quantity of ground than he can do well. There is therefore no total destruction of plants for several feet together. Tiiere is no fre- quent occurrence of double plants as is gene- rally to be found in work done by the acre. The day work plan may eeem more tedious and ex- pensive, but it stands for a doing, and is ultimate- ly the cheaper ; whereas the contract work has to be gone over a second time, and is never left as it ought to be. The old maxim holds good in turnip hoeing, as well as other matters, " a thing once well done, is twice done. A thing only half done, is not done at all." The turnips, as said before, usually attain a large size at Swaythorpe, and in the autumn, from the fullness of the crop — the perfection of the hoeing— the accurate straightness of the drills — the vigorous and healthy appearance of plants, are to the eye of the practical farmer, a very pleasing sight. They are always eaten on the land by sheep, except about one-tenth, which are drawn off (three rows in every thirty), and carted to the fold-yard for the cattle. The sowing of rape is not adopted as part of the system pursued at Swaythorpe. The surpassing value of this plant for the purpose of feeding sheep, must be admitted by all, but it is not equally clear, that it is even on deep soiled wold land, ul- timately very beneficial. When the turnips are eaten off, and indeed as fast as the ground is progressively cleared, it is ploughed once for the succeeding crop of barley or oats ; it being usual to sow half the turnip stubble with each, and reverse them on the suc- ceeding round. The advantage of early ploughing for spring sowing, both of grain and seeds, is very evident, not only in the more easy working of the land, but also in the crops themselves. The barley and oats are almost invariably drilled, and in rows at intervals of 7 inches. Four bushels of barley, and seven of Oats, is about the average quantity of seed to the acre. The clover seeds are sown inunediately after the corn. They are a mixture of 181bs. of white clover, 41bs. of red clover, 31bs. rib grass, 81bs. trefoil, 21b8. parsley ; the proportionate quantities occasionally varied according to circumstances. They are sown broadcast. An improvement in the manner of sowing seeds is about to he commenced, by adopting the hand, or barrow seed drill, which is easily worked by two men, without horses, who can drill from 20 to 25 acres per day. I'lie machine is 12 feet long, and can be regulated so as to distribute any re- quired quantity of seed to the acre, with the great- est accuracy, however uneven the ground, and without tnissing or overlapping any part of it. After the seeds are sown, they receive one light harrow- ing only. It need not be said that furrows, or water courses, are unnecessary on wold land. Neither rape dust, nor any other manure is used for a spring crop ; the land being in condi- tion to bring as great an abundance of straw as can be desired ; sometimes perhaps too much, as it is apt to get down and smother a great part of the seeds beneath. The seeds are only suffered to lie one year, when they are ploughed up, and invariably sown with wheat. It is thought better to have the land ploughed a week or two' before sowing, to receive the tempering influence of the weather. The plan of manuring the young seeds in the autumn, or early in the spring, has been tried here, and found to have its advantages, as well as disadvantages. The herbage has come nearly a fortnight earlier, the pasture has carried more stock, and the wheat crop has been equally good. But the gross luxuriance of the herbage has been such, as to do an incalculable injury to the sheep, particularly the lambs, by inducing the scour. The manuring of young seeds, would perhaps be advisable on suitable land, not over rich, or high conditioned, provided it would not be seriously injurious to the stock, but at Swaythorpe the practice is discon- tinued, for the reasons above named. 'J'he seed wheat is also put in by the drill, in rows 7 inches a-part, and about 4 bushels per acre. Great care is taken to select the seed, with a view not only to its relative value in the market, but also to the most judicious change to the land, from the soil on which it had been previously grown. This crop concludes the course and is followed again by the fallow. The crops at Swaythorpe are generally remarka- ble for their abundance and gross appearance, sometimes to a degree nlmost beyond belief. The reaping is always performed with the scythe, and as the crops are often for the most part laid, this is a work of no trifling difliculty ; but a greater quan- tity of straw and conseq'uently of manure is obtained THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 269 than when reaped by the sickle ; and the ploup^h- in^ arid working- of the stubbles is rendered easier. In tedious and unfavourable harvests great care is required to prevent the seeds being injured by tlie stocks. The removing of these (often unusually rank) on upwards of 100 acres of ground is attended with considerable labour, and at a time too when it is generally wanted to be otherwise employed, but often neeessary as a very short time will make the difference between no injury, and complete destruc- tion to the seeds on wliich the stocks have been placed. The stack-yard at Swaythorpe immediately after harvest presents a very formidable appearance. 1 he stacks are placed in rows often each, on the west side of the farm-yards, with sufficient room for a laden waggon to pass not only between the rows, but be- tv%een every two stacks in each row. They are all nearly of one uniform size and shape, containing about 40 loads each, thatched and secured in such a way as effectually to resist the penetration of the wet as well as the high winds to which thoy are exposed in this bleak situation. The corn is chiefly thrashed by the flail, and gives constant employment to six thrashers, from the eon- elusion of harvest to the following May or June. A portable thrashing machine too is frequently used as occasion may require, (generally once a week) when the cattle, from the severity of the wea- ther, or other reasons, require an extra provision of straw. The advantage of hand or flail thrashing consists in having the straw always fresh, regularly supplied to the cattle, and equally distributed over the yard, which cannot be the case when thrashing is done entirely by the machine. This machine (by Mr.Crosskill of Beverley^ on a new principle, and exceedingly portable, is wrought by four horses, will thrash 40 quarters per day, and gives, I understand, entire satisfaction. To the horse partof this machine a straw cutter and turnip slicer aie made to be attached, when either may be re- jjuired. When so large a quantity of straw and corn have to be turned over in the year, capacious barns are necessarily required, and extensive fold-yards for the purpose of facilitating the decomposition of the straw. Until lately the fold-yard and out-buildings have been insufficient for these purposes, having been erected at a time when the productive cajiabililies of the farm, were not so extensively developed as they have been of later years. Another fold-yard contain- ing a clear area of 44 yards square, has recently been added, and surrounded with buildings of a most sub- stantial description. The o^on sheds belonging to this yard occupy a space of 350 square yards. The original one is a trifle smaller. In the former of these from thirty to forty oxen, and in the latter the same number of heifers are kept during the win- ter or thrashing season, and supplied v^-ith, besides the requisite quantity of straw, five cart loads of tur- nips per day; amounting altogether to »bout one tenth of the crop, as before mentioned, and 4 lbs. or something moro than half an English linseed cake each. The turnips are sliced in the manner above named, which is found to be a great saving both in the necessary labour, and in the article of food itself; for the machine which is then easily propelled by one horse, will cut a large two-horse cart load in the short space of three minutes. Any waste too is pre- vented by the turnips being sliced in the most con- venient size for the cattle, so as to ensure their being all eaten clean up. They are given one portion in the morning, and the remainder in the alternoon, the cake immediately after the servants' dinner. These times being not only the most proper, but the most convenient for giving the food in the shortest space of time, so that all the beasts may have chance alike. The regularity too prevents the anxious lowing of the cattle in expecta- tion of their dailj' supply. The cakes and turnips are given in square cribs or tumbrils, each divided into four compartments, and kept perfectly clean and sweet. The water is supplied in a large stone ti-ough in each yard, from a pond or reservoir on a rather elevated situation in a field adjoining the yards. It is conveyed by pipes, and the supply regulated by a floating ball, attached to a valve by a beam or lever. As the water sinks below a certain level, the ball is depressed, and the valve at the other end of the lever consequently raised, and a fresh supply admitted. Thus a constant supply of the very best kind of water is alwavs maintained without labour or expense, othei- than that of first fixing the apparatus. The beasts are of the short-horned breed, and the excellence of their quality is a sufficient evidence that great care and judgment are required to select them in a countr)"^ not proverbially famous for its su- perior breed of cattle. As may naturally be supposed, these beasts, after being wintered in the manner before described, are in a state to be soon fit for the butcher. On leaving the straw-yard, they are taken to a track of rich grazing ground adjoining the occupier's residence, at Scarbro, near Beverley, imd there made up and all disposed of before INIidsummer, when from their prime condition, and the time being between that when the generality of winter and that of grass fed beasts are brought to market, they command the very best of i)rices. In fold-yards of this magnitude, and where so much cattle food is daily distributed, there must ne- cessarily be scatterings which aftbrd keeping for"a considerable number of pigs. This kind of stock is not neglected, 70 or 80 of them are kept in these yards during the winter, of a size and quality but rarely equalled, and which tends also materially to forward the process of turning the straw into manure. The yards immediately on the beasts being taken out are emptied of the manure, which after being once or twice turned, is nearly all laid on the seeds for wheat. The manure from this large number of stock, and tiie manner of their keeping is of course extremely rich and fertilizing, and accounts in some degree for the abundant crops for which this farm is reniarkable. The Draught horses (except those for the team, which are somewhat heavier) are of the well-known Yorkshire coaching breed, being chiefly selected from such as tluongh some slight blemishes or de- fects, are not eligible for the London markets. They are found to be more serviceable on land of tliis de- scription than the heavy blacks, for besides being equal to them in constitution and powers of endur- ance, they are superior in point of (nictufti/iti/ and ac- tivity. They are fed almost entirely from the manger ; an unrestricted allowance of cut oat sheaves with oats mixed, together with a little cut hay, forming the almost unvaried mixture of their food. Cows are kept only of necessity, for the purpose of supplying milk, &c., for the household. The buildings and homestead at Swaythorpe, with the exception of the house, which is small, are ex- tensive and well arranged. The stables and chafi- houses on the north ; the barns and cart-sheds on the west ; tlie open ebeds chiefly on the east ; and the T 2 270 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cow-houses, piggeries, tool-bouse, slaughter-house, &c., oa the south. The utmost order and regularity- are observed in all the appointments, indeed there seems to be a place for everything, and everything in its place. The grass land, as said before, consists of 170 acres, of which not more than 20 acres are mown in each year, and the hay given partly to the ewes in the lambing time, and the other sheep when circum- stances render it necessary. The remainder of the grass land has, for a long succession of years, been eaten by sheep, which togetlier with frequent dress- ings of manure and compost, has made this land pro- ductive of a short weW set herbage almost peculiar to itself, carrying nearly all the year round an un- usual quantity of breeding or holding stock. The sheep stock at Swaythorpe consists of 450 ewes, and their two years' produce. The wethers, and others intended to be fed, are shorn once, fat- tened, and disposed of early in the following spring. Sometimes, when the quantity of keeping, or the markets seem favourable, they are shorn a second time, and sold immediately afterwards. The cutting of turnips is commenced for the hogs immediately oa their being put upon them, and the quantity cut is increased as the sheep become accustomed to the eating of them in this manner, until it amounts to one-half or two-thirds of what they require. In the spring, when on the Swedish, the whole is cut for them. About half a pound of linseed cake eacli per day is also given them ; or sometimes a little barley instead. They are supplied, too, with a small por- tion of hay, when beginning the turnips, in order to counteract the injurious effects which the succulent and watery nature of that food has tendency to pro- duce. The sheep at Swaythorpe are deserving of notice ; Mr. Hall and his predecessors having been for many years well-known breeders of rams. The stock are consequently superior to what are possessed by com- mon farmers : they are descended from the Leices- ter, with judicious crosses from the best Yorkshire breeds. They seem to possess good constitution, size, and symmetry, with plenty of excellent wool, and aptitude to fatten. They are in considerable re- quest, particularly with those, who, from too strict an adherence to fine breeding, have acquired an over-delicacy of frame and constitution. One recom- mendation they eminently possess — a recommenda- tion of too great a rarity — they have no extravagant or improper keeping, and are therefore more useful and valuable to the breeders who may have them. When sheep are kept in their natural state, as these are, there is less deception in their appearance — they are more healthy and active, and better able to undergo the fatigue of following the ewes in the season. It is now, unfortunately loo common to see rams pampered for twelve months previous to the show- day, with a most prodigal abundance of the most fat- tening ingredients that the ingenuity and experience of the breeder can devise, thev are brought to the show-ground disguised under a load of superfluous fat. They are engaged by the farmer six or eight weeks previous to tlie time when he wants to use them, who then finds it necessary to reduce them as it is called — a work of no great difficulty, by the way, for having long been fed on savoury meat in tlic most tempting and seductive manner, they make but feeble efforts to obtain their living like other sheep, and by a change from the most sumptuous fare to compara- tive gaol allowance, the work of reduction is easily accomplished. But what is the consequence? In- stead of being, when put to the ewes, in a healthy and vigorous state, they are weakened and relaxed — their generative powers are enfeebled — and, proba- bly, after a little exertion, they become sickly, lame, or disordered in some way or other ; for there is scarcely a disease that mutton is heir to, which is not engendered by this preposterous way ot' keeping. Need we wonder, then, at the innumerable complaints of deteriorated, defective, and impotent rams ! The wonder is, that the effects are not ascribed to their proper cause. The breeders of sheep doubtless find the account in thus encumbering them, for fat, like charity, covers a multitude of defects. But a lasting stigma must attach to the judgment of those who hire or purchase rams, so long as the breeders are under the necessity of masking them under a load of fat, at an extra expense of 2L or 31, per head, by which they are rendered of 21. or 31. per head less value, in order to ensure a demand for them. These observations are not made with a view of puffing one breed of sheep at the expense of another, but only for the purpose of reprobating a system so disgracefully and palpably injurious to all parties concerned. The meadows at Swaythorpe receive frequent dressings of lime compost, and manure, and produce very ample crops, which, from being generally spring eaten, and the bleak and exposed situation, are com- monly cut late in the season. The management of the fences is not the least re- markable feature in the system of farming at Sway- thorpe. The neatness and regularity of these cannot fail to attract the attention of the most careless ob- server of rural affairs. They were formerly exceed- ingly bad. Of late years many of them have been replaced with young wood, and the remainder so carefully trained and remodelled, as to make them scarcely distinguishable from the new. They are from four to five feet in height, and are plashed every year in what is termed the hog-maned fashion, that is, from three to four feet wide at the bottom, and regularly tapering to a point or ridge, in the form of the capital letter A. This both reason and experience have long since decided to be the most proper mode of cutting fences, as the lower part is not then overhung, or injured by droppings from the upper. All parts have then an equal chance of putting out young shoots, and the fence is preserved full and uniform from bottom to top. The plashing is done with the utmost exact- ness, so much so that it may almost be said, there is not one perceptible inch of deviation from accurate straightness, in any fence of the greatest or shortest length ; which g-ives a remarkably neat finish to the ap[)earance of the farm. A person not used to wit- ness so much, and such well-kept quickwood, might suppose it to be attended with an extraordinary la- bour and expense ; this however is not tlie case. The operator will go over them with surprising facility and despatch, habit having seemingly made it more difficult for him to do his work ill than well. The gates are in good order, and made more in the useful thiin the ornamental style. The ponds are chiefly artificial as is common on the wolds, being circular; lined with well tempered anil impervious clay; and covered with small broken chalk. The minor features of the system pursued at Sway- thorpe, are on the same liberal scale, and distin- guished by the same regard for neatness and regu- larity. Indeed the apostolic injunction, " let all things be done decently and in order," seems here to be duly appreciated, so far as the general appoint- ments of the farm go. One thing however tends materially to promote this regularity. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 271 The servants t»rii not men of yesterday ; having most of them biren for a long period in the same ser- vice. Each man therefore knows his work, and can do it. This reflects credit equall}' on master and man. We too frequently hear coin]il;\iiits of the idleness and negligence of servants, that ihey are proiligate and extravagant, that no good ones are to be found, &c. But these constantly recurring complaints should be listened to with a suspicion that the faults are not all on one side. Nature, in compounding the liuinan race, did not put all the christian virtues into the composition of masters and mistresses. As far as a natural regard for honesty and inte- grity, and a proper sense of the various duties and obligations of man to man are concerned, it is but fair to presume, that both parties, in the aggregate, are constituted alike. That there will be bad mas- ters as well as bad servants, and good servants as well as good masters, is certain. A good servant may not distinguish himself as such when serving an indifferent master, his abilities and willingness are not properly called forth, but good masters make good servants, and bad ones are seldom suited. It must not be understood that this report pro- ceeds from any authorised source, such is not the case ; it is compiled from information gathered by a stranger, on a casual visit in the neighbourhood, and by a personal inspection of the farm. In conclusion, it may be observed, that from the present appearance of the farm, a cursory observer might suppose it to be land of a first-rate quality, but the fact is otherwise, as might be proved if ne- cessary. The appearance and remarkable produce of it, is more the result of a continued course of superior management, than of the natural quality and pro- ductiveness of the soil. It is not intended to be inferred that perfection in ever}'^, or in any part of the process of farming, is to be seen on tliis farm; perfection in the details of farming as well as other things, like the bird of pa- radise, is oftener talked about than seen. But this may be said of every farmer who may have an op- portunity of visiting Swaythorpe, should do so, and after seeing the system pursued there, should go home with a fixed determination to do likewise ; ninety-nine out of every hundred of such visitors would become better managers than they are at pre- sent. And if all the soils in this kingdom were culti- vated in the same spirited and liberal manner, ac- cording to their resj)ective qualities, it mav be safely asserted that the national produce would be nearly, if not fully doubled, from what it is at present. Such however is the spirit of enterprise that is now animating the agricultural population of this country, consequent on the establishment of innu- merable agricultural associations, and the general spread of intelligence. Sucii is the aid which the scientific en(]uirer is giving to the practical husbandman, by unveiling to him the principles of germination and vegetation, — the nature and food of plants — the properties, ferti- lity, and adaptation of the various soils and ma- nures. In short, such is the march of intellect which is now in progress among that class of men, who have hitherto been behind every other in the pursuit of knowledge and information, that we may confidently expect to see, if destined to live one short half-cen- tury longer, such an improvement in the system of tilling and grazing the soils of this country tiiat their produce will be increased beyond anything that the most credulous of our fore-fathers could have be- lieved. Tlien shall we see the problem of " Is or is not this country capable of jjroducing a sufficiency of food for the whole of its jjopulation," practically solved, 'i'heu shall we see the inhuman and impious doctrines of JMalthus and our population — of W il- mot, Horton, and emigration, (or expatriation,) re- futed and exploded. Our legislators may then be sensible of the re- proach which they have merited, by listening to, and adopting schemes so utterly repugnant to every principle of justice, and natural rights, and so dia- metrically opposed to the Divine Ordinances. They may then be induced to rejiudiate the chimerical doctrines of reciprocity and free trade, and to legis- late on the principle that Britain is not so much dependent on commerce, but that Agricidture is the grand source of National Wealth. Feb. 18, 1839. A. W. THE ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. TO T«E EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Is it in your power to obtain from tlie Secretary of the English Agricultural Society decisive information as to whether cross-bred sheep will be admitted in competition in either, and which class at the ensuing Oxford Meeting? I have been kindly favoured with the individual opinion of tiie Secretary, but I think the intention of the Society should be officially made known on this point, as it will require no little care and expense to bring animals to the " scratch" under the present rules and regulations, of which in so far as rei;ards the sheep, I, with the great majority of my brother farmers, very much complain. There is no restriction as to feeding — even the shearling ewes, or ewes with lambs ; every one knows what a complete revolution corn or cake will effect in the appearance of an animal. So much so that the fellows of those bred and fed on arable land ('as seven-tenths of the most useful sheep are) \vhen corned, would scarcely be believed to belono- to the same species — therefore I contend they are not shewn with their true and natural qualities. It may be urged in answer to this objection, that all may feed with corn or cake if they choose, but tenant farmers, men who have their livelihood to get by the business, cannot indulge in these fancies — and if they were to do so, what criterion of the general merits, or natural characteristics of the Plampshire, Wiltshire, er Sussex stock, which are necessarily a folding sheep, is there to be gathered from the exhibition of five ewes or lambs — cooped up in a shed from Christmas, until the lastjbreath of winter has passed away, and crammed with all sorts of forcing artificials'? There are now, vrithin twelve miles of me, two individuals, preparing their Down sheep in this very manner for the (Jxl'ord shew, whose stock at home, will bear about as much comparison to those exhibited, as a Jersey cow does to a Christmas Smilhfield ox ; it is a piactice. Sir, which will be condemned, una, voce, by all jiracticai men, and all rules sanctioning it, ought to be blotted out the books of a Society;, professedly established for the encouragement of " a profitable system of agriculture." It may do very well for noblemen or gentlemen with parks, or their bailiffs, who have deep pockets to draw from, but it will deter many a practical agriculturist from exhibiting his stock, and 272 THE FAPtMER'S MAGAZINE. what is worse lead to erroneous decisions, for the Judges do not lire, how grreat soever their experience, who will not be cither deceived or baffled by loads of unnatural tallow. It is very much regretted in this part of thw country, that the grand day at Ox- ford is fixed for the one immediately preceding the great sheep and lamb fair at Overton, the largest, with the exception of Weyhill, in England. All the most celebrated breeders in Hants and Wilts make this their shew-da^r, on which occasion it will be evident their presence at home is indispensable ; added to which nearly the whole of the graziers from the counties of Oxford, Bucks, Burks, Hertford- sliire and Cambridge, make a poiiit of attending this fair, to buy in tlieir lambs or ewes, so that this meet- ing, which seems lo have been fixed to take place at Oxford, for the especial benefit and accommoda- tion of these counties, will in a great measure fail of the intended purpose, unless it can be so arranged that the day may be altered. I am, Sir, Yours respectfully, J.T. TWYNAM. Whitchurch, Hants, March, 6, ON BREEDING STOCK. In observing that llie exertions of agricultural societies generally, have hitherto been directed to the feeding rather than the breeding of s\.ock, we would not be tliought to underrate the importance of liie former object. \N hilst, however, we are wil- ling to award his full desert of yiraise to ihe feeder, we cannot lose sight of the important fact, tlut he can only be successful in proportion to the aptitude for feeding which the animal upon which he exercises his skill possesses. Consider- able judgment is unquestionably requisite to enable a purchaser to predicate what m.iy be the disposition of animals to feed, by the usual mode of inspection and handling : but in our estimation, the skill and judgment wliich the breeder must possess to enable him to prosecute with success his particular department, far exceeds tliat required by liie feeder. To encourage skill in breeding — to record the principles upon which it rests, and to diffuse the knowledge of those principles as widely as possible, is an object of ])aramount importance. Coarse, ill-shaped animals, wanting in those qualities which evince a disposition to feed kindly, and lay on flesh, in those points whicli render the carcase most valuable, will consume as much food in the rearing as those of a superior character, and wiien ihey meet the eye of the experienced purchaser in the market, if not neglected altogether will realize much less tiian the more perfect animal. Hence there is not only a positive loss to the breeder by having wasted his food upon on animal which fetches him less money, but also a deficiency cre- ated in the amount of marketable produce which might have been made available, a larger quantity of food than necessary having been consumed in juoducing a given quantity of meat. In perusing lately the Rules and Regulations of the .Tersey Agticnltur.xl Society, we were particuhirly struck with one part of tiie instructions laid down for the guidance of tiie judges in awarding the prizes of- fered by that Society. There is a "scale of points" or certain points of perfection fixed upon, of which it is necessary that the animal should possess a cer- tain number to be considered deserving of a prize. The widely different character of the .Tersey breed of cattle would necessarily render tiie particular points enumerated inapplicable as a whole to our breeds ; but we are of opinion that if a " scale of points" applicable to our leading breeds of cattle were arranged in the same manner, not so much for the guidance of judges in awarding prizes at agricultural meetings, they being supposed to be perfectly acciuainied with them, but for general dis- triI)ntion amongst the farmers, who are less skilful in the knowledge of good slock, it would be productive of much good. As a sort of table in the hands of youth, it would fix upon the mind, and direct attention at once to tiiose " points," in acquiring a knowledge of which they may be as much indebted to chance as to assistance from the experience of others. We subjoin the " scale of points" for Jersey cattle, and if any of our readers would favour tis with a scale upon a similar plan, applicable to Sliort-IIorns, Ilerefords, and Devons respectively, we should esteem it a favour. The subjoined " scale of points" has especial reference to the capability of producing butler and I'lilk : these, of course, are not the " points" of excellence lo be set forth as applicable to all our English breeds. SCALE OF POINTS FOR BULLS. Points. Art. I. — Purity of breed on male and female sides, reputed for havinsj produced rich and yellow butter 4 IL — Head fine and tapering:, cheek small, muzzle fine and encircled with white, nostril high and oi)en, horns i)olished, crumpled, not too tliick at the base, and tapering, tipped with black, ears small, of an orange colour within, eye full and hvely 8 in. — Neck fine, and lightly placed on the shoulders, chest, broad, barrel hooped and deep, well rib- bed home to the hips 3 IV. — Back, straight from the withers to the setting ou of the tail, at right angles to the tail. Tail, fine, hansring two inches below the hock 3 V. — riide, thin and moveable, mellow, well covered with soft and fine hair of a good colour 3 VI. — Fore firm, large and powerful, legs short and straight, swelling and full above the knee, and fine below it 2 VII. — Hind quarters from the huekle lO the point of the rump, long and well filled up ; the legs not to cross behind in walking 2 VIII.-^Growth 1 IX. — General appearance 2 Pebfection 28 No prize to be awarded to a Bull having less than 20 poists. SCALE OF POINTS FOR COWS AND HEIFERS. Art. I. — Breed, on male and female sides reputed for producing rich and yellow butter 4 II. — Head, small, fine and tnpering, eye, full and lively. Muzzle fine and encircled with white, horns polisiied and a little crumpled, tipped with black, ears small, of an orange colour within . . 8 III. — Back strait from the withers to tiie setting on of the tail, chest deep and nearly of a line with the belly 2 IV^. — Hide, thin, moveable, but not too loose, well covered with fine and soft hair of good colour. . 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 273 Points. v.— Barrel hooped and deep, well ribbed home, having- but little space between the ribs and hips, tail, fine, hanging' two inches below the hock 5 VI. — Fore legs, strait and fine, thighs full and long, close together when viewed from behind ; hind legs short and bones ratiierfine; hoof, small; hind legs not to cross in walking 2 VII. — Udder, full, well up behind ; teats, large and squarely placed, being wide apart ; milk veins, large and swelling 4 VIII.-Growth 1 IX. — General appearance 2 Perfection FOR Cows 30 Two points shall be deducted from the number re- quired for perfection on heifers, as their udder and milk veins cannot be fully develoTjed. A heifer will there- fore be considered perfect at 28 points. No prize shall be awarded to cows, or heifers, having less than 21 points. opposition, whether arising from misconception or pre- judice, or dislike or fear, we never could understand. Neither his lectures, nor the honerarium which accom- panies them, is in the slightest degree interfered with or at hazard ; while his colleagues have expressed their ap- probation of the proposed extension of veterinary instruc- tion, and the demonstrator, highly to his honour, is already working on the plan. No opposition will now be of avail ; and by far the most prudent measure would be to make a merit of granting that which can no longer be refused." THE ENGLISH CIETY AND COLLEGE. AGRICULTURAL SO- THE VETERINARY The importance of the Veterinary science to agriculture induces us to regard our friend the Editor of the Veterinarian as a fellow labourer in the same field. The number of this periodical for March excels in the amount and character of the articles which it contains. We are happy to per- ceive by the observations on the establishment of Agricultural Schools that he coincides with us in the importance of inculcating in the youthful mind the principles to be afterwards carried out by prac- tice in the pursuit of his occupation. We had hoped that, ere this, some effective steps would have been taken to complete the arrangement proposed by the English Agricultural Society, of co-operating with the Veterinary College in adopting means for better instructing the students in the knowledge of tlie diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs. We regret exceedingly that any person should be found to offer opposition to an object of such immense im- portance to the practising veterinarian himself — to the agriculturist — and to the public at large. We subjoin Mr. Youatt's remarks on the subject from the leading article of the " Veterinarian." " No conference, we believe, has yet taken place be- tween the Governors of the Royal Veterinary College and the Directors of the English Agricultural Society ; but only a short space of time can now elapse before the primary arrangement will take place. 'J'he precise na- ture of that arrangement we protess not to know ; but it will be worthy of the honourable men who will meet in consultation— it will be worthy of the Agricultural So- ciety and of the Ve'erinary School. While no existing interests will be compromised— but far the contrary — those preliminary steps will, doubtless, be taken which will secure the full accomplishment of the noble objects so important to both parties. "There, surely, will be no objection,— there can be no well-founded one— to tlie completion of the original, but too long neglected jjurijopes of the veterinary school, and which would be so welcome and advantageous to every one connected with tlie:igriculture of the country. We anticipate but one opponent ; and the ground of his ANSWERS TO QUERIES ON ITALIAN RYE GRASS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK I.ANE EXPRESS. Sir, — An answer to the Queries on Italian rye grass. Query 1st, — Will it do to sow in the spring with a crop of barley or other grain, as we now sow the common rye grasi^ Answo', — It will. Query 2nd, — With or without a mixture of clover seed ? Answer, — Whether sown for feed or seed, some Dutch clover or trefoil will help to fill up any vacant spaces, improve the crop, and not injure the rye grass. Query 3rd, — Would there not be danger of its getting- up so high as to injure the crop of barley, and would it not smother the clover in the first year of seeds'? Answer, — It will not get high enough to injure a crop of barley or other grain with which it is sown, nor will it smother the clover in the first year of seeds ; it is more likely to draw the clover or trefoil up with very fine stems, but it coiues too early for the clovers in use as a mixture for hay. Query 4th, — Is it an annuol. a biennial, or a triennial ? Answer, — It is considered as the old stools die in iho second light soils. Query 5th, — Is it a fit grass to mix with others for a permanent pasture! Answer, — No; but it will do very well to mix with other seeds when fed oft' and ploughed up in alternate husbandry. Query 6th, — Would it be better to sow it alone ? Answer, — Yes, if for seed, except sowing a small quantity of Dutch clover or trefoil to fill up the vacant places if any, and which will improve the feed after the crop is mown. Query 7th, — Will it do to mow for hay and also to graze 1 Ansioer, — It will do for both, but for hay it should be cut early. Query 8th, — What description of soil is it bes: adapted for? Answer, — Good deep loams that retain moist- ure, though in favourable seasons it will a large re- turn on light land. Query 9th, — Will it succeed on strong land with a retentive subsoil? Answer, — It will very well indeed, if sown in good season and the land in proper order. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, G. K. a perennial, but or third year on 274 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. A TABLE Contaiaing the Average Annual and Decennial Prices of Wheat in England from the year 1770 to 1838, both inclusive: also similar Averages of the Price of Wheat at Dantzic, from 1770 to 1S26; Vfith the diflference in price between England and Dantzic: also the Annual and Average Annual Excess of Im- ports above Exports of Wheat into Great Britain, from 1770 to 1838; together with the State of the Laws regulating tlie Trade in Wheat during the same period, Winchester measure is intended up to 1826 and imperial measure afterwards. 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 Average. 1780 1781 17S2 1783 17S4 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 Average. 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 , 1799 Average, 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 Average, 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 Per Qr. in England. E. 41 47 d. 4 2 50 8 51 0 52 8 48 4 38 45 42 0 33 S 45 0 35 S 44 8 47 10 52 8 48 10 51 10 38 10 41 2 45 0 51 2 45 9 53 2 47 2 41 9 47 10 50 8 72 11 76 3 52 2 50 4 66 11 55 11 110 5 115 11 67 9 57 1 60 87 76 73 78 11 94 5 82 2 Average. 103 3 92 5 122 8 106 6 72 1 63 8 76 2 94 0 83 8 72 3 88 8 Ditto at Dantzic. s. a. 23 4 31 6 33 8 35 8 32 1 33 11 27 6 22 4 23 9 21 10 28 6 19 4 24 9 26 3 27 5 28 10 30 29 29 29 43 8 28 9 40 31 29 0 32 0 36 0 57 9 54 33 32 10 46 10 39 4 Differ- ence. 73 9 78 11 53 5 46 3 53 3 69 10 58 6 42 10 59 7 53 4 36 3 47 46 57 4 75 8 64 43 53 0 s. d. 18 0 15 8 17 0 15 20 14 10 23 18 11 10 16 6 16 4 19 11 21 25 20 0 21 S 9 8 12 0 15 11 7 6 17 0 12 10 15 8 12 9 15 10 14 S 15 2 22 0 19 17 20 16 7 36 8 37 0 14 4 10 10 7 2 17 3 18 3 51 7 22 7 49 11 56 2 Quarters Imported. Export. Export. 18,515 49,220 273,321 469,951 Export. 145,637 Export. Export. 43,166 Export. 56,845 Export. 532,240 127,659 Export. Ditto. Ditto. 65,739 Export. 23,350 191,665 398,430 Export. 413,529 172,584 294,954 854,521 407,242 336,939 423,823 321,609 1,242,507 1,396,359 498,359 297,145 398,067 842,879 270,776 379,833 Export. 424,709 574,751 18 19 1 28 6 35 8 1,491,341 238,366 244,385 425,559 681,333 225,263 1,020,949 1,503,518 122,133 595,284 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 38.35 1836 1837 18SS 1839 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 Average. Average. Per Qr. in England, 65 10 54 5 43 3 51 9 62 0 66 6 56 11 56 9 60 5 66 3 58 5 64 3 66 4 58 S 52 11 46 2 39 I 48 6 55 10 64 4 61 1 Ditto at Dantzic. 33 31 29 26 8 22 9 23 23 Differ- enc 27 1 32 7 22 10 14 2 25 1 39 3 43 3 33 10 31 4 Quarters Imported. 34,274 2 12,137 15,777 525,231 315,892 572,733 842,050 1,364,220 368,231 1,701,855 1,491,631 325,435 82,346 64,653 28,483 200,000 1,500,000 17701 STATE OF THE LAW. to > Under 48s. perqr. a bounty of .5s. on exportation. 1773 J 17741 Under 44s. a bounty of 5s. on exportation. to /-Above 44s. exportation prohibited. 1792 J Above 48. importation at 6d. u quarter. {Under 44s. a bounty of 5r: on exportation. Under 46s. exportation without bounty. Under 50s. importation at 24.s. a quarter. Under 54s. ditto at 2s. 6d. a quarter. Above 54s. ditto at 61I. a quarter. {Under 50s. a bounty of 5s. on exportation. Under 54s. exportation without bounty. Under 63s. importation at 24s. 3d. a quarter. Under 66s. ditto at 2.s. 6d. a quarter. Above 66.S. ditto at 6d. a quarter. J ""1 Under 80s. importation prohibited. ,i2„ I Above 80s. importation allowed. ^1 Under 70s. importation prohibited. ift9ft I Above 70s. importation at 17s, a quarter. Since 1828 the present scale varying with the price. Dividing the 69 years comprised in the preceding Table into three equal periods of the 23 years before the French war, the 23 years of the war, and the 23 rears since, the following results appear : — Average per Qr. Ditto at Dantzic. Differ- Average Annual Excess of in England. ence. Imports above Exports. s. d. s. d. s. d. 1770—1792 .. 45 8 29 4 16 4 42,495 1793—1815 .. 78 3 50 1 28 2 502,778 1816— 183S.. 61 1 .. 519,709 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 275 ON THE CHEAPEST AND MOST EFFICIENT MODE OF SURFACE OR FURROW-DRAINING. The conviction is now fast gaining ground among agriculturists that surface or furrow drain- ing is tlie first and best improvement that can be made on soils possessing a retentive substratum, in numerous instances repaying the outlay in the first year, by the additional crop of grain or grass produced where very little grew before, and also that land so effectually drained can be worked at less exi)ense, and in seasons when it would have been almost impossible to get on it without injury to the succeeding crop. The great expense of draining considerable quantities of land in any of the present known methods no doubt prevents many from beginning such a beneficial improve- ment, it therefore appears desirable that experi- ments should be entered into by practical farmers to ascertain what improvements can be made in draining, both as regards economy and durability. The cheapest method practised in this neighbour- hood is called clay-draining, which is lo cut the top sod about three inches thick and lay it on one side, then another graft taken out, following with a narrower tool which takes a cut from the centre of the opening, which leaves a shouldering on each side, on these shoulderings the top sod is laid leaving the narrow channel underneath six or eight inches in depth for the water course, the drain is then filled in. Another method which is more durable than the last is to fill ten or twelve inches of a taper cut drain with thorns ; the best thorns for the purpose, if they can be procured, is the black- thorn, or sloe-bearing-thorn, which will remain sound in the earth for some years, the whitethorn or hawthorn soon decaying. The next best drain is that made either with peb- bles or other kinds of stones broken, that part where the stones are put in being cut with a taper tool and filled with stones six or eight inches in depth, putting a little straw or stubble on the top before filling in, to prevent the mould running into the stones ; this kind of drain (where the mate- rials are near at hand) is the cheapest and most permanent of either of the drains mentioned. Tile draining has been practised in this county for many years but chiefly for deep draining. The usual mode of laying them has been to put them in with- out soles or only a small piece of flat tile under the ends, this might have answered tolerably well in deep drains and where there is a continual stream of water passing through, but in shallower drains or where they are only required occasionally to take off the surface water, they soon become filled with earth cither by the sinking of the tile, by moles filling them up, or by the expansion of the earth iatp the tiles from the treading above, there- fore, to put in tiles for surface draining without using f)ai tiles entirely underneath is to throw away the heavy expense of the tiles and the labour of cutting and filling the drains, as they become useless in a very few years. Where landlords find the tiles, or contribute to any part of the expense, they ought to be very par- ticular that the draining should be done in such a ^vay that it maybe ajjermaneni improvement to their estates, as the outlay for effectual draining of land is very considerable in our present methods of draining, and requires the utmost vigilance in overlooking the work in progress. I am convinced that vast sums of money have been expended in this county so carelessly or ig- norantly that millions of tiles are now lying in the land completely useless, and the land in want of effectual draining as much as ever. Occupying land requiring to be thoroughly drained (if farmed to any profit) I have been some years considering how to attain that object in the most effectual manner, and at the least expense, at the same time to makeit a permanent improvement ; I now (after three years experience) flatter myself I have succeeded in making a tile-drain much cheaper and more durable than any I have ever seen or heard of. I shall now detail the method I am making use of, hoping that some intelligent agriculturist or scientific mechanic may invent a machine to manu- facture the tiles at considerably less cost, that tile drains (being the most permanent) may supersede by their cheapness every other kind. The kind of tile I am now using is a perfect tube, a foot in length, with a bore or opening of two and a-balf inches, and some of larger bore for cross and main drains. They are remarkably strong as may be supposed from their circular form, there- fore stand carriage or pressure much better than the common arched tiles. The best way of making drains with them is first to dig out a spit of earth, say eight inches in depth, then turning the tool sideways take out ten inches more, making the cut taper down to the width of the tile in the bot- tom, then with a scoop clean out the crumbs of earth. A rammer, (with a peg four inches long, standing out near the bottom) takes up the tile, and lowering it into the drain is then used to hit up the tile endways to the one laid before, and afterwards firm it down level in its bed — the cut being made to fit the tile exactly, it is now so firm that nothing can displace it, it being in the firm subsoil, therefore the drain may now be filled by raking in the earth with a three pronged fork si- milar to those used to draw out manure from carts, or any other way that will make the greatest dis- patch. Now to suppose that there is no objection made by some persons to these kind of tiles, would be to exempt them from what occurs to every new im- plement of agriculture when first brought forward. The only objection made to them is, that they are not likely to admit the water from the surface sulhciently quick, having the opening at the ends only, but experience proves the contrary ; the ends of the tiles being rough and uneven leaves plenty of opening for the admission of water, although put as close as possible ; added to which there arefour of those joints in every yard, and the tile being smooth inside, the water meets with no impediment but discharges itself very fast. I never find them stop or the water remain any longer on the surface than the arched-tile drains which I have placed alternately to test them. I will give an instance or two to show how well they succeed. I drained the lower part of a field in 1836 (a wheat fallow) with drains 110 yards long, an ascent of considerable elevation and length remained undrained at the upper part of tiie field, from whence a great quantity of water runs down on the drains in rainy weather, the drains take the whole of the water as fast as it comes, both from the surface and the acclivity above. The field was in clover last year and is now planted with wheat. The drains are perfect, and that part of the field which was the worst is now the most valuable; the soil and subsoil is of a very retentive quality. I also drained a field, the soil of which is blue lias-clay, a more retentive or adhesive soi 276 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cannot be found in the kingdom ; in a partially -wet state it cannot be ploughed except with a plough entirely made of wood. The drains on this field have worked admirably for three years, the furrows are now drier than the tops of the ridges were before. There is still a greater proof of these kinds of tiles answering well, which is that my neighbours were prejudiced against them until they were per- suaded to try them ; ihey are now using them ge- nerally in preference to the common tilee, although some drainers have endavouied to persuade their employers that they would not answer; their mo- tives were obvious, because these tiles are put in more simply and at much less expense. I think, by giving a section of a common tile-drain and a tube-tile drain, it will be very evident to the eye which of the two is best calculated to resist any injury from pressure or treading from the sur- face. Tube-lile drain. Arch-tile drain. - r ^-^ o •^ % f, f ^ / f " -^ y ^\ o '^ -Q =J fc \ \ ^ The tubetiledrain above is in width at top eight inches, at the bottom four inches, the depth 18 inches. The soil six inches, and the subsoil 12 inches. The arch tile drain above is nine inches in width at top, and eight inches at the bottom, (being as narrow as they can be cut to admit a man to go into them to lay and back up the tiles) depth 18 inches, soles being laid under the arch tiles. It will appear from the difference in the form of the two drains that if a horse walks on the arch tile drain in wet weather, when the soil is tender, there is nothing but depth of soil to prevent his treading down to the tiles and breaking them, or displacing them on one side, or sending the soil down so firm round the tiles as to render them im- pervious to water. But the case would be widely differtnt in walking on the tube tile drain, this drain being taper and so narrow in the bottom the pressure would be lateral instead of perpendicular, which would prevent the foot from reaching near the tiles'; but even supposing it did, it would neither break the tiles, from their great strength, nor shift them out of place, from their being fitted firm in the subsoil. From what has been stated it will be evident that the tube tile drain may, with safety, be put much nearer the surface than the arch tile drain can or ought to be, and does not require above half the quantity of earth removed in the making. I have said before that the tube tile drains are cheaper than the common ones, there- fore shall proceed to show it in figures, as charged in this neighbourhood. £. s. d. lOOO Arch tiles 12 inches each, at 30s. per thousand 1 10 0 1200 Soles, 10 inches each, at 20s. per do. 1 4 0 2 14 0 1000 Tube tiles, 12 inches each, at 40s. per do 2 0 0 Saving by tubes.... 0 14 0 Cuttiug, laying, and filling^ up drains, per thousand, with arch tiles and soles 0 14 0 Do. do. with tube tiles 0 10 6 Saving in labour.... 0 3 6 Having written more on this subject than I first intended, I hope it has more clearly shown that this kind of draining is the cheapest, most efficient. and durable of any kind of tile draining yet prac- tised, and should a machine be invented to manu- facture the tiles at half the present cost, (which I think possible) the expense of furrow draining will be reduced within the reach of every farmer who has but a few years' interest in the land he cultivates, and who will, when he sees his intelli- gent neighbour reaping the advantage of such a beneficial improvement, awake from his lethargy and bestir himself to overtake the march of im- provement now rapidly going forward in agricul- ture, and which will be still farther required to make the cultivation of the soil a safe employment for capital. Through any agricultural society, or the " Farm- ers' Magazine," I shall have no objection to give any information on the subject, but cannot answer individual inquiries. A plough is constructing for cutting the drains, should it answer the purpose intended, it shall be communicated to the public at a future period. RICHARD SMITH. Upper Hall, Worcestershire. NITRATE OF SODA.— QUERY? Sir,— At this moment, when Parliament is about to deliberate upon meatures of such vast importance to the agricultural interest. I am aware the minds of practical men are too much engaged in matters of deep anxiety to attend to the details of practice ; but as times and seasons are above legii;lative controul, I trust some of your able readers will be kind enough to give me in- formation upon the merits of nitrate of soda, as a manure for spring com; the quantity required per acre, the proper mode of application, whether broadcast or by drill ; or, if mixed with soil, to be ground small, or to he dissolved, and tlie soil watered previous to drilling. 15y inserting the above query iu your widely circulated journal, you will g.reatly oblige yours, &c., AG RI GO LA. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 277 REPORT ON SUBSOIL AND TRENCH PLOUGHING. BV MR. ROBERT LAING,JUN.,CAMPEND, NEAR DALKEITH. (From the Quarterlii Journal of Agriculture.) There is not perhaps, in the present state of agri- culture, a subject of such general importance to tracts of thin clay lands, as the application of subsoil and trench ploughing, — the beneficial eifects on crops after these have been proper/v applied, but especially the former, being almost incredible. The soils to which these modes of ploughing are applicable are, in my opinion, the same ; as in no one instance have I found trencli ploughing, where draining and subsoil ploughing were not required, of the least advantage, excepting on deep dry loams ; on the contrary, when prosecuted on land where these two necessary accompnniments of all good farming had not preceded it, the consequences have been highly detrimental ; in short, trench ploughing re- quires to be used with the greatest care, as in most cases it will be beneficial only after the subsoil has been ameliorated by the admission of air and water into it by means of previous subsoil ploughing. I approve more of subsoil than trench ploughing ; not that the latter is unnecessary, but because the expense incurred by the previous indespensable operations of draining and subsoil ploughing renders it almost impossible for the means of a tenant to undertake it when he is not assisted by his landlord, as is loo often the case. I think it will generally be admitted that subsoil is more essential than trench ploughing, because its corresponding effects are greater. I am also of opinion, that subsoil ploughing is an indispensable accompaniment to furrow-draining ; and in my experience, I have found land to be more thoroughly dried after it (especially when there was any approach to clay in the subsoil,^ with a drain in every alternate furrow, than with a drain in every furrow without it ; in fact, in a stiff' clay subsoil, I liave seen drains of little service, the water for some time standing on the top of them till evaporated, while in the very next field which had been subsoil ploughed, there was an immense flow of water from every drain, and not a drop to be seen on the sur- face. I commenced subsoil plouahina: in the month of JVovember, 1836, a season it will be remembered, remarkable for its early winter; the ground having been covered with snow in October, and a succession of wet weather continuing during the whole season, rendered the circumstances under which I commenc- ed most unfavourable. The field in which opera- tions were commenced, consistinsr of ten Scottish acres, was at the time and during the whole opera- tions, so saturated with rain, that the horses' feet sunk in the unploughed ground from four to six inches, which showed that though there was a drain every alternate furrow, they had not yet drawn the water from the stiff' retentive subsoil. This cir- cumstance convinced me the more of the necessity of persevering in subsoil ploughing, which alone enabled me to accomplish my object of thoroughly drying the soil, despite of the "obstacle I bnd to over- come of the horses not working well together at first, increased by the wet state of the land, and not at all diminished by the unwillingness of the plough- men to proceed in a work which they denounced as nonsensical, and as doing " naelhing but hashing their horses." But since these operations were finished, so apparent have the benefits been from them, that the same men now think they cannot do enough of that kind of work ; so that last winter my bead ploughman, in addition to fifteen acros gone over, wanted to plough another field, which I would have assented to had it not been for the apprehension of rendering inefficient a great number of cross- drains tliat had been made several years ago under the old system of filling up with stones to the sur- face. Notwithstanding the disadvantages consequent upon the wet state of the field, the results have been of the most flattering description. Since the work has been finished little or no water has stood on the surface ; and in the spring of 1837, this field which was usually the last workable on the farm from its wetness, was the first; and it had the advantage of the land working like loam, when compared with the solid soured furrow that was wont to be turned up. The field was drilled with beans, and the crop fully realized my expectations, and I think established the advantage of subsoil ploughing ; for it produced 6 quarters per Scotch acre, which was at least one- fourth part of greater produce than it had ever be- fore yielded ; and I am confident that bad it not been for the subsoil ploughing, the crop must have been deficient ; because from the wet state in which the land would have been ploughed, and probably souring all winter, the case would have been the same as with the adjoining field the previous season. In 1838, the same field produced a good crop of wheat after beans which all stood till cut down, and was equally strong in the furrow as on the crown of the ridge. Oft" 2 acres '2 roods 21 falls, were thrashed 15§ quarters good, and § quarter second wheat, being nearly at the rate of 6 quarters per Scotch acre. This is considered in any season a good crop, but more especially in the present season, when the prevailing opinion is that the average of wheat over Scotland will not exceed 3 quarters per Scotch acre. November 1837 was more favourable to the pro- secution of subsoil ploughing than the winter of 1836, and an extent of 15 Scotch acres was subsoil ploughed. About ^ an acre of the field was ploughed in the usiinl way ; but so marked was the diff'erence in the bean crop, that on the part that was not sub- soil ploughed they were not only shorter, but not nearly so broad in the leaf, a pretty clear proof that they were not so luxuriant, and on every part of the field, in the furrows as well as on the intervening spaces, there was a very great crop. I have no hesitation in stating that the produce will be eight quarters per acre, which is nearly double what is usually produced in any year.but jiarticularly in this when the bean crop in this district and in East Lo- thiau has proved almost a failure. The half acre not subsoil ploughed was not a bad crop ; and I think it was benefitted from the land above and below it having been subsoil ploughed. Its breadth having been only about .50 feet, and lying transversely to the declivity, that operation I conceive, had acted as a drain to it both above and under its breadth. In 1838, ten acres were summer-fallowed and subsoil ploughed ; and I am so perfectly satisfied with the system, that I would recommend all land that has been furrow-drained, to be subsoil ploughed in the succeeding season, the one operation, in my opinion, being quite inefficient without the other. I have often been told by those who receive no assistance from their landlords, that it was easy for me to drain and subsoil plough. Certainly, great is the advantage of partaking of the liberality of my noble landlord. Lord Viscount Melville; but refusal fronj a landlord I hold to bp no excuse for a tenant 278 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, to neglect draining, because it will ultimntel}' advan- tage himself ; for example, it is the general prac- tice of all good farmers, for six miles round Edin- burgh, to give their land for green crops, 40 tons per Scotch acre of manure, which at os. per ton costs 101. per acre. Were land well drained, a better crop would be raised with i20 tons. Draining every thirty feet asunder, that is, 16 lo 'ds of 36 j'ards, at 5s, per rood, costs 41. per acre, which with 51., the price of 20 tons of manure, costs in all 91. per acre, which is a saving of 1/., antl at the same time the acquirement of a permanent improvement in the land. But al- though draining was to cost '21. per acre additional, I am certain the benefits resulting from the small quan- tity of manure, when ilie land is made dry, would be greater than those from double the quantity of ma- nure used on undrained land : and it requires no argument to prove which of the two operations would be t!ie more permanent in tlieir effects. It would however be much better for the land, and of course for both landlord and tenant, were a proper understanding on this subject established between tliem, as it is evident when a tenant can give the full quantity of manure it will be a mutual advantage ; but when lie is obliged to withhold part of that necessary ingredient for the purpose of ex- pending the money in draining which would have been laid out in the purchase of manure, the landlord may depend upon it the draining will be performed in such a temporary manner, as only to be of service to the tenant while his lease endures ; but were he to assist the tenant in making the drains complete and permanent, the tenant would be the better able to purchase manure and incur the additional expense of subsoil ploughing. It would be but fair, where a landlord assisted his tenant to the extent of two-thirds of the expense of draining, that an express under- standing were made, that the land drained should be subsoil ploughed the next season, or as soon after as circumstances permit. This arrangement would be of incalculable advantage to both landlord and tenant; and were all landlords to co-operate with their tenants in this manner, their property would not only sooner be put into the highest state of cultivation, but a uniform progressive system of maintaining the land in fertility would be pursued by the tenants. Such ameliorating and amicable engagements should form the subject of covenants in every lease, until the whole land in tiie country were thoroughly drained and subsoil ploughed. I have now stated all the facts in my own experi- ence of subsoil and trench ploughing ; and in con- firmation of what I have stated, I may adduce the successful efforts of Mr. Smith of Deanston, Mr. Stirling of Glenbervie in Stirlingshire, and other gentlemen whose sentiments and experience are quite in unison with my own.* I is unnecessary to enter into a lengthened detail of the efforts of Mr, Smith in successfully establish- ing the mode of performing subsoil plsughing, as these are well known to agriculturists through the pages of his pamphlet, published by IMessrs, Drum- mond of Stirling. I shall therefore only advert to an improved plan of attaching the horses to thr subsoil plough, the merit of which invention belongs to one of Mr, Smith's ploughmen. At this date, iStirpebruary 1839, twenty acres are about finished subsoil ploughing under the new nie- * I possess the names of gentlemen in Aberdeenshire, Ayrshire, Fifeslnre, Kinross-shire, Lanarkshire, Perth- shire, Stirlingshire, Cheshire, Cumberland county, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, and the county of Norilium- berlandj who have successfully practised subsoil plough- ing. thod of attaching the horses, which is so great a saving of labour, that three horses are found to do as much work as four did, previous to this new method being discovered. 'i'his new plan is, that the horses are yoked two and two, with a m-oster tree or main bar of the same length, but of twice the strength, as that used with the common plough ; two single or swing-trees or bars equally strong, are attached to it in the common way, and at each end oi the ttvo swing-trees is fixed a pulley : chains twenty feet in length are attached to the iiaim-hooks of the rear horses, and come back through the pulleys of the draught bars, and thence to the leading horses ; the leading horses require to be worked with the fore ends of common cart traces to which they must be attached. About two feet three inches from the collar of the rear horses a chain is required to keep the draught chains from their legs : pulleys fixed into two arms, eighteen inches long, answer better, as the chains by means of it, are also kept from their legs, and, while they work through the pulleys at the draught bars, also work tijrough them, This mode of yoking the horses has not only the great advantage of the horses working easier, but also of equalizing the draught and mak- ing the plough more easily held. In ploughing the twenty acres just mentioned, great advantages were derived from the muzzle or bridle of the common plough, invented by Mr. Stir- ling, and before alluded to. One great advantage of this invention is, that the horses going on the unploughed land, two work as easily as three did before; another great advantage is, that the new subsoil ploughed furrow is not trampled on at all. The bridle I have had in use is attached to a plough in the usual way , it measures from the ex- treme hole on each side nineteen inches, in which sjiace are eleven holes ; an inch and a half is required at each end, (making the total length twenty-two inches} to which inch and a half is attached a chain two feet long, the other end of which is fixed to the beam of the plough immediately before the coulter; this is required to strengthen the bridle from the an- gle the horses draw at, so as to givB the plough " less land." Having now completed an extent of fifty-five Scotch acres with the subsoil plough to the depth of from twelve to fifteen inches, the results are so satis- factory, that on none of the fields has a water-furrow been required to be drawn or cleared out. About four acres of a field noticed in a former part of this paper, as being summer fallowed in 1838, is so level on the surface, that before it was drained and subsoil ploughed, after being sown it required a man four days, at Is. tid. per diem, to clear out the cross water-furrows. It was so level that after a fall of rain the ridge furrows stood brimful! of water ; that same portion of land is laying at this present moment without a single furrow or cross water course of any description, and so water can be seen on the surface. This has been the case since it was sown with wheat in October 1838. Some opponents to subsoil ploughing advance as an argument, ^hat it will require to be often repeated. Tliis, the length of time since Mr. Smith and others have first used the subsoil plough, is sufiicient refu- tation ; but supposing it required to be repeated every rotation of cropjjing, no improvement of so nuicii importance can be made at so cheap a rate. As for example, in estimating the expense ef this opera- tion, the horses mav be charged at 3s. each, to cover tear and wear, &c., which will amount to 20s. The fur- row turned over being broad in proportion, four horses can accomplish a Scotch acre in ten hours, and when THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 279 it is considered that one such ploughing will save a furrow in spring, there may be deducted the cost of one such 10s., leaving 10s. to be charged against subsoil ploughing. Otliers whose object is to ])revent the introduction of subsoil ploughing, stale with ap- parent plausibility, that it is not gaining ground, and that many who have tried it have now tbeir plouglis laid aside never more to he used. There may be some who have done so from want of that patience and perseverance which all improvements at first re- quire ; but the question may be put, Did those who hare done so, previously drain their lands? If tliey did not, they acted wisely in not persisting. Others who have drained their land and found themselves equally unsuccessful, operated ignoiantly, for in place of subsoil ploughing at right angles to the drains, which is the proper mode, they ploughed parallel to them, and so did harm instead of good, because the water was thereby sent in a direction opposite to that of the drains. 