; ^<^ ■-^t:. 1^ »- - V -' . r ■*7r^ .J "^v -^v^ L V .<... J!tJC?*; «)'' ^ ■^A' 4 N» . «^^., y j» / -;>. \. '/ '^^ )>^f^ LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE NO. 76^4-____ DATE.f.:i££^_ SOURCE. ^/r/_a,ich_.-XjLLtL<:( /P< eh> ;6J6 CHAPEL UMASS/AMHERST 312066 0330 1004 5 6€r 3 \^.cf 1^^^ I < ^;i'''='SiUM^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. VOLUME THE NINTH. (third series.) JANUARY TO JUNE, MDCCCLVI, LOI^DON: PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND. MAY BE HAD BY ORDER THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS. LONDON: I't S (y I I PRINTED BY ROOEESON AND TUXFOED, 246, STRAND. INDEX. A. Adulterations : Dr. Hassell's services : the Hassell Testimonial, 543 Agriculture, Calendar of, 86, 181, 276, 366,461, 558 Agriculture in France and England Agriculture (Modern), Mr. Wren Hoskyns on, 387 Agriculture, no Country can be Great that is Poor in, 556 Agriculture of Belgium, 400 Agriculture, the Development of, 104 Agriculture, the Power of the Press to promote, 195 Agriculture, Turkish, the Improvement of, 29 Agricultural Improvements, Impediments through the present System of College Holdings, to, 102 Agricultural Intelligence, 90, 186, 280, 370, 465, 562 Agricultural Observations by the "Way, 520 Agricultural Progression, 114 Agricultural Queries, 90 Agricultural Reports, 88, 183, 277, 367, 461, 559 Agricultural Societies — Bath and West of England, 272 Gloucestershire, 37 Rutland, 47 Shropshire, 51 Waltham, 364 Agricultural Show in Upper Canada, 166 Agricultural Statistics, growing Feeling in Favour of, 1 98 Agricultural Statistics (Irish), 144 Agricultural Statistics : — Observations and Sugges- tions, 401, 545 Agricultural Statistics, Opinions offered at Agricul- tural Meetings on their proposed Collection, 25 Agricultural Statistics, Resolutions of the Wirral Agricultural Society on, 38 Agricultural Statistics (Scotch), 141 Agricultural Statistics, their Collection in Scotland, 27 Agricultural Statistics, the individual and general Advantages of, 24 Agricultural Statistics, the new Bill on, 290 Air, how valuable to the successful Husbandry of the Soil and its Produce, animal and vegetable, 310 Averages imperial, 95, 189, 283, 378, 469, 566 B. Bark, the Price of, 471 Barks used in Tanning, on, 392, 502 Belle-isle Nuisances, 526 Benefit Clubs, the Earl of Albemarle on, 236 Biographical Sketches — B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, Esq., 16 W. Miles, Esq., M.P., 97 The late Professor Johnston, 182 Birmingham Cattle Show, the, 9 Bondage System in Scotland, 548 Boydell's Traction Engines for the public Service, 409 Bread, the Devonshire System of making, 362 Bread Question, the. By J. Towers, 407 C. Carlisle Meeting, official Report of the Judges of Drills at the, 396 Carts, single horse, the Use and Advantage of, 226 Cattle, on fattening, 106 Cattie Pathology, 554 Cattle Shows of Birmingham and Smithfield, By F. Robion de la Trehonnais, 363 Cattle-trade, Review of the, 89, 184, 278, 368, 462, 561 Cheese, &c., the prices of, 190, 284, 469 Cheese, the Improvement in the Manufacture of, 85 Chicory, price of, 190, 470 Christmas Cattle Show in Baker-street— the Me- mory of the Past reviewed by a Visit, 124 Christmas prize Meat, 121 Churn, Stiernsvard's Swedish centrifugal, 395 Clay Soils, the Cultivation of, 381 Clover (red), on the Growth of, 491 Corn — the Sale by Law or Custom ? 389 Corn Trade, Review of the, 91, 187, 281, 376, 466, 564 Cottages for the Poor, Mr. Neeld's, 135 Covent Garden Market, prices in, 470 Covered Yards and Box-feeding, 273 Currency per Imperial Measure, 95, 189, 283, 468, 566 D. Dairy Management, Mr. Horsfall's, 408, 431, 541 Decimal System of Accounts, their Advantage to the Farmer, 358 Deep Cultivation at home and abroad, 536 Drainage and liquid manuring, 427 Drainage, arterial, 223 Drainage, the Evidence taken hy the Lords Com- mittee, 413 u IXDEX. Drainage, the Keythorpe System, 15 I Drainage, the Objects and Purposes of, 194 ■ Drainage (under) of Land in Great Britain, on the i Progress and Results of. By J. Bailey Denton, 145 Drainage (under) : — the Discussion on Mr. Bailey Denton's Paper, 207, •228 Dry-drill v. Water-drill, 39 E. English Agriculture, its Progress during the last Fifteen Years — Mr. Chandos Wren Hoskyn's lecture, 343 F. Farm Agreement, the Form adopted by the Duke of Northumberland, 302 Farmer of the new School, the, 319 Farmers, an Appeal to their Patriotism, 32 Farmers' Club— London, 72,112,260,322,416, 530 Farmers, Facts for, 144 Farmers' Sons, the Education of, 487 Farming Agreement adopted by the Cheshire Agricultural Society, 258 Fanning on light Land, 126 Farming without a Drill, 528 Fawsley Herd, the Sale of, 443 Flax, &c.. Price of, 470 Flockmasters of the United Kingdom, to the, 458 French Commerce in Agricultural Produce, 550 G. Game Laws and Landlords, 110 Game Laws and Vermin, 111 Geology and the Keythorpe System, 557 Gorse, on the Uses of, 495 Grass, the Growth of. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esq , 379 Green Crops, the increased Use of, 119 Guano, artificial, from Fish, 36 Guano (Chincha Islands), proposed Sale of the, 108 Guano, on Peruvian : its History, Composition, and fertilizing Qualities, with the best Mode of its Application to the Soil. By J. C. Nesbit, F.G.S., F.C.S., &c., 507 H. ' Hacks and Hunters, the Breeding of, by Farmers, 383 Hay Market, 470 Hereford Bull, Description of " Attingham," 191 Hop Market, 96, 189, 284, 371, 469, 566 Hull Annual Trade Report, 172 Hunt's Patent Safety Hook as a Relief to fallen Horses, 229 Husbandry (good), the Necessity for its Extension, 113 Hide and Skin Markets, «7l K. Kennington Agricultural and Chemical College: Lectures Delivered there on scientific and agri- cultural Subjects, 404, 522 Labour in Ireland ; its Division, manual and me- chanical, 22 Labourers, underground. By Cuthbert W. John- son, Esq., 98, 192 Lambing Season, 294 Land Agent, the, 360 Land Drainage, 320, 553 Land Drainage, the Prospects of, 391 Land Improvement Companies, 289 Land, Means Available for the Improvement of, 233 Land, Security for Capital invested in, &c., 225 Landlord, the modern, 301 Lease and no Lease, 334 Leather Market, 471 Leicester, improved Wethers, Description of Plate, 379 Liebig's Mineral Theory, 516 Linseed Trade, annual Report of the, 176 M. McCormick's Reaper, Description of Plate, 459 Machinery for Agricultural Purposes, the extended Use of, 120 Malt made in 1854-5, 459 Mangel Wurzel Crop, 525 Manure, Fish, 129 Manure, on spreading Farm-yard, 107 Manure, Sea Sand as, 428 Manure Tolls, the Law of, 366 Manures, Price of, 96, 284, 471 Manures, the real Value of some of our, 519 Manures, the relative Values of artificial Manures, and their comparative Adaptation to difterent Crops. ByJ. C. Nesbit, Esq.,416 Manuring Land, Progress in, 517 Meteorological Diary, 87, 180, 274, 365, 460, 563 MetropoUtan Cattle Market, great Christmas Show, 71 Microscope as an Agricultural Agent, 551 Milk, Variation in the Composition of, 489 Modern Professor, the, 414 Molasses for Feeiiing Purposes, 35 Money, the decimal System, 237 • N. Nesbit, J. C. Esq., proposed Testimonial to, 427 Northumberland, the Duke of, and his Tenantry, 164 O. on, Price of, 470 INDEX. ni Paris Agricultural Exhibition of Stock, &c., 136, 397, 399 Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855, official Re- port.— By J. Evelyn Denison, Esq., M.P,, 449 Patent Laws, the Abuses of the, 101 Patent Office Reform, 315 Ploughing by Steam, the Possibility of, 15S Poetry— Song of the Spade, 128 Political? what is, 317 Poor Man's Bane, 235 Potato Cholera, 181 Potato Markets, 96, 189, 284, 371, 469, 566 Potato Planting, 411 Potato Trade, Smithfield as a central Market, 197 Potatoes, Cultivation of, 179 Practice with Science, 157 Produce, Quality of, 232 Progress, on, 296 R. Rabbits noxious Vermin to the Tenant Farmer, 52 Rain and drainage Water, on the Composition of, 547 Rain Falls, 555 Revikw — Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 269 Richmond's Patent Lawn Mower, 521 Royal Agricultural Society of England, Proceed- ings of, 4, 200, 336, 432, 478 Royal Agricultural Society of England and the Implement Makers, 204 Royal Agricultural Society of England, the Charta of, V. Agricultural Statistics, 271 Royal Dublin Society's Spring Show, 446 S. Seeds, Price of, 96, 189, 283, 378, 469, 566 Sheep, Scab in, 459 Sheep, the Management of, 28 Short-horned Bull " Gloucester," Description of, 473 Short-horned Bull " Master Butterfly," Descrip- tion of, 285 Skin Diseases of our domestic Animals, 441 Smithfield Cattle Show, Critique on the Animals exhibited. List of Prizes, &c., 54 Smithfield Club and Birmingham Cattle Show, 53 Soil, the Autumn Cleaning of the, &c., 23 Soil, the best System of Tenure to insure the proper Cultivation of the, 34 Soils, the Moisture of. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esq., 474 Spring Dressings. By Cuthbert W. Johnson Esq., 286 Stallion "Ravenhill," a thorough-bred, Pedigree and Performances, 473 Stallion, the celebrated Norfolk one "Phenomenon," Description of, &c., 285 Stallions for 1856, List of, 372 Steam, Cultivation by, its past History and proba- ble Prospects. By John Fowler, jun., of Bristol, 239 Steam Culture, Usher's Plough, &c., 130, 230 Steam Culture, the Plough, 40 Stock, the economical Feeding of, 162 Suffolk Crag, its Use in the Improvement of Land, 309 Sunflower, the Culture of it as an Agricultural Plant, 300 Temperatures, low. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esq., 1 Tenant Right, alias Equity, very Profitable to the Landlord, 445 Tenant Right, the gradual Extension of English, 159 Thrashing by Steam Power, on, 313 Tillage in the Fifteenth Century, 501 Timber, Price of, 470 Tithe Commutation, 179 1 op-dressing. Experiments of the late Mr. Pewsey, 342 TuU, Jethro, his Husbandry (concluded), 17 Turnip Crop, the Swedish, 476 Turnips, Report of an Experiment on growing them with different Manures, 275 V. Vidette, the, Description of Plate, 192 W. War, its Effects on the Commerce of the Country, 275 Water Rights and Outfalls, 292 Wheat Crop of 1855, the Yield and Quahty, 273 Wheat, fumigating, Salaville's " Grain aerator," 402 Wheat on the Use of a Solution of the Chloride of Lime as a Steep for, 497 Wheat Plant, the young, I6I Woodlands Draining, 488 Wool Markets, 96, 190, 284, 471, 566 Wool Trade, 42, 537 Wool Trade, annual Report of the, 169 Work, and how to do it, 304, 384 Worms, how to kill them, 109 ^ Y. Year, the Close of the, 117 Year, the new, 163 THE EMBELLISHMENTS. Bridesmaid, a short-homed Cow . . . Three improved Berkshire and Essex Pigs . . Portrait of William Mills, Esq., M.P. Design for a covered Homestead at Sillyflat, Kincardineshire, N. B The Vidette ..... A Hereford Bull ..... Improvements in Corn Planters Phenomenon, the Norfolk trotting Stallion A short-homed Bull .... Three Leicester Wethers .... McCormick's Reaper .... A short-homed Bull .... A thorough-bred StaUion, " Ravenhill " Page. I 1 97 97 191 191 272 285 285 379 459 473 473 THE FAEMEE'S MA1?AZINE. JANUARY, 1856. PLATE I. BRIDESMAID; A Short-horned Cow, THE PROPERTY OF RICHARD BOOTH, ESQ., OF WARLABY, NORTHALLERTON. BRIDESMAID, roan, calved February 14th, 1851; got by Harbinger (10297), dam (Bianca) by Leonard (4210), g. d. (Bagatelle) by Buckingham (3239), gr. g. d. (Jemima) by Raspberry (4875), — (Strawberry 3rd) by Young Matchem (4422), — by Young Alexander (2977), — by Pilot (496), — by The Lame Bull (359), — by Easby (232), — by Smvarrow (636). See vol. ii,, Herd Book, p. 348, Performances: 1852. — At Lewes (Royal Agricultural Society), 2nd prize as a yearling ; Sheffield (Yorkshire Society), 2nd prize; Sunderland (Durham County), 1st prize. 1853.— At Gloucester (Royal Agricultural Society), 1st prize for two years old ; at York (Yorkshire Society), 1st prize; Blackburn (North Lancashire), 1st prize, also a silver cup value lOgs., and a silver medal. 1854. — Berwick-on- Tweed (Highland Society), 1st prize for the best cow in milk ; at Armagh (Royal Improvement Agricul- tural Society of Ireland), 1st prize for the best three-year-old cow in milk. 1855. — At Carlisle (Royal Agricultural Society), 1st prize for the best cow in milk; Malton (Yorkshire Society), 1st prize for the best cow in milk. PLATE II. THREE IMPROVED BERKSHIRE AND ESSEX PIGS, BRED AND FED BY MR. MATTHEW NEWMAN, OF HAYES COURT, UXBRIDGE, To which a prize of Five Sovereigns was awarded at the Smithfield Club Show, December, 1854, This breed, or cross, have the especial recommendation of a great aptitude to fatten. They attained the weight of fifty stones each— of 8 lbs. to the stone— at the age of thirty-six weeks and a day; with a good average portion of lean meat to fat. The same sort, in addition to other prizes, took that for three store breeding sows of one litter, at the Windsor Show of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in 1851. We believe Mr. Newman has a few pigs to dispose of; particulars of which may be known on application to him. LOW TEMPERATURES. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. Some of the effects of a low temperature upon animals and vegetables have been always familiar to the dwellers in rural districts. The true ex- planation of such phenomena has not, however, been so well or so long understood. The cultivator of cereal crops, to give one instance amongst many, is well aware that his seed wheat will germinate and continue to extend its roots when the surface of the soil is at or below the freezing point; that a cover- ing of snow rather promotes than retards this OLD SERIES.] operation ; and that, in fact, to use his own words* " the growing plants keep on working under the soil," Avhen all is cold and torpid above ground. The explanation of this fact must be sought in the much higher and equable temperature of the soil, into which— at least, wthin the cereal or corn- producing zone of the earth— the frost rarely if ever penetrates below a few inches. In our island, at 12 or 18 inches below the surface, the thermo- meter generally indicates, even in the most severe B [VOL XLIV.— No. 1. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. frosts, a temperature several degrees above the freezing i)oint of water; and this warmth, be it remembered, increases the deeper the roots of the plant penetrate into the soil. If I give the result of tn'o or three observations made during the pre- sent winter, it may serve to make these truths still more apparent. I have at Croydon three thermo- meters placed on a wooden post, on the northern side of my house, and 6 inches from the wall — 1, about a foot from the ground ; 2, a self-registering thermometer, placed about three feet above No. 1 ; and 3, a thermometer whose bulb descends about IS inches into the soil. The instances of low temperature commenced this winter on the nights of the 14th, 15th, and iGth of November, when the thermometer, exposed to the air, descended as low as 20, 20, and 25 de- grees ; and at 9 o'clock on the following mornings it was at 25, 25, and 33 degrees ; but at 18 inches it was 43, 41, and 41 degrees ; and, again, on the nights of the 2nd, 5th, 6th, and 7th of December, the self-registering thermometer was down to 20, 22, 24, and 22 degrees ; but that whose bulb was 18 inches below the surface, was as high as 38|, 38, 37, and 37 degrees. On the nights of the 11th, 12th, and 13th of December, the temperature of the air was as low aa 20, 11, and 15 degrees; but that of the earth at 18 inches from the surface, was 35, 34^, and 34^. The lowest temperature of the nights of the 20th, 21st, and 22nd, was 12, 6, and 9 degrees; but that of the earth was 34 degrees — a temperature not so low as to preclude the growth of the rootlets which the soil contains. My readers will remember that the temperature of the soil is induenced, 1st, by that of the atmosphere in which it is placed, and, 2ndly, by the internal temperature of the earth, which, as far as we are aware, has little connection with that of the surrounding atmosphere. As we descend into the earth, its warmth increases at the rate of about one degree of Fahrenheit for every sixty feet from the surface. This rule holds in all seasons, in the deepest mines, and the sjjrings of the greatest artesian wells. In the artesian boring at New Sal- werk, near Minden, which is 2,232 ftet deep, the water which rises to the surface is in all seasons of the temperature of 91 degrees; and the same phe- nomenon occurs in the water of the artesian well of Grenelle, near Paris, the depth and the temjjera- ture of the water nearly corresponding to that of the well of Minden. The s])ccific effect of low temperature upon the growth of dill'erent varieties of the same i)lant has never been so carefully examined as is desirable. We know it is true that wheat will continue to vegetate in a temperature in which barley ceases to grow, and that rye and oats arc cultivated success- fully long after the climate has become too cold for the profitable cultivation of wheat ; but no experi- ments have been instituted to show the rate at which the roots of different varieties of the same cereal extend themselves in a low temperature, although it is probable that useful practical conclu- sions might be derived from such a course of inquiry. Various have been the wild dreamings hazarded to account for the different power to resist the de- structive influence of frost which is possessed by plants; but such reveries have commonly consisted iti the substitution of mere words as an explana- tion of unknown facts. And our state of useful knowledge is not much enlarged, if we adopt a recent explanation of Dr. Lindley's, who arrives at the conclusion, after a series of observations ex- tended over a period of forty years, that the power of resisting frost is the consequence of " specific vitality," and nothing else. And, as he I'emarks, that a low temperature acts differently upon differ- ent plants very nearly allied to each othei", is noto- rious, and this even where they are mere varieties of each other. The China rose, for instance, resists any amount of English cold ; while the variety called tea-scented perishes or suffers severely in every ordinary winter. The gay-flowered Senecio of the Canaries, known in gardens under the name of Cineraria, shrinks from the mere approach of frost, and perishes upon its first arrival ;'yet the ragworts, and mugworts, and groundsels, all equally Senecios, can bear a Russian winter. In like manner, oaks, chestnuts, conifers exhibit similar differences in their power of resisting frost. It is impossible, adds Dr. Lindley, upon any other principle to account for the facts that surround us. For exam- ple. Genista cetnensis survived all the cold of the winter of 1854-5. What is there in its constitution, except specific vitality, which can account for the fact ? — which can explain why it endured without suffering a degree of cold that proved fatal to its first cousin the common furze ? It may be very reasonably asked what is this specific vitality ? To that we have no more satisfactory reply to give than that we do not know. It is an axiom in animal economy, that the general effect of cold on living bodies is a diminution of vital activity, which ter- minates, if the cold be intense, and its application continued, in death ; hence, it is to be inferred that all living things whatsoever must finally perish beneath the influence of cold, provided it is severe enough and prolonged enough. But living things have each their separate constitutional vitality, the power of which, in resisting cold, differs between species and species, or variety and variety, and even between individual and individual. It is a pecu- liarity derived from the great Source of all things — ■ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 3 a reality, inexplicable but indisputable, like light, and heat, and electricity. We see it manifested amongst plants ; between the yellow and the spider ophrys, and the tea-rose and the China rose ; as amongst animals, between the ass and the zebra, Negro and the Esquimaux, the terrier and the Italian greyhound. The influence of a low temperature upon the two great classes of organised beings, then, is alike ex- tensive and injurious if continued below a certain point ; and that action is, in the case of animals, still more generally marked and traceable in its practical results than in the case of plants. Its influence upon the amount of food consumed by our domestic animals, was well traced by the late Mr. Phihp Pusey, in one of the latest of those many instructive papers in which he so ardently laboured to combine practical and scientific obser- vations. In the course of an able retrospect of the recent progress of agricultural knowledge, he ob- served {Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. ii., p. 381) : " Be- sides fibrine, which becomes meat, vegetable food contains other substances — gum, starch, sugar. All these are without nitrogen, and consist of charcoal (carbon) with the elements of water (oxygen and hy- drogen), that is of the substance of wood. Liebig has shown that in the animal body they are used aswood, being absorbed combined with oxygen, and exhaled as carbonic acid. In the words of Dr. Playfair, the body is the furnace, the food is the fuel, the excre- ments are the ashes, and the gases exhaled from the mouth are of the same composition as those which fly up the chimney of the furnace. If, then, we want an animal to lay on meat, we give him beans, which abound in fibrine, and chopped straw for fuel; just as we ourselves eat beefsteak and potatoes. Animals seem to know this by instinct ; for my shejjherd tells me it is useless to give the sheep chaff in their troughs until the cold weather comes on. As the winter dee2)ens they eat more chaff, but in spring gradually leave it off, till in May they refuse it ; as we lightour fires at Michael- mas, and leave our grates empty in May." And after giving a sketch of the opinions then engaging the attention of the chemist, as to the source of fat, he remarks : " There is one point, however, certain — the importance of warmth. Wherever fat comes from, there is no doubt that both fat and flesh are wasted from the production of beef in an animal frame suffering by excessive cold. The substance of an annual pining from cold evaporates with the breath, as the spirit would pass from wine in an uncorked bottle. The comfort of our stock, there- fore, is in unison with their master's profit." As td their food, practice (as Boussingault himself — no mean chemist — frankly says) " has got the start of theory; and I own," he adds, with perfect hu- mility, " that I think its conclusions are in general greatly to be preferred." Still animal chemistry has made great advances, and does at least explain much ; of vegetable chemistry Mr. Pusey added — rather too hastily, perhaps, as much can scarcely be said — in the words of its able exponent, the late Dr. Fownes, speaking at the preiuature close of his labours, " the chemistry of vegetable life is of a very high and mysterious order, and the glimpses occasionally obtained of its general nature are few and rare." However few these glimpses of truthmay be, no one was latterly more ready than Mr. Pusey to acknowledge their importance to agriculture — no one was more anxious than himself to give due prominence, in the pages of the valuable Journal he so ably conducted, to every discovery in agricultural chemistry. He had once, a very groundless fear that the importance and the interest so generally excited by the chemists' researches might seduce the agriculturist from other valuable paths, which as certainly lead to the acquisition of practical knowledge. Such fears — such unfounded conclusions, how- ever, are ever injurious to the progress of know- ledge. The mysteries of vegetable life are too many, and far too interesting not to stimulate our curiosity, and excite us to pursue every path which tends towards enlarged knowledge. Even now, our old conclusions with regard to the great pastures from whence the growing plant obtains its food, are threatened with a considerable revolution from the more recent inquiries of the chemist. The source from whence it acquires its nitrogen, has been lately examined with equal skill and industry. Much has been done towards proving that the nitrogen gas of the atmosphere exercises more than a passive in- fluence upon the growing plant ; and if this con- clusion is supported by the result of other and varied researches, it may lead to the adoption of new and improved rotations of crops, as well as material improvements in the application of the manures by which their growth is promoted. Of the influence of temperature upon plants, we have seen much yet remains to be accomphshed. I have directed my attention in this paper only to the effect of atmosphere of a low temperature upon organised substances, but there are other branches of the same important inquiry to which I may hereafter recur ; and in these much progress has of late been made . To whichever side, indeed, we turn, many and certain indications present themselves that all our present amount of information will only serve as stepping-stones to a future and much more im- portant extent of knowledge, to that to which we have at present attained. B 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Monthly Council was held at the Society's House, in Haaover-square, on Wednesday, the 5th of December. Present: Mr. Raymond Barker, V. P., in the Chair; Sir Archibald Keppel Macdonald, Bart. ; Mr. Bramston, M.P. ; Mr. Brandreth ; Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P. ; fllr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Wren Hoskyns, Mr. Kinder, Professor Simonds, Mr. Jonas Webb, and Mr. Burch Western. The following new Members were elected : — Aytown, Roger Sinclair, Inchdairnie, Kirkcaldy. Boghurst, William Philip, Freting Abbey, Colchester. Bonnell.-jThomas Lowrey, Carlisle, Cumberland. Bouuell, James, Pelling-place, Old Windsor. Christie, James, Melbourne Hall, Pocklington, Yorkshire. Dalgiel, James, New House, Lanark. Denman, Lord, Middleton Hall, Bakewell, Derbyshire. Denton, C. L., St. Briavell's, Coleford, Gloucestershire. De Tipnla, T. F., Derekegylaza, Pesth, Hungary. Ellis, John Pierce, Eastiogton Farm, Upton, Worcestershire. Elkingtou, George Richards, Pembrey, Llanelly, Carmarthen- shire. Efkorg, Adolphus, Derekegylaza, Pesth, Hungary. Fane, Rev. Prebendary, Warminster, Wiltshire. Fison, John Potterton, Horningsea, Cambridgeshire. Gilding, Richard, Malvern Wells, Worcestershire. Goddard, William Ramey, Inspector of Registration, Somer- set House. Harding, Joshua, Rosliston,' Burton-on-Trent. Hicks, William Gunman, Halstead, Sevenoaks, Kent. Hempaon, John A., St. Osyth, Colchester, Essex. Hunt, Ri-ihard, The Mills, Stanstead, Essex. Ireland, John Smith, Forthampton, Tewkesbury, Gloucester. Irven, Thomas, Stansbury Hall, Wrexham, Denbighshire. Knight, John, Widnes, Warrington, Lancashire. Jakeman, James, Hill Farm, Northampton. James, John, Stafford. Lobb, George, jun., Lawhitton, Launcestou, Cornwall. Lord, Richard, Longdon, Upton, Worcestershire. Louch, Francis William B., Stanchester House, Landport, Somersetshire. Lowndes, George Alan, Barrington Hall, Harlow, Essex. Mack, Audrew, Lower Dale, Hereford. Muggeridge, Sir Henry, Knt., St. Andrew's Hill, Streatham. Oldfield, Charles Frederick, Peldon Lodge, Colchester, Essex. Pack, Thomas Henry, Ditton, Maidstone, Kent. Phillip8,"Jamcs Henry, Ansty, Dorchester. Dorsetshire. Robson, James, Breckenborough, Louth,' Lincolnshire. Scragg, William, Great Clacton, Colchester, Essex. Sexton, George Mumford, Cocktield, Bury St. Edmund's. Stenton, Henry Cawdron, Southwell, Nottinghamshire. Stephenson, Heurylllalfrey, Crosslauds, Alston, Cumberland. Sturgess, Thomas, Bedale, Yorkshire. Tweddle, John, Askerton Castle, Cumberland. Pollard, Joseph, Highdown,Hitchiii,' Hertfordshire. Weatherali, Joseph, Stockton-on-Tees, Durham. Finances.— Mr. Raymond Barker laid before the Council the Monthly Report on the accounts of the Society, from which it appeared that the current cash- balance in the hands of the bankers was £'301. Paris Implemknt Show. — Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., as English Juror of Agricultural Implements at the recent Paris Exhibition, having transmitted to the Council at their jjrevious monthly meeting the earliest information of the results of that exhibition in his own department, it was suggested by Mr. Branston, M.P., supported by Mr. Jonas Webb, that a document so im- portant at the jjresent moment to the agricultural implement makers of this country, and .so Important to those members of the Society who desired in their purchases to avail themselves of the information it con- veyed, should at once be made public, especially as the awards to which it referred had now been confirmed by the imperial edict and the premiums awarded. The Council unanimously adopted this suggestion, and or- dered the publication of the following letter : — " Ossington, Nov. 6, 1855. " Dear Sir, — I returned on Thursday last from Paris,'having concluded my business in connection with the Exhibition. My first visit occupied me for a month, my second for more than three weeks. I send you, for the information of the Council, a short account of what has taken place. The Committee ap- pointed by the Council to make a selection of agricultural implements for the Paris Exhibition! executed their task, I think, with great judgment. The implements sent were not too numerous, and they were all of established excellence. The collection attracted great attention, and has been examined with increasing interest up to the latest days of the Exhibi- tion. I will not now enter into a description of the foreign implements exhibited, nor of the vast collection of agricultural products (an opportunity for this will be afforded in a report which the Board of Trade has asked me to furnish). I will confine myself now to the results of the Exhibition, as bearing on British exhibitors and British interests. To the five prin- cipal makers of agricultural machines ~ Messrs. Howard „ Crosskill, Messrs. Ransorae „ Garrett „ Hornsby the Gold Medal of Honour has been awarded ; and to' them alone, of all the exhibitors of agricultural machinery of all countries, with the exception of McCormick and Pitt, of the United States, one for his reaping machine, the other for a thrashing machine. To Messrs. Ball, Beutall, Busby, Coleman, Smith and Ashby, W. Smith, the Silver Medal of the first class has been voted. " According to the French classification (carried perhaps to an extreme point of subdivision), thrashing machines and tile-making machines were not included in the list of agricul- tural implements : they were removed to the class of general machinery, class 6. Mr. Hornsby, if he had not already gained a Gold Medal in class 3, would have had one for his tlirashing machine in class 6. "A Gold Medal of Honour has been voted to Mr. Clayton for his brick-making machine. I should add that medals have been awarded, by the express command of the Emperor, to the leading workmen of the establishments of successful exhibitors. After making an examination of the foreign implements, in company with Mr. .'X.mos, it became apparent to my colleague, Mr. Wilson, and myself, that our time would be best em- ployed, both for the interests of England and of France, in endeavouring to open the trade for agricultural machinery between the two countries — France requiring improved implements, England able and willing to supply them. The high rate of duty on the importation of machinery into France amounted virtually to a prohibition. I talked to the distinguished Frenchmen who composed my class on the disadvantages of this exclusive system. To open the trade might confer some benefit on England, but it would confer a far greater benefit on France. Ultimately, our class agreed unanimously to make a representation to the Imperial Go- vernment in favour of a reduction of the duty on agricultural machinery. The representation was successful. An Imperial Decree appeared in the Monitcur ou Friday, the 7th of Sept., making a considerable reduction in the duties on many articles of machinery, and specially reducing the duty on agricultural iraplcTnents to 15 francs per 100 kilogrammes. I look upon this as a very important concession, and one which may be productive of very beneficial consequences. " I am glad to attribute it, not so much to our representa- tions, as to the good sense and just views of our French THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 5 colleagues ; and no doubt it was to their appreciation of the extent to which French interests were involved, that this decree must in a great degree be attributed. It was part of the original plan of the Exhibition, that any article exhibited might be sold, at the close, on payment of a duty of 20 per cent., ad valorem. The new duty is by weight — 15 francs per 100 kilogrammes, equal to 2 cwt. I have procured from the French Customs the weight of some of the English machines ; and I have made a comparison between the duty charged by weight, and an ad valorem duty of 20 per cent. On an iron plough, in which the weight of the'raw material, in comparison to workmanship, is considerable, the duty of weight will be something above 20 per cent, ad valorem. In the more com- plicated machines, in which labour enters more largely, as in drills, the duty will be about 15 "per cent."«rf valorem. On the whole, the proposed duty by weight appears to be fully as favourable as a duty would have been at 20 per cent, ad valorem. " The makers of machines, whom''I ,had an opportunity of seeing at Paris, and their agents there,'were satisfied with the proposed scale, and thought au opening had been made for the establishment of a considerable and beneficial trade. It would not become me to suggest to our machine makers the best means to be taken for occupying the new ground laid open before them. Their own enterprise and knowledge of business will be their best guides. Our American brethren have already set them an example. I understand a Franco- American Com- pany has been set on foot,'for the purpose of supplying France with M'Cormick's^reaping machine. " These, then, have been the chief results of the Paris Ex- hibition, as^regards the Class of Agriculture: — " 1. Successful competition on the part of English Ma- chinery, and the award to it of the Gold Medal of Honour. " 2. A great reduction of the duties on the importation of Agricultural Machinery into France, and the prospect of a new market opened to our macliine-makers. " I could not be content to conclude this short account without acknowledging the invariable courtesy and attention which have been shown me by the members of my own class, and by all persons connected with the French Commission. "lam, yours very faithfully, " Evelyn Denison. " To J. Hudson, Esq., Sec. of E. A. S." Implement Prizes, 1856. — Mr. Brandreth having moved that the consideration of the Implement Prize- sheet for nest year should be postponed till the Wed- nesday in next week, when a special Council would be held, gave notice of the following motion : "To move, when the Implement-sheet is finally taken into con- sideration, that, in future, special prizes only be given in rotation for certain great classes of Implements : as an arrangement likely to prove of advantage to the So- ciety, to the implement-makers, and to the public in general; and also, as tending to lead to greater effi- ciency and economy in the respective trials of imple- ments in each year.'' The explanations given by Mr. Brandreth of his intended motion, and the remarks of the different members present, on the modes by which the Society's exhibition and trial of implements in each year may be rendered most effective and economical, led to an interesting discussion on this important subject. Standing Committees. — The Standing Committees for next year having been appointed, it was ordered, on the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, that the chairmen of the different standing committees of the current year report respec- tively in writing, to the Monthly Council in February, the number of times they have met, and the number of reports they have made to the Council. Member of Council.— On the motion of Mr. Raymond Barker, seconded by Mr. Wren Hoskyns, thp Earl of Essex was unanimously elected a General Member of Council, to supply the vacancy occasioned by the transfer ot Lord Berners to the class of Trustees. Australian Sheep. — The Earl of Chichester com- municated to the Council a statement made to him" from South Australia, of the great losses sustained by the flock-masters in that colony from the disease of scab among their sheep — The Council directed Professor Simonds, as the Veterinary Inspector of the Society, to enter into communication with the Earl of Chichester on this subject. Professor Simonds took that opportunity of remarking that he believed the sheep of the colony had always suffered from the scab in ;its common form, and would continue to be exposed to the same annoyance as the native sheep of the colony extended and became mingled with newly-imported animals. He thought the same treatment would succeed in Australia as employed in England. The disease arose from the presence of a special parasitical animal, which penetrated the skin of the sheep, and caused by its constant attacks their in- creasing irritation and annoyance. He would commu- nicate, as desired, with the Earl of Chichester on the subject. Lecture. — Mr. Raymond Barker gave notice that he should move at a future Council, that Prof. Simonds be requested to deliver a lecture on the subject of skin diseases and constitutional irritation occurring among the animals of the farm from the insidious presence and attacks of parasitical animals. He made this motion both in reference to its interest and importance, and from the circumstance of knowing that Prof. Simonds possessed a most valuable collection of magnified dia- grams and drawings connected with this subject, which he had at great personal exertion and expense prepared for the service of the Society. The Council adjourned to Dec. 12. A Special Council was held on the 12th of De- cember : present. Lord Portman, President, in the Chair; Earl of Essex, Lord Berners, Lord Ashburton, Hon, A. Leslie Melville, Sir Archibald Keppel Mac- donald, Bart., Mr. Dyke Acland, Mr. Raymond Bar- ker, Mr, Barnett, Mr. Barthropp, Mr. Brandreth, Col. Challoner, Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., Mr, Gadesden, Mr. Garrett, Mr, Hamond, Mr, Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Wren Hoskyns, Mr. Hudson (Castleacre), Mr. Jonas, Mr, Kinder, Colonel MacDouall, Mr, Miles, M, P., Mr, Milward, Mr. Allen Ransome, Mr. Slaney, Mr. Robert Smith, Mr. Thompson, Colonel Towneley, Mr. Wood ward, and Mr, Burch Western. Mr, PusEY,— On the 7th of November, on the mo- tion of Lord Portman, seconded by Colonel Chal- loner and Mr, Raymond Barker, the following resolu- tion having been carried unanimously :— " That a letter be written to the family of the late Philip Pusey. Esq., expressing the gratitude of the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England for his services as Chairman of the Journal Committee, and their great sorrow for his early death. That it be engrossed on vellum, and signed by the President, with the seal of the Society attached." Lord Portman reported, at this meeting, that in pursu- ance of that resolution he had addressed the following letter to the family of the late Mr. Pusey :— " The Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England have directed me, as the President, to assure the family of the late Ph. Pusey, Esq., that the Society deeply and unfeignedly unite with them in their grief for the irreparable loss which they have sustained in the early and lamented death of their beloved father. In this bereavement the Council and the Society par- ticipate with the surviving and sorrowing members of Mr. Pusey's family ; for while the recollection of parental affection and domestic virtue will long endear his memory to all the members of his family, his distinguished position when twice elected President of the Royal Agricultural Society of i.ng. land, and his unceasing labours for seventeen years as Chair- man of the Journal Committee, will long be cherished by his THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. surviving colleagues, aud be remembered with gratitude and respect by every member of this Society. " (Signed) Portman, President." To which he had received the following reply : — "London, Dec. 12. " My Lord, — The family of the late Mr. Puaey have re- quested me, as one of the executors under his will, to express to your Lordship and the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of Enj^laud their graceful sense of the sympathy shown to thera in their bereavement. " They will not fail to appreciate duly such a communication from the Society, remembering how their father cherished the memory of Earl Spencer, its first President, aud of others with whom he had the honour to be associated in its foundation. " Of Mr. Pusey himself, it will long be remembered that to practical habits of business he joincii deep philosophical thought, accurate scholarship, and genial appreciation of the arts and letters of modern as well as ancient times — that he applied a powerful intellect, with a keen forecast of the wants of his country, to develop the resources of British farming, and that, by a rare union of endowments, he did much to ren- der science practical, and to win for agriculture a worthy place among the intellectual pursuits of the present day. " How much labour he underwent, what forbearance and discrimination he exercised, how considerate he was of the feelings of others, how modest in the expression of his own, may never be known except to his personal friends ; but some of the results of his unceasing exertions during many of the best years of his life are to be found in the Journal (to which the Council have referred by their resolution) ; and by that Journal at least his name will be permanently and honourably connected with the Society from the date of its commencement. " This may not be the occasion on which to speak of his exertions for the labouring poor, or of his private virtues, but I trust that I shall be pardoned for having said thus much in response to the recognition of Mr. Pusey's services by the im- portant public body over which your lordship presides. " I have only further to request that you will he pleased to convey to the Council the respectful acknowledgments of Mr. Pusey's friends, and that you will accept personally their sin- cere thanks for the kind terms in which vour letter to the family is expressed. — I have the honour to be, my lord, your lordship's faithful servant, "Thomas Dyke Acland, Jun. " The Right Hon. Lord Portman." On the motion of Mr. Jonas, seconded by Mr. Fisher Hobbs, it was resolved that the foregoing letters be entered in the proceedings of the day, and be printed in the forthcoming number of the Journal. Guano Substitute. — Mr. Raymond Barker having submitted the report of the Guano Substitute Committee, on a formal claim made for the Society's .fliOOO prize, the Council adopted the opinion of the Committee that the proposed substitute was not entitled to the prize offered. • Trial of Implements. — Colonel Challoner, Chair- man of the Implement Committee, having read to the Council the suggestions of the implement-makers who had met that committee in conference two days pre- viously, it was carried, on the motion of Mr. Thompson, seconded by Colonel Challoner, " That at future country meetings the competitive trials of implements shall he confined to certain specified classes of implements, and that it be referred to the Implement Committee to make such a classification as .shall ensure the trial of every de- scription of agricultural implement once in three years ;" and on the motion of Mr. Brundreth, seconded by Mr. Slaney, "That after the word 'Implements' in the previous resolution, the words be added, ' for which alone in each yeur prizes shall be offered:' " The Im- plement prize sheet was accordingly referred to the Implement Committee to report to the Council in Feb- ruary what prizes they would recommend to be offered at the Chelmsford Meeting next year. Steam-Cultivator. — It was carried, on the mo- tion of Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.F., seconded by Mr. Hamond: "That the sum of £500 be offered by the Society for the best steam-cultivator that shall be an economical substitute for the plough or the spade ; and that it be referred to the Implement Committee to con- sider the details of the conditions to be made for the prize." A Special Council was held on the 13th of De- cember : present. Lord Portman, President, in the Chair; Lord Berners, Lord Feversham, Sir Archibald Keppel Macdonald, Bart., Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Barthropp, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Jonas, Mr. Miles, M.P., Professor Simonds, Mr. Robert Smith, Colonel Towneley, Mr. Jonas Webb, and Mr. Woodward. Live Stock Prizes. — On the motion of Mr. Miles, M.P., seconded by Lord Feversham, prizes were uani- mously voted for foreign stock of any pure native breeds of cattle and sheep, open to all foreigners, under con- ditions to be recommended to the Council at their February meeting by a special committee, consisting of Mr. Miles, M.P., Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., Lord Feversham, Mr. Jonas Webb, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Jonas, Mr. Milward, and Professor Simonds. A sum not exceeding i?120 was voted for Poultry Prizes to be arranged by the Council in February. On the sugges- tion of Mr. Townley Parker, a class of Prizes was voted for Dray Horses. The general conditions and regula- tions of the prize sheet were then adopted in reference to the usual prizes offered by the Society. A Special Council was held on the 14th of Decem- ber : present, Colonel Challoner, Trustee, in the chair; Lord Berners, Mr. Dyke Acland, Mr. Raymond Bar- ker, Mr. Barthropp, ftlr. Mainwaring Paine, Mr. Slaney, and Mr. Jonas Webb. The Council Meetings stand adjourned over the Christ- mas Recess to the first Wednesday in February. DISEASE AMONG CATTLE. London, Dec. 22. The Earl of Clarendon has transmitted to the Society, through Lord Wodehouse, a copy of a despatch from Her Majesty's Minister at Berlin, reporting that the cattle disease from Poland had broken out in the eastern provinces of Prussia, where it was making considerable ravages. A military cordon had been established on the frontier where the plague was raging ; and both in East and West Prussia, where cattle were already very dear from the inundations of the Vistula this year, apprehen- sions were entertained that the disease would spread, and raise considerably the price of horned cattle, and thereby cause great damage to agriculture. The Half-yearly General Meeting of this Society was held on Saturday, Dec. 15, at the Society's Rooms in Hanover-square. The chair was taken at 11 o'clock by Colonel Challoner. Among those present were Mr. R. Barker, Mr. Slaney, Mr. W. F. Hobbs, Mr. Paine, Mr. Girdwood, Professor Way, Mr. R. W. Baker, Mr. S. Druce, Mr. S. Druce, jun., Mr. Dyer, &c. The Chairman, on taking his seat, said he had to state that Lord Portman, the President of the Society for the year, very much regretted that he was unable to attend that day. In his lordship's absence, it was his own duty, as the senior trustee present, to take the chair. Mr. R. Barker wished to add to what had fallen from the chairman, that he had been particularly re- quested by Lord Portman to say that he extremely regretted that he was compelled to leave London on that day, the cause of his doing so being domestic aflliction. Mr. Hudson then read the following Report of the Council :— THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REPORT. The Society, during the past half-year, has lost 40 of its members by death, and gained, during the same period, 116 new members by election. Its list now con- tains— 90 Life- Governors, 140 Annual Governors, 815 Life-Members, 3,895 Annual Members, and 18 Honorary Members. The Council have elected Lord Berners to fill the vacancy in the number of Trustees, occasioned by the lamented decease of Mr. Pusey ; and the Earl of Essex to supply the vacancy in the General Members of Coun- cil, created by the transfer of Lord Berners's name to the class of Trustees. The Society at large will have deeply participated with the Council in their sense of the great loss they have sustained in the removal of Mr. Pusey from the sphere of his invaluable co-operation, and from the direction of that Journal which has so long formed the strongest bond of union among its members. The Council have already expressed, through their President, JiOrd Portman, their condolence with the family of Mr. Pusey on their irreparable loss, and their grateful esti- mation of his devoted services to the Society. The Carlisle Meeting has been one of the most suc- cessful of the efforts of the Society to promote and extend to remote districts the practical value arising from the trial of Implements and the exhibition of Live-Stock. The lateness of the season preventing efficient trials of the Reaping Machines at Carlisle, they were postponed until the end of August, when they took place at Abbot's Leigh, in Somersetshire, on a farm of Mr. Miles, M.P., the President of the Society, who placed for that purpose the whole of his crops, horses, and men, at the service of the Society ; and most hospi- tably received at Leigh Court, the official company who attended the trials on the part of the Society. The Council have already agreed to the Live-Stock Prize-Sheet for the Country Meeting to be held next year at Chelmsford ; including, along with the usual prizes, additional classes for Foreign Cattle and Sheep, and a distinct division for Dray Horses; the arrangement of the Prizes for Farm Poultry and for Agricultural Im- plements and Machinery being postponed until Feb- ruary. Mr. Miles, M.P., having in June last, as the Presi- dent of the Society at that time, headed a Deputation of the Society to the French Agricultural Meeting at Paris, agreeably with an express invitation of the Imperial Government, has reported to the Council the successful results of that mission in every point of view. The Earl of Clarendon has continued to transmit to the Society the successive returns furnished by the con- suls residing in various tropical districts where guano, nitrates, and other manuring deposits are thought likely to be discovered. The Council have again expressed to Lord Clarendon their deep sense of his lordship's kind- ness in thus continuing to promote the objects of the society ; and they have requested Prof. Way to prepare for publication in the Journal a digested arrangement of the returns already received by the Society from the Foreign Office in reterence to that subject. A claim having at length been made in form for the Society's .£1000 Prize for a substitute for Guano, the Special Committee on that subject have taken it into their careful consideration ; and, on their report, th^ Council have resolved that the substitute proposed is not entitled to the Prize. Since the last General Meeting, Prof. Simonds has delivered a lecture on the Physiology of Milk- Secretion, and Prof. Way a lecture on the Value of Fish as Manure. Prof. Way is also actively engaged, as the Consulting Chemist of the Society, in prosecuting important re- searches under the direction of the Chemical Committee. The Council have every reason, in conclusion, to congratulate the members on the position of usefulness which the Society continues to maintain, and on the success with which its operations for promoting improve- ment in every branch of husbandry continue to be at- tended. They feel the responsibility which so great a power as the Society now possesses places in their hands, and entertain an anxious desire accordingly to render its operations sound and practical, at the same time that they are progressive. They confidently expect that the union of practice with science, will result in the dis- covery of principles, and their just application, without which Agriculture can never attain to the rank of a ra- tional pursuit, but will remain a mere art, limited by routine, and capable only of slow and doubtful exten- sion. By order of the Council, James Hudson, Secretary. Mr. R. Barker said, having assisted in the prepara- tion of the report which had just been read, he would move that it be received and adopted. Mr. W. F. HoBBS, in seconding the motion, said he hoped that if any member of the society present desired to express any opinion with regard to the contents of the report, he would not hesitate to do so. He assured the meeting that the Council were most anxious to carry out the wishes of the members, so far as they could do so consistently with the principles of the Society. The motion was then agreed to. Mr. R. Barker, as Chairman of the Finance Com- mittee, presented the following balance-sheet : HALF-YEARLY ACCOUNT, ending 30th JUNE, 1855. Receipts, Balance, Jan. 1, 1855 Balauce, Sec. Do Dividends ou Stock Governors' Life-Compositions Governors' Annual Subscriptiona Members' Life-Compositions Members' Annual Subscriptions Receipts on account of Journal Receipts (in London) on account of Country Meetings, during the half-year : On Account of Carlisle d. 7 3 3 £ s. 1184 4 3 16 130 17 50 0 0 441 5 0 310 0 0 1886 4 0 173 19 3 1400 0 0 £5580 6 4 Payments. Permanent Charges Taxes and Rates Establishment Postage and Carriage Advertisements Payments on account of Journal Prizes for Essays and Reports Veterinary Grant : half-a-year Veterinary Investigations Chemical Grant : half-a-year Chemical 1 nvestigations Payments (in Loudon) on account of Country Meetings duriug the half-year : On account of Lincoln On account of Carlisle Sundry Items of Petty Cash Secretary's Expenses on Paris Deputation .... Balance, Bankers, 30th June, 1855 Balance, Sec £ 166 14 862 25 9 623 160 100 91 150 100 SO 540 8 14 2668 15 s. d. 5 0 18 0 5 7 1 1 13 3 16 10 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 11 6 0 12 0 18 4 £5580 6 i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Barker went on to observe, that notwithstand- ing the large amount of the receipts at Carlisle, they did not equal the expenditure, but left a deficiency of £'870. Mr. AsTBURY proposed a vote of thanks to the Au- ditors, observing that they were entitled to such an ac- knowledgment. Mr. R. W. Baker seconded the motion. The Chairman, before putting the motion, observed hat in these days, when in some public establishments regularity in regard to accounts was not quite so much the order of the day as it was there, it was exceedingly gratifying that the Society had for its auditors gentle- men in whom it could safely place confidence, and who were so well entitled to thanks for the manner in which they performed their duties. The motion having been passed, Mr. Dyer returned thanks for himself and his brother auditors. Mr. Druce, jun., moved that the auditors be re- appointed. Mr. GiRDWooD, in seconding the motion, said be agreed with the Chairman that it was exceedingly grati- fying that the accounts were audited by gentlemen of such business-like qualities, especially as some large public concerns had exhibited deficiencies in that respect. The motion having been agreed to, Mr. Dyes briefly returned thanks. Mr. Druce, sen., moved that the thanks of the meeting be presented to Professors Simonds and Way for their excellent lectures, and for the valuable information communicated by them to the members. The motion was seconded by Mr. M. Paine. Mr. GiRDwooD said he thought justice would hardly have been done to the Professors if some allusion were not made to the nature of their services. He really felt that they were all exceedingly indebted to them (Hear, hear). He was sure that all those gentlemen who had come in contact with them, or had consulted them on any point connected with their duties to the Society, had met with the greatest frankness and kindness (Hear, hear). No questioa scarcely could be put to them to which they would notendeavour to give an answer, and any answer which they did give was almost sure to be of practical value (Hear, hear). Their lectures to the members had been attended, he believed, with the greatest benefit to the agricultural world. Professor Way had explained many agricultural laws in a cle«r and satisfactory manner. Professor Simonds had investi- gated various diseases of cattle, which had appeared almost inexplicable till he brought the light of science to bear upon th^m — revealing to agriculturists the causes of disorders which had attacked their flocks and herds, and enabling them to provide remedies. He felt great plea- sure in supporting a resolution acknowledging such in- valuable services. "the Chairman said Mr. Girdwood had, in supporting the resolution, done no more, he believed, than express the universal feeling of the members of the Society with regard to the two professors. Professor Way had not only thrown liijht on the connection of chemistry with farming, but had also assisted the farmer, by throwing every obstacle in the way of imposition upon him as regarded the quality of artificial manures ; and if he had done nothing else since he was chosen to fill the office of chemical professor, that alone would be quite sufficient to entitle him to the cordial thanks of the members. The resolution having been adopted. Professor Way returned thanks for himself and his colleague, who was stated to be unavoidably absent. He said he appreciated very highly the nuinner in which his own services and those of his colleague had been acknowledged. He believed he might say for Professor Simonds, as he certainly could for himself, that it waa, his wish to throw himself entirely into the interests of the Society. For his own part, he had but one interest, which was that of the Society. His whole life was mixed up with the Society ; and he had very little con- nection with any other calling than that of an agricul- tural chemist. He believed the members oi that So- ciety generally would recognize the difficulties which surrounded science in its advance. There could be no doubt that they were making progress in chemical science at that moment ; but instead of being of a dazzling kind, they were solid and substantial. The researches of chemistry were so gradual, that their pro- gress was scarcely perceptible. They sometimes saw improved methods of farming in which chemical laws were brought into play ; these improvements were adopted as a matter of course, and wonder was some- times expressed that they had not been adopted before ; and it appeared to be often forgotten that it was to science that this progress was attribu table. Mr. Slaney said he must congratulate the meeting OQ the progress which the Society was making in every part of the country. He would not dilate upon the advantage which it had conferred ; but he was desirous of inviting the attention of this meeting to two matters which might hereafter become questions for the con- sideration of the Council. They were all now agreed that drainage was the foundation, as it were, of all other agricultural progress, and of late years great facilities for its prosecution had been afforded by means of Government loans. He himself had taken advantage of these loans, and so also had many gentlemen around him : the loans were r -anced at 62 per cent, for the term of 21 years. It had been objected that the Govern- ment ought to advance larger sums for this purpose. He thought the difficulty might be met by private parties advancing money to landowners upon the same terms that were demanded by the Government ; and it would be an advantageous arrangement if, instead of re- paying the capital by instalments, they paid interest at 4 per cent., and laid by the surplus at 2| per cent, as a sinking fund to meet the amount of loan at the end of the term. The Chairman said there was nothing to hinder such an arrangement as that to which Mr. Slaney alluded being entered into now. It would be a mere private transaction between individuals, and he did not see how it could be facilitated by that Society (Hear, hear). Mr. Slaney was contented with having had the opportunity of mentioning the subject. The other point to which he desired to advert was of a local character. He wished to express his regret that the Smithfield Show, so atti-active in itself, should have been held this year in the same week as the Birmingham Show. He thought the Council of the Society might step in and propose some conciliatory course, by which such a coin- cidence might be avoided in future. Mr. W. F. HoiiBS said : With regard to Mr. Slaney's remarks on the subject of drainage, he wished to observe that the Government had already conceded to private companies the power of investing money in drainage, buildings, and the formation of roads and bridges. There were at that moment at least three great com- panies at work, which had effected a vast deal of good throughout tlie country ; and it was not reasonable to suppose that the Government would now deprive them of their powers. If Mr. Slaney, or any other landed jiroprietor, went to one of these companies, he was con« fident that they would invest their money with great advantage, and that the work would be executed to their own satisfaction. With regard to the Smithfield and Hirmingham shows, the question to which Mr. Slaney THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. referred was not one of which this society could take cognisance — (Hear, hear) — but he understood that it had been stated in one of the Birmingham papers of this week that arrangements were to be made to prevent the collision of the two shows another year (Hear, hear). A vote of thanks having been given to Col. Challoner for presiding over the meeting, The Chairman, in acknowledging the compliment, said he was happy to be able to congratulate the meet- ing on the fact that the Royal Agricultural Society had never been in a more flourishing state than it was at that moment. The Council had lately removed from the list of members many of those gentlemen who failed to contribute to the funds ; but where they had been obliged to remove two from the list, they had generally got three paying members in their place (Hear, hear). Although their numbers were not now quite up to what they were at one time on paper, there had been no period in the history of the Society when there were so many regularly-paying members ; so many members who read the Journal, attended the annual meetings, and evinced a disposition to partake of the advantages which the Society had to offer to them (cheers). With foreign countries the Society had con- stant communication ; and he could assure the meeting that it was held in very high esteem and repute abroad (cheers). In proof of this last assertion he might men- tion that the Emperor of the French, being desirous of having a cattle show at Paris, at once addressed the Royal Agricultural Society of England upon the sub- ject ; and, as was stated in the report they had heard read, the deputation who attended the show were received with every possible attention and courtesy in the French metropolis. It spoke well for a society like theirs that it was received in such a manner in France (Hear, hear). The meeting then separated, THE BIRMINGHAM CATTLE SHOW. On previous occasions the MarJt Lane Express has had to impress the advantages accruing to the conductors of the Birmingham Show from the possession of an " open" week for their operations. This year, however, they doaotenjoy that good fortune. Their annual meet- ing, and that of the Smithfield Club, are moveable feasts of the agricultural calendar, the holding of which is governed by the fixtures of the Christmas meat-markets, and the two events are now coincident. Whether this circumstance will really prove injurious to the interests of either or both of these institutions there are just now probably no means of accurately determining. If the affirmative of the question should be clearly established, it will not be very difficult to provide a remedy for the evil. The Midland Society have repeatedly, and we believe with perfect candour, declared that they are actuated by no other feeling towards their metropolitan fellow-workers for the public good than one of friendly rivalry ; and should it prove to be the fact, as we under- stand is not unlikely, that buyers of stock would find their convenience promoted by having an earlier oppor- tunity of making their purchases at Birmingham than at present, we have no doubt that, acting in that judicious spirit which has regulated their proceedings hitherto, they will precede the London gathering, and so prevent any future collision of the kind to which we are now referring. There is ample room for the healthful action of both institutions ; and, as we have endeavoured to show, they together enlarge the field of observation, to the cultivation of which it is desirable that those for whose instruction they are designed, should assiduously apply themselves. Descending from generalities, we find that, although the entries of cattle at Birmingham are below the average , the standard of excellence attained as to quality is allowed on all hands to be of a very elevated order ; a change which we certainly regard in anything but an unfavour- able light, inasmuch as it points in the direction of im- provement, and will tend to stimulate the efforts of future contributors ; while it is of itself an evidence that some who might be expected to enter the lists, but have failed in their preparations, have that just appreciation of the essentials to success which prevents them from proclaim- ing their shortcomings. If, therefore, the axiom that " the knowledge of a disease is half its cure" is true, a conscious- ness of deficiency, should it have deterred some parties from exhibiting who would otherwise have done so, will, we may hope, exercise a salutary influence on those who have been the subjects of it. The falling-off, however, is more apparent than real ; for the absentees from dis- ease— which extensively prevailed twelve months ago — or casualty are fewer than heretofore. The Shortliorns, which have usually the numerical lead in Bingley Hall, did not appear in their accustomed force, the muster-roll containing only 18 against 43 in De- cember last ; but some other classes were in excess of that period. Whether this thinning of their ranks, coupled with that in Baker-street, is to be accepted as an indication of a waning popularity on the part of the breed, or as only the result of temporary causes, we do not pause to inquire. Within the narrowed limits we have specified, some first-rate specimens were to be found. Thai of Colonel Pennant, for instance, which received a first prize, was a very symmetrical ani- mal, in colour a rich red, with all the credentials of distinguished blood, and was no despicable antagonist for the gold medal for the best ox or steer in the yard, which, as will be seen hereafter, went in another direc- tion. The cows formed an extraordinarily good class, the chief prize in which fell, and very deservedly so, to the lot of Lord Hill, for a roan beast, well up in all her points, and having such a back and flank as are seldom met with at her age, which verged upon six years. W^e were not surprised to learn that it was only after long deliberation that the judges awarded the other gold medal to Mr. Price. Her second in the race was an exceedingly good cow, whose principal de- fect was extreme gaufUness in the rump. Among the heifers, that of Lord Howe was conspicuous for its good form and fineness of touch, qualities that gained for it the distinction which it enjoyed against large compe- titors. The strength of this department of the hall undoubt- edly lay with the Herefords, which received the highest distinctions which the judges had to confer. Mr. Heath's OS far outstripped the best of his competitors ; and though his victory in the contest for the gold medal was not so easy, the coveted distinction was unmistake- ably his due. He was a most remarkable animal, of great weight for his age (under four years), perfect in his build, even in growth, and, as far as condition is concerned, leaving nothing whatever to be desired. Lord Hatherton was a second prize-taker in the same class, with a much smaller but very handsome steer. 