'J"he opening of the subsoil in a tenacious clay on undrained land, makes one great pit for holding wa- ter over the whole field, which is a most destructive thing for cultivated plants. On this principle, ex- perience has taught the agriculturist on tenacious clays to follow a system of shallow ploughing ; but a single instance has not occurred to my observation of disappointment following subsoil ploughing per- forraed in a proper manner. Mr. Stirling is well known as an enterprising, per- severing, and successful improver of land ; and his estate shows the best results of thorough-draining and subsoil-ploughing. He is now quickly rooting out abundant crops of rushes, and substituting in their stead splendid crops of grain and luxuriant grass, on a soil, composed mostly of blue, tilly, tenacious clay, mixed with heavy stones, whose obstructionsrendered his operations a very arduous undertaking ; the result has been highly satisfactory, and perfectly conclusive of the benefits to be derived from these two expen- sive, but indispensable operations. The first field commenced with was drained every 18 feet, ploughed with the ordinary plough, and sown with oats, which were so bad, that they could scarcely be gathered to- gether. It was afterwards subsoil-ploughed, and next season sown with turnips, which were a fail crop. In the following season, it was sown with barley and grass- seeds, and these were luxuriant crops. This year, 1838, it has produced an abundant crop of oats. Mr. Stirling has gone over an extent of 50 acres with drains from 15 to 18 feet apart, all of which have been subsoil-ploughed. He has also found it to be of great advantage to put a subsoil-plough, of small dimen- sions, through his turnip-crop immediately before finishing the cleaning of them. Mr. Stirling has also the merit of inventing a muzzle or bridle for the plough that goes immediately before the subsoil-plough, by which the horses are enabled to go on the unploughed land, and obviates the injury caused by their feet trampling the furrow that has just been subsoil-ploughed. The small angle at which the horses have to draw, makes little difference in the draught, while the horse that worked in the furrow has now much firmer footing. The only diflference between the bridle just noticed and the common one is, that it is 18 inches in length, and otherwise comparatively larger, and from its con- struction the plough is enabled to get " less land." This is the bridle I have described. JMr. Melvin, Ratho Mains, on his farm of Bon- nington. Mid Lothian, has applied the subsoil-plough extensively, and is so satisfied of the advantage arising from it, that he is prosecuting it with vigour. The results may be given in his own expressive words, — of the 18th October 1838. — " As requested by you, I subjoin a detailed account of the effects from the use of the subsoil-plough on various descrip- tions of land. Having a field consisting of five acres (imperial) of light dry land, well adapted for turnip husbandry, and three acres of the same description of soil, rendered very wet from the stiff" stony clay which composed the subsoil, in pasture in 1835, and oats in 1836, and after having removed off" the latter crop from the ground, the damp subsoil of the field was ploughed 14 inches deep with Murray of Pol- niaise plough, drawn by three horses ,yoked abreast ; and the land being dry at the time, the trampling of the off-side horse was not injurious to the soil. The dry part of the field was ploughed fully a foot deep with the common plough; drawn with three horses abreast, which mixed an inch or two of sandy gravel with the soil. A crop of turnip was afterwards taken, followed with barley ; and in both crops, the part that was subsoil-ploughed was deficient ; in- deed, no benefit had arisen from its use, whilst the part that was trench-ploughed, was decidedly in- creased in fertility. " During the summer of 1837, a field of 22 acres, 18 of which consisted of a deep, soft, damp, soil, ly- ing on beds of sandy clay, variously mixed with gravel, was drained in the alternate furrows, with 2| feet deep drains, filled 14 inches with stones, broken to pass through a three-inch ring ; and, upon levelling the ridges, there were fully 18 or 20 inches of soil over the stones. The rest of tlie field, being- naturally drier, did not appear to stand so much in need of draining, and it was accordingly not drained. The whole field was subsoil-ploughed during July, t«-o descriptions of ploughs being used ; the four-horse plough of Smith, and the three-horse plough of Mur- ray. The greater size and weight of the four-horse plough proved most effective in raising out of the ground the land-fast stones ; but the three-horse plough went equally deep, and did as much work in the same time. The depth to which both reached was fully 16 inches, breaking up at least 6 inches of the subsoil ; f of an imperial acre a-day was the extent of the work executed ; and it cost about 128. per acre, exclusive of the first furrow thrown out with the com- mon plough. After sowing the land with wheat, the head-ridge furrows were cleared out as usual ; but since the subsoil-ploughing, I have not seen water run, or even stand, upon the drained part of the field. Some water lodged upon the undrained part at the breaking up of the snosv storm, in March 1838, but was soon all absorbed ; a cireumstanje the more re- markable, as the water furrows, before both the ope- rations, were very much hollowed out from the great currents of water that had run along them. A bulky crop of Talavera wheat has been secured from the field, all ready for the hook at the same time ; and not, as formerly, in patches, and some parts green, after the first portion was cut. The sown grasses are abundant and healthy, although retarded in growth, from the strength of the wheat crop. Much no doubt, of the improvement in the condition of this field is to be attributed to the draining ; still the quick absorption of the water in the furrows between the drains, (the land being cast), the decided improve- ment of the drier part, and the uniformly equal crop, sufficiently attest the merits of subsoil-ploughing. " A field of 1 2 acres consisting of stiff wet soil, ly- ing upon a cold retentive clay, had been sown with drilled beans in 1836 ; and upon their separation from the ground, was drained in every 27 feet, with a tile- drain 2^ feet deep, covered with gravel ; and a small stone drain, 33 inches deep, alternately, and sown with oats in 1837. After harvest, the field appeared 280 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. very little ameliorated with tlie drainage, tlie crop ripening very unequally. Tlie whole was subsoil- plouofhed to the depth of 16 inches. In the follow- ing November, a great many large stones turning up, and the subsoil being of a compact obdurate nature, each plough did not execute three quarters of an acre a-day. In April following, the condition of the land was materially altered, the rain having gradually found its way to the drains ; and upon plougliing it, instead of a sour stiff' furrow turning up, an open friable soil was exposed. So great, indeed, a change was eff"ected, as to induce the planting of potatoes (no green crop having ever been seen on it before^, the drills being drawn across the line of the ridges, and the natural declivity of the ground. The crop fully equalled my expectations, and the colour of the soil is changed from a grey weather-beaten hue to a rich brown. In a few of the original deep furrows, the potatoes did not succead, from not having been sufficiently filled up ; it being imperatively neces- sary, after land is drained and subsoil-ploughed, to have it laid perfectly flat. I have subsoil-ploughed about 30 acres since November last year, but having been fallowed during the summer, I have not seen its effect upon the crop. But, in some portions left for a comparison, the subsoil-plouglied part has always been invariably drier, the whole land having been drained. " I have never seen any benefit f'-om the use of the subsoil-plough upon damp-bottomed land that had not been drained: — The light dry land that was ploughed in one of the cases, did not seem very much improved either ; and from the above experiments, I would be inclined only to subsoil-plough thorough- drained land having a close subsoil, as it is that only which will return a fair increase for the outlay to the tenant. " For all stiff-bottomed land I prefer the four- horse, second-sized plough of Mr. Smith ; and for lighter-bottomed land, I use the smaller three-horse plough. The work is very severe indeed, there being a greater amount of animal exertion required for one day's work of the subsoil plough than for two of the common-plough." Mr. James Balfour, an intelligent and improving farmer on the estate of Lundin, Fife, gives his opinion of subsoil and trench ploughing, October 1838. " [ think trench-ploughing requires to be done very cautiously, and only upon some descriptions of soils ; in fact. It is my opinion, that it should follow furrow-draining and subsoil-ploughing, when these have been done two or three years previous, on a soil that is a little too soft and resting on a strong sub- soil, in order to allow the atmospherical air to amelio- rate it, and then the trench-plough should be used to mix it with the upper soil. I conceive the trench- plough a dangerous implement and injurious to a clay-soil resting on a clav-subsoil, on such land tbe Bubsoil-plough is the implement that should be used. " I do not think trench-ploughing of much ad- vantage to dry land, if it is or has not been over cropped, although when there is a fine deep soil and a command of manure, I believe the trench-plough may be worked with advantage ; but even on this kind of soil, I would like to put the subsoil-plough through it some years before." There are few facts to prove that the effects of trench-ploughing are beneficial when applied with- out the previous operation of subsoil-ploughing, but had the benefits resulting from trench-ploughing been as obvious as that of subsoil-ploughing, there can be no doubt more would have been produced. Mr. Scott, Craiglockart, a respectable farmer near Edinburgh, trench-ploughed in the winter of 1833 — 4, with one common plough following the other, a field of 20 acres every two alternate ridges, and he has never observed on any of the crops the slightest dif- ference. Several years ago there was a sort of mania in East Loiiiian for trenching land with the spade, but experience soon tauglit the advocates of that system that draining was first necessary, from wliich opera- tion more advantage has been reaped ; but it is curious to observe, that although draining in that county has been carried to n great extent, yet among such an intelligent class of farmers, the invaluable discovery of subsoil-ploughing should be so little practised. The use of the subsoil-plougb has not been alto- gether confined to Britain ; as a great many were last year sent to Ireland, from which country favour- able accounts of subsoil-ploughing have been receiv- ed ; and as a proof of the steady increasing demand for that plough, the Messrs. Druminond of Stirling, state to me that, from January 1st 1837, to 17th Oc- tober 1838, they have sold 97 Smith's subaoil- plougbs ; their record of the weight of all these, stands thus. One-fourth of the whole number 260 lb. Do. do. 300 Do. do. 350 Do. do. 400 One of their implement makers has made 131 Smith's subsoil-ploughs, since the implement came first into notice. They are in tlie practice of send- ing them to order, not only to most districts of Bri- tain, but to Sweden, Prussia, European Turkey, the West Indies, and America, while the demand is steadily increasing. ENCOMIUM OF SOCRATES UPON AGRI- CULTURE.—" Agriculture," says Socrates, " is an employment the most worthy of the application ef man, the most ancient and the most suitable to his nature ; it is the common nurse of all persons, iu every age and condition of life : it is the source of health, strength, ' plenty, and riches, and of a thousand sober delights and honest pleasures. It is the mistress, and school of so- briety, temperance, justice, religion, and in short of all virtues civil and military.'' VEGETABLE ORIGINS. -Turnips and carrots are tliougiit indiirenal roots of France. Our cauliflowers cama from Cyprus— our artichokes from Sicily— lettuce from Cos, a name corrupted into frause— shallots, or es- challots, from Ascalon. I had been reading on the sub- ject, and WHS struck with the numerous ideas, on com- merce and civilization, which may arise from a dinner. Will you have a dessert from memory ? The cherry and filbert are from Pontus, the citron from Media, the chesnut fiom Castana, in Asia Rlinor, the peach and walnut from Persia, the plum from Syria, the pome- granate from Cyprus, the quince from Cydon, the olive and fig- from Greece, as are the best apples and pears, though also found wild in France, and even here. Tli« apricot is from Armenia. — Horace Walpole. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 STABLE ECONOMY; By John Stewart, veterinary surgeon and professor. of veterinary medicine, glasgow. [Upon several former occasions we have given extracts from tliis useful publication. We now lay before our readers some obser- vations upon one department of the manage- ment of the horse, which, from its importance will be read with more than ordinary interest.] —Ed. P.M. PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. The natural powers of tlie hoise, contrasted wiili those he acquires, are feeble beyond what a stranger can conceive. Some people are prone to talk non- sense about nature. They would have horses placed as nearly as possible in a wild state, or a state of nature, whicii, I suppose, means the same thing. In the open tields the horse, it is said, has pure air, a wholesome diet, and exercise, good for the limbs and the constitution. God never intend- ed so noble an unimal to suffer confinement in a dark and narrow dungeon, nor to eat the artificial food provided by man. Mucii more is said, but it is not worth repeating. The truth is, setting argu- ment aside, ive must have service, even at the hazard of producing diseases that never occur in a state of nature. Before the horse can do all, or half of all that he is capable of doings he must be completely domesticated. In the artificial management to which he is subjected there are many errors : but instead of condemning the system by wholesale, it were wiser to recti ty what is wrong. A horse, kept in a state of nature, would not last half-a-day in the hunting field ; and at stage-coaching two or three days would kill him. Condition, Training, and Seasoning, as words, have nearly the same meaning. The first is used most in reference to hunters, but occasionally to all kinds of horses; the second is confined almost en- tirely to racers ; and the third to horses employed in public conveyances, mails, stage-coaches, and so forth. They relate solely to the processes and agents by which strength, speed, and endurance are conferred ; and are limited to the means by which the horse is inured to severe exertion. The objects of Training, whether for the turf, the road, or the field, are the same. They vary in degree only, not in kind. For either of these pur- poses die horse must have speed, strength, and en- durance. This last word is not quite so expressive as I wish. It is intended to signify lasting speed ; ic relates to the distance ; speed is in relation to time ; strength to the weight carried or drawn. In stables, the words leiigth and stoutness are used for endurance. These three properties are common to all horses, but they exist in various degrees of com- bination. The age, breed, formation, and condition, exercise great influence upon them.* Young * There are some others, particularly the temper and the state of the legs. horses generally have more speed than stoutness ; at, and after maturity, stoutness is in greater per- fection than speed. What are termed thorough- bred horses have speed, strength, and endurance, more of each in combination than any other breed. It would require a long chapter to consider all that might be said in connection with formation ; I pass it over, only observing that large, long-striding horses generally have more speed, but less endu- rance, than lower compact horses. The formation hasagreat dealtodo with strength, and therefore this property is less under the influence of training than the others are. Training does not enable the horse to carry or draw much more than he can naturally, when in good health and spirits ; but it enables him to carry a given weight farther and faster. The condition of the horse is the last cir- cumstance I mention, as influencing his working properties. This is a matter of great importance. A horse, say a race- horse, may be of the right age, his pedigree may have no stain, and his formation no fault ; he may be in perfect health, sound in wind and limb, but notwithstanding all this, the horse may be in a very bad condition ; that is, for running a race. He may have too much carcass, he may have too much flesh about him, he may be short-winded, and his muscles may be unfit for protracted exertion. To put these into that state which experience has proved the best for a par- ticular kind of work, forms the business of train- ing, conditionmg, seasoning. Before considering all the agents and processes employed by the trainer, I would make a few remarks upon the size of the belly, the state of the muscles, the state of the breathing, and the quantity of flesh. Size of the belly. — Horses that are fed on bulky food, and those that are very fat, have a large belly. In one, its size is produced entirely by the con- tents of the intestines ; they may be laden with grass, hay, straw, or other food, of which must be eaten to furnish the required amount ofnutriment, and there is always a good deal of water along with this coarse food. One dose of physic, or at the most two doses, will empty the bowels. In another case the size of the belly arises from an accumula- tion of fat inside. This is removable only by slow degrees. Purgation, sweating, and other evacuants, take it away. In a third case, the size of the car- cass depends parUy upon the intestinal contents, and partly upon the accumulation of fat. When the belly is very large, from either or both of these causes, the horse cannot breathe freely. He cannot expand the chest, the contents of the belly offer a mechanical obstacle to the elongation of this cavity; and, as a necessary consequence, sufficient air cannot be taken in to purify sufficient blood. But the weight of the fat, or of the food, is of itself a great burden, and would tell seriously against the horse in protracted exertion, even though it were placed on his back. The trainer should know when the carcass is sufficiently lightened. He judges by the horse's wind. When tliat is equal to the work, further reduction in the size of the belly may not be neces- sary. Hence, for some kinds of work, it need not be so much lightened as for some others. Without inconvenience the hunter may have a larger belly than the racer, and the stage-coach 282 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. horse larger than either. Hunters and racers should have a straight carcass, not at all protubemnt, and seldom much tucked up ; but it is often very diffi- cult or impossible to put a straight carcass upon flat-sided horses. After the carcass is sufficiently lightened, it is to be kept within the prescribed limits by avoiding idleness and bulky food. The work or exercise must be such as to prevent the re-formation of fat and the food such as to furnish the required quan- tity of nourishment without occupying too much room. Fast-working horses are kept on a limited allowance of fodder, and the usual allowance is further reduced on the day preceding extraordinary exertion. This precaution, however, is requisite only with great eaters, or gluttons, as they have been termed, employed at hunting or racing. State of the Muscles. — Exertion, under certain regulations, produces a particular state of the mus- cles, the parts of motion, and of the nerves, the blood, and the blood-vessels, by which the muscles are supplied. Neither anatomy nor physiology is able to describe the change which those parts undergo in training. The eye, indeed, discovers a difference in the texture and the colour of the mus- cles. Those which Iiave been much in use are redder, harder, and tougher, than those that have had little to do. They contain more blood, and that blood is of a more decided red colour. Tiiey are also a little larger, when compared with a corres- ponding muscle of less work. More than this, dissection does not reveal. It is known, without any dissection, that the instruments of motion exist in different states, that in one state their action is slow and feeble; in another state it is rapid and powerful, and that in certain states they ran main- tain their action for a much longer lime than in certain other states. For practical purposes it is not perhaps of much consequence to learn all the changes which the muscles, the blood, the blood-vessels, and the nerves must undergo, before the horse can pos- sess the condition which his work demands. It may be enough to know that the condition, in whatever it may consist, can be conferred only by exertion. There are numerous auxiliaries, and various modes of giving and of regulating exertion, but until it has produced the requisite alteration in the muscles, and their appendages, there can never be any remarkable degree of speed, nor endurance. State of the Breathing. — I have said that the horse's breatiiing cannot be free so long as a large belly interferes with the action of the lungs. To lighten a larsfe carcass is to improve the wind. But I am persuaded that the lungs themselves may undergo a change particularly favourable to pro- tracted exertion. Though I cannot offer any proof of tills, I think tlie alterations which take place in other parts of the body make it appear probable that the lungs also are altered . It is reasonable to suppose that the tubes which carry the blood, and those which carry the air, suffer some increase of calibre ; and that the lungs, taken altogether, becomes a little larger. Such an alteration seems necessary to account for the visible change which takes place in the breathing. As training proceeds, the horse becomes less and less distressed by exertion, and ultimately acquires the power of doing that which would have killed him at the beginning; and the cause of death would have been found in the lungs. I can offer no olher proof in favour of this supposition. But these matters iiave been so much neglected, that it does not seem to have oc- curred to any body tliat investigation is needful. Our knowledge is incomplete, yet no one speaks as if there were any thing to learn. It is well enough known, however, that, to im- pio\'e the wind, the horse must liave a great deal of exertion. Purging, sweating, and other emaci- ating processes remove all obstruction to the lungs ; exertion, at such a pace as to quicken the breath- ing, does the rest. But all horses do not need the same quantity of work to improve their wind. In some it is naturally very good. They have large nostrils, a wide windpipe, and a deep chest. By proper training their breathing becomes remarkably free and easy ; hardly any pace or distance pro- duces distress. They go as far and as fast as the legs can carry them. When over- worked it is generally the legs, not the lungs, that fail. There are as many other horses whose wind is bad, never very good by any management. They have small nostrils, and a small chest, neither deep nor wide. In these the wind fails before the legs ; work makes the others leg-weary ; these it over-marks, pro- ducing congestion, or inflammation in the lungs. These horses are never fit for long races. However good or bad the wind may be before training, it always improves more or less as train- ing proceeds. It is improved at the same time, and by the same means, that power is given to the muscular system. But exertion may be so regula- ted that the muscular system shall acquire all the energy of which it is capable, and yet the wind may be neglected and defective. Short distances give power and alacrity to the muscles, but long distances are necessary to improve the wind. The horse must go far euougli and fast enough, to quicken the breathing, but not at any time so far nor so fast as to distress him very much. When the chest is defective, or when there is a strong tendency to the formation and accumulation of fat, the horse may need a great deal of exertion to render his wind fit for his work ; and, in either case, he must have good legs to stand the exertion. When the legs and the cliest aie both defective, the horse will turn out a very ordinary animal. He will last longer at slow than at fast work. Quuntiti/ of Flesh. — When the horse goes into preparation for work he is sometimes lean. He may have been half starved. He may be so low in flesh that he has neither ability nor inclination to make exertion. To get such a horse ready for fast-work, we must begin with feeding. He may require a little medicine, but in general it is suffi- cient to let him have plenty of good food, and gentle exercise, enough to keep him in health. As he takes on flesh his exercise must increase both in pace and distance. Though not given in such measure as to keep the horse very lean, it must be severe enough to prevent the formation of fat in his belly. To keep bis carcass light, and his wind good, he must have an occasional gallop. But the horse is rarely very lean when he goes into training. Most generally he is plump, fat, full THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 283 of flesh, and in Iiigli si»irit8. In tliis sUite lie is fiisily injured by exertion, lie has so much ani- mation that he is vviUing to do more than is good i'or iiini. The very lean horse seldom has tlie in- clination. Hunters and racers are idle, or nearly so, for two or three montlis before they go into training. During this time they are so well fed, that they acquire much more flesii than they can safely carry at work. The trainer has to remove a good deal of this superfluous flesh. Why is it ever put on ? 1 think these horses, while idle, should be fed in such a way that they may not be fat, though they may be plump and hearty by the time they go into training. But, possibly, there may be something which I have not considered that may forbid this. I would recommend a trial of one horse, or two only. In all horses, not very lean, there are certain juices, solids and fluids, which do not contribute in any degree to produce, or to aid, muscular exer- tion. Most of the superfluous matter consists of fat; part lines the belly, part lies in the connex- ions of the intestines ; some lies below the skin, and some between the muscles, and in the texture of the muscles. Horses that are never accustomed to pass a walk or a slow trot, carry a great deal of the fat in their belly ; others of fast-work carry the largest portion under the skin ; it covers the ribs, where it is carried with the least inconvenience. This fat is lodged in a tissue, which pervades all parts of the body, as water lodges in a sponge, only there is no apparent communication between the cells of the tissue, for the fat lies where it is l)laced, without sinking downwards. Fat is the surplus of imtrition. When the food is so abun- dant as to produce more nutriment than the system needs, the residue is stored past in the form of fat. When the food becomes unequal to the demand, the fat is re-converted into blood, or a nutritious juice equal to that derived from the food. But, as this fat cannot be rapidly converted into nutriment, certainly not while the horse is hunting or racing, it had better not be there. It is a useless weight which the horse must carry, and, from its situation, it may embarass the parts upon which motion de- pends. Besides the fat, there are probably some watery or serous juices, quite as useless or injurious under exertion. In the stables, the superfluous matter, is termed the ivaste and spare, and the re- moval of it is termed, draiuiiig the horse Jiiie. Slow- work horses may carry much superfluous flesh without any inconvenience. Saddle and car- riage horses are not supposed to be in good con- dition unless they be tolerably plump. Mail horses cannot carry much, and it must all be on the outside, not in the belly ; hunters carry less, and racers the least of any others. But, for short dis- tances, it is not usual to draw the racer very fine. For a four-mile race, the horse must be drawn as fine as it is possible to make him, without exhaust- ing him. It is obvious that the means by which superfluous flesh is removed, will also remove that which is useful, if persisted in beyond a certain point. When carried too far, the horse becomes luiwilling to exert himself, dull, feeble, and careless about his food. These symptoms, accompanied by emaciation, show that he is overtrained. The trainer is proceeding too fast or too far with his operations. There is no rule.lo guide hun, but the state of the horse. One may be drawn a great deal finer than another. So long as the horse goes cheerfully to his work, and to his food, the trainer may proceed ; he may stop so soon as the horse has wind and speed for the distance. Superfluous flesh is removed partly by sweating, partly by purging, and partly by exertion. When all is taken away, that is likely to incommode the horse, further reduction hazards the legs when there is no need to hazard them. It appears, then, that the trainer may have to lighten the carcass, he may have to put flesh on the horse, or to take it off" him ; and he always has to give tone to the muscles, and freedom to the wind. Each goes on progressively, and generally at the same time ; but the belly is to be reduced to its proper size before all the superfluous flesh is taken away ; much of this, if there be much of it, must be removed before power and alacrity can be given to the muscular system. Subsequently the horse may be drawn finer, if need be, as his wind and his speed are under improvement. It is probable that training produces some alter- ation in the condition of the blood, the nerves, the blood-vessels, the joints, the tendons, and upon every part coinected with motion. The change in these ought to be as permanent as that produced in the muscles ; but I can saj ihing more about them. Agents of Training, — The agents and processes employed in preparing the horse for fast-work are, physic, sweating, blood-letting, diuretics, altera- tives, diaphoretics, cordials, and exertion. I do not mean that all these are, or should be, in requi- sition for every horse, or every kind of fast work. All, however, are occasionally used, and it is proper to consider all. Without knowing what each can do, and what each cannot do, it cannot be judiciously employed. I consider their effects in reference to training ; but some of them, such as physic, and cordials, are often used when the horse is already trained and in work ; and to this, or a similar cir- cumstance, I allude in two or three places. Though not strictly connected with the preparation for work, it is right, I think, to say all I have to say about one thing in one place. Physic. — In the stable this word is entirely confined to purgative medicine. Uses of. — To a horse going or gone into training, physic may be wanted for one or more of seven purposes. It will diminish the size of the belly ; it will rectify a disordered state of the bowels, rousing them from torpor to activity ; it will expel worms ; it will produce real or comparative ema- ciation ; it will cure plethora ; it will prevent ple- thora ; and it will cure swelled legs. Physic will produce other effects ; but I speak of it only in re- ference to preparation for work, and to the pre- servation of working condition. If the horse be newly from grass, one dose will be wanted to empty his bowels. It may be given on the day he is stabled. If lusty, the dose may be strong. If the horse be lean, previously lialf- starved, or kept on bad food, one, perhaps two doses, may be necessary to empty the bowels, expel worms, and rouse the digestive apparatus to ac- u 284 THE MRMEll'S MAGAZINE tivity, one Qi' :ill. In :.lii.s case, tlic lior.si: may ii.s well be stabled fo;- eii^ht or ten days before hi:5 physic be given. It sbould be mild. If tlie horse 1)0 fat, lusty, or, as stableiiien say, fid! of Immours, foul, or foj;gy, his ilesh soft and dabby, he will re- quire a smart purgative. If he be very full of llesh, liave bad legs, and be a good feeder, he may need several doses, each as strong as tiie horse can safely bear it. His safety is never to be compro- mised. There are other means of reducing him, if physic, in safe doses, will not doit. He may have the first as soon as his bowels are relaxed by bran mashes. The second is not to be given in less than nine clear days. The third, if absolutely necessary, is not to be given in less than fourteen days after the second sets. Should the horse fall lame, or from any other cause require to lie idle for several days after his training is considerably advanced, physic may be necessary to prevent plethora. This state of the system may also be prevented by reducing the al- lowance of food. But racers and hunters cannot be starved, and whatever kind of food they get it must either produce plethora or a large belly. The physic prevents both. Unless lameness or swelled legs demand it, t!ie physic need not be given till the horse has been several days idle. If he must be out of work for more than two or three weeks, a second dose may be necessary. 13ut it is only horses of very keen appetite that need physic to prevent plethora. A delicate horse of light car- cass, narrow loins, and irritable temper, rarely re- quires physic to prevent or to cure plethora, and very seldom to remove superfluous f^esli. They eat sparingly, and the training exercises reduce them more, and faster, than others of robust con- stitution. Between the most delicate and the most robust there are many others with whom a middle course of treatment must be adopted with regard to physic, and to every thing else. While those of very strong constitution may require a full dose, the very delicate may require none. To some, a mild or a half dose is sufficient; and to others a diuretic or an alterative may be useful, when tlie propriety of giving even a mild or a half-dose is doubtful. Horses that have undergone a good deal of ex- ertion, whether in training or in work, often need physic to refresh them. The legT may be slightly swelled, the horse a little stiff, and dull. If much emaciated, a mild dose is sufficient ; if lusty the dose may be strong, particularly if the legs be the worse of wear. The Effects of Phi/sic vary with the strength of the dose, the number of doses, and the condition of the horse. One dose, mild or strong, merely empties the bowels ; two, three, or a greater num- ber, of mild, perhaps only half-doses, given at proper intervals, rouse the digestive organs to more than ordinary activity, and make the lean horse acquire flesh. But if the doses be given at intervals too short, the bowels become very irri- table ; they remain relaxed ; the evacuations are soft, too pultaceous, and a draught of cold water or a little fast work, produces actual purgation. In such a case the horse becomes excessively lean and weak, and it is often a long time ere he recovers. He has had |)liysic too frequently, even though each dose were mild. One strong dose, besides evacuating llie bowels, and lightening the belly, produces einueiation. The purgative drug acts first upon the inner sur- face of the stomach and bowels. It irritates this surface, which pours forth a copious secretion of water-like fluid, for the ])urpose of diluting and weakening the irritant. The fluid is derived from the blood. When the purgative is so strong as to produce very copious secretion, the loss which the blood suffers in quantity is soon felt all over the body, and an effort is quickly made to supply the place of that which has been lost. Vessels, termed absorbents, commence operation upon the fat, and upon other superfluities. These undergo a cliange, and require a resemblance to blood ; they are col- lected, and poured into the blood-vessels, and fill the place of all the fluid that has been evacuated by the bowels. This absorption of superfluities follows every evacuation, whether it comes from the bowels, the skin or the kidneys ; and I need not again advert to it. The horse becomes leaner in order that the blood-vessels may be fuller. The fat is converted into blood, or a fluid like blood ; but when there is no fat to remove, or to spare, the absorbents act upon, and remove other super- fluous fluids and solids wherever seated. Tiius, purging, sweating, and other evacuanls take away fiitness, swelled legs, dropsies, tumours, and so forth. Purgation always produces emaciation, more or less evident according to the violence of the oper- ation. But when one dose succeeds another, before the bowels have quite recovered from the eflx'cts of the first, there is danger in the process. Purging pro- ceeds too far ; it may be so severe that weeks must elapse ere the horse recover ; it may be such as to leave the bowels excessively irritable, easily re- laxed ; or it may be such as to kill the horse in two or three days. These and seme other bad effects of physic, arise from either giving too much physic at onetime, or from giving it too often. In hunting and racing, and even in coaching stables, horses often die under physic. The blame seldom falls upon the medicine, nor upon the man who gives it. The fault is all in the horse's con- stitution ; instead of saying the physic was too strong, the man declares the horse was too weak, as if it were not possible to make the ])hysic strong or weak accordmg to the state of the horse. VN'iieu the horse dies, however, it is always from an over- dose. He gets too much at once or he gets it too often, or that which he gets is made to work too strongly, for it is possible to make a small dose produce great effect. In the stables it is often asserted that ])hysic is dangerous when it does not purge the horse. When not strong enough to purge the horse, the groom says it goes through the body, does not work off', but requires another, to make it work off. This is nonsense. I must have given several thousand half-doses of physic, not mtended to produce any purgation, or very little. If any one of these ever did any ill, a full dose would have done a great deal more. But when the groom finds his first dose does not purge any, or not so much as he de- sires, he is in a hurry to give a second, which. THE I'AIIMER'S MAGAZINE. 285 opeiali'ig with the first, is a protly sure wny to (Ic'stioy tlie horse. If one dose do not purV---:r-" ' ^ •• •'•'^^'""«y-J""' <• ^ <* subject, but as capable of being applied and of C .. sir. S. Sootson, Toy- •', . i -.u ..i .. i teili Park 0 P Wm Tipiiiii"- 0 2 0 workmg njore good than any other yet known. At half-past t;vo'o'c!ock a^party of fifty-tvvo'^at down Of this general, applicable and wonder-working to a farmer's dinner, provided by ]\Ir. Turner, at Prcs- knowledge, no art has partaken more largely than ton Ih-ook. The stcretarv, Mr. Ledger, otHciated as that of agriculture ; fcr very few persous will bo president, and the treusurei-Mr. Green, as vice-president, found in any profession who "in their own The ploughing match was quite a novelty in this opinion" do not understand farming. Every per- neighbourhood, and the day being fino, tlie farmers and son is capable of forming an opinion on the sub- otliers interested in agricuUnre enjoyed a great treat, ject ; he can even prescribe better modes of pro- and the excitement which has been caused amongst "ceeding, attended with such results as would seem ploughmen will not be without its beneht. ^J'lie preju- almost callable of raising mankind from their prc- dices of the Cheshire farmer agamst the u-on ploughs are g^j^^ imperfect condition to a state superior to any graduahy giving way and the approved method of contemplated by Owen or IMore. That great ploughing (hmble, wiUiout a dnvtr, more likely to be . '^ J , iv- .. i adopted tV)r the future. Amongst the company in tha improvements may be everywhere effected, no pei- field were Hervey Aston, Esq., and Capt. Bulkeley ; son will deny ; how they are to be effected, is a Wm. Hayes, Esq. ; Rev. .1. Turner; and Messrs. Pick- very different question : and this point being duly ering, Frodshani ; Wm. Wright, Esq., Runcorn; jMr. considered compels us to receive with caution all John Knowles.jun., Liverpool; Mr. Kay, sen., and Mr. proposals that arc to be attended with conse- Kay, jun., Clifton; Mr. Ilampson, Iliyh Legh ; Mr. quences so great and seemingly beyond the usual Wild, Wcuvcrham ; Mr. Chadwick ; Mr. Thos. Oktil, j-esults in life. An improvement will confer bene- and Mr. Beckett, of Sutton ; Mr. II. White, Aston; ^^^ ^j^gj-e it is applicable; where physical and IVIr. Ledger ; Mr. Green 6tc. &c. artificial obstacles intervene, it cannot exist. pri^e xm No 4?^ "" ^ "^ ' ^'^o"^^ t™'^ ^S° ^"^ attention was drawn to this ^ ' ' * subject from reading the account of the proceed- ings of an agricultural society in Lancashire, - ■ ■ where a long-premeditated oration was delivered by Mr. Binns, on the great advantages to be de- APPTPTTTTTTT? AT MT^rTlMP*; AXTH rived from the drilling of culmiferous crops. Sowing AGKIGULIUKAL MhLllNl^rS, AiM IJ by hand, he tells us, is a most barbarous practice. AGITATIONS. disgraceful to the name of farming; whiledrilling / N possesses a great many advantages, and, ifuni- ^ '■' versally followed, would relieve the farmer from It is curious to observe the progress of a par- many of his present difficulties, give us cheap ticular opinion on any subject, in the mind of the bread, and even make us independent of a foreign individual who has adopted it ; with what readi- supply of grain. The learned gentleman seems to , nesg everything is laid hold of that can assist in have entirely forgotten the maxim of Sterne above any shape to confirm the view he has taken ; and quoted, and to have adopted to the full that gene- how confidently it is published as being useful, lalizing principle which supposes success and not only in the sphere of action to which nature benefit from every case of a similar application, would seem to have confined it, but as capable of overlooking as unworthy of notice the difFerencc being extended to a great variety of purposes, of circumstances under which the application and of confeiTing benefits unseen by any persons must be made, and on which the whole question except the promulgators themselves, and which hinges. The drilling of grain differs much from experience has ever shown to have had existence the drilling of green crops. The produce of the only in their sanguine imaginations. A great latter grows on or below the ground, and admits part of mankind seem wonderfully blessed by na- of pulverization by horse and hand hoeing to a ture with a prodigious share of wisdom in their late period of their growth ; but culmiferous crops own estimation of themselves ; for though the soon shoot up and exclude all cultivation, and the experience shown us in the picture page of history utmost that can be effected is a slight pnlveriza- is confirmed by our daily observation, of the utter tion by scarifying and hoeing, and a check given futility of human opinions on subjects that are to weeds that infest the lauds in defiance of the hourly exposed to the vicissitudes that are daily cleaning by green crops. An ojiportuuity is also occurring in the incongruous mass of human aflbrded of pulling by hand any tall weeds among beings, and though such subjects have ever the crops ; and, beyond these trivial advantages, puzzled and baflUcd our wisest men, and will con- I never could perceive any benefit from drilling, tinue to do so, owing to circumstances which no from an extensive experience on a great variety human agency can control ; yet we find individuals of soils where both methods were practised. On wise enough to, advance opinions that would seem lighter wheat soils, and on black top'd soils, apt to calculated to overcome all existing obstacles and throw out the plants during winter, it was thought ^ to direct events themselves. But " circum« to be uscfid in giving the plants a better hold ; Imt THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 293 in the latter case little or no difference was, in the end, perceptible. On loamy sands, such as we find in Norfolk, great advantages are said to lie derived from drilling ; yet we have never seen any comparative statements of the results of satisfac- tory trials between the two methods, hut, like many similar practises, may rest on supposition only. No more beautiful specimen of correct farming can be seen than the drilled wheats in Norfolk ; but the soil and climate produces it : and I think no judicious farmer in that county will assert that their drilling machines can he ap- plied on all soils where wheat is sown. In the process of drilling grain crops, two methods pre- vail ; one by a drill machine, provided with in- serting coulters, and with cups fixed on a re- volving axle, and sows ten rows and upwards, at distances of 10 to 11 inches. The other is by means of small ploughs drawn by one horse making drills at regular distances ; the wlieat is sown broad-cast, and harrowed in. On dry fine lands the drill machines answer very well ; but on stiff loams, ploughed in October, to be sown with wheat, after a crop of mangel wurzel, potatoes, or rutabaga, I have seen them repeatedly tried and fail ; the coulters cannot penetrate the damp stiff soil to deposit, the seed, though assisted by all the superincumbent weiglit the horses can draw. On the wet clays of various descriptions which con- stitute the greater part of our wheat soils under summer fallows, the machines are more useless still ; many of these lands lie in crooked ridges of unequal breadth and height, and prevent so\*ing by machine either lengthwise or across ; if tried across, the machine sinks and sticks fast when the horse is descending the side of the ridge, and rises out of the ground when the horse ascends another ridge : a half-hour's rain will stop sowing and harrowing on these thin soils, and much more a machine with ten coulters ; and a rain of a few hours' duration will render impossible any such application for that season. I have had the whole process suspended for a week, and have been under the necessity of ploughing with the horses walking in the furrows, and of harrowing with a tree stretching across the ridge, to which the harrows were attached. As to drilling by means of small ploughs, a man and horse will perform about 1| acres per day ; and a farmer who has got from 60 to 100 acres and upwards to sow, will hardly be persuaded to risk the season on such soils for at least a week, in order to get it drilled. A field may be so treated in the early part of the season ; but, as the seed sea- son advances, it is the earnest attention of our best clay farmers to sow close up to the ploughs every second day at farthest ; and with every at- tention they can bestow the season often compels a very imperfect finishing. Drilling has been recom- mended as depositing the seed at equal depths, and producing an equal vegetation ; and it has been objected to as causing late tillering and unequal ri- pening. It is increasing iu practice in some places, and in others it has been abandoned. To attempt the cleaning of foul lauds by drilling and hoeing grain crops, is preposterous, — that belongs to the follow crops ; weeds may be checked, and tall ones may be pulled by Land, and from long experience in hoeing wheat iu the spring and in drilling, I never yet coidd see any benefit from it. It is s;iid the grass seeds are much benefited ; it may be so on dry, early, lands, but I have ever made a much better perfor- mance by means of grass seed-harrows and a lieavy roll after them than by hoeing, I would recommend Mr. Binns to qualify very much his expectations from the drilling of corn crops, for my own part I never can be induced to adopt his " generalizing principle," now much too common, of expecting si- milar results in ditlerent circumstances of applica- tion. An txpence must attend drilling, the advan- tages must exceed that expence by a something to induce the adoption of the practice. I would re- commend complete draining where necessary, com- plete cleaning by fallow crops, and "manuring" by every possible means, and then it will matter little to sow by drill or broadcast. Our system of tile draining, if ever applied to these soils, may render them drier and more accessible at proper seasons, hut that increase of productiveness will not affect the question of drilling and broadcast, for each method will be equally benefited, granting that the draining render them capable of being drilled. As a concomitant to this panacea of Mr. Binns, we have been lately presented with a new imple- ment, called an " agricissor, or a perpetual spade working- wheel," which also in the opinion of the author, will produce some wonderful effects, asto- nish us with Mosaic miracles, and elevate the lower orders of society, at once to plenty and contentment, and even raise our kingdom to a state of prosperity never before huard of or ever contemplated. The plough, that venerable implement, which in some shape or other has descended to us from the earliest antiquity, is to he entirely superseded as both use- less and uuprolitable. The new machine, which ])resents a most formidable appearance, is to be worked by a quarter of the power required by the common plough, and is capable of being propelled by steam, oxen, or by manual labour. \Ve have not been favoured with any statement of the quantity and quality of the work it will perform, if it be ap- plicable to any particular soils, or to all indiscrimi- nately ; hut as the author seems a universal dealer, like Mr. Binns, I conclude it to apply to the latter. I have the misfortune to dissent from both these gen- tlemen, for it appears to me incredible that such a machine will cultivate our lands at one-fourth of the power of two horses, (one-half of a horse's power) or of four horses, (one horse's power,) or at one-fourth the power of steam, oxen, or manual labour, equal to two or four horses. The machine seems capable of one application only, viz., cultivating land in a flat fallow state, but I cannot see how it will ever effect that, for the spades seem fixed in a straight line on the circumference of the wheel, and consG- quently in revolving must follow each other, and cut a narrow incision without stirring the land at all. The author seems to have forgot that the plough performs various purposes, it ploughs our leys and stubbles, works our fallows, drills our green crops, seodfurrows our wheat soils, &c., all which his ma- chine must perform before he can supersede the plough. If he did so, horses would still be want- ing for carting and other purposes ; and he seems to have never once thought of meeting with soils that his spade would not penetrate. His observations on the obloquy always thrown on any new jiroposal or invention are very just, but a projector should be careful to advance feasible improvements, and to limit the benefits he expects within reasonable hounds. Granting a benefit to accrue in certain cases of application, as other inventions are found to act, his unbounded expectations from one thing, and that not very feasible looking, are certainly ridi- culous, chimerical, and absurd. The author of this implement in describing its expected effects, alludes to our poor-laws, our waste lands, our decreasing prosperity, the state of our 294 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. labourers, our corn-laws, and arrives at the present subject of out-cry, " cheap bread, plenty and profit- able labour." No doubt can exist of the great desire that these objects may be attained, but how they are to be attained is a very different question. Our manufacturers must have bread cheap to enable tliem to compete with the foreigner, but how he can do so without reducing the price of labour here, is no easy matter to see ; and if bread be lowered in price, and wages also be reduced, the labourer will (lerivelittle benefit, unless all other articles be propor- tionably reduced. To have provisions low and wages high, or even at the present rate, seems irre- concilable by all past experience, for it is generally admitted to be regulated by the supply and demand. But the "mobile vulgus " and their leaders must have a hobby-horse to ride, till it sinks under them, and then they will find another. I have been long- ago of opinion that our present corn laws have had little to do with the price of grain in this country, the quantity we receive from abroad being very small, and I have long since come to the conclusion of pay- ing little attention to the opinions and theories of calculators, who pretend to be able to prophesy the exact tendency of any measure, the result of which is hid in the chapter of accidents, and in the womb of futurity, and I have lived long enough to see al- most all such prophesyings wholly falsified by the event. In 1828, it was foretold that a great part of our wheat lands would be thrown out of cultivation, as our present laws would bring too low prices, and no such consequence has followed. I can recollect when steam boats first appeared in our friths and rivers, it was foretold they would diminish the num- ber of stage coaches, spoil the breeding of horses, hinder the farmer from raising oats and hay, and many other evils besides. At the present day, the same is foretold of our railways. Now none of these things have happened, coaches have multiplied, and if employment and capital be driven from one chan- nel it will find another, and if the farmer raise nei- ther oats, hay, nor horses, he will raise something else suitable for the altered demand, for the earth must be cultivated to supply the wants of the hu- man race. ]\Iankind too often employ their time in pursuit of fallacies, and wholly neglect the substance for the shadow. In place of our useless meetings and fine speeches, and long calculations, which only are useful in showing the ignorance and stupidity of the calculator, I would rather wish to see our lands cultivated at home, and our labourers employed, the application of a small sum of capital now lying use- less would render useless all corn laws, and render us independent of any foreign supply. If the man- ufacturers by having cheap bread, and consequently clieap labour, will be enabled to compete with his articles in the foreign market ; it follows that the farmer by having the same advantages will compete with the foreign grower of corn, and exclude him from the home market. Our geographical position admits of cultivation and grazing in a high degree, we have labour, skill, and capital, and a fertile soil, and known means of improvement to double our present produce ; but it is our employment to meet and speak on the subject and never do any thing. In the artificial system we have raised, there seems no just grounds for a free trade in corn, without the same liberty in other articles, though certainly a freedom in trade without any prohibitory enactments is the true system, every article to be transported at the expence of production and of carriage. In this state of intercourse, countries producing the same articles would have only the expence of manu- facture against each other, and when one adopts any improvement to cheapen that process, he will beat the other who does not adopt it ; " instance," the Scotch farmer, who has adopted every improvement known to us to produce that result, sends his pro- duce at tlie expence of carriage, and beats us in our own markets, because we have not adopted the same means. In this state also, the revenue would come to be derived from property, the legitimate source certainl}', and just as well pay it directly from the produce of the laud, as in an indirect method by taxes on the eatables and wearables of life. But the irre- sistible, incomprehensible " something," in the cur- rent of human affairs baffles all our calculations, oversets all our theories, and always leaves us won- dering at our own ignorance. II U STIC US, Jl/«rc/tl2, 1839. RUTLAND HEDGE-CUTTING AND DITCH- ING.— The gratifying competition for the prizes of- fered for the most workmanlike execution of the above labour, took place at Bolton, on Tuesday, Feb. 26. There were twenty-five labourers competed for these pre- miums ; and on Wednesday, Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, Mr. Sharrard, of Langham, and Mr. Clarke Morris, of Oakham, examined the work, and made the award as follows : — No. 17, William Neale, of Wardley, first prize, five sovereigns ; 23, Everard King, of Belton, second prize, three sovereigns ; 13, William Tookey, of Belton, third prize, two sovereigns ; 15, Thomas Smith, of Belton, was commended, and rewarded by the gift of one sovereign from the judges and gentle- men, who after examining: the work, retired to Mr. Burgess's, of Ridlington Park, to partake of a good dinner provided with true English hospitality, and to enjoy the discussion of agricultural subjects. Hedge- cutting and ditching has now received the particular attention of Mr. Baker, for the fourth public exhibi- tion, and we think that its general usefulness will be increased by the alteration of the scheme, the work being executed on the south side of the county, after three years trial on the north side. We have much pleasure in giving insertion to the following uniquely- written, but honestly-expressed epistle : it proves at all events, that the exertions of Mr. Baker, (the oii- ginater, we believe, of all this useful competition) have been received in the right light by that class to whom they are especially intended to be of service — the la- bourers themselves. The letter was written a few days ago to Mr. B. : — " Honoured Sir I Humbley Solicit your pardon for attempting to write to you but I nm desirous of men- tioning two or three things which I believe to be true I do Sir from my heart Congratulate you on your Suck- sess in Agriculture and every other improvement ; Sir I do believe that under God ; you are and will be A blessing to our native county ; Sir in several instances I see the Master the Servant the Labourer all Striving to outvie each other which seldom if ever was done in Rutland before you put your good sense and sound judgment into practice Sir 1 believe all these Impi'ove- ments which you have been so streneously endeavour- ing to promote are blessings to us and will be in future to our Children. I remain Sir your very Obliged And humble servant J — E — Please Sir to enter me also W — L — as can- dadates for the Rutland prise Hedge Cutting. FARMERS'CLUBS.— A Farmers' Club has recently been established at Needham-market, for the encourage- ment of agriculture, which bills fair to rival in useful- ness the Yoxford, the Harleston, and the Ashbocking clubs. The second meeting of this association was held on Saturday last. The chairman is J. K. Moore, Esq. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 295 GEOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE. The connection of Geology with Agriculture, althougli fully aclniittccl, has in but few instances been treated upon in a manner sufficiently clear by I'rofessor Flnilips, gives some useful hints to landed proprietors. If with all the advantages which they enjoy from education, and the possession of means, they do not set an example, can we feel surprised that the occupiers should display an apathy in adopting improvements ? " Agriculture, whicii, of all branches of human in- dustry, seems most directly dependent on the qualities of soil and substrata, has been hitherto very httle bene- fited by the prog'ress of geological science. Perhaps tiic expectations of tliose speculative farmers who de- sire to turn to good account the discoveries of botanical physiology, vegetable chemistry, and geology, require svmG better direction to attainable objects, than bota- nists, chemists, or geologists, are likely to furnish. That plants, by growing frequently on the same spot, poison the soil for themselves, though not for other plants, ap- pears a reasonable generalization of well-known facts : that certain succession of crops are best fitted for par- ticular soils, is incompletely known by experience, and may be turned to a profitable account bv the union of l)otanical and chemical research. The chemical qua- lity of soils, to judge from a superficial examination, ap- pears to be of real importance. Why else, amidst the heather which covers thousands of acres in the moor- lands of the north of England, should there appear not one plant of Dutch clover, though, upon the removal of the lieatii, and the application of quick lime, this plant springs up in abundance? ^Vhy else does the Cistus helianthemum love the calcareous soil, the oak delight in stiff clay, the birch and larch flourishes on barren sand 1 Yet, all the conclusions drawn from facts of this nature, exceptions arise, and the relation of the soil to moisture appears quite as fertile and general a source of vegetation and productiveness, as any peculiarity of chemical constitution. AVe once took the pains to no- tice every species of plant growing on a purely calca- reous soil 2,000 feet above the sea, on Cam Fell in Yorkshire, and among them all, it appeared that not one was commonly supposed peculiar to limestone. It appears to us that it is chiefly by their various power of conducting moisture from the surface tliat rocks of different kinds that influence the soil above them ; and tiiis is a circumstance which is sometimes interesting to the farmer, for another reason. It is not doubtful that ill many cases there is a possibdity of draining the land which is underlaid at some small depth by a jointed culcareous rock, just as by sinking a few feet in a mining country, through clay to limestone, the whole drainage of a mine may often be passed downwards, tlirough die natural channels of the rocks. One of the most obvious sources of advantage to the farmer from an acquaintance with the distribution of mineral masses is the facility which, in many instances, the injurious effect of small springs coming to the surface may be obviated. The theory of the earth's internal drainage is so simple, that every man of common sense would be able to drain his lands upon sure principles, or else to know precisely why it cannot be drained, if he were to fjccome so much of a geologist as to learn what rocks existed under his land, at what depth, and in what po- sitions. Springs never issue from stratified masses, ex- cept from reservoirs somehow produced in jointed rock, and at the level of the overflow of these subterra- nean cavities. Faults in the strata very frequently limit these reservoirs, and determine the points of efflux of the water. Let those faults be ascertained, or the edge of the jointed rock be found, the cure of the evil is immediate. But some geological information is needed here ; and landed proprietors, who think it less troublesome to employ an agent than to direct such a simple operation, may at least profit by this hint, and choose an agent who knows something of the rocks he is to drain. The same knowledge whicli guides to a right general method of draining, conducts us to a clear and almost certain method of finding water by wells, and enables an engineer to predict with much proba- bility, whether, at what depth, in what quantity, and even of what quality, water will be found. Why is water so generally found by deep wells at London and Paris? Why is it often so abundant in these wells ? Why is it often of pure quality, though in the descent small quantities of impure water are frequently pene- trated ? Because under both these capitals, the open, jointed, and purely calcareous chalk strata, in great thickness, converge with opposite dips, and collect the water, which, upon the perforation of the superincum- bent masses of clay, &c., rises with much force, and continues to flow, unless drained by other of these "Artesian" wells. This method of obtaining water is now commonly known, but deserves to be far more extensively practised in agricultural districts, where na- tural springs of pure water are rare blessings. Another thing, probably of importance to agriculturists, is the discovery of substances at small depths, which, if brought to the surface, would enrich, by a suitable mixture, the soil of the fields. This is very strongly insisted on by Sir H. Davy in his Essays, and consider- ing how easy a thing it is for a landowner to ascertain positively the series of strata in his estate, it is some- what marvellous that so few cases can be quoted, ex- cept that of Sir John Johnstone, Bart., of Hackness, ' 3ar Scarborough, in which this easy work has been performed. Finally, in experiments for the introduc- tion of new systems and modes of management, with respect to cattle and crops, it will be of great conse- quence to take notice of the qualities of the soil, sub- strata and water, for these undoubtedly exercise a real and perhaps decisive influence over the result." THE INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS. -We take thefollowing remarkable instances of the intelligence of animals from Lord Brougham's new work," Disserta- tions on Subjects of Science connected with Natural Theology," from which he draws the conclusion that animal intelligence differs from human, not in kind, but in degree. Our readers may doubt his Lordship's con- clusion, but his facts are, at all events, interesting': — " In the forests of Tartary and South America, where the wild horse is gregarious, there are herds of 500 or 600, which, being ill prepared tor fighting, or indeed for any resistance, and knowing that their safety is in flight, when they sleep, appoint one in rotation who acts as sentinel, while the rest are asleep. If a man approaches, the sentinel walks towards him as if to reconnoitre, or see whether he may be deterred from coming near— if the man continues, he neighs aloud and in a peculiar tone, which rouses the herd, and all gallop away, the sentinel, bringing up the rear. No- thing can be more judicious or rational than this ar- rangement, simple as it is. So a horse, belonging to a smuggler at Dover, used to be laden with run spirits, and sent on the road unattended to reach the rendezvous. When he descried a soldier, he would jump off the highway, and hide himself in a ditch, and when disco- vered would fight for his load. The cunning of foxes is proverbial ; but I know not if it was ever more re- markably displayed than in the Duke of Beaufort's country ; where Reynard, being hard pressed, disap- peared suddenly, and was, after strict search, found immersed ia a water-pool up to the very snout, by which he held a willow-bough hanging over the pond. The cunning of a dog, which Sergeant Wilde tells me of, as known to him, is at least equal. He used to be tied up, as a precaution against hunting sheep. At night he slipped his head out of the collar, and returning before dawn put on the collar again, ia order to conceal his noctarnal excursion. No* 296 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. body has more (iiiniliarily witli viivious animals (be- side his R-reat knowledge of liis own species) than iny excellent, learned, and ing'enious friend, the Ser- jeant ; and lie possesses many curious ones himself. Ills anecdote of a drover's dog- is striking-, as he gave it me, when wc lia])pened, near this place, to meet a drove The man had boug-ht 17 out of 20 oxen from a Held, leaving- the remaining three there mixed with another herd. He then said to the dog-, ' Go, fetch thera ;' and he went and singled out those very three. Tiie Ser- jeant's brother, however, a highly respectable man, lately Sheriff of London, has a do,?- that distinguishes Saturday night, from the practice of tying him up for the Sunday, which he dislikes. He will escape on Sa- turday night, and return on Monday morning. The Serjeant himself had a gander which was at a distance from the goose, and hearing- her make an extraordinary noise, ran back and put his head into the cage — then brought back all the goslings one by one, and put them into it with the mother, whose separation from her brood had occasioned her clamour. He then returned to the place whence her cries had called him.' " A swallow liad slipped its foot into the noose of a cord attached to a spout in the College dcs Quatre Nations at Paris, and by endeavouring to escape had drawn the knot tight. Its strength being exhausted in vain attempts to fly, it uttered piteous cries, which assembled a vast flock of other swallows from the large basin between the Tui- lerics and Pont Ncuf. 'J'hey seemed to crowd and con- sult together for a little while, and then one of them darted at the string, and struck at it with his beak as he flew past ; and others following in quick succession did the same, striking at the same part, till, after continuing this combined operation for half an hour, they succeed- ed in severing the cord, and freeing their companion. They all continued flocking and hovering till night; only, instead of the tumult and agitation in which they had been at their first assembling, they were chattering iis if without any anxiety at all, but conscious of having succeeded." THE CORN LAWS. To Colonel Torrens, M.P. Sir, — The object of your three letters to the Marquis of Chandos is to prove, 1st. That notwithstanding the great advantages possessed by England in her •' coal, iron, canals, railroads, coasts, harbours, and geographical posi- tion," with the superior skill and industry of her operatives, she is in danger of losing her foreign sale of manufactured goods. 2nd. That this danger arises from the high price of food in England. 3rd. That " the cause of the high price of food is the existing corn laws." And you insinuate that the price of corn in England remains nearly twice as high as upon the continent, (page 5.) You then proceed to make your calculation on this supposition, which is very unfair; since it is well known that the usual price of wlieat per bushel on the continent, taking one place with another, is at least equal to an ounce of silver, (about 5s. 2d.) and that the average of the last seven years in England being less than 7s., has not reached the value of an ounce and a half of silver. It is indeed higher now, but this is entirely owing to a great fail- ure in the crops at home and abroad ; and under such circumstances it will always be vain to expect a low price. It is surely not candid to make the state of things appear worse than it really is. And those persons act ungenerously, who take advan- tage of this ])eriod of privation and suffering, to excite the unreflecting masses of the people, and to raise an unreasonable clamour against the agri- culturists ; whose losses were so great two or three years ago, and whose deficient crops this year barely remunerate them at present prices. And after all, the manufacturing capitalists have no great reason to complain at present it appears, since the chairman of the Manchester Chamljcr of Commerce has just proved in parliament, that the goods exported in I8.'i8 considerably exceeded in a- monntthe average of the four preceding years. Many causes indeed concur to make it not improbable " that our export of manufactured goods will gra- dually diminish, in spite of any thing we can do to prevent it ; and this consideration should make us hesitate to try rash experiments, which may cripple our own agriculture, employing as it docs at present so large a portion of the people. We are now in tliat state described by Hume, " When one nation has gotten the start of another in trade, it is very difficult for the other to regain the ground it has lost, because of the superior industry and skill of the former, and the greater stocks of which its merchants are possessed, and which enable them to trade on so much smaller profits. But these advantages are compensated in some measure bj' the low price of labour in every na- tion which has not an extensive commerce, and does not much abound in gold and silver. Manu- factures, therefore, gradually shift their places, leaving tliose countries and provinces which they have already enriched, and flying to others, whi- ther they are allured by the cheapness of provi- sions and labour, till they have enriched these also, and are again banished by the same causes. And in general we may observe, that the dearness of every thing from plenty of money, is a disad- vantage which attends an established commerce, and sets bounds to it in every country, by enabling the poorer states to undersell the richer in all fo- reign markets." (Hume, vol. i.part II., Essay 3, p. 300.) It appears then that there is a natural ten- dency to the result, of which you are apprehensive. And this country is peculiarly unfortunate in its enormous weight of taxation, which by increasing the expense of production, has had tlie same effect on the soil as if it had become less fertile. The evil is nearly the same as regards every product which is the result chiefly of manual labour. " L'enormit^ des charges supportcc par le peuple anglais, a rendu exorbitamment coftteux tons les ' produits de son sol et de son Industrie. Chacune des consommations des producteurs de toute les classes, chacun de leur mouvements, pour ainsi dire, etant taxes, les resultats de leur industric sont devenus plus chers, sans que cet cherte tournat a leur avantage." (De I'Angeterre et des Anglais, par J. B. Say, page 18.)* And if we should be told that to remedy tliese evils, we should repeal the corn laws, and import corn from countries where we can buy it cheaper than we can grow it at home, I would ask what is to become of the hun- dreds of thousands of agricultural labotuers whose occupation will then cease.'' And if, as justice would require in such a case, all restrictions of * " The enormous burthens suppcrted by the English people Jiave made all the products of their soil and industry exorbitantly dear. Every article consumed by the producers of every class, ever)' one of their motions, so to speak, being taxed, the pro- ducts of their industry are become dearer, without being productive of any advantage to themselves." (England and the English, by J. B. Say, page 18.^ 1816. THE rARMER'S MAGAZINE. 297 every kind slioukl be abcilislicJ, how can any product of liii^lily taxed iiiaimal labour, stand a com[)ctition witli that of untaxed foreign hihourcrs of very frugal habits ? As, however, some people strangely imagine that the repeal of the corn laws alone is wanting to restore jjermanently, former low wiigcs and cheapness, I shall call as a witness on this point, the late Mr. Iluskisson, the idol of the free traders. "The noble Lord f Lord A. Hamilton) deceives himself if he imagines that we could return to the state in which we were before we entered on the contest." ('the French war.) "This was one of the most dangerous errors that could be entertained. The whole expenditure of the country at that time, only amounted to six- teen millions He (Mr. H.) was confident that our peace establishment must entail on us a permanent charge of nearer (JO than 50 mil- lions." (This was in paper mone}', and it is even now more than oO millions.) " And would this produce no alteration in the money value of articles } When gentlemen talked of the high price of bread, did they forget that every thing else had risen in proportion, and that, not in consequence of the Jmjh ^;r2ce of bread, bid the amount of taxation. It had been said that the obvious remedy was for the landlords to lower their rents. If even the xvhole rcnial of the country were remitted it would be impossible for the country to return to thejirices before the war." (Speeches of the Right Hon. W. Huskisson, p. p. 2i)9, AOO.) The manufacturers, 3'ou say, can scarcely com- pete with foreigners, even with superior opera- tives and better machinery — why is this .' Because manual labour is too expensive. Farmers, then, who employ manual labour only, cannot expect to compete with them ; although in skill and in- dustry they and their labourers are decidedly superior. V/hy is labour so expensive and wages so high ? Because necessaries (not corn only) are so high priced. Why, with superior skill and industry, are these so e.xpensivein England .•" Be- cause their price is composed in great part of tax- ation. Free importation then, to that extent would operate as a bounty on foreign untaxed products whether of corn or of other commodities, and the home producers would pay more than their just share of the taxes. Instead then of laying the blame on the corn laws, why not go at once to the root of the evil, and reduce tax- ation ? Why not, at any rate, reduce it in that proportion in which its pressure was so unjustly increased, by raising the value of the money in which it was contracted ? Then indeed we might have free trade in corn, and in every thing else. Why not adopt at this time one of the alterna- tives you admit ought to have been done at the end of the war ? The second would at that time have been decidedly the most just ; and so I think it would now ; as it might be arranged only to keep things at the late average, to jjrerent injus- tice from another rise in the value of money. Corn, and all other protecting laws, may guard many classes from unfair competition, but they are all objectionable on this ground, that they leave those who manufacture for the foreign market exposed to every disadvantage. But if protection had been given generally, by prevent- ing the rise of money, as you mention, it would have been sufficient, and the productive classes would not in that case have been robbed as they all have been. If the corn laws are surrendered, there ought to be a ftftvision of Peel's Bill even now : other- wise the ex])ected benefit to the productive classes cannot be permanent; and the landowners will have been sacrificed in vain. I am glad that the anti-corn law people speak out and demand a total repeal ; I was afraid they would entice the agriculturists to accept a lowf.ved duty, which would have been tolerated so long as home and foreign prices were about equal and no longer. 1 shall not now examine your theory of a free corn trade as it may affect profits — it is plausi- ble, I admit, in a certain degree even as regards the landowners ; but any general benefit from it must require much time ; and there is no apparent reason for the adoption of the course you recom- mend unconditionally, without any jyrq/;oserf means for alleviating the immediate evil to be appre- hended. I have said above that your theory is plausible, but I fear it would prove fallacious ; for the grain expected must depend on the fact of a very great increaseof the export trade; more than equal to the loss of demand from the agriculturist at home, which is exti"emely doubtful. Without such in- crease, however, our discarded tillers of the soil could never be absorbed in manufacturing : and then the whole body must be reduced to the Irish level or that of the north of Europe, (much as you deprecate such a result at page 45,) followed probably by general anarchy. Free traders often give as a reason for swamp- ing our agriculture, — that capital and industry can be employed with greater gain in manufacturing. Now will not foreign nations find out this .' Do they not know what a source of wealth manufac- turing has been to us, in spite of corn laws and high wages ? And do they not already sec the policy of manufacturing for themselves, without any regard, at first, to cheapness, or dearnesst I think it very probable that the manufacturers will realize the fable of the dog and the shadow. I am. Sir, very respectfully. Your obedient servant, T. F. ^ TilE ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. — (To the Editor of tlie Morning Chronicle.) — Sir — I'er- cciving' a mistake in that part of your report of my ob- SGrvations at the meeting of the Central Agricultural Society, relative to tlie formation oftlie English Agri- cultural Society, I am most anxious tliat it should be properly explained. I expressly stated that it was not formed in opposition to the Central Society. I lauded the princijjle of its formation, and expressed a hope tiiat it would flourish, havinj-' been established for the cn- couragemetit, as the Central was for the protection of agricultural interests. — I have the honour to be, your obedient humble servant, W. ORMSBY GORE. Fon land-place, Feb.2S, DIBBLING MACHINE. — Mr. James Ilitcliins, of this city, is about to introduce to the notice of the farmer and the public a machine for dibbling wheat, turnips, or any kind of grain and seed. By a simple ar- rangement, seed and bone dust, in small or large por- tions, are deposited together ia holes made at exact in- tervals. The whole apparatus can be worked at the full speed of a horse in a walking-pace. It is well known that bone-dujt, in drill-rows, is of small value except in he first stage of vegetation, that when not in actual con- tact with the seed it is rather detrimental than beneficial. By this dibbling machine 75 per cent, will be saved in the amount of bone-dust required, nnd nearly all the expense of thinning the plants and keeping them clean ia future will be economiseU.~-Li«co/H Gazette, 298 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF FARMS. Those who have had opportunity of seeing the manner in which assessments were wont to be made, must be satisfied, not only of the absence of all rule in making them, but also of the almost universal inequality and inaccuracy everywhere prevalent. It is true, that more recently, by the specific direction of local acts, and in accordance with general improvement, the systena has in some measure been amended. With the New Poor Law a new system of assessment will be intro- duced, and if properly managed, must be consi- dered a measure of justice. We were not aware that any person had attempted to give written di- rections upon the subject, until we saw two little brochures Irom the pen of Mr. Howe, the latter of which is just published by Ridgway. Tiie direc- tions given in estimating the rate of assessment to be laid upon a farm being equally useful to a tenant about to make selection of a farm for occu- pation, we subjoin them for the benefit of our agri- cultural readers. " I shall now treat on Landed Property, and endea- vour to show what tends to make a farm of more or less value. To be situate near a g'ood market for produce, and where manure can be easily obtained ; a good house and homestead ; and good land laying to a good aspect, with good fences, and a good supply ot fuel and water thereon. The next consideration may be wlicther the homestead is eentrically situated ; then if it is liilly land; wiiether the produce is to be drawn home up hill or down, — for upon some farms by the heat and hurry of harvest, from early in the morning to almost midnight, horses are dreadfully distressed working up hills, and sometimes past recovery,— the produce must be carried if possible when it is become in a fit state, and at tliat season it but seldom happens that assistance can be ob- tained, all generally being equally engaged at iiome ; — manure may be carried up hill at leisure, sometimes in a frost, which makes it desirable to have the produce come home'down hill. Upon all farms for the homestead to be eentrically situated is of the utmost importance through the whole year, for the produce to be carried home as speedily and easily as possible ; for when they are obliged from necessity to stack in the fields, it is at- tended with trouble and expense, although sometimes indispensable on account of being so far away ; and when land lies at a great distance to have to travel in the course of the week backward and forward, perhaps as far as the plough actually works in one day, is, in reality, either losing one day in the week with the plough, or the horses have to travel the same distance to perform five days ploughing as they would do to plougli six days upon land lying contiguous. To draw manure from the farm-yard to land at a grsat distance is very tedious and expensive ; and in a wet harvest, no one that has not experienced it can liardly be aware of the inconvenience and the expense of carting home, and getting produce into a proper state for carting at a great distance ; it frequently happens in showery weather by the time it is got into sufficient order a shower falls, and all may return, perhaps having sometimes done more harm than good, whereas on land close to home a little might have been secured. Again, to take stock through fields far, is anotlier inconvenience and loss, from tlic difficulty of making sheep and cattle keep the road where on one side there may be no hedge, and to make a dead one, or to set hurdles is an expense, and the loss of land by roads through fields may be very considerable; every one must be aware tiie further land lies from the occupier, the more it is exposed to depredation ; indeed, it is almost impossible to point out every inconvenience arising therefrom. I really believe I know farms, the yearly value of which is decreased over a great part of them quite one-fourth from the inconveniences above- mentioned. Foi an estate to have good fences, to have on it a good supply of fuel and water in different jjarts, particularly a stock farui, are very valuable indeed ; — for a man and horse to be employed to obtain water, particularly in the harvest, when both are wanted in the field, those who have experienced it are best able to speak. UNION AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Spring Exhibition or Seed Coun, Giiass Sekds, &c. — This exhibition was held at Kelso, within the Town-Hall, on Friday se'nnigbt, and turned out to be the most important and extensive show of the kiud which has yet taken place. The ([uantity of grain brought forward was so considerable, that it was nearly eleven o'clock before the wdiole parcels were pitched and properly arranged in the place of exhibition. There were, on the whole, 1662 bushels of seed corn and grass seeds brought forward. Of the " Committee for Seeds," Mr. Boyd, of Cherry- trees, Mr. Oliver, of Blakelaw, Mr. Robertson, Ncwtonlees, and Mr. Ogden, Harrietfield, attended, and were indefatigable in their exertions to prepare the different parcels for the inspection of the judges — a task of difficult performance, in the shore time necessarily allowed, which, however, was well per- formed. Each parcel was, as usual, in sacks having no distinctive marks ; and of each a bushel was taken and carefully weighed, the description and weight without the name of the exhibitor being marked on a ticket and placed on one of the sacks. The names of the exhibitors, with a number corres- ponding to that on each ticket, being kept in the Se- cretary's list, so as neither to be known to the Com- mittee nor to the Judges, till after the decision of the prizes was given. The weighing was done, un- der the inspection of the Committee, by Mr. Crosbie, of Kelso Mill, and Mr. William Muir, Kelso. About one o'clock the Judges — Mr. Hogarth, of Tofts ; Mr. Gray, corn-dealer, Gordon ; and Pa- trick Clay, Esq., corn-merchant, Berwick — began the serious and troublesome duty of inspecting the parcels and awarding the premiums ; and ultimately decided as follows : — 1 . For the best parcel of Seed Barley (com- mon variety), to No. 2, which was found to belong to Mr. Broad, Clifton- hill, weight 551b. l3oz. per bushel . . £3 0 0 2. For the best parcel of Chevalier Barley, to No. 1, also belonging to ]Mr. Broad, Cliftonhill, weight 56lb. 6oz. per bushel o 0 0 3. For the best parcel of Potato Oats, to No. 2., which was found to belong to Mr. Nisbet, of Lambden, weight 451b. lloz. per bushel 3 0 0 1. For the best parcel of Hopetoun Oats, to No. 5, which was found to belong to Captain Walker, AVindywalls, weight 44lb. 8oz. per bushel 3 0 0 5. For the best parcel of Angus Seed Oats, to No. 2, which was found to belong to Mr. Nisbet, of Lambden, weight 431b. 2oz. per bushel 3 0 0 6. For the best parcel of BlainsHe Seed Oats, to No. 3, which was found to belong to Mr. Purves, Burnfoo', weight 411b. l5oz. per bushel 3 0 0 7. For the best parcel of Perennial Rye- grass, to No. 5, which was found to J belong to Mr. Roughbead, seedsman, " Haddington, weight 28lb. 7oz. per bushel 3 0 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 299 The following is a list of tbe exhibitors, and a de< scriptioo of the sorts exhibited, and the weight, per bushel, of each : — SEED bahlev (common variety). lb. oz. No. 1. BIr. Fulton, Hatchednize, 1 parcel. . .55 2 2. Mr. Broad, Cliftonhill, 1 do .55 13 3. Mr. .Johnston, Yetholm Mains, 1 do.. 54 15 4. Mr. Johnston, Marlefield, 1 do 55 2 5. Mr. Phipps Turnbull, Crooks, 1 do. 53 1 6. Mr. Mein, of Ormiston, 1 do 58 •) 7. Mr. Bell, Liaton, 1 do 5(5 5 CHEVALIER BARLEV. No. 1. Mr. Broad, Cliftonhill, 1 parcel.... 36 5 2. Mr. John Elliot, Primrosehill, 1 do.. 59 0 3. Mr. James Kobertson, Ladyrig, 1 do. 56 10 4. Mr. Jerdon, of Bonjedward, 1 do. . . 57 0 Each parcel consisted of 5 bolls. POTATO OATS. No. 1. Mr. Nisbet, of Lambden, 1 parcel.. 45 11 2. Mr. Scott, Courthill, 1 do 46 2 3. Mr. Johnston, Yetholm Mains, 1 do. 44 9 4. IMr. Johnston, Marlefield, 1 do 44 5 5. Mr. Cunningham, Crahamslaw, 1 do. 45 12 6. Mr. William Stark, Cowrig, 1 do. . . 46 0 7. Mr. Wm.Riddell, Cappuck, 1 do... 46 0 8. Mr. P. Turnbull, Crooks, 1 do 44 2 9. Ditto ditto, 1 do 44 7 10. Mr. Mein, of Ormiston, 1 do 46 6 11. Mr. Arch. M'Dougal, Cessford,l do. 44 14 12. Ditto ditto, 1 do 46 4 13. Captain Walker, Windywalls, 1 do.. 46 15 14. Mr. W. Aitchison, Oxenridge, 1 do. 44 10 15. Dr. Murray, Kersknow, 1 do 45 2 HOPETOUN OATS. No. 1. Mr. Scott, Courthill, 1 parcel 43 7 2. Mr. A. Park, Eccles Bankhead, 1 do. 43 11 3. Mr. Brokie, Belville, 1 do 43 4 4. Mr. Dun, Roxburgh Mains, 1 do. . . 45 4 5. Captain Walker, Windywalls, 1 do.. 44 8 6. Mr. Brodie, Haddon, l' do 43 5 ANGUS OR BLAINSLIE SEED OATS. No. 1. Mr. Nisbet, of Lambden, 1 parcel Angus 43 2 2. Mr. Purves, Burnfoot, 1 do. Blainslie 42 1 3. Ditto diito, 1 do. ditto... 4115 4. Mr. Cunningham, Grabamslaw, 1 do. Angus 44 6 5. Mr. G. Brockie, Lochside, 1 do. Blainslie 41 i 6. Mr. P. Darling, Sydenham, 1 do. Angus 43 5 7. Mr. Brodie, Haddon, 1 do. ditto. . . . 42 6 Each parcel consisted of 6 bolls. NEW VARIETIES. No. 1. John Elliot, Esq., Jedburgh, 8 bushels of a new variety of Seed Wheat, called " Dickson's Wheat" 61 1 2. Messrs. Hogg and Wood, vSeedsmen, Coldstream, 4 bushels Annat Bar- lejf 55 14 3. 4 ditto Pomeranian Barley 56 3 4. 3Ir. Whitelock, Maisondieu, 4 bush- els Golden Prolific Barley 53 14 5. Mr. lloughhead. Seedsman, Had- dington, 4 bushels Naked Parley . 64 2 PERENNIAI, RYEGllASS, lb. oz. No. 1. air. Fulton, Hatchednize, 1 i)arccl.. 22 1 2. Mr. A. Lockie, Seedsman, Kelso, 1 do. 27 15 3. Slessrs. Hogg and Wood, Cold- stream, 1 diito 25 9 4. Mr. Roughhead, Haddington, 1 do.. 28 7 Each parcel consisted of six bolls. Most of the exhibitors had considerable quantities for sale — from 40 to 120 bolls of each kind. The Judges declared that they had very great difliculty in giving their award, many of the parcels being so nearly equal, that the discovery of a few seeds in one parcel was all that turned the scale in favour of another. But so excellent was the whole, that they had no hesitation in recommending the different stocks from which the parcels had been taken, to all those in want of seed corn. The parcel of ryegrass, exhibited by Mr. Rough- head, of Haddington, which obtained the premium, was one of uncommon excellence ; those shown bv Mr. Lockie, Kelso, and Messrs. Hogg and Wood, of Coldstream, were also very good ; and the exhibi- tion of a great variety of agricultural seeds by the latter gentlemen attracted much notice. Among the " new varieties of Seed Corn," was " Dickson's Wheat" shown by John Elliot, Esq., elsewhere more particularly noticed ; a fine sample of " Golden Prolific" Barley, by Mr. Whitelock, jMaisondieu; a curious sample of " Naked" Barley, by Mr. Roughhead ; and samples of " Annat" and " Pomeranian" Barley, and Italian Ryegrass, by- Messrs. Hogg and Wood ; but the judges did not award prizes for any of these, considering that far- ther experience in their good (]ualities was required. On the judges having finished their work, and after the names of all the exhibitors had been written on the show tickets attached to each parcel, public admission was given to the Hall. The attendance appeared to be from all parts of the country, and the highest interest seemed to be taken in the exhibition. George Bailie, jun., Esq., one of the vice-presidents, honoured the meeting by attending from an early- hour; and most of the eminent agriculturists of the district were present. One of the most important points of the show has yet to be noticed — the business done — it was very extensive ; and the following prices were obtained for the seed corn exnibited, viz : — Per boll of 6 imp. bush. Potato oats, from 25s. to 28s. Hopetoun oats, from 24s. to 25s. Angus and Blainslie oats, from 24s. to 25s. Early Angus oats 26s. Common Barley, from 28s. to 35s. Chevalier Barley, from .... 283. to 31s. " Dickson's" Wheat, in par- cels at the rate of 70s. The Prize Ryegrass was bought by Mr. Dudgeon, of Spylaw, at 38s. per boll. The following is a detailed description of the par- cel of " Dickson's Wheat," exhibited by John Elliot, Esq., banker, Jedburgh, from his farm of Grange, near that town, as given by the grower: — 1. It is a bearded wheat of a red description — was introduced into this country by Mr. James Dickson, of Hawick, and is now called " Dickson's Wheat." 2. I had two acres of last crop on my farm of Grange. It was sown on the 12th April, on land of inferior quality, after turnips. 3. It was reaped before any other wheat on the farm, 300 THE FARINlRrrs MAGA2:iN£. some of which luul been sown in November, and the re.st in .Tanuiiry, and all in lower and waiiney shuatioiif, than thr bcnrded wheat, 4. Its produce is 27 bushels per acre. 5. 'Ihe ouly other person in this country who has grown it, so far as I know, is Mr. Bell, of Mens- laws. He sowed it on the 18th April, 1837, and it produced one of the best crops on his farm, and was equal in weight to good Hunter's Wheat. CULTIVATION OF GORSE. To satisfy the farmer, that gorsc would be a good substitute for turnips on poor soil, I subjoin a few quotations from a small volume entitled Hints to Farmers, by O. O. Roberts. Esq., Carnar- von, North Wales : — "This evergreen plant," says Mr. Roberts, "from its habits and nutritive qua- lities of food for horses, neat cattle, and sheep, is highly deserving of attention. It will flourish upon all kinds of soil, its produce varying at one year's growth from 10 to l.'i tons, and at two years' growth from l(i to 28 tons per acre. Horses fed ou it, ground or cut, will be found fully as equal to their work, and be in full as good con- dition, as when fed on the very best hay; and milk cows, when supplied with it as a substitute for hay, will be found to yield a larger ((uantity of milk and butter, richer both in flavour and qua- lity. To the agriculturist who would make the most of his land, govse will be found a most va- luable auxiliary— it will make him, to a certain extent, independent of the losses so generally pro- duced by the failure of his turnip crops, in conse- quence of the ravages of the fly. A few acres of gorse, proportionate to the size of a farm, under a systematic rotation of crops, will invariably enable the farmer to guard against this contin- gency, and that without any loss from waste of fodder. Gorse is equally proper for use at one as at two years old, and its produce at two yearly cuttings will be found much upon a par with once cutting for two years' growth, and %ncc rema. Thus, supposing a farmer to rent (iO acres of land, and that out of this there should be 10 acres un- fitted to be brought under a regular system of cultivation. These 10 acres, if under gorse, and properly managed, would afford the farmer a sup- ply of green food for his stock, that at one year old would amount to from 100 to [."JO tons, and at two years old from KiO to 280 tons, which, from the nature and habits of the plant, would not be liable to failure or to be deteriorated by any changes of weather. Though gorse will flourish upon all kinds of soils, rich or poor, wet or dry, yet it delights most in dry steep shaly soils, such as are formed by the debris from mountains, and found in the steep sides of hills and valleys in all mountainous districts. On cold, wet, and thin soils which appear almost unfit to support any kind of vegetation, gorse will flourish luxuriantly, provided the surface of the land be thrown up into ridges, so that the crown or top of the plant may be clear of the water. Gorse is generally grown broadcast, but drills will be found far more alvan- tageous, as they will enable the young plants to be kept free from weeds of various kinds, which prove very prejudicial to the tender seedlings. The ground in which gorsc is intended to be grown, should be made tolerably clear before sowing the seed, so as to give the young plants a fair start. It is not advisable to cut gorsc the first winter after sowing, bub it should be allowed to grow at least until tlie second winter. After the first cutting it may be ever afterwards cut every year, or every other year, as may be deemed most advisable. As to the manner of preparing this plant for fodder, it is mown with a common scythe once or twice in the week, carted home, and laid in heaps on the barn-floor, but not ground or cut until it is to be used. If it lies unused over night few cattle will eat it. The machine used for cut- ting gorse is in every respect similar to that used for cutting hay or straw, the only difference being that the knives are constructed somewhat stronger than those in general use for the latter purpose. The cost of machines varies from 4/. to 71. , and the machinery requisite to work them by horse or water power amounts to about 10/. more. With a hand machine a man will prepare from 12 to 15 bushels an hour, and with a horse or water power he will prepare from 40 to 60 bushels an hour, and that for for eight or ten hours a day. Gorsc is a heating food, and horses when overfed with it are apt to become affected with a difficulty in stoling. A little salt should therefore be mixed with the food when a great portion of it consists of gorse. Cut strav/, turnips, carrots, steanie'd potatoes, &c., form an excellent combination with gorse, as fodder for horses and neat cattle. The quantity of seed per acre, if broad-cast, is from 4 to (5 lbs., but if in drills half of that quantity will be amply sufficient. The drills should be from eighteen inches to two feet, and two feet or a half apart, according to the nature and quality of the soil. One pound and a quarter of seed will pro- duce a sufficient number of sets to plant an acre. The season for sowing gorse is the latter end of March, the whole of April, and first week of May." Air. Roberts' statements respecting gorge arc fully borne out by the cxverience of several Welsh farmers, and also by Mr. Anderson in his Recre- ations. " The best winter food for cows," says Mr. Anderson, "that I have seen, and ])2rhaps the very best that can be obtained in this climate, is the bruised twigs of the common furze, gorse, or whins, as it is differently called ; for this food not only kee])s the cows in the best condition and high health, and makes them yield as much milk asupou the top of the grass in summer, if they he kept in due tem])erature as to heat, but that milk is of as fine a quality, and the butter made from it as sweet in taste as the best made summer butter." The advantages of gorse cultivation are so appa- rent, that the sooner every farmer, who has 30 or 40 acres of bad ground in his possession, sows eight or ten of these with gorse the better. What other kind of crop can he grow on bad land that will yield a return of from ten to fifteen tons per acre of valuable fodder at so little expense .' The best Dublin seed will not cost more than \l. per acre. All the mamu-e rcqvired is a top-dressing of gravel, or coal ashes, to keep down the weeds. And let him have a bed of seedlings in the garden to fill up blanks occasioned by winter's frost or summer's drought. The cultivation of gorse is every year becoming move general throughout England and Wales; and in our own country several stock farmers have begun to sow it in clumps, in particular places on hill sides, for the benefit of their sheep lant so much as to devour them as soon as planted. This plant may be more fibrous and stringy, and coarser than our cultivated green crops, but its durability in resisting the eflects of climate must be a great recommendation, nnd on strong soils it must be a useful substitute, and greatly preferable to having no roots at all for winter food. Little dependence can be placed on the results of chemical analysis, in trying to ascertain the feeding value of these crops from the quantity of nutritious matter thisy contain, for no two animals of the same age and breed will advance equally on the same quantity of food of any kind, nor will we find an equal weight of ar.y kind of food to contain an equal quantity of nutritious matter. But we know that some kinds are more fattening than others, and in rather smaller quantities, and the greater the quantity that is raised of any kind suitable to 'the soil and climate, the greater is the quantity of animal and vegetable food raised from a given quantity of land. It is an endless attempt, in fact it is impossible, to estimate the value of these crops when consumed on the farm — the benefit to the land is great from the manuring, workine: and cleaaino- it receives, and extends over tlie whole rotation of subsequent cropping, and even into the next fallowing ; for land that has been once properly treated never requires so mach labour to be again bestowed upon it. The value of the manure obtained from cattle eating these crops in proper yards, and from sheep eating them on light lands, can hardly be calculated, and forms in our present knowledge of the art, the foundation, the very life and soul of farming. The farmer has got white and red turnips, and cabbages on light and stiffish lands for early feeding ; he has got Swedes and beet on the best loams that may be used at any season ; and potatoes and Kohl rabi on lighter and heavier soils, for feeding at any time; and with all these roots of established value it onlj^ remains to use to the greatest advantage, the favours and bounties of pro- vidence. On quantity the dej)endence must be placed ; for -.vhatever the quality may be, if a sufli- cient quantity be not raised to produce an effect, no general or comprehensive benefit will be derived from it. It is pitiful to see the rich loams and clays of England capable of producing these crops in great perfpction, lying in many places in a state of nature, producing vieeds, which are cut and made into hay, and we may expect that our modern system of drain- ing will add considerably to our soils for green crops. Our farmers startle at the expense of green crops, and never calculate whether the increase of produce at the end of rotation will not repay that ex- pense, making allowance for the improved state of the land, — some think they exhaust the soil, while they do not scruple to sow two or three white crops in succession, scuffling the land between the crops, evidently encouraging the growth of weeds instead of checking them, for no cleaning can be effected at that season of the year. Our cultivators, however, are not to be convinced, even by along practice, of the benefit of the alternate system — old turf and hay thev must continue in spite of reason and experience. Farmers and landowners are equally obstinate oa this point, they are shut up in the same pinfold, ignorance has fixed the lock and prejudice keeps the key; and it seems that it will require something different from the ordinary course of proceeding to move them from their confinement. Expense is required, no doubt, but what can be done without expense 1 every thing must be bought at a price it will repay. But it is useless to multiply words and occupy space on this subject, for witli the present ideas of the agricultural, world, we may with an equal chance of success, op- pose a bulrush to the flowing tide, as set reason or experience, or even their own eyesight, in opposition to their prejudices. J. I^. March 1, 1839. ON FACTITIOUS, OR MULE-BRED ANIMALS. Sir, — I believe it to be a fact generally admitted, that it is beyond the reach of human ability to exceed tho limits prescribed by nature, by uniting two dis- tinct species of aboiiginal animals, and thereby pro- ducing a factitious one, capable of reproduction. I say of re[)roduction, because on this capability alone does the weight of my argument repose, considering it the only criterion by which actual proof can be satisfactorily established. We must all admit that the great Author of the Universe in his unspeakable mercy and condescend- ing goodness to gratify the wishes of his favoured created being — Man — has permitted him to indulge his desires, or to carry his researches so far as to allow the breed of a factitious or hybrid animal by one cross, but here I contend and shall endeavour to prove, the bar is fixed, " Thus far shalt thou go, but no further," this is the extreme limit, the nephis ultra, t\n- unerring dictum of the great " I am," from whose tribunal there is no appeal, and to which all human theories must be compared as to the small dust on the balance, for here it is evident that the superruline; power maintains its pre-eminence by the infallible obstacle of rendering the produce sterile. JMy first remarks shall be on tl»e domestic Mule, an animal well known in every part of the kingdom, though I doubt whether its usefulness i* so duly ap- preciated as it merits, though those who do emjiloy thetn estimate their value. One valuable property they peculiarly possess, not observable in the gene- rality of mongrel breeds, which is that they far ex- ceed the natural longevity of either of their parents, frequently of both ; if wo compute the age of the horse to be 35, and the ass 10 : many instances have been attested where the mule has attained the age of 70 and upwards, one in particular, at the iron works at Colebrook-dale, where there were three or four known to have been employed on the works upwards of 60 years. This I was assured by one of the proprietors. Another valuable quality is that they are loss liable to disease, and capable of much more bodily exertion than either the liorse or the ass, and being nearly as abstemious as the ass, it is reckoned of much greater value than either of them where power is wanted with economj". Of their ca- pability of enduring bodily f\itigue, I beg to adduce a few instances out of the numbers that have fallen under my notice : IMessrs. .Toliffe and Banks employ two or three teams of English bred mules to draw their lime from JMeastram, in Surrey, into London, a distance that cannot be computed at less (taking the average of the places where they unload) than 22 miles, which is 44 miles a-day, as they go six turns in the week, commencing at one o'clock Mon- 304 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. i];iy morning;, and ending about ten on the Saturday nig-lit ; that is working at least 14 hours out of the 2i. The lale Wm, Cobbett, when Jiving at Botley sent his fat lambs imd other farming- produce to Lon- don in a caravan drawn by mules, the distance at least 6'2 miles, this he assured me they generally performed in ten hours, only baiting once for one hour; now I would query where are horses to be met with that could do this, they generally during the season went twice a weeic, and worked on the farm the inteniiediale days. A friend of mine (a partner in a London Porter Brewery, Taylor and Co., Rotlierhithe,) some years ago,' purcliased six mules from his fatlier's iron-works in Wales, neither ex- ceeding fourteen hands ; he employed them in their drays, three in each, and he assured me thev drew the same load, niimely, three butts, as the otlie'r teams of tliree horses, that thev stood their work eijually well and at about half the expense of keep ; notwithstanding owing to their singularity of appear- ance they could not "get suitable men that would drive them, and for no other reason they discontinued to use them ; so mucli for prejudice. I need not say more as to their utility, though 1 am aware of some objections that may be urged in their disfavour ; one is a quality derived doubtless from the ass, namelv, an unconquerable obstinacy in resisting ill treatment, no severe usage can possibly induce n mule to go forward, when it is not inclined to do so of its own accord, though gentle and kind treatment, generally speaking, will. It wouM be a fortunate circumstance if all our other beasts pf burden were endowed with the same kind of spirit ;ibr, in that case the feelings of humanity would be less frequently outraged than they are at present; another objection, which is by far the moit valid, is the diminutive she of the general English breed, by no means calculated to conciliate the public favour; mules being mostly bred from small mares and the English ass, in this case the progeny can never be expected to exceed the heiglit of the ass, more than the medium between the sire and the dam. All Jiat appears requisite to bring them into more general use is to increase their substance and height, which can only be effected by importing male Spanish asses and breeding from large sized mares, these would produce stock of suf- ficient power for any purpose, and I don't hesitate to say the most profitable stock that can be reared. About 40 years ago, a Mr. Eccleston, of Lancashire, adopted this plan, and I understood it succeeded, why his example was not followed I must leave- probably from the difficulty of procuring a Spanish ass. I think no other reason could operate, as no doubt, I expect, can exist as to their superior utility for carrying burdens, and also for draft, where sj)eed is not required; at a step of six or seven miles an hour they are remarkably safe and sure-fooled, sel- dom making a f;»lse step, but the reverse is the case when rode or driven very fast; this I have re- marked in many instances, besides in two of my own, both capable of trotting twelve miles an hour, and remarkably safe for a few mouths at a quick ])ace, but they afterwards bo'h repeatedly fell, even on excellent roads ; and it could only be accounted for owing to a rigidity of the muscles of the legs com- municated doubtless from the ass, an animal never designed by nature ibr swiftness, and therefore not furnished with elasticity of muscle similar to the horse. In my next I purpose to band you a descriptions of, and remarks on several different breeds of factitious or hybrid animals, and am respectfully yours, Exeter, March 2nd, 1839. AGRICOLA. — Filling Posl. A HINT TO LANDHOLDERS FARMERS. AND The first and great question which is now agitating the manufacturing, mechanics, shopkeepers, and la- bouring poor, is how are they to procure bread for themselves and their families ; and next the exorbitant demands that are now made upon them. What has brought this immense population to the hour of want and misery, is the next question ; and this is caused by the tithe which increases with the improvement of the country, as no one can improve waste land without the tithe proctor pocketing the whole profits arising from it, thus keeping up a constant bickering between the parson and tenant. The second cause, is the cruel policy of laying down the land in permanent pastures, and allowing it to remain until the whole of the salts and alkalies are extracted from the soil, and the sur- face overrun with poisonous plants and insects, dis- easing the stock by bloating them up with acrid fat. I have constantly observed, that fat animals perish in the extremes of heat and cold ; the heat melting the oil, their bodies run off in a state of fusion. In cold weather the internal heat is not sufficient to prevent the condensation of the fat ; and consumption of the lungs is sure to follow ; and what is worse, the disease is communicated to the inhabitants. In order to demonstrate the propriety of ploughing up the old grass land, and routine cropping the soil, I will point out some remarks from the agricultural report for the year lS3-t, which states that there were 32,000,000 acres of land under cultivation, or capable of being cultivated ; 3,250,000 acres were employed in the fjrowth of wheat, the remainder for other crops ; 6,000,000 acres of waste land ; but it was stated that it was not advisable to bring the waste lands into a state of cultivation, because it was necessary to keep up the price of corn, Th-^.e are 17,000,000 acres of the amount in pasture laud. To convince the land- holders of the practicability and necessity of adopting the routine cropping and soiling, or feeding the stock with mowiDg grass, I will point out the various ex- periments made in the county of East Lothian under the auspices of Sir John Sinclair, Arthur Young, Mr. Rainey, Dr. Anderson, and others, for the purpose of ascertaining the comparative merits of routine crop- ping, soiling, and pasturing husbandry. Ten acres were pastured, the animals were weighed before being put in the pasture, they gained 192 lbs. averdupoise weight per acre, per annum, of beef and mutton. Upon the supposition, that a healthy person requires one pouud and a-half per day to support him, this would be consumed in 128 days. Cattle and sheep soiled on the produce of an acre of ground, yielded 400 lbs. of beef and mutton, which would maintain double the number of men that pasturing would ; and soiling is a more cleanly way of feeding stock. In Belgium the process of soiling is generally adopted, and their butcher meat and butter is infinitely superior to ours; and more than double the quantity raised from the same surface of land. This land converted into tillage, three or four times the number might be fed on its produce, as will appear from the following calculation then made by three different farmers. The corn raised on such land was 48 Winchester bushels per acre, which was considered a low estimate, wlien we deduct four bushels for seed, six bushels for labour and horse- feed, alio wins: the average weight to be 400 lbs. per qr., give 1,900 lbs. weight of bread corn for the use of the p'jople. When we estimate that one-fourtii of the quantity goes for bran, pollard, and waste in the manu- factory, the remainder amounts to 1,425 lbs. weight of flour, or meal to be used as bread, and other purposes, which at 3 lbs, weight per head, will supply food for 475 people for one day instead of 128. The cemparison would be more striking were it extended to potatoes and other esculents, which of course would form a part of every rotation were convertible husbandry intro- duced. None but those who have tried it, can be sen- sible of the vast improvement made by routine crop- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 305 ping. If two millions of acres of old tillage laud were sown down, and the like extent of old pasture laud broken up, au additional supply of not less than four millions stones of beef and mutton would thereby be thrown into the market ; in short, were alternate husbandry generally exercised in Britain, two millions of people might he advantageously employed in bring- ing the soil to a proper state of cultivation ; and have the resource of the country called into action, that are scattered over the kingdoms of England and Scotland, and particularly Ireland, so adm.irably calculated to rectify the worn-out soil, Provisiens might be ob- tained to supply one hundred of millions of people, however chimerical it may appear in the eyes of land- lords and farmers. I will appeal to the Jews while under the theocracy ; the Romans while under the Commonwealth, — and to the county of East Lothian, in Scotland, as a proof of the correct view I have taken of the subject. Three-fourths of the soil is worn out, and the exclusive system generally followed is attended with the most pernicious effects to the public health, and most destructive to the public interest. One mil- lion of the youth ought to be at once drawn from the over-pnpulous, cities, towns, and villages, and planted on the soil as apprentices, to be taught the art of farming, and the mechanic artu necessary to a pro- per system of rural economy. They would then make line settlers to send as emigrants. I cannot close this subject without strongly urging the advantages of con- joining live stock and corn, and making them subser- vient to each other. Were the old pasture lands con- verted into tillage an immense quantity of manures would thereby be furnished for enriching the poorer soils, and for ameliorating the old tillage fields before they are laid down with grass seeds, particularly when composted with lime, salt, and new earth. Every three acres of old grass land broken up would furni?h dung for one acre a-year, consequently, the ploughing up of a million acres would return dung for 330,000 acres of barren or unproductive land per annum, for three years. Afterwards, by means of composting the whole of the manure that is laid on, an additional increase of two quarters of grain per acre, and more of green crops might reasonably be expected from the manure thus afforded ; while the original stock of compost, like money vested at compound interest, would accumulate and increase from year to year, till the country was improved to the greatest degree, which physical cir- cumstances would permit. Weekly Average Price of Wheat. AVERAGE PRICES OF WHEAT. The following documents were lately presented to Parliament : — An Account of the Average Price of Wheat for each Year, commencing Ist October, 1828, to the 30th September, 1838, and of the Average from 1st October, 1838, to the present time, calculated in each case from the Weekly Averages ; and also Statement of the Weekly Average Price of Wheat, struck on or nearest after the First Day of each Calender Month, since the passing of the Act 9 Geo. IV., c. 60, down to the present time. Average Price of Wheat for each Year. Year ended Sep- tember 30,. 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1831 Av • s. d. 70 4 62 6 67 1 60 S 53 6 48 6 Year ended Sep- tember 30. .1835 1836 1837 1838 From Oct. l, 1838, to Feb. 15, 1839 Av • s. d. 40 7 43 11 56 5 59 10 74 0 Yrs. 1828 1829 1830 Weeks ended. 1S31 Ave- rage. Ist August . . 5th September 3d October . . 7th November 5th December 2d January , , 6th February 6th March , . 3d April , . . . 1st May 5th June .... 3d July 7th August . . 4th September 2d October . . 6th November 4th December 1st Janu.iry . . 5th February 5th March . . 2d April .... 7th May 4th June .... 2d July , 6th August . . 3d September 1st October . . 5th November 3d December 7th January. . 4th February 4th March ,, 1st April , ,. . 6th May 3d June 1st July 5th August . . 2d September 7 th October . . 4th November 2d December lS32 6th January.. 3d February. . 2d March . , , . 6th April , . . . 4th May . ... : 1st June .. ..j 6th July I 3(1 August , . j 7th September 5th October,. | 2d November 7th December 1833 4th January.. ;lst February i 1st March ., Sth April . ,,. ,3d May 7th June .. . . 5th July .... 2d August. . . . 6th September 4th October.. 1st November 6th December s, d. 58 10 61 7 65 0 74 3 72 0 75 11 74 6 66 70 69 0 71 5 68 2 66 10 6S 3 60 0 55 7 57 2 55 5 56 6 59 11 65 1 66 6 65 11 68 6 74 11 66 7 62 0 62 3 65 7 68 73 72 72 70 66 66 65 64 61 0 61 3 61 8 59 59 58 59 62 61 63 63 58 54 53 54 1 11 2 6 1 9 2 5 0 7 3 7 52 6 53 3 52 2 53 10 53 5 52 10 54 7 56 5 55 1 52 10 51 7 49 8 Yrs. 1834 1833 1836 Weeks ended. 3d January . . 7th February 7th March , . 4th April 2d May 6th June ,,.. 4th July 1st August . . 5th September 3d October . . 7th November 5 th December 2d January .. 6th February 6th March . . 3d April .... 1st May .... 5th June ,, ,, 3d July 7th August , . 4th September 2d October 6th November 4th December 1837 1st January,. 5th February 4th March , . 1st Apiil .... 6th May 3d June 1st July 5 th August , , 2d September 7th October . . 4th November 2d December 6tb January,, 3d February , 3d M arch , . , . 7th April 5th May . . . . 2d June 7th July . . , 4th August , , 1st September 6lh October.. 3d November 1st December 1838 1839 5th January , , 2d February. . 2d March , . . , 6th April , , , , 4th May , , , , 1st June ,,,, 6th July .,,. 3d August. . . . 7th September 5th October . . 2d November 7th December 4th January . . 1st February Ave- rage, s, d. 49 2 48 11 48 0 47 3 48 4 46 10 48 11 48 4 44 3 42 9 42 4 41 U 40 1 41 5 39 iO 39 9 38 6 39 8 40 43 39 37 36 36 5 2 5 1 7 9 36 0 39 7 44 7 46 5 47 11 49 5 50 8 50 8 48 47 51 8 59 7 59 0 57 5 55 11 55 11 55 10 56 2 56 60 56 55 51 52 52 55 55 58 8 60 0 63 1 63 0 69 11 70 2 64 9 69 5 75 6 SO 2 77 0 Office of Comptroller of Corn Returns, Board of Trade, 27th Feb., 1839. WILLIAM JACOB, Comptroller of Corn Returns. 306 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. HOEING WHEAT. (from the transactions of the society of arts.) Tlie Thanks of the Society were voted to Colonel J. Le Couteur, of the Island of Jersey, for the followinrj paper on Hoeing Wheat. In a small work published by me, " On the Varieties, Properties, and Classification of Wheat," I state that it is of paramount importance, in order to obtain the largest amount of produce, that the seed should be pure ; that is to say, of one sort or variety, in order to secure a uniform and perfect state of ripeness ; for I have distinctly established, that the proper portion of farina, or meal, cannot be obtained from a crop containing a vast variety of sorts — where some, at the moment of reaping, which the farmer judges of from the largest portion being ripe, may be half ripe, some still less so, and some even in a green state. Under such circumstances, it is impossible to expect that most corn will be ripened, or the largest portion of flour obtaiHed from such corn, or that it will afford the greatest quantity of bread. I am aware of the fact, that wheat should not be over ripe in order to produce most meal, but this applies equally to a pure crop ; indeed more so, as more will be obtained from such than from one that is indiscriminately mixed. This principle being admitted, I wish to bring forward some further observations, which the ex- perience of two additional years has afforded me, relating particularly to the proper moment for hoeing wheat. I trust that circumstances, which may appear trivial at first sight, may not be tedious to listen to ; but I truly believe that the ])roper cultivation of wheat is yet little understood, and I feel that every advance should be developed and promul- gated as speedily as possible, in order to promote the blessings derived from agriculture, and to ex- tend knowledge : indeed, one who could keep secret any advantages proceeding from it, would little deserve either the inestimable blessings con- ferred by a gracious providence, or its protecting hand It has not been unusual to hear intelligent farmers object to hoeing wheat, because they found that it injured the growth of the plants ; an objection perfectly correct, as long as they worked without a proper knowledge of the mode of growth of wheat; for they frequently did, and do still, greatly injure the crop by injudicious hoeing. There are two sets of roots to wheat, and there- fore this grain should be sown at a depth sufficient to separate their offices, which 1 hold to be distinct, A grain of wheat, sown at a depth of three inches, that which I adopt, usually appears above ground, in ordinary favourable seasons, in nine- teen days. By observing the dried specimens now exhibi- ted, it will be seen that No. 1, sown at the above depth on the 23rd of January, was, on the 25tliof April or at the end of ninety-two days, still de- pending on its lower or terminal roots for sup- port : it had not yet put forth the upper or coronal roots ; but a small dark ring indicates the point from which they would have protruded, about one inch below the surface. This small joint be- tween the two sets of roots is named the pipe of communication. On the 4th of May, specimen No. 2 will show you that, in one hundred and two days, the two coronal roots had protruded laterally about a quarter of an inch. It seems that nature, by affoi-ding this pipe of communication between the coronal and seminal roots, clearly intended them to perform difi'erent offices ; the lower set nourishing the plant from sources drawn from below, the upper ones from the influences of the atmosphere, hoeings, or top- dressings. What more beautiful and interesting provision can be found for the healthy support of a plant, so necessary to the very existence of man ? The coronal roots begin to shoot laterally in about eighty days after the plant has appeared above ground in ordinary seasons, it being im- possible to fix a precise time, as allowance must be made for climate and seasons. If these coronal roots, on emerging to perform their office, find themselves in a hard dry soil, surrounded by the roots of millions of weeds ; that the leaves by which the plant breathes are overwhelmed by a multitude of enemies in the form of weeds of every description, which deprive the young and tender plants of the ])ure atmosphere they should inhale, and probably impart to it themselves gases of qualities noxious to the wheat ; it necessarily follows, that the plant cannot thrive as it should do, and that it must be checked at this period of its growth. Now, this is the precise fact. Let any observant person look to his wheat at this period ; let him take up some of the plants carefully, he will perceive these coronal roots; let him observe further, he will, as the weeds advance, see his crop changing from a healthy green to a yellow sickly colour, which it may only recover when the roots have gained strength, and, in some cases, the plants have got the better of the weeds; in others, the weeds will get the mastery of the coronal roots, and the return may be a half crop, if not less. I have experienced this myself ; but what is the contrary case ? If, at the period that these coronal roots are just to emerge, a deep, careful, and rapid hoeing be given them, the whole of their enemies, the weeds, are checked — the roots shoot into a soil recently stirred for their re- ception— the plants revel in a pure atmosphere and breathe freely, besides possessing the un- divided enjoyment of dews, refreshing showers, and the influences of light. The same observer will perceive the sudden and extraordinary change that will soon take place ; the plants will lose their aickly hue, and they will rapidly expand, or trail along the ground. By looking to plant 3, it will be seen that, at the end of 114 days, the coronal roots will have made considerable progress ; and that, in a fortnight more, they appear greatly developed, as in plant 4. I will here call your attention to the fact, that, as the plants begin to tiller, the pipe of communi- cation would appear to lessen in volume, dwindling, in the end, as it were, into a mere thread ; the coronal roots, also, begin to develope themselves in a greater degree than the seminal roots. I con- sider I have demonstrated the importance of ex- amining a few plants, in order to watch for the proper period for the first hoeing. To press it further, it may, however, be added, that though wheat, in ordinary favourable seasons, is from seventeen to nineteen days in appearing, from the period of sowing this season, owing to extreme coldness, some of my wheat, sown a week before Christmas, was forty-five days in the ground before it appeared, although it had been regularly pickled and soaked : it is proper to add, it was seed I obtained from England, and might have THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 307 T)een two years old, which would have retarded its growth in a slight degree. Where land is in a foul state, a second hoeing is important ; bat this, it is considered, should be exceedingly light and superficial, merely to skim off any weeds that may have sprung up since, or have escaped the first hoeing, in order not to cut or disturb the coronal roots which, at the end of 144 days (Specimen 5), will have extended themselves across the drills, , whether of seven or nine inches. The hoe used for this purpose is of my own construction ; it is in the form of a stirrup, the sides being rounded off in order to guide the workman in making his strokes rapidly : for, by this means, the round side may rub along the wheat without injuring it, and the blade being of a razor shape, and as narrow, is both strong and cutting, accumulating no soil, and meeting with little resistance ; it is a pleasant andefficient instrument. If the workman steps backwards, he leaves the weeds untrodden to wither rapidly. A man can hoe four drills at each pace conveniently; and, where the land is not foul, he should hoe halt an acre in a day. 1 frequently get the work done at so much per drill, after having ascertained the time required to hoe the first four drills, so that a just quantum of labour can be exacted, and the labourer earn more or less, according to his industry. By walking forward the labourer will execute more work, but he then treads down the weeds into the freshly stirred soil, which is also thereby considerably consolidated. This description of hoe is also strongly recommended forall sorts of drilled crops, as it enables a workman to scoop out a weed from the edge of an onion, or other plant, without in- curring the risk of cutting it, — an inconvenience constantly attending the use of ordinary Dutch or other hoes, if used rapidly. On poor soils requiring much manure, an ap- plication of diluted, recent liquid manure, will be found highly beneficial just after the first hoeing, as the young shoots will absorb a due share of nourishment from it, while, by the destruction of the weeds, the roots of most of them will afford additional food for tlie wheat plants. For the same reason that it is proper to free the young plants from weeds when the coronal roots begin to shoot, I hold it to be a doubtful practice, then, to sow grass seeds. If the ensuing fortnight be mild and moist, the young clovers and grasses will have put forth leaves, which are so many millions of mouths, breathing the atmosphere at the expense of the wheat plants, besides taking from them much nutriment. I had a remarkable instance of this on my farm last season. A field of wheat was looking beautiful after its first hoeing, I had sown a large portion of artificial grasses over it, imagining the coronal roois would gain ground over them ; but a fort- night of genial weather wrought a sad change — the little grasses came on charmingly, but the poor wheat changed into a " yellow and settled melancholy,'' and never recovered itself; the ground had been so well manured that the sample proved fine, but the crop did not reach above twenty-six bushels per acre, where I should have obtained forty, and the straw was shorn of half its length. The result was different by sowing the grass seeds at the second hoeing, which I tried in another field, a fortnight or three weeks' additional growth having enabled the coronal roots to take a firm hold of the soil j nor did the crop appear to re- cei\ e a check at the period when the grass seeds developed themselves. The produce, in this case, was only thirty-five bushels per acre ; but that the grain did not suffer here is proof, by the beautiful sample, I venture to call it, of the variety Talavera Belvuatln. I am inclined to think it to be faulty practice at best to sow grass seeds of any description among wheats, which appear to me to require all the nourishment the soil can afford them. I am pro- secuting an experiment accurately to ascertain the truth of this, which, if this paper has not proved uninteresting, I may hereafter have the honour of reporting to you. By referring to Specimen No. 7 , it will be seen that the grain having been grown superficially, or on the broad-cast system, by a neighbour, and merely lightly harrowed in, the coronal and seminal roots appear crowded together, so, as it is pre- sumed, to identify in some sort their offices, which, by the other mode, appear to be kept separate. This is a subject for further inquiry, as no positive conclusion has been arrived at; but as far as the structure of the plant seems to be a guide, it would appear to be clear that in certain seasons, and under peculiar states of the atmosphere, this crowding of the roots must prove prejudicial. The observation is made in order to invite attention to this point, in the hope that some inquiring mind will be led to make experiments on the subject. In the collection now on the table, amounting to about 260 varieties, or subvarieties, is a fine selection of wheats, which I received from Mr. Loudon, which I greatly value, as coming from an individual so unwearied and so distinguished for his admirable labours. They were grown by M. Vilmorin of Paris, and presented by him to JMr. Loudon ; and, as a classification, illustrative of the varieties described in the " Maison Rustique," are invaluable. I grew every sort last year. Some have greatly increased in size, being eight and nine inches long, two or three inches longer than their original types ; but the moist weather which i)revailed at the period of ripening, dis- coloured them so much as to destroy their beauty, and almost their resemblance to the parent. J. LE COUTEUR. HADDINGTON.— There was a very fine show of seed-corn and rye-grass in Haddington, for the pre- miums offered by the United East-Lothian Agricul- tural Society, the sliow beiag the largest which has yet taken place : and in consequence of the excellent quality of the seeds, the juilges had very considerable difficulty in deciding the premiumsi, which were award- ed as follow : — 1. — For 10 qrs. of best seed-barley (Chevalier), to Mr. Brnadwood, Thur^tonraains. 2. — For 10 qrs. best do. of any other variety, to Mr. Hume, Westbarns. 3. — For 10 qrs. best seed potato oats, to Mr. Brodie, Linplum. 4. — For 10 qrs. best seed Aagus oats, to Mr. Ker, Howmuir. 5. — For 10 qrs. best seed early Angus oats, to Mr. Brown, Halls. 6. — For 10 qrs. best seed Hopetoun oats, to Mr. Hamilton, GuUade. 7. — For 10 qrs. best aad cleanest pereanial rye-grass (excluding Pace's seed), to Mr. Roughhead, Had- dington. 8. — For 10 qrs. of do. Italian do., to Messrs. Banks and Son, Haddington. 308 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ANSWERS TO QUERIES ON ITALIAN RYE GRASS. TO TUR EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — We intended some time since to liave for- warded the following; remarks, in reply to "Queries respecting- Italian Rye-grass," vvbicli appeared in your ])aper of the 28th Jan., but on seeing tlie subject so ablv treated by two correspondents in the number i'or Fel). 'iCnh. we at first resolved on not troubling you further, but have since been induced to forward thorn for your consideration and publication, should any additional information they contain be deemed of sufficient importance. The Italian Rye-grass may be sown in spring witli a crop of barley, or other grain, as practised with common rye-grass. It may be sown either with, or without a mixture of clover-seed ; the former is the most commendable practice, as the weight of produce will be much greater, than if sown alone, and the vigorous habits of the Italian Rye-grass is by no means prejudicial to the growth of the young clovers. 'I'iiere is no danger of its getting up so high as to injure a crop of barley under ordinarily favourable circumstances; however on inferior soils, and if the barley receive a check when, or shortly after, braird- in"- from excessive rain, or otherwise, the Italian Rye-grass will be rather more liable to preponderate, than a crop of common Rye-giass and clover ; which under these circumstances not unfrequently over- grows both barley and oats. Its duration may be described as being longer than what is termed "an- nual" (common) rye-grass ; but certainly less per- manent, then the most perennial varieties of Lolium perenne ; or generally varying from biennial to tri- ennial. We are in the practice of recommending its introduction to the extent of 4 or Clbs. per acre, in all mixtures of grass seed for permanent pasture, as it is highly relished by cattle, materially increases the hulk of produce in the first two seasons, and as the plants of Italian Rye-grass die out, they are replaced by the more permanent grasses in the mixtures, whicii come away much slower at lirst. It it not well adapt- ed for sowing alone, either lor hay or pasture, as from its upright habits of growtii, which suits it for a nurse to clovers and grasses of comparatively weak braird, it is not calculated to form a good turf, but should in all cases bo mixed with at least nearly double its ■weight of perennial rye-grass seeds, which quantity will produce about an equal number of plants, that by their dwarfer, and more spreading habits of growth will form a close under-ciop. 'J'he ])receding remarks will be found to contain a replv to the " seventh query," namely, " that it, when mixed with otiiers, may be advantageously grown for hay, and aflerwvirds de])astured." The Italian Rye-grass according to Reichenbacli, author of a "Flora Germanica," and other botanical works, who describes it under the name oi' "Loliiun 'Mullijlivitm," "grows naturally in various parts of Switzerland, and its habitats are confined to no par- ticular soil." It, like the common rye-grass, accom- modates itself to a great variety of soils, and suc- ceeds wc^l in all whicli possessed even an ordinary di-gree of fertility, from the newly reclaimed peat moss to the strong alluvial carse clay, and recently consolidated sand ; and we may mention that we have experienced its good effects in mixtures for shifting sands, from its rapid growth at first tending to fix the surface, and shelter tlie young plants oi'Stitid Heed and other deep rooting grasses, which are both longer in brairding, and like all true perennials, of comparatively slow growth. In the meadows be- tween Edinburgh and Portobello, which are irrigated by the town sewers, itsucceeds well, and raateiially improves the crop if resown occasionally by merely scattering its seed thinly over tlie wet turf; but it always presents a sickly appearance when stagnant water prevails, and therefore should not be sown on lands with retentive subsoils which have not previ- ously been well drained. We may mention that ]\Ir. Thos. Bishop, at Meth- ven Castle, Perthshire, has recently obtained a pre- mium from the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, for a report of the growth of Italian Rye-grass, and crimson clover, as a substitute for tares in summer feeding, which we understand will be published in a furtlier coming number of the So- ciety's transactions : having seen Mr. Bislioi)'s crops for the past two seasons we can bear testimony to the successful results of his experiments, which were conducted on an improved moorish soil with a north- erly exposure, sown down for permanent pasture, and although at the first cutting many parts of the field crop 37, averaged 4 to 5 feet in height, the young clovers, and perennial grasses suffered no ap- parent injury from being overgrown, but on the contrary came away more vigorously last spring, than if tiiey had been sown with a corn crop ; which may be accounted for by the less impoverishing ef- fects the Italian Rye-grass, a green crop had ujion the soil than a ^vhite or corn crop, combined with the superior protection afforded by its remaining green throughout the winter, and being always in a grow- ing state, when the weather is free from frost. We are, Sir, Your very obedient servants, PETER LAWSON & SON. Seedsmen to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Edinburgh, 8th Maich, 1839. HOLLOW DRAINING.— The prizes given by tlie Peterboroug-h Agricultural Society, for hollow draining, hedging', and ditciiing-, were contested for on the Ciii ultimo, OH pasture land on the farm of JMr. Deacon, at Standground, when 13 candidates appeared, at nine o'clock, to compete for under- draining-, and 8 for hedg-- ing and ditching. The judges were Mr. Wilders, of Cliesterlon ; IMr. W, E. GriHin, of Werriiigton ; and ]Mr. Cave, of Warmington, The method of under- draining-, exhibited by four men from jMelchbourne, Risely, and Titchmar.