10 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. "isplaying the clean white and beautiful eye and mellow- looking hide, which are constant and attractive features of his lordship's herd. The few steers in Class 2 were pruiseworthy ; that of Mr. Naylor noteworthy as an example of that early maturity which is now regarded as the grand desideratum to be constantly sought for, and which it is one of the ]irincipal objects of the Bir- mingiiam Society to encourage. lie was especially good in his back and fore-Hank, and carried a large amount of roasting beef. The cows also did their full share in maintaining the credit of the breed, ar.d a better speci- men than the one which carried off the first prize has been seldom, if ever, seen. Wilh the exception of the rump being a trifle too low, and the tail not very well set on, hhe was a model upon which it would scarcely be pos- sible to improve. The statement contained in the cata- logue that she bred so lately as the month of January, and was not supplied with any artificial food until June, cou]>led with her unexceptionable condition, sufficiently attest her feeding pioi)erties. Only three heifers were shown, but to one of the occupants of this class the gold medal for the best beast of her sex in the exhibition was accorded, after a close struggle with Lord Hill's shorthorn. Her admirably proportioned contour, ex- cellence of touch, and the possession of the best cha- racteristics of her race, were the theme of general remark as being worthy of the eminnnt position as a breeder of Hereford cattle which Mr. Price has achieved. The Devons are never very abundant, nor were they so here. They were, however, represented in a credit- able manner. There were only two claimants for the premiums offered for oxen and steers, namely, his Royal Highness Prince Albert and Mr. Heath ; but the pre- tensions they advanced were of a valid kind, and they were very properly allowed, the Prince having the pre- cedence. He was less fortunate in his endeavours to gain the first place in the competition with the steers, and, in the opinion of many, deserved a better fate. Adopting the criterion of the butcher as the one which should be followed in arriving at decisions of this kind, Mr. Halse's ox should have stood second ; but the judges, we believe, gave it the preference on account of its derivation from a pure North Devon stock, though it was the smaller of the two, and had to be debited witli nearly six months in respect of age. The other was of the kind known as the "Somersetshire," larger and coarser in style, and lacking, perhaps, a little that air of high breeding and elegance of form which the true Devon possesses. The Prince's cow, in the next section, fared better than, in the opinion of many per- sons, she deserved, in receiving the second prize, which would have been better bestowed on that of Mr. Heath, which, considering her age and the number of calves she had produced, together with her excellent form and con- dition, was an animal of uncommon merit. Lord Lei- cester could claim only a commendation. The old, and, as we are inclined to think, unjustly despised Long-horns, though apparently dying out, are not ytt extinct in the midland districts, to which they are nupposed to have been indigenous before deep drainage and artificial feeding had been thought of, and where an animal was required which could brave cold and wet, and thrive on short commons. This the picturcscpie and native breed were capable of; but they have hud to give place to more rapid and kindly feeders, and are now accordingly following tlie dodos, and other creatures of the ])iisl. Pome of llic surviving bijccinu-ns wire exhi- bited at niriiiingham last week, and the best did their constant friend, Mr. Burhery, of Wroxall, great credit. ThoBB who advocate crosHing as a means of greatly increasing the supply of animal food, for which there is ■0 constant a demand in this country, wotdd have found in Bingley Hall aomc weighty arguments in their fa- vour—Mr. William Wilson sending an ox, the offspring of a Devon and a Short-horn, which united the quality of the former with the bulk of the latter ; Mr. Hawkes, of Ilunscote, one scarcely less praiseworthy, bi-ed between a Long-horn and a Short-horn; and Mr. Cox, of Spondon, a cow, having much the appearance of a Short-horn in outline and character, and of most imposing dimensions. There were also some other crosses, which have not been unfrequent of late years, between the Brahmin and our own native races, one of two such hybrid heifers sent by Lord Derby being commended. It was considered by the judges to be a very useful but- cher's beast. Two other contributions of a similar sort were forwarded from Wales, a number of these having been received from the Principality in former years. In the same division of the show were found two seemingly as good Short-horns as any in the hall, which, though under the necessity of consorting with their miscellaneous associates, from the inability of their owners, we suppose, to vouch their parentage. The class for Scotch and Welsh oxen or steers was the largest of the whole, and very efficiently was it filled. The first prize was given to a very good Galloway Scot, the property of Mr. Heath, and the second to a West Highlander, belonging to Mr. Campbell, of Monzie Castle. Colonel Pen- nant showed one of the largest and finest Welsh oxen we have yet seen, and which was stated to have been sold for as much as £60 before leaving home. He, however, bad no alternative but to succumb to both of his Northern neighbours. And here we may remark that the propriety of separating the Welsh from the Scotch beasts as the only means by which justice can be done to each has been mooted ; some of those who have discussed the subject going the length even of saying that two breeds so dissimilar in size and weight, and in the ages at which they arrive at maturity, as the Galloway and West Highland, should not be classed together, as they obviously cannot compete on equal terms, and that so one or other will receive the palm, j ust as the personal predilections of the j udges may dictate. The entries of sheep exceeded those of last year, and their aggregate quality was decidedly superior. The Leicesters, as may be gathered from the commendations inserted in the prize-list, participated in this improve- ment, but not to an extent sufficient to retrieve their declining popularity, an universal deficiency in the necks betokening the loss of constitutional vigour. From their symmetry and great weight, those of Mr. George Turner were the most deserving of attention. The display of Cotswolds was small. Some very good Southdowns were exhibited by Lord Walsingham, who received all the prizes. They were uniform in character, and carried a large amount of excellent mutton. The Shropshires, asmight be expected in this neighbourhood, were present in great force ; those of the Earl of Ayles- ford, in Class 28, having a due proportion of muscle to recommend them. There was an augmentation, likewise, of the pigs ; the loading feature of which was the class for animals of a small breed, of which some highly useful examples were shown. The first prizes in both the divisions appro- priated to breeding pigs were given to the Berkshire sort. The Council of the Birmingham Society have made an excellent addition to their exhibition in the shape of a .systematically arranged department for roots adapted to feeding purposes ; and the result of this year's display — the first of its kind— with the information given in the catalogue as to the manner in which the various articles brought together were grown, cannot fail to prove ex- ceedingly beneficial. We have left ourselves but little space to ppeak of what is usually a very attractive portion of these Bir* THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, U minghanj exhibitions, more especially with the ladies — the poultry — of which this year no fewer than eighteen hundred and eight pens were entered. One of its salient points was an unequalled array of game birds. The Polish, also, were plentiful and excellent, the cultivators of them having been put upon their mettle by the offer on the part of Mr. Ottley, the medallist to the exhibition, of a gold medal of the value of ten guineas, in addition to the ordinary premiums given by the Council of the institution, for the best pen of that description of fowls in the hall. The Spanish were of first-rate merit, as were the Dorkings ; and the Hamburghs are improving. The Cochins, in the language of the market reports, are " looking up;" but the Malays are still neglected; and the Bramah-pootras appeared to be declining in public estimation. The Sebright bantams were admirable ; the geese and turkeys very good ; there being among the former some interesting examples of the " Swan" and " Canadian" geese, and among the latter of the pure wild American kind. The ducks, both Aylesbury and Rouen, were capital ; and the pigeons most meri- torious. We should add, that the principal trophies for competition were nine silver cups supplied by Messrs. Mapplebcck and Lowe. The value of each piece of plate is ten guineas. They are very beautiful in design and workmanship ; and as a proof that the estimate of their intrinsic value is not exaggerated, we may state that the weight of each is twenty ounces. JUDGES. Op Cattle. — Mr. William Bartholomew, Goltho, near Wragby, Lincolnshire ; Mr. Henry Chamberlain, Desforrt, near Leicester ; and Mr. Benjamin Swaffield, Pilsbury, near Ashbourne. Of Sheep and Pigs. — Mr. Valentine Barford, Foscote, near Towcester ; Mr. John Moon, Hurstbourne Priors, near Whitchurch, Hants ; and Mr. Edward Gough, Gravel Hill, near Shrewsbury. Of Roots. — Mr. J. Mathews, Edgbaston House, Birming- ham. Eeferees for the Ages of Pigs. — Professor Simonds, Royal Veterinary College, London ; and Mr. William Hol- lingsworth, Bilston. Veterinary Inspector and General Rereree. — Mr. R. L. Hunt, New-street, Birmingham. PRIZE LIST. HEREFORDS. Class 1. — Oxen or Steers. — 1st prize £10, extra prize £20, and gold medal, as best Ox or Steer of any breed or age in the exhibition, and silver medal to breeder, Mr. William Heath, Ludham Hall, Norwich ; breeder, Mr. Thomas Roberts, Ivington Bury, Leominster, Herefordshire. 2nd, £5, Lord Hatherton, Teddesley, Staffordshire. Class 2. — Steers. — 1st prize £10, and silver medal to breeder, Mr. John Naylor, Leighton Hall, Welshpool, Mont- gomeryshire ; breeder, Mr. Walter Maybery, Brecon. 2i d, £5, Mr. Edward Longmore, Adforton, near Ludlow. Com- mended, Mr. John Carwardine, Stockton Bury, Leominster, Herefordshire. ClassS. — Cows, — lstprize£10,and silvermedal as breeder, Mr. Samuel Walker Urwick,LeinthallStarks, Ludlow; has had 4 calves. 2nd £5, Mr. Joseph Smith, Shelsley Walsh, Worces- tershire ; had 1 calf. Highly commended, Mr. Richard Thomas, Ryton, near Dorringtou ; had 3 calves. Commended, Mr. Edward Farmer, Stanton Lacy, Ludlow ; had 2 calves. Class 4.— Heifers. — Ist prize, £10, extra prize, £20, and gold medal, as best Cow or Heifer of any breed or af^e in the exhibition, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. Edward Price, Court House, Pembridge, Herefordshire. 2nd, £5, Mr. George Pitt, Chadnor Court, Dilwyp, near Leominster. SHORTHORNS. Class 5. — Oxen or Steers. — 1st prize, £10, and silver medgl as breeder, Colonel the Hon. E. G. D. Pennant, Penrhya Castle, Carnarvonshire. 2nd, £5, His Royal Highness Prince Albert, Windsor Castle. Class 6. — Steers. — 1st prize, £10, and silver medal to breeder, Mr. John Thomas Robinson, Leckby Palace, Thirsk ; breeder, Mr. Qiiinton Clark, Bilton, Wetherby. 2ud, £5, Lord Jjcigh, Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire. Class 7. — Cows. — 1st prize, £10, and silver medal to breeder. Viscount Hill, Hawkstoue, Shropshire; breeder, the late Hon. Captain Pelhara, Appiddurcombe, Isle of Wi^ht — had one calf. 2nd, £5, Mr. Edmund Herbert, Powick, Worces- tershire— had 3 calves. Commended, Mr. Henry Ambler, Watkinson Hall, Halifax, Yorkshire— had one calf. Class 8. — Heifers. — 1st prize, £10, and silver meJal to breeder. Earl Howe, Gopsall Hall, Atherstone ; breeder, Mr. Richard Roberts Jee, Hartsbill, Atherstone. 2nd, £5, Viscount Hill. Highly commended, Mr. Benjamin Wilson, Brawith, Thirsk. DEVONS. Class 9. — Oxen or Steers. — First prize, £10, and silver medal to breeder, his Royal Highness Prince Albert ; breeder, Mr. Richard Corner, Torweston, WUhton, Taunton, Somerset- shire. 2nd, £5, Mr. William Heath. Class 10.— Steers. — First prize, £10, and silvermedal as breeder, Mr. John C. Halse, Molland, South Molton, Devon, 2nd, £5, his Royal Highness Prince Albert. Class 11. — Cows. — First prize, £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. Abraham Umbers, Weston Hall, Warwick — has had one calf. 2nd, £5, his Royal Highness Prince Albert — has had 4 calves. Highly commended, the Earl of Leicester, Holkham Hall, Norfolk— has had 4 calves. Commended, Mr. William Heath — has had 5 calves. Class 12. — Heifeks. — First prize, £10, and silver medal to breeder, his Royal Highness Prince Albert; breeder, Mr. Thomas Miller, Castle Fiirm, Sherborne. LONG-HORNS. Class 13. — Cows or Heifers. — First prize, £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. Samuel Burbery, Wroxhall, War- wickshire— has had 3 calves. 2nd, £5, Mr. Phineas Fowke llussey, Wyrley Grove, Walsall, Staffordshire — has had 3 calves. OTHER PURE BREEDS AND CROSS-BRED ANIMALS. Class 14. — Fat Oxen or Steers.— 1st prize £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. William Wilson, Whitacre House, Colesliill, Warwickshire (cross between Devou and Short-horn). 2nd, £5, Mr. Richard Hawkes, ifunscote, Cbarlecote, Warwickshire (cross). Class 15. — Fat Cows. — 1st prize £10, and silver medal to breeder, Mr. William Thomas Cox, Spondon, Derbyshire; breeder, Mr. John Johnson Meakiu, Spondon, Derbyshire (had two calves, cross). 2nd, £5, Mr. Richard Timms, Branston, Northampton (had one calf, Lincoln). Class 16. — Fat Heifers. — 1st prize £10, and silver medal as breeders, the Moira Colliery Company, Moira, Ashby-de-la-Zouch (cross). 2nd, £5, His Grace the Duke of Beaufort, Badminton, Gloucestershire (cross between West Highland Scotch and Gloucester). Commended, Earl of Derby, Knpwslty (Brahmin and Short-horn). SCOTCH OR WELSH BREEDS. Class 17.— Oxen or Steers. — 1st prize £10, Mr. William Heath (Galloway). 2nd, £5, Mr. Alexander Camf- bell, Monzie Castle, Perthshire, N.B. (West Highland). Highly commended, Mr. Ralph Sueyd, Keele Hall, Stafford- shire (West Highland). The whole class commended. Class 18. — Heifers. — No prize awarded. EXTRA CLASSES. For animals not qualified to compete in any of the preceding. Class 19. — Oxen or Steers. — Prize, silver medal, Mr. Johu Chater, Great Bowden, near Market Harborough (Shorthorn). Class 20. — Cows or Heifers. — Priz?, silver medal, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. William Fletcher, Radmauthwaite, near Mansfield. Nottinghamshire (Short-horn). Highly com- mended, Mr. Edward Bird Guest, Ivy House, Broadwas, Worcestershire (Short-horn). Commended, Mr. WiUiam Heath (Short-horn). 12 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SHEEP. Class 21. — Leicesters. — Pen of 3 Pat Wethers, not exceediug 21 months old. 1st prize £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. G. S. Foljambe, Osberton-hall, Worksop. 2nd, £5, Mr. Robert Lee Bradshaw, Burley-on-the-Hill, Oakham, Rutlandshire. Highly commended, Mr. Lawrence Willmore, The Newarke, Leicester. Commended, Mr. Charles Marriott Caldecott, Holbrook-grange, Rngby; and Mr. Robert Lee Bradshaw, Burley-on-the Hill, Oakham. Class 22. — Leicesteks. — Pen of 3 Fat Wethers, exceed- ing 22 but not exceeding 34 months old. 1st piize £10, silver medal for the best pen of long-woolled sheep, and ailver medal as breeder, Mr. George Turner, Barton, Exeter. 2nd, £5, the Marquis of Exeter, Burghley-house, Stamford. Commended, the Marquis of Exeter. Class 23. — Long-woolled Sheep, not being Lei- cesteks.— Pen of 3 Fat Wethers, not exceeding 22 mouths old. 1st prize £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. William Slatter, Stratton, Cirencester (Cotswold). 2nd, £5, Mrs. Sarah West, Green-hill-farm, Bletchington, Oxfordshire. Class 24. — Long-woolleu Sheep, not being Lei- cesters.—Pen of 3 Fat Wethers, exceeding 22 but not ex- ceeding 34 months old. lat prize £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. Robert Breman, Moreton-in-the-Marsh (Cots- wold). Class 25.— South and other Down Sheep.— Pen of 3 Fat Wethers, not exceeding 22 months old. 1st prize £10, silver medal for the best pen of short wooUed sheep, and silver medal as breeder. Lord Walsingham, Merton-hall, Thetford, Norfolk (Southdown). 2nd, £5, Lord Walsingham (South- down). Commended, Mr. John Tucker, Abbey Print-works, Stratford, Essex (Sussex Southdown). Class 26.— South and other Down Sheep.— Pen of three fat Wethers, exceeding twenty-two but not exceeding thirty-four months old.— First prize, £10, and silver medal as breeder, and second. £5, Lord Walsingham, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk. (South Down.) Commended : Sir Robert George Throckmorton, Bart., Buckland, Berkshire. Class 27.— Shropshire and other black or grey faced Short-woolled Sheep. — Pen of three fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old.— First prize, £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. J. B. Green, Marlow, Hereford- shire. Second, £5, Mr. Henry Smith, jun., Sutton Maddock, Shiffnal. (Shropshire.) Commended: Mr. Henry Smith, jun., Sutton Maddock, Shiffnal (Shropshire), and Mr. W. Foster, Kinver Hill Farm, Stourbridge, Worcestershire. (Shropshire.) Class 28. — Shropshire and other black or grey FACED Short-woolled Sheep. — Pen of three fat Wethers, exceeding twenty-two but not exceeding thirty-four months old. — First prize, £10, and silver medal as breeder, the Earl of Aylesford, Packingham, Warwickshire. (Shropshire.) Se- cond, £5, Mr. William Masfen, Norton Caines, Walsal. (Improved grey-faced.) Highly commended : Mr. William Foster, Kinver Hill Farm (Shropshire.) Commended : The Earl of Aylesford (Shropshire.) Class 29. — Crossbred Sheep. — Pen of three fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old. — First prize, £10 and silver medal, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. Adam Corrie Keep, Wollaston, Northamptonshire. (South Down and Cotswold ) Second, £5, Mr. Adam Corrie Keep. (South Down and Cotswold.) Highly commended : The Earl of Leicester (Down and Leicester.) Commended : Mr. Wil- liam Gillett, Southleigh, Oxfordshire. (For two entries.) PIGS. Class 3L — Fat Pigs. — Pen of three Far Pigs, of one litter, not exceeding ten mouths old. — 1st prize £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. Clement Cottrell Dormer, Rons- ham, Oxfordshire ; 2nd £5, Mr. James Wyley, jun., Longdon Rugcley. Disqualified, Mr. Joshua Hopkins, 39, Dale End, Birmingham (for two entries). Class 32.— Fat Pips. — Pen of three Fat Pigs of one litter, not exceeding (iftccn months old. — 1st prize £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. George Turner, Barton; 2nd £5, the Dnke of Sutherland, Trenthara, Staffordshire. Commended, Mr. Thomas Alkin, Grendon, near Atherstone. Disqualified, the Duke of Sutherland ; Mr. Edward Lowe, Cumberford Mill, Tamworth ; Mr. Richard Benyon, Englefield House, near Reading, Berkshire ; Mr, Thomas Studliolme Wilkins, Peddemoor Hall, Sutton Coldfield ; and Mr. Edward Mills, Shenstone, near Lichfield. Class 33. — Fat Pigs. — Fat Pig, exceeding fifteen months old. — Ist prize £6, and silver medal to breeder, Richard Beuyon ; 2nd £3, Mr. Charles Holland, The Lymes Farm, Seabridge, Newcastle, Staffordshire. Commended, Mr. James Baldwin, King's Norton, Worcestershire ; and Mr. James Clews, Aston Road, Birmingham. Disqualified, Mr. Thomas Studholme Wilkins, Peddemoor Hall, Sutton Coldfield. BREEDING PIGS. Class 34.— Pigs of a Large Breed. — Pen of five Pigs of one litter, exceedmg three and not exceeding six months old. — 1st prize £10, and silver medal as breeder, Mr. Joseph Smith, Henley-in-Arden (Berkshire). 2nd, £5, Mr. Edward Harrison, Old Crown, Great Charles-street, Birmingham. Commended, Mr. WiUiam Hewer, Sevenharapton, Highworth, Wiltshire; and Mr. Edward Harrison, Old Crown, Great Charles-street, Birmingham. Class 35. — Pigs of a Small Breed. — Pen of five Pigs of one litter, exceeding three and not exceeding six mouths old. — 1st prize £10, and silver medal as breeder, the Rev. Morton Shaw, Rougham Rectory, near Bury St. Edmund's. 2nd, £5, Mr. Robert Harrison Watson, Bolton-park, Wigton, Cumberland. Highly commended. His Royal Highness Prince Albert ; Mr. Samuel Wiley, Brandsby, near York, for two entries ; Mr. William Bradley Wainman, Carhead, Cross- hills, Leeds ; Mr. George Mangles, Givendale ; and Mr. William Tyler, Friday-bridge, Birmingham. The whole class commended. The following Certificate has been given, in reference to the pens of Pigs disqualified : " Birmingham, Dec. 10, 1855. " We hereby certify that we have examined all the pigs ex- hibited at the Birmingham Cattle Show, and find that the general state of the dentition of the animals in the pens 154, 158,160,165, 166,167,168, and 176, indicates that these pigs exceed the age as Bet forth in the certificates of entry, and consequeutly they are disqualified from competing in their re- spective classes. (Signed) " James B. Simonds, " Robert L. Hunt, " William Hollingswoeth." ROOTS. Best Collection of four different varieties of Roots most suitable for feeding purposes, six Roots of each kind to be shown, — A silver cup, value £5 5s., to Mr. A. H. Johnson, Manor House, Gunnersbury, Acton, Middlesex (long red, red globe, and yellow mangold wurzel, and swedes). There were many other prizes for Roots, as well as a more than usually good list for the different classes of Poultry. THE ANNUAL DINNER took place on Tuesday evening, at Dee's Royal Hotel. There were about eighty noblemen and gentlemen present, including the Earl of Dartmouth (in the chair), supported by Messrs. Newdegate, M.P., Spooner, M.P., Muntz, M.P., Scholefleld, M.P., Holland, M.P., the Mayor of Birmingham, B. D. Web- ster, W. Mathews, Bright, George Turner (Barton), Howard Luckock, W. James, J. Stubbs, V. Barford, J. B. Hebbert, W. Mathews, jun., Bailey (London), Andrews, Adkins, W. Fowler, Goiigh, Bartleet, Rob, Halse, Dain, J. Mathews, Alderman Lucy, Alderman Baldwin, &c. Following the usual loyal toasts, which were well given from the chair, Mr. Muntz proposed "The Agricultural lutereat." He believed there never was a dissimilarity of interest that was not the result of a bad system of Government. Over and over again he had seen the commercial class prosperous while the agricultural was in a state of great depression, and vice versa ; and he was satisfied that all this was an unnatural state of things — a state of things that never would have existed, as it never ought to exist, if to an honest government had been allied a practical knowledge of the subject. Four years ago he had the honour to propose the toast, and then he kicked up a great dust. At that time the agricultural interest was in a very depressed state, and he frankly told thera that they would THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 ere long be much worse, though even then they were not realizing their rents and expenses. He added that the com- mercial men were exceedingly well satisfied with such a state of things, and had no objection to their remaining in this con- dition, provided they could always have a farmer for supper. Among others, he fell under the lash and abuse of his very particular friend the Times ; and this led to a correspondence, which in the end that paper was very glad to run out of some- what unceremoniously. But how stood the question ? It was a fact that at the time to which he referred the commercial in- terest was benefitting in a great ratio at the expense of the farmers ; and had it not been lor circumstances quite out of the control of the English Government, one of the luckiest accidents that ever happened, the agricultural interest would have been eaten up. He believed that the same state of things which existed in 1851 would have existed in 1855, but for the extraordinary discoveries of Australian gold. He recollected that while he was speaking at the '51 dinner, some gentleman called out, " California," and he (Mr. Muntz) at once said that if California could produce sufficient gold to supply our deficien- cies, the country would recover its balance. But no one then thought of Australia, though its gold did come twelve months afterwards, doing greater wonders than California was ever able to do. At the time of which he spoke, all kinds of produce were so low that they were hardly profitable ; whereas now there is hardly a single article that is not increased in value, and the absurd idea that existed up to that time, as to low prices being beneficial, is destroyed. People said, " For God's sake, give us low prices ; England can't exist without low prices!" But what has England done ? Up to that time England starved under low prices ; but since that time she has been revelling in high prices. Has England ever been so prosperous as during the last three years ? Then this ought to dissolve the absurd idea that low prices are necessarily ad- vantageous, and high prices the reverse. Low prices are not cheap prices ; they may be very dear prices ; and it is satis- factory to know that that absurd delusion has left us. Well, here were three consecutive years which had been beyond all doubt prosperous, with prices higher thau had ever been known in England since it was a country. This showed that there must be something unsound — something that wanted lookiag into. He believed there was something shaky in the present state of things. He did not like the re-exportation of gold which was going on. This was the question that wanted settling ; and unless it was settled by Whig, Tory, or some one who knew what he was about, they would ere long be in the same state as in 1851, unless it turned out that the supply of Australian gold was to continue forever. Write as long as people might, they would find that the necessary prices which were to remunerate the different interests of this country would react upon oue another ; and unless they could support the system by something more definite than they had now, the time would again come when every manufacturer would have a farmer to supper (laughter). Mr. Holland, M.P., said he congratulated them on that day's proceedings, upon the excellent cattle exhibited ; and this was especially remarkable when it was considered that Smithfield Show was doing its utmost to compete with them, and upon the same day. Not only had there been exhibited cattle and sheep of first-rate quality ; but there had been a new feature introduced in the Exhibition, which was of great importance, viz., the roots upon which the cattle had been fed. The importance of roots should be well understood when they were considered in connection with artificial manure, upou which so much labour and money was ex- pended, and which was to the British agriculturist what Californiau and Australian gold was to the money market. The exhibition of that day showed that the British agriculturist was keeping pace with the rest of the world and with the im- provements in manufacture ; and he did hope that the two interests would, as Mr. Muntz had said, be always considered ai twin sisters ^cheers). Mr. Newdegatk proposed "The Manufacturing In- terest." He felt that the agriculturists owed much to the great manufacturing metropolis of the midland coimties for the noble reception it had given them on that occasion ; and^ as representing both manufacturers and agriculturists, he rejoiced in that practical illustration of the union between the two interests. How could anyone doubt that their interests were identical? What supports our trade now, but the soundness of the home market ? It showed that the strength of the country depended on this ; that, if external circum- stances are adverse, it has within itself a power of consumption which, if not adequate to keep in motion all the wheels of our industry, yet supported them when markets abroad might be failing, and was in itself a security for the prosperity of our manufactures. He congratulated them upon the metropolitan character which this annual meeting was assuming. Birming- ham was every day giving some fresh proof of its title to be considered the capital of the midlands. As one who had been supported by manufacturers at a time when the opinions he held regarding agriculture and its prospects were unpopular, and most unreasonably so, he claimed from the agriculturists present an expression of their best wishes for the success of the manufacturing interests (cheers). Mr. W. Lucy returned thanks. They knew that their best customers at home were the agriculturists. The days were gone by when it was said the manufacturers were living upon them, as when wheat was 30s. per quarter, or that the contrary would be said now that the price of ^^heat had risen to BOs. It was quite clear the one could not flourish without the other. Mr. Mathews gave " The Health of the President," who, in responding, proposed that of " The Mayor," which brought a reply from Mr. Hodgson. Mr. John St ubbs proposed the "Agricultural Implement Makers." Answered by Mr. Lowe, who had hoped that they would have had a Kansome or a Howard, or some other important manufacturer, to have acknowledged the compliment. It would be unfair to take all the credit of the improvements in their implements, for they were very largely indebted to the practical farmer for very many suggestions which had led to the improvements : and with respect to the plough, nearly all the improvements had been effected on account of these suggestions. Mr. Baron D.WEBSTERproposed the health of those gentle- men who had been successful in obtaining prizes at that day's exhibition. In looking at it, they must be struck with the progress which Birmingham had achieved since there was eight years ago an exhibition of pigs and poultry in a yard in Worcester-street. They really were acquiring a universal reputation in the character of exhibitions. Mr. Heath responded. At this period Lord Dartmouth left the meeting, having to depart by an early train, and the Mayor subsequently occupied the chair. Mr. W. James proposed " Mr. Baldwin, and the Unsuc- cessful Exhibitors." Mr. Baldwin replied. Mr. C, M. Caldecote, in proposing "The Judges and Stewards of the Show," referred to the complaint that the show this year clashed with the one at Smithfield. Many exhibitors said it would be of advantage if it were so arranged that the Smithfield cattle might also be exhibited at Birming- ham. But their object was to obtain the best show of local produce. He was instructed to say, however, that the com- mittee and subscribers generally were anxious to take the subject into consideration at the meeting on Thursday, and to make any arrangement that might meet with the more general approbation of the exhibitors of stock. Their idea was to have the show a week previous to that at Smithfield, so that the animals coming from the north might show here on their way to Smithfield. If this view met the general wish of the exhi- bitors, he was sure the committee would wish to adopt it. Mr. Valentine Barford responded. He was sorry to see that this year a practice was gaining ground not only in this but in other shows which he attended, of clipping the animals in the fall, and he knew he was speaking the senti- ments of his colleagues. Why endeavour to deceive the rising generation by practising deception? He hoped and trusted that when he saw parties disposed to practise deception upon public institutions like that, he should never want the moral courage to expose it. He referred to the late speech of Prince Albert, and commented on the importance of science being brought to bear upon the feeding of cattle. Mr. GouGH and Mr. Swaffield also returned thanks, concurring in the observations of Mr. Barford as to the decep- tion practised in the improper shearing of sheep. The practice was also condemned by Mr. Holland, as having a tendency to produce immorality in the servants of those who acted. He recommended a practice adopted in Stow-on-the-Wold, which 14 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. required every exhibitor to produce a certificate as to the bona fide quality of the sheep from some oue of his neighbours. Mr. Caldecote proposed " The Royal Agricultural Society, the Smithfield Club, and the other Agricultural Societies in the United Kingdom ;" and after some other toasts of a com- plimentary kind the meeting separated. THE ANNUAL MEETING Of the subscribers was held at Dee's Hotel ou Thursday, at one o'clock. There was but a limited attendance. Amongst those present were the Earl of Dartmouth, Mr. C. M. Caldecott, Mr. B. D. Webster, Mr. Jeremiah Mathews, Mr T. B. Wright, Mr. A. Umbers, Mr. Howard Luckcock, Mr. William James, Mr. Lowe, Mr. AUcock, Mr. William Mathews, juu., &c. The noble Earl having taken the chair, as the last official act of his presidency, it was unanimously resolved, ou the motion of Mr. Caldecott, seconded by Mr, James, that the Earl of Lichfield should be requested to accept the office of president for the year ensuing ; and the thanks of the meeting were then most cordially passed to Lord Dartmouth for his services during the past year, ou the motion of Mr. Luckcock, seconded by Mr. Lowe. — His Lordship, in aekuowledging the complioient, said that he could have wished it had been in his power to support the society by showing better stock than he had done, but as at the dinner Mr. Mathews had been pleased to speak of him as a practical farmer, he hoped that in this character he would be able to support the show prospectively (Hear). Family circumstances had kept him from home so iong that for three mouths he had not been within 200 miles of Birmingham ; but he was glad to fiud that the business of the society had not suffered from his absence. He congra- tulated them upon having obtained for his successor in office a nobleman who was an excellent practical farmer, having farmed for a dozen years with considerable success (Hear). He felt that in this case they had the right man iu the right place. On the motion of Mr. J. Mathews, seconded by Mr. James, a resolution was passed requesting Mr. Shackell to continue to give his valuable services to the society as its treasurer. Mr. Caldecott drew the attention of the meeting to what lie considered to be a very important matter. At the dinner, some of the judges expressed an opinion that the way iu which sheep sent to the exhibition were trimmed and clipped, ought to be prohibited ; and that day he had mentioned the matter to Lord Aylesford, who thought that with the exception of the head, legs, and fetlocks, no trimming should take place. Would it be well to refer the question to the Council for their con- sideration ? Mr. J. Mathews thought it would be difficult to lay down a rule as to how far the clipping might go, or, in other words, where it was to stop. Mr. Webster said that no judge could be deceived by any such practice, as be examined with his hand as well as his eye. It was the public who were liable to be misled (Hear). Pro- bably the notice thus pubhcly taken of the practice would be sufficient to prevent its recurrence. (Hear). Mr. Caldkcott mentioned a rather curious circumstance. Afrieud of his attended a ramshowat some known breeding farm iu Oxfordshire — he believed it was that of Mr. Large — and hap- pening to go into one of the barns, he saw a large wooden sheep standiug in a corner. "What is this for?" he asked. " Oh," was the reply of one of the servants, " that is the pattern we clip our tups by." (Laughter). Mr. Wright said that both at this show and former shows the Judges had spoken to him regarding it, stating that they were not deceived in the slightest degree, as they could iu an iustant see where improper trimming had taken place. The only effect it had ou them was that it rather prejudiced them against sheep which bad been so treated. (Hear). If they did not pass a resolution recommending the adoption of the rule acted on at most store shows, namely, that shearing should not take i)lace after a cer- tain period, they might pass one condemning the practice, and leave the Council to take any further step which they might think proper. Mr. Umbers said it was certainly very desirable to put a atop to a practice so unfair as that alluded to. It was not shearing that was complained of, but a process of trimming the body that was calculated to deceive the public to a great extent. The following resolution was ultimately passed: — " That this meeting unanimously concurs with the Judges in reprobating the practice of trimming the fleeces of sheep for the purpose of exhibition, as being calculated to deceive the public, though it cannot by any possibility mislead the Judges; and requests the Council to direct their attention to this sub- ject with the view of effectually repressing the practice." Mr. Wright theu said that his attention, as well as that of the promoters of the show generally, had been called to the subject of the clashing of interests which was thought to result from the Birmingham Exhibition being held in the same week as that of the Smithfield Club. The matter had been discussed to a considerable extent, and the general feeling of the agricul- tural interest seemed to be that it would be better if they were held at different periods (Hear). It was urged by the London folks that they were prevented coming to Birmingham, in consequence of there being a great deal to do in Loudon that week. Besides the Bakei-street Show, there were committee meetings of the Agricultural Society of England, the annual meeting of the Farmers' Club, several lectures interesting to agriculturists, and on Saturday the annual meeting of the Royal Society. This formed one reason why a change was recommended. Another was, that if the Birmingham Show were held earlier, say a week before that of the Smithfield Club, purchasers from a distance would be very likely to visit it, in order to make their selection for the Christmas market, which now they were iu a great measure prevented doing, aa hitherto the Birmingham Show had only closed three or four days before the stock was actually required. When the show first started, inquiries were made as to the most convenient time for holding it, and theu both breeder and butcher seemed to think that it would be best to hold it so that it might close on the Friday night before the Christmas market iu Birming- ham ; but now it was thought that this arrangement, however convenient to local purchasers, was not so suitable for those at a distance. The argument as to the pressure of br.siuess in liOndon had been put very strongly by the Mark Lane Express; and all friends of the Birmingham show must feel that many gentlemen were thereby detained iu London, whom they should have been glad to have had amongst them this week. Believing that the proposed change would be generally acceptable, he benged to move, " That in the opinion of this meeting it is desirable the show of the Smithfield Club and that held in Birmingham should on no occasion take place at the same time, and that the Council be requested to take into consideration the propriety or otherwise of fixing the Bir- mingham Show one week earlier than that in Loudon, and if such change appears to them to be calculated to promote the interests of exhibitors of stock, and the convenience of pur- chasers and visitors generally, to make the necessary arrange- ments accordingly." Mr. Lowe seconded the motion. Mr. Umbers thought the alteration would prove a benefit not only to the exhibitors who came to Birmingham, but to exhibitors generally. The resolution was then carried. Mr. J. Mathews said that as the experiment of holding a dinner seemed to have failed so far as the bringing together of tenant farmers for practical purposes was coucerued — and this was the principal view with which it was started — he begged to move, " That in the opinion of this meeting it is desirable to discontinue the annual dinner, and to substitute in place thereof a lecture or lectures on some subject connected with agriculture, with a discussion or discussions thereupon, and that the Council for the ensuing year be requested to make the necessary arrangements for such lectures, and that the President be invited to preside." — Mr. Caldecott seconded the resolution, which was carried without remark. A vote of thanks to the noble chairman for his kindness iu presiding brought the proceedings to a close. The members of the Warwickshire Agricultural Society have determined to set apart 100 guiueas out of their funds for the purpose of giving a testimonial to Mr. J. Moore for his serfices to the cause of agriculture iu that couuty THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 15 LAND DRAINAGE.— THE KEYTHORPE SYSTEI^I. It appears that there is to be a grand field-day for the land drainers, at the Rooms of the Society of Arts, during this week of the Christmas Show of the Smithfield Club. The question of Land Drainage, we are told, is to be discussed in all its complicated forms. We have no doubt that, as Porson said, there' will be a great deal brought for- ward that is new, and a great deal that is true : we vv'ill not pursue the quotation further. There will be many useful, practical, and scientific questions discussed, or, to use the fashionable phrase, ventilated. There will be much that is valuable brought forward, together with no Jittle not SO; for there are few subjects on which there is more twaddle talked and written than on land drainage. There is nothing like free discussion, however, for eliciting the truth and reducing lofty pretensions to their proper level. Among other results which we are promised from this discussion, is that of testing the merits of the Keytliorpe system of drainage, which was brought before the public about two years ago, and after a tolerably long slumber, is now again revived. We hope the speakers will confine themselves as much as possible to the real questions at issue. As respects the Keythorpe drainage these appear to be the following : — 1st. — Is the estate of Lord Berners effectually drained, or is it not ? 2ndly. — Are the soil, subsoil, and substrata such as they have been described ? 3rdly. — What are the conditions on which the success of the Keythorpe system depends? Are they of general apphcation? or are they local and peculiar? 4thly. — Does the system really possess those ad- vantages in point of economy which have been asked of it ? Does it save from one-third to one- half of the cost of draining by what are deemed the best methods of the most experienced practical and scientific drainers ? These are questions of great importance. We have seen it stated that by this method the expense for labour in draining does not amount to much above 3'2s. 6d. the acre. This is so extraordinary a statement, that it is used as an argument against the system. Is there, we would ask, no mistake, no lurking fallacy here ? By reference to the map put in by Lord Berners as evidence before the Committee of the House of Lords on the Improve- ment of Land, it appears that there are two measures called an acre in Leicestershire — namely, the statute acre, and a local linear measure in draining also called an acre, and containing 24 linear yards. Is there no confusion between the two measures in this extraordinary statement re- specting the small cost per acre for labour. 5thly. — Another, and a very important question,' is this : Granting, for the sake of ai-gument only, all the advantages which are ascribed to the system in point of economy, and admitting the land to be eflfectually drained, is there any real economy in it after all ? Lord Berners, it seems, has been many years in draining his estate, and bringing this system to its present state. He has drained it with his own capital, we are told, by appropriating a certain sum annually to that purpose. Is there any real economy in this ? Would it not have been event- ually cheaper to have borrowed a large sum, and have drained it out of hand, even at a greater ex- pense ? Among the advantages of draining land with borrowed capital, we have heard the following enumerated. The sooner land is drained, it is said, the sooner will the rent-charge in liquidation of ])rincipal and interest commence, and the sooner will it terminate. The rent-charge, while it conti- nues, is not paid by the landlord, but by the tenant. The improvement of the land is such as to render it worth more than the present rent, with the addi- tion of the rent-charge ; and the sooner the work is done, the sooner will the landlord be able to avail himself of the improvement. This weighty objection against cheap, even if effectual, drainage is well worthy of the serious consideration of land- lords and tenants, particularly the latter. We have no doubt that in this discussion at the Society of Arts we shall have many new expo- sitions of the laws of gravitation and hydraulics. As an example take the following, which we ex- tract from the correspondence of one of our cotem- poraries, on the drainage question (the writer is arguing for making the direction of the drains coincide with the fall of the ground) : — " The water in the soil," he says, " till set in motion by drain- ing, is in a state of rest, and then does not flow on the face of a plane, or like rain over a surface, but rises into the drain, and takes a course down the line of greatest descent. If the drains take that course, the water follows the drains ; but if the drains cross the line of descent, the water soaks from the lower side of the drains into the soil be- low; for the drains are not like gutters, or such channels that catch the water on the ujjjier side, and hold it, and do not admit of a passage across, but are always of materials that afford the like facility of escape as of entry." It is difficult to illustrate what we suppose to be the meaning of the above passage without a diagram, but as we understand the course of the water thus described, it is the following. It comes originally from the atmosphere — we suppose that to be admitted. It then sinks perpendicu- larly into the soil till it gets below the drain, when it rises into it, then flows along the line of fall if the drains coincide with that line; if they do not, it works its way out of the drain on the opposite side. Why then, we would ask, did it, on this supposition, ever enter the drain at all ? Why did it not pass over it, or under it, and get into the line of greatest descent, in order to come to a state of 16 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. rest again ? To our limited cornprehension this appears to be mere perversity on the part of the water. The writer, moreover, does not say what declivity is necessary to prevent water from being in a state of rest in the soil, nor how he accounts on that supposition for springs, nor what amount of fall in a drain is necessary in order to induce the water to flow along a conduit instead of working its way across it; nor why, if it works its way out of the conduit on one side, it did not work its way in on the other, but dived under it and came in at the bottom, only to get out at the side. The discussion at the Society of Arts is not likely to suffer in point of animation from geology having been pressed into the service of this mode of drainage. It will probably be attended by several of the most eminent members of the Geo- logical Society, delighted to see any new attempt to turn iheir science to practical account. They were once described by Sir Roderick Murchison as a fraternity united for great purposes, and knit together by lofty and enduring sympathies. Be this as it may, there never was a fraternity in which the organs of pugnacity were more strongly developed. If one announces a new fact, or draws conclusions from facts already known, some other geologist denies his facts or disputes his inferences. There- upon issue is joined ; saxa et tela volant, as Virgil would say — in plain English, they have recourse to sticks and stones. Others take part in the dis- cussion, the battle becomes general, and thus all the established truths of geology have been fought out, hand to hand, and foot to foot, by this the most loving and united brotherhood which ever existed on the face of the earth ! Thus it is that all those which remain to be investigated will be fought out. The contradictions among geologists, however, are nothing compared to those of agri- culturists. It is little more than fifty years since the speculations of cosmogony were abandoned, and geology became a science of observation and induc- tion. During that time many disputed points have been settled to the satisfaction of the whole fra- ternity, and not only of them, but of men the most eminent in the exact sciences — of astronomers, who accept only mathematical demonstration in their own science; and of chemists, who test the ac- curacy of their conclusions by weight and measure, who aim in all their researches at proving analyses by synthetical operations ; that is, by making a substance from the materials of which they find it to be composed by reducing it to its elements. In agriculture, on the other hand, we could point out many questions which were matter of discussion fifty years ago, and are as much matter of discus- sion still, with every probability that in the way they are treated by some, they may continue matter of discussion for fifty years to come. MR. B. T. BRANDRETH GIBBS. The Illustrated London News of this week gives a portrait of Mr. Gibbs, with which is associated the following notice : — " Mr. B. T. Brandreth Gibbs (whose portrait we have en- graved upon the preceding page) is the youngest son of the late Thomas Gibbs, Esq., of Ampthill, Bedfordshire, and of Brompton Lodge, Old Bromptou, Middlesex, and has now been known for some years in the agricultural world as one of the most zealous promoters of this branch of national industry. " Having studied under the Eev. H. S. Pollard, M.A., and subsequently under the Rev. M. Marcus, M.A., he was about to enter St. .John's College, Oxford (in which college the family had a claim to founder's kin fellowship) with the inten- tion of eventually going to the bar, but he was suddenly in- duced to turn his attention to agricultural pursuits in con- sequence of a death in his family having opened a field of im- mediate action for his energies in that direction. Hence the origin of our finding him at au early period of his life actively engaged in carrying out the proceedings of the Smithfield Club, and of the annual shows of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, and more recently of the Agricultural and Implement Department of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855. " As connected with agriculture, he acted as one of the stewards of the yard (in lieu of a steward who was disqualified from being an exhibitor) at the first meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, held at Oxford, in 1839, and he continued to act with his brother in the management of the succeediug shows of that society up to 1844 ; and of the Smithfield Club up to 1843, at which periods he became the Honorary Director of the country shows of the former, and the Honorary Secretary of the latter, to which offices he was unanimously elected at the age of twenty-two, and which cfiices he still continues to hold. " The readers of this journal will be aware that the annual meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society of England from 1844 to 1855 have beea held in the cities and towns of Southampton, Shrewsbury, Newcastle, Northampton, York, Norwich, Exeter, Windsor, Lewes, Gloucester, Lincoln, and Carlisle — during which period the arrangements of the shows, both as regards live stock and the exhibition and trials of machinery, have been conducted under his direction. " When the preliminary preparations for the Great Exhibition in 1851 were in progress, the Royal Commissioners, through the late Mr. Pusey, one of their members, sought Mr. Brandreth Gibbs' assistance in the agricultural machinery department, and he undertook the office of superintendent of Class 9, one of the most extensive divisions of the Exhibition, and was afterwards selected as a Juror in the same class. " During the preparations for the recent Paris Exhibition he was engaged for the Board of Trade in superintending the selection of British agricultural machinery intended to form part of that collection, and to which department no less than five of the much-coveted gold medals of honour were awarded. " The manner in which Mr. Brandreth Gibbs has applied himself to the advancement of the agricultural interest, has been marked by his receiving from the hands of the Duke of Richmond, the President of the Smithfield Club, the above testimonial to his valuable services, most gratifying to Mr. Gibbs and to the numerous friends he already claims in that institution and in the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In private life he is esteemed by a wide circle of acquaintance ; and he is not only a good linguist, but accom- plished also in music, and dilTerent branches of the fine arts. " The illustration on the preceding page represents the testimonial which was presented to him last week by the members of the Smithfield Club, as the inscription expresses it, ' in appreciation of the valuable services rendered by him to that society as its Honorary Secretary.' Mr. Gibbs was enrolled on the list of that club as early as 1837, «nd was its first life-member." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 17 JETHRO TULL'S "HUSBANDRY." (Concluded from page 349, vol. xXiix.) Besides his surprising view of the efficacy of tillage and comminution in enriching and develop- ing the resources of the soil, TuU had equally ela- borate ideas of the manner in which it facilitated the finding and appropriating of the pabulum by roots. Thus " fibrous roots can take in no nourish- ment from any cavity in the soil, unless they come into contact with, and press against the superficies of that cavity which includes them, for it dispenses the food to their lacteals by such pressure only. . . . Roots cannot have nourishment from cavities that are too large to press against them, except what water, when it is in great quantity, brings to them, which is imbibed by the gentle pressure of the water. But when the water is gone, those large cavities being empty, the pressure ceases ; and this is the reason that when land has few other but such large cavities, the plants in it always suffer more by dry weather, than in land which has more minute and fewer large cavities." Hence, the pores or interstices of the soil ought to be very small ; and as a guide to the amount of pulverization necessary, he speaks of the " natural pores" as being often too small {ov roots to enter; whereas the "artificial pores, " made by tilling can never be brought nearly so fine as to endanger such a stoppage of the roots. " Insufficient tillage leaves strong land with its natural pores too small, and its artificial ones too large : it leaves light land with its natural and artificial pores both too large." These considera- tions led him to criticise the common tillage opera- tions of his day, and to devise a system of husbandry compatible with the principles which science thus laid down. " The first and second ploughings with common ploughs scarce deserve the name of tillage, they rather serve to prepare the land for tillage." Perceiving, therefore, the want of a better " first implement," he contrived a plough with four coulters instead of one, which served to cut up the furrow-slice into strips, thus facilitating its after- breakage by preventing it from hardening into im- mense slags (requiring many months' labour for their reduction) as by the old fallowing process. In our day, grubbers and scarifiers have greatly assisted the work of pulverizing hard ground ; but on the stiflf clays an implement that could cut and crumble into small pieces hke the spade would be far pre- ferable for the first breaking, to the squeezing and hardening screw-wedge, called a plough. " Far- mers," says TuU, "just when they have brought their land into a condition fit to be further tilled to much greater advantage, leave oflf, supposing the soil to be fine enough when with the help of har- rows they can cover the seed ; and afterwards with a roller they break the clods, to the end that, if a crop succeed, they may be able to mow it without being hindered by those clods." But he insists that the roller used to press in the seed in a properly moist seed-bed rather untills the land, producing a constipation of the ground, and anticipating that subsidence and solidifying which, in strong soils, happens too soon of itself. As he says in Chapter VI. {Of Hoeing) — "As soon as the ploughman has done his work of ploughing and harrowing, the soil begins to undo it, inclining towards and en- deavouring to regain its natural specific gravity [or rather density'\ ; the broken parts by little and little coalesce, unite, and lose some of their surfaces. Many of their pores and interstices close up during the seeds' incubation and hatching in the ground ; and as the plants grow up, they require an increase of food proportionable to their increasing bulk; but on the contrary, instead thereof, that internal super- ficies which is their artificial pasture gradually decreases. The earth is so unjust to plants, her own offspring, as to shut up her stores in propor- tion to their wants ; that is, to give them less nou- rishment when they have need of more. Therefore man, for whose use they are chiefly designed, ought to bring in his reasonable aid for their relief, and force open her magazines with the hoe, which will thence procure them at all times provisions in abun- dance, and also free them from intruders — I mean their spurious kindred, the weeds, that robbed them oftheir too scanty allowance." Here we have the rationale of hoeing, or the breaking and dividing of the soil by various instruments whilst the crop is growing, in distinction from ordinary tillage, whic is only preparatory to the sowing of the crop. And Tull understood by the term " horse-hoeing," some- thing deeper than the common surface-scraping by hand-hoes, which does little more than cut up weeds — an eflfect which, however useful, does not com- prise half the good of deep-stirring, which fertilizes the soil in various ways. " There is no doubt," he continues, " but that one-third part of the nourish- ment raised by dung and tillage, given to plants or corn at many proper seasons, and apportioned to the times oftheir exigencies, will be of more benefit to a crop, than the whole applied, as it commonly is, only at the time of sowing. This old method is almost as unreasonable as if treble the full stock is THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of leaves, necessary to maintain silkworms till they had finished their spinning, should be given them before they are hatched, and no more afterwards." In Chapter IV. (0/" Wheat), he further explains the especial use of the process to a crop which re- mains a long period upon the land. In our climate, wheat must be sown in autum.n, in order to give it sufficient start in the spring to insure a plump grain at harvest ; and thus " having about thrice the time to be maintained that spring corn hath, it re- quires a larger supply of nourishment in proportion to that longer time : not because the wheat in its infancy consumes the stock of food during the winter proportionably to what it does afterwards ; but because during that long interval betwixt au- tumn and spring seed-times, most of the artificial pasture is naturally lost, both in light and strong land. For this very reason is that extraordinary pains of fallowing and dunging the soil necessary to wheat; though, notwithstanding all that labour and expense, the ground is generally grown so stale by the spring, and so little of the benefit of that chargeable culture remains, that if part of the same field be sown in the beginning of April upon fresh ploughing, without the dung or year's fallow, it will be as great or a greater crop in all respects — except the flour, which fails only for want of time to fill the grain. . . If wheat be sown very early on strong land, though rich, well tilled, and dunged, the crop will be worse than on poor light land sown early ; so much do the long winter's rains cause the earth to subside, and the divided parts to coalesce, and lock out the roots from the stock of provision which, though it was laid in abundantly at autumn, the wheat has no great occasion of until the spring ; and then the soil has become too hard for the roots to penetrate ; and therefore they must starve (like Tantalus) amidst dainties, which may tempt the roots, but cannot be attained by them." His practice, therefore, was to drill wheat in straight rows, in order that he might be able to stir and pulverize the ground between them during the spring and summer. After a perplexing number of detailed trials, we find that double rows at ten inches apart are stated as being the best arrange- ment, and between the sets of double rows he left fallow intervals a few inches less than five feet in width ; thus allowing no more room than was suffi- cient to work his horse-hoc, which he calls a "hoe- plough," and required all this great breadth because (unlike our modern ones) it turned over a furrow- slice. He considered that the great proportion of ground uncovered was only apparently so, and that if the vacancies )»etween the plants on the old broadcast system ould be reckoned up, they would come to a greater area when the crop was lighter than his. He shoved what advantnges for extir- pating weeds he possessed, over those farmers whose plants stood " on the ground in a confused manner, like a rabble;" and what a preservative it was against different species of blights, and against the " lodging" or prostration of the crop towards har- vest, when every individual stem had space and air, and root-food enough to make it grow stalwart and healthy. The same system he applied to many other sorts of crop, and with similar success as regards the great development and superiority of the se- parate plants. In Chapter XIII. {Of Lucerne), he speaks of lucerne being forced to a gigantic size ; a plant of this, " when pampered by the hoe, making a jwoduce more like a tree than an herb." " The same frost that kills a faint languishing plant of lucerne will be despised by a robust one, which, being well fed by the hoe, becomes a giant clothed and fenced with a thick bark that renders it im- pregnable against all weather ; its rind is to it a coat of mail or buff, impenetrable by frost. But the unhoed is generally small and weak : its thin tender bark exposes it almost naked to the frost." And his hoeing-tillage procured a supply of moisture to the roots of his crops in the driest wea- ther, although one of the main objections alleged against the practice was that it " let in the draught." This came from the dews, which are most plentiful in dry weather, and these " seem to be the richest present the atmosphere gives to the earth They enter in proportion to the fineness and fresh- ness of the soil, and the quantity that is so made fine and fresh by the hoe. ... To demonstrate that dews moisten the land when fine, dig a hole in the hard dry ground in the driest weather, as deep as the plough ought to reach, beat the earth very fine, and fill the hole therewith ; and, after a few nights' dew, you will find this fine earth become moist at the bottom, and the hard ground all round will continue dry. Till a field in lands ; make one land very fine by frequent deep ploughings, and let another be rough by insufficient tillage alternately; then plough the whole field cross-ways in the driest weather, which has continued long ; and you will perceive, by the colour of the earth, that every fine land will be turned up moist, but every rough land will be as dry as powder from top to bottom. Al- though hard ground, when thoroughly soaked with rain, will continue wet longer than fine tilled land adjoining to it, yet this water serves rather to chill than nourish the plants standing therein, and to keep out the other benefits of the atmosphere, leav- ing the ground still harder when 'tis thence exhaled. . . . There is yet one more benefit (he adds) hoe- ing gives to plants, which by no art can possibly be given to animals. For all that can be done in feed- ing an animal is to give it sufficient food, meat and ilrifik, at the times it has occasion for them; ifyoii THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 19 give an animal any more, it is no manner of purpose, unless you could giv-e it more mouths, which is im- possible [unless the cramming of turkeys be an exception] ; but in hoeing a plant the additional nou- rishment thereby given enables it to send out innu- merable additional fibres and roots [as seen in his before-mentioned experiments], which fully demon- strates that a plant increaseth its mouths in some proportion to the increase of food given to it." TuU's principles obliged him to reject the common doctrine of rotations, or changes of crops, being ex- pedient in husbandry. Not that he meant to deny the existence of a fact everywhere looking him in the face, that, according to the prevailing methods of culture, farmers found it necessary to alternate the succession of certain kinds of cropping on the same laud, in order to get a fair yield from each ; and could not repeat one sort of crop (as cereal corn) more than twice or thrice without resting and rein- vigorating the exhausted soil by a fallow. He simply contended that, upon his theory, and by cultivation in strict conformity to the details of his practice, such change or inactivity was not indispensable. In Chapter XIV. (0/" Change of Species) he discusses the following propositions : — " I. That plants of the most different nature feed on the same sort of food. 2. That there is no plant but what must rob any other plant within its reach. 3. That a soil which is proper to one sort of vegetable once, is, in respect of the sort of food it gives, proper to it always." In a general sense, each one of these propositions is true; but, when we confine the language of the first too strictly, it does not agree with the now well-ascer- tained fact that, though all vegetation partakes more or less of the same sort of food, each species in the general feast does more especial honour to its fa- vourite dish. But if in error, arising from partial knowledge, Tull, as far as he went, was nearer the mark than the naturalists whose views he thus con- troverted ; for they taught that " plants of different natures are fed by a different sort of nourishment ; from whence they aver, that a crop of wheat takes up all that is peculiar to that grain ; then a crop of barley, all that is proper to it; nest a crop of peas, and so on." They affirmed that plants had the sense of taste, and that "they feed as differently as horses do from dogs, or dogs from fish." But Tull had a great many reasons for refusing this notion. From his experiments with mints, he inferred that roots will imbibe liquors, nourishing or poisonous, without distinction. He observed that the same portion of soil maintained quite opposite kinds of vegetation, when under different conditions of heat and moisture, as when thyme and rushes thrive respectively on the same earth, according as it is in a dry or watery situation. He could not believe that utterly different sorts of particles of pabulum were needed for a plant of thyme and for an apricot tree, when he found that "as the fine particles of oats will nourish an ox, so they will nourish a tom-tit, or a mite." Further, he had seen in the foreign vineyards, where horse-hoeing was practised, " the stems are planted about four feet asunder, chequerwise; so that they plough them four ways. AVhen any of these plants happen to die, new ones are immediately planted in their room, and exactly in the points or angles where the others have rotted ; else, if planted out of these angles, they would stand in the way of the plough. These young vines, I say, so planted in the very graves, as it were, of their predecessors, grow, thrive, and prosper well, the soil being thus constantly tilled." No change or rest was evidently required there. He had demon- strated that both "trees and weeds starve some plants, by robbing them of their provision of /wor/, not of their room, as some authors vainly imagine." In Chapter VII. (0/' Weeds), he says, "Let three beds of the same soil, equal, and equally prepared, be sown with the same sort of corn. Let the first of these beds be kept clean from weeds ; in the second, let a quantity of weeds grow along with the corn ; and in the third, stick np a quantity of dead sticks, greater in bulk than the weeds. It will be found that the produce of the corn in the first will not ex- ceed that of the third bed; but m the second, where the weeds are, the com will be dLminished in propor- tion to the quantity of weeds amongst it. The sticks, having done no injury to the corn, shew there was room enough in the bed for company to lodge, would they forbear to eat; or else (like travellers m Spain), bring their provisions with them to their inn, or, which would be the same thing, if weeds could find there some dish so disagreeable to the palate of the corn, and agreeable to their own, that they might feed on it without robbing." Pastures require no change of grasses, as long as they are supplied with a sufficient amount of food from the atmosphere, and from the cattle that graze on them. Meadows yield hay every year as long as their productive power is maintained by manuring, flooding, or natural rich- ness. Woods continue to flourish "beyond memory or tradition," without changing their sorts of trees, the earth's f mitfulness being kept up by the rotting of leaves and old timber, and by what descends in the atmosphere, " the trees shadowing the soil, to prevent the reascent of what that brmgs down." His foundation principle was, therefore, safe : only fertilize sufficiently, and you may grow what suc- cession or repetition of crops you like. But, accord- ing to his third proposition, he was not going into -the region of nostrums and universal specifics; he said this not of mi/ soil, but of such soil and situa- tion as was found to suit the constitution of the particular plants cultivated. How, then, did he account for the peculiar success c 2 20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. or failure with wliicli some crops invariably followed others in common husbandry ? The cause lay, he conceived, in the different tillage required. White corn could be made to follow its own kind very well, because the upper stratum of the soil could be readily pulverized for the benefit of its horizontally-spread- ing roots ; but clover, sainfoin, and other tap-rooted plants would not succeed well after their respective species, because they took great part of their nourish- ment from the under part of the staple, below the reach of frequent tillage. Some plants are said to enrich the soil, others to impoverish it ; but Tull re- marks, " I think it may be observed that all those plants which are usually hoed are reckoned among the enrichers ; and though it be certain that some species are, by the heat of their constitution, greater devourcrs than those of another species of equal bulk, yet there is reason to believe that were the more cormorant plant of them all to be commonly hoed, it would gain the reputation of an enricher or improver of the soil." We have not space here to detail the more recent views of Decandolle, Liebig, and others, upon this still unsettled theory of rotations in cropping, but may add that modern chemical researches tend to confirm the feasibility of TuU's practice in a modified form being continued in perpetuity, without amj danger of exhausting the elements of vegetation loclced in the soil. Tull must necessarily in time have ab- stracted from his ground all its available mineral nutriment, which could not be restored by his pro- cess of stirring and aerating without help from manure, because his rule of " never plow below the staple" shut him out from all the treasures existing in profusion in the subsoil. Now, we do not detract in any degree from the credit which Mr. Smith has justly earned oi first opening up these deeply-buried stores to the action of Jcthro Tull's tillage— in fact, of having combined the system of perfect surface pulverization for atmospheric enrichment with deep culture in search of the earth's hidden fertility, when we say that in Tull's book there arc indications that, had his trials continued, or had he practised upon a more suitable soil, he would have himself found the advantage of deeper manipulation. Nowhere, we be- lieve, does he dictate as a principle that land should never be ploughed deeply ; that we ought never to increase the thickness of soil worked by our imple- ments, provided that the subsoil be of a nature that can be so used. On the contrary, he declares that the benefit of deep ploughmg is " very great ;" and that while on the old plan of sowing wheat under furrow, shallow ploughing was unavoidable, one of the merits of the new husbandry was that they could plough not only a dce]i furrow, but ttco furrows deep where the land would allow it. He even mentions an instance in which deeper tillage than usual was actually put in practice. A portion of a field being thinner land than the rest, he pursued at first a shal- lower tillage in that part ; but " when the land be- came of a more equal depth the fifth year, the plough and hoe-plough went deejper, all the piece being taken together;" and the consequence of this gradual deepening, he tells us, was an increased yield from that part. However, he expressly limits this deep ploughing to the thickness of the existing staple ; and it has been reserved for Mr. Smith to advocate the creation of a further stratum of mould out of the subsoil with which Jcthro Tull dare not meddle. In Chapter IX. he says — "In shallow land we cannot make the furrows so deep, nor the ridges so high, as in deep land ; for we must never plow below the staple." And a foot-note explains that the reason why we must not plough below the staple is, because there would be "a deficiency of mould'' ^ in the hollow between the lands or high-backed ridges of which he is speaking. In Chapter XVII. he writes—" We not only plow a deep furrow, but also plow to the depth of two fur- rows ; that is, we tretich-plow where the land will allow it, ; and two-plowed furrows (that is, one plowed under another) are as much more advantage- ous for the nourishing a crop, as two bushels of oats are better than one for nourishing an horse." And he excepts the case " when the staple of the land is too thin or shallow," explaining, by the following note, what he means by the word " staple," as being the upper crust previously accustomed to be ploughed, or the whole available stratum of good soil ; for " very little of my land will admit the plow to go the depth of two common furrows without reaching the chalk ; but deep land may be easily thus trench- plowed Math great advantage." The " indications" we spoke of are as follows : — Tull threw up his ground in ridges, not only that the wheat might be dry and warm, but also that there might be a greater thickness of good soil for the plants to vegetate in. And his reason for ob- taining this artificial depth of staple (for he did no- thing without a reason) was that, if wheat roots be carefully examined in the vigour of summer in a friable soil, " they may be seen to descend as deep as the pulverized mould reacheth, though that shotdd he afoot in thickness." This knowledge must inevi- tably have led him to feed the deeply burrowing, as well as the side-long branching roots ; although his practice never advanced further than to lay bare the subsoil in the " intervals" by gathering the staple- soil into the wheat ridges. Tull perceived, also, that the cavities between large clods were as " sinks to convey what rain and dew bring too quickly down- wards to below the plow'd part ;" that " the under earth" is replenished by the rain's sinking through it. Here was the very ground-fact for subsoil ploughmg. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 21 trenching, and deep culture ; and a logical mind like TuU's must have followed out the idea in practice had he lived long enough to find, hg the failure of sur- face tillage^ that such heavy and expensive work was necessary. In concluding our outline of Jethro Tidl's hus- bandry, we may observe that one reason why it had to be laid aside after the trials of his immediate dis- ciples, again to be revived in our times, was its being in advance of the mechanical skill of his time. Improvements in field machinery have now enabled his operations to be carried out with comparative ease by ordinary farm labourers ; and the progress of subsoil drainage has rendered its adoption prac- ticable where it is best suited to the land — namely, on the clays, rich with mineral nutriment, and vora- ciously active in absorbing riches from the atmos- phere. But Tull could not recommend his system on such land ; for " intractable wet clays," he says, "are the most improper for it." However, the reader may find in his sixteenth chapter ((^Ridges) how he discovered that, while stagnating water ruined a soil, water slowly passing off through it was positively enriching ; and how he devised a method of cutting off springs by covered drains, as well as by open trenches. Perhaps the most erroneous of Tull's views was, that manure furnished no nourish- ment to plants except so far as it assisted in pulver- izing the soil — operating mechanically in preparing the food of plants, but not comprising in itself any of that food. Imperfection of chemical knowledge suffered Tull to ride his hobby too far ; but, taking him as one among a generation of farmers, to whom our recent chemical discoveries were equally hidden, he had arrived at a far more sensible conclusion than his neighbours. They continued to regard the bulk of their farmyard and other manui'e as direct food for their crops, when, in fact (as we now know), only a mere essence of it was of any practical value ; he having found out the needlessness of such an expen- sive application, because the soil itself, when properly tilled, supplied all that plants require, condemned their shortsightedness in expending " three or four pounds in the buying and carriage of dung for an acre; but thinking themselves undone, if they afford an extra eighteen-pennyworth of earth" to the same area, earth itself being not only the best but cheapest manure, if valued, as it should be, by the rent paid for it. We must now advert, for the sake of completing the subject, to Mr. Smith's well-known revival or ra- ther adaptation of Tull's system as regards wheat growing — a practical experiment on a large and long- continued scale, which has created a greater amount of inquiry and discussion, among all classes interested in the theory or business of cultivation, than any other contemporary subject, unleeswemay except the liquid- manuring system of producing green cattle-food. The patriotic motives which induced Mr. Smith to publish his studies to the world, the most full and clear details of his method, and the scientific expla- nation of its results, are contained in the " Word in Season," which is also interesting as being a model of good writing on agricultural topics. " My plan," he says, " is this : I divide my field into lands 5 feet wide. In the centre of each land I drop or drill my seed in triple rows one foot apart, thus leaving a fallow interval of three feet between each triple row. When the plant is up, I trench the intervals with the spade or fork, easily taking my spits about three inches from the wheat, and at spring, and during summer, I clean them with the blades of the sharp cutting horse-hoe, and keep them open with the tines of the scuffler. Every year, in short, I trench and cultivate 2| feet out of the 5 for the succeeding crop, and leave the other 2^ for that which is grow- ing." The next year the wheat is sown on these fallow intervals, and the stubble is broken up in like manner for the fallow process. Thus, the soil is freely opened to the action of the atmosphere ; and to insure a sufiiciency of mineral food, the thickness of the cultivated staple is very grad^uMy increased by digging a few inches deeper each time, ultimately nearly a depth of 2 feet. And, by the system of trench- ing or double digging alternate halves of the ground in alternate years, the result is, that the two-feet stra- tum is biennially inverted, the upper and lower halves taking their turn of summer pulverization and aerial manuring. Without an ounce of farm-yard manure, or any artificial fertilizer whatever, Mr. Smith has been able to produce, by tillage alone, ten successive crops of wheat on the same field, of an average yield exceeding that of the neighbourhood. The calcula- tions and estimates as to the pecuniary economy of the system we cannot now advert to; but Mr. Smith abuudantlj demonstrates that, even with a low price of corn, the farmer may by it derive a very handsome profit. The system is not to be limited to wheat only : it may be modified for the production of any crop, and by no means excludes the application of manures. But this grain is taken to be the most important of all crops, and on suitable land Mr. Smith shows that it can be proHfically produced without manure. Knowing the various mineral in- gredients, and the precise proportions of them, re- quired by the wheat, the first question is. Does the particular soil proposed for this culture contain all these in sufficient quantity ? If not, they must be supplied in the form of manure — of such composition as is best adapted to make up the deficiencies. With -our present facilities for obtaining cheap manufac- tured manures, this is an easy matter. The chief inquiry then is. Can the atmosphere supply to the soil as much organic matter as the crop will remove? 5'2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE. This poiut is one occupying great attentiou among agricultural chemists. The only doubt left seems to be in the case of ammonia; but the recent researches of Professor Way, added to the preceding labours of other chemists, seem almost conclusive as to the fact that soils can absorb from the air, and the raia ajid dew bring to it also in solution, a superabundance of this invaluable constituent. So that the process continued for several years in succession, without aiw signs of failure or weakness, may be con- Udeutly expected to prove perpetually self-maiu- taining. THE DIVISION OF LABOUR, MANUAL AND MECHANICAL IN IRELAND. In a former article we adverted to the impedi- ments opposed to improvements in cultivation by the smallness of the farms in Ireland, particularly in the growth of green crops and their consump- tion by stock. We proposed to remedy this in some degree, and to economise capital by the intro- duction of such a division of labour between farmers and stockmen, and between farmers and dairymen, as has been found to work v/ell in some parts of Scotland and England, We propose On the present occasion to inquire whether by similar means the advantages to be derived from improved implements may not be placed within their reach. In this, again, we can appeal to prac- tice, in favour of the system which we advocate. The first example which v/e shall cite will be the employment of hired drill-men. These generally consist of well-conducted labourers, who have saved or borrowed money enough to purchase a drill, and who go about from farm to farm with their implements,, which they work themselves — the farmer finding horses, and paying the drill-man by the acre, for putting in the crop, a price which does not exceed that paid to a good broad-cast seeds- man who sows by the job. We have knov^m this done even on farms of 300 acres, when the occu- pier preferred hiring to purchasing a corn-drill, which was then more expensive than some of the modern implements of that description. Again, we have our travelling steam thrashing- machines, which go about thrashing by the day or the quarter. These are hired, even on large farms in some ])arts of England, where the buildings are not central enough to admit of a fixed thrashing- machine, or where the farmer from other causes pre- fers having his ricks scattered about his fields. In Ireland the corn is often thrashed in the open air, from want of a barn, and not unfrequently on the public road, as affording a firm floor. When we have suggested in Ireland the use of travelling thrashing-machines, it has been objected that it would never do to put within the reach of Irish tenants the power of thus rapidly converting their crop, and cases have been mentioned in which they were known to have thrashed the corn and restacked the straw, in order to deceive the land- lord, and to abscond without leaving him anything to distrain. We can only say, that the landlord or his agent must have been very easily deceived, who could not distinguish between a stack of straw and a stack of corn. To thrash corn, moreover, clandestinely, by means of a travelhng thrashing- machine, whether driven by steam or horse power, would be next to impossible, so that their general use would obviate this supposed difficulty. In Ireland the division of labour which we ad- vocate might be extended to the commoner imple- ments which, in England, are possessed even by the smaller tenants ; such as rolls, scufilers, horse- hoes, broadshares. Why should there not be on an Irish estate a roan possessing a collection of the best of the ordinary implements, and working them for hire on the lands of the small farmers ? Are our modern implements of real use to the farmer, or are they merely playthings for the amateur? This doctrine was held some twenty or thirty years since, with regard to the commonest of these implements, by men who have now adopted them as part of their practical routine. If the former alternative be ad- mitted,if these implementsabridgelabourandreduce the cost of i)roduction, it follows that he who uses them must produce at a cheaper rate, and be able to under-sell those who use thera not ; since in the same market, and at the same time, there cannot be two prices for the same articles, the quality being equal. The popular argument against the em- ployment of machinery in the processes of cul- tivation as tending to displace labour and increase pauperism, has fallen to the ground. It has last its influence even among the labourers. They see plainly that the man who saves labour by the use of machinery in one department of the process of cultivation expends more labour on another. He who drills his crop, hoes them, slices his turnips, cuts his hay and straw for his horses, and employs labour in a variety of other ways, in which, but for the aid of machinery, it would not have been em- ployed at all. Tlie labourers see this, and it would now be extremely difficult to get up a riot for the destruction of thrashing-mills, even in those coun- ties of England formerly most subject to agrarian outrage. We were never more struck with this THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 23 change of opinion among farming men, than at a trial of the American reaping-machine, when it was yet a novelty, in the presence of nu- merous farmers and labourers assembled at a ploughing match, in a county not the most ad- vanced in the adoption of innovations on estab- lished agricultural usages. Some reapers, who were watching the experiment with considerable interest, were rallied on their occupation being gone, by a gentleman desirous of eliciting their sentiments. They only replied, with a laugh, that they were not afraid of that ; let the farmers and machine makers do what they would, the harvest could not be got in without hands. They expressed, at the same time, their doubts whether any reaping process could be discovered for wheat superior to that of mowing it. Now, against this same mow- ing of wheat there was just as much outcry a few years ago, among well-meaning persons, who are very fond of talking about what they do not under- stand, as there was formerly against thrashing ma- chines, and as there is now amongst the same class against reaping by machinery. With respect to reap- ing machines, it is obvious that if they effect no saving of money, they must still be invaluable to the farmer in the command which they give him over his crops, and the power of securing them in favourable weather. We could mention a district where the practice of broadsharing the stubbles immediately after harvest, or even v/hile the shocks are standing, has long prevailed, and where we have repeatedly seen nearly as much shed corn coming up on the broadshared land as would have sown the ground. The true way to make reaping machines popular among the peasants is to put them in the light of an aid to the labourer rather than a saving of labour to the farmer — to make an agreement with them by the acre, at a liberal price, letting them have the hire of a reaping machine, and charging them a moderate amount by the acre, or the day, for the use of it. But to return from this digression on the use of machinery in England, to its use among the small farmers of Ireland, it must be obvious, on a httle reflection, that on such small holdings it is impossible, even by the division of la- bour which we have proposed, to give them the full benefit of the use of machinery in cultivation. Even on large farms there is often a waste of time in the use of hired machines. They must be bespoken before- hand for a particular day ; when that day and the implement arrives, the weather may be unfavourable to the use of it. Oh, but, says the farmer, that loss does not fall on me, I am a better hand at a bar- gain. I hire the implement subject to these casual- ties : they are at the risk of the owner. You pay for them notwithstanding, my good sir, for the owner of the implement could afford it so much the cheaper if they did not exist; and if you drive so good a bargain with him that the work is not remunerative, you will soon lose the advantage of being able to hire, and must buy for yourself. If these drawbacks to the use of hired implements exist in England, they must apply with greater force to the small occupations of Ireland ; and therefore the employment of hired implements is only suggested as a palliative, as better than the non-employment of them at all ; and the only means by which they can be rendered available to the occupiers of such small holdings, so as to give them a chance of competing even in some slight degree with the large farmer. THE AUTUMN CLEANING OF THE SOIL, AND THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCES. When our readers are busily engaged in the exten- sion of the autumn cleanings of the soil, and winter fallowing, they are employed in labours of which we seem to be now only beginning to understand the true scientific explanation. Every one, it is very true, readily comprehends the advantages of getting the work forward, and of the great influence which frost has in pulverizing adhesive soils ; but, that the atmosphere contained any fertiUzing substances, which the rains showered over the farmers' lands, was merely a kind of poetical suspicion of former generations ; and yet, as Professor Way remarked, in the last number of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, " that the air does in some way materially affect the growth of plants, must have occurred to every mind that has been directed to these subjects. In the clefts of a rock, or on the ruin of a tower, the seed of a plant is driven by the wind, or dropped by a bird. By-and-bye mois- ture and warmth, the principal conditions of ger- mination, cause the seed to grow into a plant, which has a more or less perfect existence, pro- duces seed, withers and dies. In the succeeding years a further growth of the same kind occurs under similar but improved conditions ; by degrees an accumulation of vegetable matter takes place, from the yearly increase in the number of plants, until, a true vegetable mould being formed, the bed becomes fitted for other classes of vegetation, and, in the lapse of time, the barren rock or the 24 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ruined tower becomes covered with luxuriant growth. So in the great forests of the western states of America, gigantic trees flourishing for centuries, and shedding periodically their leaves and smaller branches, have formed a bed of vegetable mould, which fifty years of the most scourging crops hardly serve to exhaust. Again, covering hundreds of square miles, and of varying but great depth, we have enormous deposits of vegetable matter compressed into coal. No doubt exists of these beds having been formed by the growth and decay of successive vegetations, precisely in the same way that grass and turf give rise to vegetable mould in present experience. Now it can hardly fail to have occurred to thinking men to inquire whence was derived the vegetable matter, which, on the barren rock or the ruined tower, in the great forest or the extensive coal bed, has year by year, and beginning from almost nothing, gradually ac- cumulated : — that the soil does not furnish it, is evident ; and that the air must do so, is equally plain." Priestley and others, at the very dawn of modern chemistry, showed that plants absorbed carbon from the air — that they absorb their nitrogen from the same great field is still a disputed fact ; that ammonia, however, contains nitrogen, and that this alkali is decomposed by plants, is generally known ; but that ammonia exists in the atmosphere, that it is brought down in every shower, is one of the recent discoveries of the chemist. It was a still later ascertained fact that ammonia combines with, is stored up, as it were, in the soil on which it falls, and that consequently those soils, •which by being well pulverized afforded the readiest entrance to the atmospheric moisture, were the most benefited. This discovery, too, naturally led us to the conclusion that, as ammonia exists in the rain-water of all seasons, even the super- abundant showers of winter or the comfortless fogs of November were adding riches to the soil. From such conclusions too we are led to remember that the widely differing depth of rain in a number of years may influence the produce of our arable and grass lands in more ways than in the extent of the mere pure water poured over them. This annual down pouring varies very remarkably in a period of years. At Chiswick, during the last five years, it has been — Inches. 1850 18.28 1851 .. 2079 1852 32.64 1853 24.37 1854 18.92 The present year promises to have as small a rain-fall as any of the previous, as will be seen by the following table, taken from the register of ob- servations at the rain gauge of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, on the roof of No. 1, Greek-street, Soho. This shows the amount in inches in each month, from January 1, 1855, to November 13, 1855, inclusive. We have added to this, by way of comparison, the rain-fall of 1854, and the average depth at Greenwich during 25 years' observations — Fall In 1855. January 0.087 February 0.550 March 1.322 April 0.140 May 1.283 June 1.082 July 5.0G0 August 0.975 September 0.820 October 5.187 Nov. 1 to 13 .. 1.280 December .... — Total inches .17.786 Av. of 25 years In 1854. at Greenwich. .. 1.92 . 1.57 .. 0.78 1.56 . . 0.42 1.71 .. 0.30 1.83 .. 4.03 . 2.01 .. 1.53 . 1.91 .. 2.40 . 2.41 .. 1.77 . 2.33 .. 0.58 . 2.50 .. 2.61 . 2.52 .. 1.31 . 2.49 .. 1.27 . 2.25 ..18.92 .25.09 THE INDIVIDUAL AS WELL AS GENERAL ADVANTAGE OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Farming statistics undoubtedly constitute a sub- jectof vast national importance, and if once well esta- blished would, like all other modern institutions, be found divested of those injurious effects that at the outset are anticipated, but in the end seldom found to occur. The apprehensions of the farmers are without any real foundation, as a class. In the words of one of their friends, " they resemble a horse that has been beaten about the head, which renders them suspicious of whatever hand attempts to touch them ;" but others of their calhng, whose ideas be- come expanded by frequent intercourse with differ- ent classes, see in it no cause of alarm; and as these are by far the largest proportion in point of influence, if not in numbers, accustomed to freedom of action without being in anyway subject to inquisitorial in- terference, it renders them exceedingly jealous of any inquiry into their farming proceedings. And who- ever may endeavour to coerce them into the mea- sure will find such resistance as may be difficult to overcome ; and where landlords take upon them- selves to threaten them with expulsion from their farms should they oppose it, as we observed was the case at an agricultural meeting lately reported THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ao in our columns, it tends but to aggravate them to resist in a secret manner ; whilst on the other hand, should it be attempted to secure their acquiescence by reasoning, their conviction of its utility might be secured and the measure ultimately carried out with a successful result. We are quite convinced, from the conversation we have had with numbers of them, that the majority do not at present understand what is the object sought to be attained. Many of them suppose it is for the purpose only of obtaining information by their landlords of the number of acres they have yearly cropped with wheat ; whilst others look upon it as a trick concocted by speculators and importers for enabling them safely to carry out their own pro- jects for importing foreign wheat with greater cer- tainty of success ! To us it appears a measure that must ultimately tend more to the advancement of the interests of the farmers than of the merchants or consumers. For admitting that this country produced sufficient wheat for the support of its inhabitants in average seasons, the knowledge before hand of its produc- tion might induce speculators so to manage the importation as to reduce the price below its natural level. But when it rarely if ever occurs that suffi- cient is grown for the consumption, and that quanti- ty is nearly ascertained beforehand, it has a contrary tendency ; and when prices are low, importers will therefore become cautious in their transactions, being too shrewdly awake to their own interests to import largely with the certainty thereby of further depreciating prices to their own injury. Take for example the operation of the statistical information obtained by the French Government. It has been already ascertained that the crop of the last harvest in that country is deficient, and what is the consequence ? Every producer of wheat is holding back with the expectation of realizing still higher prices, and Mark Lane has from necessity been largely drawn upon to meet the present exi- gency. And we may therefore fairly conclude that whenever it becomes ascertained that the crop in this country is also deficient, an expectation of an advance in price will cause the farmers to keep back their produce in like manner; for it is not with us as with the French : we invariably import to meet our deficiency ; and in proportion as our crop is deficient or abundant, so must our importation become extended or diminished to counteract its eflfects ; and as our merchants rarely act upon pro bono publico principles, they would be unwise in their generation if they imported to such an extent as to produce any sudden effect upon the market that might consequently entail injury upon them- selves. So long as the produce of this country is not ascertained, and all is uncertain and doubtful, speculation becomes rife ; but whenever the result can be safely calculated, men become cautious in their transactions, and are equally instigated to enter our own markets upon the probabiUty of an advance in price, as to rush to a foreign market for the mere purpose of reducing it. Circumstances will at all times undoubtedly go- vern transactions, and whenever prices abroad fall greatly below prices here, so long as corn can be imported at a profit, it will be attempted ; but this cannot occur whenever the range of prices here is al- ready low, as it would generally be with an abundant crop of our own growth. The probability then of realizing would become more doubful still, and merchants would move cautiously in their transac- tions, thereby causing a great stability in prices, tending to the benefit of the farmers, and that at a period when it would be most beneficial to them. " To be forewarned is to be forearmed" is a pro- verb as trite as it is true ; and admitting that there was once a time " when every rood of ground main- tained its man," in the event of a deficient crop then taking place every one would be prepared for the result by economizing from the beginning. Now, can any one say that what would individually be beneficial would not be so collectively, and that those means which if applied early would ward oflf star- vation to a family, might not be attended with the same result if carried out with the nation at large ? AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS, OPINIONS OFFERED ON THEIR PROPOSED COLLECTION, AT AGRICULTURAL MEETINGS. There was one subject to which he might draw their at- tention, because it was now much mooted in agiicultural circles — it was a subject worthy of consideration, and on which he would not ask them too hurriedly to make up their minds— he alluded to the subject of agricultural statistics. The object held in view by those who were anxious to obtain those statis- tics was to ascertain what the couutry could fairly produce, and that the result should be open for the free information of the public. He knew there was a feeling abroad that the system would bring the property of farmers too disagreeably under the surveillance of the government (" No, no"). He (Sir J. Buller) would agree with the gentlemen that it would not have that effect ; but even supposing that it would, the government was not a despotic government, and what harm could it^do to be in possession of the desired information ?■ They were all represented in parliament by members of their (the people's) 26 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. own selection, and they (the representatives) would do their duty, and protect the public from any sinister use of the Btatistics ; and if they did not perform that duty, they were amenable to their constituents for their conduct. But it would be desirable that first the subject should be discussed in the country at large — it should, to use a vulgar expression of the day, be " ventilated" throughout the community. They might then candidly weigh the objections against the advan- tages of adopting the system, and if, as he was inclined to think, ' they should find that the latter preponderated over the former then they should set about devisiug some plan by which the statistics might be fairly and honestly laid before the country. He believed it was not too much to say they were encountering a difficulty at this moment over which they would be very much assisted by a system of agricultural statistics, if such were in existence. They found the high pricea of corn pressed heavily on the humbler portions of the coramuuity. Would it not be well if the minds of the people could be satisfied that there was a just cause for the rise in prices ? And that might be done by agricultural statistics, which would have shown this year that we had not had an abundant harvest. It was probable that discontent would evince itself in the manufacturing districts, and that Buch troubles as they had before seen arise there from short wages and high prices would recur ; but it was also probable that if the people of England knew that the commodity they required was not in abundance to render it cheap, their com- mon sense would restrain them from violent outbreaks ; they would see it was not the fault of the farmer ; and the humbler classes would be more ready to submit quietly to their priva- tions, when they should know that the scarcity was chargeable neither to the government nor to the agriculturist, but was the result of the dispensation of that Great Being before whom they all bowed down. For those reasons he recommended them calmly to consider the question ; they should especially think how it would affect themselves, aud see if there were auy ob- jections that would outweigh the great advantage the country would derive from the government being aware of the quantity of food in the country, so as to be satisfied, beyond doubt, how far the supply would extend. He would not himself express a decided opluiou either for or against the system ; but he asked them to make up their minds upon it, and when they should state to him their objections, he would consider them, aud would then give them his judgment on the whole subject. —Sir John Yarde Bullbb, at Ashburton. He alluded to the subject of agricultural statistics, aud called particular attention to it, because he was firmly of opinion that if the farmers would give their assistance in carrying out the system of statistics they would be greatly benefited. All the great manufacturing interests of the country adopted the plan of statistical information, and by msaus of the returns published they were enabled to judge of the extent of supply, aud consequently of demand. By such a mode the agri- cultural interest would have the means of ascertaining what the probable price to which their produce would reach. Did they at the present moment know exactly the proper time when to go into the market, or wliat to take for their grain ? It was very well known that many farmers had sold their grain for GOs. or 70s. per qr., when in a few months it had run up to 120s. Now tliat would not have been the case had the farmers been in possession of proper statistics ; aud he certainly thought it would be greatly to their interest to supply the statistical information requcbtcd by the Govern- ment. He believed, as he had said before, that au approximate return would be Leuffioial to nil parties— but he should resist to tlie utmost any attempt (o pry into the private CDnccrns of any man, or anything like being subject to compulsory measures. — Mr. M. G. Benson, at Much Wenlock. On agricultural statistics I must say I think, and no doubt you thiuk, that it is rather too much to require you to open your books to everybody. How would Mr. Bright like for us to go iuto his office, and after ascertaining what he gave for every pound of cotton bought from American slave states, dic- tate to him his prices for goods. I look with jealousy on the subject ; 1 would not allow any to come over my farm and hold an inquisition on my profits, and iu asking for this I thiuk that they ask for too much. — Sir Montague Cholmeley, at Donington. Alluding to the subject of agricultural statistics, he did not approve of the system adopted by the government in Scotland, to ascertain how much per acre was grown on every farm ; but he threw out for their cousideratiou whether it would not be advisable for the agriculturists to make a return of how many acres, of every sort of crop, was produced on every farm which would let them know the average, and whether there was more or less of any particular kind of grain sown one year more than auother. — Mr. B. Stanhope, M.P , at Horncaslle- He referred to the gathering of agricultural statistics. He did not agree with the noble lord who had been ofifered the Secretaryship of the Colonies that the gathering of these ave- rages would be of the slightest use to the community. He differed because it was proposed to compile a blue book of some thousands of pages. The reason why he differed from the noble lord was, that it would take some two months to "tabulate," and he believed that speculators in corn would obtain their informatioa much earlier, and thus render them uselcsa. And if such were not the case, he doubted whether a farmer would read throiigh such a mass, although he might read the report, which was a condensation of this blue book in three or four pages. Unfortunately, this report would be coloured according to the colour of the spectacles through which the gentlemen who compded the report read the book. The blue book would contain nothing but estimates; Mr. Caird gave estimates, and they might judge by his statements of the correctness of those estimates. It was his opinion that these agricultural statistics would bs of no use — at auy rate the beuelit could not be of the value which it was hoped to derive. He knew that the farmers were wiillug to take a fair pries for their wheat, and did not wish to keep up the present prices. — Mr. Wm. Hodgson Barrow, M.P., at Collingham. Government would compel them (the farmers) to supply statistics, in order to ascertain how much corn was grown in the country, so as not to be dependent upon foreigners for a supply. He believed that if the land were properly cultivated, it would produce more than enough for the population. When Sir Robert Peel brought in his free trade measure the farmers said they should be ruined, and that it would be no use to cultivate their lauds, as they would have to sell their wheat at 43. or 5s. per bushel. It was true there was a fall in the prices at first, but that was owing to the large quantities then iu store, and not to the amount imported. An American merchant, who paid a visit to North Devon, told him that the New York merchants at first only sent off supplies to England in order to keep up their own market, and not with a view to obtain profit. This they soon found a losing game, and wheat was now selling at New York at 93. to 9s. 6d. per bushel. It was, therefore, desirable they should ascertain how much they could grow in their own country. The kingdom was computed to contain 77,000,000 acres of land, of which only 47,000,000 were iu cultivation ; the remainder consisted of 15,000,000 acres, which could be reclaimed, and 15,000,000 irreclaimable. In aJdltion to the land which could be reclaimed, the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 27 47,000,000 acres could be made to produce much more than at present. The quantity of corn supposed to be imported was 5,000,000 quarters ; and, as it was calculated that the lands to which he had referred could, if properly cultivated, produce three times their present yield, there could be no doubt that that quantity could be obtained in this couutry, whereby we might become independent of the foregner. — Mr. John Eu- ■VVAKDS, in North Devon. He wished to correct a statement which he was understood to have made at a meeting a short time ago. It was under- stood that he, in speaking of the yield of wheat, had said that there was an average acreage yield. What he did say was that there was an average crop of wheat iu the country : there was more wheat than usual sown this year, and barley was up to the average. But the next question was — what is an ave- rage ? He recollected when three quarters were considered as fair an average as four quarters were now. There had been. during the past five years, about 12,000 acres of land, ave- raging 10 acres a mile, taken for railways. A gentleman of France went through England, and also through the French empire, and he had come to the conclusion that the English farmer produced double the quantity of corn, meat, and milk, and three times the number of sheep on the same quantity of land, as is produced by the French farmer ; but he also found that the cost of producing this increase was ten times more to the English than to the French farmer. He denied that the farmer was wishful to keep up the present prices. Ever since harvest the farmer had thrashed out, and some grain was even thrashed out on the field. It had been said by their president at one of these meetings at Gloucester, that " He should be glad to hear of corn being again imported from the Danubian provinces." He would rather that the corn should be pro- duced by the British farmer, — Mr. Chowler, at Colling- ham. THE COLLECTION OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS IN SCOTLAND. Sir, — I am induced to address a few words to you in con- sequence of your leading article relative to the discussion on agricultural statistics at the Caistor Ploughing Match. At Caistor, partiea seemed pretty well agreed that a return of acreage was unobjectionable, the opposition having refe- rence principally to estimates of produce ; these had appa- rently no supporters, and the plan, followed iu Scotland, met with general condemnation. It appears to me, however, that that plan was misuuderstood by the meeting. Mr. Banks Stanhope said, " But I confess that the plau which has been tried in Scotland, and which will no doubt be tried here, of calling upon the farmers to make a return of the produce per acre, is objectionable, because I think it impracticable." And again, "To ask any person to give the exact quantUy of corn grown on his land, is, I think, next to impossible." I have from the first opposed the idea of calling on indi- vidual farmers to state their produce ; such an inquiry is in- quisitorial, and would, if tried in Scotland, have marred the success we have met with. We carefully avoid such questions, endeavouring to arrive at a knowledge of the produce by means of general estimates for districts, and the machinery employed for this purpose is assuredly neither unpopular nor impracticable, while the results are, I think, more valuable and less deceptive than allowed by the Caistor speakers. The whole management is in the hands of the Farmers, of whom there are at present above one thousand occupied in preparing such estimates. The country is parcelled into dis- tricts ; for every district there is a committee, comprising a Farmer from each parish within it, with a chairman, also a Tenant Farmer, who acts as ray immediate correspondent. The members are all selected on account of their experience and knowledge ; their attention, before and after harvest, has been directed to the subject ; and now, that there has been some thrashing, they are being called together over Scotland, and each committee, within its own district, decides and reports to me what, in their opinion, is the average number of bushels or tons per acre of the different crops. Surely such reports, emanating from practical men who have been for mouths studying the subject, and who answer only for their own localities, are more valuable than the dictum of any one individual speaking for the empire at large, how- ever well-inrormed and intelligent he may be, or than the circulars of the best-informed Corn Factors, who can only ga- ther their information, at the best, in a like manner, but from parties irresponsible and unknown, I observe that at Caistor Mr. Torr condemns estimates, and says he did so before the Lords' Committee. But his estimates refer to the produce of standing crops valued for out-going tenants ; and iu committee he advocated an esti- mate under the heads of " Full," "Average," " Short," which necessarily involve the pre-determination of an average. Our estimates are not taken till the crop has been cut, stacked, and partially thrashed. I have perfect faith in the honesty and care with which they are prepared ; and as they exhibit the average acreable results of considerable districts, no man is asked to divulge his produce, and, iu the publication, no man's profits or losses are divulged. I have written this letter very hastily, in a desire to put you right regarding the manner iu which the results of the harvest are arrived at in Scotlaud. I enclose one of my circulars to Enumerators and Members of Committee, and I am. Faithfully yours, 6, Alhyn Place, Edinhurgh. J. Hall Maxwell. Nov. 2Qth, 1855. The following are the circulai-s referred to by Mr. Maxwell : — AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Dear Sir, — Government having resolved to continue the Statistical Inquiry, and the Society being in hopes that you will consent again to act as the enumerator of your district, the approach of harvest makes it necessary I should write to you in reference to the measures for collecting the statistics of this year. The machinery to be employed is precisely what has already been in operation ; but I have every reason to believe that it will now work with greater ease to you, and to all others offi- cially connected with the inquiry. The schedules will have shown you in what respects the in- quiry has been simplified, and I am glad to say that the re- turns are coming in with a promptness which leads me to hope that the task of collecting arrears will be light in comparison with last year. The principal duty will be the preparation of the estimates 28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of produce, and on this point I have sent to all members of committee a letter of instructions, of which I annex a copy. I have only further to express my hope that, betwixt this and November, you will endeavour not only to inform yourself as to the crops in your district, but, as far as in your power, direct the attention of your committee to the same object. I am, dear Sir, faithfully yours, Jn. Hall Maxwell, Sec. Highland and Agricultural Society, Edinburgh, 1st August, 1855. CIRCULAR TO MEMBERS OF COMMITTEE. Dear Sir, — As I anticipated, in my letter addressed to you in May, the labour connected with the Statistical Inquiry will this year be comparatively trifling, and this will, in a great measure, be owing to the manner in which the lists of occu- pants have been revised and corrected. I am glad to say, also, that the schedules are being returned with an alacrity which promises a material saving of trouble in the collection of ar- rears. Your duties will, therefore, be chiefly confined to esti- mating the yield of the different crops ; and, from the ample time this year allowed for that purpose, I hope that this may be done without much inconvenience to yourself. It has been arranged that these estimates shall be made between the 15th and 30th of November, with the view of securing — 1st. That they shall be taken all over the country within one fortnight ; 2nd. That sufficient time shall be allowed for testing the produce of the crops. The enumerator of your district, therefore, will not prepare his report before the 15th of November at the earliest, and you have till that time for ascertaining the averages of the parish which has been placed under your charge. While I leave to your own intelligence the determination of the best means for obtaining accurate information in reference to the crops, I may mention that, last year, some members of committee, in their anxiety thoroughly to discharge their duty, put themselves to trouble which I did not contemplate im- posing on them. Some thought it was necessary to collect the acreage of the crops in their parishes, forgetting I accomplish that by means of the schedules. Others thought it incumbent on them personally to inspect each field on every farm, a course which served as a pretext for complaint on the part of the few farmers who were inclined to treat the inquiry cap- tiously. I am anxious not only to avoid such grounds of offence, but to save my committee all unnecessary trouble, and I therefore do not think that so rigid an inspection is in every case requisite, but that you may come to correct conclusions before the end of October by general observation and inquiry. As I have already remarked, however, I must leave to your own discretion the means to be employed, simply asking you to obtain the best information, at the least possible risk of giving umbrage to any one. The successful results of last year's inquiry, and the satis- faction they afforded to Government and the public, must, I feel assured, have been gratifying to 'you, and will strengthen your hands in giving further effect to the measure. I am, dear Sir, faithfully yours, Jn. Hall Maxwell, Sec, Edinburgh, 1st August, 1855. MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. On Saturday, the 3rd Nov., the members of the Reading Farmers' Club met at their Reading Room. Mr. Hicks read the following very interesting and instructive paper : Having been requested by the committee in my turn to open this day's discussion, and being fully persuaded of the great benefit we derive from the friendly interchange of opinion upon practical subjects connected with our business, I venture to appear before you, not so much, believe me, with the idea of offering instruction, as of learning something myself from the observations which I trust my opening remarks will call forth. I have therefore chosen a subject exceedingly simple in itself, but intimately connected with our well-doing as agriculturists, as forming one of our principal sources of yearly profit, but upon which a great diversity of opinion exists, aud therefore I have thought it well worthy of an hour's discussion by the members of a farmers' club. The value of the sheep as a domestic animal has been well known from the earliest ages, and we read in almost the first pages of Holy Writ that a man's possessions or wealth were computed by the number of his flocks and herds, but it seems to have been principally valued on account of its fleece, and it is only at a very much later period that its true value as an article of food seems to have been fully appreciated ; indeed, at the present time, on some parts of the continent, it is held in very low estimation ; in some parts of Russia it is never eaten, and in Spain it is only used by the lowest orders. It docs not appear that the sheep was much known in this country until after the invasion of [the Romans, who established a woollen manufactory at Winchester, thereby offering, of course, a great inducement for the production of the raw material, and for a long course of years it continued the great emporium of the woollen trade. In later years, as the feudal system declined, the quantity of sylvan game decreased, and greater care was given to the raising of the domestic animal, better laws were made for the protection of property, and the attention of the flockmaster was directed more to the carcass than the fleece. It has been proved by authentic documents that the number of sheep in the United Kingdom has more than trebled within the last 150 years, affording a conclusive proof of the rapid strides that have been made in agriculture within that period. How has this been managed ? The quantity of ground uuder cultivation has been increased ; lands before thought worthless have been brought into cultivation for the pro- duction of sheep-keep, when, after the introduction of the turnip crop, it was found that a regular supply of food could be produced for every season. The fact of the sheep living and thriving in climates and situations where other animals would scarcely exist, its cost being within the means of the smallest occupier of land, render it, if not the first, at least one of the most valuable animals on the farm. But I am somewhat running away from my subject, viz., the manage- ment of sheep. The two great points which present them, selves to my notice, are the breed best adapted to this peculiar locality, aud the speediest and most economical means of bringing the same to early maturity. To attempt to go into the merits of each separate breed would, I think, be quite unnecessary. It will be readily allowed that the one beat calculated lor our use is the Hampshire Down ; for although the Sussex is undoubtedly a superior animal as far as regards the quaUty of its flesh, yet nothing can beat the former for THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 29 the strength of its constitution, the quantity and quality of its wool, and the great weight to which it may be brought at a very early age. There are some men who prefer the cross- bred animal — the best I believe to be between the Hampshire Down and Cotswold; but having tried the two sorts side by side for two years consecutively, I must give a decided preference to the thoroughbred. I have always been of opinion that, in this branch of our business, quality will always beat quantity ; and as I think it will be allowed that down mutton will at all times command 6d. per stone above the others, the increase of weight not making up for the deficiency in price, the only way in which I should use the half bred would be as fat lambs. The down has been much improved within the last few years, not by crossing, but by a judicious sorting, of flocks ; and to such perfection are they now arrived, that, upon seeing the beautiful specimens of rams exhibited at the late fairs for sale, one is almost tempted to exclaim — Can there be any further improvement ? The next point for our consideration is the feeding. The old plan of keeping flocks until eis-toothed is become quite obsolete ; or at least such are ouly to be met with in parks, or on the farms of such as farm ouly for amusement. Since it has been found out that by extraordinary means the sheep may be brought to per- fection at twelve months old, and even by ordinary means at twenty-four months, the system of early feeding has been uni- versally adopted throughout the country. An old friend of mine used to say, when talking on this subject, in raising and feeding any animal, "Always remember never to allow them to lose their sucking flesh," or, in other words, always keep them in a thriving condition. Remember, what is lost in one month takes two to regain ; and here we who buy in our lambs at the fall have a great evil to contend against. The breeders, for the purpose of course of making as much profit as possible, at the same time to get credit for their stock, spare neither trouble nor expense, so that we find it extremely difficult to keep them up to the mark. To effect what I said just now, a regular succession of food is required ; and not only that, but the quality of each should be superior to the one preceding ; but here we have sometimes the season to contend with, and this year is an instance of it, in many places the turnips being superior to the swedes ; such being the case with me, the plan I have adopted has been to purchase only a suflicient flock to feed off my best roots. It is a great mistake which many of us make in overstocking, obliging us, as in the last season, when the frost did so much damage to the late crops, to get rid at a disadvantage. The sheep being a rumi- nating animal, the great business of its existence is to procure its food and take its rest : during the latter period only it is gaining flesh. The greater opportunity therefore that you give him in procuring the former, the sooner you will arrive at the result at which you aim. The great secret of feeding, after all, is to give the animal the food it likes best at the pro- per times, and as much, and only as much, as it requires ; and here the great benefit of the turnip cutter presents itself to our notice, enabling the shepherd to carry this out to the letter. Where it is not used, a much larger quantity of turnips must be given than is necessary for their consumption, and as a matter of course much must be left behind to be consumed by an inferior flock, exposed to all weathers, and consequently losing much of its feeding property, offering conclusive proof that although the system of trimming and cutting appears at first sight expensive, yet in the end it will be found the most economical plan. The same argument may be applied to the cutting of hay into chaff, as with care not a particle ought to be lost, and especially with hay of an indifferent quality ; it helps to get quit of the mildew dust, which is highly detrimen- tal to the health of the animal. It enables you to use a mix- ture of malt dust, of which sheep are particularly fond, and you thus are able to consume a part of your produce which otherwise would be almost useless. With regard to feeding stuffs, I certainly prefer linseed cake to all others, as being perfectly safe, not only producing flesh and fat, bat it acts upon the system generally — acting upon the bowels and digestive organs (from whence all its ailments spring) in a slightly ape- rient form, and producing a natural and healthy flow of the blood. It is also of great importance to the flock- master to have some slight knowledge of the ailments to which the sheep is liable, to enable him to treat in its first stage anything of the kind that may occur ; above all others, that which for some years past has been so detrimental to the in- terests of the farmer, but which is happily becoming less pre- valent, viz., the lameness or foot-rot, seems to me to be less understood than any other. Of the many compositions which I have met with, I have never found anything to entirely remedy the evil. I think that the error which we fall into is, that we try to get rid of the effects without ascertaining the cause. If an animal affected with this complaint be thoroughly examined, it will be found in a high state of fever. This impressed me with the idea that before applying anything of a caustic nature to the part affected some aperient medicine should be used. I have therefore tried Glauber salts in small doses of three ouncesi with very great success, having for the last two years had very little to complain of. THE IMPROVEMENT OF TURKISH AGRICULTURE. In a former article on corn supplies from Asia Minor and demand for agricultural machinery, &c., our obser- vations only embraced a general view of the subject ; let us now confine ourselves to the agricultural — the improvement of Turkish agriculture and her land- statutes, or the introduction of British agriculture into the Ottoman empire, so modified as to suit its climate, soil, produce, and political state. The first step would obviously be a firman securing to occupants the full enjoyment of proprietary and tenant- rights, with all the privileges which the improved state of things contemplated demand. And in order the more effectually to enlist foreign capital and enterprise in the work, the Sultan might propose and conclude, taking the initiatory himself, a treaty with foreign governments — especially Britain, more deeply interested in her prosperity than any other — guaranteeing in all time coming the execution of such a statute, and the enjoyment of its provisions, by those permanently settle- ing in Turkey as Turkish subjects, or agricultural en- gineers and others, only engaged for specific periods to perform certain improvements. At the same time an agrarian law might be made by Turkey, dividing one or two millions of acres among 30 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the soldiers of the Allies now in her service, along with her own army, and the heirs of those who are purchasing with their blood her political existence as a nation. In doing 60 she would only be discharging a duty which she can never otherwise fulfil. And there is no doubt, were it done, that it would be thankfully received and honourably fulfilled, while it would enable England to increase the strength of her foreign legions, such as to overwhelm Russia herself single-handed. The land she can easily spare, without sustaining any territorial loss or revenue arising therefrom, but the contrary. This is manifest, for a large revenue would be obtained directly from the increase of produce or taxes to which such would give rise, while indirectly many advantages would flow from the improved agriculture thus intro- duced. With these arrangements, therefore, properly under- stood, there would be no fear of enterprise and capital to cultivate the much-neglected soil of Turkey, restoring her agriculture to the highest position of any in the Tvorld — that which it once held, and doubtless will again occupy when the Mahommedan era has expired or changed its political economy ; indeed, the reformation proposed is that alternative change just mentioned. We are aware that, according to the interpretation which some put upon divine prophecy, Islamism must fall by the sword of Russia, and an end be put to the Otto- man empire ; but they who thus conclude appear to overlook the fact that the Mahommedan exist- ence of Turkey has already fallen to pieces by the warlike aggression of the "King of the North;" that half the population of Turkey, about to receive their emancipation, are not Moslems ; and that nowhere does prophecy say that Asia Minor and Turkey in Europe shall become subject to the Aluscovite domina- tion ; but the contrary, for although it is said that " He ehall enter also into the glorious land," elsewhere termed the " glorious holy mountain," which must mean Pidesfine, if any part of Turkey ; and that Egypt, Lybia, and Ethiopia, " shall be at his steps," " yet he shall come to his end, and none shall help him." It would thus appear, therefore, putting a literal inter- pretation upon the sacred text, that Russia, anxious to secure possession of Jerusalem and the Holy S.?pulchres — those objects of superstition which at present enlist and bind together her enslaved soldiers with the cove- nanted tie of religion in her long-cherished crusade — would march in the most direct line from Georgia and the shores of the Black Sea bordering thereon, to Palestine, taking possession of Armenia and the " countries" along the Euphrates to the province of Damascus, and from thence to Jerusalem, so as to Becure her prize, and entrench herself as strongly among the mountains of Judea as she now is in the Crimea, before the Western Powers have time to throw any barrier in her way. It is possible that Turkey and Russia may sign an ignoble treaty of peace, such as that proposed at Vienna, which neither intends to fulfil, and that the former may be the first to "kick" at the latter ; but this, while it would be the literal fulfilment of another portion of the sacred text, would only also be the dying struggle of the power of the Mufii and Ulemas, ■wliosc sun has already sunk below the horizon of political existence — the conclusion of that change already referred to, when the government of Turkey will pass into the hands of its people, as in England — those who can best wield its sceptre, and direct the progress of science. No objection, therefore, can be brought against our proposal on the score that it runs counter to prophecy : on the contrary, the reformation it proposes is in perfect harmony with what has been long-promised, and consequently must prosper even- tually, whatever obstacles may be experienced in the outset — the prosperity of the arts and sciences, nation- ally speaking, going hand-in-hand, as they have done in this country. In carrying out the details of this important national work, the Turkish Government would have two plans- one or both of which it might adopt. First, it could employ a staff of agricultural engineers from this country, give each a fair sized farm, located so as to suit the different districts; and to avoid speculauon, let them be engaged on the self-supporting system, each farm not only paying all its own expenses and redeeming interest on capital, but also a small rent to the Government, or those who might be proprietor : and second, it might sell large or small estates to suit capitalists, making no distinction between purchasers, but treating its own subjects, and those who might settle and become so, alike : or both these plans could be adopted. But before either could be so {jrofitably, the immense irrigation resources of the country would have to be developed, so as to rouse into action the dormant energy, no less of the soil than inhabitants, especially on the Mediterranean sea- board, where the drought of summer is so severely felt. In the northern provinces, on the shores of the Black Sea, the climate is sufficiently moist, and the soil so well watered naturally, that hundreds of thousands of acres could be broken up immediately, and sown with wheat, with every prospect of plentiful harvests. At the same time, an abundant supply of water at command would everywhere be invaluable, and such works should be laid off, and the necessary steps taken to collect water before any land was sold, as such might throw unforeseen obstacles in the way of subsequent improvement. More- over, this supply of water would enhance the value of land, and thus stimulate sales, increasing the revenue arising therefrom to the Turkish Government. These irrisation works, from being of immense mag- nitude, would require not only an engineering staff for their execution, but a special department of government to protect and control them. The reasons for forming such departments are many and pressing. For new mines of gold and silver, or even salt discovered, branches of the executive would soon be formed for their manage- ment ; and no Moslem soldier would grumble at being called upon to defend them unto death, if necessary. But liere is a source of wealth, far greater than all the gold mines of the world put together, utterly neglected. Yet why should it be so, since neither Islamism, nor any other ism else, stands in the way of its being farmed for the public weal ? The national interest, therefore, THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. 31 wliich Turki'y has at stake here, is such that her govern- ment can no longer overlook and neglect it with impu- nity; for if she continues to do so, the world itself will rise up against her, were her own subjects to be silent. Much of the success of such works would depend upon how they were planned and executed, so as to ir- rigate the country most effectually at the least expense. For this purpose it would have to be surveyed, and the works planned by men of the highest talent and integ- rity ; whila the necessary steps would have to be taken efifectually to exclude the selfish jobbing of Pashas, and the hostility of insubordinate Tartar tribes, who might damage the works, or check their execution. The best plan with the latter would be to give them an interest in the prosperity of the works within their territory, on condition of their protecting them, and complying with the arrangements necessary for their construction. And with regard to Pashas, works of such a character ought never to be under the arbitrary government of any individual, but of a jury of some collective body, so circumstanced as to guarantee the general welfare of the community. No doubt before such political machinery could be successfully set in motion, the Oriental cha- racter of society would have to undergo a certain change ; but with the termination of the present war such a change will be all but completed. In other words, Turkey is at present undergoing a political metamor- phosis. The man who imagines that the war is to have no influence upon the social and political state of Turkey is blind indeed to what is now going on in the East, both morally and politically. The present war, there- fore, is removingthe principal objections which now stand in the way of such improvements, while it is at the same time giving rise to the necessity of their execution. Like railroads, they may be the property of Govern- ment, public or private companies, and individuals, and, like them, executed on contract. Before advertising for estimates, the quantity of water which could be brought to bear upon the soil would be known, and also the re- sults or increase of produce which such would effect, so that when the estimates were received it would at once be known what interest on capital the investment would return ; and there can be no doubt but something far more liberal than what railroads return would be realized. To guess at the magnitude of results in a case of this kind would be highly presumptuous ; at the same time, it would be still more deserving of blame to overlook the effect of water on the parched soils of the East. Independent of aqueducts and reservoirs, a vast amount of hydraulic machinery in the shape of centri- fugal pumps, pipage, steam-engines, &c., &c., would be required for raising and supplying water in the most successful and economical manner. All these could ad- vantageously be received from this country, in exchange for corn, leaving a long balance in favour of Turkey as national profit. Water could be rented to farmers, graziers, and gar- deners at so much per tun. In agreements of this kind the Turkish farmer would know better how to act than we do, from his present experience ; for water is already raised in almost every province of Asia Minor by means of bullocks, at more than double the expense they could have it at from the public companies we propose, leaving the latter a fortune-making profit. There would be no fear, therefore, about the letting of water; for even at the price which it now costs, any amount of it could be sold, if a supply could only be had. This is the most cheering prospect of the plan — that which practically recommends it to the Ottoman Government with so much force as a national measure of necessitous import- ance for the improvement of the empire. Next in importance to irrigation works, are railways. These are not only required for the removal of produce, but for bringing machinery, &c., in return to bear upon the soil. So necessary are they, that it is almost impos- sible to commence agricultural improvement successfully without them, unless on the immediate seaboard ; for the expense of conveying even hydraulic machinery any distance inland would be enormous, owing to the almost entire absence of everything like roads and canals. In England, before the era of railroads, our rivers, canals, and roads enabled us to send our produce to distant markets, and to procure in return the many articles which every farmer requires from the capital and our large manufacturing towns ; but let him figure in his mind the English farmer without these, and he may form a pretty correct idea of the position of the Turkish farmer. And the case of the latter is even worse than that of the former, under such circumstances ; for, from the mountainous state of the country, many of the rivers are not navigable beyond a few miles from the sea. No doubt, river navigation could be greatly improved at very little expense, especially that of Kisil Irmok, Sakaria, and other large rivers of the north ; and thus far might be prudently effected in the outset, to give a general stimulus to the work of improvement. But a country so situated as Anatolia opens up a promising field for railway traffic, there being no opposition almost, and therefore the opening up of it by "iron ways" is the most judicious plan. With a country being opened up by railroads, and irri- gated from its numerous rivers, and possessing a soil and climate the finest in the world, little doubts can be entertained of it as a promising field for agriculture ; and with a prosperous agriculture, doubtless a corres- ponding state of manufactures and commerce would arise. Not even the proverbial indolence of Moslems could withstand the march of progress once in full ad- vance, much less the energies of the Christian popula- tion emancipated from the enslaving thraldom of that bondage which has reduced both them and their country to their present servile condition. No ! for were they once to see fertilizing rivers flowing along the headlands of their thirsty soil, and railway trains, groaning under cargoes of corn and machinery, snorting past them with untiring activity, they would rise up together in triumph over their present degradation, elevating themselves and their country to that position which they ought to oc- cupy in the world. Our numerous Greek readers, in connexion with the corn trade, must sympathise with these remarks, if they cannot bear witness to their sound- ness. It is no doubt possible that some of them may 32 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, think that progress on the part of many Moslems is not very likely ; but granting, for the sake of argument, what we otherwise deny, that such is fact, yet it must not be forgotten that many who are now Moslems for political privileges will be so no longer under the tolerant system which the Ottoman Government must of necessity now adopt ; so that were industry and merit to receive its due reward, as it would then do, Tslamism, according to such an hypothesis, would, like the morning dew, soon cease to exist, and the country once more be restored to the bosom of Christendom. How far British skill and capital would become in- volved in such an enterprise cannot with certainty be said : much would depend upon the political freedom enjoyed. So far as the formation of railroads and con- struction of works for irrigation are concerned, and also agriculturists for good farming, and practical schools of agriculture for the instruction of the rising generation, there would be no want of enterprise ; for our provinces would soon give birth to men who would make them- selves masters of the Turkish language, so as to lead successfully the onward march of things with no less satisfaction to themselves than to their employers. And with regard to what our rulers or readers may think of these speculative remarks, they obviously em- body a great reality, without which the Eastern question, now costing us so much blood and treasure, can never be permanently settled. Note. — Since the above was written, Turkey has taken several initiatory steps in the opening up of the country by railroads and canals, thus proving that Islamism is to be no barrier in the way of those improve- ments contemplated. AN APPEAL TO THE PATRIOTISM OF THE FARMERS. I cannot allow this season to pass without en- forcing again upon the farmers of England, and particularly the young farmers, the duty that rests upon them of instructing their work-people j more especially the male adults and the boys. It is indeed encouraging to note the change of opi- nion that has occurred latterly with respect to this subject, A few years ago the general cry was, " Let the Government organize a plan for National Edu- cation, and let there be a Minister of Public In- struction, as there is in Prussia and France ;" but people are becoming wiser, and they discover that individual untrammelled effort must work out the problem of education. Instead of looking helplessly on, while the engine of the State ponderously toils for the accomplish- ment of this Herculean labour, the people of this country are preparing, I hope, to exclaim, "We are the only persons practically responsible for this mighty achievement." There were three measures for national education introduced during the past session. They were the elaborated designs of per- haps the three fittest individuals in Parliament for such a work. Two only need be mentioned : one proposed by Lord John Russell, a man eminently qualified by his experience to deal with, and provide for, the exigencies of the case ; the other, upon which Sir John Pakington had worked with unre- mitting care and great integrity. Sir John's came first before the notice of the House, and proved by the opposition it met with, that it was beyond the ability of its author to provide for those complica- tions that arise out of the involution of conflicting claims. Lord John Russell then, with manifest trepidation, proposed his measure. Like its prede- cessor, it aroused a storm ; but the loudest voice in that storm was Sir John Pakington's. Indeed, that gentleman, not satisfied with demolishing those principles upon which his Lordship's bill was con- structed, demolished those that supported his own too, and the consequence was that they both fell into oblivion. And this is but an illustration to prove the impossibility, looking at the present state of parties in the country, of there ever arising such a thing as an organized scheme of national instruc- tion. The architects may raise a picturesque ele- vation upon paper, but they never can submit working drawings to the builders. We have here a pretty-widely acknowledged fact. Huge organizations are too cumbersome — too in- operative. It is requisite that delicate instruments be used, to probe and dissect the great body of ignorance. Individual effort is the only means that can accomplish the work both of pubhc in- struction. Indeed, such great engines do manifold injury. Men are satisfied because of the existence of such and such a system. They point from one school- house to another, saying with proud complacency, " See how education flourishes." The very title of " instruction for all" is calculated to deceive a miscal- culating public. They are apt to fancy, that by having the semblance, therefore they have the substance — a common, though not a profitable mistake, truly. Instead of the semblance of education for the whole, it should be our fervent desire to see that there be the substance of it. This substance exhibited in one part will at length spread and propagate its own likeness over all the other parts. It never would be permitted to stand a barren and solitary memo- rial. Other men would soon feel a responsibility in other quarters, who now feel none at all. THE FARMER'S MAGAZLXE. 