<.li ,in the employ of Lord St. John, (new in this neighbouriiood,) met witii the approbation of tlie numerous farmers present. The width of the drain at the surface being only cigiit inches, and the deptii two feet ; in making good this drain, the green- sward turf being inverted, was wedged in the drain by the foot, leaving- a sufficient space for the water; a stra- tum of clay was then trampled upon the turf, and the drain filled up with the refuse. The first prize was awarded to John Robins, of Riseley, Beds. ; the second prize to Richard Palmer, of Woodstone, Hunts., as the best drainer with thorns ; and a donation was given to 'Tliomas Johnson of Titchmarsh, in testimony of his merit, the ground falling to his lot being very unfavour- able, notwithstanding- wiiich, his skill was sufliciently apparent. The first prize for iiedging and ditching was awarded to John Munns, and the second prize to Wm. Giinbur, both of Clinton, Northamptonshire ; and a do- nation was made to John Brown, of Werrinyton, North- amptonshire, a youth only 15 years old, who exhibited skill very unusual in one of his age and strength. Lord Fitzwilliam, with his usual benevolence, presented this hul witli a present. A donation was also made to Wm. Lurk, of Newton, Northanii)tonshire, another of Lord St. John's men, for his expertness in hedging and ditch- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 309 iti"', E;icl) unsuccessful cantlidatc! received a li'ifle to compensate tor lossof time. l,oi'il I'itzvvilliiiui, the I'^arl of AI)oyne, Lord Mdtoii, Lord Frederick (jordon, Lieut. CoL Jlardy, Leonard 'riiompsou, Esq., the Rev. B. Simpson, the Rev. John Hopkinson, Phillip Tiliard, Eer brl. on flour, on prices ranging between 60s. and 70s. per qr. on the averages, and on further reduced prices, as on 50s. per qr., the duty CZ y < s. s. S. (1. o *:; s. d. •2^ s. 3 P d. T3 4^ • O ♦; JP S, d. 70 10 8 1 0 9 8 6 5 1 0 6S)to70 13 8 2 0 11 8 8 3 1 3 68—69 16 8 4 0 12 8 10 0 2 6 67—68 18 8 6 0 12 8 11 3 3 9 66—67 20 8 8 0 12 8 12 5 5 0 65—66 21 8 10 0 11 8 13 1 6 3 64—65 22 S 12 0 10 8 13 8 7 6 63—64 23 8 14 0 9 8 14 3 8 i) 62—63 24 8 16 0 8 8 14 10 10 0 61—62 25 8 18 0 7 8 15 6 11 3 60—61 26 8 20 0 6 8 16 1 12 6 1» s. "a 5 5 7 0 7 6 7 fi 7 5 6 10 6 2 5 6 4 10 4 3 3 7 The calculation for the flour in the bill of 1827 was that every barrel of flour of 196 lbs. should pay duty equal to 5 bushels of wheat weighed off 60 lbs. to the bushel, and this Mr. Editor induces me to draw your attention to the effect, that if any alteration be made in the laws relating to corn, it will aftbrd the opportunity of your advocating with every good chance of success, the propositions you so ably handled on many former occasions, namely, a clause to obtain for the millers and bakers of this country on fair terms, the opportunity of supplying our co- lonies &:c. with flour and biscuit. The old methods of paying duties and affording drawbacks is open to too much deception to bethought of; the having nulls and ovens under the inspection and security of the customs, for bonded corn to be ground and baked in, is both expensive and would be of very limited benefit, as few mills &c. are so placed, as to admit of their being entirely given up for the using of bonded grain and flour only, aiul if so done, the advantages would fall into very few person's « hands ; but the obtaining a certificate from the cus- toms on tlie shipping of either flour or biscuit to a foreign port, under their inspection as to (juality, cannot fail of being of universal aj)plication and benefit, and the use of this certificate should be, that by endorsement it might be able to release in any ))ort of Great Britain, the quantity it shall be consi- dered to represent in wheat ; and I do not find any sums cotdd approximate much nearer a just propor- tion, than for every barrel of flour of 196 lbs. so shipped should be considered as equal to the release of 5 bushels of whtat, and that every cwt. of biscuit should free ;> bushels of wheat, in bothinstances to bo weighed oft" 60 lbs. to the bushel. The great differ- ence in the weight of foreign corn fluctuating be- tween 55 and 63 lbs. to the measured bushel, makes it more certain and accurate to allow the wheat to be introduced by weight iu lieu of the flour and biscuit previously shipped. It is obvious that as the flour and biscuit is first sent out of the country and manufactured from the home growth, it cannot be attended with the slightest injury to the agriculturists, at the same time the advantages to this country by affording the means of getting into use at any time sucli bonded grain, as THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 311 will not properly keep in the stores, ami thereby prevent its utter destruction, would be an incalulable advantage : a still greater reason for its concession is, fliat tiius England would at all times be open as a market for foreign wheat, even at times when the duty of 20s. per qr. might be equal to 40 or 30 per cent, on the value of the averages. No longer should we find the violent animosity in foreign countries to the introduction of eur manufac- tures, when we are content to receive as constant customers a portion of their agricultural produce ; no longer should we have the periodical complaints among the shipping interest, when they will be able to eftect freight of flour, &c. to the colonies as well as bring their produce back, besides all the increased intercourse arising from the extended mercantile transactions in corn in so many parts of Europe ; with an additional advantage, that should we be vi- sited with a vear such as we have often known, in whicii all wheat grown in this country has been more or less sprouted, some so much so as to be unfit for human food ; we shall, if we have a scale duty at no time to exeed 2()s. per qr. be able to obtain enough of sound grain from abroad, to introduce and make all fit for use, when otherwise, owing to the inferior qualities depressing the averages, it would be im- possible to introduce it into this country at all, thereby forcing the people on a comparatively innu- tritious and unwholesome food. The great length in which I have entered on wheat induces me only to state the outlines, that barley was taken at 30s. per qr. protected b}^ 10s. duty, and for every rise in price of Is. per qr., Is. 6d. duty was to be taken off until it attained 36s. when Is. was to continue. Oats 21s. with 7s. duty and for every Is. per qr. rise. Is. per qr. duty was to be reduced until it came to Is. per qr. permanent. Beans, Peas &:c. 35s. average with 1.5s. duty and Is. (id. off for every Is. rise in the averages until it had obtained 45s. per qr. when Is. duty was to be continued. If the graduated downward scale be taken awa)^ in lent corn as is proposed in wheat, the 10s. barley, 7s. oats, and l.'5s. per qr. for beans, &c., would be tlie maximum duties to be raised ; duties by no means unreasonable unless the beans, &c. should be reduced to 33s. jier qr. average, protected by lis. per qr. duty, and a falling off scale of Is. 6d. per qr. for each Is. lise which would perhaps more justly represent the relative values of yrain. As a last reason might be assigned the gradual fall- ing off of the duties, offer no inducement to tamper with the averages, as there can be no profit made equal to the risk run and expence incurred which is not the case in the upper portion of the present scale where Is. per qr. increased average often reduces the duty 3s. and 4s. per qr. Apologising for writing to this length, I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, S. H. Haiant, Feb. 18, 1839. PROLIFIC COW.— Mr. Craighead, farmer at Cold- stream parish of Drumoak, has a cow in his posses- sion, of the Aberdeenshire breed, which has produced the extraordinary number of six calves within twenty- two months 1 The numerous progeny have all been good thrirers ; and some of them gained prizes at the Dee-side Agricultural Society's show in July last. THE CONSEQUENCES AND D.\NGE11T0 THE LABOURERS AND WORKING CLASSES BY THROWING OUT OF CULTIVATION ANY LARGE PROPOR- TION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. BY I-EWIS KENNEDY, ESU. " ON THK NECESSITY OF PROTECTION TO THE AGRICULTtJRISTS, &C." It is endeavoured to exemplify this by a parish with which I am well acquainted, where there are 1573 acres of convertible land at 23s. per acre (on which there has been an average deduction of 20 per cent, for several years past); one-half of this is arable, and a proportion of a thin quality, and employs a population in labourers and artizans for making agricultural implements, &c., of at least 262 persons, men, women, and children, actually living in the parish. Now, the loss conse- quent upon throwing out of cultivation one-third of this arable land, that is, 262 acres (and it is impossible that it could be continued in cultivation without protection), would be a diminution of labour to the extent of 87 persons ! ! We will suppose 27 to remain for manag- ing the land thrown out of cultivation into rough pasture, leaving 60 persons to be otherwise disposed of or employed : — explaining this by figures, it stands thus : — Number of acres in Ihe parish, 1573, of which half is pasture, 786 acres, and the other half is arable, viz. — Half the parish 786 acres. One-third of half being 262 acres, thus become un- cultivated land. ^persons throvvn-out of One person to three acres S7 ? employment upon the C. one-third arable. rpersous employed on the Supposing 27? one-third,which turn- C. ed into rough pasture. T c« ^ persons who lose their ^^^^^^ ^^l work on the 262 acres. It appears, therefore, if in this parish of 1573 acres 60 people are thrown out of employment, of these 12 pro- bably will fall upon the poors' funds, and consequently be chargeable to the parish ; 12 probably starved and annihilated ; and 36 would be driven out to compete for work with the manufacturing classes, or contend with their already supernumary brethren upon the cultivated laad of the United Kingdom, reduced by eight millions of acres ! ! ! Thus there would be, at least, from the one-third of the arable land of the kingdom not being cultivated as at present, 1,773,630 persons thrown out of employment, and to be otherwise disposed of :-^ One-fifth, or 354,736 to be supported by poor funds. Ditto, or 354,736 to be starved, or to emigrate. Three-fifths 1,064,308 to procure work by manufactures. Total.. 1,773,680; Thereby lessening the number to be employed by nearly two millions, and the land cultivated by eight millions of acres ! We ask, then, would not the system of free importation of corn reduce most seriously the number of hands wanted and wages ? Secondly, — the farmer will have his capital reduced to value at least one-half, and his profits diminished accordingly. The luxuries in clothes, furniture, &c. which have become necessa- ries to himself and family, must be dispensed with, and his payment* to the poor, tithe, &c., and his rent, all reduced to the standard of the value of his produce, or more probably, the farm taken by the proprietor him- self. Thirdly, the landlord, who, of course, must have his rent diminished, and if his incumbrances, fixtd by the law of the land upon his estate, are not propor- tionably altered, in many instances he will have little or no income ; and where it may be otherwise, he must either lire wholly in the country or abroad, and give up those expensive establishments which form a great source of the business, and, consequently the riches 3l2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the tradesmen in the different large towns or capital. The operative and mechanic ought duly to weigh this matter, before he is hurried away headlong by a spe- cious policy, and one most destructive to his interests ; for it is clear, by the shewing of the manufacturers themselves, that their great object in the repeal of the protecting duties to the agriculturist, is, by cheapness of provisions, to obtain the power to compete more effectually with foreign markets. This can only be done by a reduction of wages to the operative classes, and who then would be the sufferers ? wli-o thegainers? Let them answer for themselves, if the working classes like to risk such a fearful expedient. Let us also ask, for what was the system continued ? That a greater quantity of goods might be produced, and their gains be the larger. Let the operatives again lookback, and inquire at what periods their distresses were great- est from the want of work and low prices ; they will surely find those times to be in the years of cheap corn, or the following years. Let them also inquire into the condition of those countries where corn is cheap and abundant. First, does the labourer there get commen- surate wages, so as to permit him to enjoy better lodging, food, or clothing, than similar artisans, ope- ratives, or labourers, in this country, or even in Ire- land ? Inquiry will convince him that the contrary is the fact. It is notorious, that the labourers and artisans in those countries are the most wretchedly paid and clothed of any in Europe ; it is therefore the regularity of work and good wages which are to produce his com- fort and happiness, and this the writer confidently and conscientiously believes, is only to be found in a steady and continufilly improving home-market. Thus when compared, any other notion is trifling and delusory ; as the foreign does not bear above a tenth of the trade of our home-markets; our foreign exports vary from forty to fifty millions per annum, and our home tr&de is computed at five or six hundred millions ! ON THE SECOND KNOWN FERTI- LIZER OF THE SOIL, MANURE. (fnOM BLANn's TRlNCIPtES OF ACniCUtTUnE.^ The manines employed to fertilize land are divisible into two kinds. The first; are the miHcral, the second are the vegetable and animal. To place the argument, relative to this impor- tant part of agriculture, on a solid foundation, a few specimens of those soils that have been always esteemed by persons in their neighbourhood the best and most fertile, are laid before the reader, and comments afterwards made upon them. First. Out of nineteen parts of an excellent wheat soil : 11 parts of silica, or large, small, and fine sand. 2 ■ lime, or carbonate of lime. 2 — alumina, or clay. 1 • • vegetable aud animal matter. Second. Out of twenty-five parts of a turnip soil •• 20 parts of silica. 2 lime. 1 • clay. 2 • vegetable and animal matter. Third. Out of ten parts of a fertile soil from Scotland : 3 parts of silica. 1 • lime. 5 ■ clay. 1 vegetable and animal matter. Fourth. Out of eight parts of a soil proper for wheat : 2 parts of silicai 3 lime. 3 ■ clay. Those four sp°clmens arc siifTicient to answer the purpose intended; for although there is no doubt as to the coirectness of their analysis, since they have passed through the hands of Sir H. Davy, yet they will by no means serve to consti- tute a general scale of productive proportions; because a variety iu the sub-soils, as well as a difference in the situation and climate, must ever defy the establishment of one only. However, the above will answer every reasonable purpose ; but ^ first, an opinion snould he given as to a standard of fertile proportions which can be safely relied upon, and capable of practical adoption. It is this: to select the proportions from the best soils in the very neighbourhood of the field to be improved, where the sub-soil and situation are similarly cir- cumstanced, and the climate the same. On viewing the proportions of silica, lime, clay, and vegetable and animal matter in the specimens selected, we are not a little surprised at thesmall- ness of the quantity of the vegetable proportion, which on average is only as 1 to 15 j : therefore, one directly decides that the permanent fertility of soils is by no means dependent alone on the vege- table share of matter they contain. This, however, must be proved ; and to do so it will be necessary to estimate the produce of fertile lands, sa}', for the space of four years; and it will soon be found that the vegetable proportion alone is far too small in quantity to insure such abundant crops as the following : First year. Turnips that will fat ten sheep an acre. Second year. IJarley seven quarters; or, oats eight to ten quarters to the acre. Third year. Beans four to six quarters to the acre ; or, two good mowings of clover. Fourth year. Wheat four to five quarters to the acre. All this from one coat of manure of the vegeta- ble kind, and applied at the fallow. Now the usual coat of vegetable manure on the best regulated farms, never exceeds, in general, and indeed seldom equals, all the straw even they pro- duce ; because, when an agriculturist can manure a quarter of ids lands each year, that is to say, return all the straw grown on each field every four years, it is as much as he is able to accomplish ; and which quantity is found, from experience, amply sufficient, when conjoined with the fallow, ^ to raise healthy and productive crops. This being the case and the fact, the more weighty and valu- able part, the corn, is sold off from the lands as food for man and beast, except what mr.y be con- sumed at home, which does not more than com- pensate for the loss of straw by thatching, by tithe taken in kind, and by waste, which will ever un- avoidably occur on every farm under even the best management. Whence, then, does the grov* ing corn acquire the extra and necessary supply ; since, as above shown, it cannot be from the vegetable manure carted on, beca';se that would he obtaining a greater quantity from a less, which is absurd ? Is it from the materials of the soil ?* Yet, how can • Pure silica, lime, and clay, are in themselves bar- ren ; or in a state of perfect rest or balance of affinities. But when they are broken into powder, put together nnd well mixed with a portion of water, their resj)ec- tive affinities immediately become active; fermenta- tion ensues; is capable of increase and continuance by cultivation, especially when joined with the addi- tion and mixture of dead animal and vegetable sub- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 313 that he ? for if wc were to allow it to be the case, the fertile soil must, in the course of a few cen- turies, be reduce J in quantity, and thus deprive future generations of the moans of support, which is equally absurd ; being contrary not only to jiresent fact^, but to the usual providence of the Sn|)rcme Being. And as regards present facts ; the best soils in former times, are now, under pro- per mariagcmcnt, equally as productive, if not more so, than then. The necessary supply of food must, however, come from somewhere ; conse- quently we must look and examine around for the source or sources ; and if we do look, it must be for that which is known to be necessary to plants, is within their reach, and of a natuie in- exhaustible. They are, then, as has been before shown, and here again confirmed, the rain, the dews, and the air, all of which falling upon, and entering into a purverized and fermenting soil during the process of the fallow, and thus expelling, as has been also before stated, the stale air and stale water which has been breathed by preceding plants ; as gathered flowers in a class of water on a mantel require the water to be changed every day or two, or they would droop, so a store of fresh air and fresh wa- ter, vvith renewed powers of fermentation, is ac- qidred by the soil. This, likewise, takes place with fertile soils, and those in good heart, at the time a crop is growing. The fresh water, iu proportion as it is absorbed by the plants, gives ])lace immedi- ately to fresh air, or a vacuum must ensue ; there- fore, these two great advantages arise whenever a shower falls, or the night's dew enters the fertile stances, which is still facilitated and advanced, like every other chemical process, by heat. The individual materials, silica, lime, and clay, are not decomposed, the heat to which they are sub- ject being insufficient ; hut they, by their contiguity, exert their chemical influences on each other to a certain degree, which every day's experience proves sufficient to act with the necessary chemical effect on the more easily decomposible substances of dead animals and vegetables, on air and water, as well as stimulating the energies of the roots of plants. Fluoric ncid is not found in cultivated soils ; and the silex, which is detected in the straw of wheat, oats, and barley, is obtained in the easiest way by nature, that is to say, from the straw of those plants put on as manure. EXAMl'tES RELATIVE TO SILICA, ETC. Now a piece of sugar is by itself in a quiescent state ; and so is a cup of water or tea ; but when the former is i^ut into either of the latter, its solution in- stantly follows. JNIuriatic acid and marble ; sulphuric acid and spirits of turpentine ; these if kept separate, would continue at pertect rest for ever, but when brought respectively together, a mutual incorporation takes place, with a complete explosion of the two latter. Take a flint and steel, and put them into a quantity of gunpowder, the balance of their affinities will still remain undisturbed ; let but one spark only be eli- cited from the two hard substances, and every per- son instantly anticipates the result. More instances might be adduced ; the above are however sufficient to prove that, notwithstanding the apparent quietude of each pure aud simple com- pound substance, when saturated and separated, yet, how speedily their affinities are awakened into life by being brought in contact with each other, having heat, and air, and moisture as auxiliaries. earth ; and thus the rapid growth and improve- ment of vegetation in the growing period [of the year, after every kindly shower, is accounted for. These, conjoined with the influence of the sun, the seasons, and the innate powers of growing vege- tables, aided no doubt in some degree by the prin- ciples of electricity, eftect the formation of corn and fruit. Relative to the expulsion of the stale air, &c., which is so important, it is in proportion to the quantity and the general diff"usion of the rain throughout the soil, and this is of course in pro- portion to the state of jjulverization, or adhesive- ness of the particles of the soil, and its nearness to the last ploughing. The strong analogy between the soil and the stomach of animals may not im- properly be adduced as an illustration of the above argument. The soil does not of itself aftoixl the means of support to the plant, but receives the food from the vegetable manure carted on, and from the rain, dews, and air ; so the stomach, by the animal's industy in gathering or catching its food, merely prepares it by a decomposing process, which so far weakens the several affinities of the matter contained, as to be capable of being after- wards selected and taken up by the appropriate organization of the plant and the animal ; and this is effected in proportion to the proper constitution and health of the soil, and the animal. This constitution of the soil,* then, is of the first importance, for upon it depends the power of decomposing vegetable materials within itself, and of abstracting from the elements that come within its sphere the other requisites for the support of plants, all of which the soil retains with that gentle degree of combination which the selecting energies of vegetation are able to overcome. Two sources, then, of food for plants are avail- able by manf ; the one, manure, caitcd upon the soil ; the other, the surronuding elements. Both these are had recourse to by the practical husband- man, sometimes alone, as in carting on the manure or making a fallow ; and sometimes conjoined, as when manuring the fallow. Of the subject of this chapter — manures. Of the mineral kinds, arc limej, sand, burnt earth II, clay, marl, hedge mould, or any other of * One mark of the proper constitution of a soil is when it neither holds moisture for too long nor too short a time, and is not easily dissolved by a sliower falling upon it, so as to form a crust upon the surface impenetrable to air. This constitution of the soil is, as has been before observed, improved, strengthened, and rendered healthy by cultivation, and by cultivation only: since manure fails of effecting that which cultivation never does. Indeed manure placed ujjon a field whose cultivation has been neglected, and chemical powers consequently weak, precisely resembles a full meal that is taken into a debilitated stomach, when disease and languor follow, ratber than health and strength. t In fact there are but these two sourco'?, and which two possess the true and onlv food of plants ; the rest of the fertility depending on the proper constitu- tion of the soil, and requisite cultivation, to keep the same in health. * Chalk, the carbonate of lime, is known to be a great improver of the constitutions of stiff clays, and hot gravels, being put ou such lands in the proportion of from twenty to twenty-five cubic yards, or com- mon cart-loads to an acre. II The compost of burnt earth and turf, is found 314 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the earthy or mmeral ?uhstances, which upon in- spection are all easily resolvable into the three principal ingredients of soils, namely, lime, sand, and clay. As respects the use of these mineral and earthy materials to improve soils, they can only act, in the first place, to strengthen the constitution and per- manent digestive powers of the soil, by increasing the deficient proportions of either lime, sand, or clay, and in this way add to the permanent fertility, If there be no deficiency, they then can only prove of use to hasten the decay of vegetable matter, which is preserved in a strong balance of affinity by acids, and which lime has the power of neutralizing; or from the freshness occasioned to the soil by the application of those substances that have not been under the influence of growing vegetables before, at least not of corn. This fertilizing effect is however but transient, and the application of the materials oftentimes expensive. In fact this prac- tice is precisely similar, only less efl:ectnal, to the benefit gardeners experience with their plants, when repotting them into fresh mould ; and the agriculturist's cheapest and only practicable sub- stitute, where the soil is properly constituted, is in one or two years well cultivated and vegetable- manured fallow. Animal and vegetable manures next claim at- tention. These are, dead animal matter from the inhabitants of the land and sea, including bones, &c. ; and the vegetable materials, of every denomi- nation, found growing on the earth, some of which arc ploughed in green*, others are partly decom- posed before they are applied. But the description most generally employed, is the straw of all corn and grass, trampled down in the farm-yard by stock, and impregnated, more or less, with their excrement, which improves the strength of this kind of manure in proportion to the nature and quantity of the food given. Soot is a manure partaking of both the animal and vegetable ; being composed of ammoniacal salts, and empyreumatic oil ; with a great basis of charcoal, which arc readily decomposed by the action of oxygen and water. This manureis gene- rally applied as a top dressing, but the animal and vegetable manures are always ploughed well into the soil of all arable lands, and laid on the surface of pastures. Since the animal and vegetable manures are com- posed of the materials needed by growing plants, even to the very earths and salts, of which soils are said to be robbed, they must consequently aff'ord the most valuable share of food to growing plants; but as the food, from its capability of being con- sumed by living vegetables, is continually dimi- nishing, the consumption requires making up by periodical fresh a])plications. Animal and vegetable manures being most gene- rally employed for the enrichment of soils, it is to ensure a crop of turnips on most soils, therefore is valuable. And, there can bo no question, would prove more useful than lime, where no strong acid Exists. * The ploughing in of green crops, as tares, buck- wheat, or rajje upon poor and distant fields, is an admirable practice ; and is tounded on taking the advantage, through the aid of cultivation, of those vegetables of strong and hardy natures, and obliging them to contribute the store they had collected from the elements around them, to the support, by their decay, of plants of a more useful and tender species. useful to inquire what changes and consequences arise when they arc thus devoted. The usual method of application of farm-yard manure, is by carting and spreading the materials on the surface ot a field in an incipient state of de- cay, and then bur)'ing them in with the plough. i Experience proves that the decomposition of ve- ' getable and animal manure is in proportion to the | state of culture of the land to which it is given. If the field be in an exhausted state, and only one * ploughing follows just to bury the manure ; its de- composition, and chemical and mechanical union with the soil will be very slow, in consequence of the undestroyed strong balance of affinities of the impoverished soil. If the previous reasoning holds good, manure so employed is in part wasted, instead of being made the most of, as it is when put early on a fallow ; because the manure when buried, lies in contact for a whole year, with precisely the same surfaces of the soil, and being in lumps, its sphere of con- tact must be proportionally small. The consequence is, that less fermentation takes place than what ought to do, and a proportion of the manure will actually escape in gas, from its own fermentation after the saturation of the contiguous particles of the soil has been completed, and the absence of more fresh particles to arrest it. If plants arc growing above it, they are injured from the apo- plexy and lodging of the corn that follows, by receiving this food too readily, and not sufficiently diluted, if I may be allowed this expression. This is the reason why fish manure, or yard manure is so soon gone when put on a field to be immediately cropped, and is not cultivated previously. Stubbles ploughed in, will remain with very little decay for a whole year in poor and half cul- tivated lands, from the existence of the strong ba- lance of affinities, resulting from the exposed parti- cles being saturated, and no new ones brought up to the sun, air, &c. ; therefore, no fresh combinations or fermentation can take place. Whereas, if stub- bles are ploughed in preparatory to a fallow, so as to have the benefit of several successive ploughings and harrowiiigs, nearly, or quite the whole of tiie stubble will be decomposed and blended with the soil, and be rendered a valuable manure, by the re- ciprocal fermentation of the land and the stubble. The former, set into activity by the cultivation ; the lattei , from its easy decomposition soon feel- ing the effect of the former, when they act con- jointly in their general fermentative and fertilizing process. When a crop is to be principally benefitted by the manure laid on the field with one ploughing only, the manure should be rich, and in a forward state of decay ; because its decay, when in a long state, will be unassisted by cultivation, and the affinities of the particles of the soil will be too strong in their balance to expedite the process. The manure in this case will require to be brought into that state of decay before it is applied, which will ensure its own fermentation afterwards without aid from cultivation. And then, like shavings or small wood to a nearly extinguished fire, a partial over- throw of the strong balance or affinities of the soil will be produced, and thus far restore its fertility. But when manuring in this way it is at the expense of the manure itself, by the loss that necessarily ensues whilst the heap lies fermenting in the mix- hill, in order to its being reduced to the requisite state of decay ; which decay, or rather calcination, causes a portion of its best elements and quantity to be evolved to the winds. Again, when the ma- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 315 nuie is laid on only before the last ploughing, even if it be a fallow, and a crop then sown, the manure is found distributed in the soil more or less in lumps. The young, and perhaps delicate plants, be- fore they reach the manure with their fibres, must be some time and during theinterval many perish.* Such is the case with young turnips, which, when they do reach the manure, find the same in masses and from its very light and porous nature, not so well adapted for the roots to extract benefit from, as if blended with, or more divided in the soil. The above circumstances lead to the conclusion, that both in the garden and in the field, the best time and manner of applying vegetable and animal manures, indeed manures of every description, is on a fallow ; and to cart and spread them on the land in the autumn, winter, or spring, according to theirnature and circumstances; when there will be sufficient time to mechanically mix them well •with the soil, by the successive ploughings and harrowings. The only exception that can be adduced is on stiff clayey lands, which might have the coat of manure applied at twice to keep it the more open ; as once at the fallow, being half the quantity, and once between, as for beans or peas. By the manure, or manui'es, being so early ap- plied the particles of the soil are more quickly and generally divided, therefore the sooner and better able to admit the fresh air, rain, and dews ; thus favouring their decomposition and union with the soil; and likewise the same of the manures, which uniting in their effects, co-operate with the plough most powerfully in the generalincrease of fermen- tation and pulvei'ization. The thermometer will always denote an increase of temperature Vv'hen inserted into the soil about three inches, after re- cent cultivation, and also after recent manuring ; and when these are both combined, the rise in the instrument will be found proportionally the higher. Under these favourable facts, it is not to be won- dered at that the long strawey manure becomes soon reduced to a short fine state, and very gene- rally distributed by the after cultivation. Now when any delicate seeds are sown on a field treated as proposed, they are assisted in their infant vegetation by the increased native powers of fer- mentation in the early manured and well pulverized soil. Their first roots have the great advantage of the necessary food being immediately contiguous to them, and in that state of delicate suspension, or balance of their affinities, that the least vegetative effort of the plants is sufficient to overthrow, and in consequence such a tilth is most favourable to their unfolding, their future vigour, and their ar- riving perfect at maturity. If the reasoning employed be correct, this favor- able conclusion may be drawn, that the early appli- cation of vegetable, animal, and other manures to the fallow, contributes in a multiplied degree to the fertilizing the same, by the mechanical as well as chemical assistance which they impart to the power the soil has of combining with, and decomposing air and water, with, at the same time, their pul- * By the experience of the best gardeners, raw manure is never found so healthy for plants as when it has been digested and blended with the soil by a previous fermentation and cultivation ; because the materials of the raw manure are forced, as it were, upon the plants in an unselected, undiluted, crude dtate ; thus favouring disease, apoplexy, or extrava- ' gant fertility. verizing effects ; which objects could not be gained if the manures were added only before the last ploughing, and, by this practice also, the four fol- lowing points are gained. The first, considerable less loss in the manure or manures, by their fer- menting in the soil, instead of in the mix-hill. The second, the soil deriving more fertility by the early application of the manures than when put on late, and at no expense. The third, the ma- nures being carted on the land early, less loss en- sues from evaporation, the sun having then less power. And the fourth, that if any kneading should take place during carting, there is time afterwards to get the better of the evil, with hav- ing the manure or manures themselves to assist the husbandman's efforts. The application of the same kind of manure to plants or trees that are occupiers of the soil for more than one year, as hops, the artificial and na- tural gi'asses, fruit, &c., is not always advanta- geous, nor do the fields prove so productive as might be expected from the pains bestowed. The advantage of variety is, greater fermenta- tion ; therefore greater benefit from the air and rains. For the same manure acts on the soil, par- ticularly if not aided by cultivation, like the same medicine, or the same air upon the human system, which medicine or air is found to lose its best effect after a too long repetition. In fact, the soil as well as the body, becomes saturated or neutra- lized. This is not the case with arable land, be- cause of the variety of the crops, to say nothing of the cultivation, particularly of the fallow which is the most powerful of all ; and thus admits of the same kind of manure being a;)plied periodi- cally for ever with the same successi. Before the subject relating to manures is brought to a conclusion, if will be proper to observe, that an excess in manuring, particularly when put on raw for the coming crop, is as injurious as when land is poor from the want of manure. For of fertility there may be named three descriptions. As, Extravagant fertility. Productive fertility. Apoplectic fertility. The first is, when so early and rapid a decom- position takes place, that the plants thrive too fast in their youth, and then towards harvest have nearly or quite done growing, without perfecting their seeds. This is commonly known by the name of crops, being winter or spring, proud, and sum- mer poor. On examining the stalks and ribbons, they will be found to be covered with the fungi species, which is owing to a sudden cessation of the supply of the sap ; the healthy secretions are in conse- quence at an end, fermentation of the juices suc- ceeds ; a gas is then formed, which bursts the vessels, and the fungi grow. The causa of this extravagant fertility is this ; that the corn was sown upon fresh or recently manured land, the land being in itself poor from previous exhaustion ; the result is, that the corn receives its food directly from the manure, in the first instance, and of course in an unselected, undi- luted state, instead of disengaging if fiom the soil, with which the particles of the manure had been lightly combined by previous good cultivation j* * Very many proofs might be adduced in support both by gardeners and agriculturists : for example, a field of good land was maaured and sown with 316 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. for the fresh manure decays faster, and thus yields, and indeed rather forces itself upon the plants he- 3'ond what they naturally and immediately reiiuirc. And being aided in its decomposition by the vege- tative powers of the corn, a too rapid growth is at first hrouglit on. Then, as the plants had been induced to commence their structure upon a large scale, by the abundance of the materials afforded them they require a proportioned greater quantity of the same materials to maintain and complete what they had begun ; but from the two-fold cause of an early extravagance and large structure, they find those materials deficient at the very time when wanted the most — the forming and com- pleting of the seed. The soil all the time from its ])0verty, or strong balance of affinities, effects but little towards the growth of the plants ; there- fore out of the two sources of fertility, namely, manure and good cultivation, the one most im- portant, meaning the latter,havingbeen neglected, fails of its necessary supply, and disease of the plant takes place accordingly.* The cause of productive fertility is owing to a re- gular decomposition going forward within the reach of the roots of the growing plants, when food is yielded sufficiently fast to meet all their necessary demands, and continues thus from the beginning to the end, and a well matured crop is formed, yielding- bright straw, a handsome plump sample, and in quantity proportioned to the native fertility of the land. This favourable result is to be attributed to the crop being able to disengage its food from the particles of the soil, with which it has been com- bined by a previous good cultivation and exposure, or fallow process. The beneficial consequence of which is, that the plants have to exert their own de- composing and selecting energies to obtain the food they require, and therefore take up no more than what their healthy vegetation demands; instead, as m the former case, of liaving tbeir vegetation impel- led on, as it were, by the too rapid and overwhelm- ing self-decomposition of the manure. The cause of the apoplectic fertility is owing to a wheat, at the proper time ; its appearance during winter, spring, and summer, was very strong ; but when reaped at harvest, the straw was found very soft, the grain of little value and short in produce. The owner of the field was recommended to fallow it, although he himself conceived the field to be suf- ficiently fertile as not to require such tillage ; how- ever he had recourse to the fallow, and then sowed wheat again. The produce after the fallow treatment, amply repaid the expense, being more than six quar- ters upon the acre ; a proof of the superiority of cul- tivation, over a coat of manure without it. The process of fallowing had mixed and combined the manure with the soil, at the same time restored its chemical powe"s, and therefore the succeeding crop of wheat drew from its resources, now rendered healthy, in proportion as it required the food. . * Corn sown upon scarified ground, and compared with the same species grown on the same land ploughed, will be found, when examined at harvest, to have its straw considerably softer and the grain not so abundant in produce, either in weight or mea- sure; because the plants of the corn were not so well able to effect the requisite secretions for the composition of the straw, or the quantity of all the materials to form the grain, as where the roots could penetrate the greater depth into a more recently cul- tivated soil, as when after the operation of the plough. too rapid decomposition taking place throughout the growth of the plants, as is the case if a few clevels of grain happen to fall upon and take root in a dung mix-hill. Tbe plants are seen to flourish away with uncommon vigour, as if in a state of intoxication, producing ribbon by wholesale ; and if standing in masses, are soon beaten down by the winds and rain, when, the straw becoming bent, the sap is then more or less impeded in its flow through the vessels, which are already overcharged with half concocted food, forced into circulation by the too rapid decay of the manure beneath ; the consequence is the bursting of some of the vessels, when a nidus is formed for the fungi species, in the form of red rust, &c., and if this corn ever ripens, a lean half formed clevel is the only produce. REPORT OF TITHE COMMISSIONERS. Tithe Commission, Feb. 28. My Lord— It is our duty to report to your Lordship the general progress of the commutations since May 1, 1838. We have now in the office 3,498 agreements, of which 2,362 are confirmed. If it is assumed that those not confirmed comprise, on the average, tithe equal in amount to the average tithe in those which have been confimied, then tithe to the amount of 1,312,102/. 17s. 4d. has been agreed to be commuted by voluntary arrangement. The commencement of the operation of our compul- sory powers has brought us necessarily into contact with more reluctant parties, and with difficulties which did not effect oiu- previous operations. We are of opinion, however, that we have, on the whole, made a satisfactery commencement of the en- forcement of these powers. Districts, in which tithes have generally been taken in kind, or kt on annual valuations, contain elements of struggle and irritation, from which the rest of the country is free. Those districts are comparatively small ; and after a few cases in each have been patiently heard and care- fully decided, we see ground for hoping that voluntary agreements will, even in those districts, eft'ect tiie greater part of the work of commutation. Our experience has been sufficient to prove that, ■while voluntary agreements are made at the rate at whicli they are now coming in to us, the processes of apportionment consequent on these agreements, create at least as much, perhaps more employment, than can be proceeded with at once by such mappers and apportioners as have the confidence of tlie country. No exertions on our part will be wanting to hasten the completion of the apportionment ; but still, under these circumstances, wc think it prudent, unless the progress of voluntary commutation should slacken, to confine our compulsory interference to four classes of selected cases, and we append to this repert the circu- lar,* in which we have described these classes. The returns already presented to Parliament contain the statistical details of our progress so fully, that wc do not think it necessary to repeat them here. — We have the honour to be, your Lordship's most obedient and faithful servants, Wm. Blahiire, T. W. BULLER, R. Jones. To the Right Hon. Lord John Russell, &c., &c. * The circular here nfcrred to appeared in the public prints at the time wlieii it was issued. I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 317 LLANDOVERY DISTRICT AGRICUL- TURAL SOCIETY. We always regard the establishment of an agri- cultural society as an indication of a desire to im- prove, manifested by those who establish it, and we reckon upon improvement as an almost certain result. We experience much satisfaction in call- ' ing attention to the first ploughinaj mntch of the "Llandovery district Agricultural Society," which took place on the 27th Feb. The society was formed at the end of tlie last year, and the com- mitte and officers have lost no time in coming into t fie field. A list of prizes for cattle, to be awarded at a meeting in November next, is in circulation, and as the foundation of good husbandry, we are glad 10 see encouragement held out to the cultiva- tion of turnips and the execution of draining by an offer of the following prizes: ' TURNIPS AND DRAINING. £ s. d. To the subscriber who shall raise the best crop of turnips of any kind, of not less than three aores,-;-soil and situation consid9red ,400 To the Subscriber who shall raise the best crop of turnips of any kind, not less than five acres, — soil and situation considered ..GOO For the greatest number of acres (not less than five) drained by a Subscriber, in the year 1839, soil and situation considered ... 5 0 0 For the greatest number of acres (not less than three) drained by a Subscriber, in the year 1839, soil and situation considered ..300 Whilst caring for themselves the members of this society have not forgotten to encourage the la- bourer by prizes for faithful services. We heartily wish success to this infant society. On Wednesday, Feb. 27, the ploughing match of this infant society took place in a field of Mr. Prosser's, at Llwynjack, near Llandovery ; the weatJier being ex- tremely favourable, an immense concourse cf spectators assembled from the neighbouring parishe* to witness the contest, which, from its novelty and importance, seemed to attract universal attention. Seventeen ploughmen with their ploughs and teams enterad the field in r«gular procession from Llandovery. When lots wara drawn for the situations, which had been previously marked out, they proceeded to work in good earnest, and after executing their several tasks in a most satisfactory man- ner, the field was cleared of all persons with the ex- ception of the Secretary of the Society : and the judges, Daniel Jones, Esq., Penybont, D. Davies, Esq., Frood- yale, and Mr. R. Shute, Neuaddfach, were then called in to inspect the work. Seon afterwards about sixty of the leading gentlemen and farmers of the district ad- journed to the Castle Inn, where they sat down to a most sumptuous dinner, provided for the occasion by Mr. Powell : the Rev.E. H. G. Williams, of Llwynywor- mood, the Society "s President, in the Chair, assisted by D. Jones, Esq., jun., as Vice. When the cloth was re- moved several loyal and patriotic toasts were drunk, with the usual honours, after which the President an- nounced that the successful competitors in ploughing ^ere,— first prize, Daniel Rees, servantof Mr. J. Jones, Llwyndewi, Llangadock ; second prize, Thomas Jones, servant of Henry Jones, Esq., Cynghondy. Llanfairary- bryn ;^ third prize, Daniel Lloyd, Llwynpiod, the Pre- sident's own tenant. The announcement was received with great applause, and seemed to give universal satis- faction. The President also stated that there were three others, Thomas Thomas, servant of M. Morgan, Esq., Llwyn ; Thomas Rees, servant of Rev. J. Morgan', Tolrhyn ; and J. Edwards, servant of Mr. Powell, Castle Inn, who, although they did not perform their work equal to those who won the prizes, yet they de- served being noticed as being the three best ploughmen next to tiie successful competitors. The health of Lord Dynevor, tiie Patron of the Society, vva« drunk with heartfelt enthusiasm, which was followed by the healths of the President, Vice-President, and other officers of the society, the INIayor and Corporation of Llandovery, &c., &c., &:c., which afforded an apportunity for the delivery of several excellent and interesting speeches, and the rest of the evening was spent with much hilarity and glee. The i)lou«hmen were also provided with iin excellent dinner, at the expencc of the society. The judicious conduct and activity of the stewards of the day, H. Jones, Esq., Mr. J. Havard, and Mr. Powell, contributed greatly to the success of the proceedings, and were the themes of admiration. We are happy to find the funds of the society fast increasing ; they al- ready amount to 114?. annua.1 subscription, and, if we may judge from such an auspicious commencement of the society's proceedings, we may augur well of its future utility and efficiency in introducing an improved system of agriculture into the upper part of Carmar- thenshire. THE BEE KEEPER'S MANUAL. BY HENRY TAYLOR. Groombridge, London. This well-arranged and truly useful little work has appeared most opportunely. The period of the year is just at hand when those, who desire to have a stock of bees, should make arrangements for possessing them ; and those who possess them al- ready will feel an interest, not merely in the pros- pect of advantage from their industry, but also in marking the periodical return of Spring, which not only revives and invigorates the " little busy bee," but enlivens them and renews the ray of hope which the dullness of winter had clouded. Much has been written on the management of the bee, still, however, as upon many otiier subjects con- nected with rural affairs, we are far from having attained perfection. This, however, we can state, in no work which has come under our notice has the subject been treated so clearly and practically as in Taylor's Bee Keeper's Manual. We subjoin an extract especially applicable to the approaching season. " Stocking a Hive, and SmExoxii of a Colony. — To stock a hive an early swarm should be selected, if possible, in May. On this occasion the holes at the top of it and elsewhere must be temporarily stopped till it is put up in its place, which must, without fail, bn on the same evening. Should the swarm be immediately at hand, it is still better to place it at once where it is to remain, that is as soon as the bees are pretty quiet, which will be in less than half an hour. Unless the swarm isa very large one, and particularly if a full-size pavilion or hive is used, in a good bee district, it is best to increase the numbers by uniting a second swarm to the first.* The stronger the colony at the outset, the better the bees will work and the more prosperous it will become. 1 never knew a weak one do well long, and a little extra expense and trouble at first are amply rewarded by suc- • It is not always an easy matter to estimate tlie strength of a swarm, tlje bulk is not a certain criterion, as the wea- ther enures the bees to cluster together more or less cluselv. Five thousand bees are estimated to weigh a pound, but this also varies, for on sv»arming they are always provident enough to load themselves more or less with honey before their departure. The swarm, however, ought to wei(;h nearly four pounds, some have reached to six pounds, but this is rare. Y 2 318 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ceedin? years of prosperity and ultimate profit ; indeed one main feature in the coilateral system i-. that of being enabled to retain tog'ethcr a greater mass of bees than on any other is possible, no more nurses are required for the brood of a larjre hive than a small one, consequently the proportion of working' bees is increased. The usual and most certain method of uniting Rwarms is as follows : In a few days, or as soon as is desired, after the first has been established, a second swarm may be put into a common hive. At night place a table in front of the one to which it is to be joined, over which spread a cloth ; by a sudden and smart stroke the bees may be displaced from the hive, and will fall on the table in a lump. Take the first hived colon-/ and place it over them, raising it a little at bottom, when the bees below will ascend and join it, forming one family. In moving the hive, let it be done with caution, for the combs, being at present new and brittle, are otherwise apt to fall down. It is seldom that any quarrel takes place if the business be done properly. Early the next morning move the hive back to its former position ; one of the queens will be speedily deposed and all will go on quietly with redoubled strength and activity. I have tried with success, in a collateral hive, another mode of junction : on the 31st of May, 1835, Ihived aswarm into the pavilion, and on the 7th of June a second one into an end box ; to the latter a temporary entrance had been provided ; the bees worked as two distinct families till the 19th of June, when each box was filled with combs; I then took out dividers, and (borrowing a hint from Mr. IVIalond) substituted others of perforated zinc through which the scent of both hives passed and mixed freely, for this greatly facilitates their union; in two days more these were withdrawn at night, and this mode of junction in a well authenticated case came to my knowledg-e the last year, where a supposed union of this kind was made (in an Oxford hive) after the two swarms had worked separately for three weeks, on en- deavouring to remove the end box it was discovered still to remain a distinct family with its own queen, there being also one in the centre box, both colonies had worked throughout the summer from one common doorway. In whatever way bees are united it should be done at night and not when they are at work, or destraction would ensue ; as a general rule it my be remarked that the mode the most likely tosucceed is a junction made of the whole ; the temporary entrance to the side box having, previously, been closed, as well as that of the pavilion, all were shut up till the next evenintr.* On the succeeding morning they went to work in peace, with scarcely any loss of life, and on the 16th July both boxes were filled with honey. But I think some doubt attached is, that in whic-li bees are suddenly blended together without space or opportunity for individual re- cognition, or fighting bee against bee ; and it must be done before the hive is filled with combs. But though the methods of union now pointed out may answer at the proper time, they must not be resorted to at a later stage or fatal consequences might result; a different course must then be taken, as will appear under the head of autumnal management." SPADE HUSBANDRY. (from a correspondent.) Abroad travellers can hardly fail to be surprised at seeing little or no cattle in the fields, wlrch is important, as it accounts for meat being plenty and cheap ; Ijecause the same land, by stall feeding, will support double, if not treble, the quantity of oxen, compared with those * A difficulty snnietimos occurs wlion iti« necessary to confine bees or drive tliem into the hive, as the alighting Imard Is often covered with them in an evening, and the numbers arc increased on the least alarm. In this case take a small tvaterinar pot and gently .sprinkle the lioard and entrance, tvhen the bees, mistaking this for rain, will all rcthe inside; allowed to destroy with their hoofs as much as they eat, whilst exposed to extremes of heat and cold. When straw is thrown down in roads, as was the case in Cornwall, and is still general in open farm yards in other parts of England, the rain washes away half its best properties ; besides, the animals which tread this straw, from being chilled, require more food, whereas, if the same straw is cut up with turnip tops, mangel wurzel, leaves, and other succulent food, it makes better manure after it has gone through the process of diges- tion than it can do merely poached by cattle. Another advantage from stall feediig, is that the land is not wasted in fences, as is seen in Belgium and Ger- many, where furrows alone divide strips of land which reach down from the villages to the road sides ; and it is from land thus economically used that we are sup- plied with butter, cheese, and corn which has been poured in since the late high prices have opened the English ports. And the agricultural prosperity of Scotland is owing to the improvements eflfected by the stimulus given by their large premiums, which premiums are liberally thrown open to the whole of the United Kingdom, and by their itinerating agricultural book clubs. "Let then," as Mr. Johnson says, "improvements proceed ; let science go hand in hand with the farmer ; let the Naturalist find new cultivatable vegetables, or new varieties of those already known ; let the Chemist yield his magic aid to demonstrate the best mode of promoting their growth, and the increasing the fertility of the soil; and then, I fearlessly as-ert, that ten times the present inhabitants of Britain may be amply sup- ported by the land of their birth." As a plan has been proposed of National Education, in which learning some occupation is to form a part, might not this object be promoted, and the saluries of masters he saved, by each being allowed \.o rent from 1 to 5 acres of land, and having their scholars' services in cultivating it after twelve o'clock in return for teaching them to read, ikc, till noon. The parish clerk and schoolmaster of Javington, Sus- sex, is willing to teach daily, till noon, if he could but rent one acre of land. Satisfied from the produce of the little he does rent, that half an acre would yield him 20 bushels of wheat yearly, and the other half turnips, mangel wurzel, &c., to stall feed a cow and pig, and that with the manure they would give, by changing yearly, the grain and green crops, that the produce would increase ; and there is just reprinted by H. Wright, 15, Huy market, Hints to Dairy Farmers, by W. Cramp, who recsived the Board ef Agriculture's medal, for the details of the management by which in the House of Correction at Lewes, he obtained a profit of upwards of 50 pounds from one cow in 1808. And he says, though 100 fold from seed on good ground in the parable of the sower used to be thought fig\ir alive, irom a thimble full of wheat last year, he raised 50 plants, yielding upwards of a quart, weighing two pounds, and containing 2,3 12 grains, that is 406 told the seed ; he put in each grain to the depth of his finger, so it was not devoured by the fowls of the air, was net withered for the uant of moiiture, and being well weeded was not choked by tliorns, and one plant bore 52 ears. Schoolmasters being paid by the produce of the land they rent, would be a motive to be diligent in instructing their pupils, and farmeis might be tempt- ed to try dibbling, if children were used to the work. " A Prebend of Ely promoted the National school- master allowing the children to help their parents and serve their country in that kind of work to which their tiny fingers are better suited than those of larger growth. And the Labourers' Magazine for March, states, Mr. of ■ Norfolk, an eminent practical agricul- turist and land agent, says, I do not hesitate to acknow- ledge that I have learnt more of farming by looking over allotments than from all the farms in the coun- ty ; for if there are 20 allotment tenants, probaby not two farm alike, tht*s you see on the same land, the same THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 319 season, land farmed in a variety of ways, wliijch cannot be done on a farm. And season has so much to do with produce, an equally satisfactory result on a farm could not be had in many years. Thus school land mi»ht form experimental farms all over England ; and the most authentic and valuable in- formation be obtained, if the masters were directed to keep daily accounts of work and produce. Copying- which, mig-ht form a writing: exercise for their pupils, to be examined by the annual visitors from the central school. And little capital for commencing would be required, besides the purchase of prongs, hoes, dibblers,and rakes for the children, and an empty cask to kaep them in, in the school-room, which cask used there, would save both JlaiU and thrashing floor, for more sheaves need not be brought in than could be clefired of the grain before night with a sack to put the seed in, which when full might be drawn in a hand cart to the mill by the boys ; and this cart would serve to take out the solid manure, and by slinging under it a barrel, liquid manure also, to give to the turnips, potatoes, mangel wurzel plants, Sec, and perhaps notiiing more would be want- ing than a machine to cut by hand tine roots and straw for the cow, pails for milking, and a churn for making the butter. And if girls were taught to milk, &c., it might tempt great furmers to keep more cows than they have of late done, and give them the prolit of supplying the butter and cheese now brought from abroad. And small premiums between neighbouring school- masters, awarded by the resident clergymen, might prove the ca-pabilities of the soil all over England. — And Dr. Yellowly says : — Spade husbandry is not a system of expense or risk. Less capital is necessary for it than ordinary husbandry, from the smaller number of horses and implements re- quired, while the advantages are speedily exhibited. Its tendency is to diminish the poor rates, and thus to aid materially the operation of the new poor laws; while at. the same time, it raises the amount of the labourers remuneration, and makes it dependent an steady habits of industry. By turning up or loosening the ground five or six inches deeper than the plough, which does not ordinarily act en more than three or four inches of soil, there is an opportunity afforded for the descent and diff'usion of the roots, which are often interrupted in their progress by a hard and impervious substratum; and with regard to wheat, I have had an opportunity of observing, that tiic number and length of the roots are much more consi- derable in forked than in ploughed land ; and the conti- nual addition of decomposed vegetable matter afforded by a succession of rooty fibrils, must effect a great and permanent improvement in Us productive power. It may perhaps be thought that to lay down the plough , and employ in its stead the spade, or fork, is to reject an important mechanical invention, and to takeastep back- ward m human improvement. But it is not always that the highest power is the most convenient of application ; and there arc various examples, in which the more sim- ple description of labour, may sometimes bo advan- tageously substituted for the more complex. For exam- ple, the dibbling of wheat has very much superseded broadcasting in several counties, owing to the saving of seed, which pays the difference of expense, and the pro- duce being rendered more ceitain and more consider- able. The plough is indeed a clumsy and imperfect instru- ment, quite inadequate to preparing the ground for effective planting, whether of vines, forest trees, or shrubs, which require the soil to be not only dug, but trenched, in order to allow room for the roots to diffuse themselves in it. jVo gardener would think of planting potatoes, carrots, or cabbages in ploughed land if he could get it dug, for the difference of produce far more than compensates the difference of the expense. As an additional encouragement to his workmen, Mr. Mitchell allows eight of them a comfortable cottage, and a garden of about a quarter of an acre of ground, at a fair rent; they value the accommodation very much, and I saw very luxuriant crops of wheat, barley, and beans on their little allotments. In several parts of Norfolk spade husbandry hashesn adopted ; and I had an opportunity early lust year, of witnessing a very auspicious example of the practice, on the part of Mr. Gedney, a very able and experienced agriculturist, at Kedenhall, near Harleston, where he farms about 300 acres. Mr. Gedney's trials were so Gacouraging, that he augmented his quantity of forked land, in the autumn of last year, from about 18 to 50 acfes, on which he has grown luxuriant crops of wheat, barley, peas, beans, carrots, beet-root, turnips, and po- tatoes, and he pays from l^d. to 3d. or 21. per acre for digging to '.he depth of from seven or eight to twelve inches, and ridging it, by which the subsoil has the be- nefit of the sun and frost, to powder it before it mixes with the vegetable mould, which it would for a time in- jure if cluy was at first laid level over it. Mr. Gedney also observe*, tliat the pressure of the plough in moist weather, "frequently glazes the bottom of the furrows," and thus prevents the passing off of the water, the retention of which, " in the mould which is intended for the reception of the seed, on heavy soils, is too frequently succeeded by scanty crops, more espe- cially when sown with barley." Deep forking he con- siders as peculiarly well adapted to barley after tares, by bringing up " fresh soil" for the young cloverplants. " This shows with what facility spade husbandry may be accommodated to the various states of demand for agricultural labour, and how subssrvient it may be made by improiing the soil, and increasing its productive powers, both to public and private advantage." If it were stated, that by a very slight change of em- ployment, a very important benefit might at once be conferred on the whole mnss of agricultural labourers contained in it, gentlemen would naturally enough look for the announcement of some visionary and Utopian project. But if to this were to be added, that the scheme involved neither public levy, nor private contribution ; that it would have a strong tendency to improve the morals and elevate the character of the cottager and hi family; while, at the same time, without interfering with his usual occupations, or taking him to a new and distant place «f abode, it would be the means of provid- ing him with a cottage, rent free, or furnishing him with the means of procuring one, there would be little diffi- culty in forming a conception of the mode in which a notification, apparently so wild and extravagant, would be received. And yet, what is the fact with regard to cottage gardens? A labourer pays the full rent, or even much more than the full rent for a quarter of an acre of ground, which in this way produced a gam rather than a loss to the owner. 1 lis garden acts as a saving bank for labour, by securing the immediate employ- ment of small portions of time, which would otherwise escape imperceptibly from the grasp, like his savings, when not placed, as soon as made, beyond the risk and temptation of being used needlessly and improvidently. "And the good Bishop of Bath and Wells, says, allot- ment tenants obtain produce to the amount of from 16/. to 20/. per acre," which is also the case in Sussex. CELEBRATED OAKS.— Ihe oldest oak in Eng- land is supposed to be the Parliament oak (so called from the tradition of Edward the First holding a par- liament under its branches), in Clipstone Park, belong- ing to the Duke of Portland ; this park being also the most ancient in the island : it was a park before the conquest, and was seized as such by the Conqueror. The tree is supposed to be 1500 years old. The tallest oak in England teas the property of the same noble- man : it was called the Duke's walking-stick ; was higher than Westminster Abbey; and stood till of late years. The largest oak in England is the Calthorpe oak, Yorkshire ; it measures seventy-eight feet in cir- cumference where the trunk meets the ground. The Thret-Shire oak, at Worksop, was so called from cover- ing parts of the counties of York, Nottingham and Derby. It had the greatest expanse of any recorded in this island, dropping over 777 square yards. The most 320 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. productive oak was that of Gelonos, in Monmouthshiip, felled in 1810. Its bark brougtt 200/., and its timber 670?. In the mansion of Tredegar Park, Monmouth- shire, there is said to be a room forty-two feet long and twenty-seven feet broad, the floor and wainscot of ■which were the produce of a single oak tree grown on the estate. ON DIBBLING WHEAT. Cfrom a correspondent.) After reading in the Mark Lane Express of the 11th March, an account of the " Javington school- master" upon planting of wheat, I would beg to give you a few ideas upon the benefit of planting and transplanting vrheat and otLer grain. Few people are aware what may be done in this way, but those who have tried the experiments must be convinced. I am of opinion, there need not be a poor man, woman, nor child unemployed who are able to work in the kingdom if people, I mean faimers, would at- tend to these little matters. To say there is a shameful waste of seed corn in England every season needs no jiroof, but to say one-third of the seed usually sown is quite sufficient is a subject worth consideration. I have seen 10 acres of poor heath sands sown with less than 10 bushels of seed, and the produce was from 35 to 40 bushels per acre. 1 have also seen wheat sown broad-cast the roots taken up and transplanted nine inches from row to row, and nine inches from plant to pliint upon the same poor sand, and from 40 to 60 ears growing from each root. I have transplanted winter barley same distance as the above, and the weakest produced 40 ears, and the best 59. T have tried rye and oats in the same way with the same results, and am persuaded that if faimers would at- tend to this way of farming we should want but liitle corn from other countries. But faimers, (not all of them however) are too wise to be taught, they (dififering almost from all other people) suppose what their fathers did mu-jt be right, and all the new fine fancies as they call them, they despise, and are quite willing to live and die as wise as their fore- fathers. But there are to he found among farmers a good many who differ from the above, and who are quite willing to try expeiiments for improving the soil, and I am firmly of opinion, now in this great agricultural country farming is only in its infancy. But it has been said these experiments of dibbling corn, and transplanting, may be done to profit in a small, but cannot in a large way. Why not 1 I would ask. If one acre by dibbling can be seeded by one bushel, (which is full too much), why cannot a hun- dred acres be done ujion the same plan, by which, in the first instance 150 bushels of wheat would be saved, and as the process is simple a man and three little children would plant an acre in two days, and we have plenty of spare men and ciiildren. But I see Mr. Ilitchens has invented a machine for doino- it, and which deposits the manure at the same time, so that now there ean be no objection, and tho price if done by hand is only from7s. 6"d. to 9s. 6d. per acre, and the saving in seed when low will cover their expense; and there is another advantage when wheat or other grain is dibbled in nine-inch rows, it can be kept clean by hoeing, each of which is equal to a shower of rain. But I am of opinion, if corn were put in even thiner than nine inches, say even 11 inches from row to row, the produce would still be greater, — if the land was broken up properly, and the surface water (which is the bane of all land) was taken away, and draining may now (since the Marquess of Tweeddale's invention for making tiles) be done at a very moderate expense, say about 6/. 10s. per acre, and the increase of crop will fully pay all expenses the first y^'ar. I have seen land in the north which before draining yielded only about four sacks, after draining yielded 14 sacks to the acre; then drain your land first and then plough, dress, and you need not fear a crop. Still although the benefits are so great by draining and deep ploughing, yet 'tis but little acted upon yet in the south, while in Scotland both south and west 'tis carried on with great spirit, and farmers are getting rich, and landlords are doubling the value of their estates, merely by this one thing. Then couple draining, deep ploughing, and dibbling corn to- gether, and our country would be an exporting in- stead of an importing country. Few people exceptthose who have seen it,'can judge ofthebenefit of draining ; clay lands whether springy or not, must be im- proved by draining off the surface water, for where- ever that is allowed to stand within a foot of the top, your corn cannot come to perfection, and more especially so in damp summers. In Hampshire, Wiltshire, and Berks, you see farmers the whole of the winter going some of them from six to eight miles with four big horses, a man and a boy for three tons of chalk, which is a day's work, which cannot be less than a guinea expense, and if you ask them what this chalk is to do for their land, they say it acts as a " sweetener" by wliich I suppose they mean when pulverized by frost, it drains off some of the surface water and makes the land more friable, for chalk naturally expands by frost, so it leaves the hand mora hollow. But then look at the expense, one waggon load of chalk will cov.'r but a small portion of land, say you put six loads upon an acre which is quite little enougli, and you have a whole week employed four horses, man and boy, which cannot be less than six guineas, the same time would have drained the acre properly, and then your land is sweet for ever ! ! and chalk be it re- menjbered can never take the water away, — no 'tis a benefit no doubt, but does not go to the root of the evil. Clay land properly drained by patent tiles, will benefit the land for ever, and then plough as deep as you please, do not fear to go into it, the deeper you go the hesvier will be your crop. If any one would notice the corn upon the middle of the land , how strong and very different it looks to that on tlie sides of the furrows, he must be con- vinced of the benefit of getting rid of superfluous water, — and there is no effectual way but by cutting drains about two feet six inches deep, and laying in good hard burnt tiles upon sc/cs, which if properly done will Idst for ever, — 'tis strange that farmers can walk over their land from year to year, and yet not be convinced what is required to make their laud fruitful ; but I believe there are many who are even now foolish enough to suppose draining would in- jure their lands, while others who would do it have been kept from it from the excessive hich price of tiles, and at the same time are so bad, but Lord Tweeddale's invention has removed this obstacle out of the way, by making them so much better and cheaper, that it's now within the reach of any person, and he that is wise will not hesitate, but *et to work at once, being well assured he will reap largely by so doing. AiFARMER, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 321 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. BASSETLAW.— NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. Dnrieg the last six weeks, the weather geoerally, has been exceediugly variable, though the major part thereof, partook more of the severe than otherwise. Between two and three weeks, the ground was covered with snow, but the past week hns made a complete clearance, and the temperatare is at present somewhat higher than it usually ranges during the ides of March. In looking around us, the fact meets us in every direc- tion, that corn-stacks are more numerous by far, than was anticipated when the harvest was completed. This fact arises from two sources ; first, the farmers, (notwithstanding the advice given them in the Mark Lane Express,) refused to press the bulk of their pro- duce on the market, in the hope of realising more mo- ney as the coming harvest approached. And this de- lusion was kept, by rumours, the most strange and delusive ; such, as that the quantity of corn in the country, did not amount to more than six months' consumption— that ten millions fef quarters of foreign wheat would be wanted to make up the deficiency — that there was no corn abroad to be exported, and that where a small superabundance did exist, the govern- ment of those fortunate countries, would prohibit its leaving their own shores— that America, instead of furnishing us with a supply of flour and corn, would want all she could collect from every part of the globe. These, and similar rumours, raised and kept up by in- terested parties, to suit their own purposes, operated very materially on the minds of many of our principal agriculturists to such an extent, as to prevent a proper supply being brought to the market, and thus the prices continued to range higher and higher, while the daty was being reduced to its lowest rate, when the quantity of foreign in bond, was thrown on the market ; the British farmer was thus, to a certain extent, de- frauded of his right which was reaped most abundantly by the speculators in the produce of foreign countries. At present the growing wheats are generally looking healthy, although upon many of the low cold soils, its colour is not very good ; still it is admitted, that ap- pearances are tenfold better this spring, than they were at the same period last year. With respect to our corn mnrkets, they have latterly been governed a good deal by the state of the London and Wakefield markets, although the supply has been more liberal than in se- veral of the adjoining markets. When the new year set in, such was the supply of turnips, that it was expected many could not be consumed, but the late rough and stormy weather has dissipated that idea, and although no want will be known, still there will be none to spare. Perhaps one reason why they are not now so plentiful, is, that large breadths have been prematurely consumed, in order that the land might be sown with wheat. Previous to the setting in of the late severe weather, bean dibbling had proceeded to a very con- siderable extent, and the farmers are at present busily engaged in preparing the turnip land for the reception of barley. The lambing season is about half over, and the crop of lambs is reported to be fully an average one. It must however be admitted, that great fatality has been prevalent amongst the breeding ewes, and many farmers have been sufferers to an extent altogether unprecedented in this neighbourhood for very many years. Amongst fat sheep also, there has been great losses, but not to such an extent as those we have just alluded to. The hop market is in a remarkably pas- sive state at present, and we are not avrare of any cir- cumstance which can resuscitate it, until something can be known of the ensuing crop. — March 20. CAMBRIDGESHIRE. The early sown wheat is still looking well, although not so vigorous, as it was in its appearance, previous to the sharp wind frosts which visited us about five or six -weeks since, aud which lasted for several days, unaccompanied by any snow to protect it ; but although it has a rusty appearance, it probably will not prove at all injurious to the forthcoming crop. Some of the latter sown wheat is looking weak and sickly, princi- pally owing, it is supposed, to the above-nanted cause, as up to that time, it was looking remarkably well and healthy. Spring sowing of all descriptions of corn, is very backward ; much of the land intended for beans and peas, still remains unfinished, in consequence of the very unsettled state of the weather during the last month, and which is also the case with the oat land ; the barley sowing has scarcely commenced, and what little is done, has not been put in under very favour- able circumstances ; the weather still continues un- settled, consequently it is supposed, it will prove to be one of the worst seasons for sowing this grain, that has beea experienced for many years, particularly as the spring is far advanced, and great anxiety will be felt for its completion. Turnips are getting scarce and dear ; sheep in general have done very badly where they have been confined to the fold, in short they can- not have done well any where, the weather having been so very unfavourable for them. Great losses have been experienced in many flocks, both with ewes and lambs, aud there is a general complaint of a short crop of the latter, there having been but a small number of twins to make up losses. Our corn markets have greatly receded in value within these last few weeks, owing, doubtless, to the agitation of the corn law ques- tion, than from any other reason that can be assigned, —March 22. KINCARDINESHIRE. The weather since our last has been favourable for carting out dung, but otherwise for ploughing— a de- partment of farming operations which is considerably in arredr. The sowin? of beans commenced about the 2nd current in some of the earliest districts ; but, in general, the *oil lias not yet been in a proper state for receiving the seed. The fallow wheals and young grasses look well, but much of the wheat sown after potatoes is barely visible above ground. The corn markets have been well supplied through the month, and the stack-yards are diminishing fast. The price of barley has advanced in course of the last fortnight ; and were the quantity in the hands of the farmers to be taken as a criterion for supplying the distiller and brewer until next harvest, there is little prospect of the rate receding rnuch for some montlis. In all likelihood, the value of grain will fluctuate considerably through the summer ; but if there be any truth in reports, neither the quantity of our own or foreign growth which may be thrown on the market, can lead us to suppose that corn will be cheap until something is known of the next crop. Turnips are dis- appearing fast, and a great number of heifer beasts have been forced on the market, which has caused a dull sale. In general, fat stock, particularly sheep, have brought remunerating prices ; and so far this has been fortunate for some farmers who had little corn to sell and their seed to purchase. Prime fat has sold readily at 6s. to 6s. 3d. per imp. stone, sinking offals ; and a large number of fine animals from this county have been transmitted to the London, Glasgow, and Edinburgh markets, in the course of the morith. Notwithstanding the advanced priod of the year, and the arrears of field labour, the horse markets have been dull, and prices considerably lower than expected. The agitation re- garding the corn laws appears to be dying away, even among those who were most clamorous for their repeal. Never was a greater delusion endeavoured to be palmed upon the public than the doctrine of a free trade in corn as a jianaceu for all our evils ; and it is equally absurd to imagine that any human law can regulate the value of food. Farmers should not depend on the legislature for relief in seasons of distress, neither should the la- bourer believe that wages cannot be affected by the price of corn.— March 6. 322 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MARCPL The weather of this month has heen exceedingly favourable, in roost, if not all, parts of the kingdom, to agricultural affairs in general, notwithstanding that very few cold northerly winds have been ex- perienced, and that the most severe frosts have not produced ice of any thickness, they have proved sufficiently seasonable to prevent the growing wheat, and, indeed, all other grain plants which have appeared above ground from becoming either spindly er winter-proud. Judging from the ex- tended breadth of land under wheat, this season, and the strong and otherwise healthy appearance of the winter sown wheat, there is every probability of the approaching growth of that description of corn being- by far more extensive than has been the case for a series of years past. In some of the southern and western districts, more rain has fallen than in the northern and midland counties, accounts having reached us that some of the low lands, in Sussex and Essex have proved in too wet a state to revive their spring seed furrow ; whilst in Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Norfolk, even the wettest soils, which are, in some years, hardly fit to be sown before the middle or latter end of April, have not, with very few trifling exceptions, been too wet for that important purpose. With respect to tillage, we are happy to learn that it is in a forward state — the comparative mildness of the weather, during the whole of the winter, having enabled the farmers to continue out-door labours without any material obstruction. Most of the spring crops on the up- lands, are already sown ; whilst the tenderest of the lowland soils may be considered in nearly a fit state for the reception of the seed. The ravages of the insect, has not been so great as from the extreme mildness of the weather might have been reasonably anticipated; whilst the pastures are tolerably luxuriant ; but there appears to have been a large quantity of turnips consumed by the fattening stock in our great breeding districts. However, it is con- sidered that all kinds of both dry and succulent food usually given to beasts and sheep are at the present time, to be found in by far larger quantities on most farms than has been remembered by the oldest grazier— it being well known that tlie turnip crep has been superior both in quantity and quality, to that of the preceding year. Hence, a great bene- fit has accrued to stock masters, who have had more difficulties to surmount in bringing their cattle to perfection than usual. The yeaning of the ewe flocks, both on the South downs of Sussex and in others of our great flock districts has, as yet, gone on favourably, and a large number of very superior lambs, from the former county, has been offert^d for sale in the London market, though the principal supply exhibited at it, is mostly, at this season, de- rived from the Isle of Wight, where an unusually extensive breadth of land bas been laid down, of late years, as pastures for the breeding of sheep and lambs, which description of economy appears to answer the expectation of the graziers tolerably well. The total number of lambs received in the metropolis, from the above quarter, since the lambing season has commenced, is about 900 — at least a moiety of which have been purchased, by some Scotch dealers for shipment to the Edinburgh market, at which mart, lambs, owing to the backwardness of the season in even the most southern parts of Scotland, produce in the months of March and April, very high rates. During the next month it is considered that upwards of 7,000 lambs will arrive from the Isle of Wight that being about the number received last season. In Scotland, every thing relative to out-door agri- cultural labour, is going on favourably, but there is still a great deficiency in the yield of wheat and barley ; which descriptions of grain are selling, in the whole of the markets, at high prices, owing to the very limited supplies brought forward. Those wheat plants which have appeared above ground manifest a promising appearance ; whilst they have withstood the winter's frosts extremely well. In some of the most southern parts of Scotland, the sowing of spi-ing corn is rapidly proceeded witli ; > whilst it has commenced in partial instances, in some of the northern districts. From Ireland, the accounts which have reached us have been very gratifying ; whilst it is intimated that additional tracts of land have been sown with wheat. No complaints, if we make a few exceptions, have arisen respecting the yield either of wheat, barley, or oats, whiclj are selling at tolerably remunerative prices. A large portion of last year's potatoe crop is still in the hands of the growers, which is a very im- portant circumstance, proving, as it undoubtedly does, the abundance of that grown last season. Oui fat stock markets have been tolerably well, but not heavily, supplied with both beasts and sheep, which have met a sluggish sale, at but little variation in their value. The following is a statement and comparison of the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market, in the course of the month. The supplies of beasts have amounted to 11,041 ; of sheep and lambs, to 100,491; of calves, to 720 ; and of pigs, to 2,450 The prices of beef have ranged from 2s. to 4s. 6d. ; of mutton, 3s. to 5s. 2d.; of lamb, 6s. to 7s. ; of veal, 4s. 4d. to 5s. lOd.; and of pork, 4s. to 5s. 2d. per 81bs. to sink the oflS'al. About 2,200 of the Scots and homebreds, forming the above supplies, have been received from Nor- folk ; 400 Scots, runts, and Devons, from Suffolk ; 100 Scots, runts, and Devons, from Essex; 170 Scots, runts, and Devons from Cambridgeshire; 1,500 short-horns, from Lincolnshire ; 900, short- horns and Devons, from Leicestershire ; 500 Devons, runts, and short-horns from Northampton- shire ; 60O oxen, runts, Devons, Herefords, and Irish beasts, from Warwickshire and Ox- fordshire; 1,000 Devons and Herefords, from Devonshire and Herefordshire ; 750 Scots, by sea, * from Scotland ; 100 oxen, runts, and Devons, from Sussex ; 60 Devons, cows, and runts, from Surrey ; 70 cows, runts, Devons, and Herefords, from Kent. The remainder of the bullock supply came chiefly from the neighbourhood of London. A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP- PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market, on Monday, March 26, 1838, and Monday, March 25, 1839. At per 8lbs. ta sink the offals. March 26, 1838. March 25, 1839. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coarse & inferior Beasts 2 2 to 2 4.. 2 2 to 2 2 Second quality do 2 6 3 0.. 2 4 2 8 Prime large Oxen, 3 4 3 8.. 3 0 3 8 Prime Scots, &c 40 44. .3 10 4 2 Coarse & inferior Sheep 34 3 6. .38 40 Second quality do 3 8 3 10. 4 2 4 6 Prime coarse woolled do. 42 46. .48 50 Prime Southdown do. .48 50.50 52 Lambs 66 70.. 60 70 Large coarse Calves ..4 4 5 0.. 4 4 4 10 Prime small ditto 5 4 5 6.. 5 4 5 10 Large Hogs 32 38. .40 48 Neat small Porkers .,48 52.. 50 52 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 323 SUPPLIES March 26,* 183S. IHaich25, 1839. Beasts 2,840 3,349 Sheep 24,220 19,720 Calves 140 145 Pigs 630 700 By the above comparison, it appears, that the supply of Monday, Marcli 26, 1838, embraced 509 beasts, 5 calves, and 70 Pi^s less ; 4,500 Sheep and Lambs more than that of Monday, March 25, 1839. The general quality of both beasts and sheep ex- ' bibited for sale has been very superior, whilst the prices have ruled tolerably remunerative. A large quantity of slaughtered meat, has reached Newgate and Leadenhall Carcass Markets, for sale, it consisting of 500 carcasses of beef; 9,000 do. of mutton; 9,500 do. of veal ; and 10,000 do, of pork; mostly from Scotland and the north and west of Eng- land. GARDENING OPERATIONS FOR APRIL. Melon and cucumber beds must be carefully watch- ed, the declining heat must be renewed by the aid of fresh linings to prevent the thermometer falling be- low 70 |deg., during sunshine the mercury may be allowed to rise to 85 deg. or even 90 deg. with air, shade the plants from a scorching sun with a thin mat but remove the shading as soon as the danger is past that they may have the benefit of as much light as possible. Add a little fresh mould to the hills as often as the roots appear on the surface, and let the shoots be regularly pegged down as they extend. Attend to the impregnation of the female with the farina of the male flowers, and tliin out all superflu- ous leaves and shoots. If the plants are infested with thrips, or green fly, recourse must be had to fumi- gation. Water liberally every two or three days or rather as often as the plants require it. Sow a few more seeds to produce plants to be ridged out about the end of the month under hand-glasses; continue to protect at night with mats, &c. Maintain a steady temperature in the fruiting pine- stove, in clear sunny weather admit air freely to pre- vent the thermometer exceeding 85 deg., the heat of tlie bed at the bottom of the pots should not be less than 80 or 85 deg., water plentifully, not once or twice a week, but as often as the plants are dry ; sy- ringe occasionally over head in clear weather, and steam the house morning and evening. Shift suc- cession pine plants if not done last month, give air daily and water when dry. If the fruit in the vinery be now fairly set, let the leaves and branches be abundantly supplied with water from the syringe or engine once or twice a day, prune, regulate and tie in the young shoots as they advance and maintain a steady uniform temper- ature of 75 des. Admit air freely to the peach-house to prevent the ■ thermometer exceeding C5 deg. with sun-heat, and keep up the fires at night to prevent the mercury falling below 55° ; the daily application of the sy- ringe is indispensable to keep down that fearful enemy the red spider ; the green fly too must be narrowly watched and smoked to death on his first appearance. Divest the trees of all superfluous wood by disbudding, leave only such shoots as can be ' easily laid in without crowding. The thinning out of the fruit to a regular and fair crop, should be per- formed as soon as the stones are fairly formed. Keep up a succession of rhubarb, sea kale, aspa- ragus, strawberries, and kidney beans. The greenhouse and conservatory should now be kept in the highest order, climbers should be neatly trained, and tied in as they extend in growth ; shift such plants as require larger pots, destroy all insects as they appear, water as often as dry, and give air liberally. Propagate the diflTerent species of stove and green- house plants by seeds, cuttings, layers, grafts, and tlie various modes of inarching, and herbaceous plants, dahlias, &c., by seeds, rooted offsets, cull- ings or dividing the roots. Plant hardy evergreens any time in the course of the month, and plant, dress and repair box, and other edgings. Herbaceous plants of all kinds may still be planted. Sow tender and half-hardy annuals on a moderate hot bed, and hardy sorts in the open borders. Protect auriculas from heavy rains and cutting winds, let them have plenty of air, and supply ihem carefully with water at their roots. Let the beds and borders in the flower garden be stirred with the hoe, and raked so as to give the whole a neat appearance ; gravel walks should be repaired where necessary, and put in good order for the season. Mow, sweep and roll grass walks and lawns. ,j Where new lawns are to be laid down, prepare the ground by digging, levelling, and thoroughly clearing of all root weeds, let the surface be level and of an uniform consistency, take advantage of the first calm dry da)', to sow with the proper per- manent lawn grass seeds at the rate of four bushels per acre ; rake the seeds in evenly, and roll down with a heavy roller. The above method of laying down a lawn you will find to be more economical, expeditious, and satisfactory than tliecommon method of turfing, provided due attention be paid to the selection of the proper lawn seeds. Now is a favourable season for grafting all sorts of fruit and ornamental trees ; stake newly planted fruit tree3 to prevent their being blown about by the wind, and protect them from the ravages of game, &c., and water occasionally in dry weather. Protect the blossom of wall fruit trees from frost. Sow peas, beans, spinage, lettuces and turnips for succession about the beginning, middle and end of the month. Savoys, cabbages, cauliflowers, brocolis, Brussels sprouts, borecole and kidney beans, the beginning and end, and salsafy, scorzo- nera, skirrets and sea-kale about the middle of the month, and radishes, and small salading once a week. Sow full crops of beets, carrots, and parsnips. Leeks and onions may still be sown if not done last month. Sow on a slight hot-bed, capsicums, tomatoes and basil, and on a warm border nasturtiums, chirvil, dill, fennel, thyme, savory, marjoram, and all sorts of aromatic, medical and pot-herbs. Plant potatoes, asparagus, sea-kale, rhubarb, mint and tarragon, and transplant cauliflowers, cabbages, lettuces, celery, and Cape brocoli. Earth up peas, beans, cauliflowers, and cabbages. Keep the hoe and rake going in dry weather. J. T, SHEEP. — The number of sheep in Prussia in 1834 was 12,500,000, being an increase since 1831 of 7i per cent, in the superior quality. There had been an in- crease in the best of one-fifth ; in the second quality of one-tenth ; whilst there had been a falling off in the common varieties ; and there had been an increase of 222 per cent, in the Merinos. The estimated number in Great Britain and Ireland was 32 millions. 324 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. KENMORE. GREAT MARKET.— Those who came from places adjacent or more distant, iu order to transact business, complained that it was somewhat flat in every department. In the horse market, the show exhibited was not extensive, and generally of an inferior description; the buyers few, and consequently the de- mand limited ; the prices offered, and submitted to, low. Good draugiit horses, three and four years old, fit for the middle class of tenantry in any of the surroundinff dis- tricts, fetched only from eifrht pounds to eig'ht guineas, and inferior beasts lower in proportion. Fourteen pounds only were ottered for tlie very top of tiie market. WORCESTER FAIR.-This fair on JNlonday was not so well supplied with stock as we had anticipated ; tiiis may be attributed to two causes, viz., the alteration of the day forholdin«r the same, andaNo the inclemency of the weather ; by the latter, many persons were pre- vented sending fat sheep (shorn on purpose) and also couples ; as regards the former cause, we cannot help regretting that the exertions of the cattle market com- mittee in giving publicity to the fairs have been materi- ally frustrated by the list of fairs attached to some of the almanacks not being corrected. The quality of the stock produced was very superior. The next fair will take place on Monday, April 8th. The following were the numbers of stock, &c., in the fair :— Beasts, 393; Calves, 72 ; Sheep and Lambs, 644 ; Pigs, 84 ; Horses, 113. LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET.-Tlie supply of sheep was large ; buyers were scarce, and a decline of 2s. per head upon last market was submitted to, seve- ral pens were turned out unsold. The supply of beasts was fair, and prices somewhat lower than at late markets. A small quantity were taken away without finding pur- chasers. At LEORIINSTER there was a very fine show of cattle, and a large attendance of buyers, many from the vicinity of London ; the sales of all kinds of animals were very brisk, and steers, particularly fine animals, were in great request at good prices ; fat cattle averaged e^d. per lb. ; sheep went from 8d. to 8\d. per lb.; good horses commanded fair prices. At ROSS fat sheep met a ready sale at l^d. to 8d. per lb., store sheep also sold at high prices, very few being offered for sale ; the fair was thinly supplied with fat and store cattle, which sold from 6d. to Ggd., and stores at higher prices than at late fairs. There was a very ready sale for horses, both for riding and harness, which went at advanced prices. At BRECON the sale of horses was exceedingly dull, although there was an unusually small number offered. Beasts sold remarkably well, fat ones fetched 6d. per lb., and stores were in good demand. Sheep fetched full 7d. NORTHUMBERLAND AGRICULTURAL SO- CIETY.— The competition tor the prizes awarded to the best ploughmen by the Northumberland Agricul- tural Society, took place on the 19th ult., in afield at Styford High Barns, of fine soil and a level surface, well calculated for the purpose. The number of com- petitors (only 17), was smaller than was expected, owing to the uncertainty that prevailed on account of the weather, the snow having oaly left the giound du- ring the previous day and night. The scene however ■was an animated one, a great many spectators being on the ground, and the horses employed in the ploughs exhibiting an excellent specimen of that description of stock in the district of the Tyne, for which it has been long distinguished. The arrangements were admirably conducted by Messrs. Harbottle and Hunt, who have undertaken the office of local secretaries for the south- ern division of the county ; and the prizes were awarded after mature inspection and deliberation, by Mr. Ste- phenson, of Throckley ; Mr. Armstrong, of The Bush ; and Mr. Harle, of Mill Hills, all gentlemen of expe- rience and judgment in such matters, in the following order :— 5?. to John Makepeace, servant to Mr. Lead- hitter, of Brock Bushes ; 3l. to John Calder, servant to Messrs. Atkinson, of Peepy, and 2l. to Robt. John- son, also servant to Messrs. Atkinson, and a youth of 19. A certain portion of land, amounting to nearly half an acre, was previously set out for each plough. They all started at once on a signal being given, and the time occupied, as well as the manner of doing the work, was takcE into account by the judges. And it is only fair to say that, besides those to whom the prizes were most satisfactorily awarded, there were many very good workmen in the field, and that in general the performance was most creditable. We understand that at the conclusion of the meeting, the farmers present, being well satisfied of the utility of such competition in exciting an emulation to excel among their ploughmen, entered into a subscription to continue a similar trial of skill annually in their own district. — Mr. Nairn, of Waren Mills, at his ploughing day on Wednesday, on entering the farm of Budle, had abont 150 ploughs ; after the ploughing was finished, his friends, to the number of between 50 and 60, par- took of a sumptuous entertainment, provided for them in a commodious apartment formed iu Waren Mills by the piling of sacks of flour. AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS IN CAITH- NESS. — Furrow draining has commenced here at a great rate ; it is an excellent system for deep damp land, but will not supersede the old planofcuttingout springs.. We are doing alternate furrows ; it takes about two cart loads of broken stones to the chain. 'J"he cost of cutting, quarrying, breaking, and tilling, is about 2s. 6d.per chain. 'J'hc metal (which passes through a two inch ring) is shot from the carts througii a harp, into the drains, the small stuft'beinglaid on the top for blinding. The drains are half Mlled ; they are 30 inches deep, 14 wide at the top, and six at the bottom. We have had very inconstant weather, and labour is behind. A few here, however, are sown. Our crop has turned out better than was expected ; our oats made 421bs. weight, and our here 501bs. Oaimeal was selling a few weeks ago at 25s. ; it is now 22s. but will soon be up again. Potatoes are scarce at 20s. per boll of four herring bar- rels. Stock does well. We are scarce of turnips, and are getting some oil-cake. The sheep got on admirably in the sheds, which is the best system of management for us. — Dumfries Herald. HEREFORDSHIRE CATTLE.— The sale of the celebrated stock of white-faced Herefords, the property of .1. D. Kedward,of Westhide, Esq., took place a short time since, under the direction of Mr. Thomas Cooke ; and perhaps a more gratifying scene to the agriculturist, scarcely ever presented itself than that of witnessing the anxiety which prevailed in the company, every one seeming most anxious to touch the flesh of the difii^rent aniirals for sale. At the commencement it was soon manifest there was no lack of bidders; greater compe- tition for every lot was scarcely ever seen. Neighbour against neighbour, brother against brother, all wishing to possess a portion of the blood of the celebrated bull Cotmore (the winner of the premium at our show on Monday last, for tiie best aged bull), the property of Mr. Edward Jeff'eries, of the Grove, who kindly per- mitted him to be shown at the srle, being the sire of the young stock, and to whose care and judgment, with a few others who remembered the Howton, Huntington, Thinghill, Breinton, and Stretton breeds, this class of the county animals have been kept together, forming now, as it were, a nsw i-ra from that old school, when their wide white horns and noses were decorated with the cake and garland o'er the wassail bowl, when the wooden can, filled with good old cider went round to the toast of the rustic distich, " Mere's to thee IJoiiliou' and thy white horn ; And (iod send tliy mastei- a good crop of eoni." But to return to the merits of the animals for sale. We could not help witnessing the surprise of all who ob- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 325 serve J a barren, or rather a fat cow, bred by Mr. Edwards, of the Day House, kept for that purpose since Aug-ust lust oaly, on grass, hay, and turnips, and al- tiioug'h her weight is now abnost incredible, still from her ffreat activity, it is understood she is to be spared to luxurifite (or another summer under the auspices of her purchi'user, J\Ir. Hodges, of Wharton, 'Ihe Countess cow iind calf, and yearling heifer, exhibited as extra stock on our late agTicultural show day, sold as follows : the cow, 80/.; the yearling heifer, 40/.; thecali,40/. This cow was bred by iMr. Turner, of Noke ; Rlr. Yeomans, 'of Wellington, purchased her ; JMr, Davies, the heifer, and Mr. Adams, iNlarden, thecalf. A heifer, hot two year* old, with a calf under tliree weeks, fetched 81/. bought by Mr, C. A. Mason ; a real Huntingdon, with bull calf, ten days old, sold for 791. bought by the Rev. — Smythies, of the Lynch, and Mr. Cooke, of Lyde. This cow was bred by i\Ir. .lones, Breiiiton, and excited great attention. A bull calf, ten months old, by Cotmore, sold for 80/., and every lot ottered met with a ready sale, hthe cows averaging upwards of 30/, each throughout. The sheep and pi? stock, on the second day, went off with the same spirited competition, some of the latter realizing 5/. each, under six months old, shewing clearly that attention to breeding is most essential to a profitable return, and iilso the great importance it is to the county the distribution of so many beautiful and well-bred animals. The principal purchasers were the tenant farmers of the county, with very few exceptions. Among the company we recognized the President of the Northamptonshire Agricultural Society ; Rev. — Smythies, IMr. Jefiries, Mr. Mason, Mr. INIoore, New- ton—Mr. Yeomans, Mr. Turner, IMr. Jones, ]Mr. Adams, Mr. Hewer, ]\Ir, Jolifte, Mr. Coke. Lyde— Mr. Tun- stall, of Burlton— JMr, Hill, Mr. Morris, Mr. Racsttr, IMr.Gravenor, iMr. Cother,Mr. Hodgres,Wharton— Mr. Chamberlain, Messrs. Lloyd, Langford and Williams, from the Principality of Wales— Air. Trinder, Mr. T. Price— the Stewards of Sir R. Price— Sir J. Astley, and several hundreds of highly respectable yeomen, who departed well pleaded with the hospitality of the owner. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURlx\G THE MONTH OF MARCH. The uncertainty of the corn trade has been long proverbial, and nothing can better exemplify this fact than the debates which occurred in Parliament last month, on the subject of the corn laws. In both Houses considerable talent was displayed during the discussion, and yet not one solitary new argument, for or against these laws, was introduced, either by the supporters of the political economists, or by those who lake a deeper interest in the prosperity of agricultural pursuits at home. Statements, which for many years hare decorated book-stalls in the streets, and calculations respecting consumption which have no solid foundation, and which conse- quently have long since been considered valueless, were most liberally (hither quoted, or ])roduced as something original, by various speakers against these laws, but they were too well known previously with- out the walls of the Houses of Parliament to produce any impression there of the slightest importance. The fact is that all discussions on a subject so ex- tensive as the corn trade is, are perfectlv futile, and any attempt to reduce the value of grain to a fixed medium, is as much in contradiction to reason as any effort would be considered, if it were made, to fix the currents in the firmament. The value of all the necessaries, and of many of the luxuries of life, can alone be regulated by the seasons, and no human buy can by any possibilitv alter or avert the great laws of nature. Since last harvest the uncertaintv of the prices of grain has been most amply illustrated, and the opinions of those most deeply conversant in tlie corn trade, which were so liberally promulgated ill the public press, have proved in their result any thing but accurate or satisfactorv. Circumstances since then have fully established that the deficiency in I ist year's growth of wheat was much more serious than the importers of forpign grain at that time even anticipated, and extensive as that defalcation un- (loibtedly has been, still the foreign supplies of wheat have so prodigiously exceeded all calculations made respecting their amount previously, that in no immaterial degree has this deficiency been made good from this source already. la this respect the corn laws, although generally admitted not to be siifficientlv protective to the agricultural home in- terest, have during this corn season, been signally beneficial to the community at large, and in contra- dicting all the theoretical doctrines of the political economists resjiecting the decreased growth of grain abroad, occasioned by the e.tclusion of the foreign growers from British markets of consumption, esta- blished a most important truth, of which the advo- cates of British interests no doubt will avail them- selves in future, should the repeal of these laws ever again come under public discussion. The experience of this corn season proves beyond contradiction that any deficiency which may hereafter occur in our growth of grain at home, can always be most amply made good by the surplus growth of foreign nations, and consequently that the slight degree of protection which the corn laws extend to the cultivators of the soil at home, can under no circumstances be injuri- ous to any order of society within the United King- dom. Last autumn the alarmists without any hesi- tation asserted that one half million of quarters of foreign wheat could not be found in Europe for British consumption over the quantity then in bond, and yet already three times that quantity has been imported, and should it be required that amount may be yet doubled before any part of the next harvest can be brought forward into consumption. Prices are therefore kept moderate to the great body of consumers, and in fact the home producers of wheat are the only sufferers, in so far as the prices which they obtain for their crops, by no means make up to them the losses which they incur, as well by the quantity as by the quality of last year's produce. Little short of three millions of quarters of foreign wheat probably will, during this corn season, have come into consumption in this country. The experience which we have had of the corn laws during the last six months of considerable dif- ficulty, has however been of the highest importance, in as far as it has for ever put to rest the only argu- ment, which the modern political economists could produce against them, for they have now been in full operation for nearly one dozen of years, and so far from their consequences having been a reduction in the quantities of grain grown abroad, the <|uantity of wheat imported during the current corn season from abroad, is considerably larger than it ever has been during any previous season in the history of 326 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the corn trade. This ohjection (o tliem, therefore, must entirely disappear in all future discussions on the corn question, and, with it, every tangible argu- ment against them ; for that of low priced provisions being advantageous to the manufacturer, every day's experience entirely contradicts. In France and Bel- gium the necessaries of life are abundantly cheap, but the means of payment are restricted in a propor- tionable degree, and the consequence very naturally is, that not one year passes without some degree of commercial and manufacturing distress being expe- rienced and loudly complained of by the productive classes of society in these kingdoms. The cause of this is the limited means of payment which too cheap living from necessity occasions amongst the great body of consumers, and were the prices of living in Great Britain reduced below their natural level, similar effects would follow. There is not one solitary instance, during the last and present centur- ies, of commerce or manufactures flourishing when agriculture was labouring under depression, indeed a memorable instance to the contrary occurred with- in the last twenty years. Of the metallic currency bill, which came into operation in 1822, it is not our province to speak, and whether it was necessary or not we shall at present give no opinion. The very prospect of it, however, before it came into opera- tion, produced, what the manufacturers now so loudly demand, cheap provisions, the reduction in the value of agricultural property having, from 1819 to 1821, been far greater in proportion, than the advance which it occasioned in the value of the circulating medium was. Commerce and manufactures ought then to have flourished, had thisadvantage depended on depressed prices of the necessaries of life. Great hopes were excited, and the memorable prosperity year arrived. The reduction of the national debt it- self was calculated upon, and limit could not, for a while, be placed to the fond anticipations of the raonied, commercial, and manufacturing classes. The destruction of agriculture however, was at the same period silently, but effectively, workingamongst the people, and gradually producing consequences the most fatal to society in general. Not only did the wages of labour decline with the value of the necessaries of life, but a vast channel for the con- sumption of manufactures and of every article of in- dustry and of commerce was closed against the labour and enterprise of the productive classes of society. The reduced means of payment amongst all ranks and orders, whose incomes depended on agricultural pursuits, did in a far more extensive degree reduce the home consumption of every article of manufacture and of trade, and universal distress followed. Even the monied interest itself, although the altered value of the currency increased their property betwixt thirty and forty per cent., came in for their full share of the general suflering, and the Bank of England again re-issued one pound notes. This national cala- mity originated in agricultural depression, nor had it any remedy, until that important and vital interest was again righted by the alterations which were made ia the corn laws eleven years ago. Since then, it is beyond all contradiction, tliat this empire, in no pre- vious period, was ever so prosperous, nor was the population generally ever more contented than it is at the present time. No doubt a most mischievous attempt has latterly been made by a part of the pub- lic press to inflame the people against the corn laws, but the memory of the past still remains, and this al- most insane attempt to disturb the industry of the country has been turned generally into ridicule. All who are old enough to remember the period to which we have now alluded, have learned wisdom by too dearly purchased experience, and the younger branches of the industrious are taught knowledge on this subject by their seniors in years. The people in fact are contented with things as they find them at present. Wages generally in trade are good, and the markets sufficiently remunerate the labours of indus- try. To improve his state in society is the object of every body, but few are inclined to sacrifice present certainties to the delusive prospects of the theorist. The repeal of the corn laws would not only renew general distress, but would likewise be attended by still greater calamities. Every person now is perfectly satisfied that agricultural produce, for the general good, must increase in amount with the increase of population, and this certainly cannot be done unless the capital, talent and industry embarked in agricul- tural pursuits be protected against the competition in our own markets of foreign agriculturists. The science of agriculture can as yet scarcely be said to have risen from its infancy. During its minority it requires encouragement, else it cannot be expected to reach that degree of perfection, which no doubt it eventually mutt do, if strictly guarded by salutary regulations. The progress already made is no doubt great, but mucli more may yet be done, and the en- • tire population receive the advantages, which must t follow every description of agricultural improve- ■ ment. This is by I'ar the greatest and most important >; interest in this flourishing empire, and, as we have ■ repeatedly demonstrated, on its prosperity depends that of the commercial, manufacturing, and shipping interests. That perhaps, even in a shorter period ; than is generally anticipated, we may increase our foreign trade by the exportation to more southern climates of the surplus of our agricultural produce ■ is by no means improbable, indeed should tillage in Ireland only keep pace with that in Great Britain for a few years, this future advantage may be considered as certain. This will open additional channels for the ^ extension of our foreign trade of much greater na- - tional importance, and of far more value, than that I plan now propounded of increasing the exportation i of manufactured goods by an increased importation.! of foreign grain ever can do. This is the only real I way for rendering the prices of grain as steady as s the elements will permit, the exportation of the sur- plus under such circumstances rendering greater sup- plies than the actual consumption required impossible. Ireland, we may say, entirely, and a considerably 9 portion of Great Britain are open to great agr" cultural improvements, and the same quantity • of labour expended ontha samo quantity of land may yec double the present produce, and eventually give, productive employment, either in commerce, fishing, '; or in manufactures, to a much more dense population i than we at present possess. The whole of the people of Ireland, under the protection of salutary corn laws, must soon find abundance of employment in i improving their own island, and thus they will like- wise improve the value of wages in Great Britain. Many millions of acres may be converted in Ireland . from a state of perfect nature into most productive corn and grazingfields,increasing the happiness and, intelligence there in proportion to the increase of agricultural improvement. But with an entirely free corn trade these prospects cannot by any possibility be ever realized. The present corn season Las clearly demonstrated that, when occasion requires the sacrifice, abundance of foreign sfrain can at all , times be found, even with the protection of the corn laws, to supply, in no inconsiderable degree, any deficiency which may arise in our home-growth, and j therefore the only real question now is whether, by J the repeal of these laws, we are to encourage an in- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 327 creased growth of p^rain, and an improved system of tillage abroad, or by maintaining them as they are, : we are to act justl v towards the cultivators of British and Irish fields. It is now placed beyond all doubt that by their repeal cur grain markets of consump- tion, under any circumstances, will be so perfectly overwhelmed with foreign supplies of every descrip- tion, that the tillage of our own fields must annually >ind gradually decay, and with this altered state of things, the most important interest in the country — that interest which is now worth from three to four thousand millions sterling — that interest on which chiefly depends the prosperity of the manufaciuring and commercial classes — and certainly a great part of ■the annual national revenue — will speedily sink into perfect insignificance, and a period must soon after- wards be put to the greatness of the British Empire. These laws give not au)^ undue advantage to our own agriculture ; indeed the protection afforded by them to it, is not, in many cases, so extensive as commercial laws extend to many departments of trade and manufactures. The shipp'ng interest is thoroughly protected against any possibility of inter- ference on the part of foreign flags. The trade of distilhition is protected by duties so extremely oner- ous, that they defeat the object for which they are intended, and lead to an immense extent of smug- gling, which is the real foundation at present of every crime. The cotton, woollen, and silk manu- factures, are likewise protected by duties varying from twenty to fifty per cent., and the trade of fisiiing is so perfectly exclusive, that the use of foreign- caught fish is entirely prohibited in our markets. The trade of producing corn, however, — for it too is a trade, and requires capital, talent, and knowledge, to conduct it successfully — it is the fashion now amongst IModern Philosophers to assert, ought to . support itself without any legal protection for the (purposes of reducing the value of the necessaries of ■ life, and with it, the value of wages, and the means of paying for the industry of a numerous body of the people of the United Kingdom. The clamour, how- ever, against land-proprietors and farmers is rapidly subsiding, and must entirely disappear, when this important subject is better understood amongst the people in general. The jieriod is certainly not very listant when better and more national principles will prevail, and then to protect our home institu- tions of every description, and to improve them, will be considered the best system of political economy ; for most assuredly, to depend on foreign states for supplies of the necessaries of life, and for markets for the consumption of our manufacturing and mining industry, is not the best way possible to render a people happy, and a nation great. During the month of March our markets generall)' have been very badly supplied with wheat of British growth ; indeed, so very limited have the supplies in this way been that, deficient as the last crop was, we can scarcely permit ourselves to believe that this circumstance has arisen from actual want of agri- cultural produce amongst the British growers of wheat. AVe know, from good authority, that in the home districts and counties, from whence London, at all events, in the general run of seasons, is chiefly supplied, a considerable portion of the last year's crop has not yet been brought to market; and we are the more surprised at this circumstance when we reflect that the prices obtained for wheat, since the turn of the year, have been sufficiently good for the interests of the cultivators of the counties which surround the metropolis. In them it has generally been understood that no great deficiency at all events ; existed, either in the ijuantity, or in the quality of last year's growth of any description of agricultural produce. It was in the North of the Humber, in several of the grain districts in the West of England, in the whole of Scotland, and in a considerable part of Ireland, that the damages done to the last crop were principally experienced, and-the deficiency occasioned by this unfortunate state of things, has heretofore been chiefly made good by grain of foreign production, and has opened markets for the con- sumption of foreign wheat to a far greater extent than the most sanguine of its importers could have reasonably anticipated. This has given encourage- ment to the foreign speculator, and to the foreign importer, and consequently the arrivals already have been much more numerous than could naturally have been expected, and the orders sent abroad for farther purchases must eventually increase the quantity of foreign wheat in the country beyond all calculation, particularly as the season approaches when the ports and rivers in the Baltic and in the North of Europe will be again opened to the navigator. From the Baltic in particular, should our prices continue to give encouragement to the speculator, a large quan- tity, of the best qualities too, may most reasonably be looked for before the next crop at home can be brought into consumption, and from the JMediterra- nean and from the southern stales of Europe large shipments are already known to be on the passage, and others of equal magnitude will follow during the remainder of the season. The demand, however, does not fall away in consequence of high prices. On the contrary, the wages of labour generally are fully equal to the value of all the necessaries of life, and there consequently is not any decrease in the consumption of them. The reduction of prices, during the last month, has not been so considerable as, from the abundance of the foreign supplies of wheat, might have been expected, not having ex- ceeded 5s. per qr. on the finest qualities, and from that to 10s. per qr. on other descriptions. Had the usual coast supply been received during the same period the markets generally, throughout the United Kingdom, would have assumed an aspect which would, at all events, very much have damped the ardour of those who are now so deeply engaged in the foreign corn trade, and might have saved them eventually from heavy losses, which may attend their speculations. It is not possible, however, to form any opinion respecting the future value of wheat in our markets ; for, as we have already said, the corn trade is far too extensive to admit of any accurate calculations being made, particularly at this time of the year, of the probable amount of supply, or of prices, which of course depend entirely on the supply being more or less than the demand. In the mean time no complaints have latterly been made of the decay of manufactures, nor of any decrease in the general prosperity of commerce. On the con- trary, various indications exist of trade generally being in a highly flourishing condition. The true proof of this fact is in the rate of wages at present received by all the industrious classes of society, which are quite as high as they have been of late years. Amongst them no complaints of want of em- ployment are heard, nor in any part of the Ignited Kingdom are any gatherings of the people at present made for the purpose of demanding food or work. Under these circumstances therefore we may, with much safety, infer that, at all events, no decrease in the consumption of the necessaries and of many of the luxuries of life will occur during the remainder of this corn season, and any alteration in prices, therefore, which may arise during the same period, must entirely depend on our future supplies of 328 tHE FAllMER'S MAGAZINE. wheat. Tbat the arrivals from abroad will be larE;e is universalljf admitted, but some estimation can "at all events be formed of the extent of their influence in our large markets of consumption, but of the probable amount of the home supply not any calcu- lation can be made, on which any reliance can be placed, and on it mainly depends the great question respecting the value of wheat, whether it will be higher or lower, or continue stationary, until the prospects of the next crop begin to attract the general attention of the public. The markets generally have latterly been largely supplied with barley of our home growth, but the state of the wheat trade has rendered the application to mealing purposes of large quantities of barley absolutely necessary, and this article has conse- quently continued to command high prices, and the suj)plies of it have been generally cleared away as soon as they have come into the market. The very satisfactory state of the country, at the present mo- ment, has caused a large consumption of malt, and this too has, in no inconsiderable degree, tended to maintain the high value of barley, and to increase the revenue during the current quarter. It is very generally understood that the malt duty during tliis quarter is larger, considerably, than it was during the corresponding one for last year, which, consider- ing the high jirice of the raw material is the more wonderful, and clearly shews that the unfortunate state of last year's wheat crop, by creating high prices, has not, in any sensible degree, reduced the means of payment amongst the great body of con- sumers. It almost creates melancholy to reflect on the important advantages, which are yearly sacrificed at the shrine of superabundant taxation. The malt duty is one of those evils, and although the remedy is as obvious as its application is easy, and not dan- gerous in any manner to the revenue of the Empire, still the Chancellor of the Exchequer, or rather the legislature permits this greatest of nuisances to cripple the industry of the country, and to limit the cultivation of barley in many soils, incapable of any other description of agricultural production. The weight of the duty also is injurious in the extreme to the purposes of revenue, for which it was imposed. It confines the consumption of malt to five millions of quarters annually, which quantity would even- tually be doubled, was the public charge on malt only reduced one-third of its present amount per qr. To 6nd a profitable channel for the consumption of five millions of qrs. in addition to the quantity of barley already in use for various purposes would add as many pounds sterling nearly to the annual income of the Empire, and would at the same time confer a great boon on a numerous and industrious body of all denominations amongst the people. The land on which it may be produced would become more valuable to its proprietors, and its production would require the employment of an additional num- ber of agricultural labeurers, whilst the reduction of the malt duty, and consequently of the barley price would extend the consumption of beer to many whose means, under the present system, seldom per- mit them to indulge in the use of this article, to them a perfect luxury. There is not one subject connected with agriculture which demands a greater portion of the attention, not alone of statesmen, but of the pub- lic in general, than does the barley trade, on which is levied fully one quarter of the annual revenue of the empire. That the malt and British spirit duties might do more than pay into the treasury annually twelve millions sterling, can be reduced to a demon- stration. Four hundred per cent, is charged as duty on British made spirits, and the certain consequence is, that more than one- half of the spirits consumed in England is either smuggled into the country from foreign nations, or is produced by illicit distillation at home. To reduce this duty even to 5s. per gal- Ion would place at least two millions sterling into the treasury above the sum collected under the pre- sent system, and would, in no inconsiderable degree, destroy the profits, and consequently the illegal trade of the smuggler. It would likewise increase the sale ' of barley, at home, and would vastly improve the moral conduct of the community at large, 'i'his is a subject worthy of the best exertions, and daily notice of the public press. It is only most wonderful that the people submit to so much injustice, particularly as it is attended bv no public advantage whatever, nor does it confer any benefit on one solitary indi- vidual in the empire, except on the smuggler, that groat violator of the public law, and enemy to the fair trader, who pays the taxes, and acts otherwise honestly towards his neighbours engaged in the same department of commerce with himself. In place of agitating the corn laws, to create agitation respecting the evil consequences of the manner in which barley is taxed, would be an object which would be attended by incalculable advantages to the people, and which must eventually be successful, when the reduction in duty now charged on manufactured barley is de- manded in a firm and respectful manner, from the Imperial Parliament. Although the oat crop, in proportion to its intrinsic value, suffered from the unfavourable state of the weather during the last season, even more severely than that of wheat, or any other description of agri- cultural produce did, still aince the commencement of this year, all the British markets have been so abundantly supplied with this article, that even the increased consumption for grinding, rendered neces- sary by the state of the wheat crop, has not caused any material improvement in prices. The consump- tion during the month of March, has been large, but not more so than circumstances justified, and the trade consequently has been more than usually steady, the arrivals having been regularly disposed of with- out creating during one week, a greater variation than Is. per qr., or so, in their value. The supply of oats this season, as has been the case now for some time back, has been principally imported into all the large markets of consumption in Great Britain, front , Ireland, where their cultivation is annually making most rapid progress, and in this circumstance have the moderate prices at which they can now be ob- tained principally arisen. In the year 1838, the im- portations from Ireland into Great Britain of all de- scriptions of grain and pulse exceeded three milliona and one half of quarters, nearly three millions of which were oats. If we have paid to the Irish pro- ducers of this large supply as many pounds sterling, we are certain that our calculation will be considered moderate, font is within the mark. This large sum of money however, has been paid by one portion of her Majesty's subjects to another, and not one pound of it leaves the empire, for the purposes of food. Now, had we obtained the same quantity of grain from foreign nations, even at one million sterling less cost, we must be permitted to assert that in a na- tional point of view, we are large gainers by the transaction as it actually exists ; for, in the one case the sum of three millions and a half paid for Irish grain remains within the empire, and comes speedily again into circulation for articles furnished to the agricultural interest of Ireland, either by our manu- facturers, or in payment for other articles of neces- sary consumption amongst them, such as paying la- bourers for further land cultivation, Sec, but had The FARMEil*S MAGAZINfi. 329 ionly two millions sterling been paid to Poland, or to .Germany for the same quantity of grain, it would bave been a positive drain on the national wealth to nearly a similar amount, for small indeed would have been the portion of it which the producers of foreig-n grain consumed here would have expended in pur- chasincrthe handicraft of the industrious classes of British society. Manchester and Glasgow might /then have suffered in the sale of manufactured goods, and the merchants and manufacturers would have had good reason to complainof the working of a sys- tem which gave a preference to foreign over Irish agriculture, and which deprived the latter of the means to purchase home made goods. It is to the protection which the corn laws extend, however, to British and Irish agriculture, that the important in- terests of trade and manufactures are indebted for, by far the best and greatest market for the consump- tion at home of their goods ; and yet with a blindness : which is entirely unintelligible, they demand the re- peal of those laws which, in every way, are as protec- tive to their own interests, as they can by any possi- bility be to that of agriculture. During the current corn season, however, from four to five millions ster- ling- of British money have already been, or will be soon, paid to foreign nations for wheat imported into our various markets fortheconsumption of the people, and if the doctrines of the manufacturers be correct, they may speedily expect most brilliant orders for their goods, from those nations to whom we have latterly paid so much money for wheat. \^'e shall be much disappointed, however, if they do not find cause to complain of their expectations, in this re- spect, not having been made good, and to regret tjjat half the money paid this season in exchange for fo- reign wheat, had not been expended on our home growers of it, for in this case, at all events, the mar- ket at home for the consumption of British goods, would Lave been very considerably improved, and their profits proportionably increased, whilst in as far as the spring has as yet advanced we do not leiirn that any unusual activity prevails in the expor- tation of British manufacture. It is we know, in- creasing annually, but we do not as yet perceive that any increase has occurred beyond that, which prob- ably would have occurred, had no importation of fo- reign wheat taken place. We are happy to say that the winter wheats con- tinue to show a most favourable appearance, and even to create hopes already of an early and abun- dant produce, and the fields generally being in good order for the reception of spring seed, we expect in our May number to make our report of the state then of the coming crops of all descriptions equally satis- factory. The spring is not too forward ; the winter wheats are generally well spread at the roots, and will come away from the ground in due time both strong and healthy in their shoots. The field labour in the crops of spring grain is likewise in rapid pro- gress, and another month of the present favourable weather will, in all probability, bring it to a pros- perous conclusion. CURRSNCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE, Per Qr. Per Qr. Wheat, Essex & Kent ..red.... 64 68 white.. 68 74 Suffolk & Norfolk,, .. 64 6S do... 70 72 Irish 58 60 do 64 66 01(1, red 68 70 do,.. 70 7S R.YE ... old 40 42 new.... 44 46 Barley, tiriiidinK 32 36 Naltidg 36 40 Clievalier 40 42 Iri>b 32 34 Berc... — 30 Malt Sluffolk & NMrfolk 66 70 Brown.. 65 68 Kingston & Ware 66 68 Chevalier 68 70 26 Potatoe..28 30 24 CoiU-,wliite22 23 24 24 Westpoit 24 25 Liinericli23 25 26 2S 25 29 22 22 29 38 46 Sligo. Black.. Potatoe Small 40 maple .. boilers. . 23 24 23 29 42 3S 46 24 30 44 39 48 OAT9,Yorkshire&Linc9lnsli, fe»d 24 Yo-iKhall& Cork black 22 23 Dublin 22 23 CloHinel 24 26 Lnndonderrv 2t Newry....'. 28 Gahvay 21 Waterloid, white 21 Scoteli Feed 27 Brans, Tick 37 Peas, O'rev 38 White 42 Sbkb, Jlape 32/ 36/..liisb 25/ per last English Red Clover, fine 64 70 SOspertwt White 62 66 70 80s Mnstard, White. 123 14s. .brown 21s 228perbn»h T!ires..32 36 old 30 34.. new 60 — s per qr. Flour. Town-made 65 Snirk)lk..54 55 per sk nf Stockton& Norfolk— 54.. Irish fine556 — 280 lb. Foreign Gntin and Fhitr in Bond. Wheat, Dantzic 60 70 Hamburg 60 68 Barley 36 32 Oats Potatoe 20 —feed Bkans 30 — Peas 24 27 Flour, American perbrl. 40 42 15 to 16 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Weekending Feb. Sth .. 16th .. 22nd .. March 1st .. Sth . . 15th .. A?cregareAver<'.ge of the six weekt whinli regulate? the duty Duties payable in London till Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Outports till the arriral of the Mail of that day from Londwii Do. on grain frcm British possessioBs out ot Europe ..I 0 Wheat. Barley I Oats 74 1 71 6 71 10 72 10 73 8 74 1 73 0 40 4 38 6 37 10 37 8 33 39 38 9 1 0 25 25 24 24 24 24 liyelBean» 48 5 39 9 44 6 3S 8 41 10 38 7 42 3 38 0 41 2.37 10 42 63/ 4 24 9 4 10 I 10 9 43 5'38 4 Peas. 41 0 39 7 39 2 i39 I 39 2 38 10 39 6 6 0 6 2 6 5 0 12 6 11 0 Foreign Flour, 7d. per I961hs. British Possessions, Sjd.per 1961b9. 0 6 0 0 0 0 do. COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, March 22, j 1839. s. d.i Wheat 74 1 Barley 39 3 Oats 24 4 Rye 42 6 Beans 37 4 Peas 38 10 AVERAGES from the corresponding Gazette in the last year, Friday March 23, 1S38. 8. d. Wheat ..,. .. . 66 10 Barley ... 29 6 Oats 21 2 Rye . .. . 30 7 Beans . ... 33 1 Peas .... 32 9 SEED MARKET. March 25. .65 SO 9* white 54 73 per cwf 55 90 54 Cl«ver English, red.. Dutch ... German. . French . . American — — — — Trefoil 10 28 Rapesced, English .^34 i"36 foreign .£28 .£.30 per last. Linseed. Enflish sowing.. — Ualtic — Mcditer. & Odessa — Hcmpsecd, small 34 Coriander, new IS Mustard, brown > j^ new 5 Turnip Seed, new Swedes 22 Rye Grass, English 30 Tares, ftpring 6s Od to 6s6d Canary , we w 80 84 Caraway — — 49 — — — per qr — crushing 46 48 „ — 48 50 „ 36 large 38 42 20 line 20 24 per cwt. ,_ white 10 '' 8 13 per bushel 12 25 other sts. 28 36 „ 42 Scotch 18 40 „ 51 fexlra54 330 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. An Account of the quantity of Foreign Grain and Flour imported into the United Kingdom during the month ending the 5th March, 1839 ; the Quantity on which the Duty has been paid for Home Consumption, and the quantity remaining in ^Varellouse. Foreign Grain Flour. and Wheat from British Possessions Ditto Foreign Barley, do Oats, do Rye, do Peas, do Beans, do Indian Corn, do.... Flour from British Possessiohs Djtte Foreign ! Quantity Quantity en- Quantify imported. tered (or remaining in consumption warehouse. qrs. bush. qrs. bui-)i. qrs. bu«h. 173 4 210419 2 211637 4 12870 I080S 1 20032 4 2861 1 1.571: 1 31365 2 222495 2 ! 81«4 4 827s 6 1 .3559 6 443G 5 3524 7 2899 7 12848 6 3581 5 1108 3 2149 1 2063 4 cwts.qrs.lbs. cwti.qrs.lbt. cwts.qrs.lbs. 1200 0 0 1200 0 0 4394 3 17 80828 3 18 78357 0 1 2/315 3 15 WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. BlARCn 25. Business has been done; but not to a great extent, as there are only a small number of persons disposed to take other than a trifling reduction in price, on account of the impossibility of replacing at the prices offered generally now. There has been a fair demand for Skin Wool for Flannels, at the advance realized a fortnight ago ; and as (in proportion to the increased length of staple, which renders it suitable for combing,) the sup- ply of short wool will become smaller weekly, it is not likely that the price will go down. As has been re- marked before, the settling of the price of wool rests en- tirely on the Northern dealers, who hold the principal quantity ; and they are not likely to submit to much sacrifice of property upon their present stocks, unless they can lay out their money better than they did upon what they have, which is not very easy for them to do. March 1. April 1. Per lb. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. nown Tesrs 1 8 to 1 8i 1 8 to 1 Sj Half-bred Hogs 18 1 8'J 18 1 8j Ewes and Wethers 1 4i 1 5| 1 4J 1 5* Blanket Wool OS 11 0 8 1 T Flannel do 1 OJ 1 4i 1 OJ 1 4i Skin Combing •. 1 2 14 12 14" EXETER. — This market is not merely firm, but may fairly be pronounced better. The desire to purchase is manifest; and the trade admitted to be good; and Yolk Wool must be quoted at lid. per lb. In Washed Wools business has been done with some freedom, at a quotation, for Knott Wool, of from 15d. to 16d.; Dorset Horn, 16d. to 17d. ; and Marsh Wool, 17d. to 18d. per lb. In Sonrs the quotation has partaken of improvement, and for several descriptions, the demand is good. Shout* being, Coarse and Short Coarse, from 8]d. to 8Jd.; Broad Head, 9:Jd. to9id.; Ksnt Head, l(>|d. to lO^d. ; Red, Green, and Pinions, average from lO^d. to lOid. ; Fine Head", is from llijd. to 12d, per lb. Cornish Stripe, is from ]4:Jd. to 15d. ; Nortii Devon Stripe, 15d. per lb. Fti.L Wools.— For Skin Wool, particularly of Fine Wools, there is a considerable de- mand, and an advance, and that too not of an unim- portant kind, has been the consequence. Accordingly we must quote Tong ^Vool, of fine quality, at 16d."; and short tine Fells, at 15d. per lb. Ordinary parcels of Skin Wool arc from l'2d. to 13id. per lb. Tops, from 19d. to 19|d. per lb. LIVERPOOL, ScoToii, March 23. — There has again been a good inquiry this week for laid Highland wool at former rates, and in one or two instances for really good lots a shade advance has been obtained. White Highland in de- mand, but no stock. Tiiere continues a good demand for crossed and Cheviot wool, and for some heavy laid lots, lower prices have been accepted. Per Stoneot 241b3. s. d. k. d. Laid Highland Wool, from .... 11 6 to 12 0 White do. do. (scarce)... 0 0 0 0 Laid Cros-^ed de 13 0 14 0 Washed do. do 15 0 16 0 .'^aidCheviot, do 15 0 18 0 Washeddo, do 20 0 23 0 White do. do 33 0 35 0 Foreign. — An improved demand has existed for Wool since this day week, and former rates have been steadily maintained. Peruvians were in good request ; combing Russia qualities were extremely scarce, and they would readily obtain advanced prices ; 300 bags of Portuguese were likewise parted with ; 200 bags of unwashed Syria Wool will be brought to the hammer ou the 28th instant. Arrivals during this week, 3,929 bags ; previously this year, 16,513 bags ; total 20,442 bags. SCOTCH. Per Stone of 24 lbs. March 1. s. d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, from. 12 0tol2 3 White Do. Do 14 6 15 0 LaidCrossed Do 13 0 14 0 Washed Do. Do 15 0 16 0 Laid Cheviots 17 0 18 0 Washed Do 22 6 24 0 White Do 33 0 35 0 FOREIGN. March 25. Several somewhat extensive sales of superior Ger- man and Spanish wools have been effected since our last, at full prices ; but in other kinds of Wool little is doing. Since our last, the imports have consisted of 1,750 packages. Electoral Saxony wool, from 4s. 6d. to 5s. 2d.; first Austrian, Bohemian, andotherGerman wools, 3s. 4d.to 4s, 4d, ; second do., 2s. 4d. to 3s, 2d. ; inferior do, in locks and pieces, 2s. to 2s. 6d.; Germanlamb's do., 2s. Od. to3s. Od. ; Hungarian sheep's do., 2s, 2d. to 3s. Od. ; Leonesa sheep's do,, 2s, 4d. toSs.Od.; Segovia do.. Is. lOd. to 3s, Od, ; Soria do,, 2s, Od, to 3s. 2d. ; Caceres do,, 2s, 2d. to 3s. Od. ; Spanish lamb's do,, Is, 8d, to 2s, 8d. ; German and Spanish cross do., 2s. Od, to 3s, 2d. ; Portugal sheep's do,, 2s, Od. to 3s. 2d.; do. lamb's ditto. Is. 6d, to 2s. Od,; Australian, fine crossed do,, 2s. Od. to 3s, 6d. ; do, native sheep's do,, Is, 6d, to 2s, 7d, ; Van Diemen's Land, native sheep's do,. Is. to 2s. 4d.; and Cape of Good Hopedo., Is. 4d. to 3s. per lb. April 1. s. d. s. d. 11 6 to 12 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 14 0 15 0 16 0 15 0 18 0 20 0 23 0 33 0 35 0 LEEDS, March 22.— The business now doing in this market is considerable ; for all sorls, but especially the lower, prices are firm. POTATO MARKET, SOUTHWARK WATER-SIDE, March 25. The arrivals of Potatoes during the past week has been liberal from the inland coasts as well as from the channel islands — annexed is a statement of the respective sorls from Yorkshire, 1,464 tons; Jersey and Guernsey, 491 ; Devons, 406 ; Scotland, 70 ; Kent, Essex, and Suffolk, 157 ; mabng together a total of 2,588 tons. In consequence of the recent advance in the price of best samples— and the above liberal supply — sales have been rather heavy during the past week. Yoik Kiilncys York Beds . . Scotch Reds PRESENT PRICES. Per ton ...90s. tolWOs. . .. 80s. to — s. Devon do. , ,,..80*. to — 5. Per Ton. Jersey and Guernsey Bines fiOs, to— s, Jersey Whites ,.. 50s. to — s. Kent, Essex, and Suf- folk Whites . . 55s. to 7O1, FILAN imSIGNKB FOR A dLASfLAOTD ARABLE EA]RM 0¥ 400 ACEES not ptvditiinif t/reat crops, /ttyaf fJui-/l\ or \% holly lit ftilaut' K-sUntttft' nf't-nt i. 3 00. STABLE u ELEVATION ON THE LINE AB LENGTH 220 FEET ® ® @ CART SHED .>6 X IfJ TOOL HOUSE s X lis CART WAY - /2 X /ti LINE A B R OA O /P SHED 4S X 14 SHED V7 X /J YA R 0 HAY HOUSE /2 X /&■ r STABLE . y 20 X /b CIC HOUSE /■J X /a YAR D DB CC STRAW BARN ■/f^ X Iti D C »■»»■» cow SHED 1^ X IG ' — ' — ' — ' — CALF ^iJ 3 COW SHCO ^ SHED 47 X 14 VA R D SPARE HOUSE I IS X 16 HOUSE FOR BULL 1 lt> X /IS U HOUSE FOR MARE & FOAL dJ STEAMING HOUSE. /7/ /6 R OOT HO U ?E /7 X /6 [^ JDoDahUon. JccU JH.i9. lO 20 30 lO 50 60 70 80 90 100 __j I 1 I 1 I Scale 30 Feel lo art Jtfc/i 33( An io ei tl tV Fon Whe P( Ditti Bar) Oats Rye Peas Beat Indi Flou P( Ditti B ther take oft grem Wo. ago stap ply like mar tirel qua sacr they wha Don Hall Ewe Blai Flan Skii E fairl man Yol Wo. quo Dot 18d impi is g< 8id. ia|( lO^c Cor Stri; part man port we and of i fron S. inqt and adv; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. MAY, 1839. No. 5. — ^VoL. II.] [New Series. THE PLATE. The subject of our first plate is a Hereford Ox, four years and eight rnontha old, bred and fed by H. Chamberlain, Esq., of Desford, Leicestershire. This ox was by " Conqueror," (bred by Mr. Heming, of Kingsland, Herefordshire), dam "Old Snowdrop;" was exhibited at the Sraithfield Show in December, 1838, and obtained the first prize of 20 sovereigns in class 1. The silver medal was awarded to Mr. Chamberlain, as breeder. This animal had been shown at Leicester, on the 1st December, 1837, as a store ox, and obtained a prize of 5 sovereigns in class 5, as the best ox bred and fed in the county, with restrictions as to feeding from the age of six months. He was again exhibited at Leicester, in class 1, on the 7th De- cember, 1838, and obtained the silver tankard, value 13 sovereigns, as the best ox under five years old, of any breed or weight, open to all counties, without restric- tion as to feeding ; a prize of 5 sovereigns was also awarded to him as the best beast, bred and fed in the county, shown in any of the classes. No observations which we can make would prove the celebrity of Mr. Chamberlain as a breeder so conclusively as the facts of his having obtained prizes for oxen and sheep at the late Smithfield Show, and, as will be seen by the report of the meeting of the Leicestershire Agricultural Society, inserted in this Magazine, no less than six prizes for beasts, five for sheep, and one for pigs, at the last meeting of that society. LECTURE ON THE MARQUIS OF iihabitants rely, not upon the plantation, but ^_^^^„^^^ . ^ „.„ „-„^^,, . ,Jl, ^„ . ,^^ upon the kiln and the quarry. It is the same in TWEEDD ALE'S BRICK AND DRAIN our own country, in Northamptonshire and the TILE MACHINE. oolitic districts there are twenty houses of stone for one of brick, and where nature is still more DELIVERED AT THE ROYAL msTiTUlioN, APRIL VJ, niggardly, you have stone walls instead of thora BY MR. cotTAM. hedges. Give then the materials of a dwelling house, a geologist is enabled to determine the na- Every one, unless he come from the countries ture of the strata in the neighbourhood. Thus where the brick from the clay-pit is superseded points which appertain to brick-making, although by either stone from the quarry or by wood fcom of importance to every one, are especially so in the forest, is or ought to be, interested in them, the eyes of those that like ourselves (by ourselves and all of us are concerned either directly or in- I mean the inhabitants of London) inhabit the directly in whatever increases the durability, or clay districts. facilitates the production of building materials. Bricks are of great antiquity, as it appears by The districts and countries where brick is super- the sacred writings, the tower and walls of seded by stone or wood, are determined geologi- Babylon having been built with them. The Greeks cally. In the northern countries wood-work is used three kinds of bricks, the first was called all in all. There are scarcely a score brick-kilns Didoron, i. e. of two palms, the second Tetra- in Norway. The forest makes good the deficiency, doron, of four palms, the third Pentad6ron, of five In Scotland where some one said that such was palms. They had also other bricks of half the size the scarcity of trees t\xa.t although you might farm of the Didoron, Tetradoron, and Pentadoron re- a ivalking-stick, you mmt import a fishing-rod, the spcctively. They rendered their works mor© OLD 6£«IE5',] r J ^ Z' [IVfJ —VOL.X. 332 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. solid and more agreeable to the sight by varying the figures and sizes of the bricks. The Roman bricks according to Pliny were a foot and a half long, and a foot broad, which measures agree with those of several Roman bricks now in England, these being about seventeen inches long, and eleven inches broad of our mea- sure. Sir Henry Wotton in his Elements of Architec- ture, speaks of the bricks he saw at Venice with which they were building large columns ; they were made in circular moulds and cut into four segments before they were burnt, and in laying them they were so closely jointed that the columns appeared to form one entire piece. Bricks are no'.v made of that shape for Hiort's Patent flues. Various shaped bricks are made to suit ])articu- lar purposes, but the quantity required of any shape but the common one is very small indeed when compared to the immense quantity required of the ordinary size and shape. It is the common bricks that our presentmachineis intended to manufacture. It is well known that the manufacture of bricks can only be carried on in the summer season, and during fine weather ; it is, there- fore, necessary using the common adage " to make hay while the sun shines," but this cannot always be done, for the want of skilful workmen. The greater part of the work it is true can be done by common labourers, but the principal part, viz., that of moulding the clay into the form of a brick, requires both a skilful and expert workman. A good moulder will mould about four thousand, but there are those to he found who will mould as many as from five to six thousand a day, nay, even as many as seven thousand have been moulded on extraordinary occasionss by great adepts. It will be necessary to state that a brick-maker's day is not that of an ordinary workman. The ordinary working day is computed at from six o'clock in the morning, to six o'clock in the evening, allowing two hours for refreshment, which leaves ten hours for labour ; but the brickmaker's day is from sunrise to sunset, and a bit of twilight besides, and cannot be called less than sixteen hours clear labour a day, and taking five thousand per day of sixteen hours would give about three hundred and twelve per hour, or about five and a half per minute. These good moulders are by no means plentiful, it is therefore not diflScult to conceive that such men will set a full value upon their own services, and so doing, not only stipulate for high wages, but also work or lie idle according to their own fancies. When however, they do work, they do so in right good earnest, and are bona fide labourers. This liberty either to work or play as they please, is a serious evil to a work that can be carried on only during fine weather and in the summer season. No wonder then, that every attempt should be made to contrive machinery to accomplish so desirable ah object. Numerous machines have been contrived within these last thirty years, and not fewer than thirty to forty patents have been taken out, scarcely one of which has ever been heard of, after having been published in the list of patents, the greater part of these inventions have failed in consequence of the inventors having attempted to make the bricks in moulds or forms in a similar manner to those made by hand. When the sanding of the mould, the putting in and taking out of the pallets tliat were required, occupied so much time, that it became a question if any advantage were gained. The inventor of the machine I am about to ex- plain, took a new view of the operations, he made no attemjjt to imitate the present mode of mould- ing, he commenced by making an endless sheet of well pressed clay, of the proper breadth and thickness and shape, he then cuts it into the lengths he desires. Here there is one continued and uninterrupted operation. The brick machine will mould at the rate of 24 bricks per minute, or 1,440 per hour, and taking 10 hours work would give 14,400 per day ; but if a brickmaker's day of 16 hours, it would produce 23,040 per day : taking an average of 15,000 a day, four of these machines would make as many bricks in one season as there are inhabitants in England and Wales. A good London moulder with three or four persons, generally his own children, will make about four thousand bricks. The machine with the same number of hands will make fifteen thousand in ten hours, and in the brick-makers' working day of sixteen hours, 23,280 or twenty- four thousand jjer day. The bricks made by the machine will not re- quire one-third of the time to dry them, that the hand made bricks now take in consequence of the | compression the clay undergoes. Two bricks, one I made by the machine, the other by the hand, were put into water six hours, in that time the machine brick absorbed four ounces of water, and the hand made one twenty-eight ounces. The machine brick when burnt weighs 81bs., and the hand-made brick about 51b. Having dilated upon the subject of the chief material in the construction of houses, I must now consider another and equally important branch of j the earthern manufacture. The adaptation of | machinery to the purposes of building, and the success of the present plan led to an enlargement of its powers, and a beneficial direction of me- chanical contrivance to the necessities of subter- raneous draining. Agriculture, hitherto subjected to the hidden causes which operate so powerfully against human labour, was destined to receive a valuable adjunct from this portion of science, and whilst we have just beheld the mansions of huma- nity, secured from the torrents of Heaven and the searching winters' wind, we have now to contem- plate the hidden obstacles removed from the soil, and the labourer, in every sense of the word, ren- _ dered worthy of his hire on a grateful and genial land. Of late years this branch has assumed a new as- pect, and comes forward to our attention. Tile- work is no longer exclusively applied to the roofing of houses, and as a defence against the weather. It has been extended from the bouse to the farm, from the personal to the landed property. It takes off the waters under the earth, as well as the waters that are above the earth ; we are now enabled to drain with tiles. The rain on the house is not more surely re- moved off by the gutter, than the swamp is reclaimed by the draining-tile. I must request your particular attention to the new application of tile-work, and above all to the still newer improvements in it. This machine* will make 10,000 drain-tiles a day, one man and two boys to attend it, and twenty thousand of flat tiles for the drain-tile to lie upon, but if the tiles are broad for roofing, it will make 12,000 a day. These draining tiles are fifteen inches long, so that three machines would make in one sea- * See plate and description of drain tile machine in The Farmer's Magazine, published on the Ist of March last. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 333 Son (of tliirty weeks,) as many tiles as would lay a drain from London to York, Now a man and two assistants will only make J.OOO drain-tiles in a day, and tiiese only one fcot lono^, which is 1,000 feet per day. While the machine with the same number of persons will make I'J.oOO feet per day ; so that if the drain be laid at the dis- tance of ?5 feet, it will make in one day sufficient tiles for six acres. The advantages are — 1st. The tile is much stronger from being com- pressed, and less impervious to water — it is not only compressed but it is smoother over, which gives it a surface as thougli it were glazed. Tiiev are capable of being made from a much stiffer clay than usual, and in nine cases out of ten the clay may be used directly on being dug, if passed through the crushers,* being much drier. Clay, unfit for bricks and tiles by the common method, is available by the machinery. The expense of draining will be paid in three years, butnotun- frequently in one. I am happy to inform you that this apparently humble but greatly important subject has been brought to the present state of perfection, by the as- siduity and talent of a distinguished member of the aristocracy. Amidst the conflicting claims which honor and glory present to the nobility of England, it is truly gratifying to find in its ranks men willing to devote their leisure and energies to the promotion of human comfort, and the furtherance of human enter- prise. The fame of the warrior and the legislator may be an ample inducement to the aspiring noble to enter the lists of fame, but when we find an individual in whom these two functions are united, bending his wiatured intellect to a subject with so few attractions for the world, we are iustified in congratulating our- ' •' OCT selves that the example of a Stanhope has not been lost upon his emulous countrymen. ON HERBACEOUS GREEN CROPS. (original.) These crops comprehend beans, peas, winter and spri.ig tares and clovers, of class and order " Diadelphia Decandria" of Linnseus, and of the leguminous and papilionaceous families of our natu- ral system. Beans delight in stiff clays, and peas in deep warm loams, and both plants are cultivated chiefly for the grain , the straw or haulm not being ge- nerally of great bulk or value. These crops partake of a medium character between the cereal and the green crops — more ameliorating than the former, and from their structure and habits, not admitting the cultivation, cleaning, and pulverization of the latter. Several varieties of the bean are used, differing in size but little in quality, and admitting of the same niode of cultivation, with the exception of the win- ter bean, which is sown in autumn instead of the spring. Beans are sown in the spring, so soon as the season and the state of the land permit, and on dry clayey loams, friable by nature or made so by heavy and repeated manurings, the seeds are drop- ped in the bottom of the furrow from a barrow ap- pended to the third plough, which by reckoning nine * These crushers are iron cylinders, independent of the machine through which the clay is passed before it enters the pug-mill, when necessary to crush any hard substances. inches to each furrow, makes the intervals 27 inches distant. This mode, supposes very clean land, dry, and of good (juality ; in other places, drills are rais- ed and manured as for turnips, and the beans are sown on the manure and covered by a light harrow- ing or by reversing the drills. In some instances the manure is carted on the land in autumn so soon as the crops are removed, spread on the stubble and ploughed in, and the land undergoes a partial work- ing and fallowing in the spring preparatory to dril- ling the beans by the plough or by the machine. This mode also supposes good clean soils, a drill made b)' a single furrow of the common plough, the beans sown broadcast and harrowed in, answers very well, iind in all cases of wide intervals, both horse and hand-hoeing may be used so long as ne- cessary and the growth of the plants permit. Where a short variety of beans are used and where from soil and climate a great luxuriance of foliage is not expected, machines with coulters make a rut and deposit the seed in drills of 12 and 14 inches distant, which admits of a partial hand hoeing. This mode also supposes land of good quality, clean, and fri- able, to allow the coulters of the machine to work ; in case of wet and stubborn waxy clays, where the constitution of the soil prevents any preparatory process in the spring, and any operations by a drill machine, broadcast sowing still prevails on one furrow, and beans are found on such soils to be more profitable than oats, and are sown in their place previous to the land being summer fallowed. In any method of sowing, they require little overing; — in southern climates thev are among the earliest crops that are cut, and in northern latitudes they are the latest, both soil and climate encouraging a late vegetation and ripening. Beans are cut by sickles, tied with ropes made of straw, stacked and thrashed by flail or machine. The produce of beans is very precarious, in man)'' seasons and situations almost nominal, the value of the haulm depending also oa the earliness of the crop and delicacy of growth, a rank preduce of straw being only fit for litter and therefore of no great value. In many counties they are little used. Peas constitute one of our smothering crops, and delight most in deep and warm loams on a dry bot- tom, and are sown by macliine in drills of about 12 inches distant, or by broadcasting. When drilled, hand-hoeing may go on until the foliage meets across the intervals, and excludes all further proceedings. They have also been drilled at horse-hoeing dis- tances, but little or no benefit was observed to result from the process. About three bushels of beans and peas are allowed to an acre — by drill, something less. Several varieties are cultivated, but the white pea and the Prussian blue are most common for the early and warmest soils, admitting of a late crop of turnips after they are removed, and the yellow marl and Hastings varieties are generally used on the later and most common pea soils. The produce per acre is very various, the haulm is serviceable as provender for horses when well harvested in an early and favourable season, in other cases it is fit for litter only. The crop is cut by sickles, rolled into bunches, loose or tied with ropes twisted of the haulm, stacked in that state, and thrashed by flail er machine. Both these crops are adapted for a dry and an early climate, and are subject in certam sea- sons to attacks from insects which stunts the growth of the plant and limits the produce. These attacks are the result of a peculiarity in the seasons, and on that account may never admit of any preventive be- ing used , or of any remedy being applied. At present no knowledge exists on either point. z 2 334 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Winter tares are generally sown on a stubble in September and October, ai the rate of three bushels to an acre; often mixed with rye or winter barley, a^d are used in the spring for green food for horses and other stock, and for eating on the ground by sheep with a portion to stand for seed. This crop en- ters largely into the double crop system practised in the southern counties ; and in such latitudes where mild winters are expected, it constitutes a most in- valuable plant, forwitli the exception of rye it coraes the earliest into use, and affords a heavy and much relished produce. Good warm loams and clean, and in good heart, are indispensable. The smothering na- ture of the crop will tend to keep land clean, and the benefit derived from eating on the ground by sheep, will serve very much to keep it in heart, while the great value of the herbage as green food will yield such a quantity of manure in the home yards, as will ever rank this plant as a most valuable appen- dage in all situations where it can be cultivated. Our northern climates nearly or wholly exclude it. A top dressing of soot in the spring, as soon as the weather allows of it, very much contributes not only to forward the crop for early use, but also greatly to increase the bulk of the produce, while the smother- ing nature of tares and peas will leave the land in a clean and mellow state, provided the crop be suffi- ciently thick to leave n» vacant space where weeds may grow, and wholly to exclude the air from be- neath. A thin crop of such plants arising either from thin sowing or from poverty in the soil, or from foul condition, is one of the most pernicious that can be imagined, and only makes bad worse. Spring lares are sown so soon as the season per- mits in the sjiring, and continued generally for three sowings ; with intervals of three or four weeks inter- vening. Spring and winter tares are the same plant, obtained from a continuance of late and early sow- ing, and from using the seed produced by these sowings, they are generally sown on one furrow, well harrowed and rolled to suit the mowing by the scythe. The sowing of spring tares may be so ma- naged as to yield a supply of green food for four months at least ; a quantity made into hay afforded me at different times the most agreeable and sup- porting food for horses during a long and heavy- wheat sowing season I ever experienced ; but mak- ing the crop into hay is the work of chance only, and not to be ranked among the regular processes of farming ; for soiling in the yards and for making manure the value is incalculable. The clovers most generally used are red and white, sown in the spring with wheat, bariev, and oats, after fallowing and manuring, harrowed with light harrows and rolled afterwards. The quantity sown per acre varies much in different soils and si- tuations, but from 6 to 16 lbs. per acre, may be taken as an average, often mixed with rye grass and other perennials, and not unfrequently sown nearly or wholly unmixed, and constituting clover-hay, which brings the highest price incur markets. Besides the well-known use in the form of Iiay, red clover is valuable for cutting as green food in the early summer months, and white clover is more especially useful for perennial purposes. Rye is sown on a stubble with one furrow in autumn, and fed off in the spring with ewes and lambs ; and for that pur- pose it suits well on dry and sandy soils in our southern counties, as it comes the earliest into use, and admits the land being resown with a cereal crop, or more properly of being fallowed for turnips. Rape may be sown as late as the month of August for winter and spring feed, and is very useful tor the purpose of cropping any land where there is a defi- ciency of manure for turnips ; it may also be sown early in the spring for summer feed, and being eaten on the ground by sheep, would form an excellent preparative for winter tares. I am here speaking of inferior soils, and in inland situations where the want ©f manure renders all such auxiliaries to be anxiously sought for and applied. With the exception of beans and peas which are ctiltivated for the value of the seed as prepared food for animals, the above crops constitute what may be called our secondary green crops, and in many in- stances are of the last importance in situations where no other substitute has yet been found. In some observations I lately made on the cultivation of cabbages and beet, turnips, and potatoes, I point- ed out the regular supply these plants would afford to the stock kept on every well arranged farm for six months, from the beginning of November till the beginning of May, and I shall now add a few re- marks on the individual and relative uses and value of the secondary green crops, combined with others in a system of grain and stock farming. Our nor- thern latitudes would exclude many of them ; beans and peas are but rarely sown except on the best soils and in the earliest climates, and tares, rye, and rape are almost wholly unknown. Sheep farming is only yet gradually progressing northwards, and for cattle, turnips have ever constituted the chief atten- tion of the farmer as winter food for his stock. The soil and climate are much adapted for the certain production of this plant and for potatoes, but spring tares might be advantageously introduced in quan- tities to suit the stock kept on the farm. In our richer and improved counties where a regular rota- tion ])revails, and where the soil and climate are adapted for the growth of turnips, &c., for a supply of winter and spring food, these secondary crops will be little known ; but when we leave such situa- tions, and the severe climates of the north, we arrive among the inferior soils of our inland situations, sands, downs, and uplands, whero the production of turnips is a mere matter of chance from the dryness of the climate, and from want of loam in the compo- sition of the soil, and where from the same and similar causes the other green crops are equally incapable of being raised in quantity, and with certainty of a regular supply ; such situations abound all over the king- dom, especially in thei southern counties, and the farmer seeing the necessity of providing for the ' sheep stock, the best adapted we yet know of for such case, has adopted the crops most likely to assist him during winter and spring. Great and most valuable advances yet remain to be made in producing our winter crops, but we must take things as they are, and do the best for an improvement. Rye comes first in the spring as food for sheep, and to relieve the scanty crop of turnips, &c., the farmer may have ob- tained, and which during winter he has divided be- tween his sheep and cattle. The produce of rye is small and soon consumed, and winter tares are sel- dom ready for use brfore May, or the middle of jMay for cutting ; if used very early " of necessity" the loss is great, even though allowed to grow for a second eating. But in such cases the early use of even half a full crop is of immense value at that season of the year. For such situations there exists " a want" of a plant to supply food in March and April, to come into early use from spring growth and sown in autumn, or to stand through the winter ready for consumption in these months from the growth of the previous season. Rape and the " cruciforma" family, if a crop could begot, when allowed to stand, soon shoot up for seed, and an early spring vegeta- tion will ever bo dependent on the severity or mild- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 335 ness of the season. Winter tares may be much for- warded by a manuring in autumn or a dressing in the spring, but in many cases the means are not available. To the business of finding such a plant the attention of our botanical and natural history gen • tlemen must be directed ; the plants we possess have come to our knowledge by chance or by the obser- vation and exertions of single individuals, and never yet, in anv one instance, has the business been gone into as a science on which so much depends. On this subject I refer to the observations I made in last magazine on an Agricultural Institution. Rye and winter tares are the only relief until the the grass arrives; when eaten on the ground, or when the latter crop is mown for soiling, the land is ploughed for a green crop or a wheat fallow. It has been objected that such cropping is merely catch- farming, and that the land never can be in so mellow a state tor tuinips as when ploughed during winter and wrought at an earlier season. This ohservation is very true, but spring food must be had even at a partial loss, and on stifl'er soils tares eaten on the ground by sheep form a good preparntive for wheat. The winter crop will be consunied soon enough to ad- rait of the land being partially fallowed, and the sjiring sown tares will continue through the month of September when the wheat may be so>vn on one furrow. To balance the imperfect state of the land after such cropping, we have the value of the crops themselves and the benefit conferred on the land by the sheep, which in such situations is almost the only means within the reach of the farmer. When tares are eaten on the land much waste would be pre- vented by cutting the crop and putting it into racks, in many cases the sheep spoil as much as they eat ; the other great use of both winter and spring tares is for soiling the farm horses during the whole summer. The cattle are usually turned out to grass in IMay, and then the horses may be put into the yards when the winter tares will be ready, and if liberally sup- plied with straw, a great and constant supply of ma- nure will be thus obtained during the wlioleyear; the swine must also be amply supplied with them and with straw for litter. It seems to be now ascertained that " irefolium incarnatum and lolium Italicum" will not supply an earlier herbage or so valuable and productive as our varieties of tares under all the different cir- cumstances of soil and climate. The quality of any article is at all times a most desirable object, but if the quantity be too much reduced the article will not hold its place in a systematic course of produc- tion and of reproduction. An opinion has been long entertained and very con- fidently promulgated by soraeofour scientific writers on agriculture, that the drill cultivation of our second- ary green crops would dispense with summer fallow- ing on all the clay soils in our island. In making this assertion these writers have only exposed their total ignorance of the soils in question, for by no process of cultivation known to us, can we, at the early pe- riod when beans and peas require to be sown, or after the titne of reaping, work, clean and pulverize the land, nor can we at either period apply the ma- nure with advantage. The physical objections are insurmountable, and any attempt that have been made have wholly or partially failed. It does certainly remain to be seen how far our modern system of close draining will obviate these objections ; and in making reports of the effects ©f such draining it would be very important to have it stated if the complete sub- traction of water effects any alteration on the con- stitutional texture of the soil so as to make it more friable and more reducible to a state for green crops, or if it be confined to making it drier and more ac- cessible at all seasons and easier of tillage under the old system of fallowing. At present beans and peas drilled or broadcast and tares for eating on the ground can be only thrown in as a crop to deter for two years more the return of the tallowing process for wheat or green crops when they are cultivated in the ways above described. But in no case have they been able to dispense wholly with fallowing. In many cases they are sown on grass in the place of oats where the fixed rotation alibrds no room else- where, and on every farm tares f jr soiling appear to me to be an indispensable lequisite. The wintercrop and the first cut of the summer crop would be re- moved eaily enough to plough the land for rape, which might pftbrd a bite for sheep during winter before ploughing for next fallowing. It has often occurred to me that our inferior up- land soils, downs, and sunds, might be much im- proved and more profitably cultivated by the exclu- sion or nearly so, of the cereal crops, by being con- stantly sown with rape and tares and clover, and eaten on by sheep. These crops admit of a regular succession, and a crop of turnips may be thrown in, and also of barley at intervals wlien the Laid has been sufl5ciently ameliorated, for at present the crops are very inferior and often a total failure. Rye for a standing seed crop is, in most cases, more productive than barley in grain, and much more in straw. Red clover might also be used as a change in cropping, and in all cases a thick sowing must be effected ta smother the weeds ; of clover not under 40lbs, to an acre, for if weeds find one unoccupied spot they will soon get the mastery, and the land will become ex- cessively foul. I am of opinion that on extensive inland and upland farms containing a varied ()uan- tity of inferior soils, and in cases where a farmer enters to a great extent of poor impoverished lands in cultivation or in shape of leys and turfs, that a gradual and very useful improvement may be effected by means of these crops in a succession tor eating on the ground, used and continued until tije farmer find ways and means of fallowing the lands in rotation. In such situations the means of manuring are limited, and until the means be procured on the farms, stock will be kept and fed, and the land gradually im- proved by the above recommendation. Thick sow- ing is indispensable, four to six bushels an acre, for smothering crops do no good to the land, in fact they render it fouler unless they cling together and quickly produce a dense thick mass. Instances have occurred where, on good clean lands, wheat and grass seeds have been sown after beans, peas, and tares, the land being scuffled and cleaned in autumn ; but the prac- tice never can become general, and only defers the fallowing process. To constitute farming, we must have improvements and profits going together, and at no great intervening distance; and in progressing towards the perfection of it " that nothing grows ex- cept what is sown," we must avail ourselves of every auxiliary both for amelioration and lor profit ; to join the two forms the essence of the art, and it has of.en struck me that on the soils and situations I have men- tioned, a process combining both might be adopted by the use of the crops above described. J. D. April 15. FARMING IMPROVED. By Louisa H. Sheridan. G. says" the prize sheep, having wool smooth a« flax, Made him longr lor a rubber of whist on their backs ;" What a hint for the new agricultural school, Asa quick, easy method oi carding tlie wool ! Yet the chance oifnir dealing is greatly decreased. Who cuts in at such tables,— can't help being ^eec'rf. 336 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. EXHIBITION OF THE PRODUCTIONS OF INDUSTRY.— WOOLLENS. (translated from the FnENCII FOR THE FARMEr's MAGAZINE.) A complete revolution has been effected within a few years in this branch of our manufiictures. At present we fabricate woollen tissues of so soft and fine a nature that the snme article made of cotton must give way, one would think, to the above im- proved article. The variations in the weather in all climates render woollen clothing- necessary every where. The skill of our workmen has enabled them to manufacture woollen goods, which are not only valuable for their warmth and durability, but also for their goodness in quality, variety of pat- terns, and fastness of colour. The French woollen trade is thus one of the most important branches of our national industr)', both as regards agriculture and manufactures, and certainly the most brilliant success seems destined to attend it. N^ow that the galleries of ihe exhibition are about to be thrown open, it may be useful to take a short glance at our woollen trade, and the progress it has made since tiie first exhibition of our industrial pro- ductions, which took place in 1823. The progress in short or carding vrools, of which the Merino is the chief, has been immense since the time when Louis XVI. obtained from the King of Spain 200 ewes and rams, of the ])ure blood of Leon and Segovia with which he formed the flock of Ram- bouillet. As to the long or combing wool — that species of which, when combed, the difl'erent hairs lie in long straight lines parallel with each other, and possess such a beautiful and silky texture, free from harsh- ness, and, for this latter reason, so difficult to pro- duce— French agriculture may be said to be in its infancy, a few and not very numerous flocks comprising all its riches in this staple. This class of wools forms one of the principal productions of the English flock-masters, and from which are manuf\ictured those beautiful goods, which have not oialy such an extensive home market in that country, but are also exported in extraordinary large quantities to foreign countries. At the exhibition of 1817, there were shewn some beautiful specimens of soft, silky Fiench wool, which were presented by Madame le Comtess du Cayla, MM. le Vicomte de de Turenne, Hennet, Le Vicomte de Sasthene de la Rochfaucauld, Bernard de Bussy, and Selliere de Mello. At the exhibition of 1834, although, by that time, sheep producing this wool had been greatly increased in numbers by the rich proprietors, not two specimens of this wool were to be seen, the flock of Alfort afi^ording the only specimen exhibited. " Let us hope," said the reporter on the exhibition of 1834, " that, at the expiration of fifteen years — at the exhibition of 1839, with all the experience ob- tained in the course of these years, the results ob- tained from experiments made in those parts of the country which enjoy good pasturage, upon rich soils, with a sufficiently humid climate — may be such as we have a right to expect from our rich proprietors ; in short, such as the continually growing demand for combing wool by our manufactures calls for." Jifty years of industry and ])erseverance have, it appears, been necessary to acclimatize the Merino sheep, and to increase their numbers to any consi- derable extent, their numbers being, unfortunately, as yet far too limited, when we consider the great advantages which agriculture must necessarily derive from the breeding of thi j very useful species of do- mestic animals. At the exhibition of 1834 two circumstances were noticed, proving the fact that improvement was un- questionably taking place. The first was the increase of large flocks of Merinos, producing the finest qua- lity of wool ; the second was the great increase of a mixed breed of sheep, producing wool of a medium fine quality, which results from a cross of the best Merino rams with sheep indigenous to the country. Already at the above epoch, the sheep in the middle and northern parts of France, the native flocks of sheep had become so far improved as almost to be termed an altogetht-r improved breed, the original species, with all their defects of frame and coarseness of wool, having given place to a race of more sym- metry, and covered with a richer and more beauti- ful fleece ; which are very important results, seeing that the most celebrated manufacturers of Louviers and Sedan have acknowledged that our good inter- mediate fine wools possess qualities which render them preferable to the very best wools of a similar kind grown in Spain. This is a very great improve- ment, as was remarked by M. Chas. Dupin ; and in a few years we may hope to place by the side of the wools produced in the Iberian peninsula equally good superfine ]Merino wools grown upon sheep bred in France. In 1834 none of these moderately fine wools were exhibited at Paris, nor any wools of a soft and bright character. It was in 1823 that specimens of French indigenous wool, as we may call it, figured at the exhibition, the number of speci- mens shown being eight; in 1827 there were fifteen, and in 1834 there were eighteen only. We think it our duty to give a statement of the spe- cimens exhibited at this exhibition of 1834, with the names of the parties to whom they belonged, which we extract from official documents. The best specimens were exhiliited by MM. Pe- rault de Jotemps et Girod de I'Ain, Directors of the Association of Naz. The flocks of Naz have already a standing of thirtv-five years. Always breeding in and in, it now possesses that continuous purity of blood which is deemed so valuable by the best in- formed breeders, actually presenting a distinct spe- cies of improved sheep, combining as important perfections as are to be found not only within the limits of France but throughout the whole extent of the two hemispheres. 1 he best of our national ])ro- ducts in this class are either from Naz itself or have been bred from stock obtained from that place. It has furnished sheep for the foundation of flocks upon the large breeding farms in Wurtemberg, Aus- tria, Sweden, the Crimea, and even in the British Colonies of New South Wales. There were 2,500 head of sheep in the flock at Naz in the year 1834. Its wool equals in fineness that of the best flocks in Saxony, and is superior to them in strength. Sheep farms stocked by animals obtained from the Naz flock are being rapidly established in several of our departments; so many that they altogether furnish more than a thousand rams which suffice for a hundred thousand ewes*. These statements shew * M. le Vicomte Perrault de Jolemps, and his asso- ciates, MM. Fakry tils and Girod de I'Ain, have published a treatise on wool and sheep. lu this book there is a full statement of all the ex- perience of the writers ; in it is presented a new and profound analysis of the properties of wool, connected with the organization of the animals pro- ducing it, and the circumstances of their constitution and food ; all taken in connection with observations made by the parties themselves of its applicability to manufactures. Then follows a dc?cription of the dif- ferent processes through which the fleece passes ; such THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 337 how rapid must be the increase of this improved race of sheep, and nothing seems to be wanting to a continuous regularly progressive spread of these sheep, but a further course of judicious efforts and spirited expenditure on the part of the agricul- tural proprietors. M. le Vicomte de Jessaint, a proprietor of flocks at Beaulieu (JMarne) who received the gold medal in 1827, exhibited some entire fleeces remarkable for their extreme and regular fineness of quality. The rams which each year are taken from the flock of Beaulieu have greatly improved a number of other flocks in the department of the Marne, and also in the neighbouring departments. M. le Comte Hercule de Polignac (of Calvadas) received the gold medal in 1823, and also in 1827 and 1834, for the care and perseverance with which he kept up his vast flock. The official statement remarks for the second time on the superfine fleeces from the flock of M. Gaiineron, which that gentleman has formed by purchases from tlie flocks of Malmaison, Perpignon, Aries, and Ram- bouillet. This flock already amounted to 1,675 head, which had been bred witli the greatest care and at- tention on ground adapted to that purpose. M. Dupreuil was in possession of a good flock at Souy, in the Department of Aube. This flock had then been established about thirty years, and num- bered 3,400 head. However it is not remarkable merely because it is one of the most numerous in France. For more than ten years iVI. Dupreuil la- boured with the greatest skill and perseverance to improve his flock ; he obtained rams successively from the royal flocks of Rambouillet, of Zoune, which was established by the celebrated Ternaux, who imported slioep for that purpose, and also from the flock of Naz, Up to the present time a great many prize sheep have been brought before the pub- lic from this establishment. M. Moet, of the Department of the Marne, exhi- bited several fleeces remarkable for their fineness and regularity of staple ; with them were also shewn specimens of the same gentleman's wool in a scoured and also in a combed state, which were highly commended. Messieurs Joseph Maitre and Godin, of the De- partment of the Cotes d'Or, had flocks established from sheep brought direct from Saxony. These two gentlemen, with M. Durbach, of the Department of Tarbes, and M. Ternaux, were the only gentlemen who at that time had introduced into France the Electoral Saxon breed of Sheep. The fleeces exhi- bited by them were remarkable for their softness of texture and great fineness. M. Monnot-le-Roi, of the Department of the Aisne, had for ten years been assiduously engaged in im- proving his flock by crosses from rams procured from Naz. The fleeces which he exhibited bore ample testimony to the progress he had made, and fully as washing, purifying from oil, &c., sorting, classify- ing, and then the sale of the article. This work has been seven times translated into five foreign languages, and has convinced wool growers of the necessity of making themselves intimately acquainted with the dif- ferent properties of wool, the advantage of improving the fleece in all its jiarts, in order, when it is sorted, it may produce the greatest possible ([uantity of first- rate wool, and ever to keep a strict eye upon the con- dition of the sheep producing this valuable article, in order to be able to note the causes operating upon the deterioration or improvement of its fleece. The obser- vations in this work merit the best attention of all par- ties connected with the growth of wool.— M. Chas. DUPIN. justified the high estimation in which this flock is held. M. Massin, of the Department of the Aube, showed some very superior fleeces, which resulted from his crossing his flock with rams procured from Naz. The judges of that exhibition reported that this gen- tleman had manifested great skill and industry in the breeding of his flock, and in the manner in which they were tended and kept. His efforts were re- ported to be continuously and remarkably suc- cessful. M. Caille de Varastre, of the Department of the Seine and Marne, exhibited some fleeces in their oily unwashed state, which, although not of the first quality as to fineness and equality of hair, yet cer- tainly attested great improvement. M. Houteville, of the Department of the Seine In- ferieur, also exhibited some fleeces commendable for their fineness and general good qualicies. M. Louis Graux, of the Department of Aisne, showed several fleeces, some of which were un- washed, and others washed, grown upon a particular variety of sheep amongst his flock, which he had for some years paid great attention to, endeavouring to give them a distinct character. He gave the name of silk wool to the specimens he exhibited, and they really possessed a silky texture, were exceedingly soft, and of a very bright appearance, and admirably adapted for the manufacture of the finest class of some particular kinds of stuflfs. The judges expressed their anxious desire that M. Graux might succeed in regularly producing considerably larger quantities of this very precious variety of wool, J. H. ON THE CULTURE OF POTATOES. (from a correspondent.) The time of year having arrived when this most valuable root should in many situations be planted for a general crop, and as from observation I see but little attention is paid as to the procuring the heaviest crop, I would beg to give a few hints to potato growers generally, and leave them to adopt or not my plan, as they may think proper; but as it is simple, and will repay every extra expense, I should hope some one may be tempted to try it, which if he does, I am confident he will not repent. It is I know customary upon a large scale to plough the land and make it tolerably fine before potatoes are planted, but still, if it is ploughed five, six, or seven inches deep and made fine and mel- low, still at the bottom of such ploughing the land is hard and smooth, even in light lands, but how much more so where your subsoil is clay : and as the potato is a rof)t that sends not out fibres only near the surface but dceplyif possible, it can never produce such a crop as where the land is broke eighteen inches to two feet; quite different from the bean and wheat, which thrive best with a firm subsoil. The potato, like the cucumber, only enjoys itself in deeply pulverised soils, which causes them to flourish so much in well managed sandy land. I should therefore recommend, that in all land where potatoes are to be grown, that if the land be either sjmnyy or otherwise damp, that it be drained deep enough to take off all springs or sur- face water. When this is done, the land should either be fully trenched, or bastard trenched, by the spade or plough, but I prefer the spade. By fully trenching, I mean to break the land up two spit deep, and by bastard I mean only to shovel off 338 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the top weeds or rubbish and dig one spit and lay upon it when shovelled into the trench. ^Vhen this is done by the spade, I should advise that your dung should in both cases be laid under the last spit which you throw up, this will prevent any further trouble, as you can then draw your dt!!ls (with a plough made for that purpose) not more than four inches deep ; people can drop in the sets, and harrow them in crossways with a very shoi c toothed harrow, or if otherwise you can draw in a few bushes to keep the tine fi-om touching the potato so as to remove it. lae width of the drills from each other, must depend entirely upon the goodness of your soil : the richer the land, the wider apart must be your rows and sets in your rows, — say in ordinary land rows at two feet from each other, and twelve inches from set to set may do; but if your land be veiy rich, three feet r.om row to row, and eighteen inches from plant to plant, win not be too much. This to some who are fond of close planting may seem a great waste of land, but in reality it is not so. I have heard people say, "such land is too good for potatoes, there will be nothing but haulm ;" but although a large grower in good and bad land, I confess I never found any too good, nor yet too bad if properly managed, to grow good potatoes. The error is, in planting good land you put in twice as much seed as is required ; the consequence is, a great mass of haulm is produced, which by being so close together draws each other up ; your land is covered by a mass of gieen which excludes the sun and air, and in di/ summers sucks up all the moisture, and if "ny bulbs arc formed, there is no moisture to bring- them to perfection, and this is the true cause why in good rich land you do not obtain a crop ; the fault, therefore, is not in the land but in the management of such land : the very same error is committed in sowing wheat and other grain too thick. In Scotland they sow some three and a half and some four bushels of wheat to the acre, and in England two and a half to three bushels to the acre ; whereas one bushel pioperly put in is quite enoughj provided your land has been made healthy by draining in the first place. We will suppose you sow three bushels to the acre ; it comes up and looks beautiful, like a fine meadow in the end of April. The farmer smiles, and says, ■what a fine plant I have got ; well, so it is, but as it covers the land completely at first coming up, how, I would ask, is the corn to come to perfec- tion, unless a great quantity of it is destroyed in some way or another ? No man in his right senses I suppose will say that a corn of wheat should be pinched into such a course that it can only send up one straw, and consequently but one ear, ■whereas it ought to produce forty, and more than this I have seen myself on poor land, where it had room to expand and tiller out ; and the sample ■when it comes to hand will be much finer, and consequently will produce more flour, which is what is sought by every wise farmer. But when sown thick, especially upon good rich soil, the straw is drawa up to a great height, and then when strong winds and heavy rains descend, like the house built upon the sand, it falls, the corn does not come to perfection, the farmer complains, and all is bad together ; wliereas, if the corn had been sown thin upon good healthy land, each root would have tillered out into from twenty to fifty straws, each of which would have strength enougli to stand the gusts of wind and showers of rain, and would yield fine plump samples instead of a poor, meagre, blighted crop ; as I speak from actual Gxpeiience I care not who may treat it with ri« dicule. But Laving set out upon potato planting, I must leave corn culture till another time. I finished potato culture when the land was pre- pared by the spade, which I like best, and am per- suaded, although it may and does cost a little more, will pay every extra expense in the extra crop which it will jleld. Men in clay or loam bottom will trench land two split deep for 8d. and lay in dung for Id. per rod= to 9d. or 61. per acre ; and bastard trenching, which will do quite well in most land, may be done as above for 6d. per rod, or 41. per acre, which is much better than even three ploughings, as the spade or spud leaves the land rough at the bottom of the trench, whereas the plough naturally leaves it smooth and hard. But if the land is to be pre- pared by the plough it ought to be trench-ploughed, that is, the plough must go twice in the same place or furrow, so as to break up the land if pos- sible from sixteen to eighteen inches deep at least. Then if your land requires manure you must plough that in, which will be three ploughings, which can- not cost less in stony land than 21. 5s., and unless your land is properly pulverised, it will require another ploughing ; so that you will find, when you come to look at both expenses, a few extra bushels of potatoes will pay aU the extra expense of spade culture, which is sure to produce them ; however, in each case pay the same attention to distance in planting, and be sure 7ioi to plant small potatoes, but sets cut from large ones ; as you will find small potatoes send up a good deal of haulm, and the bulbs in general are numerous and small too ; whereas a set good size with one or two eyes, will send up one or more stalks, and the bulbs in general are large also. Having given you the methods most likely to produce large crops, having tried experiments for twenty years, I will now tell you what I have seen grown upon very poor land, when properly trenched and manured with farm-yard dung ; it produced 700 bushels to the English acre of 160 rods, which was more than enough to pay all ex- penses and value of land, and the land in good order for corn to succeed. LEICESTERSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. FIFTH ANNIVERSARY MEETING, 7x11 DECEMBER, 1838. The rank which Leicestershire holds amongst the grazing and agricultural counties of England, would naturally lead the public to suppose that the cattle shew could not fail to prove of a very superior description, both as to the quality of the animals shown, and the numbers considered of such ex- cellence as to he qualified for competition. This expectation has been fully realised, and the exhibi- tion in the Yard of the Bell Hotel yesterday, was of a character to elicit the utmost admiration of the grazier and practical farmer. It was not only the very best that Leicester ever witnessed, but has established for the Leicestershire Association a pre- eminent position amongst all the provincial societies. ]\Iost competent judges have declared, that the beasts exhibited yesterday were not merely a credit to this county, but to the nation also, and we are sure that every coming year will increase the high THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 339 reputation in which this anniversary is already held. After the exhibition, a large party of gentlemen assembled to partake of an excellent dinner. Up- wards of three hundred and fifty individuals were present, comprising almost all the leading agricul- turists in the county. Amongst them we noticed the following :— The Hon. H. W, Wilson, Sir W. Heygdte.Sir G. J. Palmer, H. Halford, Esq., M.P., C. W. Packe, Esq., M.P., E. B. Farnham, Esq., M.P., Col. Cheney, Wm. Herriolr, Esq., J. A. Arnold, Esq., R. Ches/yn, Esq., Thomas Walker, Esq., J. Bright. Esq., W. Martin, Esq., W^ P. M. Owsley, Esq., Rev. J. M. Cooper, Captain Pochin, Messrs. J. L. Hassall, C. Stokes, J. Spencer, W. Hind, B. Simpkin, H. Chamberlain, G. Kilby, W. Simkin, &c. — After the cloth was drawn. The Chairman rose and said, he did so for tlie purpose of expressing the great gratification he felt at seeing so many of the original members of the society present : — at seeing their numbers so in- creased and increasing. Such, he trusted, would continue to he the case so long as they adhered to the principle upon which the society was founded — that of excluding from their discussions anything of a party or political tendency. {Hear, hear.) The first toast, then, that he had the pleasure of proposing was, "The Queen," (cheers;) and with it he would couple a sentiment with which he was sure they would all most cordially concur — May her reign be conspicuous for obedience to the laws ; and may she obtain true glory to herself, and prosperity to the people. (Three times three.) This was followed by the Toast of Queen Dowager, and the rest of the Royal Family. (Three times three.) The Chairman, in giving the next toast — " The Army and Navy" — said, he was happy to remark that there were many gentlemen of both professions in the society, and he was happy also to see near him anew member — the gallant Colonel of the Greys, W'ho distinguished himself and gained so much credit at Waterloo. (Cheers.) He had now turned " his sword into the plough-share" (applause,) and would, perhaps, give them some information on the subject of the sub-soil plough, one of which, he understood, the Colonel had procured for his farm at Gadesby. (Hear, hear.) He would give them the " Army and Navy," and coupled with the name of Col. Cheney, and other Members of either profession who might be present. (Cheers.) Col. Cheney rose to return thanks. The gallant Colonel said, on the part of the army he begged leave to return thanks for the honour conferred on them ; and he had no doubt their future conduct would be such as to entitle them to the fullest ap- probation— as it had hitherto done — of the country. (Hear, hear, hear.) He could not but express his gratification at the manner in which his name had been joined with the toast. With respect to the subsoil plough, it was true he had one ; but he had not yet tried it, and had not, therefore, ascertained its merits. He should, however, before the next meeting, be able to do so, and would then give some account of it, and it would indeed be gratifying to him, if he could by such measures throw any light upon agriculture. The gallant Colonel sat down amidst loud applause. Sir Edmund C. Hartoi'p, the High Sheriff of the county; a gentleman who had performed the duties of his office with so much credit to himself and benefit to the county, was the next toast, given from the chair, and was received with loud cheers. The Chairman then said he had been entrusted with a letter from the Duke of Rutland, which he would read to them. The letter was couched in terms expressive of the noble duke's regret at being unable to attend the meeting as he had anticipated ; and stated his best wishes for the success of the so- ciety, and his anxiety to support it. The worthy Chairman concluded by proposing the health of the noble duke ; and said he was sure they would drink it with that cordiality they had always done. — "The Lord Lieutenant of the county, our noble President." (Prolmtged cheering.) The shepherds, labourers, servants, &c., to whom the prizes had been awarded, entered the room in groups to receive them. The Chairman, after reading over the names of the successful candidates, and the several prizes attached to their names, addressed tliem in appropriate terms expressive of the hopes of the society that they would continue in the same good course and incite others to follow their example. During the intervals that elapsed betwixt the different classes coming into the room, the Chairman gave several toasts. In giving " Success to the Wool Fair," he said, he had before done so, and had then made some observations. He would not, however, do so now ; he would leave it to speak for itself. He begged they would bear in mind the remark made by one of the spirited buyers at the last meeting — " if we would only bring a good article, and plenty of it, we should not want buyers at a fair price." {HeaVy hear.) The Chairman then said, the next toast he had to propose was that of a class of men to whom the society was much indebted, and who were intimately con- nected with those classes on whom they had just been bestowing the rewards. He had received a communication from the gentleman who usually res- ponded to the toast — Mr. Morgan, of Rearsby — to the effect that nothing but a severe indisposition prevented his attendance. His heart, however, was with them, and deeply did he regret his inability to be present. At this time, when cheap publications are so much spread about, and those not having the best possible tendency, he could not but feel gratified on perusing a halfpenny pamphlet, which he had some little time ago, entitled " Who's the Parson 1" The character of the parties to whom he alluded was therein so peculiarly and happily described that he could not help giving an outline of it as far as he could recollect. It stated therein that he ('the person) is acquainted with the wants of the poor, though moving in the society of the rich : being the legitimate poor man's friend, not pander- ing to his prejudices or exciting his evil passions; but administering to his necessities ; — advising in dif- ficulties ; — consoling him in affliction ; — and pointing out, by precept and example, the sure path to lead him to happiness, both here and hereafter. (Hear, hear, hear.) They felt indebted, then, for the ex- ertions of the clergy for signing their certificates, and pointing out those deserving objects whom they had the pleasure of rewarding, and who, but for those exertions would not have been here. {Hear, hear.) He therefore gave the Bishop and Clergy of the Diocese, particularly those who attend their meetings, and endeavoured to carry out the bene- volent views of the society. (Cheers.) Before the Chairman gave the next toast, he an- nounced that a paper had just been put into his hands, containing a piece of information, the plea- sure resulting from which he could not keep to him- self. It was to the effect that the collection at the doors that day amounted to 32L (Loud cheers.) The Chairman said, the next toast required no comment from h'ln, he should leave it entirely with 340 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. them — " The Members of the County." A simul- taneous burst of apphiuse followed the announce- ment of this toast, which was some time ere it sub- sided. As soon as silence had been restored, H. Halfoud, Esq., I\I.P., rose to return thanks. He said, it was hardly necessary for him to dilate on the feelings under which he rose, though he should be sorry if he was supposed insensible to the honour done. Certainly he could not be so, if he were al- lowed to consider the flattering manner in whicli his name had been received in the toast just given as a token of their approbation of his public services. If in one word he could be understood as making the fullest acknowledgment which gratitude might dictate, he might sit down, having pronounced that word. When he considered the circumstances un- der which he rose — that he was returning thanks for that which had come from so large and influential an assembly of the agriculturists of this country, he would seem to carry with it something beyond a mere compliment. It appeared something like a challenge in the situation in which he was placed, to give some account of his conduct in the discharge of his duties with respect to the interests of agri- culture, and of the views and arguments on which that conduct had been founded. All, however, he should say at present was, that whenever a favour- able opportunity did occur of so doing, he should not be the man to shrink from it, ( Hear, and cheers.) It was an opportunity which he coveted, and which be would embrace with eagerness and satisfaction. Yet he knew it was difficult to speak on matters purely agricultural without some party feeling, wliich was rightly interdicted here. lie might, however, disclaim all such feeling, and anything be might say would be received wiih that frankness and candour ■with which it would be uttered. The mere expres- sion of opinions honestly entertained might not give any interruption to a meeting like the present, but he adiaitted the iticonvenience that would arise by the introduction there of any element of debate or controversy. It remained only, therefore, for iiim to express the high gratification he felt in being al- lowed to participate in the immediate objects of the society. His habits would not allow him to enter into that active agricultural competition which had been entered into tin's place to-day ; yet he was not the less sensible of the honourable nature of it, and its advantages for the public good, (Hear, hear). There was one of their objects also, wliich secured to invest their society with something of a sacred character; he alluded, of course, to the rewards given ts the labouring classes, he considered the re- wards given to them as proofs of the public opinion of their services. I'hey were pledges twice honour- ed, honouring those who gave and those who took them. In thus rewarding, they conferred a benefit on themselves, and set forth the example of eflbrts, without which the operations of agriculture could not be performed, and on whicli tiie comfort and order of society depend. 