33 A large share of tliis paramount duty to their country's highest interests should be accepted by that influential body of men — the landowners. And there are many noble examples amongst them of thorough self-devotion to this cause. The motions of the army may excite great attention ; all the fighting is not to be done, however, with Russia : there is fighting at home, for " the foes of a man's house" are more to be feared than they on the tented plain ! We battle against ignorance, and the results of ignorance abroad ; but God forbid we should ever have to arm at home to suppress civil commotion, and to keep the peace — a necessity that may arrive to us if we, too, neglect, and by our neglect foster the same fatal cause. There is a more certain way of routing this enemy, of dispelling this evil genius ; the " book and bell" are symbols to the potency of which he ever surrenders. This work mainly, however, must be seen to, and executed by those who come iiito close contact with the uneducated classes. It is in vain for the farmers to strive to shirk the onus of this responsibility. And when once they see it in the light of a duty — to their country— to their labourers — to themselves, they will, I am convinced, deal manfully with it, and, though with many self-sacrifices, discharge it like true patriots. Nothing is more true than that the poor of the rural districts have it not in their power to educate, or to provide the means to educate, their children : though the schoolmaster may go to their doors, and begthemto send their children free of all charge, they cannot comply. The deplorable circumstances of the labouring population render it the necessity, not so much the economy, of the parents to make every child self-sustaining, so soon as the poor little thing becomes a verb active, and precocious deve- lopment endows him with the sad ability " to do, and to suffer." The significant words with which he has been familiarised from the cradle, " work, work, work !" are the in-all and the end-all of existence to him. The literal translation of them he has found out to be — the essential "pudding of life," his highest de- sire; and while conning this, his first and perhaps only lesson on cause and eflfect, we may suppose that he wonders now and then why the effect is so untrue to the cause, why such a scant supply of pudding follows upon such an amazing expenditure of strength. This dependence of the working man in reference to capital is not less unjust than the possession of the slave by a master ; it is still the continuation of the same fact. And so long as this state shall endure, so long will there be strife, dis- content on both sides, reciprocal danger ; decline at home, and impotence abroad. It is perfectly true that the farmers are not to blame for this stale of things. There are some parts of England in which they are to blame ; but with these known exceptions, as much wages are given, as, considering the enormous pressureexerted upon them from above, they can aflford to pay to their labourers. Under these circumstances the best thing they can do is toenactthe/rierac?, as well as the master. The poor value sympathy more than they do money, and the bonds of unity may be more indissolubly linked by kindly words, and deeds of amity, than by golden rivets. It would be well if some hundreds of young men were to engage practically to write an essay during the next four months upon the page which every village in this kingdom affords for such a theme — ■ this being the subject : How is it possible to miti- gate the intense pressure of these hard conditions ? how raise a class of people upon whose intelhgence and morality we are every way dependent ? We should then have to boast the most splendid contri- bution that has yet been made to the sacred cause of human progress to peace and to order. It is not a small matter to be the benefactor of one's fellow-creatures. The greatest of living historians, Macaulay, has recorded weaker efforts than this would be, to redeem our nation and to raise it in the scale of civilization ! Those great kitchens where the yule-log has burned and shed its merry-making sparks, where the mistletoe has hung, and whose smoked rafters have rung to the hale songs of good cheer which the harvestmen have trolled out with all their mighty force of lungs — yes, these great kitchens must be thrown open once and twice a week, to those earnest bands of men and youths, who are even now await- ing the lifting of the latch and the welcome invita- tion, " Come in." And if the kitchen cannot be so used, or its space be too limited for such a purpose, there is to be ob- tained somewhere in the village a room large enough, that will serve the occasion, and cost little or nothing. The determined Will never draws back. Is there an obstacle in the way, it is shattered ; if it cannot shatter, it goes round ; if it cannot go round, it goes over ; and if it cannot go over, it tunnels through. Will is omnipotent. One element of your work, and that the princi- pal, is ready to your hand — the people to be taught. When the nation's forms were set, in the time of the good King Alfred, the cry of " All in, all in !" had very little effect. The birch rod had to go out amongst the elders and the youths alike, and bring them with tingling skins to their lessons. You have but to open your doors, and your rooms are filled. " But when we have them there," you ask, " what are we to do with them?" Teach them. "Teach them what ?" First impart to them the rudiments of all D 34 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. knowledge, and above all things teach them that you love them, and have their temporal, spiritual, and moral welfare at your heart's core. This latter is a worthy lesson, and though learnt slowly is but the more surely learnt. Be assured that the work is very easy. Such scholars are not critical ; and the teacher, however much his own education may have been neglected. will have plenty of time to keep La ahead of his pupils. Particular power is not necessary, but par- ticular painstaking. Nor is it with rare and extraordinary talents con- ferred upon the few, but with habits and principles which may be cultivated by all, that are linked our best securities for the reformation of the world. F. R. S. THE BEST SYSTEMS OF TENURE TO INSURE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. THE PROPER To a country like England, limited in extent, and with a daily-increasing population, rendering her more or less dependent upon wheat of foreign growth, it would appear to be of the first moment that her laws regarding the purchase and letting of land should be as near perfect as legal application and practical requirement would make them. The grand object is to secure the largest amount of produce, by giving all possible scope to the talent and capital of the occupier, and, at the same time, securing the landlord from injury arising from the wilfulness or ignorance of the tenant. Let us take a cursory glance at the system pur- sued, with its results. The prevailing mode of let- ting land in most English counties is by the old system of yearly tenancy, subject to determination at six months' notice, and, too frequently, without any well considered agreement. A yearly tenant has indeed no security whatever for any outlay he may have made for the improvement of the farm. Let him drain, or manure ever so wisely, the benefit is secured to him for six months only, from the time of his receiving notice. Upon the arable portion the landlord claims the straw entirely, and the hay and green food for cattle at a slight remune- ration only, or compels the tenant to fodder out the whole with cattle, without compensating him for the manure that may be left after such process is ended. In fact, such are the restrictions and the power exercised, that few tenants will be found to advance the cultivation of their occupation by a ne- cessary application of capital and skill, feeling assured that it will only tend to produce one of two results, viz., an advance in the amount paid as rent, or the necessity of quitting the land upon their refusal to comply with this demand. The other mode generally resorted to is by a demise of the lands upon lease for a term of years, at a fixed or fluctuating rent, dependent upon the price of grain, or other farm produce; and to guard the interests of the landlord, several skins of parch- ment are usually written over in legal form, mak- ing the most absurd restrictions upon cultivation and management, and inflicting heavy penalties by way of increased rents during the remainder of the term. Any one of these is of itself sufficient to ruin a tenant, should the landlord ever bring them to bear upon him ; whilst, on the other hand, what- ever improvements the occupier may have made, become as " dust in the balance" when the day of reckoning arrives, and which, whenever he may become obnoxious as a tenant, is pretty certain to be accomplished. It will be seen, then, that by neither m.ode is secu- rity given to the public for the due cultivation and proper management of the soil. By a bare yearly tenancy, the outlay of capital is restricted, or not secured; neither is the due cultivation of the land provided for ; and by lease, the tenant becomes so much restricted by obnoxious covenants, that he is rendered unable to cultivate the land with ad- vantage. Should he attempt to do so upon any system that may appear to him better, he will pro- bably render himself open to expulsion from the farm by ejectment, or be subject to increased rents in such amount as to render it impossible for him to continue the occupation. If a well-defined system of letting and hiring land were adopted for particular districts, no reasonable objection could be taken to yearly tenancies ; but in that case, agreements of leases for one year should always be entered into, and which agree- ments might be so drawn as to remain in force until either party gave to the other six months' notice, computed from the expiration of each yearly hiring. Such agreements should stipulate the course or rotation of the cropping, should provide for the remuneration of improvements made by the tenant, in proportion as they might be unexpended, and also for the payment of the straw and hay and root crops, at what they might be worth to expend upon the land, with the value of the manure that would arise therefrom in addi- tion. Or a full market value should be allowed for (less the cost of converting into money) the hay and straw, and such price by valuation as the root THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 35 crops would prodnce if sold to be consumed upon the land. Other restrictions upon the tenant, by way of repairs, ought never to exist under yearly ten- ancies. The landlord should take them entirely upon himself, and look to the money sum paid by way of rent alone for his compensation. In leases, an open and unrestricted system of cultivation should be allowed, so far as could be accomplished to secure the landlord from injury, by stipulating that a certain amount of land for fallow and green crops should be annually made; a certain limitation as to the quantity of grain crops to be yearly grown, and their rotation, should be properly defined ; and, instead of heavy penalties, or increased rents, some mode of arbitration should be set forth, whereby the landlord might call upon the tenant, at any time during the lease, to pay for any damage that might accrue to the farm by his mismanagement. And, in the event of his persisting in such a course as, in the opinion of the arbi- trators, had become injurious to the property, a certificate from them to that effect being obtained, the landlord should have full power to eject the tenant, by notice in the same manner as when under a yearly tenancy. We trust that in advancing these propositions our endeavours will be considered and accepted as an attempt to better secure the interests of both landlord and tenant, as well as to insure to the public the largest production of human food from the soil — vtfhich we hold will never be accom- plished until the tenant feels that his capital is safe, and his occupation secure. MOLASSES FOR FEEDING PURPOSES. The Field gives the following : — Last spring, when feeding stuffs became scarce and unusually dear, it became of much importance that every product of the farm, containing nutriment, however small, should be made available. Oilcake was no longer economical, but a necessary evil. It was in this emergency that some of the farmers in Nor- folk, Suffolk, and Essex, availed themselves of their wheat- straw for feeding purposes ; for they found it of much greater importance than is commonly supposed; containing, as it does, a considerable portion of nutriment — too much to throw away, but not sufficient to be palatable to stock and profitable for feeding purposes without additional aid. Hitherto farmers have been too apt to consider straw of little worth, because it was not saleable, and is rarely estimated separately from the yearly produce of the soil. But though seldom saleable, except in the vicinity of towns, it has an in- trinsic value ; not only for making manure, but as a means of feeding stock. As the amount of saccharine matter contained in our root eiops, hay, &c., determines in a great measure their respective value ; and as all animals are fond of sugar and treacle, these articles first suggested themselves as the best combination to turn into account the nutriment contained in straw. On in- quiry, however, it was found that the inferior sugar paid a duty of £11 per ton, and treacle £4 Ss. per ton ; and, considering the composition of each, it was obviously in favour of the latter — the cost, with duty paid, being £16 10s. per ton, or about l|d, per lb. We find, from Professor Johnson, that 450 lbs. of good wheat-straw is, in uutritive matter, equal to 112 lbs. of good upland hay ; the question then arose, how can 450 lbs. of strav/ be made of the same value as 450 lbs. of good hay, and at what cost? It was thought by those who had considerable experience in the use of treacle, that to make 450 lbs. of straw correspond in value to its weight in hay, it would require 18 lbs. of treacle to every cwt, of straw ; and the calculation stood thus :-~ 450 lbs. of good hay 450 lbs. of good wheat-straw 0 8 £ s. d. 12 0 0 72 lbs. of treacle, at Ijd 0 10 6 Expense of cutting the straw into chaff and mixing the treacle 0 1 0 0 19 Difference 0 2 6 Or about 12s. 6d. per ton iti favour of the use of molasses ; beside? valuing the straw as though the farmer bad the advan- tage of living near a town, and the privilege of selling it off the farm, which few have • indeed, under the most liberal agreements, the farmer is not allowed, at the expiration of his tenancy, more than a consuming price of one-third the value for the straw he leaves. If this calculation bears the test of a trial, how wonderfully it may add to a farmer's resources at all times, but particu- larly in a season of scarcity ! I must observe here that it was made in April last (1855), but since then the price of treacle has advanced. It seems to me extremely likely that if the plan of using molasses succeeds, and becomes general, it must come seriously into competition with oilcake, and make it more reasonable ia price ; because oilcake will be made, whether or not it can be sold at a high price, as long as oil shall be crushed from seed ; and, if a high price cannot be obtained for the cake, the oil- crushers will take a much less price rather than keep it. The price of cake either keeps the price of oil lower than it would be, or gives a higher profit to the oil-crushers. Should the price of oil remain the same, after farmers shall have manufac- tured mixtures at home for feeding their cattle, it will show that oilcake has hitherto realized extravagant prices — which I have for some time suspected to be the case, as I cannot understand why au article that must be made at all events, should realise iu the market so large a price as £12 and £13 pet ton, unless the demand for it was inordinate. I believe that the experience of farmers in the eastern coun- ties proves molasses to be a safe and economical method o feeding bullocks, sheep, young stock, and cart-horses, and for milking-cows to a certain extent. c 2 36 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Bullocks have been kept in equally good fattening condition by using 1 lb. of treacle per day with cut straw, thereby saving I5 bushels of roots. It is considered best used with roots, cut small, and a little meal, well mixed together, with cut straw or inferior hay ; and it is thought more ecouomical to spend a shilling on a fattening bullock after the following scale— 4d. root, 5d. corn or cake, 3d. treacle and chaff — than to give either more root or more corn. For every descriptiou of feeding sheep it answers well ; but its probable influence on breeding ewes will be considered afterwards, in its application to dairy cows. It is an excellent mode of rearing young stock : they are found to grow famously. Cart horses thrive wonderfully upon it; but it is thought it can only be used with advantage to horses of slow draught, and not for the race-horse, hunter, carriage-horse, or hack. Cut straw, with a solution of treacle, is quite equal in value to good or middling hay, in proportion to the amount of sac- charine matter added to it, and I should recommend its use for dairy cows up to a certain point ; that is, as far as making straw equal in value to hay, during trying springs, and in making inferior hay (of which, I believe, there is much this season) nutritious and relishing. But, beyond this, I recommend that it be used cautiously, from its reported tendency to diminish the secretions of, and cause an incipient disease of, the liver ; which, although favourable to the production of fat, is not equally so to milk and cream. It is a well-known fact, that when ewes in lamb have been principally fed on root-crops, some time before the lambiug season, their lambs are small, and themselves deficient in milk. When ewes are wholly placed upon turnips, abortion is brought on, and particularly so when the turnips have been grown with guano. These causes are, by some farmers, supposed to arise from an excess of saccharine matter in the roots. And if this be the effect on ewes, I should be afraid of using it too freely to dairy cows, or any other description of breeding auimal. By consuming wheat-straw, a farmer returns nearly as much phosphate of lime (for which his land is so grateful) as though he consumed meadow-hay ; and by using an acre of wheat- straw, he benefits himself more in point of nutritive matter than if he used an acre of oat- straw ; for, in an experiment by an eminent chemist, it was found, that the acre of wheat produced SOOOIbs. of straw, which afforded 1250 lbs. of nutritive matter; and an acre of oat-straw, weighing 2700 lbs., gave 1161 lbs. of nutritive matter. I was told by a leading agriculturist, who had a good deal of experience in its use, that he believed the number of sheep and cattle upon many farms would be augmented by 25 or 30 per cent, at least, by giving roots in diminished quantity, with a liberal supply of sweetened cut straw. With the limited ex- perience farmers have, in the use of molasses, the coraiiarative value of the manure made by using treacle has not, I believe, been ascertained. W. Beckett, Agent to the Suffolk Estates of — Tollemache, Esq. ARTIFICIAL GUANO FROM FISH. Since the time when a sort of premium was offered for the discovery of a manure equal, or approaching in its fertilizing pDwer, to good imported guauo, it became an object of import- ance with me to urge forward the progress of investigation. I proposed, in quarters more or less influential, to employ the refuse of fish, everywhere wherein it could be found in quanti- ties; and now, in consequence of having met with an article tending, though not directly, to bear upon the subject, I shall bring the substance of it before the readers of the Marifc Lane Express. They who hope to manufacture a home compost that can compete with that costly manure, which now has risen in price to £11 and £12 per ton, must not be content with employing fish alone; the fecal excretae of birds are required to contribute those substances, uriuary and alviue, that pass together from poultry and birds of all descriptions. With this remark I come to the article named above. The salmon— that king of fish— with its congeners, ar^ losing ground with us ; their numbers have long been on the decrease, and unless some counter efforts be speedily resorted to, their extinction may be more than threatened. Au artifi- cial means of increase has lately been proposed, particularly by our neighbours, and now allies, the French, which has excited great attention. The annexed passage from an article upon fish-culture (" Pisciculture," Ft.), can scarcely fail to startle those readers who are interested in a discovery that will tend to promote very general comfort in the first place, and then lead to a corresponding agricultural profit. "' About the middle of last century salmon abounded in many of our northern rivers ; we have an authenticated account of no fewer than 2,500 having been caught at one haul in the river Thurso. For many years the decrease has been general and rapid, so as to give rise to the apprehension that if the fish- eries do not become altogether ruined, they will cease to be of great national importance. While the rental on the Tweed iu 1814 amounted to £20,000, we now find it as low as £5,000 ; and in 18*6 only 3,000 boxes were sent from Berwick-upon- Tweed, whereas iu 1801 the number was 13,000. A somewhat similar ratio of decrease has taken place in most of the great salmon rivers." Space is not at command to eater upon the details of the numerous processes employed in France to multiply in profu- sion the species of the salmon family ; they must be deferred to another opportunity, as it would be unjust to slur over the leading facts which are already patent. If the eve-varying prices of salmon be of little moment to those who can afford to purchase it as a luxury, at from 25 to 300 per cent, above that of butcher's meat, so far well ; but if the interests of the lower and working classes be worthy of consideration, the more than thorough renovation of the exhausting sources, and the adop- tion of means which could ensure an abundance far surpassing that of by -gone times, ought to be undertaken as au impera- tive duty. V/herever fish abounds, its offal would be at hand ; and thus a quantity of decomposable organic matter would come within reach of theagrieultural interest, in a condition more appropriate to the desired object thau when the sprat and herring were thrown over arable laud, as some twenty or thirty years ago they used to be, to the great annoyance of a whole neighbourhood. Croydon. John Towers. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 37 MEETING OE THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT CIRENCESTER. If proof were wanting of the growing popularity of agricul- tural meetings, it would be found in the gratifying result of that which was held on the 6th Dec, at Cirencester. For a long series of years two local societies have existed in this county — the Cirencester and the Gloucestershire — between which some little jealousy was maintained. This is now hap- pily quite overcome by the amalgamation of the two : thus, the farmers of the hills and the vale are brought together in a spirit of the most unqualified concord. It has been our good fortune to atteud many local agricultural meetings, but we never remember one the success of which has been more de- cided than this has been. The meeting was held in Oakley Park, under the pa- tronage of Earl Bathurst, the president of the society for the year. His lordship took the chair at the dinner (held at the King's Head), which was well .supported, more than two hundred guests being present, among whom were Viscount Emlyn, M.P., the Honourables W. Bathurst, A. Ponsouby, M.P., the Hon. and Rev. G. Talbot, Messrs. E. Holland, M.P., J. R. MuUins, M.P., T. W. C. Master, J. H. Elwes, E. Bouley, F. Cripps, T. C. Hayward, D. Niblet, J. J. Mechi, and many other gentlemen of the county and neighbour- hood. Many able and interesting speeches were made on the leading agricultural topics of the day. As will be seen by the list of awards, Mr. Stratton, as usual, carried off the prizes for shorthorns ; and it is only an act of justice to the unsuc- cessful competitors to observe that his were most superlatively fine animals. There were some good specimens of the Cots- wold sheep, and the pigs were worthy of general commenda- tion. The show of horses was the weakest feature of the exhibition, and with the exception of a remarkably clever hunter, the property of Mr. Plummer, we cannot eulogise the others in the terms we should wish. The show of poultry was excellent, and the pen of Dorkings to which the first prize was awarded were most splendid birds. Several additional premiums were proposed for next year by gentlemen having a local interest in the welfare of the neigh- bourhood, among which we must notice in the highest terms the offer of Mr. D. FuUerton, [for the most promising colt or filly, four years old, adapted for hunting ; an example which we hope to see followed at many other meetings. LIST OF PREMIUMS. We, the under-signed, the Judges appointed to determine and award the several premiums offered by this Society, do make our award as follows : — SHORT-HORNS AND OTHER BREEDS, EXCEPT HEREFORDS AND DEVONS. For the best bull above two years old, lOZ., J. H. Langstcn, Esq., M.P., Sarsden; second best 51., Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton. For the best bull above one and under two years old, I0l„ Mr. William Hewer, Sevenbampton ; second best 5L, Mr. Thomas Morris, Maisemore. For the best bull, cow, and offspring, lOZ., Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton ; second best 51., Mr. William Slatter, Stratton. For the best breeding cow, 6^., Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton ; second best 31., Edward Bowly, Esq., Siddington. For the best pair of breeding heifers under three years old, 101., Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton ; second best 51., Mr. Thomas Mace, Sherborne. Commended : Those shown by E. Bowly, Esq., of Siddington; Mr. John Beach, Red- marley Park. For the best pair of breeding heifers under two years old, 8Z., Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton ; second best Al, Edward Bowly, Esq., Siddmgton. HEREFORDS AND DEVONS. For the best bull above two years old, lOl., Mr. William Perry, Cholstrey ; second best 51., W. Styles Powell, Esq., Hereford. For the best bull above one and under two years old, lOZ., Mr. W. Racsterd, Thringhill; second best 5L, Robert Bid- dulph, Esq., Ledbury. For the best bull, cow, and offspring, lOl., J. E. Lloyd Hewer, Esq., Hereford ; second best 51., Mr. William G. Bennett, North Cerney. For the best breeding cow, 61., Jaines Ackers, Esq., Priuk- nash Park; second best 31., Mr. John Smith, Sevenbampton. For the best pair of breeding heifers under three years old, Wl., Mr. William Racsterd, Thringhill; second best 5L, Mr. John Smith, Sevenbampton. For the best pair of breeding heifers under two years old, 81., Mr. Edward Price, Pembridge ; second best il., James Ackers, Esq., Prinknash Park. FAT CATTLE. For the best fat steer, 6/ , Right Hon. Earl of Radnor, Coleshill; second best 41., Mr. R. Stratton, Broad Hinton. For the best fat cow, 61., Mr. R. Stratton, Broad Hinton. We highly commend the cows shown by Mr. John Lane as extra stock. SHEEP— LONG WOOLS. For the best 10 breeding ewes, not more than 35 months old, lOZ., Mr. William Smith, Bibury; second best 5?., Mr. W. G. Bennett, North Cerney. For the best 10 breeding theaves, cot more than 23 months old, lOZ., R. A. College, Cirencester; second best 51., Mr. William Smith, Bibury. For the best 10 ewe lambs, not more than 11 months old, 5Z., Mr. Thomas Porter, Baunton. SHORT WOOLS. For the best 5 breeding ewes, not more than 35 months old, 51., Mr. G. N. Hulbert, Bagendon. For the best 5 breeding theaves, not more than 23 months old, 51., Mr. G. N. Hulbert, Bagendon. CROSS BREED. For the best 5 breeding ewes, not more than 35 months old, 51., Edward Bowly, Esq., Siddington. For the best 5 breeding theaves, not more than 23 months old, 51., Mr. Charles Randell, Chadbury ; second best 21. lOs., Edward Holland, Esq., M.P., Dumbleton. FAT SHEEP— LONG WOOLS (of any breed or cross). For the best 3 shearhogs, not more than 23 months old, 6Z., Mr. V/illiam Slatter, Stratton ; second best, 31., Mr. William Hewer, Sevenbampton. For the best 10 wether tegs, not more than 11 months old, 51., Mr. James Newman, Calmsden. For the best 3 fat ewes, 5Z., Mr. William Slatter, Stratton. We highly commended Mr. W. Smith's ewes as extra stock. SHORT WOOL (of any breed or cross). For the best 3 shearhogs, not more than 23 months old, 6Z., Mr. Samuel Davis, Roves Farm ; second best 3Z., Mr. Charles Randell, Chadbury. Commended— extra stock — Mr. William Smith, Bibury, S-ewes. PIGS. For the best fat pig, 31, Mr. E. Ruck, Down Ampney. We commend all the pigs in this class. For the best boar pig under a year old, 4Z., Mr. Charles Randell, Chadbury. 33 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. For the best boar pig mere than a year old, 4.I., J. C. Ben- gotigh, Esq., The Ridge. For the best sow pig under a year old, 31., Mr. E. Drew. We highly commend Mr. W. Hewer's, Seveuhampton. Com- mende.l, Mr. Thomas Blandford. For the best sow pig over a year old, Zl, Mr. W. Hewer, Sevenhamptou We commend all in this class. We particularly commend eleven pigs, the prodare of the prize sow in this class. HORSES. For the best mare and foal (her o'.vn offapriag) for agricul- tural purposes, 8Z., Mr. Samuel Bidmead, Bisleyj second best, 41., Mr. William Kayward, Kemble. For the bist stallion for agricultural purposes, lOl., Mr. John Duck. For the best filly for agricultural purposes, 51, Mr. Samuel Bidmead, Bisley; second best, 3/., Edward Holland Esq., M.R, Dumbleton. For the best horse or mare between the ages of four and six years (got by a tl>orough-bred horse) adapted for the road as a hack and in harness, and also for hunting, 10/., Mr. Stephen Plumraer, Sjddintrtou, highly deserving the prize. ROOTS. For the twelve best swede turnips, drawn from a field of not less than four acres, II., Mr. R. Stratton, Broad Hinton. For the twelve best mangold wurtzel, drawn from a patch of not less than one acre, 1/., Mr. W. J. Sadler, Pnrtoa. For the twelve best carrots, drawn from a patch of not less than cne acre, \l., Charles Lawrence, Esq., Cirencester. For the twelve beat cabbages, drawn Irom a patch of not less thaM one acre, 1?., Charles Lawrence, Esq., Cirencester. WHEAT. For the best sack of red wheat grown in the year 1855, taken from a wiunowiUKof not less than sixty bushels, 2Z. 10s., Mr. G. N. Hulbert, Bagendou. CHEESE. For the best hundredweight of thick cheese, not more than six cheesea totlie hundred-weight, 2Z.,Mr. V/.Surman,Maise- more. For the best hundred-weight of thin cheese, 5?., Mr. W. Sarman, Maisemore. We must express our surprise at the small number of slieep shown, especially in the breeding classes, in this sheep district. Some of the animals in the breeding sheep classes we consider to be in too high condition. JAMES WALKER, HENRY MANN, Fudges, WILIJAM COTHER, THE WIRRAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY ON AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. RESOLUTIONS adopted at a Meeting op the WiKUAL Agricultural Impkovement Society, CALLED roil THE PURPOSE OP DISCUSSING THE MEASURES HITHERTO ADOPTED BY THE GOVERNMENT FOR COLLECTING THE STATISTICS OP AGRICULTURE IN England, and held at the Monks' Ferry Hotel, Birkenhead, on the Gth of November, 1855. This meeting hiving had brought before it, and having con- sidered, the following documents, via.: — 1. — The Reports of Sir John Walshara and Mr. Hawley on the Agricultural Statistics of Norfolk and Hamp- shire, 1854; 2. — The Reports of Poor- Law Inspectors on Agricultural Statistics (England), 1854 ; and 3. — The Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords appointed to inquire into the best mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural Statistics from all parts of the United Kingdom, and to report thereon to the House, together with the Minutes of Evideace and the Appendix, 1855 ; Have Resolved — 1. — That the legitimate purpose of the proposed system of agricultural statistics is to inform producers of, and dealers in, agricultural produce, as frequently and as rapidly as may be, of variations in the quantity produced, from time to time, ia the United Kingdom. 2. — That this iuformation, to be trustworthy, must be com- plete ; and that to be complete, it must be gathered at one time iato one place, and issued thence in such a manner as to be readily accessible to, and easily understood by, all who may think proper to avail themselves of it. 3. — That the only valid objections which have been or are ofifered by the producers to all or any of the schemes for col- lecting agricultural statistics, resolve themselves into an un- willingness on the pait of individuals needlessly to expose their affairs to other persons. 4. — That this unwillingaess, when duly inquired into, will, in most cases, be found to be justified by an unsatisfactory state of the relatioa of landlord and tenant; and occasionally, though less frequently, by other circumstances. 5. — That whether this unwillingness to furnish the required information be or be not justifiable, there can be no doubt that it exists to an extent likely, if it be not duly cared for, to vitiate, more or less, the results of the inquiry. 6. — That no compulsory enactment will be suflScient to over- come the effect of this unwillingness, so long as it takes the form referred to in the third resolution. 7. — That it is not essential to a complete collection, classifi- cation, and publication of the required statistics, that any such disclosure of the affairs of individuals as is objected to, should take place ; and heace, that those who candidly eutertaia such objection are justified in resisting the operation of any scheme which shall not at least render such disclosure improbable. S. — That whatever the method employed, the iuformation demanded cannot be put into a shape adapted for its sole legitimate use — the use of the public at large — until it has all been collected into a single office in London. 9. — That the less it is meddled with, in point of form, from the time it leaves the hands of the producer, till it passes into such an office, the more likely is the result to be correct. 10. — That it is not the end, but the method of attaining it, that is objected to; and that this method will continue to be objectionable to the producer so long as he shall be required, iu rendering the information called for, to submit it, against his will, to the scrutiny of any person whatever iu his own locality. 11. — That the interference of local officers should therefore, and especially in the present state of thiugs, be limited to the distribution of the necessary forms, the instruction of tliose who may need instruction in filling them up, and any assist- ance the authorities in Ijondon may need, after the returns have been sent in to the head olBce, iu ascertaining (1) that each person re-,uired to make a return has made one ; and ('^) whether, where suspicion of error or fraud exists, the suspicion is well or ill-foundeJ. 12. — That it is not deuied, or even doubted, that a local in- spection of details would tend to check fraud or error as sources of inaccuracy. And were the position of the tenant- farmer, in general, in a more satisfactory state, the application of this check would not be objected to. But this Society is strongly of opinion that, as things are, all who are interested iu the formation of a sound system of agricultural statistics — and none can be more interested than the tenant-farmer him- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 89 self— and shall, in a candid spirit, take the trouble to acquaint themselves with the facts, will not only see that this check is at present inapplicable, but will also recognize in its non- applicabilitjf, and the probable consequences, an additional reason, on behalf of the public interest, for every effort that maybe made to place the tenant-farmer in a position better adapted to the increased wealth and intelligence of the class, and more in accordance with the spirit of the age. 13. — That in order to obviate all reasonable objections on the part of the tenant-farmer, this Society would sasrgest that each occupier, havi.ig received his schednle, and such instruc- tions for filling up as he may think proper to require of the district enumerator, shall be at liberty either to hand the schedule, when filled up, to the enuocerator, or to send it, by post, direct to the Board of Trade. And that in order to enable the officers appointed to examine and classify the schedules in London to detect omissions or errors, the enume- rators be required to send to London, with such schedules as may be handed to them, a list of the occupiers to whom they had delivered schedules, with the number of acres in the ocoupatiou of each, to be taken from the local rate-books — a measure this Society believes woald be practicably efficient, and satisfactory in its resuks to all p.utics. 11. — That these rtsoluticns be published, in such a manner as the Committee of Management may deem most likely to render them useful. Signed on behalf of the meeting, J. T. Danson, Barnston, Chairman. W. B. BuKNHAM, Spital, Hon. Sec. DRY DRILL v, WATER DRILL. Sir, — The water drill has now ceased to be a novelty. Since last year its use in this neighbourhood has been very greatly ex- tended ; and opinions relative to its value on our fen soils have undergone a thorough change. Many who last year re- garded it with a good deal of suspicion and apprehension, have since bee:i led to acknowledge its merits, and have pronounced favourably of its effects where it has been submitted to a trial ; and I feel fully persuaded that the more extensively the water drill is used, and the more thoroughly and impartially its worth as compared with the dry drill is tested, the more largely will it gain esteem and favour ; and whatever a man's sentiments may be, and however formidable his prejudices may appear, they must of necessity yield to the force of facts ac- quired by actual experiment. Hence it occurs that a simple narrative of facts is always far more fruitful of conviction than a mere statement of opinions, however well formed or well expressed. But to ascertain facts with correctness, ex- periments require to be carried out with the utmost cate and fairness. This I endeavoured to do last year, and gave to the public the results with every needfcl particular. And again this year I have been induced to make a similar series of ex- periments, and throughout have endeavoured to observe the strictest impartiality. I append a table showing full particulars of these different trials, the whole of which were made with mangels. But I may here observe, that this year I also made a pre- cisely similar class of experiments with coleseed, and although I cannot furnish actual results, as such a crop cannot be tested by the weigJting machine, as the mangels can, I may however state that the water drill produced from 30 to 50 per cent, more feed than the dry drill, all other things being equal. I ought also to remark that all these several experiments, as well as those of the mangels, were Inspected and carefully examined by several practical farmers, resident in the neighbourhood, and who can bear testimony to the perfect accuracy of my statements. Upon referring to the table 1 elow, it will be seen that in Nos. 1, 2, and 3 there is considerably less produced per acre, from both drills, than in Nos. 4 and 5. This arises entirely from the fact that in Nos. 1, 2, and 3 the soil is of a very hot, gravelly nature, and consequently much less adapted for the growth of mangels than Nos. 4 and 5, where the subsoil is cool and moist, and the land necessarily much less affected by drought. But notwithstanding this, Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are soils of greatly superior quality to Nos. 4 and 5 for general farming purposes. I feel it important to offer these few explanatory observations, although the relative merits of the two drills are in no degree affected by these peculiar circumstances. ^2; ™ o vt >(^ t5 ta i~i re "«> so > > p > P > > 2 S^ 0 "b ►3 s ■a B -a IS B. *n_ '-t ^ c 5, a. 12, >~l^ §8 to to to 05 VI to 03 ? a -^ o O O O 1-^ o o o n o o O O CT- cf CJ- & cr w a- n r& n ro fl> S" ff <^ --i ■-< f^ *^ re B 1— 1 t— 1 1— ' i-J y~t P.I ^^ ^ v\ o> Oi b ^ e ^ W ^ G t b 3 ^ k-S 70 ^ p *-i » .^ so ,•2 £. a B" '^l ro «< (S «< fT '< s- '< 2 S p ft) ch a. g. 3j a. a, ex. •^ Q^ fn^ a. 5: 2; (—• )—' I—* l-J ts to i-i H- ' H.. h- ' l£H kH i=k- ti>- lOt- Wi- KH (if- B- as %% £,§ 2.§ o|2,l2>« O rt * err |_ cwt. ofl cwt. B't-iB (1) J (H t-^3 ... 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I am very truly yours, Alfred S. Ruston. JVe7wy Bmd, Chatteris, Nov, 8, 1855. 40 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. STEAM CULTURE. — THE PLOUGH In a former article we found considerable difficulty in the way of steam culture on the rotary principle. At present we propose investigating a few of the objections to steam ploughing. Of late it has become fashionable, with a certain section of the public mind, to condemn — though re- verenced by our forefathers with a sort of religious veneration — the plough, as possessing all the bad quali- ties imaginable. "Squeezing," "screwing," "wedg- ing," " consolidating," &c., have become as familiar to the ear as " household words." With perfect cultiva- tion it has nothing to do. The baron's hall and the ploughman's cabin, as well as the fireside of the farmer, have rung with the ever- welcome toast of " Speed the plough ;" but the mechanical progress of steam -going times is about to proscribe all this. In short, to enu- merate all the imperfections of the plough would fill a volume. That conclusions of this kind are premature, is a pro- position which hardly requires proof; for though " there is nothing perfect under the sun," it is always prudent to observe the well-known practical maxim, " Throw not aside a bad tool until a better is found." It will be high time to condemn plough cultivation when mechanical science has given the agricultural world something better to supply its place. The objections to the plough are not only thus easily set aside by a general sweeping refutation as above, but when taken up individually will be found much less tenable at the bar of practice. For example : (1). The first we have to notice is " squeezing." The mould-board or " turnover" squeezes the furrow-slice, and thus (we are informed) injures the soil. Now, those who arrive at this conclusion must never have answered the question. What is squeezing ? or they would have discovered that, instead of doing harm, it produces the opposite effect by breaking the furrow- slice, and thus permeating it for seration. One of the principal characteristics of a good ploughman is, that he squeezes the furrow- slice equally from headland to headland ; whereas a bad one turns over parts of it un- squeezed, leaving them behind him " flat" in the furrow like a brick from a brickmaker's mould. In a similar manner, in horticulture, the intelligent gardener, when digging, squeezes the clods rather roughly with his spade, chopping them with its edge where this is insufficient. With him, squeezing is one of the great realities of sue- cessful culture, the imaginary spell of evil never enter- ing his mind. On the contrary, were any one to tell him squeezing did harm, he would briefly answer, " No squeezing, no crop." The idle, slovenly horticulturist, again, takes it easy in seed-time, and reaps accordingly in harvest. If any of our readers will examine the work behind a good and bad ploughman, and compare the properly-squeezed furrow-slice with the parts not squeezed at all, he will readily perceive the important work which the heel or back part of the mould-board performs. In the former, for example, it breaks the furrow-slice into innumerable pieces with a crushing, drawing action, leaving it so full of cracks and fissures that it cannot be lifted whole ; whereas in the latter the furrow-slice either falls from the fore-part of the mould-board, or if it reaches the back-part, escapes, owing to its dimensions or position of the plough, imperfectly squeezed, and often scarcely touched at all after it is turned over ; consequently it is left behind the plough comparatively free from fissures, having no more than what were effected by the share and fore-part of the mould-board, so that large lumps may be lifted, with scarcely a crack in them. Between the fissures thus made by the fore part and back part of the mould-board, there is a characteristic difference deserving of special notice. In the former, for instance, the fracture is made without any longi- tudinal displacement of parts, so that the two sides readily adhere together again, forming an unbroken whole behind the plough. The crushing action of the back part, on the contrary, displaces the two sides of the fracture, so that they are united again with greater difficulty even in the case of clay soils, while on those of a friable character a union seldom takes place at all. Between the two, it will thus be seen there is a wide difference in favour of the aeration of the soil — one of the most important conditions required to effect success- ful culture, especially of clay lands. During wet weather, in winter, when tenacious soils are full of water and in a poachy state, an objection to squeezing may be raised on the grounds that fissures are not then made ; but the best refutation of this is a practical one, for clay lands in such a state ought never to be ploughed unless under circumstances of the most extreme necessity ; and even then the question resolves itself into one of comjiarison between rectilinear and rotary action. Now, it is manifest that when crushing by the back part of the mould-board will not produce fissures, rotary action can produce no improvement. One of the great advantages to be realized by steam culture is obviously this — that the farmers of clay lands may then profitably keep a sufficient strength of steam engines to cultivate their farms between the wet and dry, in which condition the squeezing of the plough is the most effective. Those who have any experience in the cultivation of this class of soils must be familiar with this fact, wnd the benefits arising from it, and there- fore will readily appreciate the importance of steam power in comparison with that of horses ; for an engine when idle costs nothing, whereas our teams when not in harness soon eat off their own heads. (2). The objection — "Screwing" — has obviously re- ference to the action of the middle part of the mould- board — that which inverts the furrow-slice. First, the share and fore part with the coulter separate the sod THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41 from the unploughed land, elevating it gradually more and more on the " land side';" secondly, as the plough advances, the middle part turns it over in a screwing or twisting manner, depositing it in the furrow on its edge ; and, thirdly, the back part squeezes the furrow-slice into its proper position, keeping the open furrow-tract of the implement at a uniform width. Now the effect produced by this screwing process is, less or more, to break the furrow-slice, especially on the upper two sides; consequently, instead of doing harm, the reverse is produced. (3). The wedging action of the plough is one of the greatest objections brought against it. First, the sole or heel compresses the subsoil, counteracting the work of drainage ; secondly, the deposit from the wearing of the iron forming the immense wedge poisons both the soil and subsoil with Ihe protoxide of iron ; thirdly, from the large surface of soil in contact with the wedge, and from the lever action of the beam and handles working less or more against each other and this wedge, the draught of the implement greatly exceeds in proportion the work produced. These and many other grave objections of a similar character are brought against the wedging action of the plough. Now, what do they all amount to ? Simply nothing ; for in steam culture the objectionable parts may be profitably dispensed with; so that the objection is levelled against an implement which may never have existence beyond a few trials at the commencement. Under the improve- ments contemplated, the share and coulter are the only parts of the plough which would act as wedges, the mould-board being merely an inclined plane or turnover for inverting the farrow-slice ; and as the effect pro- duced by the whole of this inclined plane is the cracking and breaking of the furrow-slice, it consequently follows from what we have already said, that, instead of doing barm, it produces the opposite effect. Those who bring this objection against the plough, obviously overlook the nature of the wedge as a mechanical power ; the fsct being that all cultivating im- plements are wedges, and that the majority of rotary ones proposed are more powerful wedges than the plough. The coulter and share, for instances, are more powerful wedges than the mould-board and sole. All the tilling apparatus of harrows, grubbers, scarifiers, and cultiva- tors are wedges ; aud the wedging action they produce is far greater than that of the plough, incurring a greater waste of iron, and consequently deteriorating the soil by protoxides of that metal in a greater degree. (4.) Consolidation of the soil. This objection also falls to the ground, as there is no probability of it having any existence in connexion with steam culture. The horse's feet are doubtless great compressors, and so is the sole of the plough ; but one of the greatest ad- vantages of the steam plough is, that neither will be re- quired. Hence, What objections can be brought against them ? Under this head many erroneous conclusions are drawn. In making comparisons, for example, between the soils of gardens cultivated by the spade, and lands adjoining by the plough, " the latter" (it is said) " are in a more consolidated state than the former ; and, therefore, the plough is the more consolidating of the two implements. " But although we have long advocated spade husbandry, in preference to the plough with horses, we cannot admit that the above conclusion is legitimate ; for the system of cropping and manuring, as well as culture, is so very different that a comparison can hardly be made between the two. In the former, for example, the character of the soil is soon changed by manure, while it is cultivated to twice the depth, and sometimes more. Now this depth of culture and greater quantity of vegetable matter does more to prevent consolidation than the mere mechanical process of digging with the spade ; so that the question has yet to be solved — Can the steam plough by similar means produce similar effects ? (5.) The next objection we shall notice is, the imperfect inversion of the furrow- slice. The plough does not invert the soil it cultivates, but only wedges, screws, and squeezes it to one side, in a manner better calcu- lated to transplant surface weeds, grass of grass lands, &c., than bury them to undergo decomposition, and increase its fertility ! The question here raised is one of comparison be- tween ploughs and rotary implements. Now as in our opinion the latter do not invert the soil so well as the former, the objection falls to the ground. It will be high time to raise objections against work done by the plough when that done by rotary cultivators is superior in quality. " Practice with science," or science founded on experiment, does not permit of conclusions being otherwise drawn. In making this objection it ought always to be borne in mind that there are only two modes of inverting the soil — either by the reciprocating action of the spade, or " turn over" action of the plough. Several patents have been taken out for reducing both principles to practice under steam culture ; but as yet the recipro- cating movement of the implement has not been crowned with success. On the contrary, farmers have long been familiar with the practice of inverting the soil by trench- ploughing, i. e., one plough following another, the first turning the top spit into the bottom of the furrow, and the second throwing the bottom spit upon ithe top of the last. This old practice involves an important principle which may yet play a successful part in steam culture. (6). The last objection to which we shall refer, is the imperfect work of comminution.which the plough effects. A much finer state of pulverization is required by plants than what can be had by ploughing. The plough only commences the work, leaving the harrow and roller to finish it. The shortest refutation of this objection is perhaps to state the question in a practical form. Does any intel- ligent farmer, after ploughing his lands in autumn or winter for spring sowing, yoke the harrows and roller ? There may, no doubt, be found exceptions where lands are so full of weeds, that the cleaning of them at this season is the least of two evils; but in such a state they must always be accounted slovenly managed, and there- 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. fore under proper cultivation the exception. But where they are in a healthy state for cropping, no practical farmer would yoke the harrows under such circum- stances, for the rougher the winter furrov/ so much the better. Gardeners who have stiff soil are familiar with the beneficial influence of the winter, frost, &c. ; hence how they ridge up their beds in unbroken spits. No doubt, in wet seasons clay lands are too difficult to reduce to a proper mould ; but would they be other- wise with rotary cultivators ? Certainly not. [ In these cursory remarks we have rather answered i objections to the plough than discussed its modus ! operandi. This is rather reversing the usual mode of treating the subject ; but from our limited space, num- ber of opiniative writers opposed to us, and unsettled ! state of the agricultural mind, this course, after all, may not prove the least profitable in the end, as it may re- move unfounded prejudices out of the way, and prepare the minds of those who will listen to what we shall next say on steam ploughing. THE WOOL TRADE. BY AN OLD NORFOLK FARMER. (Continued.) The restrictions and penalties heaped upon the runnage of wool by the Government, proved a dead letter. In spite of the risk of being treated as felons, if detected, France and Holland were so amply supplied by smugglers, that the price in those countries was nearly on a par with our own. The only injury inflicted by the measure fell upon the English manufacturers, who could not obtain a supply, or dispose of their goods ; and the English landowners, who suffered by a reduction in their rents, to the extent of from 20 to 30 per cent. Daring the Commonwealth, the cultivation of wool made a great progress in Ireland. The first sheep intro- duced into that country were taken thither by the Eng- lish, who had settled on the Plantation in Ulster ; the Irish themselves having never attempted it, believing it would throw the land out of cultivation for corn, and convert it into sheep walks. Under this impression, they heartily cursed both the sheep and their English owners, praying that the rot or some other fatal disease might take the former, at least, if not the latter. The enterprise, however, prospered notwithstanding, and large quantities of wool were soon exported to England, which reduced the price still further. The civil wars of that country proved a great drawback to the growth of wool, and the price in England consequently soon rose gradually, so that, after the Revolution of 1 088, three several acts of Parliament were passed for preventing the exportation of wool ; and at the same time, to en- courage its growth and manufacture, liberty was given to all persons to export woollen goods into any foreign port whatever. The diminution in the growth of wool was greatly aggravated by the rot in England (instead of Ireland), by which tens of thousands of sheep were destroyed. The price of wool was equally high in foreign parts as in England ; and the demand went so much beyond the supply on the Continent, that foreign factorB resorted to England in great numbers (in spite of the laws to the contrary), and purchased large quantities of drapery. As an evidence of the ignorance prevailing at that period, of the true principles of trade, I may mention that the writers of the day lament this inunda- tion of foreign buyers as a heavy calaraiiy ! It was during William's reign that the attempt was made to suppress the Irish woollen manufactures, which had begun to compete with those of England, and the manufacturers of the latter petitioned for a law to prohibit the exportation of woollen goods from Ireland to foreign parts. This most unjust petition was followed by as unjust a law, the avowed object of which was to discourage all manufacture in Ire- land, except that of linen goods, "lest in time they should be able to work up all their own wool, by which England would be deprived of the supply !" The infamous measure passed both Houses, and was sent up to the King, with an address from them, pray- ing " That be would use his endeavours to discourage the exportation of wool from Ireland to any other country than England, and to discourage the woollen, and increase the linen manufacture." All this his Majesty promised, and performed ; and the Irish House of Commons were so satisfied with the liberty of retain- ing and extending their linen trade, that they themselvts imposed a heavy duty upon their own woollen manufac- tures, " to the end that the same might not be injurious to those of England." Such was the wording of the Irish act, and it affords a fair specimen of the patriotism of Ireland's representatives, whether in the native or the imperial parliament. 15ut the English manufacturers slill had their grievances to complain of. An immense contraband trade was carried on between Ireland and the Continent, both in raw wool and manufactured goods ; and, what was still more heinous, in the importation of silks and other French goods. They therefore clamoured for more stringent enactments, which were at once granted, for a sweeping law was passed, " That no person should export from Ireland wool or woollen goods, except to England and Wales." They forgot to prohibit the ex- portation of the Irish themselves ; consequently a great number of the Irish woollen manufacturers emigrated to France, Germany, Spain, and the Netherlands, carrying with tliem their skill, industry, capital, and connection, to the prejudice of the country whose Government had compelled them to expatriate them- selves. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 43 Notwithstanding these drawbacks upon their pros- perity, for such we must ever consider them, the woollen manufactures of England made steady advances during the reign of William the Third. In that of Charles the Second, the whole esports of the kingdom did not ex- ceed two millions sterling per annum, of which ^'900,000 only were woollens. In 1699 the exports had risen to seven millions, of which nearly three were woollen; and the average export of woollens in that reign exceeded two millions sterling per annum. The same impolitic system was pursued in the follow- ing reign, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The export of wool continued to be prohibited by law ; but the smugglers found means easily to evade it, and their trade was conducted with more daring than ever. England being at war with France, the latter was sup- plied with our woii through Holland ; and so lar^c was the quantity thus abstracted from this country, that the price rose to Is. per pound. By a treaty of commerce with Fo:tugal a new market was opened for English woollens, in the furnishing of which Scotland largely shared. The growth of wool in that country had greatly increased, and all kinds of woollen goods were also manufactured there, nearly equal in quality to those of England. Although the peace of Uti'echt opened fresh markets for the British manufacturers, it had no effect in either changing the system of tbe British Government, or arresting the smuggling trade in wool. In 1 7 14 ten thousand packs were thus exported, which caused so great an advance in price that the manufacturers became more clamorous than ever for more stringent enact- ments, which were at once granted, as a matter of course. The duty also imposed upon Irish wool im- ported into England was remitted, whilst that on yarn was retained. The runnage, however, continued as great as ever ; and it is amusing to see how the com- plaints of the manufacturers appear to have increased in intensity, almost in equal proportion with the increased S3verity of the laws for their protection. " Bad legisla- tion," says a modern writer, in reference to this period, " continued its work, until it had paralyzed the trade." Nothing, however, appears to be able to frustrate the energy and perseverance of the British merchant. To this, rather than to Government or Legislative patron- age, is to be ascribed the steady progress made in the ttade in woollen goods during the last century. From 1718 to 1722 the exports of woollens averaged three millions; for the ten years ending 1748, three and a- half millions ; and the five following years, four millions two hundred thousand pounds. From thatpeiiod (with one trifling exception in 1753) the growth and manufac- ture of wool have steadily advanced, and the price of the raw material has also risen, increasing importance being attached to the trade by the various monarcbs who have swayed the British sceptre. During the reign of George the First, and his suc- cessors of the same name, great improvements were effected in the manipulation of wool. The spinning machine was invented in 1733 by Wyatt, and afterwards improved by Lewis Paul, in 1748. The spinning-jenny was produced by Arkwright in 1 768 . But it was during the reign of that great farmer,* George the Third, that the growth of wool began to assume that importance and magnitude which it exhibits at the present day. The decidedly economic and utilitarian character of that monarch, and especially his well-known attachment to agricultural pursuits, to which he daily paid a personal attention — which his habit of early rising enabled him to bestow, without infringing upon his duties as sovereign— gave a stimulus to all branches of rural industry, and particularly to the breeding of sheep, which was a special subject of his attention, the benefi- cial effects of which our manufacturers are reaping to this hour. At an early period of this reign (1765) all the laws for regulating the woollen manufactures were submitted to Parliament, and confirmed ; and inspectors were ap- pointed in the woollen districts, to examine, measure, and seal all cloths at the fulling mills. Registers were kept of the cloths and the manufacturers, and the names of the latter were affixed to each piece of cloth in legible letters. The drying grounds also were under the eye of the inspectors, who were bound to see that the cloths were not improperly stretched upon the tenters. Various other duties of a similar troublesome nature devolved upon these functionaries, which, whilst they did little good, proved a serious annoyance to the fair trader, but did not prevent fraud, connivance, and imposition with the ill-disposed. The folly and ignorance of the Legislature, however, were insufficient to check the onward march of England's msnufacturing energies. Her woollens were superior to those of all her competitors, and gave her the ascendancy in all the continental markets. Even in America, and during the War of Independence, a singular circum- stance O'Ocurred, in illustration of this: "The French Government had granted the American Congress a large sum of money to purchase clothing for their troops. Mr. Lawrence, who was entrusted with the expenditure of this money, instead of doing this in France, went to Holland, and purchased English cloths, which he for- warded to America. The French minister justly com- plained to the Congress of this ungrateful act ; but Mr. Ljwrence justified it on the ground that " the English cloths were much superior to the French, at the same price, and he was bound to lay out the money to the best advantage." And such was the preference given to English giods, and so great the quantity imported into the United States, that the French minister repeatedly remonstrated against it to Congress, and threatened to withdraw the aid of his Government, if means were not used to prevent it. This threat, being seconded by Franklin, and the other American commissioners in France, an act of Congress was passed, inflicting heavy penalties on those who imported any kind of English goods, and some seizures took place; but the cessation of the war caused a repeal of the prohibition." About this period, (1774) more rational views began to be entertained by public men respecting the utility of * Lord Byron says : " A better farmer ne'er brushed dew from lawn." 44 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. those prohibitory enactments, so long depended on for the security of trade. Upon a demand from the manu- facturers of a more stringent law to prohibit the expor- tation of wool, Mr. Pownal, the ex- Governor of Massa- chusett's Bay, published a pamphlet, shewing that the assertion of the manufacturers, that English wool was absolutely required to make good cloth, was untrue, for that almost every country in Europe grew as good wool; and that the prohibitory duty of sixty per cent., so far from preventing the export of wool, acted as a bonus to the smuggler to that amount ; " and that all their contri- vances of law and the terror of punishment were just as efficacious as attempting to * hedge in a cuckoo.' And although the prohibition had lowered the price in the home market, tlie only effect this had was to injure the wool grower, and give a further advantage to the smuggler, by offering an additional bounty ; whilst the manufacturer reaped little or no benefit from it, the quantity surreptitiously exported being thereby greatly increased. He therefore recommended the repeal of all the laws prohibiting the exportation of wool." Sir John Dalrymple also wrote most correctly on the subject : " It is indisputable," says he, " that no manu- fcicture can be beneficial to a state that stands in need of a monopoly of the produce of the land, or any part of that state, for its support. The woollen manufactures of England neither do nor ever did stand in need of such support. It is a false ground to attribute the flourishing condition of that manufacture to the pro- hibitory laws respecting the exportation of wool. Whenever the trade is flourishing the manufacturer is able to give an adequate price for his material, and thus the prohibitory law becomes nugatory, since when there is a market at home for a commodity, there is no fear of a foreign market being sought for." The good sense and sound policy of the sentiments of these men will now be universally appreciated ; but it is evident that they were more than half a century in ad- vance of their age, although the French cyclopsedists had already disseminated these principles on the subjects of trade and commerce. But neither the French nor the English savans could indoctrinate their respective Governments with their sentiments on these subjects, or induce them to alter a system which evidently acted as a clog upon the buoyant spirit of l?ritish commerce. The following statement will show how futile was the pro- hibitory enactment. In 1782 the number of sheep in England, according to Arthur Young, was 25,589,214, which yielded an annual profit of 10s. 6d. each on an aggregate of ±"13,800,824 sterling. The wool produced was estimated at 720,981 packs, or 174,475,440 lbs. And another writer affirms that of this quantity France alone obtained ."JOOjOOO packs, or more than one-half, in spite of the prohibition ! Having brought our short and rapid history down to our own times, we shall pause to consider some of the characteristics of the article of which it treats. One of the most remarkable of these is its tendency to improve in quality in proportion to the poverty of the soil on which the shetp are fed. It is well known that the finest wool produced in the British Isles during the last cen- tury, and probably at present, was grown in the High- lands of Scotland. The city of Aberdeen was then the great mart for the Scotch woollen manufactures, and the perfection to which their stockings in particular had been brought is worthy of special remark. The following anecdote, from Anderson's " Observations on National Industry," published in 1777, will not be read without interest : — ' ' About the beginning of the late war, the magistrates of a considerable town in the north of Scotland, famous for its manufacture of worsted stockings, desirous to ex- press, in some measure, the esteem they bore for their counti'yman the late Marshal Keith, resolved to make him a present of a pair of stockings of their own manu- facture of an uncommon degree of fineness. With this view, they commissioned from London some of the finest wool that could possibly be found, without any limita- tion of price. In consequence of this, some pounds of the very finest Spanish wool, picked out by very good judges of this matter, were sent to them. " When it arrived, the magistrates sent for the women who were to manufacture it, and told them what they wanted, showing them the wool they had got for the purpose. But when the women had examined it, they complained of the quality, saying it was so coarse that they could not undertake to draw above ' forty heeres'* from a pound of it ; but added, that if the magistrates would wait till the Highland wool came to their own market in the month of June, they would then pick out wool for themselves that they would undertake to spin to the fineness of seventy heeres to the pound. "As they were entirely unanimous in this opinion, the difference appeared so great, that the magistrates agreed to their request, and waited till the Highland wool came to the market, when the women provided themselves with wool that they spun to the fineness they had promised. The stockings, when finished, were valued at upwards of five guineas the pair, being so fine that they could with ease be drawn through an ordinary thumb-ring together, although they were of the largest size. They were sent, in a box of curious workmanship, to Marshal Keith, who thought them such a curiosity as to be worthy of the acceptance of the Empress of Russia, to whom he afterwards presented them." However extravagant the above may appear to us, who can procure a pair of the finest stockings at one- tenth of the price, it was no uncommon one at the be- ginning of the last century. In 1707, the Earl of Aber- deen presented to his father-in-law, on his wedding day, a pair of woollen hose that cost him four guineas ; and in 1733, Mr. George Keith, of Aberdeen, an advocate, pur- chased a pair of fine woollen hose, for which he paid five guineas. All these were made of Highland wool, brought for sale to the Cross of Aberdeen. Some of this is mentioned as having been spun by the women of the city into a hundred heeres to the pound — upwards of sixty thousand yards, or about thirty-four miles in length. "I remember," says the authority, "to have ♦ The Heere is a thread measuring GOO yards in leugtb. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 45' seen three pairs of woollen gloves knitted for Lady Mary DriHnmond, one of the Duke of Perth's family, for each pair of which the maker was paid three guineas. And afterwards, Lady Slary sent for as much yarn as would make a pair, and also for some of her knitting wires." Anderson, from whose work the above is taken, adds that within a few months of the time when he wrote (in 1777), "worsted stockings sold at Aberdeen at two guineas a pair." All fiock-masters are aware of the fact that a poor soil with short and sweet herbage, and a cold, clear atmosphere, produce the finest wool ; and that, on the contrary, a rich soil and warm climate deteriorate the quality. Thus, sheep sent from England to the West Indies soon exhibit hair rather than wool on their backs; but when brought back to England, it recovers its quality in one season. In Spain, the flocks of sheep formerly belonged to the kings of Spain, and amounted to many millions. They were computed by Ustariz at eight millions, and required forty thousand shepherds and others to tend them. In the summer months they ranged over the mountains, and in winter descended into the plains. Attempts were made, under the patronage of George III., about the close of the last century, to introduce the Spanish sheep into England, for the purpose of im- proving the quality of the wool ; but it was found that the change of soil and pasture deteriorated the Spanish far more than the cross improved the English wool ; and, on the other hand, the deterioration of the mutton was still more decided and fatal. In fact, an English farmer would consider Spanish mutton little better than carrion. Under the auspices of the late Earl of Leicester, the Spanish breed was crossed, in all degrees, v.'ith the Southdown and Leicester, but soon lost its character in the wool, whilst it invariably ruined the carcase.