'I'o speak of these prizes as of reward in a pecuniary sense was ridiculous. The parties who received them are to be envied for their feeling in seeing this large assembly animated by sentiments of esteem and respect for them. The reward is in their own bosom, and in their own con- science ; an example is aflbrded to their children ; and a life is spent in the direct discharge of the du- ties belonging to their station. They are not much used, it is true, to meetings like this, or to the re- finement of social intercourse, yet their virtues re- flect on them honour, and self-denial is exercised amongst them for a series of years. Temperance, and fortitude, and independence amongst them, which used to be lost amongst the lower classes, have placed them in amojal condition which birth, rank, and fortune, can hardly reach. (Tremendous cheer- ing followed the Hon. Member's speech.) C. W. Packe, Esq., M. P., in rising, assured the meeting of the gratification he felt that the session of Parliament did not prevent hiui from attending on that occasion, as, he was sorry to say, it had done at the last anniversary of the Society. He said, that however much cause of self-gratulation the Society might have had at former meetings, the exhibition of that year had far exceeded their previous efforts, and proved that the objects of the association were more appreciated, by a larger competition for prizes. The Hon. Gentleman then alluded to the increase of tlie members of the society — and spoke of the Wool Fair as an institution calculated to prove of the ut- most utility to the farmer, and especially to the small wool-grower. He concluded by declaring his de- termination warmly to support the interests of agriculture, and his great solicitude for the wel- fare of that Society,— and sat down amongst loud cheers. E. B.Farnham, Esq., M. P., rose to offer his sincere thanks for the manner in which tlie toast had been received, on behalf of his Noble Colleague for the Northern Division, (whose absence he lamented,) and in his own name. He was particularly gratified that toast had been so well received by so numerous and respectable a Society. He was always happy to promote the cause of agriculture, but while he did so, he did not forget the manufacturing interests, with which its prosperity was inseparably blended. (Cheers.) The CiiAiuMAN, after some remarks upon the Wool Fair, in which he made honourable mention of tlie names of Mr. Jaques and Mr. Benjamin Sirapkin, tiie winners of the ])rizes last year, gave " The health of Rlr. Chamberlain, of Desford, the winner of the prize for the best Ox." The Chairman then gave the health of the Earl Hmve, to whose liberality they were indebted for the doe venison, of which they had that day par- taken. The Chairman then proposed the health of three gentlemen, to whose services the Society had been so much indebted ; he gave the healths of Messrs. Parkinson, Umbers, and Bellamy, the Judges — ■ ( Cheers. ) Mr. Pahkinson returned thanks, and spoke of the sincere wish of himself and his colleagues to follow the instructions of the Committee. He enlarged on the difiiculty of the position of the Judges, but urged their endeavours to give a conscientious decision, and said tiiat such difficulty had been increased in jiroportion to the extra good quality of the stock ex- hibited. He concluded by giving as a toast, " Suc- cess to tlie Leicestershire Agricultural Society," which was received with loud cheers. Sir W . Heygate then gave, by permission, the health of the Chairman, whom he described as a gentleman devoting himself to the agricultural inte- rests of Leicestershire, with a degree of ardour, per- severance, and energy, which was seldom equalled, and never surpassed. (Loud clieers.) The Hon. H. W. Wilson said, he never felt so much at a loss for words, as in returning thanks for the kind and flattering manner in which his name had been proposed and received, and that it would be his study to continue to deserve such good feel- ing. (Cheers.) The CiiAinMAN then gave, " The Successful Can- didates." Mr. Chamberlain (of Desford) returned thanks, I i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 341 nnd said he considered tlie stock superior not only in number, but in quality also, to that which had been exhibited at Jbiiuer meetiuijs. lie saw no reason ■why the siiow at i^eicester should be second to any in the kingdom, and if it met with the support it de- served, it would be second to none. (Clieers.) He liad entered one pair of oxen and two of sheep at the Smithfield show, but he did not expect success; still he thought it more honourable to show good stock, although unsuccessful, than to take premiums for want of competition ; and if men could not bear to be beaten, they should not show at all. (Loud cheers.) The Chairman then gave in succession, " The Secretary and the Stev^-ards," " The Treasurer, Mr. JMnnsfield," " The Vice-Presidents of the Society," and other appropriate toasts, which were duly ac- knowledged. The festivity of the evening was sus« taincd throughout with much cordial enjoyment, and the meeting separated amidst general expressions of gratification and satisfaction, at the prosperity of the Society. Judges, — IMr. John Parkinson, of Ley Fields, Nottinghamshire, Mr. Thomas Umbers, of Wapper- bury, Warwickshire, Mr. William Bellam}', of Han- slowe, Warwickshire. PREMIUMS GIVEN FOR CATTLE, SIIEEl', &C. By the Society. Class 1. — For the best ox, under five years old, of any breed or weight, open to all counties, without restrictions as to feed, a silver tankard, value 13 sovereigns. — IMr. H. Chamberlain, Desford. Bji T. F. Turner, Esq. Class 2. — For the best ox, of any breed, age or weight, bred and fed in the county, that shall not have had oil, oilcake, corn, pulse, seeds, or meal, previous to the 1st of August, 18.'i8, a silver cup, value 10 sovereigns. — Mr. Chamberlain, Desford. By the Right Hon. the FMrl Ihwe, Class 3. — For the best ox, under five years old, of any breed or weight, bred and fed in the county, without restrictions as to feed, 5 sovereigns. — Mr. H. Chamberlain, Desford. By the Society. Class 4. — For the best ox, under four years old, fed in the county, that shall not, after six months old, have had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, meal, or milk, (breeding open to all counties), .5 sove- reigns.—No merit. Class 5. — For tlie best ox, under four years ohi, bred and fed in the county, that sliall not, after si.x months old, have had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, meal, or milk, 5 sovereigns. — Mv. II. ChaUiberlain, Desford. Class 6. — For the best fat cow or heifer, of any breed, age, or weight, (open to all counties), with- out restrictions as to feed, .5 sovereigns. — Mr. Charles Mann, Leicester. Class 7. — For the best dairy cow, fed in the coun- ty, that has produced a calf in ltJo8, and is either in milk, or has been regularly milked twice a day till the 10th of October and is supposed to he in calf, and that shall not have had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, meal, or rnilk, after six i-nontlis old, (breeding ojien to all counties,) 5 sovereigns. — Mr. Needham Carnall, of Queniborough. Class 8. — For the best pair of in-calved heifers, ! under three years old, bred and (ed in the county, that shall not have had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, meal, or milk, after six months old, 3 sove- reigns.— No merit. Class 9. — For the best pair of heifers, under two years old, bred and fed in the county, that shall not liave had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, meal, or milk, after six months old, 3 sovereigns.— Mr. H. Chamberlain, Desford. Class 10. — For the best bull, under two years old, bred and fed in the county, that shall not have had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, or meal, after six months old, 5 sovereigns. — E. W. Wilmott, Esq.. Pickwell. Class 11. — For the best bull, of any breed or age, that shall not have had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, or meal, after six months old, and that has served cows in the previous season, in the county, at not exceeding half a sovereign each, (breeding open to all counties), ;> sovereigns. — No merit. By Mr. H. Chamberlain. For the best beast, bred and fed in the county, shewn in any of the above classes, (provided of suf- ficient merit) over and above any other premium which may be awarded, 5 sovereigns. — Awarded to himself. By the Eight Hon. the Earl Howe. Class 12. — For the best pen (of three) under 22 months old, of long-woolled fat wether sheep, with- out restriction as to feed, and open to all counties, 5 sovereigns.— Mr. H. Chamberlain, Desford.— This class was highly commended by the Judges. Class IS. — For the best pen (of three) under 22 months old, bred and fed in the county, of long- woolled fat wether sheep, fed on grass, hay, and green vegetable food only, 4 sovereigns.— Mr. Thos. Heap, Cossington. Class 14. — For the best four ewes, bred and fed in the county, which have suckled lambs to the 1st of July, 1838, and have again been put to the ram, and S'.ipposed to be in-larnb, and that have never had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, meal, or milk, after six months old, and have been fed on grass only from the 1st of July, 1833, 4 sovereigns.— Mr. H. Cham- berlain.— This class was commended generally. Class 15.— For the best four theaves that have been put to the ram, and supposed to be in- lamb, and that have never had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, meal, or milk, after six months old, and have been fed on grass only from the first of July, 1838 (open to all counties) ; 4 sovereigns. — Mr. H. chamberlain, Desford. — This class was highly com- mended. Class 16. — For the best pen of five ewe lambs, bred and fed in tlie county, that shall not have had oil, oil-cake, corn, pulse, seeds, meal, or milk, after six months old, and have been fed on grass, bay, and green vegetable food only ; 3 soveieigns. — Mr. John Spencer, Odstone. Class 17. — For the best in-pigged or suckling sow, bred and fed in the county ; 2 sovereigns. — Mr. John Moore, Aston Flamville. Class 18. — For the best boar, fed in the county, (breeding open to all counties) ; 2 sovereigns. — Hon. H. W. Wilson, Alexton. Class 19.— For the best fat pig, under 12 months old, bred and fed in the county ; 2 sovereigns. — Mr. William Benskin, Rearsby. By the Hon. H. W. Wilson. Class 20. — For the best colt or filly, two years old, bone tide the property of a tenant farmer, and to be considered by the Judges as best adapted to the sic- neral purposes of agriculture in the county, a silver cup, value 4 sovereigns. — Mr. Charles Stokes, Kingston. Class ^1. — For the best brood raare, bona fide the property of a tenant farmer, and to be considered 342 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. by the Judges as best adapted to the general pur- poses of agriculture in the county ; 3 sovereigns. — Mr. John Kendall, Burbage. Class 22. — For the best foal as above ; 2 sove- reigns.— No competition. By C. W. Packs, Esq., M.P. Class 23. — for the best beast shown as extra stock, a silver cup, value 5 guineas. — Mr. John Buckley, Norraanton-upon-Soar. Class 24. — For the best pen of sheep, shewn as extra stock, a silver cup, value 5 sovereigns. — Mr. H. Chamberlain, Desford. Medals for Extra Stock offered by E. W. Wilmot, Esq. for the second best beast, to Mr. Joseph Hassall, Packington. for the best Leicester ewe. — ]Mr. PI. Chamberlain, Desford. For the best two pigs. — Ditto. THE HEPORT. In presenting their Report at this, the fifth anni- versary of the Leicestershire Agricultural Society, to the General Meeting of its Members, the Commit- tee have great pleasure in stating, that the proceed- ino's of the past year have been such a-i to prove most unquestionably the growing utility of its In- stitution to all classes of the Agricultural Interest. Among the most prominent of its benefits, none has been more fully demonstrated than that which Las resulted from the last Wool Fair; — upwards of eio'ht thousand fleeces were brought there and offered for sale, and all were disposed of j business having been done at the high price of 44s. per tod. — The Committee cannot help congratulating the Society upon the decided proof of the great advantage which both the wool grower and buyer must derive from the establishment of the fair ; the briskness with ■which sales were effected having so completely jus- tified the most sanguine expectations of its useful- ness, and the recommendations the Committee had the honour in their last year's report to urge on the Society for its general and cordial support. The Committee have the highest gratification in beino- able to report a considerable addition in the competitors for rewards of the Society to deserving Servants and Labourers, which is shewn by the number having been last year fifty-four, while that of this year has risen to seventy-six. — This large in- crease of claimants beyond the number in the pre- vious year must prove alike most satisfactory to the members of the Society , and highly creditable to tlie poorer classes, for whose benefit these premiums are intended. The Committee are happy in being able to announce to the Meeting that the funds of the Society have been increased by an addition of nearly Fifty new Subscribers. There was a deficiency in previous years' accounts of 49Z. 12s. 2d. but that debt has been partly liquidated by extra liberal contributions a- mounting to oil. 10s. and a small increase of expen- diture bevond the income of the Society in the ac- counts of the present year amounting to 9/. 12s. 6d. has been met in a similar manner. The Committee have reason to hope that this cheering statement will be the means of inducing still more additional Sub- scribers, as the Society must be aware that the tliree primary objects of its formation, viz. protecting the Interests of Agriculture, encouraging by premiums the breed of Stock, and rewarding merit among the labouring classes, will be eflectually carried out, and their usefulness benefically extended, in propor- tion to the encouragement which the Society re- ceives from the Landed Interest generally of ti)e County. KENT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. ; (from the MAIDSTONE GAZETTE.) . The advertised meeting of Thursday, March 14, was ' held, in the Town-hall, Maidstone. Present. — D.Salo- I mons, Esq., Vis. Sidney, Sir Brook, W. Bridges, Bt., ; Sir Walter Riddell, Bart.,T. Rider, Esq., Charles W. Martin, Esq., T. B. Brett, Esq.. VV. M.Smith, Esq., ; E. Hussey,Esq.,G. E. Dering, Esq., J. Ellis, Esq., of*] Barming, W. Nicholson, Esq., B. F. Duppa, Esq., , Rev. William Rham, of Berkshire, Rev.T. Ward, — j Ward, Esq., W. Couhan, Esq., Henry Hoare, Esq., I E. C. Tuffnell, Esq., James Whatman, Esq., R. Far- | ley, Esq., John Mercer, Esq., — Crouehton, Esq., \ — Taylor, Esq., G. G. Gipps, jun., Esq., Messrs. | James Amos, Walker, Hatch, G. Cobb, Miles, Viney, i G. Hughes, Love, Neve, Roots, Jarrett, Reeves, j Barton, Tassell, R. Lake, &c., &c. i Much as we desire to give every possible assist- I ance to this project, we are yet for want of space ' constrained to omit much of the speeches, some of I which were of tlie most encouraging and gratifying character. Viscount Marsham had been expected to preside, ; but being absent as a witness on the trial of Samuel i Seager, the High Sheriff (D. Salomons, Esq.) took ' the chair. The CnAinMAN, in an appropriate address, opened ' the business of the meeting, in doing which he ex- , pressed his warmest wishes for the success of the i proposed undertaking, and his conviction of its ah- i solute necessity, in order to keep in advance of the efforts whicli were making in foreign countries, to i compete witli us, not only in our manufacturing but in our agricultural interests. The present was not a question affecting the interests of this county only j — it was a national one ; and he hoped thiit the • intended institution would prove itself to be a model one for the whole country. As there were gentlemen present who were more able to enter into the details of the proposed measure than himself, in their hands be would leave the business of the meeting, (Ap' ■• plause. ) B. F. Duppa, Esq. was received with cheers. He addressed the meeting in nearly the following terras: — In presenting mvself for the purpose of explaining a plan for an agricultural college, I do so with more confidence, in consequence of thatplan not only being generally approved, but revised and added to by many of the chief agriculturists in this county ; and it is a singular and important fact that ;i want of the knowledge which it is proposed should be imparted there, is admitted in the strongest terms, chiefly by those whose acknowledged success in the practice of agriculture would point them out as living evi- dences that no sucli institution was required. Of all , the occupations in which men engage for the pur- pose of gaining a livelihood by the application of capi- tal, there is not one in which a large and varied stock of accurate knowledge is not only so desirable, but so absolutely necessary for obtaining the greatest return, as in farming. The operations which a farmer bps to perform are not few and unvarying as are those of a manufacturer, who, having once taken up his ground with prudence, proceeds, hot and cold, wet and dry, snow and frost, in the sme manner ; his machinerv or tackling is the same throughout the whole year — it is confined to one spot, fperlbrms the saaie operations, and works upon the same materials upon which its action always produces the same effects. The produce or crop of the manufacturer is thus certain ; and he only shares with the farmer in . the variations of the market. But these are not the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 343 only points in which the manufacturers have the ad- vantage ; they live together in towns, so that what- ever new invention is made, whatever improvement in process is discovered, all learn and adopt it simul- taneously or nearly so. This is not the case with the farmer; he necessarily lives apart — his occupation prevents him from seeing much beyond what be does himself — so that it is only through hearsay and read- ing that successful experiments become known to him. Other counties can be rarely visited, while other countries can be scarcely so at all. Tlie Bel- gians have made great strides in the practical im- provement of agriculture, but how many persons are there in this room who have been to see what they have done? Belgium is but a few hours voyage from Dover, and a railroad transports the traveller from one part of the kingdom to another. Such are some of the difficulties of the farmer's position ; what arrangements have been made to enable him to over- come them ■? Agricultural societies have been formed, at which there are exhibitions of produce, prizes are distributed, and ploughing matches take place. But much good as tbey have done, and are calcutated to do, they go not to the root of the evil. No reward — no prize can bring more out of a man than he has got in him. We want something which will sink deeper than this ; something which will place into the minds and habits of people that which we desire to come out. The only thing which I know of capable of effecting this is an education well adapted to the circumstances and future prospects of the individual. And this, from all I can learn, and the farmers them- selves have been my informants, it is impossible now to obtain. But are the manufactui'ers, who as I have shown from their position tostand less in need of science than theagriculturists — aretheyidleonthishead? have they been and are they doing nothing"? In most of the large manufacturing towns throughout the king- dom, great efiorts are making to give knowledge bearing upon the principles of the occupation of the place, not only to the manufacturer but to the me- chanic. At Rianchester, at Liverpool, at Glasgow, at Edinburgh, in the Potteries, in the mines of Corn- wall, there are classes for mathematics, chemistry, mechanical drawing, and mechanics. They teach the strength and strain of materials, pressure on em- bankments, floating, engineering, and all matters which the wants or occupations of the locality make desirable ; and at the school of arts at Edinburgh, a certificate is given to all pupils who have passed through the mathematical, mechanical, and chemical classes, and at an examination have shown that they have duly profited. Thus the portions of the popu- lation are pressing forward, and while they are doing so are we men of Kent to remain behind f God for- bid ! I rejoice from my heart at the exertions making elsewhere. It is only another reason for us to exert ourselves, if our own improvement and the increased produce of the soil are not of themselves sufficient re- ward to hold forth. With a view then of enabling theyeorae;i and others connected with agriculture in this country to give a superior and suitable education to their children, it is proposed to found a college of agriculture by the united strength of the countv, which shall be so constituted as to afford all the fa- cilities for the religious, moral, and intellectual train- ing of a well conducted school, combined with the practical knowledge, practical skill, and the habit of close industry and attention, which can only b© ob- tained upon a farm and in suitable workshops. In order to effect this object it is proposed to raise the sumofl5,000<., by shares of lOi. each, which is to be applied to the purchasing of eight or ten acres of land, and erecting and fitting up a school and other buildings requisite for the object in view, for 300 boys, and a limited number of young men. A portion of this sum will also be required for stocking the farm. The sum for which it is proposed to receive boys as boarders is 25 guineas and 2 guineas en- trance. Young men who have not passed a series of years in the school would be required to pay a much higher sum, probably 751. per annum ; while if the college could fortunately be located in the immediate vicinity of Maidstone, many persons would probably be ready to avail themselves of the opportunity of sending their sons as day scholars — these might be received at 10/. per annum. It will be evident, from the smallness of the sum proposed to be demanded from each pupil, that the scheme would be imprac- ticable unless by the aid of large numbers ; 300 boys at 2.5 guineas and 25 young men at 75/. would be requisite for the purpose. But this would be suffi- cient, at any rate according to the calculations which I have made. For if the boarding of each of the younger pupils be calculated at 15/. perannumeach, and that of 25 young men at 35/. per annum each, there would remain a balance of 4,015/. for the ex- penccs of the establishment, after the payment of boarding had been extracted. This sum it is pro- posed to distribute in the following manner : — Interest of 15,000/. at 4 per cent £600 •Head master's salary of 350/. per annum, and 1 guinea for each pupil 665 Salaries of 9 under masters 800 Chaplain 100 Secretary 100 Repairs 100 Servants' wages 200 Boarding the establishment 500 Other expences, coals, washing, &c.. 500 3,565 Leaving 450/. per annum, besides 2 guineas entrance with each pupil for contingencies ; the entrances of the first year would be 630/. Around the establish- ment there must necessarily be a farm. This it is proposed to hire, and some terms might, it is con- ceived, be made with a landlord anxious to forward the success of the plan, so that there need be no ap- prehension that the institution should lose the land at all events until a number of years shall have elapsed. It would be desirable to purchase, but this step would, it is believed, be impracticable at first. The number of acres suggested has been 300, but there are those who think that there should be a much larger number, among whom is Mr. John Lake, of Bapchild, who suggests 500 or 1000, in order that a great variety of soil may be obtained. Although an allowance of 3,000/. of capital is made for stock- ing the farm, no profit is calculated, nor even the in- terest of the money thus laid out; it is estimated that the produce will pay the rent, and no more. Al- though in making an estimate it may not be prudent to calculate upon profit, there can be no reason for supposing that there will be none. Experiments would , without doubt, be continually tried ; they, however, would be restricted to a small portion of land, for it would be difficult to conceive how young farmers could obtain an idea of the advantage of persevering steadily in a tried course of husbandry, if the whole farm were to be continually made the scene of vary- ing experiments. It will be an important business in the conduct of an establishment such as this, to shew how expflriments ought to be tried, and success- ful results priidentlij adopted. The aim must be to make the great mass of the farm a model for the cul- tivation of land of a similar character in the most lu' cralive manner. And why, with the ablest of assist- 344 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ance and the best of markets (for that would be found at home) it should not be productive, aud highly so, it is difficult to say. It is desirable that we should investigate some of the items in the table of annual expenditure in order that it may be seen with wliat warranty the calculations have been made. And first, with regard to the sum of 151. which is allowed for the board of each pupil. What data are there for making this calculation? They areas follows : — En- quiry was made at St, Paul's school, where it was found that the boys were boarded at a sum lower than is allowed in our calculations. These boys are, how- ever, living in London, where it is conceived that the appetite is not so keen as in the country. I there- fore requested a gentleman who farms in this county, who is in fact a yeoman, to produce a dietary to be dratrn out h\f the farmers themselves, who would not be likely to be mistaken with regard to country ap- petites. He has been so obliging as to attend to my request, and the following is the dietary which he informs me has been approved by all the persons to whom he has shown it. I'he total expence for the year, allowing one month for vacation, is within my calculation. A Dietary Table for a week, with the Prices of the Articles by the Gross. Breahfasts. lib. of Bread 1 oz. of Butter 1 Pint of Milk & Water per day d. -132 I '2 •IT perw s. 1 'eek. d. oh per year. £ s. d. 3 15 11 Dinners. fib. Beef or Mutton & Vegetables lib. Rice, Suet, or Plumb Pudding.. .. 9 n7. Brpad .....«•• 3-1 -1 1 4 1 2 Of 1 Pint of Beer 7 19 3 Suppers, lb. Bread . . , 1 oz. of Cheese ...... 1 Pint of Beer 1 8f 4 7 21 Allowing 1 Month for Erives lOif 1 6 2lf Holidays, whicli 16 2 4^ 1 4 91 14 17 7 Flour, at 6O3. per sack ; Beef and Mutton, at 5d. per lb. ; Butter, at lOd. per lb. ; Cheese, at 9d. per lb.: Beer, 12s. per barrel. The next item for consideration is the annual pay- ment of 6001. for interest to the shareholders. It has been stated that interest to shareholders is a thing out of the question, and that whoever advances money must give it ; that in other institutions for education which have been founded by the contribu- tion of shareholders, such has been found to be the case ; therefore it must be so here. The calculation which is here presented may certainly be erroneous — but interest to shnreholdors ought to be paid, and the calculations ought to be made upon such data as to secure it : and unless they are so, I for on© shall consider them made upon a wrong principle. The next item is the salary of the head master. It has been proposed that he should have a fixed salary of 3.50L per annum and a guinea a head with each pupil per annum, besides a house and some other advan- tages. His situation would then be worth little short of 800/. per annum. This may at first sight appear high, but when it is considered that the person qua- lified for being placed at the head of such an esta- blishment as is here proposed, ought to be not only of high scientific and general acquirements, but be a person capable of commanding respect and obedi- ence, and securing the efficiency of all the subordi- nate departments, — it will be evident that the ser- vices of such a ])erson could command the same re- compence elsewhere. Tiie profession to which I ' should feel inclined to look for the bead of such au establishment would be the royal engineers. The item of 800/. for the under mi>sters I have thus dis- tributed, whether judiciously or not may e a subject for further consideration : — Second master £250 Third muster or head bailiff. 150 Fourth master 100 Six assistants at 50/, each 300 £800 Repairs are calculated at 100/, but all the repairs, if the establishment be placed upon the footing I de- sire to see it upon, will be done by hands to be found at home and in the school. The only expense should be for materials. But granting that the money can be raised, that sufficient pupils can be found to at- tend, and that the calculations for their board and education be correct; — how is this college to be go- verned'! In principle it is a proprietary school, and proprietary schools have been failing in every direc- tion. This is true. Before determining what the go- vernment of this college is to be, it would be desira- ble to ascertain the causes of failure of proprietary schools, and they are found to be owing, — 1st. To the generally insufficient salary of the head master, which precludes the possibility of securing the ser- vices of a capable person. — 2nd. In the intermed- dling of the committee and parents with the govern- ment of the school. This necessarily interferes with system, weakens the power of the master, and ren- ders the situation one which few persons of indepen- dent character will fill. If these are the evils, how are they to be avoided ? It is proposed in the fol- lowing manner, viz. That besides a president and vice-president, there should be a committee of fifty elected out of the body of the shareholders, and thai this committee should elect out of their own body a small direction, which alone is to take any part in the government of the school — and even with regard to this small direction, it is proposed that it should have no more power than that of exercising a veto before the introduction of any plan of proceeding, and reporting to the general committee the general effi- ciency of the school in various departments. It is proposed to vest the whole power and responsibility ' in the head master, and upon the choice of this indi- vidual will the success or failure of the plan depend. Gross misconduct may be checked by citing him before a general meeting of the committee, by whom he can be dismissed ; but it will be more easy it is con- ceived to find one individual, who will be able to make the college what its promoters desire to see it, than eight directors who by interfering will not do mischief. As the master is thus to be supreme in the school, and responsible for its character, it is necessary that no persons should act under him with whom he is not satisfied. It is therefore proposed that he shall have the appointment of all the under masters. But with whom is the selection of the head master to rest 1 It is conceived that it should THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 345 le witli as few persons as possible. A large body is inore'likely to be acted upon by a canvas or a private solicitation, while its very number shields it from responsibility, If the number who make the choice be small, the duty is more likely to be felt, and the trust more likely to be executed as it ought to be. It i> therefore proposed that the selection shall be mi di by the direction of eight, who shall recommend a person for election to the general committee. The general committee will then be a check upon the direction, who must show reasons for their choice, before the general committee can be expected to con- iirm it. As perhaps the appointment of the head master is the most important step to be taken, too many guards can scarcely be thrown around tho election to secure the choice of a fitting party. It has therefore been comidered that it %vould be a vise precaution to fisc beforehand ihe qualif cations ichich should be required, and that the fitness of the indi- vidual in the required particulars should be attested by competent parties before the electors admit his Lame among those of the candidates. With regard 1o instruction, as there will be lads of all ages in the institution, it will be evident that the English lan- gjage, writing, arithmetic, geography, and other branches of elementary knowledge, must be imparted to the younger. When they have well mastered these, they will, it is conceived, proceed directly to those departments which bear immediately upon their future profession, and these must be principallv chemistry, mechanics, the physiology of animals and plants, — all as applied to agriculture. In chemistry lies the secret of the manner in wliich manures act upon different soils, and soils upon each other. In mechanics lies the secret of economizing power of every description. In the physiology of animals and the physiology of plants lie the secrets of choos'ng and treating animals. While in the physiology of plants lie the secrets of generating and rearing plants in the greatest perfection, and placing them in soils suitable to their respective natures. Besides intel- lectual instruction it is proposed to endeavour to eifect two other things — to give our young ])Upils skill and the habits of industry. It is proposed that they shall be practised in such of the arts as are subservient to agriculture; as carpentry, smith's work, building, surveying, draining, and irrigating ; that from an early period of life the boys shall be trained to the practical application of what they learn, and that while a portion of the day is devoted to the school-room, another will be given to the workshop, the garden, and the field. It is scarcely possible to calculate the effect which such skill pos- sessed by the farmer would have upon the whole race of artisans throughout tbo country districts. No farmer who could himself use the tools of the carpenter — no farmer who could himself shoe a horse in a proper manner, — would tolerate what was clumsy and unworkmanlike in the carpenter and the smith. The farmers would know what was rigfht, and they would have it done. But if here in England such advantages would accrue, how much greater would they be in the colonies? There oftentimes the skilful workman cannot be procured at all ; and the colonist, who possesses not skill and ingenuity enough to de a thing himself, must be content to have it not done at all. Young men brought up at an institution such as that now proposed will I e the best and most independent of emigrants. Perfectly acquainted with rural affairs, and possessed of skill, they will be able to train the rude and helpless beings now flocking to the colonies into skilled and useful members of society. For the purpose of ensuring efficient religious instruction, 'it is proposed that a clergyman of the church of England shall be ap- pointed chaphin ; the school being open to the re- ception of the children of dissenters, who, if the parents desire it, may be exemjit from attending the religious instruction to be given by the chaplain. I have thus, gentlemen, (continued Tilr. Duppa), given you as lengthened a statement of what is proposed as I could venture to do. I believe that I might have succeeded in giving this plan a trial in another county ; but I was determined that the plan which I had designed, you at all events should have an op- portunity of r'^fusing. Now that so many influential persons have come forward to support it, I do feel a confidence in its success, and in its success it is my conviction that not only this county, but the agricul- turists throughout the land, are interested. It is the ono thing needful to place agriculture upon that high footing which belongs to it ; and as a man of Kent, I rejoice that Kent will be the county to take the lead. Her place in ancient times was in the van in arms, let it be hers too now in peace ; — a more glo- rious pro-eminence, although not so dazzling. It requires but a deep conviction of the usefulness of the thing, and a strong will to do it, and it will be done. As for difiiculties, there are difficulties in the way of everything that is worth attaining:. Let us not shrink from them, but meet them fairly, and depend upsn it they will yield to us. (Long con- tinned cheering.) Sir B. W. Brvdges, in moving the first resolution, said that it was impossible for them not to be aware of the difficulty which the cultivators of the soil, not only in this, but in every other district of the united kingdom, had in obtaining scientific knowledge rela- tive to agriculture. It was most desirable that this lamentable deficiency should be remedied, not only for the interest of the agriculturists themselves, but ot every other class whom agriculture enabled to live. The hon. baronet made several pertinent and powerful observations in support of the plan, and earnestly recommended all present to impress on their friends the almost incalculable advantages which the support of this institution was likely to secure to them, and concluded by moving the first resolution. T. Rider, Esq. expressed his hearty concurrence in the jiroject, which was likely to benefit not only the farmer but every other class. He should not attempt to say anything in its recommendation after the powerful address of Mr. Duppa, to whom the county was most deeply indebted for the wisdom and intelligence he had displayed in projecting and bringing forward the valuable plan. (Cheers.) The projected institution might succeed or not— • but of this he was certain, that whether it would succeed or not, woidd depend entirely on the farm- ers themselves. (Hear.) It would rest with them whether or not in this matter Kent would set a valu- able example to the whole kingdom. Once more expressing his most earnest wishes for the success of the plan, he concluded by seconding the resolution, — (Cheers.) After a {ew words from JMr. Hoare, relative to the prospect of the institution succeeding. The Rev. W. L. IIha.m observed that he had been requested to state to the meeting what he had ob- served in similar institutions on the continent, and their effect on the improvement of agriculture wherever they had been established. In England we had had for a long time little or no communica- tion with the continent, and our farmers were en- tirely unacquainted with the improvement made in other countries. But this was not the case on the continent. By means of institutions, chiefly sup* 346 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ported by the g'overnments, where agriculture was taught in theory as well as practice, every work of any value which appeared in England was examined, and, if it contained any practical iinprov'ement in tlie mode of tilling the land, v;as immediately translated and distributed in a cheap form. In Austria a book containing the elementary principles of agriculture is, by command of the Emperor, taught in every parochial school — as a subject, useful and interesting to every class of men, whether practically engaged in the cultivation of the soil or not. In Prussia the establishment of an agricultural college at MiJglin on tha Oder has been the means of training a great number of men in the beat practices of agriculture ; and while they learnt to hold the plough and to ob- gerve minutely its mode of action, they had sufficient science to discover defects and suggest improve- ments where these were practicable. M. Von Thai'r^ who was long at the head of this institution, wrote a most valuable work on husbandry, which has been read and translated into almost every language ; but for want of institutions in this country which di- rected men to every source of agricultural know- ledge, it has never been translated into English, and, till lately, was scarcely known. It is called " Principles of Rational Husbandry." The pupils from the school of Moglin have been dispersed through the country, and have greatly improved tlie agriculture of Prussia. In Switzerland an institu- tion for training young men in a knowledge of prac- tical and improved husbandry has been established at Hofwyl, near Bern, by a well known and justl}' celebrated individual, M. De Fellenbcrg. Here sreneral education is combined with ao-ricultural in- struction, and this institution is remarkable by having been established and maintained byj an individual without anv assistance, excepting some trifling ad- vances by the government of Bern, which have pro- bably been repaid in a verv short time. The labor of the pupils amply repays the expense of their maintenance and instruction. In the class of those who receive gratuitous instruction, labor occupies the greatest portion of the time of the pupils, and the instruction is proportioned to the station in so- ciety which the pupil is likely to fill, or in which his parents are placed. The principles on which the instructions in the intended college in tliis county is proposed to be conducted, approaches more nearly to that of Hofwyl than any other. There is a cele- brated school of agriculture at Roville, not far from Nancy, in France, where M. de Dombasles trains young men in the theory and practice of agriculture ; and these, afterwards dispersed through the country, introduce improved practices, and will soon raise the agriculture of France to a level with that of the most improved countries ; for it must be acknow- ledged, that, in consequence of the wars and revo- lutions which have lor so many years distracted that fine country, agriculture had been wofully neglected, and was not to be compared with that of the sur- rounding countries. ( Great cheering. ) Viscount MAnsHF.M was not at all discouraged by the thin attendance of the farmers, who were much engaged on that day, and doubtless had been obliged to attend their business elsewhere ; he was decidedly of opinion that it was desirable to establish an insti- tution on the principles of the plan proposed. (Cheers.) He knew several good farmers who used their own land, and probably got as much out of it as could be got under the college instruction; but if those same persons were to be taken away from that land and placed on different soils, they \Tould be completely at sea. The object of this in« stitution would bs to teach farmers how to deal most profitably with any, the most inferior soils. He most cordially supported the plan. (Cheers.) Sir W. B. RinnELL eloquently supported the pro- ject, and stated that Lord Marsham, himself, Mr. Brett, and Mr. Tuffnell having joined Mr. Duppa with a view to assist his arduous exertions, commu- nication had been held with some of the first persons in the county, who had unanimously approved of such an institution, together with all persons inte- rested in the success of agriculture who had been consulted. The Hon. Baronet then read and referred to letters from the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of Rochester, Lord Bexley, Viscount Sydney, and Lord Sondes, who all concurred in their approval of such an institution. Earl Spencer, who is President of the British Agricultural AssO' ciation, Lord Western, Earl Brecknock, Lord Rad- nor, Duke of Richmond, Lord Chichester, Earl Winehilsea, and the Marquis of Lansdowne, had also expressed their conviction of the utility of some such institution as was then proposed, as also had Mr. J . Lake, of Bapehild, and several other eminent agri- culturists. Looking as he did at the immense num- ber of persons who were interested in supporting it in order to procure a suitable education for their children, not only in this but in other counties, and even other countries; considering the number of persons of all conditions of life who were now send- ing their sons out to the colonies, — he could not en- tertain a doubt of the ultimate success of the Kent agricultural college. (Cheers.') Mr. Brett called the attention of the meeting to the fact on wliich the}' were all agreed, namely, that there could be no doubt of the lamentable deficiency that exisled of facilities for procuring scientific agri- cultural education. A perfect remedy for that de- ficiency was offered by this institution. A very large number of gentlemen had consented to take shares in the undertaking ; indeed raising the money was the smallest difficulty they had to contend with. It had been determined that this institution should not be dependent on persons of high station, property, and influence ; but should be supported by the yeomanry and all persons connected with agriculture; and the proposed committee, whose duty it would be to pre- pare estimates and lay them before a general meet- ing, contained a preponderant number of yeomen, being formed of 2j yeomen, 1.5 other persons, five magistrates and five clergymen. At present the' subscription list had been confined to Kent, but if it were desirable many other gentlemen were anxious to support the proposed institution. (Cheers.) The resolution was passed unanimously. C. W. Martin, Esq. after some remarks on the fulness of the dietary, and the cheapness of the sum — twenty-five guineas per annum — proposed . Mr. Martin alluded to the advantage it would be to our future farmers to possess a competent know- ledge of chemistry, to enable them to analyse soils, an amount of knowledge to be readily acquired by every person of ordinary capacity. The resolution was seconded by Mr. George Coiii), and passed unanimously. The other resolutions were severally propssed and seconded by Mr. E. HusSEY,ofScotney,Mr..T. Ellis, of Barming, Sir W. Riddell, and Mr. Nicuolson, and carried with equal unanimity. A vote of thanks was passed to the Rev. W. L. Rham, who attended from VVingfield, Berks (where he has established a somewhat similar school on a small scale), to give his assistance at this meeting. The meetings thep ^^djo^rned, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 347 ON THE SELECTION OF SEEDS, ROOTS, &c. In iny last communication contained in your paper of 25th ult., I referred to the period when turnips were first introduced into Scotland, and unquestion- ably the prejudice and ignorance which then pre- vailed regarding any new improvement renders the merit of those individuals the greater in persevering with the cultivation of so valuable a root. Though prejudice for a time rendered the cultiva- tion of turnips limited, yet they have been gradually extended until they now enter into the rotation of almost every farm whose soil will admit of their cul- tivation. The common, and indeed only sure and profitable method of growing turnips in this country, is by the drill system, and which method we believe should be more generally resorted to by our southern neighbours, for independent of the opportunity thus aflbrded of getting his ground properly stirred and cJeaoed by animal labour, the manure itself is so much concentrated into the drills that the young- plants at once receive the full benefit of it. It is in- deed in our opinion more to our system of drilling that we would ascribe the Scotch farmers' success in being comparatively little troubled with that pest of the English farmer the " turnip fly," than to any difference in our climate, &:c. For it is evident that the seed being deposited right above the manure the plants will start more vigorouslv than if the}- were sown broadcast, and of course have a greater chance of escaping the ravages of the fly. In Lawson's Manual of Agi-iculture there are forty-six varieties of the turnip enumerated, which may be said to be all more or less cultivated in Great Britain with various success, and although we must allow that a great and decided improvement has taken place in both the quality and size of the turnips of late years, still we believe that neither the cultivation nor improvement of the different varieties has been carried to that extent of which they are sus- ceptible. There is a peculiarity connected with the Swedish turnip which does not seem to be possessed by any other variety, excepting perhaps some of the hybri- dal sorts. I allude to the difference of nutritive mat- ter contained in them compared to other varieties according to their bulk. AVhile tlie nutritive matter in the common white turnip is diminished so soon as it attains above a medium size, that of the Swede in- creases according to the bulk of the root. It is re- marked by Mr. Sinclair(IIortus Gramineous, AVoburn- ensis} that the quantity of nutritive matter con- tained in different roots of the same variety varies according to the size and texture of their substance. A root of the white leaf variety measuring seven in- ches in diameter, afforded only seventy-two grains and a half, while the same quantity of a root which measured only four inches afforded eighty grains. The middle sized roots of the common turnip are therefore the most nutritious, as, on the contrary, are the largest roots of the Swedish turnip affording 110 grains, while the middle sized or smaller roots afford only 99. In corroboration of Mr. Sinclair's I experience, we would refer to the observations of an I agriculturist from Van Diemen's Land in regard to I the habits and growth of the Swedisli turnip in that ' country. In IbSj in a field of 25 acres, the roots of which averaged from 8 to 10 lbs. each, there were I some plants very large and which weighed 60 lbs. exclusive of tops and tails. Although the general quality of the Swedes upon this field could perhaps not be excelled, yet it was remarked that these large roots were equally hard and firm, if not more so than those of a medium size, and when struck with a spade they went to pieces in splinters like a piece of flint. The seed had originally been received from Aberdeenshire, but was in Van Dieman's Land for nine or ten years previous to this crop, and during that period the roots were annually selected and transplanted for seed. A hybrid variety has also been cultivated to advantage in that country ; some of the roots weighed about 40 lbs., and what is very- remarkable, by merely touching the side of the plants with the point of a knife, the whole root will crack like a piece of glass. The seed of this variety was also procured from Aberdeenshire. The Swedish turnip is no doubt a great acq uisitioa to the husbandman, and it may upon the whole be considered equally if not more deserving of attention than perhaps any other variety; notwithstanding which, however, its cultivation has hitherto been comparatively speaking little attended to in many districts of this country. There is one circumstance connected with the profitable cultivation of the Swedish turnip which must always operate to a cer- tain degree against their being cultivated so largely as the common sorts, namely, the necessity of apply- ing about one-third more manure than what is requi- site for maturing a full crop of the other varieties. This extra quantity of manure also is not at all times convenient for the farmer, neither is it absolutely- necessary for maturing the following cereal crop, for we generally find the corn crop as bulky and of as good quality after the common sorts with one-third less manure, as that of the Swedes with a larger quantity. This circumstance may tend to shew us the advantages to be derived from procuring hybridal varieties between the Swedes and the white or yellow turnips, which may be found to combine the size and symmetry of the best varieties of the latter with the valuable properties belonging to the former ; for it must be admitted that there are only certain soils and situations in this country where the Swede can be cultivated to advantage. We have -already several valuable hybridal varie-' ties, and amongst those deserving the attention of agriculturists we may class Dale's Hybrid Turnip* Tliis variety is a mule or hybrid between the green top Swede and white globe, procured by repeated impregnation. It however, bears a much greater affinity to those of the common sort than the Swede j in as much as it its leaves are also rough, and of a vivid green colour, and in its roots being somewhat similar in form and texture. It has received the name of Dale's Hybrid from being first raised and brought into notice by Mr. Robert Dale, an intelli- gent farmer at Libberton West Mains, near Edin- burg, who having in 1822 or 1823, received a few ounces of seed of a new hybridal variety of turnips^ from the late Janaes ShirefT, Esq., of Bastleridge, Berwickshire, sowed the same ; the produce he found to resemble very much the Swedish in shape, and from which by repeated selection and impregna- tion he at length obtained this esteemed variety, the distinguishing characteristics of which are, foliage strong and luxuriant — roots of a large size, oblong shape, and of a lightish yellow colour with light green top, having also a small neck and tap root. The shape of this root however, although generally oblong, is rather apt to vary, being sometimes almost globular, but its more material characteristics of large size and luxuriance of growth are uniformly the same. Compared with any other of tlie common yellow field sorts, it is found to arrive sooner at ma- turity, and consequently may be sown at a later pe« 2 A 348 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. liod of the season, while at the same time it is nearly equally hardy, or at least has beea found sufficiently so to withstand the severest winters which have oc- curred since its introduction. There are other hy- bridal varieties which all partake more or less of the Swede, and it is gratifying to know that experience has already proved the almost unlimited extent to which we can obtain new and improved varieties by impregnation, and it would certainly prove a matter of profit as well as of utility, were more attention di- rected to this object, for, notwithstanding the im- provement in gome of the sorts already in cultivation, a variety partaking more of the nature of the Swede would prove highly beneficial, more especially tothose farmers who find it impracticable to mature the Swede even with an extra quantity of manure, owing to their soil and situation; but in the event of a hybrid this difficulty is often overcome without the necessity of applying any extra quantity of manure. There is, however, another process connected with turnip hug- bandrv, which is essential to the successful cultiva- tion of this crop. We allude particularly to the ne- cessity of always selecting and transplanting the best and purest roots for seed. Wc do not mean to infer that there are any advantages to be gained by transplanting the roots, as we believe this is only necessary for the convenience of the farmer, and that the whole virtue lays in the selection. Indeed the importance of this measure has been well exempli- fied in the practice of many excellent seedsmen and farmers, but few have earned it to that extent which is necessary to obtain a pure and characterized va- riety, for, unless the system is persevered in from year to year, it may be presumed that no variety whatever will continue to retain its original charac- ter. The advantages to be derived from a continued and careful selection, is brought to our immediate notice by the success which has attended the exer- tions of Mr. Dudgeon, an extensive and enterprising agriculturist now on the estate of Tyndal Bruce, Esq., rifeshire. In 1801, Mr. Dudgeon procured some white Globe turnip seed from Berwickshire, and in 1805 commenced selecting and transplanting, and has continued that system up to the present time. From 1805 to 1819 some spurious plants appeared, •which were only discernible when they were in bloom, by appearing of a difl:erent colour from the pure sorts. Since 1819 the plants have always, every j-ear, been minutely examined, but without detectingthe least impurity. In 1834 and 1835, Mr. Dudgeon grew a quantity of seed for sale from tur- nips grown from his selected seeds, but without se- lecting the roots, which he sold to jMessrs. Dickson and Co., Lawson and Son, and Cleghom, seedsmen, Edinburgh, who all agreed that it was the purest seed they ever bad, and several farmers who procured it from them, were enabled to carry off several pre- miums at the different agricultural competitions. Mr. Dudgeon, however, gives a decided preference to selecting the roots every season, as he invariably found the crop more equal and of greater value when grown from unselected seed. Mr. Dudgeon also, for a period of twenty years directed his attention to the selection and purification of the Swede, and brought them to such perfection in size, shape, and uniformity, as has seldom been equalled. There is not the least doubt that much trouble and attention is necessary to mature and perfect turnip seed of the description to which we have alluded, but it will be observed that whatever difficulty may, at the commencement, present itself, is every year lessened as the selection proceeds, according to the care and experience of the selector, and of course the same favourable result would be the consequence of every well conducted experiment when ju- diciously and steadily persevered with. Indeed the system is so plain, and the utility of a continued selection so palpable, that it may be a matter of wonder to many why our seed growers do not pursue a similar method to that of Mr. Dudgeon. But the question just resolves itself into this — are the farmers prepared to give a remunerating price for this pure and selected seed 1 We unhesitatingly say, no ! For, with due deference to our brother agriculturists, we are rather inclined to believe that the great majority of them are not yet sufficiently acquainted with the benefits to be derived from having a pure and selected variety of seed, so as to be prepared to give a comparatively higher price for it than what is generally exacted for the common runs by the seedsman. It must indeed be allowed, that the system which the seed growers now pursue is a decided improvement over that of the old plan, when the roots from which the seed was to be de- rived were seldom or never selected. This slovenly method, although still to be seen now and then, in different parts of the country, may be said to be nearly exploded, and the more eminent seed-growers now adopt the plan of selecting the best plants from a field of turnips for the purpose of maturing the seed. This seed is then sown the following season, and the whole crop of turnips allowed to mature their seed, which is then considered, without further selection, sufficiently purified for the market. It will thus be observed that the seed which is presented for sale is not directly from selected roots, but only the pro- duce of that which had been selected the previous season; but how far this may be adequate to obtain a pure and uniform crop will be observed from Mr. Dudgeon's practice, where it took nineteen years' selection before he got all the impure sorts eradi- cated. We cannot, however, blame the seed growers for not carrying their selections farther, for there is not the least doubt but that many of them are not only eminently qualified for the task, but are also willing to bestow the necessary attention, were their services properly appreciated and their trouble re- munerated. But even suppose some of them were to commence raising seed for sale from plants an- nually selected, it suiely would be unreasonable to expect the seed at the same price as at present; on the contrary, the expence would be doubled, and the consequence would be, that the comparative high' price of the superior seed would be sufficient to pre- vent the majorit)' of farmers from purchasing it, and this will be always more or less the case until agri- culturists obtain a more extended knowledge of the manifold advantages to be derived from having all their seeds and roots ©f a pure and superior cha- racter. If, then, there is any one circumstance more than another which points out more forcibly the necessity of a National Experimental Establishment, it is ths facility with which it could give practical proofs of the advantages that would lesult to agriculturists from only growing their seeds and roots from se- lected and characterized varieties. An experimental field would at once present to the farmers the practical details of every circum- stance connected with improvement, and by com- paring in practice anv new theory he would at once be enabled to judge' of its utility. We might, for instance, suppose that two acres of turnips were practically tested, the one acre raised from seed se- lected for a period of years, and the other from seed which had been raised according to the present prac- tice of the seed growers. Now the difference in va- lue betwixt tho two acres would probably be from THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 349 one-third to one-fifth in favour of the turnips on the selected acre ; and if we fartlier suppose tlie value of tbe one to be ten pounds per acre, and the other only eight pounds, but that the selecied seed cost 5s. per acre and the other only 2s. 6d., we have hero a saving of 37s. 6d. on a single acre. Such practical examples could not fail to liave a very beneficial effect in opening the eyes of the agricultural com- munity to the value of these ameliorations and im- provements, and such practical experiments dis- seminated throughout the country would be attended with the best results. In this country the varieties of the common beet, or mangel wurzel, have hitherto received a rather limited share of cultivation ; not so, however, in some counties in England, where their qualities arc more justly appreciated. One reason why they may not have hitherto received a greater sliare of at- tention is from an opinion being prevalent, that, however well field beet may succeed in England, the climate of Scotland is, to a certain degree, un- suited for their growth. Judging, however, from the result of trials which have been instituted at va- rious times, and in different districts, there seems every reason to believe that the general knowledge of the merits of the different varieties, and perhaps tbe removal of a little prejudice on the part of agri- culturists, is only necessary to ensure its more ex- tended cultivation. The importance of attending to varieties of culti- vated plants has been duly pointed out by j\Ir. Bishop, at once a scientific botanist and a practical gardener : — " By means of varieties," he says, " the produce of our gardens and fields are not only increased in a tenfold degree, but the quality of tbe produce is im- proved in a still greater proportion, and the difference between varieties that have sprung from the same species fit them for different purposes, and for different soils, situations, and climates. Thus in edible plants and fruits, we are supplied with an agreeable change throughout the year, from a difference in varieties that have sprung from the same species. In tbe earlier ages of the world, no idea could have been entertained of the excellence some of the varieties have attained over their originals. AVho upon view- ing the wild cabbage that grows along our sea coast, would ever imagine that cauliflowers or broccoli would have been produced by the same 1 Or who would expect the well formed apple of a pound weight from the verjuice plant in our hedges t Many in- stances might be noticed of original species that are scarcely fit to be eaten by the beasts of the field, the varieties of which afford a wholesome and nutritious food for man. Indeed, nothing is more obvious, upon comparing original species with their varieties pro- duced by culture, than that we, by means of the lat- ter, enjoy a vegetable food far preferable to that of our forefathers ; and as it is probably beyond the power of man, of cultivation, or of time, to determine the degree of excellence attainable by varieties over the species whence they have sprung, and as that de- gree is unknown we are justified in regarding it as progressive, and in considering the production of a good variety as the sign or harbinger of a better." The different species and varieties of grasses now present themselves for our consideration ; but whether we look to the important though diversified nature of the subject, or the degree of ignorance which prevails amongst tbe agriculturists respecting the merits of the different plants, or their general apathy toward obtaining a more extended knowledge of their various qualities and habits of growth, we cannot but feel impressed with our inadequacy for properly discussing the merits of this question. It will, however, require little argument on our part to show that our various soils can never be cultivated with success or to that advantage which is necessarv to their full developement, until the agricultural community are better instructed not only with regard to the nature and capabilities of the different soils, but also with regard to the qualities, habits, and tendencies of the different seeds and roots, so as to be enabled to place them in those soils and situations most congenial to theirgrowth. Our back- wardness to avail ourselves of the bounties of nature will be more apparent if we only consider the nume- rous varieties of grasses which are at our disposal, but which have hitherto received but little attention, even although the necessity of combining many sort's together, for the purpose of laying land down to per- manent pasture, is rendered obvious, if we would only examine the different varieties of grasses which the old natural pastures contain, and which are every day presented to our view. But whatever may be the degree of carelessness evinced by us in selecting proper grasses for pasture, we find a similar apathy prevailing with respect to those varieties more par- ticularly applicable for the alternate system of hus- bandry, for there cannot be a doubt, if suflicient attention were directed to this important matter that many valuable sorts might be procured which would effectually obviate that objection which has hitherto proved the only barrier to the soiling system. We allude to the difficulty which is at presont found ia obtaining a regular succession of green food. If this objection could be obviated, we are convinced that no system could be devised better adapted for ferti- lizing the ground than soiling, for, however beneficial and necessary artificial manures may have hitherto proved to the extension and improvement of the al- ternate system of husbandry, yet for economy and efficiency, thBycan never be compared with soiling, and were this practice extended and properly con- ducted, the productive powers of the soil would be greatly increased and the artificial manures rendered comparatively of little value. Tfie biennial red clover has hitherto been the most valuable ])]ant cultivated in this country for the purpose of soiling, but its value is very much impaired from the circumstance of a certain period being necessary to elapse before this crop can be again repealed on the same ground with any prospect of success. It is however worthy of remark that if a certain period be allowed to elapse between the crops of red clover, that the power of the soil is restored and the produce all that could be wished. The number of seasons necessary for this purpose will of course vary according to circumstan- ces, but we believe on an average of soils that seven years will be found sufficient between the different crops, but there is no doubt that the more distant they are kept from each other the more certain will be the return. It is not even necessary that any particular mode of cultivation be adhered to during the interval between the clover crops, provided the extirpation of weeds be attended to, to render the clover again con- genial to the soil. That a substitute, however, per- haps equally valuable might be obtained, were atten- tion properly directed to the subject, we have every reason to believe, for as Mr. Gorme observes " out of more than two hundred grasses suitable to our cli- mate, it may be said only one genus, the rye grass, has as yet received general culture. From among sixty species of clover, only three or four species receive general attention. Of the genus lotus sixteen species are hardy, and in waste lands two species contribute to enhance the value of the pasture, but in agricul- ture they are seldom noticed. The species of melilut are as numerous, many of which vie with our com- 2 A 2 350 THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. mon clover, and form excellent substitutes when land gets clover-sick, yet that genus is almost quite neglected. The same may be said of many species of vicia, lathyrus, orobus, medicage, and other deadelphous plants, which point out the apathy and remissness of the farmer." It will be observed from the above extract that the diflerent species of grasses are very numerous, and all that we want is a knowledge of tliose sorts which are more particularly valuable for diffsrcnt fO Is and situations. Among those who hnve turned their attention to this subjfCt, and have thoroughly tested and examined into the habits and tendcnci«s of the several species, JMr. Sinclair stands pre- eminent. In his Hortiis Gramineus Woburiiensis is detailed several experiments which were instituted for the purpose of ascertaining the qualities of the different grasses most commonly employed as food for the more valuable domestic animals. By a sim- ple chemical process Mr. Sinclair shews, that the nutriiive matter of grasses or soluble products con- sists of mucilaginous, saccharine, albuminous, bitter, extractive and saline substances — that it appears probable the two last serve only the purpose of pre- venting;-, to a certain extent, the fermentation of the other vegetable matters in the stomach, or in mo- difying and assisting the functions of digestion; and therefore, though not directly nutritive, are of great use as a constituent part of the food of cattle. In order to prove this point, and to shew generally the importance of having a mixture of such grasses as possess some difference in the qualities of their nutritive matter, Mr. Sinclair states that two fields were sown down for pasture, one with white clover and trefoil, and the other with a variety of the natural grasses, sucii as cock's-foot, rough-stalked meadow-grass, rye-grass, foxtail, and white clover. The two fields were depastured with sheep ; in the first a quantity of cock's-foot grew on the edge of the fence of a very harsh qualit}^ and consisting entirely of culms ; in a few days the sheep went to this grass and ate it down entirely, although there was plenty of white clover; and in the course of time many of tbem became affected with red water, and several died. In the second field the slieep remained free from every disease, and left untouched the stems of the cock's-foot, which were here of a more tender and succulent nature. This, then, is a most important fact, as it shows the necessity of having a variety of different grasses in the same field, in order to preserve the health of the animal, and enable it to derive the full benefit of the richer and more succulent herbage. This indeed may be termed the fundamental position of Mr. Sinclair's work; and the various experiments he instituted, whether in respect of the soil, the nature of the grasses, the laying down of permanent pasture, &c., are all corroborative of it. For example, the richest natural pastures in England are composed of twenty- six different grasses, which proves the absurdity of the modern practice of sowing with two or three. An attentive examination of these pastures warrant the belief that grass seeds are generally sown by far too thin ; one superficial square foot of rich old pas- ture in Lincolnshire, containing 1,090 distinct rooted plants, 1,032 natural grasses, .^8 creeping rooted clover, and other plants; and, lastly, twenty distinct species; while the same extent of surface of artificial pasture formed of rye-grass and white clover, two years old, and considered good of the kind, con- tained only 470 distinct rooted plants, 452 natural grasses, 10 creeping roofed clover, and two distinct species ; and, further, that one bushel of the most approved seeds mixed in the best recommended proportions afforded only two seeds to every square inch, whereas the most productive ancient natural pasture, when examined has seven distinct plants to every square inch. Rye-grass, so highly prized by British farmers, appears to have been cultivated previous to the year 1677, being upwards of a cen- tury and a half ago ; and althoufjh it is deficient in almost all the qualities of a good pasture gjrass, and although Nature, when left to herself testifies most 1 unequivocally to the fact that a luxuriant sward can ' only be obtained by a propcir combination of different species of grasses of diflerent nutritive powers, yet her suggestions are unheeded, and each succeeding race of farmers continues to adhere to the practice of a bygone age, to th'.-ir own individual loss and that of the community. Rye-grass, thereforr, is by no means entitled to the exclusive place it holds as an alternate husbandry grass, its chief merits being, that it produces an abundance of seed, which is easily collected, and readily vegetates on most kinds of soil, while on the other hand it is deficient, from the inconsiderable aftermath which it leaves, from its impoverishing the soil in a very high degree, if the culms, which are invariably left untouched by- cattle, are not eat before the ripening of the seed, from its nutritive powers being inferior to those of many other grasses ; for example, to cock's-foot in the proportion of nearly five to eighteen, to meadow fescue in that of five to seventeen &cc., and, lastly, from all tho varieties of it hitherto discovered, being short-lived, one plant seldom continuing ia possession of the soil more than six years. In ad- dition to these circumstances we would observe that it has been proved by actual experiment, that few grasses require more than three years to bring them to that degree of perfection which they never exceed, if properly treated during that pi^riod ; this fact has been the result of attentive observation made on nu- merous varieties cultivated singly and also combined with others in their natural places of growth. It may therefore, with some reason be doubted, whe- ther the prevalent opinion generally entertained, more especially by the English agrictzlturalist, is founded upon strict observation and experience, that if old turf is broke up and cultivated for a few years, that it cannot be again laid dovcn with the same ad- vantage, or rather that 15 or 20 years must elapse before it is restored to its original value. Now be-, ■ sides the fact already stated, that three years is found sufficient to mature almost every sort of grass, we have the additional fact founded upon the result of actual experience, that the growth and general cha- racter of eveiy vegetable is promoted by a judicious change of soil and situation, provided every circum- stance relating to the growth of this plant is equally favourable, and also that the productiveness of every kind of soil is enhanced by a proper change of crop- ping. In our former communications we frequentlr referred to the beneficial effects resuitinw- from these changes, and in reference to these old turf lands, we are decidedly of opinion that it is more owing to a want of knowledge of the different varieties of seed requisite for laying land down in permanent pasture, than to any inherent quality belonging to the age of the turf. In these remarks we would not be under- stood as referring generally to every description of soil and situation, for we are aware that there are many exceptions to the successful cultivation of many of these old grass lands, and which is too v/ell understood, particularl}'^ in England, to require any comment from us ; but when we refiect upon the great ' extent of land which has for centuries remained un-'S der grass, and the small return which many of them ™ yield, we feel no hesitation in affirming; thnt the aoi THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 351 nual agricultural produce of tlie country would be immensely increased by subjecting them to a judi- cious system of cultivation, inasmuGh as those lands, which have from time immeraorial been ope- rated upon by the plough, would in their turn be sown down with permanent grass seeds. Then in- stead of having- so large a proportion of land exclud- ed from entering into the alternate systum of hus- bandly, which is now ascertained to be the most profitable mode of cultivation, these old natural pastures would be subjected to the plough, and thus a wider field would be open to the agricultural com- munity, and a greater extension given to capital and en- terprize. This mode of procedure would unquestion- ably enable the English agriculturist more effectually to pursue that system of cropping, which experience has proved to be ihe most conducive for preparing and fertilizing the soil, and thereby rendering it not only more productive, but also more suitable for main- taining and promoting the general health of every vegetable. This view of the matter if judiciously acted upon might lead to important results, for as IMr. Sinclair observes, the age of pasture is not essentially neces- sary to its excellence, but that nature rather requires a certain lapse of time to recover from a treatment in which the known and observed laws of nature are grossly neglected. These are the conclusions which Mr. Sinclair's general investigations would lead us to draw. But a matter of so much importance was not left to any a priori deductions, but in the course of time became the subject of direct experiment, and the result was, a distinct corroboration of them all Mr. Sinclair states, that a portion of rich old pasture land was broken up and cropped for five alternate seasons, with oats, potatoes, wheat, carrots, and wheat again. A portion of the soil had been pre- viously analyzed, and after the fifth year, an equal proportion was subjected to the same process, and the only discoverable difference was a small dimi- nution of decomposing vegetable and animal ingredients in the latter case. Manure whs therefore applied after the last crop of wheat, and the whole sown down in August with a mixture of eighteen grasses of the same species as those which grew in the old pasture, and as nearly as possible in the same proportion. In the first week of July following, the whole was cut rmd weighed, and was found to amount to one-eighth more than the produce of the ground in its original state. In the following year the respective crops were again tested, and the newly laid down grasses exceeded theold exactly in the proportion of nine to eight, and the superiority continued during successive years. It must therefore appear clear and evident, that if > We plant ten, fifteen, or twenty different species of ! the proper grasses and clovers in one field, and in another of the same nature sow the seeds of only one or two species, that it would be unreasonable to ex- pect the same result under such unequal circum- stances ; indeed, all that has been brought forward goes to prove, that when such lands are converted into tillage, they may, by the means now recom- mended, be again laid down permanently, and the pasture prove in a few years as valuable, if not more so, than what it was previously. We are, however, fully aware that this view of the matter will not be ;' in accordance with the feelings of many agricul- . turists who have not been accustomed to break up their old turf; neither can it be expected that those who hare done so, and found the difficulty of again laying it down so as to prove equal to the old, will readily accede to a change of system. But we would have those individuals who would condemn the practice, to consider whether or not their want of success has not proceeded from the limited know- ledge which tkey possess, not only with respect to the nature of their soil, but also with regard to the different grasses most suitable for it. It is well- known that every vegetable is improved by culture, provided this is done in accordance with the esta- blished laws of nature, and it will be found that those individuals who have attempted to follow Mr. Sin- clair's instructions, and have been unsuccessful, must have proceeded without a due knowledge of the necessary proportions, and the most suitable sorts of grasses. If we admit that few are enabled to obtain a s^vard equal to the old turf, still we insist this is not owing to any want of vigour in the plants themselves, but must be rather to the want of a judi- cious selection, for should we find in the course of time the coarse grasses begin to predominate (which we believe is generally complained of amongst agri- culturists) it clearly shows that either the other sorts were not congenial to the soil, or that too great a proportion of the coarser had been substituted for finer varieties. We may therefore very naturally infer, that the want of success which has hitherto attended the ef- forts of agriculturists in laying down land to perma- nent pasture, has proceeded more from inexperience and a want of knowledge of the different qualities of the various grasses, together with their habits of growth, and their adaptation to particular soils and situations, than to any other cause whatsoever ; for nature has made ample provision in providing us with varieties of everv vegetable suitable for every soil and situation, and all that we require is a know- ledge of their habits and tendencies, so as to enable us to place them in those situations most congenial to their growth. This and raanv other important improvements must, however, be preceded by a more general and practical knowledge of their utility being diffused amongst agriculturists, but we may in a subsr-quent communication advert more particularly to this cir- cumstance. In the mean time we would just refer to Mr. Sin- clair's exertions and experience, as shewing what may be accomplished by individual enterprise and research, and ask every unprejudiced mind whether, if the same piinciples and mode of investigation were pursued by qualified individuals with a ji^oper field for instituting experiments, and under the direction and support of a National Establishment, whether the results would not prove of the greatest impor- tance to the agricultural community. A Scotch Farmer. PLOUGHS AND PLOUGHING MATCHES. It is somewhat strangle that, amidst all the improve- ments which have been made in machines in all ci- vilized countries, the plough should have remained al- most in the same rude state until within the last fifty years ; but that it should have been brought to perfection in Great Britain is not so much to be marvelled at, ?ince the love of agriculture, and the spirit to improve it, are nowhere else so conspicuous. This delay in improve, ment may in some measure be accounted for by the difficulty practical agriculturalists have experienced in explaining the principle by which the plough performs 352 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. its work. No doubt tlie plough is a machine of an in- genious contrivance, acting- on truly mechanical princi- ples ; that the circumstances upon wliich its goodness depends are both many and difficult to be discovered; that great ingenuity and much experience are necessary to determine that which will ensible it lo perform its work in the best manner and witb the least labour possible. On the other hand, it has been found to be a task, although a. difficult one, not exceeding the powers of the human understanding ; and ploughs are now made to perform their work in such a manner, as to satisfy agriculturists that no further improvements are want- ing. And yet how simple does the action of the plough appear to be after all ! Only three things are to be performed ; a slice of earth is to be cut off from the ge- neral mass ; this slice is to be removed some inches to one side ; it is so turned that it may expose a new sur- face to the air, and what was formerly uppermost may now be undermos.t or buried. To the performance then, of these things the construction of the plough must be adapted, and the work must be done with as little labour to the ploughman as possible. He must have it in his power to vary at pleasure, the depth, width, and position of the furrow. The first of these actions is performed bv the coulter, the second and third by the sock and mouldboard jointly, and it is by the position of these parts together with the form of the beam which governs the draught, that a good or bad plough is produced. To Scotland we are indebted for the plough in its present improved state. Nothing has so much contributed to setting forth the properties and working of the improved ploughs as the various plougliing matches that have taken place in districts in which agriculture is carried on with a spirit which does it honour. An ill-trimmed plough has no chance here, and were our farefathers to rise from their graves and see an English acre of rough leg-bent ploughed with great care in three hours and twenty minutes, by two light horses (the travel or pro- gress of the team being within three miles an hour), they would not believe their eyes. Then, again, the same plough CFiulaysoo's) in a tield belonging to Mrs, Hornfray,of Coworth House, near Sunning Hill, Berk- shire, turned up three acres and ten poles with one paic of horses, which were only in the field nine hours, one of the ten being allowed for dinner. In the same neigh- bourhood, in a stubble field belonging to George Simson, Esq., of Sillwood Park, an acre was completed in three hours and forty minutes, with the same horses on the same day. This shows what can be done, and of what vast importance is the saving of time and expenses in all large occupations of land, especially at certain sea- sons, in our variable climate, where so much depends on seasons. We can state from our own knowledge (for an enterprising young farmer made a journey to satisfy himself of the fact), that twelve horses, making six teams, ploughed, severally, two acres of land per day on all pressing occasions, on the farms of a large Yorkshire landholder, being at the rate of two acres per day to each plough. The horses were of the Cleveland Bay breed, and very highly fed, equally so with road coach- horses. We may fairly conclude, that to the effect produced by ploughing matches, by showing what can be done, is greatly attributable this prodigious accelera- tion of work ; and why the use of the Scotch plough with two horses is not become general in the south, is a question which we should like to see answered. The term ploughman is occasionally made a term of re- proach. To be a skilful ploughman, however, requires talent, and that of no ordinary quality. Unassisted by the square, the line, and plummet, which other handi- craftsmen are furnished with, he is expected to work with the most minute exactness, having nothing to de- pend na but the preciseness of liis vision ; and in the trimming of his plough he is compelled to have recourse to strictly mathematical priuciples. Cicero says, no- thing is more beautifnl than a well-eultivated field ; and to see a well-grown young Englishman walking be- tween the stilts of his plough with a free step and an erect body, with both horses and plough quite under his command, is a gratifying sight to a reflecting mind.— Oi-etcle of Rural Life. ON THE SELECTION OF MALE ANI- MALS IN THE BREEDING OF CAT- TLE AND SHEEP. BY Tlir EIGHT HON. EARL SPENCER. More from wishing to set an example to others, than from any hope that what I myself can suggest will be practically useful, I submit to the Englisii Agricultural Society the results of my experience in an important part of that division of farming, to which my own at- tention has been particularly applied, — I mean the breeding of stock. The part to winch the following* ob- servations apply is tiie selection of male animals. A large proportion of farmers breed sheep and several breed cattle ; to all who breed either this subject is one of ffreat importance. The object of a certain number is to breed bulls or rams for the purpose of selling or letting them, but that of the majority is to breed oxen or wethers for the pur- pose of grazing. The first of these classes is very well aware of the importance of selecting good male animals, and profess to spare no trouble and to be very indif- ferent as to the expense which they incur in obtaining them ; but with respect to those whose object it is only to breed oxen or wethers, 1 am afraid the case is gene- rally very difl'erent, and they take very little trouble and expend as little moni-y as possible in procuring the male animals to which they put their females ; tiiat is, they consider as a matter of indiftercnce that on which the profitable or unprofitable nature of their occupation mainly depends. It is admitted by every one that the bodily and con- stitutional qualities of the oft'spring are usually similar to those of the parents, either combining- in various pro- portions the qualities of both parents, or taking entirely after one. I should say, as respects cattle and sheep, that, in most cases, the qualities of the male parent pre- dominate in the offspring. I have also observed that the worse-bred the female is, the more will this be the ease when she is put to a well-bred male, Ihis obser- vation was first made, I believe, by the late ]\Ir. Berry, in an essay, for which he received a prize from the Highland Society. He accounted for it thus : a well- bred animal means one whose ancestors for several successive generations have all been good, that is, have all iiossessed the peculiarities in constitution and shape which it is the object of experienced graziers to obtain ill tlioir stock. The characteristic, therefore, of the fa- mily of such an animal will be such peculiarities; but the ancestors of a badly-bred animal will probably have varied in every possible way, and therefore there will be no distinguishing characteristic in its family ; it is con- sequently most probable that the offspring produced from^ a cross between two animals so circumstanced will be more like the one in whose family tiiere is a distinguishing characteristic, than tiie one in whose family no such cha- racteristic exists. The common but, I believe, mistaken notion, that the offspring from the hist cross is better than that from any subsequent one, probably arises from the improvement in the first instance being so much more ap- parent than, for the reason given above, it is likely to be in any one generation afterwards. Now it is known to all graziers that the attempt to fatten an animal, who possesses no feeding propensities, produces loss instead of profit. If the above observations are correct, the feeding propensities de«ceiid from the sire ; it is quite just, therefore, to say that a breeder of cattle or sheep, who considers it a matter of indifference what sort of male animal he uses, does consider it a matter of indif- ference whether he gains grofit or incurs loss. The first object which any breeder of cattle or sheep must keep in view, whether he intends to breed bulls or rams, or whether his aim is merely to breed oxen or wethei"s, is that the stock which he breeds shall be healthy. The first thing-, therefore, to be considered in the selection of a male animal are the indications by which it may be possible to form a judgment as to his constitution, la all animals a wide chest indicates strength of constitution, and there can be no doubt that this is the point of shape lo which it is most material for THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 353 any breeder to look ia the selection either of a bull or a ram. In order to ascertaia that the chest of these ani- mals is wide, it is not sufficient to observe that they liave wide bosoms, but the width which is perceived by look- ing at them in the front should be continued along' the brisket, \yhich ought to shew great fulness in the part which is just under the elbows ; it is also necessary that they should be what is called thick through the heart. Another indication of a good constitution is, that a male animal should have a masculine appearance ; with this vievy a certain degree of coarseness is by no means ob- jectionable, but this coarseness should not be such as would be Hkely to sliow itself in a castrated animal, because it thus might happen that the oxen or wethers produced from such a sire would be coarse also, which in them would be a fault. Another point to be attended to, not merely as an indication of a good constitution, but as a merit in itself, is that an animal should exhibit freat muscular power, or rather that his muscles should be large. This is an usual accompaniment of strength of constitution, but it also shows that there will be a good proportionate mixture of lean and fat in the meat produced from tlie animal ; tlie muscles being that part which in meat is lean. A thick neck is in both bulls and rams a proof of the muscles being large, and there can hardly be a greater fault in the shape of a male am- mal, of either sort, than his having a thin neck. I am inclined to say. that in the new Leicester breed of siiecp, which is the breed to which I am accustomed, a ram's neck cannot be too thick. Other indications of muscle are more difficult to observe in sheep than in cattle. In a bull there ought to be a full muscle on each side of the back-bone, just behind the top of the shoulder- blades ; he ought also to have the muscles on the outside of the thigh full, and extending down nearly to the hough. It will seldom happen that a bull having these indications will be found deficient in muscle. With respect to rams, my own observation does not enable me to point out any other indications of muscle except the thickness of the neck, which I have mentioned above; if other farmers are able to point out any, I would only say there is scarcely any thing to which they ought to pay greater attention. As I am writing for the use of farmers, it is quite un- necessary for me to attempt to give a description of what is considered a well-shaped bull or ram ; it is a!»o obviously impossible to express in words what is meant by good handHng. It is sufficient to say, therefore, that no male animal is fit to be used at all as a sire whose handling is not good, and that the more perfect his shape is the bet- ter. Tile above observations apply to breeding gene- rally ; for whatever may be the sort or size of the animal intended to be produced, there is no doubt but that good health, propensity to fatten, and good shape, in all cases, ought to be aimed at. But there are not only different breeds, both of cattle and sheep, but experi- enced and very good farmers differ very much in opi- nion as to which peculiarities of shape and size are to be preferred, even among animals of the same breed. It is therefore very desirable, before any man com- mences to breed either cattle or sheep, that he should make up his mind as to the shape and qualities he wishes to obtain, and steadily pursue this object ; if he does so, there is very little doubt but that he will suc- ceed in having a herd of cattle or a flock of sheep pos- sessijig the characteristics which he at first intended they should possess ; but if, on the other hand, he breeds at one time with the view of obtaining animals possessing one sort of shape, and at another time with the view of obtaining animals possessing a different sort of shape, the probabihty is, that his stock will possess neither the one nor the other in any degree of perfec- tion. Having made this decision, he should take care that the individuil male animal which he uses shall possess the qualities which he requires. In addition to this, it is of great importance that these qualities should have been characteristic of the family from which the animal is descended ; and if he is old enough to have been the sire of any number of offspring, it is of a great deal more importance still that they should possess them. Because all the perfections of shape and quality which the best judgre may wish to find in a male animal are, after all, only indications of what the stock got by him will probably be ; the seeing, therefore, what they really are is much more satisfactory. There are few breeders, of cattle more especially, who breed upon so large a scale as to enable them to keep many male animals at the same time in use. A man, therefore, can usually only look at the general qualities of the females which he possesses, and observe what are the faults most prevalent among them : these he should be particularly careful to avoid in the male which he in- tends to use. It is sometimes said that a male animal ought to have no faults, and undoubtedly it would be very desirable that this should be the case ; but, unfoi- tunately, no such animal exists. All a man can do, therefore, is, to avoid putting a male and female together whose imperfections are the same, so as not to increase the fault already existing in his stock. If a man breeds upon a large scale, and uses several males at the same time, he can, of course, attend to this more effectually than if he uses only one. In this case, he should select and put together the males and females individually, so as to endeavour to correct any imperfections which either of them shew. ]\Iost breeders of sheep, indeed, do u*e more than one ram, and all who pretend to take any pains in improving their flock divide their ewes, so as to put them with the ram who will most probably effect this object. I need not say that those (some of whom, I am sorry to say, still exist) who turn two or three rams of different shapes and qualities into a field with all their ewes, without attempting to make any se- lection among them, have no right to expect to be suc- cessful breeders ; and if they do expect it, will certainly be disappointed. I believe the general opinion of breeders is, that it is disadvantageous to endeavour to correct any fault in the shape of a female by putting a male to her who possesses, in extraordinary perfection, the merit in which she is deficient, but who ia some other part of his shape is faulty. My experience leads me to say that this mode of endeavouring to correct a fault is frequently successful. It would be better that none of the females from which a man intends to breed should be faulty in shape to any considerable degree, but it almost always will happen that some animals, possessing an excellent constitution, good blood, and a great propensity to fatten, and therefore such as the owner would very unwillingly cull, will fail decidedly in some part of their shape, I would say that, when this is the case, it is worth while to try the experiment of putting to them a male remarkable for his perfection in this failing part; and, in my opinion, such a male will be more likely to correct the fault, than one who shows no one part of his shape very superior to the rest. The late Mr, Cline, whose eminence as a surgeon is very well known, published a tract upon the breeding of domestic animals, which contained, as might be ex- pected, most valuable information. His suggestions are such as ought to be very carelully attended to ; but it is probable that his meaning has been mistaken in one re- commendation which he gives, namely, that in which he is understood to say that it is always desirable that the male should be smaller than the female. When he makes this observation he is speaking of the crossing of different breeds, and probably only means that in a cross between a large breed and a small one, the male should be taken from the small breed, and the female from the large one. It is hardly possible that he in- tended to say that in the same breed the male ought to be smaller than the female, because this is contrary to the practice of nature. In every description of land animal with vvhich I am acquainted the males are of a larger size than the females. The attempt also to follow this advice would undoubtedly, in a few generations, so very much reduce the size both of males and females, as considerably to diminish their value. I can say, from my own experience, that some of the best-shaped ani- mals which I have bred have been produced by follow- ing a contrary course. I prefer breeding from large females ; but if I do breed from one which 1 think too small, I put to her the largest male of good shape that I possess. As one instance among several to prove that 354 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. this coai'se may be successful, the ox which I showed in the fourth class, at the last Smithfield show, and whicli obtained the prize in that class, was by the largest bul I T have, from a cow so small, that I culled her after she had bred that one calf. It must be adiuitted that the theoretical reasoning which Mr. Clinc adduces in sup- port of this recommendation appears to be very conclu- sive ; but, even in the restricted sense in which I under- stand it, there is some doubt whether it is practically correct. The most successful cross between two different breeds of cattle, of which I am aware, was the one be- tween a Durham bull and a Galloway Scotch cow, made by Mr. Charles Colling. The produee from this cross sold for enormous prices at his sale, aud at the present day a majority of the best short-horned cattle are descended from it. JMy opinion, then, the result of my own practical experience, is, that if a man considers the female animals which he possesses to be smaller than he wishes, he may safely put them to a male of large size, provided he is well bred, of good quality, and is well-shaped. But I am bound to add, that I know, in giving this opinion, 1 differ from the moit skilful and successful breeder* with whom I am ac- quainted. It follows from the above observations, if they are cor- rect, that the first and most indispensable object which all breeders must try to obtain, whatever may be the sort of animals they wish to have, whatever may be the shape or size they prefer, is that the male animal which they select shall possess a strong and healthy constitution. This is absolutely essential ; but it is also most conducive to their success that they shall, after due consideration, make up their minds as to the qua- lities which they wish their stock to possess ; that, having made this decision, they shall steadily pursue the object they have in view, and endeavour to select such males as shall be likely te get offspring possessing these qualities ; that they shall carefully and candidly examine the females from which they intend to breed, observe the faults in shape or quality which prevail among them, and select males who shall possess corres- ponding perlections. That the safest mode of ascertain- ing what are likely to be the qualities of tlie produce from a male in future is, where there is the opportunity, to see what are the qualities of the offspring already produced from thera ; then, tiie next to this is, to ob- serve what are the qualities of the family to which he belongs ; and that in the case of not having the oppor- tunity of making use of either of these guides, they may assume that it is probable that the qualities of the individual himself, which in all cases ought to be at- tended to, will, if he is well bred, descend to hts off- spring. It has already been said that there are two classes among the farmers who breed cattle and sheep ; the one, of those who breed bulls or rams, and the other, of those who breed oxen or wethers for the purpose of graz- ing only : the above observations are intended to apply to both. But much more attention ought to be paid by the first of these classes to the selection of the animals from which they breed than is absolutely necessary in the other. This is essential to their own interest, be- cause a male animal very often shows faults in his shape which if he had been castrated, would not have ap- peared. It frequently, therefore, happens that the pro- duce from a bull or a ram may prove excellent cattle or sheep for grazing purposes only, but may be totally unfit to be kept as the sires of future stock. I'heir duty also to those who hire or buy from them imposes upon them the obligation to pay the strictest and most minute attention to the qualities of their male animals ; more particularly, they are bound not to oft'er to their cus- tomers any one, of the health of whicli they have any reason whatever to doubt, whether this doubt arises from any weakness of constitution, which may have ap- peared in the individual himself, or whether it arises from their knowledge of the family from which he is descended. They are bound also, not to keep as males any animals who are not perfectly well-bred. It does not follow from this, that a Ion? pedigree is in all cases necessai7, although it is generally desirable ; but it sometimes happens that a female, of whose pedigree tho owner is ignorant, will have produced offspring which have all possessed extraordinary merit, and which have proved tliemselves good breeders also : a male descend- ed from such a female may be considered perfectly well- bred on her side ; and will, very possibly, prove a better sire than many whose pedigree on paper is much longer. In paying this minute attention to their occupation , the breeders of male animals have some advantages not possessed by others ; they have generally the opportu- nity of knowing" accurately what are the characteristics ot the families of tiie animals from which they breed, an opportunity not possessed by those who breed only for grazing purposes. In order to make a proper use of this advantage, they ought to keep accurate pedigrees of their cattle and of their sheep, and as far as possible, when they put the males and females together, recollect what have been the respective qualities of the ancestors ofeacli. They have also the opportunity, by using a male cautiously at an early age, of knowing by expe- riment, whether the stock produced from him is good or bad, before they run the risk of injuring their stock materially by using him largely. This may be ascer- tained with sufficient accuracy when the produce are very young ; for an experienced breeder can judge with tolerable certainty what will be the shape of a calf or a lamb when it grows up by seeing it soon after it is born, and before it has begun to lay on fat. Nor is it necessary to see many of the produce for the purpose of deciding what its general characteristics will proba- bly be. I admit that in sayiag this I am speaking more from my experience as a breeder of cattle than a breeder of sheep, but I believe the same observations will apply to both. It is certain, however, that seeing four or five calves from a bull ought to be a sufficient guide to the breeder as to whether he will be valuable as a sire or not. Unless there is a family likeness which generally pervades through the produce from a bull, although he may be valuable as the sire of oxen, it will net be safe to use him as the sire of bulls. The seeing, therefore, four or five calves will prove to the breeder whether there is such a family likeness among- them, and whether it exhibits itself in such qualities as indicate that when they grow up they will be valuable animals. There is one failing to which all breeders are liable, but to which the breeder of male animals, from the greater interest attached to his occupation, is more pecu- liarly liable, and against which he ought most carefully to guard himself; this is, too great a partiality for ani- mals bred by himself. In order to guard against this he ought to occupy himself more in looking for faults than in discovering merits in his stock , he ought to listen to every criticism he hears made upon them, even by those whose judgment he does not hold in high estima- tion— not, of course, with the view of being satisfied at once that the criticism is correct, but with the view of satisfying himself, by accurate and candid examination, whether it is so or not ; and he ought frequently to see the stock belonging to other breeders, and fairly com- pare its merits with those of his own. I think it most probable that in the foregoing ob- servations nothing will be found which will give new and useful information to practical farmers; but I have been induced to submit them to the English Agricultural Society, because I conceive that one of the great objects of that society is the diffusion of know- ledge connected with every branch of farming. The best way in which it can be enabled to effect this object, is by those of its members who have paid attention to any of the divisions of farming operations communicating to the Society the results of their practice and experience. It will then be for the Society to circulate, by any means in their power, such of these communications as it shall appear to them are likely to be useful tc those engaged in the cultivation of the land. With this view 1 place this paper at their disposal. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 355 THE CORN LAWS. QUESTIONS PUT BY THE ANTI-CORN LAW DELEGATION, ANSWERED. 1. In your opinion, are restricted duties upon the im- portation of f'oreig'n agricultural produce necessary to the protection and instrumental to the prosperity oi the British agriculturist, and how ? Yes ; by encouraging" the growth of great quantities of corn at homo, so as to ensure it at a regular and mo- derate price at all times, and by employing home labour instead of foreign. 2. Have the existing laws restricting the importation of foreign agricultural produce benefitted the British agriculturist? If so, in what respect? Yes, generally by a more regular and average remu- nerating price. If the ports were open, great quanti- tities of foreign corn would be grown tor the British market, when a glut would ensue and drive our own soil out of cultivation, then the first yearof scarcity that came, foreigners would prohibit it, and our own capitalists by buying it up would make corn an absolute famine price. 3. At what expense can wheat, barley, and other agri- cultural produce, be raised in your district and brought to market, exclusively of rent? Without rent, wheat forty-six, barley twenty-seven, oats eighteen shillings per quarter ; with rent, wheat from fifty-five to sixty-five, barley thirty to forty, oats twenty to thirty shillings per qr., and other corn in pro- portion, according to productive or scarce seasons, and good or bad harvests. 4. Wiiat prices do you require for these articles in order to furnish you with what you consider a fair rate of profit on your capital,after disbursing rent, labourers' wages, and other necessary expenses? This question answered in the above. 5. If it be proved tliat wheat of a quality equal to English cannot be procured in foreign ports at less than an average of thirty-five shillings per qr., the additional charges up to the time of delivering at the port of dis- charge in this country being ten shillings per qr., do you think with your own knowledge of the expense at which you can bring your produce to market, that there b any reason to apprehend such]competition from foreign agriculturists as would prevent your obtaining an ade- quate remunerative price and fair rate of profits? The lowest prices must be submitted to, and great loss ensues, for it can be proved that wheatof a quality equal to make exceeding good Eng'lish bread can be imported from the principal northern ports of Europe, at an ave- rage considerably under thirty shillings (see tables or return of prices from such porl»), and sent to the prin- cipal English markets for as little money as the inland counties can send theirs to London, Manchester, &c. 6. Would not a fair and natural level of prices be more beneficial to the farmers than prices subject to frequent and great fluctuations, and better adjust rent, wages of labour, and other outgoings of the farmer ? Steady and regular prices are beneficial to farmers when they proceed from average crops. A natural level of price is a high price in scarce years and a low price in plentiful ones, and, therefore, at such times, greatly operates in favour of the consumer. Corn would have been much higher at this time but for the free importa- tion of foreign corn. There will be less variation in rent and wages when the price is steady. Uniform demand and produce, equal in quantity and quality, are the only true basis of a steady price. 7. Has the operation of the restrictive system of corn laws been to keep prices steady ? \ es, and we cannot conceive of any system being better adapted to produce this effect than the present graduating scale, and to demonstrate thi*:, we refer back to the last ten years ; and that the present high price is the natural consequence of a deficient crop, not only in this country but throughout Europe, is sufficiently proved by the ports having been open for the last six I weeks at a nominal duty. 8. On a balance of years and prices, do not profits al- most i nvariably fall as prices rise, and rise as prices fall ? State facts. It is the relative proportion of produce and price which makes the difference of profit or loss. 9. What extent of tillage, in consequence of the ope- ration of the corn laws, as widiin your personal know- ledge, has caused loss to the landlord or farmer? We apprehend the present corn laws has caused great extent of tillage, by giving confidence to the landlord and farmer, and been beneficial to both. 10. What tracts of inferior land have passed out of tillage during the low prices under the existing corn laws? We know of none, prices having been extremely low for only a short time. Very extensive tracts of land have been brought into tillage by confidence being placed in the present corn laws. IL Can you give any example of the extra sum re- ceived for corn in consequence of the high prices of the present season ; and per contra the extra sums paid for seed-corn, keep of horses and cattle, extra wages, poor- rates, tithes, or other outlay? It is only in a few cases that an extra sum has been received for the wheat crop this year, the deficiency of the yield generally having been greater in proportion than the enhancement of price, and in many instances farmers have been heavy losers by their wheat crops. Wages are increased from 12s. to 13s. 6d. and ISs. per week. The cost for seed of horse corn, &c., is of course higher in proportion to the advance in corn. 12. Have you had an opportunity of observing the effect produced upon Scotch husbandry by the Scotch farmers being forced to sell their grain at the same price with English farmers, who enjoy a more genial soil and climate ? This question assumes that which is not the fact. The Scotch farmers in their best cultivated districts have as genial a climate and a more fertile soil, and in the less fa- voured parts have advantages which the English farmer has not, which place him in a position to compete upon equal if not more advantageous terms : viz. — they hold under leases, they pay twenty-five per cent, less wages, and chiefly in kind, no tithes, no poor-rate, or but a trifling one, have fuel cheaper, and by the introduction of steam powerand contiguity to water communication can convey their produce to Liverpool and London, the best English markets, at less expense than many corn growers in the midland counties of England can ; they have, moreover, had the same protection from foreign competitition as the English famer. 13. Has not the effect of this competition been that in Scotland, husbandry, as a skilled profession is more ad- vanced than in England ? State facts. We believe that husbandry, as a skilled profession, is better understood generally in Scotland than in England (although not in all parts), but deny that it has arisen from any severer competition to which they have been exposed, but to leases — to the absence of tithe and poor- rate — to a more general diffusion of education— and to the greater nationality and interest taken by Scotch pro- prietors in the improvement ef their estates. With re- spect to the breeding and managementof sheep, and the application of bones and tile underdraining, we deny their superiority ; bones and drain tiles wore extensively applied in Lincolnshire long before they were much used in Scotland. 14. Is there not reason to expect that the same bene- ficial effect would be produced upon English husbandry, if the English were brought into competition with the foreign cultivator? This question is also based upon false premises. Place the British cultivator upon the same footing as the foreign one, and he will not fear competition ; but to do this it is presumed that it will first be necessary to pay off the national debt — to dispense with poor rates, and very greatly reduce rent, tithes, and other public burdens ; it would also require a reduction of wages to the amount of seventy-five per cent., and this would involve an im- mense reduction in manufactured articles. 15. What has been the effect of applying the system ef free trade to the wool production of this country? Has the aUiioLssioH of foreign wool diminished English 356 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, growth ? Any facts showing the extension of this branch of agricultural industry. It has been beneficial especially to the manufacturers, but wool is un article the value of which labour forms a very small part, and its importation, instead of coming into competition witli, and supplanting English labour, as the free importation of foreigrn corn would do, has provided employment for our manufacturers ; tlie steady and inci'easing' demand of the home market under tlie existing' corn laws, and our natural facilities for manu- facturing'and improvements in machinery, have g'ruatly contributed to ensure the prosperity of our manufac- tures, which have increased and flourished in an unex- ampled decree. 16. Have you remarked the advantag'es derived by tiio farmer from the proximity of his land to great commer- cial and manufacturing towns — first, from the greater facilities of obtaining manure and other artificial aids to production ; secondly , from the wider and more opulent markets opened to him ? If so, specify examples. The proximity of land to lartje towns renders it of more value to the proprietor only, the occupier having* to pay ularger rent in proportion to the advantages, com- petition for it being; greater ; but from the nature of things this can beenjoyed, even under the most flourish- ing slate of manufactures possible, by comparatively few, but the measure of advantage belonging to such property over land more remote from markets has been greatly diminshed by the improvement in roads, canals, &c., and by the introduction of bones and other manure of small bulk and great power, and is in progress of being further reduced by the introduction of railroads. 17. Can you communicate any facts showing the ten- dency of improved communication— viz., by steam na- vigation, canals, railr&ids, &c., to benefit the agricul- tural interest? We apprehend it is mainly from machinery, pulver- ised manures, improvements in navigation, rail and other roads, &c., that wheat can now be as easily aftbrded at fifty-five to sixty -five shillings per qr., as it could formerly from seventy to eighty. 18. What proportion of the agricultural produce of your district is shipped coastwise for market, quantities of each description of grain, and markets to which sent? We have no means of ascertaining the quantities, but we suppose the county of Lincoln, by coastwise and inland navigation, exports three-fourths of its produce, principally to London, Manchester, Wakefield, Leeds, &c., and imports nearly the whole of its consumption in manufactures. 19. Will you slate any facts showing how the depres- sion of trade and manufactures operate to the prejudice of the agricultural community ? By the importation of foreign labour in the shape of corn, silk, and other manufactured articles, the agricul- turists are distressed, the great home market is over- stocked, and consequently all trades and manufactures in the kingdom are distressed. 20. Are tlicrc not many ways in which the import of foreign corn would give an increased demand for the employment of agricultural labour, directed to the ex- tension of other products of the soil? State particulars. Not any, on the contrary it would deprive multitudes of agricultural labourers of employment, and as the soil and climate of many foreign countries are equally if not better adapted to the growth of other articles as well as corn, such as hemp, flax, rapeseed, &c., there is no prospect of their finding employment by raising them, especially as their growth in England was for a time nearly annihilated by the repeal of the restrictive duties on the foreign article, which took place some years back. 21. Have the existing corn laws, while they kept up the price of bread, kept up proportionally the wages of agricultural labour? Give examples. The present high price of bread is owingto a deficiency in the late harvest. When corn was low, wages were from 8s. to 10s. per week, with great difficulty to get ■work, when corn rises wages also advance ; they are now from 13s. 6il. to 18s. per week, with full employ- ment for himself and family likewise, therefore have risen from thirty to forty per cent, or more. 22. To what extent would the free importation of articles of food benefit the agTiculturist, by diminishin* the cost of all other articles? The free importation of corn, annihilating as it would the profit* of the farmer, that is without a correspondent reduction in all the outgoings, would produce no benefit to him by reducing the value of articles, which he would kavc no means of purchasing. 23. To what extent would it benefit the agricultural labourer? It would entirely ruin him, by reducing his wages full fifty per cent., while his manufactured and tax- able articles of consumption would be nearly at the same price. 24. Is not the condition of the agricultural labourer in manufacturing districts superior to his condition in districts only agricultural? State facts. By no means ; their wages are some little higher, but the rent and cost of living are greater in proportion, and their morals far worse, from a closer contact with the vices of large manufacturing communities ; and their families also acquire an extravagant taste for dress, which decreases their comforts. 25. Would not a free trade in corn, equalizing the prices of corn in the British and Continental markets, necessarily give to the British consumer the benefit of importation when there was a deficient crop, and to the producer the benefit of exportation when there was a redundant crop? The present corn laws give the consumer the full be- nefit of importation in a scarce year, and in a redundant one it could not be exported from comparatively a rich country to a poor one. 26. In your district are any of the agricultural la- bourers or their families engaged also in manufacturing processes, weaving or the like ? Give particulars. None. 27. Does such employment enable them to pay any larger rents, or to pay their rents more readily ? None so employed. 28. Have you noticed any falling ofl' in the employ- ment of these individuals in manufactures of late years —has this been attended with loss to their landlords as well as themselves? None so einployed. 29. Of no importance. 30. Have any, and what, improvements in agricultu* ral machinery (the result of the improvement of our ma- nufacturing machinery) been introduced in your vicinity ? Great improvements have taken place certainly in agricultural machinery of late years, but none of them, as far as our knowledge goes, has been the result of im- provements in manufacturmg machinery. 31. What is the average produce of wheat per statute acre in your district, and has there been any increase of decrease of late, and to what extent? We take the average produce of wheat in this district, in good years, to be three quarters per acre, and to be on the increase, in consequence of confidence in the present corn laws. ?2. Has there been any emigration of the agricultural population of your locality either to foreign countries or to manufacturing districts, and of what class of agricul- turist!;? State particulars. A few years ago, when corn bore a low price and la- bour difhcult to be obtained, a great number of small farmers and labourers were obliged to leave the country, but since the improvement in the price of corn, owing to the present corn laws, the condition of the labouring classes lias greatly improved, and no emigration is now taking place. 33. Is it not a fact that large tracts of land are in a state of deplorable backward cultivation in consequence of the direct or indirect action of the corn laws ? State examples. The country is in a state of rapid progressive improve* ment, caused by confidence in the present corn laws? In addition to your answers to these questions, it is in your power materially to assist us by pointing out and securini,' the services of any gentleman of sound know- ledge on agricultural matters, and agriculturists who may be able and willing to give evidence on the points above enumerated at the bar of Parliament or elsewhere. 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 357 These questions are answered by the undersigned practical farmers : — No. of Years ill Acres. Business. T. Greetiiam, Slainfield, farmer and ianda^ent 890 20 T. Clake, Glentvvorth, farmer and land ag-ent 600 46 J. W. J^uddin J, Saxby, owner of 500, occupier of 1000 30 Richard Duddinj^, Panton, farmer .. 1100 20 Henry Moore, Redbourn, farmer . . . 640 20 J. G. Stevenson, Skelling-thorpe, farmer 700 29 William Lonstaff, Fiskerton, farmer. . 650 12 Messrs. ftlarfieet, Boothby, farmers . . 800 30 William Lambe, Aubourn, farmer 740 20 Charles Tong'e, Branston, farmer .... 1000 15 Edward Gibbeson, Red Hall, fnrmer. 400 18 Geo. Waddington, Kettlethorpe, farmer 400 33 William Jepson, Heifrhington, farmer 350 16 T.Ciarke,Jun., Bracebridge, farmer. . 760 25 Richard Pears, Jan., Scopwick, farmer 880 20 Richard Aliwood, Uunholme, farmer 500 20 Henry Paddison, Ing-leby, farmer. . . . 200 25 P. F. Pell, Jun., Tupholme, farmer . . 90i» 30 John Lisiter, Skellingthorpe, farmer. . 500 34 THE CORN LAWS. Sir, — Amidst the many evils consequent on tlie peri- odical discussion of the corn laws, there are aUo some benefits resulting from the continued watchfulness thereby imposed on the friends of agriculture, and the important facts there incidentally elicited. I, therefore, read Mr. Ellman's letter in your paper of the 4thinst. with much interest, not only on account of the intelligence and great respectability of the author, but because it presents, as I shall presently show, a most striking confirmation of my awn preconceived opinion in favour of the principle of the present corn laws ; and which induces me thus respectfully to com- pare notes with INIr. Ellman, who states that " he laid the plan of the graduated scale of duty before Govern- ment in 1826-27." But Wr. Ellman does not say at what precise period of these two seasons this, doubtless, private hint was given to the Government. Now it so happens, that actuated by the same generous motive, and following the same train of ratiocination I had in 1825, arrived at the very same conclusion, as noticed at p. 35 of my pamphlet, or " Review of the evidence taken before the select committee of the House of Com- mons on agricultural distress in 1836," a copy of which I had the pleasure of presenting to you some time ago, Mr. Editor, through the hands of JMr. Cadell, the pub- lisher. It would therefore appear, that while Mr. Ellman might be cogitating iiiprjuate, I was publishing lo (/le nur/fi the outline of the present corn laws in the columns of the Stirling Journal, a file of which now lies before me, and from that of the 2d February, 1826, in particular, I beg to submit a single paragrajjh from a long letter of mine on the corn laws, dated 23d January, 1826, in purport as follows : — " The most difficult part of such a corn bill remains still unnoticed— and that is, the rate or amount of duty at which foreign corn ought to be admitted, and much as has been said on the general question, no one has ever yet given us any information in this particular. Suppose tlien, that we should assume the following rate of duty as necessary till better should appear, viz. — that when the average price of wiieat is at or under forty shillings, the duty should be tliirty-two shillings and sixpence ; that when the average is fifty shillings, the duty should be t/iirty shillings; that when the average is sixty shillings, the duty be twenty-five shillings ; that when the averages is seventy shillings, the duty be fifteen shillings ; that when the average is eiglijty shil- lings and upwards, to be duly free ; and so on at the same rate of duty at all the intermediate prices from forty to eighty shillings." .T. CARMICHAEL. liaploch Farm, near Stirling, Marcli 18, 1839. A FEW THOUGHTS ON AGRICUL- TURE. When rain falls on the ground, part of it runs off into ditches, and thence into rivers; but the greater part is taken into the sod. Plants consume much of this re- tained water ; some of it descends into the bowels of the earth, and some only as far as the upper layer of allu- vium and rock, by which it is driven to a lower level, when it afterwards finds its way to the air in springs througk the cultivated soil, and thence into riveri ; but a greater proportion of it only descends as far as the subsoil, which, if not porous, retains it. That which makes its appearance in springs is generally easily led away in drains made for the purpose. Much skill and capital have been expen;4ed in this species of draining in this county. The benefits are, that few springs are now t0 be seen in cultivated land, and it is likely those benefits will be permanent. The water which is retained between the upper soil and subsoil remains to effect incalculable mischief. While hidden water remains, manure, whether of the rotting kind or the caustic, such as lime, can give no fertility to the soil ; the plough, the harrow,and even the roller, cannot pulverise it into a fine mould ; the grass can contain no nourishment for live stock, as the finer sorts disappear, and their places are taken by coarse water plants ; the stock can never receive a hearty meal of grass or straw from land in such a state ; they are always hungry and dissatisfied, and of course remain in low condition ; the trees acquire a hard bark, stiffened branches, and soon become covered with moss; the roads in the neighbourhood are constantly soft and sul- lied ; the ditches and furiows are either plashy or like a sponge, full of water— places ready and certain to give sheep rot and red-water; tho surrounding air is always damp and chilly, and from early in autumn to late in spring the raw hoar-frost meets the face like a wet cloth morning and evening-. In winter the frost incrusts every furrow and plant with ice, not strong enough to bearone's weight, but just weak enough to give way to every step, while the snow lies lurking in crevices till late in spring — fit feeding ground of the woodcock and snipe; and in summer musquitoes, green flies, midges, gnats, and gadflies torment the cattle, the labourer, and his horses from morning to night, whilst the sheep get scalded heads and eaten up by maggots, during the hot blinks of sunshine. We wish that this were an exagge- rated picture ! It may be seen in part, if not in whole, in every parish in Cumberland. Look into the moun- tainous and lake region of this county, nay, into the cultivated plains, and part of this picture will some- where present itself to the view. Even in the choicest spots, for the richest portions are but spots in size in this favoured county, favoured by Providence in the in- dustry, skill, and prudence of its inhabitants, draining would act as a charm in causing an economy of labour and manure, and consequently of capital ; for if one ton of manure is saved, that is equal to one ton additional being made, and an additional ton of manure applied to land brings a proportionate increase of crop; also as well-drained land can be tilled with less labour, so must the expense of tillage be less, and, as a consequence, the ])rofit upon the crop raised on such land is in the same proportion to the saving of labour and manure, and the increase of produce. L.vt us also view it in another light, in that of the increase of national wealth. Simple ex- penditure of capital does not increase national wealth, unless that expenditure is reproductive, that is, unless it returns more than is expended ; therefore, a labourer who consumes ten pounds worth of provisions in the year by his exertions adds nothing to national wealth, unless by that labour he creates more food or value than he consumes in supporting himself; but as much as he creates above that amount, by just so much does he in- crease our national wealth, and by just so much is his expenditure productive. As, therefore, we have seen that draining renders land easier to be tilled, so will it enable the labourer with the same degree of exertion, and in the same time, to till a laiger quantity of land. By draining we have also found 358 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that the same quantity of land will produce a greater quantity and better quality of produce. By draining', also, we tind that no manure lies dead in tiie land ; therefore, by as much as used to be wasted in undrained land, by so much do we save or increase the quantity of our manure. Therefore, add all these g'ain^ together and we shall then find how greatly draining increases produce, decreases the cost of tillage, and thus adds to the profit of the agriculturist, and to the national wealth. After reflecting on these statements, it will be ac- knowledged that draining has not been prosecuted in this county even to the extent it might be, and far less to the extent that would amply repay its cost. The eost would, no doubt.be considerable, but if it were executed in a substantial manner, we maintain that the inci'ease to the first crop, in the better description of land, would repay the whole expense to the farmer, be that what it may. But the tenant ought not, in justice, to bear the whole expense of such a fundamenal improvement of the land. The landlord should, at least, bear one-third with him, and lessen the burden to each, tliough draining will amply repay the farmer without the landlord's as- sistance. Considering how anxious landholders generally are to purchase land, it is surprising to observe how reluc- tant they are to lay out capital in draining. This must, we think, arise from their not having sufficiently con- sidered the subject, for if they did weigh the matter, they would soon find that capital invested in draining returns a much better profit or greater interest, than capital laid out in the purchase of land. A man purchasing land is quite content if he receives four per cent, for his in- vestment ; but he is reluctant to lay out capital in drain- ing, though capital so invested in the better description of land will pay one hundred percent.; but suppose, for the sake of being very tar within the mark, we only set it at eight per cent., is it not better to invest his capital in draining and receive ei^ht per cent., than in the pur- chase of land which only pays four per cent ? R. B . — Carliile Patriot. ECONOMY IN LABOUR, AND PROVEMENT OF SYSTEM. IM- While every other class of the coynmimity are using all ihe means within their power to lessen the expense of producing the articles of their manufacture, the farmer still goes on in his old beaten track, never inquiring whether he cannot accomplish his labour with less actual, but more efficient strength of horses and men ; or whether other implements are not preferable to those he has now in use. Thus, while the expense of all other occupations has been reduced from one half to a tenth part of what they used to be, the expenses of the farmer have in many instances been increased. Most farmers limit their expenditure to the ali- solute necessaries required in their mode of cul- tui'e, instead of laying out fresh capital in attempt- ing to increase the productiveness of the soil. Their views have extended no farther than the next crop, a quick return being their only object, even where it would not pay the expense of pro- daction, or looking perhaps to the chapter of acci- dents, or waiting to see what Government will do for their relief. This they continue to do, obtaining only a scanty crop which is dear to the buyer and unprofitable to the grower ; instead of producing, by an outlay of additional capital on improved cidture, a plen- tiful crop which would be cheap to the consumer and profitable to themselves. But farmers in general adopt the custom of the neighbourhood in which they live, in the course of husbandry and general management of their farms ; and they follow the footsteps of their fathers in this respect more pertinaciously than any other class of society; and while improve- ments in all other arts and manufactures are going on at so rapid a rate, that of agriculture lags far behind. When a fanner does not improve the land he cultivates, it is evident that something is wrong in the system he adopts; it may be owing to his ignorance of the best mode of cultivating the par- ticular soils of which his farm consists — the want of capital, or even a determination not to lay out his capital to improve another man's land, which we have often heard expressed, and by those that are reckoned intelligent and liberal farmers, al- though we cannot perceive the mark either of intelligence or liberality in persons who hold such sentiments. The sands of Norfolk and Suffolk have been so much improved by the application of clay, marl, or chalk, and the alternate system of husbandry, that a crop of turnips is now produced on some land equal in value to the previous fee simple of the same soil ; while the rich clay land in the vale of the White-horse ia Berks, and in the vale of Gloucester, remains without any increase of its productive powers, and is still cultivated with from three to six horses in a plough. The Norfolk system of ploughing v/ith two horses abreast was introduced into Roxburgh- shire in 1762, by Mr. Dawson of Frogdon ; it soon spread over the greater part of Scotland, and has been continued as the most efficient mode of cultivating every kind of soil, from the lightest sand to the strongest and most tenacious clay. Tull's system of drilling turnips, as well as ploughing with two horses abreast, was carried by Mr. Dawson into the northern counties of Eng- land ; but to the present day, these improvements in agriculture have made very little progress in the southern counties. Two horses are very sel- dom to be seen at work abreast in a plough ; we generally observe three or four at work in a plough even on the lightest soil in Berks and other coun- ties, and these of a heavy description of animals, whose natural pace is seldom more than one mile an hour ; so that it is with considerable exertion that these three or four horses with a man and a^ boy, and a most cumbersome plough, turn over three-fourths of an acre a day ; while two light active horses plough, with the greatest ease, up- wards of an acre every day, and even two acres in the fallow field. The reason why improvement in agriculture proceeds at a much slower rate than improve- ments in many other sciences, is in fact owing to the very little intercourse there is amongst farmers themselves. The English farmers in general are not readers, they therefore lose all the recoi'ded improvements of individuals, or of agricultural societies. There is no system of education adopted in England, whereby the first principles of agriculture may be acquired ; the only agricultural education there- fore which the farmer receives is from the prac- tice of his father, and that of the neighbourhood in which he dwells, and which has been handed down unadulterated and unimproved through many generations, and adhered to with an obsti- nacy which no reason can induce him to give up or change. The prejudices of the farmer in favor of the mode of culture which he follows, and against all 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 359 those whose modes are different, although they are performed at one-half the expense, and pro- duce as much or a greater return, and although only a few miles distant from him, are of the most pertinacious kind, and will never be got rid of, till some dire necessity compels him to open his eyes to see his own interest; nothing but this wo are persuaded will ever induce many to change their present habits. The produce of agriculture may be easily in- creased, even doubled ; and in almost every in- stance, the expense of production may be dimi- nished. By reducing tlie expense of production, we set free an additional portion of the produce, and this is just the same as if, with the original expense, we produced a greater crop ; therefore none but the most efficient labour either of man, or beast, or implements, should ever be employed. If farmers would adopt this plan, it is evident that the greater the amount of productive and effi- cient labour they use, the greater will be their return ; all useless expenses should be extin- guished, and the most efficient mode of accom- plishing any labour should be adopted.— Morton OH Soils. IMPORTATION OF FOREIGN AGRI- CULTURAL PRODUCE. We extract the following itccount of the Importa- tion of Foreian Agricultural Produce into the United Kingdom, from a Parliamentary Paper (No 38), printed by order of the House of Commons, the IStli of February, 1839 : — Butter.— In 1837, imported 282,947 cwts. ; re- tained for home consumption 266,161 cwts. ; duty received 266,203/.— in 1838, 256,261 cwts. ; forborne consumption 252,132 cwts.; duty, 252,149/. Cheesf,.— In 1837, imported 237,732 cwts.; re- tained for home consumption 232,257 cwts.; duty 121,600/.— in 1838, 227,884 cwts. ; for home con- sumption 219,354 cwts. , duty 115,121/. Eggs.— In 1837, imported 74,733,037 : retained for home consumption 74,790,126 ; duty 25,991/. — in 1838, 83,745,723; for home consumption 83,817,789: duty 29,111/. Wheat. — In 1837, imported 455,872 qrs. ; re- tained for home consumption 232,793 qrs. ; duty 303,179/.— in 18:58, 1,245,061 qrs.; for home con- sumption 1,740,806 qrs. ; duty 136,011/. Barley. — In 1337, imported 87,791 qrs.; re- tained for home consumption 47,475 qrs.; duty 21,268/.— in 1828, 2,203 qrs. ; forborne consumption 8,193 qrs.; duty 4,922/. Oats. — In 1837, imported 416,425 qvs. ; retained for home consumption 333,933 qrs. ; duty 167,580/. —in 1838, 52,605 qrs. ; for home consumption 11,070 qrs. ; duty 6,263/. Ryk. — In 1837, imported 30,711 qrs. ; retained for liome consumption 19,575 qrs.; duty 8,484/. — in 1838, 1,781