* These sheep were first imported in 1786, and the number was very small, owing to the jealousy of the Spanish Govern- ment. But six years after, the then British ambassador at the Court of Spain, Lord Auckland, obtained five rams and thirty-five ewes of the best breed (the Nigrette), in exchange for a steed of eight fine English coach- horses. These sheep were placed with those of the king's previous stock, amounting to sixty, under the care of Sir Joseph Banks, who had paid particular at- tention to the breeding of sheep, and the quality of wool. They were kept at Oatlands, and, under Sir Joseph's management, increased rapidly, both in num- bers and condition. But, whilst the quality of the flesh was an insuperable objection with the grazier and butcher, the quantity of the wool was too small to make * The writer remensbers Mr. Coke relating the following anecdote of George the Third : — " The King had invited Mr. C. to visit his farm at Oatlands, to inspect his Spanish sheep. Whilst looking over the specimens, the King abruptly said to him, ' Look, look here, Coke,' pointing to some sheep iu a pen, ' these sheep are for you, I have selected them on purpose. You must take them, and make the best you can of them; see what you can do with them.' Of course Mr. C. was very grateful for this mark of royal favour, thinking it a handsome present. The sheep were carefully sent to Holk- ham ; but, behold ! in a few days came a letter from his Ma- jesty's steward, in the shape of an account for the sheep, at the rate of some twenty or thurty pounds per head," up for the inferiority of the carcase in weight and quality. The writer has seen these pure Merinos from the King's own stock, and did not wonder at the disfavour they met with at the hands of the British farmer. And besides this drawback, it was found that when transi'erred to the rich pastures of England, the wool was deteriorated in its fibre, and lost that characteristic quality which gave to it its value in Spain. The predilection for agricultural pursuits, and espe- cially that branch relating to the breeding and improv- ing of cattle and sheep, of the late King George III. forms an era at once in the annals of national rural in- dustry, and in the history of the wool trade. To a prac- tical knowledge of the subject, he united an earnest desire to promote both its prosperity and its improve- ment. Stimulated and encouraged by his hearty co- operation, a vast number of men of talent and scientific knowledge sprung up in every part of the kingdom, and brought their attainments to bear upon the subject of agriculture and grazing. Societies and institutions were established, by which correct and useful information was disseminated throughout the country, on all subjects connected with rural affairs. A host of eminent men came forward both as agriculturists and graziers, by whom changes and improvements in the breeds of cattle and sheep were effected, which have raised the character of the live stock of the United Kingdom above those of any other part of the world. Amongst these men the names of Bakewell, Coke, Young, Anderson, Culley, Sinclair, Banks, and many others, all practical men, will be handed down as the patriarchs of agricultural life, who laid the foundations of those societies which have at length consummated what they so happily began — the reduction of agriculture to a science, and the direct application of chemistry to the cultivation of the land. We must not omit to speak of the agricultural gather- ings which annually took place at Holkham and Woburn Abbey, the former the seat of T. W. Coke, Esq. (after- wards Earl of Leicester), and the latter that of the Duke of Bedford. These " sheep-shearings," as they were called, were held in June, at which time, for four days, the noble mansions and grounds were thrown open to the public, who were hospitably entertained to the num- ber of five or six hundred. Men from all parts of the world appeared at these gatherings, which spread the knowledge communicated by the eminent men who, as agriculturists, were specially invited far and wide. The improvement of the breeds of cattle and sheep was an object of peculiar attention at these meetings, and the list of ))iices obtained for the rams, at the sales which took place in the afternoon of each day, shows the esti- mation in which the improvements effected by the noble hosts were held. The following rates were obtained at Woburn sheep-shearing in 1800, at which the writer was present :- Pure Southdown Rams. 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 , 10 guineas. , 25 do. each. , 30 do. do. , 40 do. do. 50 do. , 80 do. .120 do. 46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Pure Leicester Rams. 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 10 guineas. | ghearlings. each J " 15 do. 12 do. 15 do. 20 do. 15 do. 20 do. do. } two-shear. I three-shear. The sheep-shearings were discontiaued at Woburn soon after the death of Francis Dake of Bedford, at the beginning of the present century ; but those at Holk- ham were continued with undiminished spirit and interest until advancing years admonished the noble owner that repose was desirable. The generation which witnessed those festive occasions has almost all passed away from the stage of life; those who remain, delight to trace to them the high eminence which agriculture has now at- tained. From thence, in fact, have originated all the agricultural societies in the United Kingdom, as well as all the improvements in the economy of rural pur- suits, and especially the superior quality of the mutton and wool of the present breeds of sheep, the latter of which has brought our woollen manufactures to the highest pitch of perfection. The increase in the exportation of woollen manufac- tures towards the end of the last century was extraor- dinary. Notwithstanding the war in which we were then involved with France and its dependencies, they amounted in 1799 to £6,870,939 sterling, nearly three millions of which went to the United States of America. In 1800 the entire value of all woollens manufactured in the United Kingdom was estimated at ^£19, 000, 000 sterling; the number of persons employed in their manufacture, including women and children of both sexes, was 3,000,000 ; and the capital invested in that branch only was estimated at £0,000,000 sterling. At this period, memorable on more accounts than one, the Act of Union between England and Ireland was effected, by which the manufacturing interests of the two countries were placed upon the same footing, and bounties and prohibition were abolished. The duties retained as between the two countries were mostly equalised, and no exclusive restrictions were held over the Irish manufacturers. A strenuous opposition to this just legislation was raised by those engaged in the trade in, and manufacture of, woollen goods in England, by v/hom petitions and remonstrances were got up, signed by great numbers, and presented from all parts of the country ; and when the measure was brought before the House of Commons, an amendment was moved by Mr. Wilberforce, then Member for Yorkshire, but it was negatived by a majority of 80. Tlie objection to the original measure was, that the exportation of wool to Ireland would injure the British manufacturer by raising the price and contracting the supply. The estimates of the dealers in wool, however, were fo extravagant, and unsupported by documentary evidence, that they had no weight whatever with the House, which decided against them. The result justified the policy of the measure. In 1787 the price of sorted wool in Ireland was nearly double what it was in England ; but after the Union the price of all kinds was equalised, and the manufacture in both coun'.ries was stimulated by competition which for a time made both prosperous. In Ireland, however, other circumstances intervened to neutralise the benefit, and to cause the almost entire annihilation of that and every other branch of manufacturing industry, rendering that country dependmt on England for a supply. It would be out of place here to go into the history of this decay. In regard to the woollen manufacture of Ireland, it is now the mere shell or nucleus of what it was at the period we are treating of. Although the introduction of the Merino Spanish sheep into England was unsuccessful so far as the ori- ginal intention of the Sovereign was concerned, it was attended with a collateral but totally unforeseen conse- quence, which has produced the most surprising effects upon the wool trade of the United Kingdom. In 1804 the King declared his intention of selling a part of his flock by public auction, and forty-five rams and ewes were thus disposed of at prices ranging from £6 7s. to £'44 2s. each. They fell into the hands of eighteen purchasers from different parts of the country ; amongst these was Captain M'Arthur, who was then about to sail to Australia, and who bought eight of the sheep with the intention of taking them with him. Before, how- ever, speaking further of that gentleman's experiment, we shall state that in England the competition lay be- ween the Merinoes and the New Leicester and Improved Southdown breeds ; and that notwithstanding the prestige of royalty in their favour, ieconded by the co- operation of Lord Somerville, the then President of the Board of Agriculture, it ended most decidedly in favour of the two latter, both on account of the value of fleece and carcase. This sealed the fate of the experiment so far as Great Britain was concerned. We believe the rest of the Merinoes were chiefly purchased by continental flock- masters, with whom they succeeded, and from whom we now receive a considerable part of our supply of fine wool, the product of their descendants. The perfection, indeed, to which the symmetry of the native sheep exhibited at the agricultural gatherings of that period had arrived was extraordinary. The motto of the " father of agriculture," of " Small in size, and great in value," was literally attained, and amply repaid the care and expense bestowed upon its attainment. The writer recollects a little incident illustrative of the feeling it excited in intelligent men practically unac- qu!iinted with the subject. He happened to be present at Ilolkham with the late ex-Cbancellor (LordErskine), Sir Joseph Banks, and two other persons of distinction, who had stolen away from the rest of the company, to examine more at leisure some Leicester rams. One fine fellow was led out by the shepherd, and whilst Sir Joseph was examining its "points" with all the tact of an amateur well versed in the subject. Lord Erskine stood looking on with unrestrained admiration. At length he exclaimed, "beautiful! wonderful! what a picture!" then gently seating himself on the table-like back of the ram, he continued, "a noble cushion; I could almost fancy myfelf on the Woolsack affciin!" {To be continued.) THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 47 RUTLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The twenty-fifth anniversary of this Society was held at C'akham, ou Wednesday, Dec. 5, and it will not be saying too much when we state that on the whole a more successful show of stock, both with respect to quality and quantity, was r.ever seen iu the Riding House. Many of the animals, especially in the tirst and second cla?ses for oxen and sheep, were splendid specimens of stock, and to almost every other department of the exhibition the same remarks will apply. A young short- horn bull, in extra stock, sliown by Mr. Lynn, of Stroxton, and which obtained the Duke of Rutland's prize of a silver medal, is a fine animal, and elicited general admiration. In the sheep department, the veteran exhibitor, Mr. Bradshaw, of Tinwell and Burley, carried otf all the first prizes in the six classes; such a feat has never before, we believe, been ac- complished at that show. The animals were certainly the finest specimens that, in the opinion of competent judges, could be produced ; and a practised eye would at once pro- nounce that they could scarcely be beaten by any competitors. The first prize sheep shown in class 15 will be exhibited at Smithfield, and those in class 16 at Birmingham. — Amongst the pigs there was a fine sow, belonging to R. W. Baker, Esq., which had farrowed 78 pigs in four years ; she farrowed eleven in the show-yard ou Tuesday. — R. W. Baker, Esq., exhibited as "extra" roots 119 Swedish turnips, weighing 10 est., the average of each turnip being 9| lbs. — A large number of visitors visited the Riding-school during the day, and nearly 19Z. was taken at the doors. Amongst the visitors we noticed the Rf. Hon. Sir John and Lady TroUope, the Marquis of Huatl)', Sir Gilbert Heathcote, Bart , M.P., George Finch, Esq., and the Misses Finch, Miss Lowiher, Sir Montague Cholmeley, Bart., John Heathcote, Esq. (Conington), G. H. Heathcote, Esq., M.P., R. W. Baker, Esq., Wm. Baker, Esq., Capt. Doria, Capt. Jones, Jas. Montague, Esq., — Gaskell, Esq. (Somerby), Co!. Fludyer, J. Slorton, Esq., &c., &c. The successful competitors in the labourers' classes partook of a substantial dinner, provided for them at the " Red Lion" inn ; after which R. W. Baker, Esq., V.P., distributed the prizes, and remarked to them tliat the Society in offering these prizes wished to show its desire not only to encourage compe- tition amongst the higher and middle classes iu the breeding of stock and cultivation of the land, but also to encourage good conduct amongst those who are dependent upon the owners and occupiers of the land, and that these prizes were in fact the united subscriptions of the masters and mistresses. He hoped that those who were unsuccessful that day would still persevere iu a good course of conduct, resting assured that if they did so they also would in due time become successful ; and especially he wished to warn them against drmikenness, which of all vices he held in the greatest abhorrence. He was most happy to see them ou that occasion so comfortably clothed, and apparently so well fed, for he considered it was a gTeat duty incumbent upon the employer to take care of those he employed, and as far as possible he (Mr. B.) was anxious that the labourer should be both well employed, and also provided with a comfortable cottage for his family. AWARD OF PREMIUMS, Oxen or steers, of any breed or weight, under five years of age. Open to all England. First prize 15Z., to the IMost Noble the Marquis of Exeter, K.G. ; second, 7 ^, to R. W. Baker, Esq., of Cottesmore, Oxen or steers, of any breed or weight, under four years of age. First prize 11., to Mr. Samuel Wallis, of Barton Sea- grave; second, 4L, to R. W. Baker, Esq., Cottesmore. Cows or heifers, of any breed, age, or weight. Open to all England. Fira prize 11, to Mr. J. W. Edgson, of Etton, near Peterborough ; second, 5Z., to Mr. T. Swingler, of Lang- ham. To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best steer, under three years of age. First prize 11, to Mr. R. Lynn, of Stroxton; second, 3Z., to Mr. T. Swingler, of Laugham. To the owner, being a tensnt farmer, of the best steer, under two years of age. First prize 5Z., to Mr. T. Swingler, of Langham ; second, 3Z., to Messrs. Wortley, of Ridlington. To the owner, being a teuant farmer, of the best heifer, above two and under three years of age. First prize 6Z., to Messrs. Wortley, of Ridlington ; second, ol , to Mr. Joseph Woods, of Langham. To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best heifer, under two years old. First prize 4L, to Mr. Joseph Woods, of Langham ; second, 2i., to Mr. T. Swingler, of Langham. Offered by Stafford O'Brien, Esq. To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best cow in milk. First prize 5?., to Mr. Robert Lynn, of Stroxton; second, 21., to R. W. Baker, Esq., of Cottesmore. Offered by the Society. To the exhibitor of the best bull, above two and under five years old. First prise Zl., to Mr Thomas Suter, Brook; second, Zl., to Messrs. Wortley, of Ridlington. To the exhibitor of the best in-foaled mare. First prize 3Z., to Mr. Wm. Saunders, of Cold Overton. To the exhibitor of the best yearling gelding or filly. First prize 51., to Mr. W. Saunders, of Cold Overton. Offered by the Right Hon. the Earl of Gainsborough, TO TENANT OCCUPIERS. To the owner of the best cow in milk, 5^., to Mrs. Jane Harris, of Langham ; second, 21., to Mr. John Eilgson, of Langham. To the owner of the best heifer, Al., to Mr. William Hub- bard, of Langham ; second, 21., to Mr. Charles Almond, of Langham. To the owner of the best heifer calf, 21., to Mrs. Ann Wright, Burley; second, \l., to Mr. John Edgson, Langham. Offered by Sir Gilbert Heathcote, Bart., M.P. To the feeder of the best pea of three loug-woolled fat wether sheep, \Ql., to R. L. Bradshaw, Esq., Burley-on-the- Hill ; second, 5?., to W. de Capell Brooke, Esq., of Gedding- ton Grange. Offered by the Society. To the owner of the best long-wooUed fat wether sheep, 11., to R. L. Bradshaw, Esq., of Burley-on-the-Hill ; second, 4Z., to Messrs. Wortley, of Ridlington. To the owner of the best breeding ewes. Al., to R. L. Brad- shaw,E3q., Burley-on-the-Hill; second, 3Z.,to Messrs. Wortley, of Ridlington. To the exhibitor of the best pen of five long- woolled theaves, il., to R. L. Bradshaw, Esq., Burley-on-the-Hill; second, 21., to W. de Capell Brooke, Esq., Geddington Grange. To the exhibitor of the best pen of five long-woolled wether lambs, 3/., to R. L. Bradshaw, Esq., Burley ou-the-Hill ; second, 21., to Messrs. Wortley, of Ridlington. To the exhibitor of ths best pen of five long-woolled ewe lambs, 3?., to R. L. Bradshaw, Esq, Burley-on-the-Hill; second, 21., to Messrs. Wortley, of Ridlington. To the feeder of the best fat pig,4L, to Mr, John Morris, of OjCkham ; second, 21., to Mr. Wm. Benskin, of Rearsby. To the feeder of the best fat pig, ZL, to Mr. John Stimson, of Egletou ; second, \l., to Mr. Thomas Fryer, of Preston. Offered by the Right Hon. the Earl of Gainsborough. To the owner of the best fat pig, 21, to Mr, Thomas 48 THE FARMER S MAGAZINE. Henfrey, of Egletoa ; secoud, 1/., to Mr. Johu Chamberlaia Burley-on-tbe-Hill. Offered by the Society. To the exhibitor of the best inpigged or sucUing sow or yelt, 2Z., to Mr.^^H. J. Kudkiu, of Langham Lodge. First offered by the Moat Hon. the Marquis of Exeter, second by the Geatlemen of the Cottesmore Hunt. To the owner, being a farmer, who shall exhibit the beat half-bred four-year-old hunting mare or gelding, \0l., to Mr. Wm. Laxton, of Morcott ; second, 51 , to Mr. Thos. Henton. Offered by his Grace the Duke of Rutland. To the exhibitor of the best beast, shown as extra stock, a silver medal, value 31., to Mr. Lynn, of Stroxton. Offered by the Right Hon. Viscount Campden. For Swedish turnips, cultivated on any system, 71-, to Mr. T.W. Fowler, of Exton; second. Si., to Mr. Thoa. Frankliu, of Uppingliam. For mangold wurzel, cultivated on any system, 21., to Mr. Wm. Fabling, of Burley. Offered by the Society. For cabbages, cultivated on any syatem, 1/., to R.W.Baken Esq., of Cottesmore. Offered by R. W. Baker, Esq. TO COMPETITORS IN CLASSES 26, 27, 28. For the best specimens of six Swedish turnips, mangold wurzel, and cabbages, lOs., each to R. W. Baker, Esq. PREMIUMS TO LABOURERS. Offered by Sir Thomas "Whichcote, Bart. To the shepherd who shall have raised, on the 1st June, 1855, the greatest number of lambs, 30s , to William Cun- nington, shepherd to Mr. Lionel Hack, o( Stainby Mills, near Colster worth ; second, 10s., to John Gregg, shepherd to the Hon. Col. Lowther, of Barleythorpe. Offered by the Hon. Viscount Downe. To the labourer who has brought up the greatest number of children, &c., 21 , to George Perry, of Greetham ; second, 25s., to William Clements, of Exton ; third, ] 5s., to Wm. Tomblin, of North Luffenham. Offered by George Finch, Esq. To the farm labourer (whether married or single) who is and has been fully employed the lonscest time on the same farm, &c., SI. 10s., to John Swann, of Glaston ; second, 21. lOs., to John Bottom, of Ashwell; third, II. lOs., to James Cole, of North Luffenham ; fourth, 10s:., to Wm. Hibbitt, of Edith- weston. To the married farm labourer who has lived the longest period on the same farm as a single man and a hired servant, &c., SI., to John Tebbutt, of North Luffenham ; second and third prizes of 21. and II., divided between Henry Smith, of Whitewell, and Johu Tyers, of Wing. To the servant in husbandry, being a single man, who shall have lived the greatest number of years in the lowest servi- tudes, &c., SI., to William Clarke, with W. de Capell Brooke, Esq., of Geddington Granj;e; third, 2/., to Thomas Bottom, with Mr. T. D. Beadman, of Braunston. Offered by the Rev. Edward Brown. To the teara-maa or waggoner (married or single) who shall have lived with his master or mistress the greatest number of years, &c., 3/., to William Edgsou, with Mr. G. Marsh, of Wartnaby ; second, 2/., to William Hackett, with Mr. J. Hack, of Egleton. Offered by the Society. To the servant, being a single woman (not a housekeeper), who shall have lived the longest time in the same service as a hired servant, and is still living with the same m.ister or mistress, 2/., to Mary Warner, of Beltou; second, II., to Elizabeth Harrold, of Belton. Offered by the Right Hon. Lord Buroiiley, M.P. To the widow of a farming labourer, who has brought up, or is now supporting, the largest number of children, &c., 3?., to Jaue Hibbett, of Cottesmore ; second, 21., to Jane Osborne, of Cottesmore, Offered by the Rev. E. R. Eakl. To the labourer who has attended his parish church moat constantly, brought up a family respectably, and paid his cottage-rent regularly, 21., to Joseph Stokes, of Greetham. EXTRA STOCK. To Mr. R. Lynn, of Stroxton, for ahull, a gold medal, given by the Duke of Rutland ; \V. de Capell Brooke, Esq., of Ged- dington, a cow, highly commended ; Mr. R. Lynn, a cow, highly commended. The other competitors were R. W. Baker, Esq., of Cottesmore ; Messrs. Wortley, of Ridlington; the Hon. Colonel Lowther, of Barleythorpe ; Mr. Thomas Suter, of Brooke ; Mr. Thomas Frankin, of Uppingham, a Scotch bullock, highly commended. Judges of Stock.— Charles Bosworth, Esq., of Dishley, Leicestershire; William Sandy, Esq., Holme-Pierrepont, Nottingham ; and George Jones, Esq., of Cold Newton, Lei- cestershire. Judges of Hunting Horses. — The Right Hon. Sir John Trollope, M.P. ; Henry Lowther, Esq., Barleythorpe ; and Thomas Heycock, Esq., Branston. Judges of Turnips. — Mr. Hardy, Thistleton; Mr. R. Carver, Ingarsby ; and Mr. Thomas Woods, Wytchley Warren. THE DINNER, Provided by Mr. Baruett, of the Red Lion Inn, took place in the Agricultural Hall. There was an abundance of first- rate viands ; if as much could have been said respectiug waiters there would have been no fault to find, but in this department, owing to the limited number of attendants and the want of system, some confusion was created. The Rt. Hon. Sir John Trollope took the chair shortly before three o'clock ; he was supported by Sir Gilbert Heathcote, Bt., M.P,; G. H. Heathcote, Esq., M.P.; the Hon. Henry Noel; Richard Westbrook Baker, Esq. ; W. H. Baker, Esq. ; — Ainsworth, Esq. (from Lancashire) ; Thomas Heycock, Esq. ; Clarke Morris, Esq. ; Orlando Edmonds, Esq. ; R. L. Brad- shaw, Esq. ; Thomas Syson, Esq. ; Wm. Sharrad, Esq., &c., the company numbering upwards of 100. Mr. J. G. Bos- worth, of Greetham, occupied the vice-chair. The only clergymen present were the rev. J. W. Eagleton, and the rev. W. Sykes : grace before and after dinner was said by the first- named rev. gentleman. After the cloth had been withdrawn, The Chairman gave "The Queen," and "Prince Albert and the rest of the Royal Family." These toast i were enthu- siastically received. The Chairman next gave "The Allied Armies and Navies" (applause). He said some of them present had, no doubt, old sympathies ; for his own part he deeply sympathised with the Army and Navy : he began life as a soldier, and he saw beside him an hon. friend (the Hon. Henry Noel) who had served some years in the army, and when he retired from that branch it seemed he retained a liking for his old servitude, for he was now a commander in the Rutland militia (Hear). He was sure they would not fail to acknowledge the services ren- dered by the allies — French, EngUsh, and Sardinians, not for- getting the poor Turks — who had undertaken and performed nobly the perilous task of bearding the lion in his own den. Those brave soldiers had, during last winter, endured a vast amount of suffering ; many homes there were that had lost relatives ; he had lost one himself ; still it was gratifying to think that there were others ready and willing to serve their country. They might depend upon it that while such soldiers had the sympathies of agriculturists and others, they would not fail to fight for their country with all heartiness (Hear). The toast he had to propose was one that he doubted not would go deep to all hearts, and whatever the results of the war might be, he hoped when peace was declared that that peace would be an honourable and lasting one — a peace that would not be disturbed for many years (Hear and applause). THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49 The Hou. Hy. Noel said it might sdem that he was strut- ting in peacock's feathers, when he rose and assumed the re- sponsibility of responding to the toast of the Allied Armies and Navies — (No, no) — but he would merely observe that he had been some years in the army, and retained a love for his old profession : what the army was in his time he was sure it was now — loyal, dutiful, and always brave in discharge of its duties (Hear). The army and navy deserved well of the country, and he was sure there was uo class so ready to ac- knowledge their services as the agriculturists. He was glad to see that, at a recent meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, it had been resolved that the " Army and Navy " should be a standing toast for the future. So long as the army and their " wooden walls " acted as they had recently done, they might, he was confident, rest secure under such protection (Hear). The Chairman gave "The Bishop and Clergy of the Diocese," remarking that they were not honoured that day with the presence of many clergymen, but he was sure their sympathies were with them and the society. He coupled with the toast the name of the Rev. J. W. Eagleton, who in re- sponding said the clergy took great interest in one part of the proceedings of such societies — the premiums given to deserv- ing labourers. The Chairman said the next toast was one of deep in- terest to all of them— it was " Success to the Rutland Agricul- tural Society " (loud applause). It was usual in proposing such a toast to travel over the past, present, and probable future condition of the society, which had now been esta- blished nearly a quarter of a century. He had been connected with it all that time, and he could say that so complete had been its organisation, and so eflScient and zealous had been its officers, that very little was desired for the future (Hear). The exhibition that day, taken in the whole, had never been sur- passed : there might have been occasion when, individually, better animals had been seen ; but collectively the show was equal to any he had seen at Oakham. He had great pleasure in alluding to the success, on the present occasion, of a most zealous supporter of that society (Mr. Bradshaw), who alone had taken six first prizes for sheep : this was an extraordinary fact, seeing that that gentleman had other parties to compete with, who had equal facilities for feeding and bringing such animals to perfection ; the success he had alluded to spoke highly for a Rutland farmer (Hear). Another fact he would allude to, and that was that there had been a trifling extension of prizes in Class 25. He had been called upon to act as a judge of hunting horses, and himself and colleagues got up another prize of five sovereigns for the second-best animal : this was done with a view to encourage exhibitors, and he should be very glad to see a larger show and better horses. Another and a new feature was a prize offered by his Grace the Dake of Rutland, being a silver medal, value three sovereigns, to the exhibitor of the best baast shown in extra stock; he was happy to say that this prize had gone into the county of Lincoln, a friend of his (Mr. Lynn, of Stroxton) having borne off the medal. (Applause.) A good deal had lately been said about the position of the agriculturists, the high prices, the war, &c. He would not take up much of their time upon that occasion, but they would allow him, perhaps, to combat what had been said relative to high prices : how did they affect parties standing in the position of either landlord, occupier, or labourer ; had any one of these been particularly benefited ? He did not think that the landlord had been specially favoured by the rise, for their household expenses had increased in proportion, and they were not taking advantage — at least he did not intend to do so — of the temporary rise in prices to increase their incomes. He thought, therefore, under those circumstances landlords were positive losers. Then as to occupiers : taking that part of the country lying between Cambridge and Lincoln, and near to which position he resided, he considered the occupier of land had not had a year more difficult to contend with as regarded his cropping; the granaries were certainly lightly stored. A friend of his the other day said that he had thrashed a stack of wheat, and he had expected to obtain at least fifty quarters, instead of which quantity he got twenty- eight ! Another gentleman had said to him " I have had the thrashing-machine at work for a week, and have never in my life been so disappointed respecting the yield." The occupier, therefore, had not benefited. Then as to labourers : in no part of England was the condition of this class so well con- sidered as in this ; the farmers had raised the wages of their labourers, but even then they could not compensate him to the extent he was benefited when wheat was at 40s. a quarter ; neither could the farmer afford to do so. Then, he would ask, how far had all been benefited by high prices ? (Hear.) He (the chairman) knew, too, what the effect had been with respect to grazing, for they had had no grass in his part of the country. It had not, therefore, been so good a year as some writers in cer- tain prints would lead the public to suppose. It had been said that they ought to have agricultural statistics. He should like to know who could sit down a month after harvest and tell accurately what amount of grain he had got; he consi- dered the cry about agricultural statistics a " will o' the wisp." He had been asked in Parliament, when acting in the Poor-law department, whether it would be possible to give information respecting the amount of produce ; and the answer he gave was, that he had no doubt the acreage could be given, but not the quantity of grain produced, and that if such an attempt as the latter were made the returns could not be depended upon. He knew the farmers were a candid set of men, frank and open, and so far as he was concerned he would tell all he knew, but that would be but little. He did not think that journalists, members of Parliament, or any other persons, could tell them how to conduct their affairs better than they knew themselves, (Hear.) If they were called upon by her Ma- jesty's Government to make returns, all they could do, in his opinion, was to give the acreage, and leave those who called upon them to jnd out the probable yield. They would most likely have what would be called a " statistical board," the members of which would have nice salaries. A registration board, for the purpose of obtaining information respecting the census, was appointed in the year 1851, but they did not get the whole of their information until three years afterwards : there were no returns until 1854. The members of that board were, he had no doubt, well-paid men. Suppose the farmers gave an account of their produce in 1855, and the returns were not published until 1858, those returns would no doubt be very useful then (laughter). Let them oppose the frittering away of the public money in so useless a manner. The parties who cried out most for these returns were the commercial por- tion of the community ; these classes wanted to know the amount of grain there was in the country, and what amount of gold was likely to be sent away for grain exported from France and other places, because the stocks and exchanges were regulated by those transactions, and such information would be of great importance to them, but of none to the agwculturists. (Hear.) In conclusion, the right hon. chair- man said he hoped the Rutland Society would continue to prosper : let them uphold by all means that eminent associa- tion, which was the means of diffusing so much good. He had no doubt the words of the toast he had the pleasure of 50 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. proposing would be fully realized. (The chairmaa sat dowu amidst loud applause.) Mr. C. J. Bradshaw here read the awards ofprizes to class 29 ; after which the Chairmanpresented the medal given by the Duke of Rutland to Mr. I,ynn, juu. (in the absence of his father), expressing a hope that the winner would value the prize as highly as the members of that society did. — The medal is a very elegant one, and has appropriate inscriptions engraved on both sides. The Chairman next proposed "The High Sheriff of the County" (Arthur Heathcote, Esq.), In that gentleman's absence. Sir Gilbert Heathcote, Bart,, M,P., responded, and gave " The Lord Lieutenant of the County" (the Marquis of Exeter), remarking that his lordship, who was highly respected, was a great patron and supporter of agriculture. The noble marquis had that day obtained one of the principal prizes ; and although it would find its way to Burghley by Stamford, they bad the pleasure of knowing that many other prizes would go to Burley by Oakham (applause). The Chairman, in complimentary terms, proposed "The Health of the President of the Society" (the Earl of Gainsbo- rough), and said the deep interest the earl took in the welfare of the society was exemplified in the catalogue of prizes offered that day. He also alluded to the benefits conferred upon cot- tagers by the allotment system — one mainly carried out through the instrumentality and zeal of the earl's respected agent, Mr, Baker (applause). The toast was drunk with three times three. The Hon. Hy. Noel responded. R, W. Baker, Esq., said he had the honour, by desire of his brother farmers, to propose the next toast, which was, " The Health of the Chairman of that Meeting" (loud applause). If one toast was more grateful to all of them than another, it was the one he then proposed (Hear), Sir John lived in the hearts of all of them (applause), A great many of them in that hall remembered the support the chairman gave to their society years ago, and at a time when it most needed assistance. About 1834, they re-organised the society, and then agreed to elect a certain number of presidents and vice-presidents, and in that year Sir John was at their meeting as vice-president. In 1837 he presided at an annual meeting held at the Crown Inn, Oakham ; and on that occasion he (Sir John) said, " Let us put our shoulders to the wheel and erect this building" (the hall). On behalf, therefore, of all those interested in the erec- tion of that edifice, he begged to say that they took Sir John as one of the corner-stones of the building — the steady, kind, and persevermg support they had received from their chairman warranted him (Mr. Baker) in saying so : he never deserted the agricultural interest (Hear, hear). Much more might be said of him ; but as he (Mr. B.) had no wish to intrench upon the rules of the society by introducing politics, he would there- fore, in conclusion, remark that Sir John TroUope might have been respected in 1834 and 1837, but that respect had grown stronger year by year, and he fervently hoped that he would remain amongst them for a long time. He begged to give them " The health of their Chairman, aad thanks to him for his services over a period of nearly twenty-five years" (loud applause). — Drunk with three times three. The Chairman responded in appropriate terms, and assured the company that their kindness would not be thrown away upon unfuitful soil, and that he should always feel deeply interested in the welfare of the inhabitants of Rutland (applause). G. H. Heathcote, Esq., M.P., proposed "The Vice- Presidents of the Society ;" to which toast R. W. Baker, Esq., responded. Wm.Sharrad, Esq., of Langham, said he had the plea- sure to propose the toast of " The Members for the County." He congratulated the freeholders of Rutland that they had two good representatives (A Voice : " Middling.") He con- cluded by requesting that the toast be drunk with honours (three times three cheers were rather feebly given). Sir Gilbert Heathcote, Bart., M.P., in returning thanks, apologized for the absence of the Hon, G. J. Noel, M.P., who was abroad ; and after expressing the pleasure he felt in seeing their society in so flourishing a state, and at the successful show of that day, alluded to the war, expressed his coiifldence in the successful result of the present struggle, and said that, as the war with Louis the Fourteenth had produced a Marlborough, and Waterloo a Welliugtou, so also, he thought, great generals would not be wanting to assist Eng- land in her emergencies. Orlando Edmonds, Esq. (of Stamford), proposed " The Judges of Hunting Horses," and suggested that that class be made more worthy of competition, by increasing the value of the prizes. Thomas Heycock, Esq., of Brauuston, responded to the toast. The Hon. Hy, Noel proposed "The Judges of Stcck." Mr. Noel suggested that one of the many young and rising farmers of Rutland should always be associated with them in their duties, and reap the benefit of their advice and judgment. In the absence of the Judges of Stock (who were compelled to return by an early train), Mr. John Painter, of Burley (one of the stewards), re- sponded. The Chairman proposed "The Stewards," and bore testi- mony to the zeal and efficiency of those ofl^cers. Mr. J, G. BoswoRTii responded, and proposed "The health of R. L. Bradsbaw, Esq.," who had done that day what no other had yet been able to do — carry off the six first prizes in the sheep classes (the toast was drunk with three times three). R. L. Bradshaw, Esq., in responding, said he felt the compliment they had paid him so deeply, that he could hardly find words to express his feelings. Bis friends around him had given him the opportunity to make a remark respecting the prize ox last year iu the first class. Last year, the Duke of Rutland (who took the prize alluded to) obtained the gold medal at Smithfield : he hoped the Marquis of Exeter would be equally successful this year. As far as the first-prize sheep exhibited this year were coocemed, he might perhaps be allowed to say that they stood a fair chance of being first in London ; and he hoped, for the sake of the Rutland Society, that such would be the case. Some sheep stood the journey to the metropolis much better than others ; and he would remark that, as sheep were often greatly deteriorated in their transit on long journeys, the difference of opinion amongst judges that sometimes took place between the awards at Rutland and in London formed, therefore, no criterion as to the real merits of the sheep exhibited in the latter place. It had been known that animals which had taken first prizes at Oakham had not stood first at Smithfield, not because they were not worthy of the prize, but simply owing to the dete- rioration he had alluded to. The reason he had alluded to this matter was that the remark had been made, " Why, the judges at the Oakham Show must have been all wrong." He thanked them for their kindness ; but the real credit was due to his son, to whom all the management of the sheep had been entrusted ; and should he be so fortunate as to take a prize in London, he should hand it over to him (applause). Sir G. Heathcote, Bait., M,P., proposed "The Secre- taries" (Mr. C. J. Bradshaw, Mr, T, Swiugler, and Mr. W. Fowler) Mr. C. J. Bradshaw responded iu a neat speech, for which we regret we have not space. R, W, Baker, Esq., proposed " The Farmers' Club," and after alluding to the good effected by the circulation of books and newepapers, said he hoped the Club would continue to re- ceive an accession of members. Alluding to Mr. Bradshaw's sheep, he gave it as his opinion that the laurels of the Smith- field Club would come again into Rutland j they must be ex- traordinary auimals that beat them, and better than what have been seen in the Smithfield Show for some years (Hear). Mr. Baker then entered into some very interesting particulars to show that over an extent of 20,000 acres of land in the imme- diate neighbotirhood with which he was acquainted, cultivated under various landlords, there was not that extra breadth of land sown with wheat in 1855 over 1854 which had been stated by some writers ; that from the breadth now sown over the same extent of laud there would not be a very large quan- tity harvested in 1856 over 1855 ; in short, that there would baiu acres about 12 per cent, in 1856 over 1854. Mr. Baker also showed some very important particulars from actual re- turns from sixty-four small allotments iu the parish of Extou, Each person occupying 1 J- roods of land, which is cultivated upon the fork and spade system, the average value of the pro- duce of these sixty-four allotments was, in 1855, £9 ICs. 6d. each. The average quautity of wheat was at the rate of 5^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 51 quarters, or, iu value, £22 per acre ; barley, 8^ qrs., or £17 per acre ; beans, 6^ qrs., or £13 per acre ; potatoes, 96 sacks, or £36 per acre. The largest crop of wheat in the sixty-four allotments was at the rate of 7f qrs. per acre, or £31 ; pota- toes, 128 sacks per acre, or £48 ; carrots, 58j cwt. upon one- eii^hth of au acre, or £52 ISs. per acre : calculating wheat at 803. per qr., barley 40s., beans 40s., potatoes 7s. 6d. per sack, and carrots 453. per ton. He also showed that the average of wheat, barley, and beans in 1855, in these allotments, was very nearly the same as the average of the three years 1840-1-2, which also proved that, although the produce of 1855 iu the district was below the abuudant crop of 1854, still it was very little below an average of years. He hoped they would feel interested iu the few observations he had made to them ; at all events, he thought they would do uo harm. He begged to propose " The farmers' Club," and to assure them of its coa- tiuued prosperity. (Mr. Baker resumed his seat amidst loud applause.) Mr. WoRTLEY responded to the toast. He eulogised the society, speaking highly of the usefulness of the Journal, and at the same time enforced the necessity of keeping up the character of the local societies, which were the tributary streams to the Royal Agricultural Society. He would also take the opportunity to say that he entirely differed from the Hou. H. Noel, who had suggested that a young farmer of Rutland should accompany the judges iu makiug the award, for his own improvement ; for he contended that the judges ought by all means to be perfect strangers to the stock and their owners. He concluded by proposing " The Labouring Classes." The Chairman proposed " The Visitors," coupling with the toast the name of Mr. Ainsworth, from Lancashire ; to which toast that gentleman responded. Mr. R. L. Bradshaw proposed " The Magistrates of the County," coupling with the toast the name of Sir Gilbert Heathcote, who responded. The Chairman gave " The Royal Agricultural Society," and called upon Mr. Wortley to respond. G. H. Heathcote, Esq., proposed " Sir John TroUope and Fox-hunting," a toast which was received with enthu- siasm, and drunk with three times three. The Chairman responded in a spirited speech, and in the course of his remarks said it was not his wish to enter into new pursuits ; but as his friends on his right and left (Sir G. Heathcote and Son) had refused to take the field, between the two he tumbled into it himself. He hoped the lovers of the chase would have good sport, and that the good fellowship he had experienced would continue (applause). The Chairman gave " Prosperity to the town and trade of Oakham," to which toast Mr. Wellington responded ; and after the toast of " Lady TroUope and the Ladies of Rutland" had been proposed by Mr. R. L. Bradshaw, and responded to by the Right Hon. Chairman, the latter vacated his seat and left the room amidst loud applause. Thus euded one of the most successful and spirited meetings that has been held at Oakham for many years. We regret that we are compelled to abridge our report. SHROPSHIRE CATTLE AND POULTRY SHOW. This was a very successful meeting. The show of horses was not so large as might have been expected from the ample resources of the district ; but this may result from the small- ucss of the premiums offered, aud a curtailment iu the classi- fication of last year. Some of the hunters displayed were re- markably fine animals, particularly the winner of the prize, a bay gelding, four years old, by " Drayton," the property of Mr. Calcott, of Batton, who is a first-rate judge in horseflesh. The agricultural class included four stallions, and the rest were very promising colts. The entries for stock were, on the whole, good, and several of the animals exhibited possessed considerable merit. In the fat stock department both the Herefords and shorthorns were well represented, and the same remark will apply to the breed- ing stock. The show of sheep was not numerous, but little, if at all, inferior in point of excellence to last year's display. A small lot of Leicesters, of rather diminutive size, but good iu quality, were penned on the left, and immediately adjoining the en- trance. The class for Southdowns was also weak as regards numbers, but the animals shown were of large-size and of beau- tiful symmetry. The Shropshire downs were in great force, and the breed was in every way well represented. We cannot speak too highly of the pigs, more particularly the young brawns, which were full of quality, and the sows and pigs. The poultry was again a great source of attraction, the entry being very large, and some of the birds possessing rare merit. THE DINNER. The annual dinner of the association took place at the Lion Hotel. ' The chair was occupied by Viscount Newport, M.P., President of the Society, supported on the right and left by John Loxdale, Esq., W. B. Lloyd, Esq., Captain William Kenyon, M. G. Benson, Esq., and B. H. B. Owen, Esq. The Mayor of the Borough, John Hazeldine, Esq., was the Vice- President. The company numbered about sixty, and included Peter Beck, Esq. ; R. H. Kinchant, Esq. ; John Meire, Esq. ; Mr. J. C. Etches, Mr. Gough, Mr. Horton, Harnage Grange ; Mr. Adney, Harley ; Mr. Calcott, Betton ; Mr. Ciaridge, Pitchford Park; Mr. Hill, Golding; Mr. James Meredith, Frodesley ; Mr. John Preece, Cressage ; Mr. Wilson, Smith- field Road, Mr. George Badger, Mr. Joseph Meire, Mr. T. L. Meire, Mr. J. M. Skrymsher ; Mr. James, Cheltenham ; Mr. Smith, Sutton Maddock ; Mr. Fowler, Actou Reynald ; Mr. Jebb, jun.,The Lyth ; Mr. Hewer, The Verne, Hereford- shire ; Mr. Hopwood, The Rowney, Market Drayton ; Mr. Beetenson ; Mr. Henry Pickstock, Baschurch ; Mr, Edward Hughes, Mr. Lewis Meredith, Mr. Samuel Juckes, Mr. Daniel Pritchard; Mr. Crane, Shrawardine; Mr. Philpott, Unicorn Inn ; Mr. Hayley ; Mr. Crane, Forden ; Mr. Simp- son ; Mr. Lee, Brompton ; Mr. Wood, The Marsh ; Mr. S. Plimley, Alderbury ; Mr. William Statham, Mr. John Frail ; Mr. Bowen, Ensdon ; Mr. W. G. Preece (Secretary to the Society), Mr. Edwin Preece; Mr. Wright, Hatton; Mr, Matthews, Baschurch, &c., &c. After the usual loyal toasts, the health of the Chairman was given by the Mayor. The noble Chairman, in responding, expressed the plea- sure he had derived from attending the present meeting, more especially as he found that the character of the Show had in no degree degenerated, in point of quality at least. He believed that these societies, when properly conducted, were advan- tageous to the agricultural community, as they tended to excite a spirit of generous rivalry and emulation among farmers, and by bringing the landlord and tenant into more frequent contact^ a better feeling was established between them. After remark- ing on the excellence of some of the sheep exhibited, to which his attention had been particularly drawn, and urging upon the agricultural and trading community a renewed and more vi- gorous support of the Society, the noble lord concluded by proposing " Success to the Cattle and Poultry Show," after- wards intimating that his honoured relative and colleague in the representation of the southern division of the county (the Hon. Robert Clive, M.P.) had consented to become Pre- sident of the Society for the next year (cheers). Several other toasts were given, aud after spending a plea- sant evening, the company drank, " All friends round the W*ekiD," which was pledged in a true Shropshire style. LIST OF PRIZES. FAT STOCK. HEREFORDS. . Steers, not exceeding three years and three mouths. Prize, I! 2 52 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. £5, .1. Naylor, Esq., Leighton. Commended, Mr. Carter's, o Dodmore. Cows and heifers. Prize, £5, Mr. Edward Price, the Court House, Pembridge. Highly commended, Mr. Richard Thomas, of Ryton, Salop, aud John E. L. Hewer, Esq.. Vern House, Marden. Commended, Mr. Richard Hill, Golding, Salop. SHORTHORNS. Oxen or steers, exceeding three years and three months old. Prize, £5, John Naylor, Esq., Leighton Hall. Commended, Mr. John Higgiiis, Lubstree Park, Salop. Cows and heifers. Prize, £5, Viscount Plill, Hawkstone. Highly commended, Edward Bird Guest, Esq., Ivy House. SHEEP. Shropshire-downs. Prize, £4, William Foster, Esq , Kinver Hill Farm, Staffordshire. Highly commended, Mr. Henry Smith, jun.. The New House, Sutton Maddock, one year aud eight months. Commended, Mr. Richard Thomas, Wood- batch, Salop, and Mr. Henry Smith, jun., The New House, Sutton. PIGS, Exceeding one year old. Prize, £3, Mr. William Preece, Eardington, Salop. BREEDING STOCK. HEREFORDS. Bulls of any age. A sweepstakes of £2 each, with £10 added, Mr. Richard Hill, Golding Salop, " Restorative." Commended, Mr. John Monkhouse, The Stow, He^fordshire, " Madoc." Bulls, not exceeding three years and three months old. Prize, £5, John Naylor, Esq., Leighton 'Hall, "^oamended, Mr. Richard Hill, Golding, Cows, exceeding three years and three months aid, in calf or in milk. Prize, £5, William Stedman, Bedstone Hall, Salop. Commended, John Naylor, Esq., Leighton Hall. Pair of heifers, not exceeding three years and three months old, in calf or in milk. Prize, £5, John Naylor, Esq., Leighton Hall. Commended, Mr. William Allen, Unckington, Salop. SHORTHORNS. Bulls of any age. A sweepstakes of £2 each, with £10 added. Second prize, £3, Mr. Edward Gough, Gravel Hill, Salop, " Lef:itimate" (10412), aged six years. Commended, Mr. Joshua Price, Featherstone, Staffordshire ; Viscount Hill, Hawkstone, Salop ; and Mr. Peter Perry, Acton Pigott, Salop, " Dandy." Bulls, not exceeding three years and three months old. Prize, £5, Viscount Hill, Hawkstone. Cows, exceeding three years and three months old, in calf or in milk. Prize, £5, E. W. S. Owen, Esq., Condover, Salop. Pair of heifers, not exceeding three years and three months old, in calf. Prize, £5, Viscount Hill. Commended, Sir E> J. Smythe, Bart., Acton Burnell Hall, Salop. SHEEP. Shropshire or Southdown rams. A sweepstakes of £1 each, with £5 added, William Wyley, Esq., Dothill, Salop. Commended, Mr. Henry Smith, jun., Sutton Maddock, Shiffual. Leicester, or other long-wooUed rams, a sweepstakes of £1 aach, with £5 added, Mr. Edward Gough, Gravel Hill, Salop. Leicester ram-lambs. Prize, £3, Mr. William Lowe, Uckington, Salop. Leicester ewes. Prize, £5, Mr. John Wedge, Fern Hill. Commended, Mr. Edward Gough, Gravel Hill, and Mr. John Wedge, Fern Hill, Newport. Southdown ram-lambs. Prize, £3, Viscount Hill, Hawk- stone. Southdown ewes. Prize, £5, William Foster, Esq., Kinver Hill Farm. Commended, Mr. Henry Smith, jun., Sutton IMaddock. Sl)rop9hire-down rani-lambs. Prize, £3, Rev. C. P. Peters, Pitchford rectory, Salop. Commended, ditto, ditto, aud William Foster, Esq., Kinver Hill Farm. Shropshire-down breeding ewes. Prize, £15, Edward Holland, Esq, Diimblcton, Giouces'crshire. Highly com- mended, William Foster, Esq., Kinver Hill Farm. Com- mended, Mr. Henry Smith, jun., Sutton Maddock, and ditto, ditto. HORSES. Horses, mares, and geldintrs, calculated for hunters, carriage horses, or chargers. Prize, £5, Mr. Charles Calcott, Betton, bay gelding. Brood mares, calculated to breed hunters, carriage horses, or chargers, with one of her produce under 12 months old. Prize, £5, G. H. Talboys, Esq., Broseley. Horses, mares, and geldings, adapted to agricultural pur- poses. Prize, £5, Edward Holland, Esq., Dumbleton, Gloucestershire. Brood mares, best calculated to breed horses for agricul- tural purposes, lo be shown with one of her own produce. Prize, £5, Mr. William Lawrence, Cantlop, Salop. PIGS. Boars of any breed, not exceeding two years old. Prize, £3, Mr. Samuel Bluck, Bromfield, Salop. Highly com- mended, Mr. Henry Hill, Stableford, Salop, and Sir E. J. Smythe, Bart, Acton Burnell Hall. Sows, of any age or breed, each with not less than five breeding pigs, not exceeding six months old. Prize, £5, Mr. Edmund Meredith, Frodesley, Salop. Commended, Charles Chandler, Esq., Bicton, Salop. EXTRA STOCK. Exhibitors, Mr. Edmund Meredith, Frodesley, Salop, gelt, in pig, small breed ; and Peter Beck, Esq., Shrewsbury, black gelding, by the Steamer. RABBITS— NOXIOUS VERMIN TO THE TENANT FARMER. Sir, — In traversing several of the Midland counties, more especially by the the side of woods, plantations, and forests, I find the rabbits greatly complained of by tenant farmers. In too many cases the gamekeeper stocks the tenant's farm wiih rabbits and without stint, the rabbits being considered the gamekeeper's property and part of his wages. I have known aud do know instances, where tenant farmers of the first class are not allowed to kill a rabbit on their farms ; and I know where the game and rabbits found upon a lordship are sold yearly to the man who will give the most for them, without any remuneration to the tenant farmer who rears and feeds them. Such is a badge of the old feudal system of the game and rabbit laws. Let the lords of the soil consider that a single rabbit running over a farm will destroy in one year a bushel of wheat. What is a bushel of wheat worth? AVhy lOs. ! And what is the rabbit worth when it has destroyed the bushel of wheat? Why from 9d. to Is. Is not this waste of property monstrous, in the middle of the nineteenth century, and in the great age of discovery ? Where can the ears, eyes, and conscience of the steward of the noble lord be, to allow a gamekeeper to stock his master's tenants' farms without stint, nay, with vermin — r.ibbits? Jus- tice calls out aloud, far and wide, aud says rabbits ought to be tlie property of the tenant farmer and not the property of the gamekeeper in lieu of wages, which makes the gamekeepers noxious in the eyes of the tenant farmers. I know an instance of a highly respectable tenant farmer in the county of Bucks, where the damage done by rabbits in one year upon his farm, which was of a moderate size, was valued at £150 by highly respectable and competent valuers. The wheels of nature and of time were never made to roll backward. The tide of reason, long delayed, long checked and obstructed, has nevertheless set in, and plainly indicates that with the high price of corn under free trade, wheat ought not to be destroyed by ver- min called rabbits. Not many years back, in North Lincolnshire, many rabbit warrens were let to warreuers upon Lincoln Heath and the Wolds, of 1,000 acres in each warren, at not more than 28. 6d. per acre. Who did the rabbits in the warrens belong to ? Why the warrener, the tenant ; the same as cattle aud sheep upon a farm, and of course not to the hireling gamekeeper, or his master the owner of the land ; but to the tenant warrener, who stocked his land with rabbits instead of cattle and sheep. And were a tenant farmer to stock his farm with rabbits instead of sheep and cattle, would the gamekeeper or his master claim the whole of the rabbits the tenant's stock, which he kept to pay the rent of his farm ? Then why is a gamekeeper or land- lord allowed to claim the rabbits upon the farm of a tenant ? Lcamiiujlon, Warwickshire, Nov, 3Qth. S. A. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 53 THE SMITHFIELD CLUB AND BIRMINGHAM CHRISTMAS CATTLE SHOWS. Some six months since we felt it our duty to warn the Directors of the Smithfield Club and the Midland Counties Cattle Show of the unprofitable collision to which they were once again ajiproach- ing. It would seem to have been the duty of neither to heed our caution. Not the slightest effort, we believe, was ever made on either side to avert the evil. In the face of the very palpable fact that the best animals had been continually sent from one show to the other, and that the op- portunity for comparison thus afforded was one of the most satisfactory the pubhc could enjoy, neither of the societies cared to secure such advantages. Indeed, as the occasion drew near, we came to be assured by both, with a pardonable exercise of the puff preliminary, that their respective entries and attractions would be greater than ever. Curious as it might sound, there would be better animals and more of them in Baker-street and Bingley Hall, when London and Birmingham each " kept itself to itself," than when one lent its aid to the other. All this has been scarcely realized. On the contrary, from what we have seen of the one show and heard of the other, we have not the least hesitation in saying that both have suffered. There are many reasons offered for this. Food for stock has been notori- ously scarce and dear. Farmers, again, have been labouring under a strong attack of the " twenty- pound a load" fever, and it is but human nature to see people well satisfied when they are doing well. The heavy expense of fattening-up cattle and sheep to the prize acme of condition might not, under present circumstances, seem necessary, and we have no doubt that many have thus stayed their exertions. Still, we cannot at all admit that any such com- bination of causes could have thinned the entries down to what we found them. We can only revert to the one fatal error in forgetting that nothing but the Irishman's bird was ever able to be in two places at once. There was many a good beast, which, if he had not been in Birmingham, would have been in London, and perhaps more still that would have^ gone on from the metropolis to the midland counties. An attempt has been made to show that the Smithfield Club has had by far the worst of this contretemps. It has been declared, in fact, in so many words, that the exhibition is this year much inferior to that collected in Birmingham. We do not see that the comparison is altogether a fair one ; but if it is drawn, we have the authority of some of our best judges for saying that, in real excel- lence, in having lirought together the best animals of their several kinds, the Smithfield Club has a very decided superiority. The challenge offered by the Duke of Richmond at the dinner, with reference to his own entries, might be very safely extended. We are forced to say thus much, after what has already been declared ; but we do so with anything but an intended disparage- ment of our Birmingham friends. On the con- trary, there is no meeting of the whole year we enjoy more than theirs. To their admirable ar- rangements we have, time after time, given that approval they so well merited. We have now, we are happy to add, to thank them for something further. The Directors of the Midland Counties Society have been the first to acknowledge the im- policy of this opposition week, as they have deter- mined that such a mistake shall never occur again. Though unable to attend ourselves, we have made arrangements for a full report of the meeting, sup- plied by one of our own correspondents, and to be found in another part of this magazine. We have also had three of our staff busily en- gaged in the King-street Bazaar. Theirlabours will record what the Smithfield Club really was able to do. Our own conviction is that in the cattle classes generally, both for numbers and excellence, the show was unequivocally below the mark. It is long since there was a poorer lot of Devons ; while the Shorthorns, with only a few exceptions, by no means bore testimony to their rapidly extending repute. For picked good beasts we should have gone to the Herefords, a cluster of young animals being very superior. These, with the " other" breeds, Welsh and Scotch, and sheep — the long- wools more especially — constituted the chief strength of the yard. They were flanked, how- ever, by a row of steam engines, and crowned with an implement gallery, that of itself was an admir- able exhibition of wares and inventions. There was no falling off here. The display was larger and better than ever. On the whole, we are inclined to think the mem- bers of the Smithfield Club will profit more than usual from the experience of this last show. They have received a home thrust or two, rather roughly given. Many of their own body have evinced their anxiety to break fresh ground, and do a little more than they have done. Beyond this, they have entered on a more favourable term with the proprietor of the Bazaar — an arrange- ment which savours more of that liberality there should be. For instance, in future the members of the Club will all have the entry to " the private view" — a privilege they should have had from the first. It is not much, after all, the members of the Smithfield Club receive in this way, while we are much mistaken if such a step will not materially increase their numbers. So far this private view has been rather a melancholy affair, with a few representatives of the Press, and a few exhibitors scattered over a space amply sufficient to accom- modate all the cognoscenti. In another part of the proceedings the Smithfield 54 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Club has made a very decided improvement, and that is the dinner at which the prizes are distri- buted. It was not only the best, but the best served, arranged, and attended we ever remember to have been present at. Further^than this, it was, as the reporters record, "rendered more than usually interesting" by the presentation of a piece of plate to the honorary secretary of the Club, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs. It is not often that honorary appointments are particularly well filled, and it is not common that these testimonial otferings are by any means too well merited. If, however, a man has deserved well of those he has served, it is Mr. Brandreth Gibbs. Either as Director of the shows of the Royal Agricultural So- ciety, or as Secretary of the Smithfield Club, he has worked with equal zeal and ability. Few, indeed, could fulfil the duties with more niethod, energy, or a greater experience of those he has to encounter. His labours, moreover, are those of a nature we do not see much of, and he must be often toiUng early and late for the accommodation of those who cannot know half of what he has done for them. Our report of the dinner will show the manner in which he was introduced by the President and received by his friends. Mr. Gibbs' own speech, which ran to some length, touched not only on business detail and deduction, but overflowed at times with simile, metaphor, and poetical illustration. Never before has the Smith- field Club enjoyed such an oration. The reports of the other meetings will speak for themselves. The subject selected for discussion at the Farmers' Club allowed ample limit to the introducer; and it will be seen that Mr. Baker very ably handled his text, hardly leaving any topic un- touched. The debate which followed, though sufficiently energetic, was by no means equal to what the Club has done in discussion. We may take an early opportunity of referring to what occurred here. At the Society of Arts, Mr. Bailey Denton's paper on Drainage called up a number of contemporary authorities, not to be exhausted at one sitting. The meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society of England have not been of so pubhc a character as we might have wished. They have nearly all been confined to committees — in which one of the most important matters has been the great confer- ence with the implement makers. This turns on the triennial or biennial trials, only, of machinery ; and it is understood that to a certain extent " the prayer of the petitioners" wiU be granted. By some strange mischance, the only public meeting of the week is fixed for a day when there is no public to attend it. That is to say, the general meeting of the society is fixed for the Saturday in the Smith- field week, at eleven o'clock ; and by Saturday at eleven o'clock nine-tenths of the members who have come to town are gone out again. The consequence is that this general meeting is the most formal of all routine affairs. There is a common rumour that our leading agricultural bodies are too confined in their administration. Without in any way here admitting the truth of this allegation, we would certainly counsel our friends in high places to give their brother-subscribers more consideration as well as more opportunity for expressing their opinions than they appear at present to enjoy. We speak with a due regard for the interests of all. SMITHFIELD CATTLE SHOW. The numbers exhibited in each of the eight di- visions into which the cattle are grouped, are as follows : — Devons, 17 ; Herefords, 20 ; Shorthorns, 40; Scotch or Irish, 10; Welsh, 6; Other Pure Breeds, 3 ; Cross or Mixed-bred, 7 ; and Extra Stock, 9 : making a total of 112. We at once proceed to give the results of our inspection of the various classes, beginning with the DEVONS. Class I. — Devon Steers, not exceeding 3 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 4. Tlie Earl of Leicester, of Holkham Hall, Wells, Norfolk, 2 years and 11 months, bred by exhi- bitor, and fed on mangel wurzel, turnips, hay, linseed cake, bean and pea meal. The judges have done rightly in awarding to this animal the first prize. He is remark- ably level ; has a remarkably good chine and vpide hips, a first-rate fore-quarter, and a good rump, while the firmness of his flesh, and his beautiful quality altogether, excited general admiration. No. I. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 2 years and 10 months, bred by George Turner, of Bar- ton, near Exeter, and fed on bean and barley meal, linseed cake, swedes, and hay. Second prize. We think that this steer deservedly occupies the secondary instead of foremost position in its class, and that therefore dis- crimination not favouritism Las swayed the decision of the arbitrators in this case. This animal has an exceed- ingly good hand, and is of fine character and quality, but smaller in frame than the prize beast, and deficient at the rump and hind quarter. No. 2. H. Frarapton, of Blandford, Dorset, 2 years 9 months and 17 days, bred by Lord Portman, of Bryanston House, Blandford, and fed on hny, swedes, mangel wurzel, carrots, vetches, barley, oat and bean meal, and oil cake. A beast of much greater size, but not at all equal in quality. Class II. — Devon Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 13. The Lady Elizabeth Louisa Reynell, of Avisford House, near Arundel, Sussex, 4 years and 10 months, bred by Robert Hole, of Ilarwood, near Dun- ster, and fed on swedes, hay, barley meal, and oilcake. A lady cattle-feeder carries away the first prize, for a very well made-up animal, firm, yet fat, and with great size ; hips wide, and general symmetry of form. No. 7. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 3 years and 8 mouths, bred by Richard Mogridge, of Molland, near South Molton, and fed on bean and barley meal, linseed cake, swedes, and hay. Second prize. Here again we find a similar defect to that of his Royal Highness's young steer, namely, a slight falling oft' in the rump, although the two animals were not of the same herd. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 55 Both, however, possess a degree of merit fully entitling them to the amount of honour they have received. No. 6. R. J. Webb, of Calcot-place, near Reading, 3 years and 7 months, bred by the Earl of Aylesford, of Packington, near Coventry, and fed on hay, mangel wurzel, swede, turnips, oilcake, barley and bean meal. Particularly noticeable for its wide fore-quarter; but as too often happens, this is not quite matched by an equal excellence in the hind- quarters, the flank and tut being rather deficient. No. 8. John Tucker, of Yard Farm, Staplegrove near Taunton, 4 years 7 months and 8 days, bred by exhibitor, and fed on barley, bean, and pea meal, hay, grass, and roots. An animal of great size, and ex- ceedingly fat. No. 9. J. Trevor, sen., of Broughton Pastures, near Aylesbury, 5 years and 3 months, bred by Edwin G. Toose, of Bishop's Lydeard, near Taunton, and fed on grass, oilcake, and bay. This beast possesses a large heavy frame, but is rather deficieat in one or two of the points which indicate a fat and well-fed animal. Class III. — Devon Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. Freemartins and Spayed Heifers are not qualified. No. 14. John Tucker, of Yard Farm, Staplegrove, near Taunton, 2 years and 10 months, bred by John BifFon, of Nailsbourne Farm, Kingston, near Taunton, from the stock of exhibitor, and fed on barley, bean and pea meal, hay, grass, and roots. First prize. V/e much admired the fine bone and symmetrical propor- tions, as well as good meat of this heifer, though she is not quite perfect and level between the hip and tut. No. 15. Thos. White Fouracre, of Durston, near Taunton, 2 years and 9 months, bred by exhibitor, and fed on hay, grass, roots, bean and barley meal. Second prize. Remarkably wide hips ; broad, straight back ; chine fully out, and twist good. Class IV. — Devon Cows, above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live Calf, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of iood must be certified. No. 16. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 5 years and 9 months, bred by Lord Portman, of Bryanston House, Blandford, and fed on bean and barley meal, linseed cake, roots, and hay— had two calves. First Prize. A very superior cow, having a straight and very wide flat back ; thighs and twist exceedingly good ; hips wide; rump fat, and not sloping off; chine full, and ribs well standing out. No. 17. John Coale, of Hammoon, near Blandford, Dorset, 4 years and 7 months, bred by John Badcock, of Stogumber, near Taunton, and fed on hay, oilcake, mangel-wurzel, and cabbage — had one calf. Second Prize. Decidedly inferior to the other, being much less widely built in frame. We come next to the Herefords, and here meet with commendations abundantly bestowed. Some very fine animals are exhibited; and, indeed, visitors could hardly believe in some instances that the right ages had been given, and that beasts couhl attain to such great size and maturity in so short a time. HEREFORDS. Class V. — Hereford Steers, not exceeding 3 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 19. Isaac Niblett, of Filton, near Bristol, 2 years 10 months and 1 week, bred by T. L. Meire, of Cound, near Shrewsbury, and fed on hay, swedes, mangel wurzel, barley meal, and cake. First Prize. This steer possesses a remarkably good hand. His back is straight, ribs well springing out ; altogether, a well-made animal, covered with exceedingly good meat. No. 18. Edward Longmore, of Adforton, near Lud- low, 2 years and 11 months, bred by Thomas Long- more, of Buckton, near Ludlow, from the stock of Mr. Tudge, of Ashford, and fed on oilcake, pea meal, and ground oats. Second prize. A shorter frame. Back and ribs well covered ; rump, tut, and twist good ; amazingly fat for so young an age. No. 20. Josh. Phillips, of Ardington, near Wantage, Berks, 2 years and 7 months, bred by Thomas Carter, ofDodmore Farm, Ludlow, and fed on barley meal, cake, swedes, and hay. Highly commended. A'ery fat ; but not nearly so good a hand as some others in the class. No. 21. Lord Berwick, of Cronkhill, near Shrews- bury, 2 years 10 months and 12 days, bred by exhibitor, and fed on grass, hay, roots, barley and pea meal, and oilcake. Commended. This steer has certainly much better meat than the preceding, and is both well formed and well fed. No. 22. William Heath, of Ludham Hall, near Nor- wich, 2 years and 7 months, bred by John Child, of Ledwych, near Ludlow, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, oilcake, oat and pea meal. Commended. A very large and heavy beast, but deficient in firmness of hand. This class is very meritorious, and deserving of praise. Class VI. — Hereford Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 29. William Heath, of Ludham Hall, near Nor- wich, 3 years and 11 months, bred by William Stedmari, of Bedstone Hall, near Ludlow, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, oilcake, oat and pea meal. First prize. We do not know which to admire most, the great size, breadth, and depth of frame, or the beautiful quality, symmetry, and colour of this steer. He possesses a remarkably good chine and fore-quarter ; an extra- ordinarily full and wide breast, and a wonderful flank, and carries in every point an immense quantity of firm meat. No. 33. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 3 years and 11 months, bred by John Stephens, of Hay, Brecon, and fed on oilcake, bean meal, swedes, and hay. Second prize. This animal is level, wide, and well-formed ; rump good, and the meat firm. No. 25. Philip Turner, of The Leen, Pembridge, near Leominster, 3 years 11 months and 5 days, bred by exhibitor, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, oat, barley, and bean meal, and cake. Commended. Of very great size, breadth, and depth; but inferior to the preceding beasts in quality. No, 28. Arthur James, of Monnington Court, near Hereford, 4 years 1 month and 5 days, bred by Richard James, of Mounington-on-Wye, near Hereford, from the stock of Mr. Smith, of Shelsley Walsh, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, mangel wurzel, pea and barley meal, and oilcake. Commended. This is a very good steer, with a straight back, and particularly heavy thighs. His hand is very firm. No. 26. Thomas Bridge, of Ramsey's Tyrel, near Ingatestone, Essex, 3 years and 5 months, bred by Thomas Palphrey, of Penybont, Radnor, and fed on vegetable roots, linseed, oilcake, barley and linseed meal, and hay. A superior chine, but there is not a corres- ponding breadth between the hips, which renders him less proportionate than some worse-fed beasts. No. 24. The Earl of Radnor, of Coleshill House, near Farringdon, Berks, 3 years and 3 months, bred by ex- hibitor, and fed on corn, cake, hay, and rootg. We 50 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cannot praise this animal so highly as some others, one deficiency being observable between the rib and the hip. Class VII. — Hereford Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. Freemartins and Spayed Heifers are not qualified. No. 34. Joseph Phillips, of Ardington, near Wantage, Berks, 2 years and 7 months, bred by Thomas Carter, of Dodmore Farm, near Ludlow, and fed on barleymeal, oilcake, swedes, and hay. First prize. This heifer has a very good back, full chine, and very wide hips. There was no competition for the second prize. Class VIII. — Hereford Cows, above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live Calf, without restric- tion as to feeding, yet the kind or kiiu's of food must be certified. No. 37. John Henry Gurney, of Catton Hall, near Norwich, 8 years, bred by William Chilor, of Wigmore Grange, near Leominster, and fed on swedes, beet, hay, oat and barley meal, and linseed-cake — had 2 calves. First prize. This very remarkable cow, at such an age, and having had 2 calves, has yet laid on an immense quantity of meat, apparently very fat, but firm to the hand. Such an animal must be of fine feeding quality, and, in fact, she is well-formed and symmetrical, and has fine offal and a kindly coat. No. 36. Josh. Phillips, of Ardington, near Wantage, Berks, 4 years and 1 month, bred by Thomas Carter, of Dodmore Farm, near Ludlow, and fed on barleymeal, swedes, cake, and hay — had 2 calves. Second prize. Firm, good meat, but her coat not bright — in some points, though, a good animal. No. 35. Philip Turner, of the Leen, Pembridge, near Leominster, 4 years and 11 months, bred by exhibitor, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, cake, bean, barley, and oatmeal — had 2 calves. Highly fattened, but has one defect in not being sufficiently filled out between the hip and rib. SHORT-HORNS. Class IX. — Short-horned Steers, not exceeding 3 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. This class is generally commended, but we hardly see why it should be so distinguished. No. 40. J. Holmes, of Brooke Hall, near Norwich, 2 years 11 months and 8 days, bred by exhibitor, and fed on swedes, mangel wurzel, hay, chaff, bean and barley meal, oil cake, and molasses. First prize. This is a superior animal, well fed, and with exceedingly firm good meat. No. 41. Earl Spencer, of Althorp Park, near North- ampton, 2 years and 11 months, bred by exhibitor, from the stocks of Sir Charles Knightley, Bart., and own, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, mangel wureel, barley and bean meal. Second prize. Not fat, but with very firm hand; a nice animal, but of no especial merit. No. 39. Richard Stratton, of Broad Hinton, near Swindon, Wilts, 2 years and 10 months, bred by exhi- bitor, and fed on hay, roots, cake, linseed, and beans. Commended. A very good back, several excellent points, but a failing place behind the shoulder. Class X. — Short-horned Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 46. The Marquis of Exeter, of Burghley Park, near Stamford, 3 years and 10 months, bred by exhi- bitor, and fed on linseed cake, bean meal, and vege- tables. First prize and the gold medal. In the eyes of judges this is really an astonishing animal ; first there is his immense size, then his beautiful symmetry of form, and then his splendid quality, light bone, and fine head. Whether we look at the fulness of the chine, great depth through the chest, wonderful breadth both in the fore and hind-quarter, the level back to the rump and tut, the thick thighs, and the firmness of the meat, we must allow this to be a very superior specimen of a well-bred and well-fed short-horn. If there be any fail- ing point, it is a lightness in the flank. This ox, we believe, has been sold for £80. No. 59. Thomas Mortin, of Ashford, near Staines, Middlesex, 3 years and 7 months, bied by William Bayley, of Britwell Farm, near Maidenhead, and fed on mangel wurzel, swedes, Belgian carrots, oilcake, and hay. Second prize. This is a very good animal, with fine head and offal, and considerable breadth of frame. The meat is firm ; of very good quality. No. 49. The Hon. Colonel Pennant, of Penrhyn Castle, near Bangor, Carnarvon, 3 years and 11 months, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Sir Charles Knightley, Bart., and fed on barley, bean and pea meal, oilcake, linseed oil, swedes, mangel wurzel, and hay. Com- mended. A superior steer, remarkably wide- built, and of merit in several points. No. 47. Henry Vyner, of Newby Hall, near Ripen, York, 4 years and 7 months, bred by Anthony Ilurwood, of Pickhill, near Thirsk, from the stocks of the Earl of Carlisle and Mr. B. Wilson, of Brawith, and fed on licseed cake, tares, hay, turnips, and ground oats. This animal has a tremendous frame, standing very high ; he is fat, and yet of firm hand, and is well filled out, and level. His thighs are somewhat deficient ; and he has a white coat, not very fine in character. No. 54. William Hewer, of Sevenhampton, near Ilighworth, Wilts, 3 years and 9 months, bred by exhi- bitor, from the stocks of the late Earl Ducie and own, and fed on grass, hay, cabbage, turnips, bean meal, and oilcake. A good steer, but a little narrower in the hip than some other in this class. No. 56. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 3 years and 10 months, bred by Stewart Marjoribanks, of Bushey Grove, Watford, from the stock of Mr. Trout- beck, and fed on oilcake, bean and barley meal, swedes, mangel wurzel, and hay. This animal is not remarka- ble, except as being well fattened, and rightfully yields the palm of superiority to those which have taken away the honours. No. 57. R. W. Baker, of Cottesmore, near Oakham, 3 years 9 months and 3 days, bred by exhibitor, and fed on oilcake, bean and barley flour, hay, and roots. A good steer, with a broad back, equally fattened ; but in quality we should place it below the preceding one. No. 60. The Earl of Leicester, of Holkham Hall, Wells, Norfolk, 4 years and 7 months, bred by Croft Sharpley, of Acthorpe, near Louth, from the stock of Mr. Cropper, of Minting, Lincoln, and fed on mangel wurzel, turnips, linseed cake, and hay. Not at all superior, being somewhat defective behind the shoulder, and not wide enough in frame. Class XI. — Short-Iiorned Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. Freemartins and Spayed Heifers are not qualified. This class is generally commended, and deservedly so. No. 07. William Aldworth, of Frilford, near Abing- don, 2 years and 0 months, bred by Wm. Miller, of Water Eaton, near Kidlington, Oxon, and fed on grass, hay, swedes, mangel wurzel, barley and bean meal, and oilcake. First prize. A superior heifer, of exceedingly good form and quality ; ribs standing well out. No. 63. C. P. Duffield, of Marcham Park, near Abingdon, Berks, 3 years and 11 months, bred by Thos. INIace, of Sherborne, near Northleach, and fed ou oil- cake, bean and barley meal, mangel wurzel, swedes, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 57 hay. Second prize. This heifer has laid on a large quantity of meat ; and her wide and deep fore-quarter and proportionate frame are points generally admired. No. 61. George Hare, of Holbrook Cottage, near Ipswich, 2 years and 3 months, bred by George Max- well, of Kidbrook Manor, Blackheath, from the stock of R. Searson, of Cranmore Lodge, Deeping, Lincoln, and fed on roots, oilcake, barley meal, and lentil chaff. Commended. A white heifer, of exceedingly good qua- lity of flesh and great beauty of form, with a fine head and light bone. No. 64, Josh. Phillips, of Ardington, near Wantage, Berks, 3 years and 8 months, bred by Thomas Game, of Broadmoor, near Northleach, and fed on barley meal, cake, swedes, and hay. Commended. This animal is fat, with a very good firm hand ; she has a broadly- expanded chest, wide hips, and good rump ; and her fine head and generally excellent quality point her out as almost deserving of the second prize. No. 66. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 3 years and 4 months, bred by exhibitor, and fed on oilcake, bean meal, swedes, and hay. Not of large size, but of beautiful quality ; hips wide, tut good ; she is very fine, and is well fattened. Class XII. — Shorthorned Cows, above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live calf, without re- strictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 73. Henry Ambler, of Watkinson Hall, near Halifax, York, 7 years II months and 16 days, bred by the late William Dunkley Manning, and fed on grass, roots, cake, and bean meal — had 2 calves. First prize. A cow of extraordinary size ; good back, and especially good chine. No. 74. Richard Stratton, of Broad Hinton, near Swindon, Wilts, 5 years and 9 months, bred by exhibi- tor, and fed on hay, roots, cake, linseed, and bean meal — had 2 calves. Second prize. A firmer hand than the preceding has. These are both very heavy beasts, well meriting the distinction they have received. No. 71. His Royal Highness Piince Albert, 5 years and II months, bred by the late Captain Dilke, R.N., of Maxstoke Castle, and fed on bean and barley meal, linseed cake, swedes, and hay— had 2 calves. Com- mended. His Royal Highness has been rather more fortunate in this class, although not carrying off a prize. This is a very superior animal ; very level, with a straight broad back, and chine exceedingly well out ; the rump is also very good, and the flank very heavy indeed. No. 76. John Tucker, of Abbey Print Works, Strat- ford, Essex, 6 years and 8 months, bred by Thomas Herbert, of Macaroni Farm, near Lechlade, and fed on hay, oilcake, locust beans, bean and barley meal, and roots— had 2 calves. Commended. A very good back ; hips wide ; flank good. SCOTCH OR IRISH. Class XIII. — Scotch or Irish Steers or Oxen, of any age, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. This class is gene- rally commended, and indeed some of the animals ex- hibited are of a size and proportion of form quite sur- prising to southern farmers. No. 82. John Grove, of Feme, near Salisbury, Polled Angus, supposed to be 5 years, breeder unknown, fed on roots, barley, bean, and linseed meal. Prize. This animal has a very deep chest, and generally good fore- quarters ; but is low-standing, and much smaller than many in this class. Our opinion would not have awarded him the honour he wears, some of his competi- tors being of decidedly greater merit. No. 78. William Stirling, M.P., of Keir, near Dun- blane, Perth, West Highland, 5 years and H mouths, bred by the late Donald McLaren, of Callander, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, oilcake, and bruised oats. Commended. This shaggy-coated animal attracted universal attention, from his great size and tremendous horns, measuring between 4 and 5 feet from tip to tip. Though the chine is a little deficient, he has a chest like a bison, and his hind-quarter is certainly extraordinary for its great breadth and depth, and his thighs are meated to the very hocks. His flesh is firm, and his prominent eye, fine head, and short nose all indicate excellencies in the breed. No. 80. The Hon. Colonel Pennant, of Penryhn Castle, near Bangor, Carnarvon, West Highland Scot, supposed about 5 years and 6 months, breeder unknown, fed on barley, bean, and pea meal, linseed, linseed-oil, oilcake, swedes, mangel-wurzel, and hay. Commended. A pretty fair animal, with good rump, but not well thrown out in the ribs ; covered with shaggy hair. No. 79. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, Scotch, about 5 years, breeder unknown, and fed on bean and barley meal, linseed-cake, roots, and hay. This is a large beast, but rather too narrow at the rump. No. 85. Sir J. B. Mill, Bart., of Mottisfont Abbey, near Romsey, Hants, Scotch, 6 years and 9 months, breeder unknown, fed on swedes, hay, and barleymeal. Not straight enough in the back ; sides and chest deep, short legs, and curly coat. Class XIV. — Scotch or Irish Heifers or Cows, of any age, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 86. Joshua Arkwright, Mark Hall, Harlow, Essex, Polled Galloway Scot, supposed about 4 years, breeder unknown, fed on hay, grass, roois, linseed-cake, bean and barley meal. Prize. Very long and high standing, but not a first-rate chine. No. 87. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, Galloway or Polled Scot, about 4 years and 6 months old, breeder unknown, fed on oilcake beanmeal, swedes, and hay. A very good animal, with a straight good back. WELSH. Class XV. — Welsh Steers or Oxen (Runts), of any age, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 90. The Hon. Colonel Pennant, of Penrhyn Castle, near Bangor, Carnarvon, supposed about 5 years and 6 months, breeder unknown, and fed on barley, bean, and pea meal, oil cake, linseed and linseed oil, swedes, mangel wurzel, and hay. First prize. A par- ticularly good animal ; broad and deep, with a superior chine ; and well fed. No. 91. Sir Richard Williams Buikeley, Bart., of Baron -hill, Beaumaris, Anglesey, 5 years and G months, and fed on turnips, straw, hay, oatmeal. Unseed meal, oilcake, Indian corn, and sugar. Second prize. A very handsome steer ; of capacious frame, and with good quality of meat. No. 89. George David Griffith, of Berry-hill, near Newport, Pembroke, 4 years and 10 months, bred by exhibitor, and fed on grass, hay, winter vetches, turnips, oilcake, and barley meal. Of very great size, and high standing ; but forequarters too narrow in proportion. Class XVI. — Welsh Heifers or Cows, of any age, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. Only one exhibited, and this not of sufficient merit far a prize. OTHER PURE BREEDS. Class XVII. — Steers or Oxen, of any pure breed (except Devons, Herefords, Shorthorns, and Scotch, i Welsh, or Irish), of any age, without restrictions as 58 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 95. Charles Neame and Sons, of Selling, near Faversham, Kent, 3 years and 11 months, Sussex, bred by exhibitors, and fed on linseed cake, turnips, mangel wurzel, bean, pea, and oat meal, and clover. Prize. A large, high-standing animal, with big horns, hand very firm and good. Class XVIII. — Heifers or Cows, of any pure breed (except Devons, Herefords, Shorthorns, and Scotch, Welsh, or Irish), of any age, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be cer- tified. No. 97. William Heath, of Ludham Hall, near Nor- wich, 3 years 8 months and 13 days old Norfolk, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of the late Mr. Thomas Heath, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, oilcake, oat and pea meal. Prize. Fat, and of prime quaHty. Class XIX. — Cross or Mixed-bred Steers, not exceed- ing 3 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 98. The Earl of Radnor, of Coleshill House, near Farringdon, Berks, 2 years and 11 months Here- ford, Ayrshire, and Shorthorn, bred by exhibitor, and fed on corn, cake, hay, and roots. Prize. Broad, well- made animal, but small. Class XX. — Cross or Mixed-bred Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 102. — James Taylor, of Nigg, near Park Hill, Ross, N.B., 4 years and 6^ months Shorthorn and Ross-shire, bred by exhibitor, and fed on grass, tur- nips, oilcake, and bean meal. Prize. An amazing frame, but not very fat ; well formed, but hand rather loose. Class XXI. — Cross or Mixed-bred Heifers, not exceed- ing 4 years old, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be certified. No. 104. Edward Waters, of Stratford-sub-Castle, near Salisbury, 3 years and 9 months Shorthorned and Hereford, bred by exhibitor, and fed on barley meal, linseed cake, and hay. Prize. A beautiful heifer, of fine quality, and an exceedingly good hand. No. 103. Henry Overman, of Weasenham St. Peter, near Rougham, Norfolk, 2 years and 10 months Ayr- shire and Shorthorn, bred by exhibitor, and fed on roots, hay, cake, and meal. Small, but very symme- trical, and fine in quality. EXTRA STOCK.— CATTLE. No. 110. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, near Burnham Market, Norfolk, above 4 years Shorthorned ox, breeder unknown, fed on grass, turnips, mangel wurzel, cake, hay, oat and bean meal. Silver medal. A very widely formed ox, with good meat, but not espe- cially remarkable for its fine quality. SHEEP AND PIGS. In taking a cursory glance over the various classes of sheep, we were led to the conclusion that they were not quite so well sustained as on many former occasions, and we felt ourselves con- firmed in this opinion on going in our usual way through them more carefully. We find it so .it this meeting, in all the classes, either of cattle, sheep, or ])igs. We must be as brief as possible in this de- l)artment ; and if our view in any of the classes should not in every instance coincide with the de- cision of the judges, it must be remembered that our facilities, and that of the general puljlic, of comparison and adjudging, are far less than theirs. SHEEP— LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS. Class XXII. — Pens of three Fat Wether Sheep of any Long-wooUed breed, 1 year old (under 22 months), without restriction as to feeding. No. 114. The Marquis of Exeter, of Burghley Park, near Stamford, 20 months and 3 weeks Leicester we- thers, bred by exhibitor. Good animals ; rumps short ; skins don't match. No. 115. G. S. Foljambe, of Osberton Hall, near Worksop, Notts, 20 months Leicester wethers, bred by exhibitor. These sheep possess beautiful forms, level fat backs, breast ends well forward, plaits well thrown out, and full good thighs ; deep frames of good form, good looks, and wool thickly set ; rather small. Second prize, £\0. No. 118. Robert Lee Bradshaw, of Burley-on-the- Hill, near Oakham, 21 months improved Leicester wethers, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Messrs. March and Painter. Three very superior sheep, one an extra one, with astonishiug plaits, and breasts all broad; fat backs, deep in frame, broad chines, thick necks, good looks, thighs and flanks deep and full ; hand rather too soft for first quality ; wool good and plenti- ful. This pen reminds us of our best years. First prize of <£20, silver medal to the breeder, and gold medal as the feeder of the best pen of long-wooUed sheep in any of the classes. No: 119. Lord Berners, of Keythorpe Hall, near Tugby, Leicester, 20 months Leicester wethers, bred by exhibitor, from the stocks of Messrs. Burgess, of Holme Pierrepont, and Mr. Borton, of Barton, Yorks. Three very compact, well-formed sheep ; a capital match, very deep frames, extraordinary backs, and good hand ; wool rather thhily set, but curly fleeces ; too small in size. Third prize of £b. Class XXIIL— Pens of three Fat Wether Sheep, of any Long-woolled breed, 1 year old (under 22 months), without restrictions as to feeding. Each sheep not to exceed 220lbs. live weight. No. 123. The Marquis of Exeter, of Burghley Hall, near Stamford, 20 months and 3 weeks Leicester we- thers, bred by exhibitor. Pretty frames, good looks, but short faces ; fair necks and breasts, chines not full, plaits good, wool broad staple. Third prize of £5. No. 124. G. S. Foljambe, of Osberton Hall, near Worksop, Notts, 20 months Leicester wethers, bred by exhibitor. Three very good sheep, not perfectly matched in wool ; one has a capital fleece ; their frames are very proportionate and good ; rumps rather too narrow, thighs good ; faces rather too short ; mutton scarcely firm enough for first quality. First prize of ^£'20, and silver medal to breeder. No. 12G. Robert Lee Bradshaw, of Burley-on-the- Hill, near Oakham, 21 months Improved Leicester wethers, bred by exhibitor, from the stocks of Messrs. March and Painter. Three very deeply framed animals, of good form, deep plaits; rumps rather short; good looks and good wool. Second prize of j£"'10. LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS (not being Leicesters). Class XXIV.— Pens of three Fat Wether Sheep, of any Long-woolled breed (not Leicesters), 1 year old (under 22 months), without restrictions as to feeding. No. 129. Edward L. Betts, of Preston Hall, near Maidstone, Kent, 21 months and 2 weeks Cotswold we- thers, bred by David Smith, of Sherborne, near North- leach. Three very fit and useful sheep ; mutton not firm; wool heavy, and large staple ; off"al fine. No. 130. William Hewer, of Sevenhampton, near Highworlh, Wilts, 21 months Cotswold wethers, bred by exhibitor. Three very fine and beautiful sheep, two of them exceedingly good, one a capital back ; their chines are good, plaits f«ll, thighs deep, wool good and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 59 plentiful, but not corresponding ; offal fine. The prize of ^10, and silver medal as the breeder. EXTRA STOCK.— LONG-WOOLLED SHEEP. No. 132. G. S. Foljambe, of Osberton Hall, near Worksop, Notts, 81 months pure Leicester ewe, bred by exhibitor. A beautiful short-legged ewe, with very deep well-formed frame, capital plaits, good length, and full-made throughout. Silver medal as the breeder of the best Long-woolled Sheep in Extra Stock. No. 137. Edward Handy, of Sierford, near Andovers- ford, 81 months Cotswold ewe, bred by exhibitor. This ewe is very superior in frame, with most excellent mut- ton, good rump, thighs deep, flanks fair, plaits good, neck too light, ofFal fine, wool fair. No. 140. Wm. Park, of Stragglethorpe, Lincolnshire, near Newark on-Trent, Notts, 57 months Long-woolled ewe, bred by exhibitor. A very good sheep, heavily loaded with good mutton, but not quite fine enough in hand ; deep frame, plaits and bosom very good, chine good, offal light, wool fair. Highly commended. CROSS BREEDS. Class XXV.— Pens of three Long and Short-woolled Cross-bred Fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old (under 22 months), without restrictions as to feeding. No. 141. John Hitchman, of Little Milton, near Tits- worth, Oxon, 21 months and 2 weeks Cross-bred wethers, bred by exhibitor. Three large and well-formed sheep ; frames very broad and deep, full plaits, backs well covered, and good quality of flesh ; wool good, not heavy ; offal fair ; looks good. Second prize of £b. No. 142. William Samuel Stevens, of Gatehampton Farm, Goring, near Reading, 21 months Cotswold and Hampshire- down wethers, bred by exhibitor. Very large and deep in frame, good looks, and plenty of good wool. No. 143. John B. Twitchell, of Wilby, near North- ampton, 21 months Leicester and South-down wethers, bred by exhibitor. Very high standing, but not corres- pondingly broad in frame; wool rather light; oft'al fine. Commended. No. 145. E. F. Whittingstall, of Langley, Bury, near Watford, Herts, 21 months and 1 week cross-bred wethers, bred by exhibitor. These possess beautiful quality of flesh, two are particularly good ; wool, rather fine and light. Highly commended. No. 151. Samuel Davis, of Sevenhampton, near High- worth, Wilts, 1 year and 9 months Cotswold and Down wethers, bred by exhibitor. Good broad back, rather loosely covered ; wool good, and looks well ordered. Highly commended. No. 152. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, near Burnham Market, Norfolk, 20 months Down and Lei- cester wethers, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Hugh Aylmer, of West Dereham. Three surprising sheep and beautifully matched, capital large frames, broad and deep ; excellent quality of mutton, necks good, deep thighs, wool fine quality and plentiful, offal light, and good looks. First prize of £"10, and silver medal as the breeder. Class XXVL — Pens of three Long and Short- woolled Cross-bred Fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old (under 22 months), without restrictions as to feeding. Each sheep not to exceed 220 lbs. live weight. No. 153. Lord Walsingham, of Meiton Hall, near Thetford, Norfolk, 20 months Leicester and South- down wetliers, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Robert Alymer, of Westacre. Three very well-formed sheep, rather too long frames, but of very beautiful qualify in mutton ; wool fine. Highly commended. No. 15G. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, near Burnham Market, Norfolk, 20 months Down and Lei- cester wethers, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Hugh Aylmer, of West Dereham. These were three very compact, well-formed animals ; fine wool and fine offal, and flesh of excellent quality. The prize of £10, and silver medal as the breeder. EXTRA STOCK— CROSS-BRED SHEEP. No. 158. John Hitchman, of Little Milton, near Tets- worth, Oxon, 21 months and 1 week wether, bred by exhibitor. Very good quality of mutton, chine good, plaits good, rump short. Highly commended. No. 165. Charles Howard, of Biddenham, near Bed- ford, 21 months Down and Cotswold wether, bred by exhibitor. Very good in frame and quality of mutton. Silver medal to the breeder of the best cross-bred sheep in extra stock. No. 167. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, near Burnham Market, Norfolk, 20 months Down and Lei- cester wether, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Hugh Aylmer, of West Dereham. Capital plaits, loin, and back ; fine rump. Commended. SHORT-WOOLLED BREEDS. Class XXVIL— Pens of three Fat Wether Sheep, of any short-woolled breed, 1 year old (under 22 months), without restrictions as to feeding. No. 169. William Rigden, of Hove, near Brighton, 20 months and 2 weeks Southdown wethers, bred by exhibitor. Three very beautiful animals, of excellent symmetry and first-rate quaUty, and well matched ; their general size and proportions rather too small for our taste ; very handsome countenauces, and wool of the finest quality, and well-ordered ; necks, somewhat too long and thin ; chines not very broad, full chests, very good shoulders, full back, and loins fat and firm ; hips widi, and rumps and docks good ; thighs deep, but flanks not full ; their under-parts generally not quite in pro- portion ; offal fine. First prize of .£20, and silver medal as the breeder, and gold medal as the feeder of the best pen of one-year-old sheep in any of the short- woolled classes. No. 174. The Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, near Chichester, 20 months Southdown wethers, bred by ex- hibiter. A very good pen indeed ; larger and broader frames, better chines, but loins and back not covered ; hips broad, chests good ; stand well ; good looks, and offal fine ; wool fine quality. Commended. No. 177. Lord Walsingham, of Merton Ilall, near Thetford, Norfolk, 20 months Southdown wethers, bred by exhibitor. This is an extraordinary pen of sheep ; large and very compact frames ; beautiful, level, well- covered fat backs, and broad hips ; full plaits, well thrown out shoulders, stand well ; chines good, necks rather light, chests full and well out ; thighs deep, and flanks full ; wool fine, rather light ; frames larger than 169, and had their rumps, hips, and docks been equal, they must have taken the first prize ; in many respects they are a superior pen; looks are equal to them. Se- cond prize of £10. No. 179. Henry Lugar, of Hengrave, near Bury St. Edmund's, 21 months Southdown wethers, bred by ex- hibitor. This is a very handsome lot, compact in form, with good chines ; wool fine. Highly commended. No. 180. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, near Burnham Market, Norfolk, 20 months Southdown we- thers, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Henry Lugar, of Hengrave, and own. A pen of very good well-formed sheep ; heavy, and highly profitable. Glass XXVIII.— Pens of three Fat Wether Sheep, of any short-woolled breed, 1 year old (under 22 months), without restrictions as to feeding. Each sheep not to exceed 200lbs. live weight. No. 183. Sir John Villiers Shelley, Bart., M.P., of Maresfield Park, Sussex, 21 months Southdown wethers, 60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bred by exhibitor. A very compact beautifully-formed lot ; deep in frame, with handsome looks. Highly com- mended. No. 185. The Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, near Chichester, 20 months Southdown wethers, bred by exhibitor. A very complete lot ; two particularly compact in frame. The pen possess better hips and rumps than others, but the neck and chines are not to our taste ; one of these has an extra good frame. N.B. — Southdown breeders appear to prefer a peculiar sym- metry ; we think the same contour should prevail in every animal — not narrow necks and chines. The prize of £10, and silver medal to the breeder. No. 189. The Earl of Chichester, of Stanmer Park, near Lewes, 21 months Southdown wethers, bred by exhibitor. The fashionable frames — rather long and high, standing proportionately ; necks and chines too thin ; plaits not full. Highly commended. Class commended generally. Class XXIX.— Pens of three Fat "Wether Sheep, of any short- woolled breed, 2 years old (above 22 and under 34 months), without restrictions as to feeding. No. 190. Hugh H. Lindsay, of West Dean, near Chichester, 33 months Southdown wethers, bred by the Rev. L. V. Harcourt, of Newsells Park, near Royston, Herts, from the stocks of J. A. Pinnix and the Rev. L. V. Harcourt. These are very fine animals, but rather too narrow frames to our taste ; plaits and girth not full enough ; good thighs and flanks, long rumps, short docks, wool good. Second prize of ^^10. No. 192. The Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, near Chichester, 32 months Southdown wethers, bred by exhibitor. Very capital frames, deep and good ; certainly, after our (it may be perverted) taste, they are well-formed throughout, and possess good wool and excellent quality of mutton, with good countenances and light offal. First prize of £20, and silver medal to the breeder. No. 194. Sir R. G. Throckmorton, Bart., of Buck- land, near Farringdon, Berks, 32 months Sussex-down wethers, bred by exhibitor. This is a very handsome pen, with the best rumps in the class. No. 195. Lord Walsingham, of Merton Hall, near Thetford, Norfolk, 32 months Southdown wethers, bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Jonas Webb. These are large and well-formed, with fine wool. Highly com- mended. SHORT-WOOLLED BREEDS Not being South- downs. Class XXX.— Pens of three Fat Wether Sheep, of any short-woolled breed, not South-downs, 1 year old (under 22 months), without restrictions as to feeding. No. 200. William King, of New Hayward Farm, Hungerford, Berks, 21 months West Country down wethers, bred by exhibitor. Immense size, queer heads, deep frames, and long. Commended. No. 201. John T. F. Pain, of North Houghton, near Stockbridge, Hants, 21 months and 2 weeks Hampshire- down wethers, bred by exhibitor. Very good sheep, long frames, good mutton ; black faces, large heads, loin too long, and bodies rather let down ; if not so fat, their frames would be narrow. First prize of £10, and silver medal as the breeder. No. 202. E. F. Whittingstall, of Langley Bury, near Watford, Herts, 21 months West Country down wethers, bred by William King, of New Hayward, Hungerford, from the stock of William Humfrey. This is a pen of very superior well-framed sheep, broad, compact, large, and evenly fed ; very fat, and fair qua- lity, deep in form, and well-proportioned ; good thighs and flanks, and pleasant looks ; plenty of wool. Perhaps not noble enough in their general character, otherwise they must have had the prize : in many respects de- cidedly superior to 201, and in none much their inferior. Highly commended. EXTRA STOCK.—SHORT-WOOLLED SHEEP. No. 203. William Rigden, of Hove, near Brighton, 20 months and 2 weeks South-down wether, bred by exhibitor. Highly commended. No. 206. G. S. Foljambe, of Osberton Hall, near Worksop, Notts, 20 months South-down wether, bred by exhibitor. Commended. No. 209. John Kent, of Goodwood, near Chichester, 32 months South-down wether, bred by the Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood. Commended. No. 212. Lord Walsingham, of Merton Hall, near Thetford, Norfolk, 20 months South-down ewe, bred by exhibitor. A little beauty, of first-rate quality. Silver medal to breeder. No. 213. The Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, near Chichester, 32 months South-down wether, bred by exhibitor. A little larger, very compact, and all but equal to 212. Highly commended. PIGS. Class XXXI. — Pen of three Pigs of any breed, above 13 and not exceeding 26 weeks old. No. 223. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 22 weeks and 2 days Windsor, bred by exhibitor, and fed on barley-meal and skim-milk. This is a very com- pact, well-formed lot, of excellent quality. Second prize of £b. No. 224. John Coate, of Hammoon, near Blandford, Dorset, 24 weeks and 1 day improved Dorset, bred by exhibitor, and led on barley-meal and rnilk. These are very pretty, rotund little fellows, backs broad and full make, deep in frame, heads very short, and fine large necks, feeding full up between the ears, which are short and frisky ; capital thighs, round and deep ; tail, very thin and fine ; rump rather short. First prize of £10, and silver medal as breeder. No. 225. Sir John Cathcart, of Cooper's Hill, Chert- sey, Surrey, 24 weeks and 3 days Sussex, bred by ex- hibitor, and fed on barley and pea-meal, potatoes, and skim-milk. These are rather larger in frame, finer in hair, ears short and more erect, and head larger. Commended. Class XXXII. — Pens of three Pigs, of any breed, above 26 and not exceeding 52 weeks old. No. 228. The Earl of Radnor, of Coleshill House, near Farringdon, 41 weeks and 4 days Coleshill, bred by exhibitor, and fed on barley meal, whey, &c. These possess the old form of his Lordship's Coleshill breed, but more hair, and not so large as usual ; ears short but drooping, snouts very short, frame round and compact, denoting better constitution. No. 229. Samuel Druce, of Eynsham, near Oxford, 32 weeks and 1 day Improved Oxfordshire, bred by ex- hibitor, and fed on barley meal, wash, and skim milk. These have very level good backs, with belter rumps, good chines, and necks well formed ; heavy thighs, fine in hair and oftal. Highly commended. No. 230. George Home, of Egham, Surrey, 28 weeks Improved Leicester, bred by exhibitor, and fed on toppings, barley meal, peas, and skim milk. These are very fine in quality of flesh, hair fine, short faces, necks not well fed up to ears. Commended. No. 232. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 44 weeks Windsor, bred by exhibitor, and fed on barley meal and skim milk. Three very large and good pigs in every respect ; fine hair, frame long, and deep in proportion, no unevenness in feeding- ; rumps rather too short, and tails drooping too soon. First prize of £10, and silver medal as breeder. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 61 No. 233. John Coate, of Hammoon, near Blandford, Dorset, 34 weeks and 2 days Improved Dorset, bred by exhibitor, and fed on barley meal, pollard, and milk. These are smaller, but very compact ; backs broad and level, rumps not long enough ; beautiful quality, not fed so full iff the neck. Second prize of £5. Class generally commended. Class XXXIII. — Pens of three Pigs, of any breed, above 12 and under 18 months old. No. 234. Samuel Druce, of Eynsham, near Oxford, 59 weeks and 1 day Improved Oxfordshire, bred by ex- hibitor, and fed on barley meal, wash, and skim milk. These are large and well fed pigs, deep in frame and good in rump, which is a good quality, not often found. Commended. No. 235. Stewart Marjoribanks, of Bushey Grove, near Watford, Herts, 17 months 2 days Improved Bushey, bred by exhibitor, and fed on swill, toppings, and barley meal. These are very large and well formed, broad, and deep in frame throughout, extraordinary necks and throats, backs good and level, fine in hair, snouts short, ears fine, thin, and erect ; deep sides, and very compact. First prize of ^10, and silver medal as breeder. No. 236. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, 16 months and 3 days Windsor, bred by exhibitor, and fed on barley meal and skim milk. Very extraordinary necks j the throat uncommonly fat, full up to the ears ; back broad and level, deep sides, capital twist, but rump short. Commended. No. 238. Sir J. B. Mill, Bart., of Mottisfont Abbey, near Romsey, Hants, 14 months 3 weeks and 4 days Mottisfont, bred by exhibitor, and fed on milk, pollard, and barley meal. A very good pig, and evenly fed ; good rump, and plenty of hair. Second prize of £b. EXTRA STOCK.— PIGS. No. 242. Stewart Marjoribanks, of Bushey Grove, near Watford, Herts, 17 months and 2 days Improved Bushey, bred by exhibitor, and fed on swill, toppings, and barley meal. Very good in quality, and large for age. Silver medal as breeder. No. 244. John Coate, of Hammoon, near Blandford, Dorset, 34 weeks and 2 days Improved Dorset, bred by exhibitor, and fed on barley meal, pollard, and milk. A capital animal, not large, but a beautiful frame. Com- mended. No. 245. John Scott, of Whitewall House, near Malton, York, 4 years and 5 months large breed, bred by exhibitor, and fed on peas and barley meal. A sow of prodigious dimensions. Coarse, large offal ; very long and deep in frame ; fair quality of flesh ; fine in hair ; ears short and pricky ; broad chine. Her length, nine feet ; girth, seven feet ; weight, sixty-six stones. Sold for ^£27 or ^28. Commended. No. 246. George Turpin, jun., of Uxbridge, Middle- sex, 66 weeks and 5 days Essex, bred by Mr. Harding, late of Uxbridge, from the stock of Mathew Newman, of Court Farm, Hayes, and fed on wash, offal, barley, and pea meal. A pig of excellent quality, and large ; loin a little defective. Highly commended. The various classes of pigs are certainly very good, but as a whole we do not deem them equal to some former years. Mr. Coates retains his fame with great credit to himself. Lord Radnor does not come up to former years, but his sort retain their character. The prices of some animals in the yard are almost fabulous : an ox sold for £80, a pig for £28, and sheep in proportion. The general arrangements were admirable, and no con- fusion or hindrance was apparent. THE IMPLEMENT DEPARTMENT OF THE SMITHFIELD CATTLE SHOW, 1855. In taking our annual review of the collection of machinery, seeds, &c. — an innumerable diversity of articles and productions for the use of the hus- bandman—perhaps we cannot do better than give a sort of itinerary of the galleries and corridors occupied by the stands. And, in the outset, we wish to state that no arrangement can be better for the public, or more satisfactory to the exhi- bitors, than those ordered and carried into effect by Mr. Gibbs. Some person must occupy the best site, as others the more unfavourable in the building; but we are still convinced that the exhi- bitors generally are satisfied of the willingness of the Honorary Director of the Show to afford every one the best assistance in his power. Below-stairs are the steam engines and thrash- ing machines. Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth exhibit their portable combined thrashing, straw - shaking, riddling, winnowing, chaff-separating, and barley- horning machine; another thrashing machine, fitted with Nalder's well-known revolvmg screen for finishing the corn for market; and two port- able steam engines. Messrs. Garrett and Son show their portable thrashing machine ; and their portable combined thrashing machine for preparing corn for the blower ; also two portable steam engines. Messrs. HornsDy and Sons exhibit their port- able combined thrashing machine ; and one of their portable steam engines. Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and Co. — their portable combined thrashing-machine ; one portable steam- engine ; and one horizontal fixed engine. W. Cambridge — his portable combined bolting thrashing-machine ; and a portable engine. Messrs. Ransomes and Sims — their portable combined thrashing-machine, which is constructed on the principle of having rotary motion only ; and one portable steam-engine. Messrs. Tuxford and Sons — their portable com- bined thrashing-machine, in which both the straw- shaking and winnowing are accomplished by a simple pendulous motion, with as few " bearings" as possible. Messrs. Hart, of Wantage, Berks, show a portable combined thrashing-machine, which not being so generally known as those of the celebrated firms above-named, may have a few more words from us. Screens are attached to one side of the machine, and sliders for the different qualities of grain are arranged in a row, like those of a flour-dresser. 1 and 2 for best corn ; 3, tail ; 4, seeds ; 5, thin corn, or chicken's meat. It has a double-blast blowing machine, a riddle with double delivery, a husk machine, a separator, a balanced vibrating trough or riddle, and a drum — all patented. Messrs. Holmes and Son, of Norwich, exhib their prize clover-slieller, with attached dressing apparatus ; and one portable combined thrashing- machine. Ascending the gallery, we observe first, a patent plough, by T. K. Sheen, Aylesbury, having a 62 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. mouldboard made of beech-wood attached to an iron plough : a steel mouldboard is quite as well adapted for a wet clay soil, though the price of this implement is £3 15s. James White, 266, High Holborn— a simple and effective hand flour-mill ; and a neat little bread- oven to be fitted on a common stove. Thomas Gibbs and Co., corner of Half-Moon Street, Piccadilly, exhibit a large assortment of samples and specimens ; among which we noticed some very fine swedes, green globe turnips, long red and long yellow mangolds, one of the long red weighing 274 lbs. There are also some swedes and yellow-globe mangolds grown by H. R. H. Prince Albert, taken from the crop for which he was awarded the Silver Cup of the Royal South Bucks Agricultural Association; the seed having been ob- tained from Mr. Gibbs. Biggs' justly celebrated sheep-dipping composi- tion and dipping apparatus occupy their usual posi- tion. On the stand of Messrs. Howard, of Bedford, we observed their first-class ploughs ; one fitted with a paring share, which has a steel blade for paring grass lands; also their well-known harrow and steel-toothed horse-rake. Wedlake's chaflF-cutters, oat-bruisers, and a fixed vertical steam-engine, were exhibited, and explained to the public by attendants in scarlet jackets and blue caps — certainly attractive in their way. George Gibbs and Co., 26, Down Street, Picca- dilly, show a variety of pasture, garden, and agri- cultural seeds, and specimens. Among these pro- ductions is an immenj'e drumhead cattle cabbage, 40 lbs. in weight, grown by Mr. Smith, of Lois- Weedon ; a long red mangold, weighing 28 lbs. ; and a yellow-globe, weighing 30 lbs., grown by the same gentleman. As a curiosity, there is a bundle of wheat from a crop, the seventeenth in succession upon the same land, grown by Mr. French, of Thrapstone, Northamptonshire. Lloyd, of 15, Old Street Road, Shoreditch, has some useful hand flour-mills, and invites *' every man to be his own miller." Busby, of Bedale, Yorkshire, shows his well- known ploughs and celebrated carts, one with a capital tipping ap])aratus. The next article is a dressing machine, by Sawney, of Beverley, for separating cleavers, goose- grass, or harifF from wheat or barley. This newly invented apparatus has been awarded prizes at Malton, Boston, Driffield, and several other places, within the present year. Clayton and Shuttleworth exhibit a fixed hori- zontal steam engine, a circular-saw bench, grinding mill, &c. Turner and Co., Ipswich, roller crushing mills, invaluable to feeders of stock, whether with linseed or other grain. Garrett and Son, famous horse hoe and first-class drills for various purposes, including their beautiful manure distributor ; also a very suj)erior portable horse-power thrashing machine, a seeming novelty among so many steam machines. Skirving, of Liverpool, has a stall with sj)eciraens of the varieties of roots for which his name is cele- brated. Swedes we saw of 2 libs, weight, without being coarse, and long red mangolds 25lbs. in weight. Hornsby and Sons show their very superior and well-known winnowing machine, and their com- pleted and perfected drills, for sowing every species of grain, seed, and manure. Holmes and Son, of Norwich — drills and dress- ing machines. Dray and Co., London-bridge — their excellent reaper, with patent tipping platform for facilitating the dehvery of the cut corn, together with a number of chaff" cutters, crushers, and other machinery, including Salmon's seed-separating machine, Crosskill's stand contains his reaper, improved clod crusher, with alternate rings of different dia- meter, to give it a self-cleaning action, his noted carts and wheels-and-axles, and his bone mill. Coleman, of Chelmsford — his excellent culti- vator, the tines of which are so shaped as to " ride on the land ;" that is, they pare or grub without having a tendency to root down and anchor them- selves in the earth, as is the case with teeth point- ing abruptly downward. Lawson and Sons, of Edinburgh, show on their stall many beautiful specimens of grain and grasses; some very fine wheat and oats; and their display of roots is remarkable, if it be true (as stated) that they are not picked, but are the average of this year's crop, grown from Messrs. Lawson's seed. Burgess and Key exhibit their celebrated prize reaper, with its revolving screw platform, which attracted very great attention ; they show also their 3-knived chaff cutter, and superior churns. Sutton and Son, of Reading, show their superior varieties of roots and seeds. Among them is the Elvetham mangold, a long red sort, but stout as well as of great length : this, we hear, has taken the first prize at the present Birmingham Show. On this stall are some Lincolnshire red globe turnips, 3 ft. in diameter; green globe turnips, very globular and beautiful in shape; and some yellow globe mangold grown by H.R.H. Prince Albert at the Norfolk farm. Both his Royal Highness's 25 guinea silver cups awarded by the Royal South Bucks and East Berkshire Agricultural Societies have been won by Messrs. Sutton's purple swede. Long's specific for dressing sheep invites the notice of flockmasters ; fleeces being exhibited to show its benefical effect upon the skin. Wilham F. Roe, 70, Strand, the hydraulic ram, Parsey's revolving pump, fountains, pumps, and an apparatus for singeing horses with gas. E. Weir, Oxford-street, exhibits his draining- level, hose-pipe reel, &c. B, Greening and Co., Manchester, machine- made iron and fencing, in which the wonderful power and utility of machinery is well illustrated : for this fencing is sold at a trifle more than the woi-th of the material used ; whereas, were such a web made by hand-labour, it could not be pro- duced for three times the price. Next we come to Clayton's brick and tile ma- chine, which has obtained the gold medal at the Paris Exhibition. Stanley,of Peterborough, shows his excellentsteam- ing apparatus, crushers, &c., which ore required in the cooking and preparation of food for cattle. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 63 B. Fowler and Co,, Whitefriars-stieet, Fleet- street, exhibit some new pumps which deserve more than a bare mention. They are made double- actincr, a continuous supply from one barrel thus doubling the quantity raised by ordinary pumps ; and by this an*angement the pump is rendered far less cumbersome than when two barrels are em- ployed. The piston is solid ; and all the valves being out of the barrel, permits their areas to equal that of the piston, and the water passages to be proportionately large. Speedy access to all the valves simultaneously is procured by the removal of a single door-plate ; but what chiefly renders these pumps (both horizontal and vertical) extremely portable, is the application to them of Holman's patent reciprocating lever. By this very ingenious contrivance all the mechanism for obtaining a parallel motion is comprised within a space of a couple of inches, thus doing away with connecting rod, parallel rods, bushes, &c., and re- ducing all into a very small compass. The motion is obtained by an arc and slot in the lever handle of the pump, working on two studs or bolts. Whether the same principle could be applied to the steam engine, we do not know enough of the fric- tion involved to be able to say. Fowler and Fry, Bristol, show their root-pulper, which consists of an iron disc attached to a fly- wheel, and having on one side a great many small cutters, which reduce the roots to very fine shreds, so that these can be thoroughly mixed with barley- meal, pollard, chaflT, &c. J. Cayley, of 5, Bank-buildings, has a stall with samples of manures, drugs, and chemicals; and particularly invites the attention of farmers, gra- ziers, jobbers, and all classes interested in the health of cattle, to his treatment of pleuro-pneu- raonia. J. Warren, Maldon, Essex, exhibits his patent expanding plough ; in which the jilough body, in- stead of being imraoveably fastened to the beam, is hung to it by a joint, and can be vertically adjusted by a lever movement, so as to set it at a greater or less angle with the beam. This is instead of alter- ing the dip of the share alone, and we learn that this ready mode of adjustment to set the share and entire plough more or less into the ground is found to lighten the draught for the horses, and to ease the labour of the ploughman. Ball, of Hothwell, Northamptonshire, shows his noted " criterion" ploughs and farmers' carts. W. Williams, of Bedford — pipe and tile ma- chine ; together with some chaff-cutters, and his well-known harrows. J. Free, 22, Charlotte -street, Blackfriars-road, has a stall of cattle-gauges ; and, indeed, such helps may be most needed about Christmas, when so many animals are fattened beyond the abihty of the feeder's eye to weigh them. H. Thompson, Lewes — haymaking machine, horse-rake, and drainage levels. R. Hunt, of Earl's Colne, Essex, exhibits his cloverseed engine, which gained a silver medal at Carhsle, and the first prize at Tiverton. It sepa- rates the husk or hull from the seed, at the rate of from two to three bushels of clover, and from four to six of trefoil seed, per hour, driven by three- horse ]jower.'. It consists of a hollow frustrum of a cone, of cast iron, within which is driven, at great velocity, a drum of the same form, by means of which the seed is drawn from the large to the small end ; and in the process the husk is cleared from the seed. The seed is carried into the cy- linder by means of a grooved roUei', driven from the drum spindle. At the small end of the cylinder a sieve and blower are fixed, in order to separate the seed from the chaff and hard cob. Owing to the unwillingness of the inventor to expose the in- terior of the machine to the public, we are unable to describe the precise means by which the seed is drawn through the cylinder. The price is £27. Mr. Hunt exhibits also a simple little hand seed- drill, for filling up missed places in rows of tur- nips, &c. Assistance of a scientific order is provided for the agriculturist in the barometers, thermometers, saccharometers, and other ometers, for weather- gauging, draining, dairying, brewing, &c., exhi- bited by Bennett, of 65, Cheapside. J. Comins, South Molton, Devonshire, shows his turnwrest plough, which obtained the Great Exhibition prize medal. Smyth and Sons, Peasenhall, Suffolk, patent corn, seed, and manure drills, among which is especially worthy of remark their corn drill for small occupations. Robert Lane, Cirencester, shows an oilcake breaker of simple construction, the working parts made of wrought iron ; a chaft' cutter to cut two lengths of chaff; besides crushers and other ma- chines. G. Cbivas, of Chester, has a stall of specimens of his orange jelly turnip, for sowing in July in- stead of the globes, and in August and September as a stubble crop. It is said by some growers to be much more rapid in growth, nutritious in qua- lity, and more hardy, than any other variety adapted for late sowing; the roots shown are certainly much finer than we had anticipated, from seeing one or two field crops ; and we are assured that 27 to 29 tons i^er acre haA'e been produced. Ransomes and Sims' stand comprises several of their swing and wheel ploughs. Lord Beauclerk's patent archimedean subsoiler being very conspi- cuous ; chaflF engines and turnip cutters, oilcake breakers, Hurwood's mealing mill for grinding all kinds of grain, and a variety of other machines. As a novelty worthy of remark, we may mention Biddell's combined oat and bean mill, consisting of the triangle steel-bladed bean cutter, and the steel oat mill brought out at Carlisle, both mounted upon one axle, one operation being changed for the other by simply shifting a hopper-board. The price is considerably lower than that of the two mills separately. We next come to Cambridge's wheel-presser roller, excellent both as a clod-crusher and wheat- land consolidator ; and then to Bentall's stand of broadshare and subsoil ploughs. His famous ■ broadshare implement is here shown in all its parts and varieties, and certainly we possess no imple- ment that can be compared with it for adhering closely to its work, and paring a great breadth of ground per day with a very light draught. It has 64 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. shares for many diflferent purposes : one double- winged share being fitted with small breasts, for laying the surface up in ridges ; there are straight furrow shares ; fallow shares, with prongs for bringing up couch and rubbish to the surface; and the implement also makes a capital subsoiler. Bentall's harrows, turnip cutters, and oilcake breakers, are all contrived and executed with a view of supplying a cheap implement, as far as this can be accomplished consistently with efficient working and durability. Whitmee and Co., 18, Fenchurch-street, show a number of corn crushers, flour mills, &c. ; and with the £6 size one man can crush four bushels per hour ; and with steel rollers they are very last- ing, as well as efficient. Samuelson, of Banbury, exhibits chaff cutters, turnip cutters, churns, &c. Gardner's turnip cut- ter, as improved by Samuelson, with ledge to cut the last piece, and double-action so as to cut one way for sheep and the other for beasts, may safely be pronounced the best of its class. A barrel of very large dimensions is manufactured for driving by steam power. Cuff, 10, Smithfield, of " farmer's friend" noto- riety, has a stall of veterinary drugs, oils, oint- ments, and dressings. A model of his new apparatus for dipping sheep attracted considerable attention. In this contrivance, a galvanized-iron cradle is first put over the sheep's back, and a couple of straps buttoned underneath him ; a crane then lifts him up, and lowers him into the dipping tub, keeping his head uppermost. Being then hoisted up to drain, he is lowered on the ground and set at liberty. The object of this apparatus is to save men the unhealthy labour of dipping the animals, and at the same time preventing any tear- ing of the sheep's wool. The price is four guineas. We next passed Coulson's mortising machine, and then the stand of Crowley and Sons, of New- port Pagnell, Bucks. Here is a model of the Newport cart, for which a prize was awarded at the Great Exhibition, and the Newport hames, which have iron plates attached, to prevent excessive wearing of the collar. We observed a model of a " Herculanean cultivator," patented by Mr. W. Smith, of Woolston, near Fenny Stratford, Bucks, the inventor of the rotary-sickle reaping machine exhibited at Lincoln in 1854; the improvements in this cultivator consist in the shape of the tines, the fastening of the tines to the frame, and the line of draught. This implement is intended to he drawn by steam power; and we learnt that Mr. Smith is now making a steam-plough, to be worked by a stationary engine and traction ropes. Mr. Crowley states that the difficulties of anchoring, turning the implement at each end of the field, and ])loughing in lands, have been overcome, and that in a short time the invention will be brought before the public. Messrs. Smith and Crowley have combined three ploughs in a frame, without making a cumbrous, unmanageable machine, like those of some ])revious inventors. We heartily wish that they may be successful, and that the judges at Chelmsford may have to award them the £'2()0. Woods, of Stowmarkct, shows his rasping ma- chines for pulping roots, and perhaps these are as efficient and economical of power as any yet pro- duced. James Grove, Great Baddon, Essex, exhibits some wonderful specimens of roots grown from seed supplied by him ; one yellow-globe mangold weighing 32 lbs., and a long-red measuring 36 inches in length. Not of small importance to the farmer are good stable-fittings, of which Barton, of 370, Oxford- street, show some patented by him, including hay- boxes, mangers, water-troughs, &c., constructed so as to prevent waste of provender, guarding against accident or injury to the horse, and being enamelled as a preventive against contagion. Smith, of Kettering, Northamptonshire, shows his steerage horse-hoe, which received a first-class medal at the Paris Exhibition. A very simple, easily-worked, and effective implement. Price £7 ]0s. His well-known winnowing-machine is also on the same stand. Hill and Smith, Brierley Hill, Staffordshire, exhibit their Cornes' prize chaff-cutting machine, which, from having obtained the Royal Agricultural Society's highest prize ten years in succession, ought to be the best for its purpose. According to the trials made in various years, this machine cuts a greater quantity with the same application of power than any other yet constructed ; and is not unduly complicated in any of its parts, and so little liable to get out of order. Carson, of Warminster, Wilts, shows his chaff- cutter ; and Moody's patent turnip pulper, which tears the roots into shreads by means of gouge- shaped cutters, and is one of the most valuable machines for this purpose. Two striking objects in this part of the gallery, are the self-holding lever plough, and general cultivator, patented by Mr. J. A. AVilliams, of Baydon, Wilts, which were noticed in our report last year. The ploughs or cultivator tines are so hung in a carriage frame as to be raised or lowered with a parallel motion, by means of chains and levers. We suppose these machines are in- tended to be drawn by steam-power; and we hoped that, before this, Mr. Williams would have brought out his entire apparatus for steam ploughing; perhaps the knowledge that a Buckinghamshire farmer is also in the field, will tend to accelerate his progress in this important branch of agricultural mechanics. Barrett, Exall, and Andrewes show their patent horse works and thrashing machine, their safety chaff cutter, grain mills, &c. Reeves, of Bratton, Wilts, Chandler's liquid manure drill and distributor, the value of which is becoming every year more apparent to large turnip growers. Smith and Ashby, of Stamford, exhibit their Exhibition prize horse rake, for hay, corn, couch, or twitch, stubble, &c., with the additional improve- ment of patent steel teeth, which are stronger, more durable, and much lighter than teeth made of iron. This implement has obtained the prize at Carlow, The haymaker invented and perfected by this firm is undoubtedly the very best yet made; it has tiiken every prize offered by the Royal Agricultural Society for the last nine years, the prize of every THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 65 other society wherever it has been exhibited, and the first-class medal of the Paris Exhibition. We cannot commend too highly their hand and horse- power chafF cutters, which are remarkable for their simplicity of construction, and the long drawing cut of the knives gives them a great advantage over others which work with a more chopping action. Their horse works are also very strong, and yet portable ; and their cake breaker is very cheap, as well as efficient. The price is only £3 10s., and it will break for sheep or beasts by merely reversing the action of the handle. Richmond and Chandler exhibit their well-known and superior chaff cutters, that for hand-power having obtained the prize at Carlisle. A number of corn crushers and other machines were also shown by the same firm. We may conclude our cursory notices by men- tioning a weighing apparatus, attached to a dressing machine exhibited by Mr. T. Luck, of Spalding, Lincolnshire. It is intended to save the work of a measurer; but the labour of raising the corn into the hopper by elevators would greatly add, we should think, to the work of turning the dressing machine. LIST OF PRIZES. JUDGES : Cattle and Long-woolled Sheep. John Buckley. Normanton Hill, Loughborough. William Hesseltine, Worlaby House, Brigg, Liu- coln. Robert Smith, Emmett'a Grange, South Molton. Cross-bred and Short-woolled Sheep and Figs. Henry Fookes, Whitchurch, Blandford. John Clayden, Littlebury, Saffron Walden. Thomas Hawkins, Smallbridge, Suffolk. DEVONS. Class 1. — Steers not exceeding 3 years old. — 1st prize, £25, the Earl of Leicester, of Holkham Hall, Norfolk ; pur- chased by William Jeffery, Foubert's-place, Regent-street. 2nd, £10, His Royal Highness Prince Albert; purchased by Wm. Jeffery. Class 2. — Steers or Oxen above 3 years old. — 1st prize, £25, the Lady Elizabeth Reynell, of Avisford House, Arundel; purchased by Mr. Withers, Guildford, Surrey. 2nd, £10, His Royal Highness Prince Albert ; purchased by E. Collingwood, High-street, Islington. Class 3. — Heifers not exceeding 4 years old. — 1st prize, £15, Mr. John Tucker, of Yard Farm, Staplegrove, Taunton ; purchased by G. Stockley, High-street, Notting-hill. 2nd £5, Mr. T. W. Fouracre, of Durston, Taunton ; purchased by Mr. Anderton, New Cross, Surrey. Class 4. — Cows above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live calf. — 1st prize, £20, His Royal Highness Prince Albert ; purchased by Mr. Jeffery. 2nd, £10, Mr. John Coate, of Hammoon, Blandford; purchased by John Topp, Poole, Dorset. HEREFORDS. Class 5. — Steers not exceeding 3 years old. — 1st prize, £25, Mr. Isaac Niblett, of Filton, near Bristol ; purchased by John Scarlett, Quebec-street, Portmau-square. 2nd, £10, Mr. Edward Longmore, of Adforton, near Ludlow ; purchased by A. Underwood, Eccleston-street South, Pimlico. Class 6. — Steers or Oxen above 3 years old. — 1st prize, £25, Mr. William Heath, of Ludham Hall, near Norwich ; purchased by Mr. Francis Spencer, Southampton. 2ad, £10, His Royal Highness Prince Albert; purchased by Robert Dominy, Blandford, Dorset. Class 7. — Heifers not exceeding 4 years old. — Ist prize, £15, Mr. Joseph Phillips, of Ardington, near Wantage; pur- chased by Thos. Collingwood, Abingdon. Class 8. — Cows above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live calf. — 1st prize, £20, Mr. John Henry Gumey, of Catton Hall, near Norwich. 2nd, £10, Mr. Joseph Phillips, of Ardington, near Wantage. SHORTHORNS. Class 9. — Steers not exceeding 3 years old. — Ist prize, £25, the Rev. James Holmes, of Brook Hall, near Norwich; purchased by Solomon Hopson, Stroud. 2nd, £1C, Earl Spencer, K.G., of Althorp Park, Northampton ; purchased by B. Oliver, Southampton. Class 10. — Steers or Oxen above 3 years old. — 1st prize, £25, and also the Gold Medal as the best Ox in any of the classes, the Marquis of Exeter, of Burghley Park, Stamford ; purchased by G. and C. Davis, Black Bull Tavern, New Cattle Market. 2nd, £10, Mr. Thomas Mortin, of Ashford Ford, near Staines ; purchased by Joseph Woodward, George-street, Richmond. Class 11. — Heifers not exceeding 4 years old. — Ist prize, £15, Mr. William Aldworth, of Frilford, near Abingdou. 2nd, £5, Mr. C. P. Duffield, of Marcham Park, near Abingdon. Class 12. — Cows above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live calf. — 1st prize, £20, and also the Gold Medal as the best Cow in any of the classes, Mr. Henry Ambler, of Watkinson Hall, near Halifax ; purchased by Mr. Palmer, El- secar, Yorkshire. 2nd, £10, Mr. Richard Stratton, of Broad Hiuton, near Swindon. SCOTCH OR IRISH BREEDS. Class 13. — Scotch or Irish Steers or Oxen of any age. — The prize of £10, a polled Angus, Mr. John Grove, of Feme, near Salisbury ; purchased by Mr. Ferris, Bath. Class 14. — Scotch or Irish Cows or Heifers of any age. — The prize of £5, a polled Angus Galloway Scot, Rev. Joseph Arkwright, of Mark Hall, Harlow, Essex, WELSH BREEDS. Class 15. — Steers or Oxen (Runts) of any age — 1st prize, £20, the Hon. Col. Pennant, of Penryn Castle, Bangor ; pur- chased by Mr. Kirkby, Park-street. Second, £5, Sir R. Williams Bulkeley, Bart, of Baron Hall, Beaumaris ; pur- chased by Wm. Chambers, Ealing. Class 16. — The prize of £5 was withheld, there not being suflScient merit. OTHER PURE BREEDS. Class17. — Steers or Oxen of any pure breed (except Devons, Herefords, Short-horns, and Scotch, Welsh, or Irish) of any age. — The prize of £10, a Sussex Steer, Messrs. Chas. Neame and Sods, of Selling, near Faversham, Kent. Class 18. — Heifers or Cows of any pure breed (except De- vons, Hereford, Short-horns, and Scotch, Welsh, or Irish) of any age. — The prize of £10, a Norfolk, Mr. William Heath ; pur- chased by Mr. H, Keeble, Lion Tavern, New Cattle Market. CROSS OR MIXED BREEDS. Class 19.— Cross or mixed-bred Steers, not exceeding 3 years old. — The prize of £15 (a Hereford, Ayrshire, and Short-horn), the Earl of Radnor, of Coleshill House, near Highworth; purchased by Mr. Petheridge, 11, Hastings- street. Burton-crescent. Class 20. — Cross or mixed-bred Steers or Oxen above 3 years old. — The prize of £15 (Short-horn and Ross-shire), Mr. James Taylor, of Nigg, near Park Hill, Ross, N.B. ; purchased by Mr. S. Barnes, St. Neots, Hunts. Class 21. — Cross or mixed-bred Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old. — The prize of £10 (Short-horn and Hereford), Mr. Edward Waters of Stratford-sub-Castle, near Salisbury ; pur- chased by Messrs. Smith and Son, Salisbury. SHEEP. LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS. Class 22. — Under 22 months old. — 1st prize, £20, and also the Gold Medal as the best pen of Long-woolled Sheep, Mr. R. L. Bradshaw, of Burley-ou-the-Hill, near Oakham ; pur- chased by Mr. T. Pitcher, John-street, Clerkenwell. 2ud, £10, Mr. G. S. Foljambe, of Osberton Hall, Worksop, Notts ; purchased by Mr. H. Barclay, Wells-street, Oxford- street. 3rd prize, £5, Lord Berners, of Keythorpe Hall, Tugby, Leicester ; purchased by Mr. T. H. King, Brighton. Class 23.— Under 22 months old.— 1st prize, £20, Mr. G. S. Foljambe, of Osberton-hall, Worksop, Notts; purchased by Mr. Farey, Caledonian-road. 2nd, £10, Mr. R. L. Brad- F 66 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. shaw, of Burley-on-the-Hill, uear Oakham; purchased by George Page, Cross-street, Hoxtou. 3rd, £5, the Marquis of Exeter, of Burghley-park, Stamford; purchased by Mr. H. Barclay, Wells-street, Titchfield-street, Oxford- market. LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS (NOT BEING LeICESTERS). Class 24.— Under 22 months old — The prize of £10 to Mr. William Hewer, of Sevenhampton, near Highworth ; pur- chased by Edward Bassett, Crown-court, St. James. Cross Breeds, Class 25.— Under 22 mouths old.— Ist prize, £10, Mr. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, Norfolk ; purchased by C. aud G. Davis, Black Bull Tavern, New Cattle-market. 2nd, £5, Mr. John Hitchmau, of Little Milton, near Tetsworth, Oxon ; purchased by Mr. Sheppaid, Holloway. Class 26.— Under 22 mouths old— The prize of £10 to Mr. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, Norfolk ; purchased by Mr. D. Bull, 9, Great Chapel-street, Westminster, Short-woolled Breeds. Class 27.— Under 22 months old.— 1st prize, £20, and also the Gold Medal as the best pen of Short-woolled Sheep, to Mr. William Rigden, of Hove, near Brighton ; purchased by Mr. Davey, Brighton. 2nd, £10, Lord Walsingham, of Mertou-hall, Thelford, Norfolk ; purchased by William Jeffery. Class 28.— Under 22 mouths old.— The prize of £10 to the Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, Chichester; purchased by Mr. King, Paddiugton-atreet. Class 29.— Above 22 and under 34 months old.— Ist prize, £20, to the Duke of Richmond; purchased by Wm. Jeffery. 2nd, £10, to Mr. H. H. Lindsay, of West Dean, Chichester. Siiort-woolled Breeds (not being South Downs). Class 30.— Under 22 months old.— The prize of £10 to Mr. John T. F. Pain, of North Houghton, Stockbridge, Hants PIGS, Class 31. — Any breed above 13 and not exceeding 26 weeks old.— 1st prize, £10, and also the Gold Medal as the best pen of Pigs, improved Dorset breed, to Mr. John Coate, of Hammoon, near Blandford ; purchased by D. Hedges, High- street, Notting-hill. 2ud, £5, Windsor breed, to his Royal Highness Prince Albert ; purchased by Thomas Wall, Jermyn- street. Class 32. — Any breed above 26 and not exceeding 52 weeks old.— Ist prize, £10, Windsor breed, to his Royal Highness Prince Albert ; purchased by Thomas Wall, Jermyn- street. 2nd, £5, improved Dorset breed, to Mr. John Coate, of Hammoon, near Blandford ; purchased by John Hagman, 125, High-street, Poplar. Class 33. — Any breed above 21 and under 18 months old. — Ist prize, £10, improved Bushey breed, to Mr. Stewart Marjoribanks, of Busheygrove, Watford; purchased by D Hedges, High-street, Notting-hill. 2nd, £5, Mottisfont breed, to Sir John B. Mill, Bart., of Mottisfont Abbey, near Romsey, Hants; purchased by John Garland, 26, Market-place, Oxford- street. EXTRA STOCK. The silver medal to the exhibitor of the best beast, a short- horned ox, Mr. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, Norfolk ; purchased by William O. Oliver, Southampton. The silver medal to the exhibitor of the best long-woolled sheep, a pure Leicester ewe, Mr. G. S. Foljambe, of Oaberton- hall, near Worksop ; purchased by W. Dudley, Butchers' Anns, New Cattle Market. The silver medal to the exhibitor of the best short-woolled sheep, a twenty-months Southdown ewe, the Right Hon. Lord Walsingham, of Merton-hall, Thetford; purchased by W. Lawrence, Isleworth. The silver medal to the exhibitor of the best cross-bred sheep, a Down and Cotswold wether, Mr. Charles Howard, of Biddenham, near Bedford; purchased by J. and J. Stevens, Oxford. The silver medal to the exhibitor of the best pig, an im- proved Bushey, Mr. Stewart Marjoribanks, of Bushey-grove, Watford; purchased by George Stone, Watford, Herts. BREEDERS' SILVER MEDALS. Devons. Class 1.— The Right Hon. the Earl of Leicester, of Holk- ham-hall, Norfolk. Class 2.— Mr. Robert Hole, of Harwood, Dunster, Somerset. Class 3. — Mr. John Biffen, of Nailsbourne Farm, Wingston, Taunton. Class 4.— The Right Hon. Lord Portman, of Bryanstone, Blandford. Herefords. Class 5. — Mr. T. Lockley Miere, of Cound, Shrewsbury. Class 6.— Mr. William Stedman, of Bedstone-hall, near Ludlow. Class 7. — Mr. Thomas Carter, of Dodmore Farm, near Lud- low. Class 8.— Mr. William Chilor, of Wigmore Grange, near Leominster. Short-Horns. Class 9.— The Rev. J. Holmes, of Brook-hall, near Norwich. Class 10.— The Marquis of Exeter, K.G.,of Burghley-park, Stamford. Class 11.— Mr. William Miller, of Water Eaton, near Kid- lington, Oxon. Class 12.— The Executors of the late Mr. W, D, Manning, of Rothersthorpe, Northampton. Other Pure Breeds. Class 17. — Messrs. Charles Ncame and Sons, of Selling, near Faversham. Class 18.— Mr. William Heath, of Ludham-hall, near Nor- wich. Cross or Mixed Breeds. Class 19.— The Earl of Radnor, of Colesliill-house, High- worth. Class 20.— Mr. James Taylor, of Nigg, near Park-hill, Ross, N.B. Class 21.— Mr. Edward Waters, of Stratford-sub-Castle, Salisbury. Long-woolled Sheep. Class 22.— Mr. R. L. Bradshaw, of Burley-on the-Hill, Oakham. Class 23.— Mr. G. S. Foljambe, of Osberton-hall, Worksop, Notts. LONGWOOLLED ShEEP (NOT BEING LeICESTEES). Class 24. — Mr. William Hewer, of Sevenhampton, near Highworth. Cross-Breeds (Sheep). Class 25. — Mr. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, Nor- folk. Class 26. — Mr. John Overman, of Burnham Sutton, Nor- folk. Short-woolled Sheep. Class 27. — Mr. William Rigden, of Hove, near Brighton. Class 28 — His Grace the Duke of Richmond, K,G., of Goodwood, Chichester. Class 29. — His Grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G., of Goodwood, Chichester. Short-woolled Sheep (not Southdowns). Class 30.— Mr. John T. F. Pain, of North Houghton, Stockbridge, Hants. Pigs. Class 31. — Mr. John Coate, of Hammoon, near Blandford. Class 32. — His Royal Highness Prince Albert. Class 33. — Mr. Stewart Majoribauks, of Bushey-grove, near Watford. HIGHLY COMMENDED, A Hereford steer, exhibited by Mr. Josh. Phillips, of Ar- diiigtou, near Wantage, Berks, bred by Mr. Thomas Carter, of Dodmore Farm, Ludlow. A long-woolled ewe, exhibited by Mr. William Park, of Stragglethorpe, Lincolnshire, near Newark-upou-Trent, Notts, Three cross-bred wethers, exhibited by Mr. E. F. Whitting- stall, of Bury, near Watford, Herts. Three Cotswold aud Down cross-bred wethers, exhibited by Mr. Samuel Davis, of Seveuhampton, near Highworth. Three Leicester and Southdown cross-bred wethers, exhibited by I>ord Walsingham, and bred from the stock of Mr. Robert Aylnier, of Westacre. A cross-bred wether, exhibited by Mr. John Hitchmau, of I,ittle Melton, uear Tetsworth, Oxon. Three Southdown wethers, exhibited by Mr. Henry Lugar, of Uengrave, near Bury St. Edmunds. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 67 Three Southdowa wethers, exhibited by Sir John Villiers Shelley, Bart., M.P., of Maresfield Park. Three Southdown wethers, exhibited by the Earl of Chi- chester. Three Southdown wethers, exhibited by Lord Walaingham. Three west-couutry down wethers, exhibited by Mr. E. F. Whittingstall, of Laugley, Bury, near Watford, Herts, and bred by Mr. William King, of New Hayward, Hungerford, from the stock of Mr. Wm. Hurafrey. A Southdown wether, exliibited by Mr. Wm. Rigden, of Hove, near Brighton. A Southdown wether, exhibited by the Duke of Richmond. Three pigs of the improved Oxfordshire breed, exhibited by Mr. Samuel Druce, of Eynsham, near Oxford. Essex pigs, exhibited by Mr. Geo. Turpin, Jun , of Uxbridge, Middlesex, bred by Mr. Harding, late of Uxbridge, from the stock of Mr. Matthew Newman, of Court Farm, Hayes. COMMENDED. A Hereford steer, exhibited by Lord Berwick, of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, and bred by exhibitor. A Hereford steer, exhibited by Mr. Wm. Heath, of Ludham Hall, near Norwich, and bred by Mr. John Child, of LeJwycb, near Ludlow. A Hereford steer, exhibited by Mr. Philip Turner, of The Leen, Pembridge, near Leominster, and bred by exhibitor. A Hereford steer, exhibited by Mr. Arthur James of Mcu- nington Court, near Hereford, and bred by Mr. Richard James, of Monnin2ton-on-Wye, near Hereford, from the stock of Mr. Smith, of Shelsley Walsh. A short-horned steer, exhibited by Mr. Richard Stratton, of Broad Hinton, near Swiudon, Wilts, and bred by exhibitor. A short-horned steer, exhibited by the Hon. Colonel Pen- nant, of Penrhyu Castle, near Bangor, Carnarvon, snd bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Sir Cliarles Knightley, Bart. A short-horned heifer, eii.ibited by Mr. George Hare, of Holbrook Cottage, near Ipswich, and bred by Mr. George Maxwell, of Kidbrook Manor, Blackheath, from the stock of Mr. R. Searson, of Cranmore Lodge, Deeping, Lincolnshire. A short-horned heifer, exhibited by Mr. Joseph Phillips, of Ardington, near Wantage, Berks, and bred by Mr. Thomas Game, of Broadmoor, near Northleach. A short-horned cow, exhibited by H.R.H. Prince Albert, and bred by the late Capt. Dilke, R.N., of Maxatoke Castle. A short-horned cow, exhibited by Mr. John Tucker, of Abbey Print Works, Stratford, Essex, and bred by Mr. Thomas Herbert, of Macaroni Farm, near Lechlade. A West Highland ox, exhibited by William Stirling, Esq., M.P., of Keir, near Dunblane, Perth, and bred by the late Mr. Donald McLaren, of Callander. A West Highland Scot, exhibited by the Hon. Col. Pennant, of Penrhyn Castle, near Bangor, Carnarvon; breeder unknown. Three Leicester and Southdown wethers, exhibited by Mr. John B. Twitchell, of Welby, near Northampton. A Down and Leicester wether, exhibited by Mr. John Over- man, of Buruham Sutton, near Burnham Market, Norfolk, and bred by exhibitor, from the stock of Mr. Hugh Aylraer, of West Dereham. Three Southdown wethers, exhibited by the Duke of Rich- mond. Three West-country Down wethers, exhibited by Mr. Wm. King, of New Hayward Farm, Hungerford, Berks, and bred by himself. A Southdown wether, exhibited by G. S. Foljambe, Esq., of Osberton Hall, near Worksop, Notts, and bred by himself. A Southdown wether, exhibited by Mr. John Kent, of Good- wood, and bred by the Duke of Richmond. Three Sussex pigs, exhibited by Sir John Cathcart, of Cooper's Hill, Chertsey, and bred by himself. Three improved Leicester pigs, exhibited by Mr. George Home, of Egham, Surrey, and bred by himself. Two Oxfordshire pigs, exhibited by Mr. Samuel Druce, of Eynsham, and bred by himself. Three Windsor pigs, exhibited and bred by H.R.H. Prince Albert. An improved Dorset pig, exhibited and bred by Mr. John Coate, of Hammoon, near Blandford. A pig of the large breed, exhibited by Mr. John Scott, of Whitewall House, near Malton, York. ANNUAL DINNER, AND PRESENTATION OF A TESTIMONIAL TO MR. BRANDRETH GIBBS. The annual dinner of the club took place at the Freemasons' Tavern, Great Queen street, on Wednesday evening; his Grace the Duke of Richmond, the President, in the chair. More than the ordinary amount of interest was displayed in the proceedings by the circumstance that the handsome testi- monial subscribed for by the members to Mr. Gibbs, the honorary secretary, " in appreciation of his valuable services," was to be presented to that gentleman on the occasion. The result was, that at the hour appointed for dinner upwards of 200 gentlemen had assembled. In the completely-filled room were the following, amongst many other gentlemen directly connected with the agricultural interest : — Lord Berners, Lord Walsingham, Sir R. Bulkeley, Mr. Miles, M.P., and Messrs. Hamilton Lindsay, Raymond Barker, C. T. Tower, Charles Barnett, H. Braudreth, R. W. Baker, John Hudson, Fisher Hobbj, Professor Simonds, Henry Wilson, Fetherstonhaugh, Rutherford, B. E. Bennett, W. Stratford Stratford, Barugh Almack, Richard Milward, R. J. Webb, R. Worthington, Henry Manning, Wm. Wilson, John Overman, F. F. Hallett, Wm. Rigden, Isaac Niblett, G. D. Griffith, Hugh Aylmer, Thomas Twitchell, G. P. Tuxford, H. Corbet, John B. Twitchell, Charles Howard, Thos. Greetham, Lawrence Willmore, Robert Smith, John Buckley, E. W. Moore, Rev. Thos. Stevens, D. Taylor, Valentine Barford, A. C. Stook, Brandreth Gibbs (Hon. Sec), W. Baker, N. Barthropp, N. G. Barthropp, Samuel Druce, R. S, Bradshaw, John Coate, John Painter, John Beasley, Seaton, H. W. Keary, Osborne, Bott, Moorsom, Hale, Lavies, Dr. Lavies. Ashton, Kaye, Porter, Thomas, Wright, Philip Pain, Edward Stenning, J. T. F. Pain, Wm. Stnilh, R.Doig, Charles Ncame, Charles Neame, jun.; Thomas Gibbs, Wm. Torr, C. Stokes, John Clayden, Jonas Webb, Samuel Jonas, James Sharpe,Edward Pope, Edward Frost, J. S. Turner, W. W. Turner, Wm. Tanner, J. C. Jonas, Fownes, &c. The usual loyal toasts having been given and responded to with the accustomed honours. His Grace the President rose, and, in proposing that they should drink to "The Army and Navy of England," drew attention to the admirable manner in which the former service had conducted itself throughout the campaigns in the East. That army was composed of officers aud men, most of whom had never until lauding in the Crimea heard the hiss of a hostile bullet. It then storlned the heights of the Alma, achieved the flank march to Balaklava, fought the hard and single-handed fight of Inkermau (cheers), went through the hardships and privations of a winter campaign, and performed the dangerous and monotonous duty of trench-work— monoto- nous, because in working with pick-axe aud spade there was little glory to be won ; and in all these situations nobly main- tained the honour and glory of the British arms, at the same time that it had laid aside all old traditions and prejudices, aud cultivated the closest ties of friendship with our gallant allies the French (cheers). A great deal had been said respecting the capture of Sebastopol and the storming of the Redan; aud having himself had the good fortune of being iu no less than three storming parties, he could only say that his surprise had always been how they could ever have succeeded, .and not that they had failed (Hear, hear). The naval brigade too had shared in the privations of the red jackets in the trenches and batteries; and he hoped that they would ere long get the reward of their meritorious services (loud cheers). It hap- pened, however, that the navy of England had not, as in days of yore, been enabled to meet the enemy on the seas, and they complained at not having their fair share of the war; but he took leave to disagree with them there, for it was well known to the Emperor of Russia that the discipline and seamanship of the British fleet were such that he dared not send out his ships to meet them in action (Hear, hear). He (the Duke of Richmond) deplored, as he was sure they all must do, the necessary losses which war ever had aud ever would bring in its train. There were few who, in their own homes or in their neighbour- hoods, had not to lament the fall of some one dear to them; 'but when war was first declared, he, as an old soldier, knew that it was no child's play they were about to enter upon (Hear hear). Our men had done their duty well, both to their Sovereign and their country, and he called upon the gentlemen around him, therefore, to give three British cheers for the army and navy of England. F 2 68 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The toast was drunk with three times three, and prolonged cheering. Song — " Rule Britannia." The President again rose, and proposed, as the next toast, " Prosperity to the Smithfield Cattle Club" (loud cheers). He had heard it stated that there were rival societies estabhshed in other parts of the country. "Rival societies !" He consi- dered them in no such light (Hear, hear). On the contrary, the Smithfield Cattle Club was formed to promote the improve- ment of the stock of the country, and the more societies they liad, with this as the object in view, the better (loud cheers). If, however, there was a society in England that thought it could show better stock than was now in the yard in Baker- street, let the shows be held as at present, and then the follow- ing week let the best animals exhibited at each be shown together, and see to which the premium would be given (cheers). He would not go into the question of cattle, though he was satisfied that it would be difficult to beat Lord Exeter's ox, which had won the gold medal at the Smithfield Show (Hear, hear) ; but as a breeder of Southdowns, he was prepared to show his sheep against any local society or any society in the world (loud and protracted cheering). He was not the winner of a f^old medal on this occasion, but he should be delighted if, the day after to-morrow, the sheep that had obtained the gold medal elsewhere would come and compete with his here (renewed cheers). He had made these remarks merely for the purpose of illustrating the fallacy of the statement that there was any rivalry in the matter. The object was to benefit agriculture, and he cared not whether the largest amount of benefit was produced by the shows in London or by the shows in any other part of the country. The Smithfield Chib awarded prizes to the best animals, and their doing so gave the young farmer an opportunity of coming to their shows, and seeing what a real good animal was, which no young farmer would ever see unless he was enabled to institute a comparison of one with another (Hear, hear). The committee would be always happy toreceive any suggestions from "Practical Farmers" with regard to the distribution of the prizes ; but there was one thing which he hoped the club would never do, which was to repu- diate the pure breeds (cries of " Hear"). He had made the same observation a hundred times before — there was, therefore, nothing new in it — that though crosses paid the tenant farmer best, and he was delighted at seeing the splendid crosses iu their show-yard to-day, they might, nevertheless, depend upon it that they must have some men to look a little further than that, and preserve the pure breed to fall back upon (Hear, hear). It was the landlord's business to do that, and it was the tenant's business to profit by it (loud cheers). But, then, premiums must be given to those who are possessed of pure breeds, or they would get idle and negligent in their vocation (cheers). The toast was drunk with three times three, and great en- thusiasm. The President: Gentlemen, I now rise to present to Mr. Braudreth Gibbs the testimonial which has been sub- scribed for by the members of this club (protracted cheers). I have had the satisfaction of witnessing his exertions as our honorary secretary for above 15 years ; and your attendance upon the present occasion denotes, I think, your anxiety to pay honour where honour is due — (loud cheers) — for you are congregated together this evsniug in numbers larger than I hiwe ever before had the pleasure of addressing at the annual dinners of the club. I am sure you must all feel deeply grate- ful to Mr. Gibbs for the services he has rendered. Not only lias he been indefatigable in his exertions to induce gentlemen to join us ; but he has done his best to secure fair play to all, and has devoted himself with great assiduity to the manage- ment of our finances, which when the report is published, you will find, I think, to be in a sound and encouraging position. In presenting this testimonial to you, Mr. Gibbs, I do it as the representative of the Smithfield Cattle Club, and as one who is not altogether unknown to the tenant farmers of England ; to a man who is wortliy of the respect and honour of this Club, aiul what is more, who is a real straightforward, honest English gentleman (louil cheers). ' The health of Mr- Gibbs was tlien drunk with three times three, followed by great and prolonged applause. The testimonial consisted of a candelabrum for six light?, representing an oak tree with spreading branches and foliage, to carry cither lights or glasses. In the centre was a trellis- work frame, to support a crystal bowl. Around the foot of the tree were grouped a short-horned ox, a long and a short- woolled sheep, a pig, and various roots, the whole carefully modelled from nature, and standing upon a richly-chased tripod base with three panels. In the first compartment was a view of the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, surmounting a medallion of his Grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G., the president of the Club. In the second were introduced the full arras of Mr. B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, under which, in the scroll-work of the base, were various agricultural implements. In the third panel was engraved the inscription, beneath which was a medallion of the late president, the Earl Spencer. The me- dallions were by Wyon, R.A. There were also a pair of richly- chased and classically-shaped wine coolers or flower vases, with demi-horses as handles, standing on square plinths, in the panels of which were represented various prize animals, beau- tifully chased in basso-relievo in dead silver, giving the whole a characteristic effeci;. The candelabrum stood two feet six inches iu height, and the weight of the three pieces was 536 ounces, and the cost £360. The following inscription was engraved on each : " Presented to B. T. Braudreth Gibbs, Esq., by the members of, and others interested in, the Smith- field Club, iu appreciation of the valuable services rendered by him to that society as its honorary secretary. 1855." These various articles were modelled and manufactured by J. W. and F. B. Thomas. Mr. Gibbs (who on rising was received with reiterated and continued plaudits) said — Upon each succeeding year, when you have done me the honour of drinking my health, I have always found it most difficult to return thanks in suitable terms for the manner iu which his Grace has been pleased to propose it, and to you, gentlemen, for the manner iu which you have been good enough to receive it. But if upon former occasions I have found it difficult, how much more so must it be upon this, when you are honouring me in a manner that I could never have anticipated, and which I am conscious I do not deserve ! It has hitherto been my custom, in addressing you, to allude to such general subjects connected with the in- terests of the club as I have considered would be most accepta- ble to you, and most appropriate to emanate from your secre- tary. It is, however, unnecessary for me now to enter into any details as to the position of the club ; suffice it to say, that this is in every respect most satisfactory ; and that I believe that it is continuing successfully to carry out the great national object for which it was originally instituted — that "of supplying the English markets with the cheapest and best meat," by directing attention to the science and practice of breeding aud feeding stock (cheers). You will recollect that for nearly half a century this club stood alone as a national society for this purpose, but of late years it has found a valua- able co-operator in the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in which the science of breeding receives the greatest attention, but the department of feeding still remains the distinctive and peculiar province of this club. The means which the club has employed to carry out its object has been the giving of prizes and medals for the best animals exhibited at its shows, these animals being sent to exemplify the result of the experiments in feeding that have been made upon them. Much practical good ha?, no doubt, resulted from this ; still it has often stiuck me that, much as the club has already done, there is scope for it to do more ; and that, therefore, whilst the club will be giving nearly £1000 a year in prizes for the animals — the results of these experinieuts — it would be well if prizes were olfered also for the best account or essay on the feeding, treatment, and management by which they have been brought to such perfection (Hear, hear). The report should state the different kinds of food, the quantities, and the reasons for which each change has been adopted. By this means a large amount of practical knowledge would be got together ; and, by being 'published in the shape of a pamphlet each year, the experience gained would not be con- fined to the particular homestead on which the animal was fed, but would be placed within the reach of those anxious to obtain it (Hear, hear). Thus much for the practical part of the subject ; but I think we should go a step further, and call iu the aid of science in this, as in the other branches of agriculture. The chemist should analyze the different kinds of food, and tell us the nutritive qualities aud constituent THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 69 parts ; whilst the auimal physiologist should inform us of their action on the system. He should tell us which of those ele- ments produces muscle, which fat, and which lean ; he should tell us which are astringent, and which the contrary ; he should explain which are cooling, and which are stimulating — which act upon the blood, and which determine to the skin ; he should explain to us the processes by which aliment is converted into flesh, the functions of the different organs, and the wants of the system. These, and many other points which I need not enu- merate here, would form subjects for the aid of science, for it is nature that we have to deal with ; and to deal with it suc- cessfully we must know the laws by which it is governed (Hear, hear). The importance of these subjects has been still more strongly forced upon my mind by the admirable and elaborate address delivered by his Eoyal Highness Prince Albert ?. few days since, and I trust you will not consider this an inappro- priate occasion to allude to them, and for me to volunteer to undertake the additional duties which receiving such essays and preparing them for the press will entail upon your hon. secretary (Hear, hear). Having said thus much respecting the club, it now becomes my duty to say a few words respecting myself, for there are events in the life of every man upon which he will look back in future years as forming an era — as marking an epoch — in his individual history ; events, per- chance, to which his memory will ever recur with feelings of satisfaction and delight. Such, then, is the present occasion to me ; and I should not be doing justice to my own feelings, and I should be omitting what I consider to be due to you, if I were not briefly to review the period that I have had the pleasure of being conuected with this club ; and I take this review not for the purpose of setting forward any services which I may be supposed to have rendered, but on the contrary, to show that I claim no merit for any success that may have at- tended my exertions, beyond what must result from such energy and perseverance as you had a right to expect from any one un- dertaking the office that you have entrusted to me (cheers). It might, indeed, be a pleasing task to me to retrace my earlier years, when I first visited your shows, and learned to take an interest in your proceedings, under the parental care of one whose health was wont to be drunk within this hall, not only as my father, but also as the father of the Smithfield Club ; but I will not weary you with this, but pass on to the time when I first became personally conuected in the manage- ment of your shows. Most of you will recollect what the Smithfield Club was — how its afl'airs were managed some eighteen or nineteen years ago, when my brother, Mr. Brand- reth, first consented to become your honorary secretary — and you will not, I am sure, forget how thoroughly he re- organized and remodelled the system of conducting them (Hear, hear). Year after year fresh improvements were in- troduced, till at last its management began to assume that system and order which have subsequently been carried out, not only in its meetings, but also in those of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England ; and, I believe I may add, in many local societies throughout the country (Hear, hear). To him, then, and not to me, is due the credit of instituting these changes ; but I had the advantage of watching the effects of those improvements, and of helping in an humble degree in carrying them out. I, therefore, when the time arrived for me to become your secretary, did not come altogether as a novice ; tor I had the benefit of being acquainted with all the details, and I had the still greater advantage of being able to get his advice and directions in any cases of difficulty that might arise. With such advantages then as these, I repeat, I cannot claim any merit to myself; but they stopped not here, for I had the good fortune to commence uuder the presidency of a lamented nobleman, whose name must ever be dear to all conuected with agriculture, but especially to the members of the Smithfield Club, for most of you know better than I can tell how deep a debt of gratitude this club must ever owe to the exertions and straightforward business-like qualities of the late Earl Spencer (Hear). Not only did he come forward and take the club by the hand at a period when its prospects were far different from what they are now, but he continued during succeeding years to guard it with a watchful care, and aid it with his influence and support; and I cannot, upon this occasion, refrain from expressing my feelings of respect and veneration for the memory of that lamented nobleman, not only because the duties of my office having brought me much into contact with him, I had some opportunity of becoming acquainted with the simple greatness of his character, but also because he used to give me the benefit of his counsel and advice with, I may say, almost parental care. But when the time arrived that this benefactor was to be taken from among us, fortune still seemed to smile on this club, and not only on it, but on kindred societies too, because there was still among our officers a nobleman who for years had been constantly watching over the interests of the club, and had given it the benefit of his talents and unfailing attendance at all its meet- ings. Not 0!ily has his Grace the Duke of Richmond, our president, been a worthy successor of the late Earl Spencer — not only, like him, has_he been a constantly successful exhibitor at our shows, carrying off the highest honours the club could bestow, but he has always displayed the same energy in your cause that characterized him in earlier years in another sphere; and I well know that nothing but severe indisposition or absolute necessity can ever keep his Grace from presiding at the meetings of the club. But it would ill become me to say more of what the club owes to his Grace, because it is too well known and too thoroughly appreciated by you to need a single word from me; but his Grace will, I trust, pardon me if I embrace this opportunity of publicly expressing to him my thanks for the kindness I have always received at his hands. Not only have my communications always had the promptest attention, but I have had the readiest access to him whenever I have found it my duty to consult him. I can assure his Grace that his constant kindness will be one of the most pleasing remembrances connected with my office. I must also express the advantages I have derived from the ready co-operation of the different gentlemen who have during the last twelve years succeeded to the office of steward. Not only has there never been any difference between us, but I feel a pride in being able to say that I have always received their prompt assistance iii carrying out the necessary arrangements for your shows ; and that although coming from various parts of the kingdom, and , doubtless, accustomed to different systems of management at local shows, they have never either expressed or manifested any wish to alter such arrangements as I had made. This has not only been a gratification to me, but it has given me the ad- vantage of adopting a comparatively uniform system from year to year, and also keeping it in harmony with that adopted at the meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; and I need not point out the benefit, not only as regards the officers, but also exhibitors, that such should be the case, (Hear, hear.) I have, therefore, to express my thanks to the stewards ; and when I mention such names as Jonas Webb, Fisher Hobbs, Chapman, EUmau, Forr, Bruce, Buckley, Clay- den, Willmore, Greetham, Pope, and the like, you will readily believe that it has been a source oi great pleasure to have been associated with such men as colleagues and officers of the club. (Hear, hear.) I think, therefore, you will allow that with such great advantages and co-operation, I am justified in repeating that I cannot claim your thanks beyond such as may be due to ordinary energy and exertion ; but, gentlemen, you have becii good enough to think otherwise, and that my humble endea- vours are worthy of having your thanks embodied in a tangible form, and by the energy of your committee, aided by the assistance of my friend Mr. Fisher Hobbs, as its honorary secretary, you now ask me to accept the beautiful testimonial before me. (Cheers.) Gentlemen, I neither anticipated nor expected to receive such at your hands ; still I accept it as freely as it is freely given. (Loud cheers.) I accept it for tlis purpose of valuing it — not only for its intrinsic worth — ntt only for the beauty and elegance of the designs, and their appropriateness to the objects of the club — not only be- cause the medallions ou its base bear the profiles of the noblemen under whose presidency I have acted ; but because I shall regard it as the depository — the tangible form in which your thanks and good wishes are expressed towards me. (Renewed cheers.) The remembrance of this will stimulate me to fresh exertions ; and^when the time arrives, as arrive it some day must, when I shall be prevented from taking so active a part in the management of your affairs, it will be for a memento of the past, and as some , token given will recall the memory of a friend, so each time that my eye rests upon this elegant testimonial it will recall, not one friend, but many; it will bring me back to the years of my activity and strength ; it will bring me back to your shows ; it will bring me back to this room, and memory will bid me see again the faces of many friends that are around me 70 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. now ; and like as when a traveller revisits a once well-known spot, the sight of some one object there — it may be, perchance, a time-worn oak upon the village green, whose widely-spread- ing branches shade the lowing herds and bleating flocks be- neath— recalls the sound of sweet music he had heard there in earlier days, so as I travel along life's varied paths, each time that my eye rests on yonder silver-mantled oak, with the em- blems of flocks and herds around its base, it will recall what is like sweet music to my ears ; for it will bring back not only the sound, but even the very words in which his Grace has been pleased to present it to me (cheers). And like, as in harmony, when a note is struck, one string that is in unison with it will vibrate whilst the others remain at rest, so when these words shall have died away and become at rest on our ears, they will continue to vibrate in a chord within my breast, awakening a deep responsive echo from the inmost recesses of my heart. And I trust it will not end here, but that in years remoter still, that testimonial will be valued highly by others too — not only because it will have been handed down au heirloom, but also because the inscription on its base will tell that one who has gone before them has not been deemed in his generation unworthy to receive such a compliment — such a mark of es- teem, even from the members of the Smithfield Club. And gentlemen, it is my fervent wish that in those future days the club may be flourishing and prosperous, and that it may con- tinue successfully to carry out the great national objects for which it has been established (cheers). Lord Berners then gave "The Health of the President of the Club, his Grace the Duke of Richmond," and refernugfor a moment to the show, pointed out, as one of its commendable features, the circumstance that there was an almost total ab- sence of the over-fed and mis-shapen animals which had been seen there so repeatedly in former years. He rejoiced at the improvement exhibited by the cross-breeds; but how any man of ordinary intelligence could pretend to produce crosses in perfection from other than the pure breeds he was utterly at a loss to understand (general cries of "Hear"). To produce a perfect animal there should be pure blood on each side. (Hear, hear.) True, there seemed to be an exception in the case of Mr. Druce's sheep ; but not one man in a thousand had the intelligence, the perseverance, or the will to select animals as that gentleman had done. (Hear, hear.) That was the excep- tion, therefore, not the rule ; and the object of the Smithfield Cattle Club and of the Royal Agricultural Society of England would be carried out efliciently only so long as the principal prizes were given to the pure breeds (cheers). The health of the noble President was drunk with three times three and much enthusiasm ; and having been briefly responded to by his Grace, Mr. Gibbs read the judges' award of prizes, which was fol- lowed by The President giving "The Health of the Winners of the Gold Medals for the best Pens of Long-woolled and Bhort- woolled Sheep respectively." Mr.BRADSiiAW,the winner of the former, and Mr.RiGDEN, the winner of the latter, severally returned thanks. "The Health of the Successful Competitors in other De- partments" was also proposed ; and his Grace then gave " The Royal Agricultural Society of England," to which Mr. Miles, the late President, replied. In doing so, he felt much pleasure in knowing that these associations had a very similar object. It was the duty of one to perfect the breeds of cattle, and of the other to bring them to a fat condition for the consumer. After a reference to his own year of office, Mr. Miles proceeded to say that in the capacity of president he had, with other agriculturists, visited the exhibition of stock in Paris. He knew it was considered that they should notice what they saw on that occasion. The fact, however, was, that while the French stock were nearly as good as our own, the generality of other animals could be praised neither in a breed- ing nor a feeding market. Still what was worthy of record was a breed of cattle, the Charolise, of very superior milking and feeding qualities. The French, too, had succeeded where we (ailed with crossed Merino sheep, admirable iu wool and good in carcass ; and he had only to trust that some future en- couragement would be given for these in our own country. The President next gave " The Stewards ;" to which Mr. WiLLMOKE, as senior steward, rcaponded. He said that he felt greatly obliged for the coni))liment paid to him and his colleagues. Their duties, though onerous, were much lessened by the kind assistance of the noble President, and the great aid rendered hy their honorary secretary, Mr. Gibbs. Still there remained many difticulties with which they have had to contend ; one was the appointment of judges. He thought they had been very happy on this occasion. His great study, since his career in office, had been to select a proper person, and he felt the importance of it so much the more after what had been said to night in regard to cross-bred animals ; for he was quite sure that unless the pure breeds were recognised and fully at- tended to, no good could result from such shows. There was another matter he wished to allude to — he meant the arrange- ments now about to be made with Mr. Bulnois for the future shows. He considered the plan the yard committee had re- commended was for the best interests of the Club ; and he hoped those recommendations would be adopted. He would mention further, that a leading journal, the TimeSjhud (bought proper to find fault with the present arrangements and show, and to make a very unfair comparison between the Birming- ham meeting and this. He kne* well — and his information was from the most practical men — that the Birmingham show, with few exceptions, was far inferior in many respects to our own. He could only trust, in conclusion, knowing what excel- lent men of business his present colleagues were, that the same zeal and energy would be evinced in carrying out the plans of the Club as had been always found heretofore. Mr. Robert Smith, in returning thanks for the judges, wished to impress the fact that, while the spectators only ob- tained a view of the stock as they passed along in crowds, the judges, on the other hand, had the animals out and walked before them, often over and over again. They did not, there- fore, care much as to what was said of their decisions ; but on this occasion, while a portion of the press had attacked the club, it had let the judges alone. The President gave, as the concluding toast of the even- ing, "The Labourer;" and in doing so remarked on the value of a good man to a farmer, and the necessity for a general feeling of good will between the three classes, landlord, tenant, and labourer. Meeting— Tuesday, December 11th, 1855. The chair was taken by Lord Berners, Vice-President of the Club, in the absence of the Duke of Richmond, the President, who had to attend a meeting of militia colonels at the War Office. The Duke of Richmond was re-elected the President. The Marquis of Huntly, Earl of Hardwicke, Earl Spencer, Earl of Yathorough, and Lord Berners, Vice-Presidents ; the Duke of Richmond, Lord Portman, and Mr. B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, Trustees ; Mr. B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, Hon. Secretary ; Mr. Sanday, of Holme Pierrepout, Steward of Cattle and Loiig- wool Sheep ; Mr. Fookes, of Whitechurch, Blandford, Steward of Cross-bred Sheep, Short-wools, and Pigs. On the motion of Mr. Clayden, it was determined to offer a separate Medal for Ewes, both Long and Short- wool Sheep, shown as Extra Stock. On the motion of Mr. Brandreth, a Committee was ap- pointed to take into consideration the subject of the exhibi- tors' standing-room for implements iu the galleries. The Report of the Yard Committee respecting the renewal of the lease of the Bazaar was discussed at great length, and the final settlement deferred till Thursday's meeting. New members were elecied, and a vote of thanks passed to the Chairman. Thursday, December 13th, 1855. His Grace the Duke of Richmond, President, in the chair. The adjourned debate on the renewal of the lease w-as re- sumed, and it was eventually determined to renew the engage- ment for five years ; the Club to receive an additional £200 per annum from the proprietor, making £700 per annum ; he doing as heretofore, paying all expenses of fodder, police, lighting, fitting up, &c , &c. ; with the additional privilege for Members of the Club to have the right of entrance free both during the Show and to the private view after the Judges have completed their awards on the Monday evening. On the motion of Mr. B. E. Bennett, the Prize for Welsh Heifers and Cown was increased to £10 ; and a Silver Medal to the Breeder, if he has filled up the Breeders' Certificate. On the motion of the President, the Prizes for Scotch and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 71 Irish Cattle were increased, .to be as follows : — Steers and Oxen, lat prize £20 (Silver M.edal to the Breeder, provided he has furnished the Breeders' Certificate) ; 2nd prize £5. Heifers or Cows, the prize of £10 (Silver Medal to Breeder, on same conditions as above). The statement of the finances showed a balance of £1,300 in hand, after payment'of the present year's prizes and expenses ; and it was intimated by different members that they would hand in notices of motions ready for next year, for increasing the Prizes offered by the Club. New members were elected, and a vote of thanks passed to the President for his conduct in the chair. METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET. Monday, Dec. 17. THE GREAT CHRISTMAS SHOW. This was the day appointed for holding the Great Christmas Show of Fat Stock ; and the advantages of the removal of the trade of Smithfield to Copenhagen- fields was never more apparent than on this occasion — the only one, in point of fact, since such removal in which nearly the whole of the standings have been filled — arising from the large unoccupied space generally noticed over and above the actual requirements of sup- ply. This, however, we look upon not as an evil, but a positive advantage, as was strikingly apparent this morning. As regards excitement, compared with many corresponding days in Smithfield, there was literally none ; and the greatest order was observed both in the arrival and departure of the stock; indeed, it would be impossible to over-estimate the value of the market for an exhibition of this kind. From the past having been an unfavourable season for tlie rearing of fat Beasts — as the supply of natural food has fallen considerably short of the demand, as prices have, consequently, ruled unusually high, and as the value of cakes and linseed has been from 30 to 40 per cent, above the ordinary runs of years — we fully expected to see a smaller number of really fat animals than usual; but a careful considera- tion of the supply brought forward does not justify our expectations. The wonders, and the names of the sales- men to whom they were consigned, we have noticed below. But we may here refer to the Beasts in classes. The supply of Shorthorns, both for number and quality in the aggregate, certainly stood first. Norfolk for- warded perhaps the best stock in this respect ; Lincoln- shire stood next ; but we had some very prime animals from other counties. The Herefords may be placed in the next category; and, possibly, if we compare the value of meat to the butcher, this stock might well claim the first class, because it has less superfluous fat upon it ; indeed, the exhibition of that breed was re- markably good. As regards the Devons, we have less scope for comment than usual. Though very good, they did not come up to previous years. It is, however, very probable that the high value of live stock in the west of England has deterred many graziers from forwarding their usual supplies. There were some remarkably fine Welsh Runts on sale ; and the show of Scots, both from Scotland and different parts of Eng- land, was seldom equalled. We have now sketched out the general excellencies of the pure breeds. We have done so from the convic- tion that they are deserving our first consideration, because upon them the stamina of fat stock must always depend. It is, however, necessary that we should say a few words respecting the crossings. With a few excep- tions, they were deficient in weight and quality, conse- quently dear both to the butcher and consumer ; and such has been the case for a long series of years, and no doubt it will continue to be so. Still, we find that a contemporary print has set forth the doctrine that the Smithfield Club ought to give large prizes to cross- bred stock, to the partial neglect of the pure breefs, simply because the latter are chiefly in the hands of a certain class of graziers. We need scarcely point out to the practical man the extreme absurdity of such a theory ; but we deem it right to warn the consumers not to be led astray by such vapid nonsense, which has been evi- dently concocted to produce discontent where none ought to exist. The amount of stock brought by the various railways was very large, yet it arrived in excellent condition, and it must be satisfactory to learn that scarcely any traces of disease were noticed amongst either the Beasts or Sheep. The annexed return shows the number of Beasts shown, and the prices obtained for them, on the great days in Smithfield, in the last fifteen years : — Year. Beasts shown. Prices. s. d. s. d. 1840 3,528 4 4 ?o 5 8 1841 4,500 3 8 5 0 1842 4,541 3 4 4 8 1843 4,510 2 8 4 4 1844 ...... 5.713 4 0 4 6 1845 5,326 3 6 4 8 1846 5,470 4 0 5 8 1847 4.282 3 4 4 8 1848 5,942 3 4 4 8 1849 5,765 3 4 4 6 1850 6,341 3 0 3 10 1851 6,103 2 8 4 2 1852 • 6,271 2 8 4 0 1853 7,037 3 2 4 10 1854 6,181 3 6 5 4 Last week's imports of foreign stock into London were moderate, the total supply amounting to 4,752 head. In the corresponding week in 1854 we received 3,999; in 1853, 6,316; in 1852, 4,436; in 1851, 4,277 ; in 1850, 5,124 ; in 1849, 2,388 ; and in 1848, 3,656 head. . IMPOKTS INTO LONDON LAST WEEK. FromWhence. Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. Harlingen 494 1265 64 — Rotterdam 223 561 86 — Dordt 23 ~ — ~ Hambro' 37 20 — — Amsterdam 82 1709 — -— Antwerp — — 88 — Total 859 3555 238 The Yearly Comparison of Weekly Importsis as follows: 1854. 1853. 1852. 1851. Seasts. Sheen. Calves Pigs. 1130 2593 269 7 1136 4698 462 20 235 3782 419 — 607 3155 363 152 tock to- day was small, and in very middling condition. From our own grazing districts we received the follow- ing supplies of Beasts : — West of England, 500; Nor- folk and Suffolk, 700 ; Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire, 3,800 — 3,000 from the latter counties being conveyed by the London and North Western Rail- way. From Ireland, 350 ; and from Scotland, 850 Beasts came to hand. Thus it will be seen that the ar- rivals were very large ; and we may observe that, taking into consideration their weight, the total sup- ply, as a whole, has never been equalled. The great mass of supply had a depressing influence upon the demand ; indeed, the trade was heavy. A few very superior Beasts sold at from 5s. 2d. to, in some in- stances, 5s. 4d, per 8 lbs. ; but the general top figure THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. for Beef was very little over 5s. per 8 lbs., and sales progressed slowly at those quotations. On the stand of Mr. Robert Morgan we noticed a remarkably fine show of Beasts, the property of Messrs. Martin, Livingstone, Kaowles, Cooper, Milne, Mitchell, and Thompson, Scotch graziers; of Messrs. Cook, Thomas, Cooper, Hewson, Lincolnshire ; of Messrs. Feltowe, Leeds, Farrer, &c., Norfolk. Mr. Morgan had also a fine collection from other counties. Mr. Maidwell had on offer a wonderful collection of Beasts forwarded by Mr. William M'Combie, of Tilly- four, Aberdeenshire. This eminent grazier has for many years past furnished a fine collection of Scots for the great market. The number here to-day was 40, and certainly they were the admiration or all present. Mr. Vorley had also a good show of Beasts, chiefly the property of Messrs. Martin, Stoddard, and Philips, of Scotland. Other salesmen had fine collections, and we may state that the Beasts shown by Messrs. Giblett and Gurrier, belonging to Messrs. Milne, Stewart, and Shepherd, of Scotland, were remarkably fine. There was a full average supply of Sheep in the market, and many of them were of great weight. The trade was very inactive, and sales were with difficulty effected at last week's prices. Some of the Leicesters, Gloucesters, &c., sold tolerably well; but small breeds were neglected. The higliest quotation was 5s. per 81bs. Messrs. Weale had on sale several pens of very fine Sheep, the property of F. Wittingstall, Esq., of Langley-Bury, Herts., and of Mr. Rowland of Onslow. They found buyers at high rates. Messrs. Giblett and Gurrier exhibited some fine Downs belonging to Lord Walsingham, Lord Radnor, and Mr. Joseph Carwardine of Herefordshire J several prime Gloucesters, the pro- perty of Messrs. Game, Hewer (of Northleach), and Mr. Craddock ; and 40 very fine wethers sent by G. H. Langston, Esq. Mr. Eland showed a very good supply of Lincolns. We were very moderately supplied with Calves. Tho primest sold as high as 6s. per 81bs. ; but inferior quali- ties were a slow sale. The Pork trade was dull, but we have no change to notice in prices. Per 8lbs. to shik the offals. s. d. B. d. Coarse andinferior Beasts 3 Second quality doA Prime large Oxen 4 Prime Scots, ^c. . 5 Coarse and inferior Sheep 3 Second quality do. 3 8e met or overcome, or so far mitigated as to remove any appre- hensions upon that subject ; and, inasmuch as the area of the kingdom cannot be augmented to any considerable extent, it remains to be shown how far the produce may be increased to meet the requirement, aud which I hope to be able to prove may be efifected, if the restrictions now existing upon cultiva- tion can be removed. Until the commencement of the past century, land constituted the chief wealth of the nation ; and as it had been subjected to feudal rights, it came down to the present proprietors fettered with all the restrictions that had appertained to it through the early periods ; aud even now, notwithstanding the endeavour of our statesmen, from time to time, to abolish those absurd customs of tenure, or so far to mitigate their effects, we are still, in the nineteenth century (so far as the title to and transfer of land is concerned), in a species of refined barbarism. I have adverted to this evil merely to exhibit the difllcuUies to which all landed pro- prietors are subject, as a class ; as it must be evident that those expenses cannot be met or overcome unless by a pro- portionate diminution of rent, or by siich withdrawal of capital yearly as to prevent the owners entering upon any general or extensive improvements of their estates ; aud capital thus spared, if directed aright, would enable each proprietor so far to improve the farm, homestalls, aud roads, as well as to drain and otherwise improve his estates, so that the highest degree of perfection might be attained, without absorbing the smallest portion of the rental now derived ; and in addition a» those improvements become developed, the ultimate increase in annual value of the whole of the land of this kingdom might become increased in the short period of thirty years to the extent of 50 per cent. ; for as it is upon the invest- ment of capital judiciously that their improvement in a great measure depends, how can it so easily and readily le effected as upon this principle of self-production and develop- ment V It is not in my province to insist upon the means by which this might be carried into effect, aud upon au occa- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 73 sion like the present, when I am enabled to delineate the out- line only, it would be trespassing too much upon the future portion of the subject to dwell longer upon specnlative pro- positions of what might be effected by legal methods, but rather to deal with the question as I find it, and endeavour to show, in accordance with the subject as put dowu upon the card — " How estates can be managed so as to ensure their utmost development and improvement." In approaching this subject, so large and extended a field presents itself, that I almost fear to enter upon it, or to endeavour to reduce within the space of an ordinary lecture the important question which now engrosses our attention. I shall, however, premise that there is no estate in this kingdom whatever, however highly improved it may have become, but that is still capable of further and more extensive improvement ; and when I reflect upon the very inefficient manner in which the largest portion of the estates of this kingdom are managed, it exhibits a picture that I would fain conceal, but which I have only hitherto been able to deprecate and deplore ; for, what with the trammels and restrictions upon tenants on one hand, and the insecurity of their investment on the other, it is rather matter of surprise than otherwise that cultivation has arrived at the perfection that it has attained, and which nothing but the enterprise and energy of character possessed by English farmers would have overcome ; and it will therefore be my en- deavour to show how far these restrictions may be removed, without in any degree diminishing the resources of the land- lord, or by interfering with bis prerogative injuriously in the slightest degree. And, although his interest may be limited, still, if a disposition exists to carry out extensive improve- ments Tipon his estate, tenants will always be found ready to venture their capital if they can look forward with any degree of confidence to the opportunity of re-imbursing themselves the investment they may make in the general and necessary improvement of their several farms. But, so long as landlords refuse to give their tenants a security for their invested capital and skill, it can hardly be expected that any permanent and progressive improvement of the estates of this kingdom will follow ; and therefore, to attract capital, the utmost encouragement ought to be given in the outset. The mere consideration of rent, in point of amount, should, in the first instance, be allowed to merge in the larger and more beneficial advantages to be derived from capital when skilfully directed into its proper channel ; nor should any other consi- derations whatever interfere to prevent the attainment of this object. If a tenant is poor and unable to properly cultivate his farm, he must of necessity yearly become still more unable to meet or overcome the difficulties which he may have to en- counter; but if there exists a desire to keep him upon the estate, and his character justifies such an endeavour, assistance should be afforded him of a substantial character, not by a mere return by a per-ceutage upon his rental, but by enabling him to bring his land into a higher and better state of culti- vation; and even then, unless his co- operation shoidd be found earnest and continuous, it would be useless to pursue it until the impoverishment of the farm could only be exceeded by the impoverishment of the tenant. The first, and most essential, consideration that presents itself towards the improvement of an estate, is so to arrange all the occupations that the fields of each particiUar farm may be bronght into contiguity with the home-stalls as much as possible. This can only be effected by holding a command over the property at one and the same time, and which can be readily effected if the tenants can respec- tively be convinced of the benefit to be derived by themselves ; but inasmuch as the land will of necessity be of different de- grees of value in point of cultivation, and, what is still more important, will vary greatly as regards quality, a proper and equitable adjustment betwixt tenant and tenant can only be effected by some person competent to estimate the respective interests of the several occupiers in the lands so proposed to be exchanged ; but as this is a department that can be readily accomplished, I shall not dwell upon it further, but suppose that every holding or occupation is rendered as complete as circumstances will allow, the homestalls being as nearly in the centre of each occupation as possible, the communication to each field rendered practicable by good roads, the size of the holdings being also such as to enable the tenant to keep a sufficient number of horses and workmen to carry on the ope- rations of the farm with the utmost facility. Nor "do 1 consi- der farms of less than 200 acres of arable land can be managed so beneficially and profitably, as it must be apparent to every one that the successful cultivation of farms cannot be carried out unless an adequate quantity of manure can be annually produced, so as fully to enable the tenant to obtain good crops. This cannot be effected unless a sufficient number of sheep and cattle can be kept to enable him to produce it ; therefore, im- less every farm is adapted, as regards extent, quality of soil, and quantity of grass or feeding land, for the accomplishment of this object, it will not only fail in producing that general mprovement of each farm respectively, but also of the estate altogether. As soon, therefore, as a proper arrangement of the enclosures of each farm is determined upon, a general sur- vey of the farm homestalls should be made, nor should any repairs or new buildings be commenced until plans have been decided upon for the ultimate improvement of each individual homestall ; for unless this is previously done the erection of new buildings will only tend to render it more difficult after- wards to complete and arrange them to the greatest advantage. Every new erection or alteration of a building ought to be subservient to the progressive development and improvement of the whole ; and although the means cannot at ouce be applied to effect such an object, still every step, when taken, should be in the right direction ; so that in the end no waste of money or material may ensue. I am desirous of impressing this point upon landowners, as I have seen heavy expenditure going on, regardless of any general plan, until in the end a large outlay might probably have been made, and but little beneficially accomplished, realizing the view taken by an able writer of such men who so proceed ; who, as he tersely ob- serves, I Aiely finish anything but their fortunes, or C7id anything but their lives. After the farms have become arranged, and the alterations and improvements of the homestalls decided upon, it will be necessary to obtain suitable tenants, either by treating with those in occupation, or by procuring others who may be seeking farms ; and herein a judicious discrimination be- comes requisite. Men without skill, enterprize, or capital, should not be treated with. Industry may accomplish a great deal, if aided by capital ; capital will effect little, unless it be skilfully directed. But to ensure a successful result, both ought to be united in the same tenant : iior is this all that is requisite. Business habits are of little avail, unless accompanied with prudence and economy. Perfection can- not be otherwise attained, but antecedents might always be consulted with advantage ; and at the expense of a smile I venture to assert that good farmers are bred as true to stock as their horses or sheep. Through a long life I have observed that, in most instances, farming propensities descend from father to son ; and wherever good management and order have been imbibed in early youth, that they became continuous throughout after life to the end. We now come to consider a most important item iu the economy of management of an estate, ftr it cannot be expected that capital will be directed into any channel unless with the prospect of realising profit upon its investment ; and to obtain its service effectually, se- curity must be given by the owner, of such a nature as will enable the tenant to look forward with certainty of undis- turbed enjoyment of his occupation long enough to enable him again to realise it, or in the event of his occupation being disturbed, of being paid for his permanent improvements in proportion as they may not have been exhausted. And I may be allowed to say emphatically, that it is as much the land- lord's interest to render the tenant secure in his occupation, as it is necessary and beneficial for the tenant to become so. Land cannot be well cultivated without a large investment of capital, and unless made by the landlord iu part, the tenant must make it entirely himself; and in explanation I state that in the heavy land districts of Essex and other counties instances have come under my observation of £15 per acre and upwards having been invested by the tenant in the first year of his term by draining, chalking, and fallowing the laud only, and at a time when the marketable value of the land did not itself exceed £20 per acre. And these are not solitary instances; for in ordinary cases, where draining is done by the tenant, and chalking, marling, or other expensive inorganic manures are also supplied, the cost of these two items alone will frequently amount to £10 peracre; so in converting wood- land, the grubbing and bringing it uito cultivation amount to from £15 to £20 per acre, notwithstanding which tenants are found who will undertake such business without any secu- rity beyond that which they have ordinarily upon the farm 74 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. lands adjoining. Whoever has been engaged in the mauage- meut of estates must have witnessed at the end of a lease the discrepancy in the respective state and condition in which farms are quitted. Upon two that have come under my own man- agement, within the last six months, the landlords have lost one entire year's rent, and have been compelled to take a moiety of a fair rent for seven years to come, besides havins; to restore the premises at an enormous outlay. The estimated damages sustained upoa one of these, of 180 acres only, has been sworn to exceed .£1000, and upon the other heavy da- mage3 have already been awarded. I mention these instances as preparatory to what I have to advance, and to show that security is absolutely necessary on the part of the landlord against had management, as it is for the tenant to ensure him compensation for his improvements, and good manage- ment. In corroboration of the foregoing observations I will now give two quotations from two different authors at periods of 200 years apart ; the first from a work caOed, " The Eng- lish Improver Improved ; or, the Survey of Husbandry Surveyed, by Walter J51ith, a Lover of Ingenuity, 1653." In the epistle dedicatory, he states that " the first prejudice to the improvement of land is, that if a tenant be at never so great pains and costs for the improvement of his land, he thereby doth but occasion a greater rack upon him- self, or else invests his landlord iuto his cost or labour gratis, or at best lies at his landlord's mercy for requital, which occasions a neglect of good husbandry to his own, the land, the landlord, and the commonwealth suffering. Now this I humbly conceive may be removed, if there were a law enacted by which every landlord should be obliged either to give hira reasonable allowance for his clear improvement, or else suffer him or his to enjoy it so much longer as till he hath a pro- portionate requital. In Flanders and elsewhere, in hiring land upon leases, if the farmer improve to such a rate above the present value, the landlord gives hira either so many years' purchase for it, or allows him a part of it, or con- firms more time, &c. Some tenants have advanced land from £20 to £40 per annum, and, depending upon the landlord's favour, have been wiped of all ; and many farmers by this uncertainty have been impoverished, and left under great disgrace, which might as well have been advauced." The other observations are from the able pen of Professor Low, in his work on landed property, who says : " The ma- nagement of a farm, when let, is entrusted to the tenant during the period of his possession. If the tenant consults his interest truly, he will manage the farm in the best way to increase or maintain its productiveness ; but this want of knowledge may cause him to mistake the proper meaus, and his interest, either real or apparent, and even his necessities, may lead him to take more from the farm entrusted to hira than tends to the preservation of its productiveness ; and especially towards the close of the term, when his interests and those of the landlord begin to separate. To guard agaiust these results, is the legitimate purpose of the written contract, which shall give to the one party the rights necessary to enable him to carry on his business, and to the other a legal security that these rights shall not be employed for other ends than those contemplated by the parties to the contract. To render the terms of the lease subservient to these ends, it is not necessary to multiply too greatly conditions, penalties, and restrictions, which serve but to perplex the lessee, and to give birth to questions, none of which need to occur under a well-considered contract. The essential conditions should be fair to hoUi parties — few, simple, and easily understood and complied with ; and so expressed, that no reasonable doubt with regard to the meaning of the parties shall arise." The ordinary defects of leases are of two kinds — either the tenant is fettered by a mass of cumbersome and useless restrictions, whic'i take Irom hira the power of exercising his judgment, and adapting his nianajjement to the circumstances that may arise ; or else the stipulations are so indefinite and lax that the tenant is left with ii power which he cannot exercise with- out injury to tlie Liudlord's interest or his own, and which, upon every change of tenants, tends to a deterioration of the farm. Sometimes we find the errors of one lease copied ser- vilely into the next, as if agriculture had remained stationary for a hundred years or more : sometimes we find rules of cul- tivation laid down and enforced by a mass of penalties, which even the courts of law refuse to sanction, and these rules founded, not upon the best, hut upon the worst modes. The knowledge of improved farming is of slow growth, and the value of what is new can for the most part only be made known by the gradual progress of conviction, derived from experience. But although a landlord cannot at once teach an ignorant and prejudiced tenantry what is good, he may give a better direction to their industry by restraining them from doing what is wrong. This is practi- cally easy in laying down an improved course of good hus- bandry, or at least to impose such restraining conditions as shall prevent the tenant from following one that is bad. This in- deed, will not make a good farmer; but it is one step, and no inconsiderable one, in the progress of improvement. As re- gards draining, it is absolutely necessary that it should be ex- ecuted in the first instance, and ought to be considered the foundation of all future improvements — the key-stone of the arch in the one sense, the support of the whole fabric in another ; and where it is determined upon as necessary, a careful and judicious survey should immediately take place, the nature of the soil should be carefully ascertained, and the depth and direction of the drains determined upon. It would be impossible for me to define how this is to be accomplished ; but I may be allowed to submit, inasmuch as scarcely two cases are similar, that the system to be adopted ought to be such as to meet the case in question. I have no hesitation in stating it as my opinion that capital has been sunk to an enormous amount upon many estates from adopting the par- liamentary system. Heavy clay, tender loam, gravel, absorb- ent and retentive subsoils, varying in every shade and charac- ter upon the same estate, have all been treated in a similar manner — the same depth of drain, the same distance apart, like the quack advertised nostrums of the day, have been recommended as suitable in every description of case, however unlike in character, or different as regarded their intensity. Upon one estate under my own especial notice, the rental has been increased 9s. per acre. The outfalls have been opened five to six feet in depth, and seven feet wide at the surface ; the consequence is that land- slips have taken place to such an extent that the outfalls have col- lapsed and the drains throughout have become obstructed :and in various portions attempts have been made to cause the water to run the contrary way ; but however weak it may be considered by spirit-drinkers, it has never yet been found weak enough yet to run up a hill. That due inquiry is necessary previous to draining an estate must be obvious ; for admitting that four feet in depth is the minimum allowed under Govern- ment grants, and that three feet would effect the object, still the depth of four feet might be advantageous as regards dura- bility, and probably the expenditure of the extra depth might be regained by extra durability ; but to assume thirty feet aa the distance universally necessary apart, or that of any other less or greater distance, is so absurd as not to be dwelt upon. I was lately convinced of this from an inspection of the estate of Lord Berners, known as the Keythorpe Estate, in the county of Leicester. It was my good fortune to inspect a large portion of that estate after the rain which took place in the first week of November had fallen, alraost without inter- mission, nearly sixty hours, and when the whole district was to a great estent submerged in water. Not a bucket-full was seen upon any drained portion of this estate, and within six hours after the rain had subsided a ploughing match was taking place upon strong clay land, without the slightest interruption (rom excess of moisture ; whilst within a hundred yards of the ploughmen a draining match was taking place, where the dis- charge of water was so great that the drainers were literally working in a stream, exemplifying not only the successful result of the system, but exhibiting a triumph of mind over matter to an astonishing extent ; and as other gentlemen are in this room who attended me on that experiniental trip, I must appeal to them in confirmation of my statement. This estate has been drained by his lordship syste- matically ; and the nature of the subsoil having been first determined by Mr. Trimmer, the geologist, a method of draining very large portions by the application of few drains was resorted to and succeeded. I can better de- scribe it by supposing a succession of alternate ridges and furrows in a tenacious clay subsoil, varying from 10 to 100 jarJs apart, being filled iu between them by a porous soil of unequal teiiacity, but from these furrows having been found to extend iu a certain direction parallel with each other, by cut- ting through them transversely, the clay to the depth of four THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 75 or .Qorefeeli, all the iutetmecliate space or underground furrow becomes drained. The direction of these underground ridges and furrows of clay are first ascertained by digging holes by way of trial four feet in depth and length, pad by observing those which remain fullest of water at the lowest portion of the field. The principal drain is cut so near to them as to take off the whole of the water they contained, and if upon becoming emptied the nearest hole in a direction higher up the field be- came also drained, and so on with the other holes upwards in succession, all the intervening space might be considered suffi- ciently drained ; and the same process, on being carried out by successive operations, and application, the estate became finally drained in a successful manner by the application of an in- finitely smaller number of drains than usual. It must be re- collected, however, that the surface strata vary considerably, so that no known application of geological science can deter- mine with any degree of certainty either their depth, their incliuation, or extent ; but one example in a district applies to nearly the whole. All the porous and retentive strata vary alternately. Sometimes the retentive one is nearest the sur- face, but most frequently the porous one rises to it and rests upon the retentive one. In that case the water descends through it until it becomes resisted by the retentive stratum, and from not finding an outlet, can only pass off by gradual absorption, or by capillary action to the surface, where in pro- cess of time it becomes evaporated. The draining of this de- scription of soil is obvious and sufficiently clear, so as not to require any particular observation. If drains are sufficiently deep to prevent the water rising within two feet of the surface, the drainage is effectual ; but if the porous stratum is not more than five or six feet in depth, the most economical and effectual mode will be to sink the drains into the retentive stratum below, and thus large extents of surface may be drained by comparatively a limited number of drains. If, on the other hand, the retentive stratum lies above to the depth of several feet, the whole must be drained at such intervals and at such depths as will be sufficient to draw off the water from the soil sufficiently to prevent its interfering with the roots cf plants. By reason of these alternate descriptions of strata cropping out upon the sides of hills, land springs are formed : the water sinking through the porous stratum, flows upon the surface of the retentive one, until it emerges upon the sides of the hill, at points parallel with each other upon nearly the same level. Now, in every one of these cases a different application of drainage should be carried out ; and these observations applying to estates and large tracts of land together, renders it especially important that a true estimate of the character of the soil snould in the first instance be ob- tained, or a large and unnecessary expense might be incurred. Having, therefore, determined the principle, the mode of accomplishing the object next presents itself — Whether at the cost of the landlord alone, or by the tenant, or by both landlord and tenant jointly. In cases where estates extensively require drainin?, tileries and kilns should be erected at suit- able distances ; the spare fire-wood of the estate could be thus beneficially applied, and the cost of manufacture economised, independent of diminishing carriage — another very important item — and it would, under all circumstances, be better to find the tenant pipes on his performing the labour and superintend- ing the work. As, however, this is a department that requires a close superintendence, an overlooker should he appointed, whose business it should be to ascertain that each tenant gives a personal superintendence : nothing short of this ought to satisfy a landlord ; and unless it can be obtained, the drains should be cut and filled by one party, and the tiles placed by another. Farmers practically know the hazard of intrusting labourers with the execution of the work ; and as it rarely is discovered how badly it may have been executed until too late to remedy it, a constant superintendence should be exercised, to see that the work, from time to time, is well executed, and the proper fall of the drains preserved. The mere adjustment of the pipes is also a subject that will require the closest in- spection, as from the pipes becoming warped in the process of manufacture, they will, unless great attention is paid, alter their position after the earth is again filled in, and obstruct the continuous hollow of the drain to such an extent as to destroy it altogether. And whether the advance of the capital necessary is made by Government or not, to defray the charges, it matters little, for I am enabled to point to estates where a Isrge and what appears a lavish expenditure has been made. but owmg to the work not having been well executed, but little benefit to the estate has been derived. And I would here caution persons disposed to make large investments in such improvements to pause before they proceed, and first examine the nature of the soil ; and if of a loose, porous, and variable quality, not to consider that permanency of action of the drains will for a long period of time be obtained without great risk of some of them failing, and that ultimately upon such soils the whole process may, in a few years, require renewing. Nor is it advisable to incur a very heavy expense if upon experience a cheaper method has been found to ensure the object ; and I have not hastily come to this conclusion, as I know that sys- tems prevail in Essex and the eastern counties, whereby the drainage is effectual, and most successful in operation upon an average of from 14 to 17 years, at a cost of £2 5s. per acre, and that very seldom it does not exceed 403. per acre. Nor is it advisable to drain every description of land that may occa- sionally become overcharged with water ; so long as the soil will absorb and carry it off effectually in the space of two or three days, little fear need be apprehended that any ill effects will happen to the crops, notwithstanding that the cultivation may occasionally become retarded ; and upon grass land posi- tive injury sometimes follows thorough drainage. It might doubtless become benefited by allowing stock to depasture upon it in wet seasons with less injury, but on the other hand it would grow less grass during the summer months. And so with some description of crops sown in the spring months, especially beans, it has been frequently observed that where the lands have been thoroughly drained, that they have not afterwards succeeded so well. I kuow that I am treading upon disputable ground by makiug these observations, but I have seen so much theoretically ascribed to draining that could not be esta- blished by practice, by some persons who profess to practise it as a science, but whose scientific knowledge, if it may be called such, must have been obtained in a very short space of time. This happens, however, with the application of every other discovery, wherein persons seek employment merely for their own advantage. The drainage being once effected re- quires continuous attention to maintain it in working order and efficiency, to secure which plans should be made of the estate, showing the position of every drain and outfall, which should be inspected at least once in every year, to see that no obstruction has taken place, and the outfalls should be thoroughly cleared to allow every drain to work freely as in the first instance ; and to enable this readily to be executed, whenever the drains have not been carried out into brick cess- pools or headings, all the drains at the various places of de- livery into the open outfalls should be finished with the pipes two feet in length, over which should be placed a piece of oak cut from the thick end of slabs, or of old oak posts, split up for the purpose, and which should be placed over the pipe, and project two or three inches, so that in after times, when requisite to clear the outfalls, the tool of the workman may readily detect the drain by striking upon the wood, without deranging the pipes. It is not, however, the province of my- self to enter into further detail, seeing that by only merely dealing in generalities will absorb a greater portion of time than can well be bestowed upon the subject. If, however, the landlord is in a position to execute the work entirely, it might be carried out by a company of men working under a manager and assistants, who could give it constant attention ; but, inasmuch as the tenant, under such circumstances, would not be sufficiently interested in obtaining a due performance of the work and of maintaining it afterwards in working efficiency, it must be apparent that the most effectual mode of producing such a result will be to give him a direct interest in the outlay, and by the finding the pipes, on the one hand, by the landlord, and the performing the labour on the other by the tenant, a fair aiijustment of the cost will follow, provided the tenant's interest is secured to such an extent as to enable him to repay himself his investment on account of the cost of labour be- stowed by him. The ordinary charge per acre for thorough draining ought not to exceed 51. per acre ; but if judiciously proceeded upon, and carefully executed, would not exceed Al. in .ordinary cases. This may be assumed an equivalent to 5s. upon the rental in the one case of the landlord executing the work solely, and 2s. 6d. in the other of the tenant assisting. The repair of farm buildings, gates, &c., perhaps, is better maintained by the landlord and tenant jointly — the landlord finding materials, and the tenant paying the labour attendant 76 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. upou their application ; but inasmuch as the conversion of timber is not economically carried out by tenants, the timber for gates, fences, and such portions of boards ani scantling as are requisite, should be supplied ready sawn to the tenant, the cost of such preparation to be paid at its prime cost by him. In such cases the application of steam-power may be made available upon large estates to such an extent as to reduce the cost of conversion materially, thereby lessening the cost to the mutual advantage of both parties. Much discrepancy has arisen by tenants not having their duties clearly defined as regards repairs. The wear-aud-tear of farm buildings is great, and so far as the external portion of repair extends should be executed by the tenant ; but the substantial portion, con- sisting of the frame work of buildings, should be considered as the landlord's duty to support and maintain ; the tenant- able portion, consisting of all external covering, either of weatherboard, plaster, walls, tiling, slating, thatching, &c., appertaining to the tenant to keep in good order and repair, after having first been delivered over to him in proper state of repair at the commencement of his term. The same will also apply to gates, stiles, bridges, fences, and such other things as may be called attached fixtures, the tenant from time to time repairing them as may become requisite, the element of time always being considered at the termination of a lease as a set off under which he is finally entitled to deduction. As painting and tarring for the future preservation of buildings is expressly a consideration for the landlord's benefit, the mate- rials, therefore, ought to be found by him. I now come to consider a most material point that has been long mooted, but still remains unsettled, although upon the face of it we might hardly consider that two opinions ought to exist. It frequently happens that tenants require extra buildings to those erected, for properly conducting their farm operations, and should they erect them (unless in a particular mode), they would, in point of law, be considered to have become attached to the freehold, and could not be removed at the expiration of a lease by the tenant. This appears so unreasonable and unjust, that it requires no comment ou my part, except to consider how this objectionable procedure may be obviated. If the materials have been supplied by the tenant entirely, it ought in the out- set to become matter of agreement on the part of the landlord that the tenant should have power to remove such buildings as he may have erected at the end of his term, if the landlord should refuse to take them at what they might be considered worth to remove, the tenant in every case making good any damage that might be caused by their removal. Further than this, the landlord ought not to be called upon to perform, as it would be equally absurd that he should pay for the freaks of a tenant imbued with a building mania, as that the tenant should leave all the elections which he might have put up, and which might be absolutely necessary for the due management of the business, without compensation. And in carrying out estimates of the unexpended improvements, they ought to be calculated in relation to their cost, upon the principle of arithmetical progression ; not, however, to extend over more than five years — as every landlord has a right to calculate, at the time he secures a tenant, that he will, in ordinary phrase, become an improviny tenant — or, in plain terras, that the general condition and cultivation of the estate will become improved under his management. But it too frequently happens in leases of 14 years, or even of longer duration, that the tenant not only ceases to improve his occupation during the last four or five years of his tenancy, hut actually exhausts the improvements he had previously made during the first portion of his lease ; so that at its expiration the farm is left in no better condition than when he entered upon it, and is frequently reduced to a worse state than that in which he found it. This generally arises from a mistaken idea on the part of the tenant that he may, in consequence of the improved state and condition of the farm, be called upon to pay an increased rent, at the time of making a new contract, or that others may be induced to offer a larger sura than he may be willing to give. It is needless to dwell upon the subject of such improvident modes having existence, and it is to obviate thera in some measure that my attention will be directed in forming the covenants of a lease to meet such objections. In framing a lease, the first essential point to ascertain is the amount of rent that ought to be paid, upon the assumption of a certain price that wheat and other produce may realize upou an average of years during its continuance ; but, as human foresight never could anticipate events, so it never will be able to anticipate prices. Peace or war, produc- tive or unproductive seasons, the influx or withdrawal of the precious metals, au extensive or limited importation of grain, and the gradual increase of the population — all must tend greatly to operate upon the value of farm produce and the cost of labour ; therefore, if a fixed rent is resorted to for a series of years to come, it may tend greatly to the injury of the land- lord or tenant respectively. But, inasmuch as the cultivation and in improvement of land require considerable investment, which must take many after-years to repay, it is presumed that no prudent tenant would risk a large amount of capital, with- out some description of written document to secure him against loss by the landlord suddenly ending his occupation. This can only be effected by giving the tenant a lease for one or more years, containing the stipulations as regards cultivation, and an undertaking upon the part of the landlord to pay for unex- pended improvements by valuation, should he afterwards dis- turb the occupation of the tenant, of which intention notice sufficiently long beforehand should be given, to enable him to obtain another crop from the farm beyond that already in process of production ; or, what would be far preferable, a lease should be granted for a certain number of years, determinable, after the two first periods, every fifth or seventh year, and should the landlord determine the tenancy, then all the improvements of a permanent character made in the last period should be paid for by valuation in proportion as they might remain unex- pended. This would ensure upon an estate continuous and progressive improvement, and would secure an adequate rental to the landlord, as well as protect the tenant from sudden changes in the value of produce. The amount of rent so to be paid should be made to consist of one moiety to be rendered in money, and the other moiety to be dependent upon the value of wheat, or such other staple produce of the farm as may be considered advisable. This mode has in my own practice been adopted and found to work beneficially, and for this reason, that if the rent of land should be dependent entirely upon the value of produce, the fluctuations may be greater than either party may be able to easily meet or easily overcome. The prices in a district are rarely dependent upon tiie production of that particular district; but, upon the other hand, are governed by the supply and demand of the kingdom at large. The crops may generally be productive throughout the kingdom in any particular year, but may in the particular district in which the farm is situated become blighted and of inferior description, and therefore, if the rent was altogether governed by the price of grain, the tenant would have a higher amount to pay with a smaller amount of produce, which, when calculated into mo- ney value, is the most simple and efficacious mode of fixing the amount to be afterwards rendered. As, however, the rent to be derived should have a relation to the value of pro- duce, it has in some cases been obtained by adding the ave- rages of the two preceding years to that of the current year, and by taking the mean average of the three years the value of the farm for the current year would be ascertained, and so on to the expiration of the term, taking off the first year of the series and substituting the last year in its place. In fixing a rent permanently it must ever be borne in mind that it ought to be based upon the supposed value that produce will realise during the term, and in that case the stipulations as regards a corn rent should be introduced to guard against any sudden or great fluctuations in any given year or years, but this may be obviated in various ways beyond those specified ; for iustauce, assuming in the year that the farm is hired that the average price of wheat would be 50s. per qr. for the next five years, for every advance of Ss. per quarter the advance in rent upon wheat-growing farms might fairly be enhanced one-sixteenth of ths original rent, so that if the rent originally agreed upon was 2Ss. per acre with wheat at 50s., at 55s. it would be 29s. 9d., and so on Is. 9d. additioual for every 5s. advance on ihe price of wheat until the rent had reached the maximum of SOs. per qr., or had fallen to the minimum of 40s. per qr. Whichever mode might bo adopted should become the established practice upon the estate, so far as the farms might consist principally of arable land, and all other covenants so far as they could be brought to apply upon the respective farms should be also similar, 'rhe covenants regulating the tenant's quitting and mode of pay- ment for his fallows, hay, straw, manure, seeds, &c., should be all reduced to one principle, so that not only the tenant quit- THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE. 11 tiug, but the tenant hiring the farm should have a clear un- derstanding of the principle beforehand. Liberal covenants will be certain to secure improving tenants, and wherever the landlord carries out a liberal course of tr? atment he will find his estate yearly increasing in value, and his rent ultimately pngmented at intervals of hiring"; whereas by a contrary sys- tem estates are certain not to improve, if they possibly escape deterioration, buildings become dilapidated, soil becomes foul and exhausted, and landlord and tenant too frequently become engulphed in one common ruin. It would be impossi- ble for me to enter to any extent into the nature of covenants introduced to protect the tenant from aunoyauce, or to secuie the landlord from injury, by his improper management of the farm. As regards the latter, they should extend to the pre- servation of timber, pasture, fences, and erections upon the estate, from direct or indirect injury by the tenant, as well as for the proper management and tillage of the soil : these points are now, for the most part, guarded by the infliction upon the tenant of increased rents, payable during the remainder of the term upon each and every acre that may be mismanaged. But in the adoption of covenants of this nature, the amount should be adjusted so as to meet wilful and direct acts of mismanage- ment differently from those that may happen casually or inad- vertently. Thus, for the breaking up and converting to tillage old pasture land, the sum should he sufBciently high as to deter the tenant from attempting it. The same as regards timber ; but as regards the management of the land, the sum imposed ought not to be more than double rent, in addition to the current rent, and if not repeated, should be determined by the first payment. It is preposterously absurd to inflict a penalty of £10 per acre, by way of increased rent, throughout and to the end of a term, for the merely taking two white straw crops in succession, or selling off a few loads of roots or vegetables. Keeping the protection of the estate in view is one thing; proposing penalties which if inflicted would be ruinous to the tenant, is another, and must be found, as in case of punishment of minor ofl'ences by heavy inflic- tions, not to attain the end sought, or to prevent a repetition of the offences in others, to be useless. Leases in accordance with their present forms ought to be abolished; old and abstruse covenants that existed 300 years ago ought not to be admitted, Who that has ever read a lease ever failed in finding a long and explicit covenant against growing pernicious weeds, such as flax, hemp, woad, coleseed, and even potatoes ? Some author, in giving a definition of dirt, states that it is something out of its right place. Coal and London mud would be dirt upon a lady's dress ; flour and lime would soil a black cloth coat ; but each in its proper place would be considered something better. So growing potatoes, made an exception in a lease, are classed with ])ernicious weeds, for no other reason than because they require farm-yard manure to produce them, and do not return any straw for its reproduc- tion. And as lawyers consider the straw, when grown, to be the landlord's property, they have placed potatoes in the list before enumerated, putting as it were the square peg into the round hole, and which becomes apparent to every one that it does not fit. So also of root-crops, mangold wurtzel, swede and common turnips, as well as cabbages, vetches, &c. — a tenant is by present leases restricted from selling them off the farm, although he may be permitted to sell hay and straw, upon bringing back what is termed an equivalent in manure, to meet the deficiency produced in that article by the removal of the before-mentioned produce. And might not something of the same character be made applicable upon the disposal of green crops as well as roots of every description ? It is very true that, when these clauses were first established, equivalent manure could not be produced to meet the demand consequent upon their removal iu large quantities from the farm. But any dispassionate observer must feel convinced that the period has passed away wherein such restrictions are longer necessary; for instance, should a tenant in the first instance purchase guano or artificial manure to produce root or vegetable crops, he ought injustice and fairness to be allowed to sell root crops to the amount of the cost of such manure so brought on the farm for their production ; or, upon selling them, that he should return as much manure to the farm as would reproduce them. All these things should now be put upon the footing of other commercial transactions, and full scope ought to be given to the tenant for the exercise of his talent in the cultiva- tion of the land, and remuneration of himself for his skill and capital employed. The covenants applicable to the quitting of farms are as numerous almost as the districts in which they prevail. They ought, however, to be governed by one prin- ciple— that of a fair adjustment betwixt landlord and tenant. The tenant being under the necessity of maintaining his farm in good cultivation until the termination of his lease, should have full power given him to work the fallows and do other team work, for which he should afterwards be paid by valuation. He should also be allowed for his expen- diture towards procuring root crops — should be paid for his seed and grasses, for his hay at what it would be fairly worth at market (less the marketing expenses), and the value of the equivalent manure to be restored under the covenant. He should also be paid for his interest in the last year's straw, at its feeding value ; but as that amount always is undefined, a sum per acre should be stated in the lease for wheat and other descriptions of straw, which in fairness ought to be half the marketable value of each. In cases where the entry is in April or March, the mode must be adapted to the end ; but as I am now speaking of what ought to be upon a well-managed estate, I have no hesitation in stating that Michaelmas tenancies are attended with far less inconvenience than those occurring in the spring, reserving however the right of the incoming tenant to enter upon the lands imme- diately after harvest is concluded, upon all such fields coming in regular course for root crops iu the succeeding year. I feel certain that, however perfect such mode may be rendered, it will not meet the views of all farmers ; but I am rather attempting to adjust the discrepancies that already exist than of creating new fallacies, or of carrying out any particular theory. I have omitted to touch upon a subject connected with the landlord's interest materially, viz., the manure arising in the last year of the tenancy. In some cases it belongs to the landlord without compensation ; in others, the labour only upon carting out is allowed the tenant. I must, however, re- commend that the most general practice should be adhered to, of its remaining the property of the tenant, who should not be allowed to remove it, but that it should be taken by valu- ation by the landlord at the expiration of the term, and if oilcake has been expended in the last year, that one-third of the cost should be allowed in addition. I am, however, of opinion that the tenant should have no claim for any manure whatever beyond that left in heaps or applied for the produc- tion of root and other crops of the current year, or that may have been applied to the clover or artificial grasses only once mown ; in that case the amount might be stated at one-third of the original cost. Then comes another important item ap- plicable to all tenancies— the state of repair under which the buildings are left. If the landlord, as at first suggested, takes the repairs entirely upon himself, and charges the tenant with a moiety of the labour only, little need be ofl'ered beyond stating that the tenant is not to be charged with any restora- tion of buildings beyond their immediate requirement exter- nally. Every tenant is entitled to fair use of the premises, the defects by time constituting in law terms " fair wear and tear." He should be bound to keep and maintain the build- ings, gates, and fences in perfect order, but should not be called upon to restore any portion of the external covering, however worn, so long as it excluded the weather from in- juring the internal framework of the buildings ; but if, by the removal or decay of the external covering, the framework had become injured, then he might be called upon to restore it also. It is not, however, to be understood that a tenant would be liable to anything beyond dilapidations, repairs which are frequently confounded with those belonging to the landlord. A portion of weatherboarding upon a building might be so worn as to require restoring for the further preservation of the building ; but if every board was perfect and in its proper place, an outgoing tenant, under the ordinary covenant, would not be called upon to restore it; and so of gates, stiles, fences, &c., all should be perfect, however old and worn they might be. I shall not digress longer upon the subject which may not be considered directly applicable, but inasmuch as every landlord in adjusting the management of hfs estate would have a multifarious description of existing customs to contend with, it therefore is the mode of ad- justment of that system that I am endeavouring to promul- gate. It is the custom upon many estates to encumber the tenants with various payments in kind ; some landlords exact a fat goose at Michaelmas and a fat Turkey at Christmas, to 78 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the great dissatisfaction of the farmer's wife, who would in Dine cases out of ten feel great pleasure in sending them gratuitously, but who measures these exactions at double their value. Other leases call upon the tenant to do a certain amount of team work annually by carting coals, timber, or by supplying straw, &c. ; but all such customs ought to be abolished, and the rents reduced to a money payment. It will prevent much trickery, and place the landlord and tenant in relation to each other upoji better tertus than could be attained by such various descriptions of payments, which frequently tend to very disagreeable results. In one case within my knowledge, the farm work, amounting to several days in the year upon each farm, had not been demanded for several years together ; but upon the decease of the landlord, his son called upon all the tenants, to render the farm work in arrear, either in money or kind, and which, although complied with, produced disagreeable feelings between them at the outset. Another subject I have hitherto not adverted to, and that is as regards the preservation and restrictions upon killing game. This is a point that deserves consideration upon the part of the tenant at the time of entering upon the farm. If the landlord has reserved the exclusive right to the game, the tenant has no right whatever to interfere, but ought iu the first instance to have calculated the disadvantages, and have subtracted them from the rent. It is useless to endeavour to supersede this right ; the depriving the landlord of it would be, in his estima- tion, depriving him of the best portion of his estate. I will, however, suggest that upon ordinary farms the landlord will find it his interest to allow the tenant to participate with him in the game, if not in the sporting ; but if the tenant is de- sirous of participating in both, it is very desirable that con- cession should be granted. Upon estates where game is strictly preserved, the tenants are ever coming into contact with gamekeepers. These persons exercise their " little brief authority" with no ordinary degree of severity, that becomes unendurable. They also have the power of reaching the ear of the landlord, and frequently are not scrupulous in their communications. Wherever this is the case, feelings are en- gendered that are not easily allayed, the quid pro quo system becomes secretly carried out, and the progress of an estate so greatly impeded, that the benefit derived by excluding the tenants entirely is obtained at a greater sacrifice than is gene- rally imagined, I have thus briefly touched upon most of the points that have occurred to me as necessary, touching the relatiobs of landlord and tenant. There will be, as there always has been, a great diversity of opinion upon all these subjects, and without pretending to a clearer view of them than others, I may state that, throughout a long and extensive practice in the management, directly and indirectly, connected with landed property, I have observed the greatest inconvenience arise by reason of no systematic or beneficial plan being adopted in its detail and management. It too frequently happens that the persons having the management of estates know nothing whatever practically of what is requisite to produce full development of what is necessary to their improvement ; encumbered with abstruse leases and obsolete covenants unnecessarily restricting the tenant at every point, it be- comes difficult to establish another order of things. Upon such estates, men of capital and enterprise are de- barred from entering into treaty for them ; no leases may probably have been given, or, if given, may be so full of un- necessary restrictions as to render farming under them a task fraught with difficulty and disadvantage. Small enclosures, thickly studded with timber and fences, and shaded by planta- tions abounding with game, dilapidated and inconvenient farm buildings, and inferior roads, indicate the existence of ignorant aiid needy tenants and half -starved labourers ; and, unfortu- nately, too many of us are enabled to point to such estates in the immediate localities in which we severally reside. But however this may prevail, thanks to the liberality of other landlords, who have become pioneers iu the advance ofar/ricul- ture — not only by their own example, but by the advantages they have offered to intelligent agriculturists — a revolution has been effected iu a very short space of time upon their estates. We trust that such management is becoming the rule rather than the exception ; and we also feel that it is so. I^et us for one moment turn our attention to the estate of the late Mr. Coke, of Holkham, and trace the improvement that converted a barren rabbit-warren into a highly cultivated district, having farmers whose yearly returns exceeded those of the petty princes of central Europe, or the rent-rolls of the landowners of important France. Before I conclude this ad- dress, I beg to offer a few remarks upon the state and condi- tion of labourers in connection with an estate ; and when it is considered that this humble but useful class is second to neither landlord nor tenant when estimated upon its imme- diate utility, I shall enter upon this portion of my task with infinite pleasure. I have long been an observer of their habits, and, as a humble labourer iu the vineyard, have endeavoured to advance and ameliorate their condition ; as I had seen and felt that, under the old poor-law, their independence had been compromised, and their position reduced to almost a state of serfdom. A labourer having the subsistence of his family entirely dependent upon the produce of his own labour, at no time more than barely sufficient for his support, would, of necessity, be compelled to seek assistance from the parish funds during sickness or absence of employment ; and conse- quently, being compelled to reside within the parish or vicinity of his place of legal settlement, would have little chance of obtaining employment in a district remotely distant, or of procuring it at all, except during periods of extraordinary demand for labour ; and therefore, from necessity, he becomes identified with the estate upon which circumstances have com- bined to place him. But at the same time, it must be borne in mind, that just iu proportion as he might find a generous and intelligent landlord at the head of an estate, with enter- prising and liberal tenants in its management, so proportion- ately would be the chance of his position becoming improved, and thence, indirectly, would the improvement of the estate become advanced. But as this advantage would depend greatly upon the landlord himself, I have felt it my duty to advert to it iu a spirit that, I trust, hereafter, may to some extent become beneficial to that numerous and deserving class, to whom much has been imputed of late of tendencies to greater demoralisation than for- merly, and which drunkenness, promoted by the introduction of beer-houses, has, to a great extent, been considered accele- rated. To this I totally demur. I believe that the habits of the labourer, on the other hand, have become greatly improved. He has been better instructed, and consequently has become better informed ; and although there are, as there always have been and will be, individual exceptions, there is less drunkenness exhibited, and a higher moral tone pervading his whole class, than has prevailed at any former period during the past fifty years. This I assert from my own experience and observation, and I believe I shall be borne out in my remarks by most of the members of this club. One fault he has in common, and which, allow me by way of digression to state, also applies more or less to all classes of Englishmen, who upon occasions of feasting or merry-making think that they do not end satis- factorily unless potations of drink are swallowed in excess, and if not exactly concluded by drunkenness, attem'ed by ex- citement and rioting. But let it be recollected that this is a national failing, and I may add a national calamity, which it will take another century probably to eradicate. But it must be recollected that it does not occur with the majority of our labourers more than twice, or, at utmost, thrice iu a year — unless with those who nightly frequent the beer-shop or ale- house, and who, as I before stated, constitute an excep- tion. I may now be allowed to offer a few remarks upon this important subject, and by pointing out how it has been pro- moted and encouraged, shewn by introducing an opposite system, how to a great extent it may be mitigated. One of the main causes is the building of cottages by villages, with but limited accommodation in each for a family, and also with- out the necessary adjuncts of an oven, wholesome water, and garden-ground sufficient to engross the attention of the labourer during his leisure hours, or of becoming as it were a savings'-bank for the small deposits of labour that his family from day to day might be able to bestow. Besides, from the situations of such dwellings being congregated together, he may become necessitated t ) walk from two to three miles morning and evening from the place of residence to the place of employment. The remedy is obvious, and the advantage to be derived great. In proportion to the extent of the estate, let a certain number of cottages be erected upon the waste-corners of fields iu the vicinity where water can be ob- tained, and, if possible, they should be easy of access from a hard road. Let every cottage contain two tenements, and each tenement four rooms, with uot less than twenty square perches THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE 79 of gatdeu- ground to each, aud, iii coDJunctiou with a moderate rent, the comfort to be derived by the labourer will be greater than could be obtained by his occupying any of the paltry description of dwellings found to prevail in large villages ; and thus a foundation would be laid for a good labourer, and which can only be fully accomplished by rendering his position better than he could make it elsewhere, should lie remove. Good cottages may be built ia pairs at a coat of from £40 to £50 each ; and by the erection of two of such tenements yearly, all that might be required would be progressively ob- tained, especially if assisted by a parochial distribution of rewards to the meritorious resident labourers of the district. Two especial seasons of jollity among them generally occur in each year— the harvest-home, obtained gratuitously at the master's table; and the largess feast, procured by the contributions of the tradesmen aud farmers of the dis- trict. Over the former the farmer has the entire control; let him enter as he ought to do into the feelings of his labourers, preside at his own feast, and call upon them all to appear in tbeir best attire ; and having partaken of it, let him at a suit- able hour close the proceedings. And as regards the largess feast, let him endeavour to impress upon them the importance of carrying it out in a rational manner, by briuging their wives aud families to partake; aud with a little such advice, aud a little pecuniary assistance, I venture to say ail would be easily accomplished. Another point on the part of the tenant requires consideration, and that is, on no account make the weekly payment on the Saturday evening. With the money in hand, and Sunday before them, the labourers are induced to assemble together at the alehouse, and expend their earnings ; whereas, if paid on any other day of the week, such would frequently not be the case, cs they could not afford to sit up late at night drinking and carousing, with the knowledge that their services would be required on the farm upon the follow- ing morning— and which, from being paid on Saturday evening, they have full opportunity of carrying into effect. I have thus far endeavoured to point out the necessity for a good understanding existing between landlord, tenant, and labourer. Without it, covenants and restrictions will be nugatory. An enterprising and intelligent tenant can be trusted to any ex- tent ; but a niggardly manager, with stinted means and lack of intelligence, would, it' possible, be better got rid of by a direct sacrifice in money payment. In the present day the letting aud hiring farms must be treated aud carried out as any other commercial transaction. The large amount of capital necessary to render thera productive demands to be secured to the tenant, and the necessity of the case must be met by such adaptation of means as will secure the end, and become conducive to a beneficial result : this can only be accomplished by sufficient capital becoming embarked, directed iu the outlay by adequate skill, for ensuring such an object. If a landlord should be desirous of bringing his estate to perfection, he is certain to succeed best by allowing his tenants their fair share of the proceeds, and not to restrict them unnecessarily in their ma- nagement by useless and obsolete covenants. These are made only to bind the selfish or to restrain the ignorant from injur- ing the estate confided to his management. It is folly to sup- pose that a tenant can be taught how to cultivate in a proper manner by such restrictions as regulate rotation and manage- ment. If a conviction has arisen that he really is not compe- tent, it will very soon become apparent by the result ; and, as before intimated, his place had better be filled as soon as pos- sible by one capable of bringiug out the capabilities of the land. I beg of you to recollect that I am endeavouring to show how an estate can be improved aud brought into a high state of perfection. I am not treating the subject with any other view, and I feel there may be many that will consider my observations too severe, and perhaps uncalled for. I am aware that upon those extensive demesnes of our noble pro- prietors of many thousands of acres each, a kindly feeling has been carried out to the resident tenants and their successors for centuries ; but at the same time that I admire the motive I deprecate the end, if it leads to no improvement of their estates, and more especially if it becomes the means cf their depreciation. The interest of the commonwealth I hold to be paramount to every other consideration, nor can a landlord justify himself to his fellow-citizens if he neglects his duty, and suffers his estates to fall into dilapidation and impoverish- ment. This can only be prevented by bringing talent to bear upon every department. We all feel, because we all know. that an army may be sacrificed by the incompetence of its commanders. So, whatever may be the attempts towards the improvement of an estate, they must be carried out by persona competent to give and to take directions. Upon many of our largest and most important estates the management and direction are frequently confided to some college or professional friend, who may have more time than money at command, and that alone his ouly qualification ; in other cases, to professional agents, who know nothing whatever of the estate which they undertake to manage, and, probably, may have never seen, or, if seen, only by that cursory inspection that is sometimes obtained by a road survey, made on horseback, on a summer's day, at the edge of harvest, when improvements appeared to the casual observer to have been carried out to perfection, and which, from being extolled or applauded over the afternoon bottle, has led the owner to imbibe an idea that he had not only got a first-rate tenantry, but a first-rate agent to manage them. Depend upon it, nothing effectual will ever be obtained by such means. The rent-roll, it is very true, may be in- creased ; but unless a corresponding return can, at the same time, be obtained from the soil, it will in the end be as a shadow that eludes the grasp of those who may have followed it as a substance. I know the prejudices that must be over- come before this desideratum can be obtained. Landlords, unfortunately, place little dependence upon their tenants, and are disposed to turn a deaf ear to their complaints. Tenants, on the other hand, are frequently found to impose upon their landlords, and at times to prefer unfounded complaints, and especially if they feel convinced that he has not sufficient ex- perience or sagacity to detect them. This, so far, is natural ; but it may be met by interposing agents of intelligence and practical knowledge, who are not ouly able to regulate and adjust the various business matters that come before them in a proper manner, but whose knowledge will be a guarantee against fiaud and imposition. The agriculture of this country may well be said to be the boast of the nation aud the ad- miration of the world. " We may," said an tloquett foreigner, " rival you in arms, in sciences, in arts and manu- factures ; but your agriculture is unrivalled, and with a people so enlightened and free, must remain so until the end of time." Complimentary as such language may be considered, it must to a certain extent be accepted as true. Euglacd is, however, but a large garden ; the various farms are but di- visions and borders, under various systems of management ; her population large and increasing, and which happily esti- mates the value of good wheateu bread, and an abundance of it ; the demand for meat by the middle and upper classes has rendered its production enormous ; the improved system of management, by the introduction of root crops, has rendered arable land equal to grass land in its production of animal food, over and above an increased production of grain by the ordinary modes of cultivation ; the production of one descrip- tiou of food has become subservient to the other ; vegetables are converted into meat, to be again returned to the land by their proper application in the shape of manure ; this in its turn reproduces grain in abundance, the straw of which is also rendered equivalent to the hay, for the uses of cattle and sheep. Production and reproduction thus follow each other in rapid succession, until the face of the country becomes trans- formed from barren and ill- cultivated farms, to rich waving fields of grain, and superlative roots and grasses : boundless flocks of sheep moulded in nature's best form, and herds of cattle of superlative excellence, become spread over the entire face of the country. " And who are the authors of all this plenty ?" the inquirer seeks to learn. " The mind that directs, and the hands that execute," is the reply. And shall that mind be "cribbed and cabined aud confined ?"and shall thosehands not partake of the benefits they have produced? maybe reasonably inquired ; and if the barriers that have existed from the days of yore to the present time be but removed, the vigorous efforts that have already effected so much will in a few years turn that which is even now a garden into a terrestrial paradise. Mr. B. Webster (of Weston-super-Mare) said he could corroborate every word Mr. Baker had said with regard to the Keythrorpe drainage. At agricultural meet- ings it had been customary for landlords to give advice to tenants; but he thought the time had now come for tenants to give advice to landlords. To sum up the points on which advice was required, he would say that tenants should recommend landlords first to make good roads on their 80 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. estates, as time and circumstauces would permit ; secondly, to set all stagnant water in motion, whether by opening main outlets cr by uuder- draining all land that required it; thirdly, to erect the necessary farm-buildings for their tenants, pulling down or repairing old ones, and especially keeping in view the manufacture of manure ; fourthly, to grub up all useless feucts, and cut down all superfluous timber ; fifthly, to plant for shelter — a most important point, and one much neglected in the colder districts of England ; sixthly, to provide for a due supply of water on all feeding lands, and for irrigation V here requisite and practicable; seventhly, to take care that tenants had an interest in keeping the land in good condition, and the buildings in repair ; eiglithly, to introduce good stock on their estates ; ninthly, to interest themselves in the educa- tion of their tenants' sons ; tenthly, to endeavour to improve the condition of the labourer and his habitation ; eleventhly, to put a fair rent on the land, to take care that it was paid to the day, and not always to accept the tenant who promised to pay the most rent (Hear, hear) ; and lastly, if they preserved game, not to expect the tenant to keep it for nothing (Laughter.) Mr. B. Denton (of Stevenage) dissented from the opinion of Mr. Baker, that in the carrying out of improvements the landlord should find materials, and the tenant labour. And he put it to those present whether, as tenant farmers, they would not in all cases prefer that the landlord should make the requi- site permanent improvements, charging them interest for the money expended? Situated as they were, it was impossible for tenants to find capital to execute permanent works. Leases, though very beneficial iu proper hands, might be abused. He would not then make any remarks ou the Keythorpe system of drainage, but would content himself with saying that he took exception to all that had been said by Mr. Baker with regard to it. Mr. AcroN (of the Temple) agreed with Mr. Baker as to written contracts, legal security, with conditions, restric- tions, and covenants, being essential to the proper manage- ment of land and its further development ; but he was rather surprised Mr. Baker did not allude to the great changes which had taken place in what is termed agricultural law within the last few years, so essential to contracts, whether by lease or the now more fashionable mode in high farming coun- ties— tenant-right agreement. Mr. Baker made very slight allusion to tenant right generally ; and as its correct defini- tion, especially as it in great measure emanated from this club, was not giveu, perhaps it would be as well to state what it is. There is a custom in almost every county in England for works of common husbandry, which, in the absence of any agreement, the tenant is allowed to fall back upon ; and from this circumstance, and in order to increase produce and sup- port a new era of agricultural improvement, a modern tenant- right or claim has arisen, as iu Lincolnshire and some few other counties, giving the out-going tenant a compensation for unexhausted improvements over and above those of common husbandry which he had before enjoyed, and of which he had not time of beneficially enjojing, considering the outlay of capital, skill, and labour employed in carrying out these extra improvements. Everything, then, depends upon stipulation, by either landlord or tenant, on entering a farm ; and if public legislation has failed, owing to its creating a fixity of tenure, why not try private arrangements? althoagh much good has been effected by the Landlord and Tenant Act, the 14th and 15th Vic, and other acts of inclosure and exchange, the en- franchisement of copyholds and the better management of church property, and of diflerent other acts for the purpose of drainage. Improvements could never become general without some sort of security, so as to develope the capabilities of land, and so as to allow the tenant more liberal covenants ; thus a tenant will be able to employ more labourers, and a better understanding will exist between landlord aud tenant than at present, and the tenant will be able to do more for the labourer, and by increasing produce give a benefit to the community at large. Mr. Mi;ciii (of 'Hptree) said there was one very singular omission iu Mr. Baker's excellent paper : he did not hear the word "steam" in connection with the iinprovemcut of estates. If there were one improvement which more than any other was gradually and daily forcing itself on the atten- tion of the agricultural public, it was the introduction of steam. A question had arisen with regard to the comparative advantages of fixed engines aud moveable ones ; and he be- lieved that those who had moveable engines had come to the conclusion that, except on very large and scattered farms, fixed engines were preferable. Having had a fixed one himself for ten years, he would observe that such an eagine should not be kept merely for the purpose of thrashing corn, but should be applied to the grinding not only of their own corn, but of corn for tbe miller when he w^anted wind or water — to the cutting of chaff, the crushing of oilcake, and the economising, as far as possible, of horse-labour. The use of steam was a matter of the greatest importance to agriculturists. If they could suc- ceed iu making one acre produce as much as two had done pre- viously, the result would be a saving of one rent per acre, one rate, one tithe, and so on. He did not think it possible to lay down any fixed rule with regard to the relations of landlord and tenant. They knew very well that the best tenantry are those who could command landlords (laughter). In his own county there were persons who, being known as agricultural improvers, were sought for by landlords, and could command almost their own terms (Hear, hear). Mr. Walton (of Godsfield, Hants) said Mr. Baker, in his able discourse, had turned north and east, but had never come south and south-west, where he would have found cultivation in a very bad state, the couch being in many cases up to the knees, the principal cause of this being, in his opinion, want of security. Mr. Baker had laid it down that landlords should do such and such things. He (Mr. Walton) thought all that should be expected of them was that they should give comfortable dwellings, according to the size of the farm, and good sheds for the management of stock and the making of manure, leaving the tenant to pay rent for the naked land. There ought to be no restrictions as to what was grown ou the land (laughter). Very lately Lord Stanley remarked that English farmers already produced sufficient food for a popu- lation of twenty millions, and that, with the aid of science, they could produce enough for sixty millions. He appeared to forget that increased production could not be obtained without increased capital : science alone would never secure it. It rested with the political and gamepre3er\'ing landlords to determine whether the people of England should be fed out of the produce of their own soil, or out of that of foreign lands. Mr. Trethewy (of Silsoe, Beds) said, though he agreed with Mr. Bakerthat there was yet great room for development, he thought they might congratulate themselves on the fact that during the last ten or fifteen years there had been greater im- provement iu agriculture than in almost any other occupation (Hear, hear). One very important feature of that improve- ment was that mentioned by Mr. Mechi — namely, the use of steam. He thought all landowners and all land-agents who turned their attention to the erection of farm buildings would do well to give that subject careful consideration. More economy, he believed, would be found to result from steam than from almost any other system of management that could be pursued. The first step, Mr. Baker told them, iu the improvement of estates, was the selection of a good tenantry. No doubt that view was correct; but it should be recollected that there were great difficulties in that respect, inasmuch as there was a feeling — aud a very proper one — ou the part of many landlords, that existing tenants, who, with their families, had perhaps occupied the land for generations, should not be lightly disturbed (Hear, hear). This feeling, though good iu itself, was undoubtedly an obstacle to improvement. He thought it unreasonable to call upon tenants to make perma- nent improvements : they should, in his opinion, be made by the landlord. As to the landlord's finding material, and (he tenant labour, it might sound very well iu theory ; but iu practice he had always found it very inconvenient (Hear, hear). If improvements were made by the tenant, there should be a proper understanding before the work com- menced. Everything should be done on a certain scale of charges, and not left for subsequent valuation. As regarded drainage, the system laid down by act of Parliament appeared to him a very good one, aud he thought agriculturists gene- rally would do well to accept the protfered boon (Hear, hear). Mr. ( i 1 KDWOOD (of Pall Mall) could not agree with Mr. Baker, that farms ought never to be laid out for less than 200 acres of arable land. In practice there would be great difficulty in acting ou such a rule ; they all knew that for one tenant who occupied 400 acres of land, teu would be found occupying only 1300. Up to a late period, the most highly-cultivated THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 81 farms ia the Lothians of Scotland did not exceed the latter amount. He thought the best rule to lay down was that of trying to accommodate the size of farms to the means of those who had to cultivate them. After suitable tenants had been found, the next requisite was that the landlord should erect suitable buildings at his own expense, abundant means being available for that purpose, through the medium of parliamentary enactments. As regarded farm buildings, he must say that farmers could not have a proper respect for themselves while they lived in such buildings as were to be found in Gloucester- shire, Wiltshire, Somersetshire, and Hampsliire ; and he re- peated that proper buildings ought, in his opinion, to be provided by the landlord. He next came to drainage. Having inspected for the Government, he would assert that Mr. Baker was totally wrong in supposing that the only kind of drainage sanctioned under the parliamentary system was drainage four feet deep and thirty feet apart. It had never been the practice to apply such a rule to all kinds of land. Mr. Baker intimated that he had not intended to apply what he said on the subject solely to the parliamentary system. Mr. GiRDWOOD said such certainly appeared to be the case, and knowing it to be an error, he had wished to correct it. He had him«elf sanctioned and passed drainage under 4 feet deep, where it was absolutely necessary that it should be less. He had passed drainage 5; 7, 8, 9, and 10 feet deep ; and he had passed drainage 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, and 60 yards apart. At Mr. Wilmot's, at Congleton, the drainage was 60 yards apart and 10 feet deep, and it was paid for with public money. The pipes used were glazed pipes of 6, 9, and 12 inches diameter. He thought the landlord should do all the draining, and the tenant merely pay interest for the outlay. As to giving tenants tiles, and leaving them to do the work, it was all nonsense. Four years ago, he saw tenants on the Duke of Cleveland's estate, in Shropshire, ploughing up tiles which had been buried by their predecessors (laughter). Mr. SiDNEY(ofPeckham) thought that in most of the conclu- sions of Mr. Baker they must all concur ; what he found fault with was, that they were not addressed to an assembly of land- lords as well as an assembly of tenants (Hear, hear). What was the origin of all the farming improvements of this country ? What was the reason that they were in this respect superior to continental nations ? It was to be sought in the conduct of improving landlords. The first great landlord who devoted his attention to the improvement of agriculture was Francis Duke of Bedford ; who was followed by Mr. Coke, of Norfolk, and by Lord Yarborough. The estates which belonged to them were, he believed, on the whole, better cultivated than any others ; and there was, on the whole, a better class of tenants there than almost anywhere else. And what else did they find there ? Why, security of tenure. Where- everthey found an enlightened landlord and security of tenure, they would find also good cultivation. He had ascertained from two tenant-farmers— one on the Holkham estate, the other on the Bedford estate — that without a penny being laid out ou buildings, draining, or permanent improvements of any kind, they had £10 per acre invested in their farms. The average amount of capital invested in the farms of this country was, he believed, little more than £3 per acre ("Oh, oh!"). At all events, it must be admitted that the tenants of this country generally had not sufficient capital for the purposes of cultivation ; and if their money were diverted to permanent improvements, the farm must to that extent be robbed. Mr. Jackson (of Cheshire) said, that county, which was for a long time considered backward in cultivation, had recently taken a leaf out of the book of the Central Farmers' Club. Discussions had taken place in the town-hall of Chester on the subject of the relations of landlord and tenant ; and a committee had been formed, consisting of landlords, laud- agents, and tenants ; and tbe result had been very greatly to widen the liberties and improve the position of the tenant, quite compatibly with the seeuiity and interest of the landlord (Hear, hear). If any one wished to see the discussions, he could obtain a report of them from the office of the Chester Coiirant. As regarded leases, where there was a mutual de- sire for them on the part of landlord and tenant, they might of course be granted ; but it should be borne in mind, that while leases had in some iustauces done immense good, they were open to objections on both sides, and that a system which suited one part of the country was not adapted to another. He should be glad to see the example of Chester generally imitated ; there, there had not been the slightest difficulty in getting landlords and tenants to meet together in perfect amity, and arrange terms mutually advantageous. Mr. Bone (Chairman of the Avon and Stour Vale Club) said, as so much had been said against the cultivation in the south of England, he felt bound to observe that in the county of Dorset more artificial manure had been used per acre than in almost any other couuty in England. It appeared to be the prevalent impression of the meeting that the chief requisite for the development of estates was the securing a good tenantry; and further, that a good tenantry could not be obtained without adequate security for the invest- ment of capital. How was security to be got ? As a tenant- farmer, he had no hesitation in saying that the establishment of a tenant-right, founded on legal enactments, was now out of the question : there was no use in discussing the matter. But there was another sort of tenant-right which might be secured — he meant one to be set up between landlords and tenants themselves. If a tenant wanted to take a farm, and the landlord was indisposed to grant a lease, why should there not be, iustead of a lease, a bona fide agreement on a definite basis ? He admitted, however, that the best security for the tenant, and the best guarantee for improvement, would be a lease ; and the term should, in his opinion, not be less than 21 years. (Hear, hear.) Mr. Baker, in reply, said with regard to the parliamentary system, his remarks, as commented on by Mr. Girdwood, had not been intended to state that the drainage under that system was all of the same width and depth ; what he meant chiefly to convey was, that no drainage of less than four feet in depth was allowed. Mr. Girdwood said he had previously stated that drainage had been done at three feet in depth. Mr. Baker said he had certainly thought the lowest depth was four feet. He could mention an instance in which the parliamentary system had entirely failed. The rents had been raised 93. an acre, and the tenants were leaving. In fact, the money had been expended with great disadvantage to the pro- prietor of the estate and his successor. He had seen a large amount of drainage executed at the cheap rate which he had stated that evening. For 40s. an acre laud had been eSectually drained for 15 or 16 years, and the process was repeated two or three times for the same amount that was expended on one pipe draining. He was not speaking of an isolated case, but of hundreds of thousands of acres. Mr. Smith of Deanston having doubted what he said on the subject, he invited him to visit the district ; he did so, and afterwards said, that as far as he could judge, tbe land was permanently and effectually drained. He (Mr. Baker) maintained that there was no such thing as a permanent drain. As regarded the size of farms, Mr. Girdwood remarked that they were obliged to take tenants as they found them. That he admitted; but still he main- tained that the farm which could be cultivated to the greatest advantage was one of 200 acres and upwards, it being im- possible to employ an adequate force of men, horses, and ma- chinery on one of smaller extent. The case of very small farms was peculiar. The man who farmed only 100 acres must go aud work in the field himself, with the assistance of a la- bourer and a pair of horses. Such a man lived, not by his management but by his industry, and was therefore compelled to farm on different principles from those which regulated the conduct of larger f aimers; and his observations led him to the conclusion that men of that class were fast wearing out. (Hear, hear.) On the motion of Mr. Bakek, seconded by Mr. Russell (of Chepstow), the following resolution was passed unani- mously : — " That the improvement of estates can only be successfully attained by the co-operation of landlord and tenant, the in- terests of both being secured by a written contract well con- sidered and defined, aud by having both landlord's aud tenant's interest at the termination of the lease fairly secured." On the motion of Mr. Walton, seconded by Mr. Pain (of Beds), thanks were voted to Mr. Baker for the able manner in which he had opened the discussion. Thanks having been also accorded to the Chairman, oa the proposal of Mr. Gray (of Courteen), seconded by Mr. Mechi, for his conduct in presiding, the meeting broke up. 82 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE ANNUAL DINNER. On Thursclay evening the Annual Club Dinner took place at Radley's Hotel, Bridge-street, Blackfriars, under the presi- dency of Mr. P. B.Siearer.the Chairman of theClub for the past year. About seveuty g:entleme(i sat down, and amoug them were Lord Berners, Mr. R. Baker, Mr. Ramsay, Mr.Trethewy, Mr. R. Smith, Mr. J. Hudson (of Castleacre), Mr. Thomas, Mr. O. Wallis, Mr. B. Webster, Mr. Skelton, Mr. C. Johnson, Mr. Mechi, Mr. Tuxford, Mr. Jonas Webb, Mr. Williams, Mr. Gird- wood, Mr. J. C. Nesbit, Mons. Robion de la Tr6honaai8, &c. After the usual loyal and patriotic toasts. The Chairman proposed " Success to the Central Farmers' Club of England." It was not necessary, he said, for him to assert the success of that Club ; for it could hardly do other- wise than succeed. As surely as agriculture itself made pro- gress, so surely must the Central Farmers' Club extend its usefulness, and enlarge the circle of its benefits (Hear, hear). As there were some members present who did not attend the annual general meeting held that day, and as there were many persons belonging to different parts of the country whom they might hope soon to enrol as members of the Club, he would read two or three extracts from the report which had just been presented by the committee : — " The Committee can report with more than usual satisfac- tion on their experience of the past year. The call they made on their brother-members at the last general meeting has been ably answered. Since then seventy-six new members coming from all parts of the kingdom have been proposed and elected. This is the largest accession of strength the club has ever re- ceived in any one year, and its effects are proportionately en- couraging for the future prospects of the society. There are already twenty-seven new members proposed for the ensuing year. * * * The Committee can accordingly leave the balance sheet of the year, as passed by the auditors, to the ex- amination of the members, feeling that it never showed the club to be in a better position than it is at present. As the means at their disposal increase, it will of course be the en- deavour of the committee to add to the inducements for others of their friends to join ; and they are glad to say they have still further proof of the good policy of publishing the reports of the discussion meetings. It is at the same time satisfactory to know that the subjects selected during the past season have been both appropriately timed, and well treated." Such, then, was the present position of the Club, as described by those who were entrusted with its management. But it was not to the position of the Club itself alone that they must look — they must consider the benefit wliich it was instrumental iu extending to agriculture generally throughout the kingdom (Hear). Hehimselfbelieved— and he thought it was the opinion of most of those who had read their reports— that the Central Farmers' Club had assumed that year, and was likely to main- tain a very superior position to that which it previously held (Hear, hear). He thought it would now really become what it ought to be— the great centre of communication for all other clubs (cheers). For that Club to pretend for one moment that it excelled other clubs as regarded science aud eloquence, wo\ild be absurd ; they had only to read the reports of other clubs to learn that the extension of knowledge was quite as great in them as in this Central Club. Without, however, a central point it would be impossible to direct the machinery of enlightenment iu the manner iu which it ought to be guided. (Hear, hear.) Hence he entertained very sanguine hopes with regard to the future career of that institution. There was every reason to believe that within a very few years at all events, perhaps within a year or two, the Central Farmers' Club would stand at the very highest point which such an institution could attain, and confer the most extensive benefits upon that great and important interest with which it was so closely connected. He would not take up any more of their time, but, coupling the toast with the name of the gentleman who last year read the admirable paper on the necessity of having a central farmer's club, he would at once propose " The Central Farmers' Club, and Mr. Ramsay." (Cheers.) The toast having been duly responded to by the company, Mr. Ramsay rose to reply. He said it was highly gratify- ing to him, as it must have been to any man similarly honoured, who wished well to the interests of the Club, to have been so prominently noticed on that occasion. When, on the occasion referred to by the Chairman, he used his humble efforts t prove the advantages which must arise from the existence of such a club as that, he little thought that within so short a period the club would assume its present position — the posi- tion of having recently enrolled no less than 76 new members, and of anticipating the accession of 27 more. (Cheers.) This showed that it had risen of late in the estimation of the agri- cultural body, and that its usefulness was becoming generally appreciated. (Hear, hear.) Whatever advantages the club might have conferred on agriculture before, there could be no doubt that those who had joined it within the last year, and those who contemplated entering its ranks, looked forward to its still greater advancement in usefulness ; and probably they sought to become members with the idea that by adding strength in intellect and strength in money, they would aid the club in its efforts at improvement, (Hear, hear.) He could not believe for a moment that this feel- ing on the part of the agricultural body would undergo any abatement ; on the contrary, he thought it must continue to be developed, aud, remembering of whom the agricultural body was composed — that it embraced farmers, landlords, and members of Parliament — he could not but re- gard the support and prosperity of a club like that as absolutely certain. He claimed no merit for himself as the author of the paper referred to by the Chairman ; but he believed that, with proper efforts on the part of its members, that club might be brought to the highest perfection, and placed at the head of all such institutions. This club had necessarily a wider field of operations than any other ; and the more other clubs advanced, the more would this advance, ind it would be regarded as the parent of all the rest. He w is extremely gratified that the committee had adopted the practice of publishing the reports (Hear, hear). He never could imagine why this was not done earlier ; but, instead of looking back to the mistakes of the past, they must consider what could be done in future, sustained and impelled by the conviction that the subsistence of the people depended iu a great degree upon their efforts (Hear, hear). As regarded the demand for their produce, and the question of high prices or low prices, he need scarcely remark that, when there was a good demand for agricultural produce, the producer must be proportionately in a comfortable position (laughter). They had seen adverse times, and perhaps such times might return. Be this, however, as it might, no one could doubt that tne interests of the people of this country required that agricul- turists should exert themselves. For a long period they had not produced sufficient food for the subsistence of the commu- nity J and they must now endeavour, with the aid of science, to increase the amount of production. The production of the food of the country was a great object ; and it was a delight- ful pursuit, when attended with the hope of reasonable prices (laughter). In connexion with that subject, he was gra- tified to find Lord Berners, and other influential men in both Houses of Parliament recognizing the necessity atid value of statistics. It was their fault if they did not follow the example which was thus set (Hear, hear). Notwithstanding the great strides already made in agricul- tural knowledge, there was a great deal yet to be learnt. This was but the beginning of great events ; and he hoped that, with judicious management, their club would prove the first in the world as an auxiliary in the march of agricultural improve- ment. In conclusion, he thanked them sincerely for the honour they had done him in drinking his health iu connection with the toast of the Central Farmers' Club, and expressed his conviction that it must attain increased prosperity if its affairs continued to be conducted as they had been recently (cheers). Lord Berners said, it was not only as a matter of duty, but as au act peculiarly gratifying to himself personally, that he now asked them to drink to the health of their worthy president Mr. Shearer (loud cheers). That gentleman was one of the oldest of their members ; he had also been most attentive to the interests of the club (Hear), He (Lord Berners) derived additional pleasure, therefore, from that circumstance, in having the toast entrusted to him. He felt highly gratified at the re- port which his hon. friend had read to them with regard to the financial and general prosperity of the club, and he fervently joined in the aspiration of Mr. Ramsay, that it would become one of the most influential clubs in the country (cheers). Mr. Ramsay had made some allusion to agricultural statistics. His (Lord Berners') opinion respecting that subject was well known, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 83 and had been formally placed upon record in another place. All he should say upon this occasion, therefore, was, that if in any way it was in his power to contribute to the welfare of the farmers of Great Britain, they might at all times command his services, whether as a member of the House of Lords, or in his capacity as a country gentleman (cheers). In addressing them on a similar occasion last year, he ventured to make a few observations upon the method at present adopted of taking the corn averages. The question, it was true, was not of so much importance now as formerly ; but it was one which affected their interests to a certain degree, and it was impossible to say of what importance it might become hereafter. As an occupier of land, he could take upon himself to assert that the manner in which the averages were taken was extremely defec- tive and imperfect. They were well aware that the tithe com- mutation was regulated by the averages, and those who, like himself, thought that the fair and honest system, as between landlord and tenant, was a corn rent, felt that it operated most unfairly. He would give them au instance. Only a fortnight ago he sent his bailiff to sell his corn at Leicester market ; but upon his return he stated that he could not sell it unless he " made up the weight." Now, in the month of July last, he (Lord Berners) had upon his strong land in Leicestershire as fine a crop of wheat as any man could wish to see ; but the storms came and knocked it down, and instead of getting sis or seven quarters from the acre, the" quantity as well as quality was very deficient. What happened ? Why, that when the bailiff took the corn to market no buyer would purchase unless the weight was made up to 18 stone the sack. His wheat last year certainly had weighed 18 stone the sack ; but this year he had to send no less than three extra sacks to make up the weight upon 36 sacks ; and he complained of this system, that it led to.fraud and produced erroneous impressions (Hear, hear). His was not a singular case of the sort ; for the like cases were common in all directions, and in every part of the kingdom ; and he thought it behoved the farmers of England and this club in particular to consider whether a legislative enactment should not be passed, to compel all parties to sell by one uni- form scale of weight and measure (Hear, hear). The toast was drunk with loud and proloaged cheers. The Chairman said, it was impossible for him adequately to express his gratitude not only for the kind manner in which the toast had been proposed and received, but for the uniform kindness which he had met with in the discharge of his duties as Chairman of the club during the past year (cheers). He was surprised when he found himself selected for the office, but to the last hour of his life he should feel that he had been deeply honoured, and had received the greatest kindness at the hands of the members (renewed cheers). Mr. B. Webstek said that all men now agreed in opinion that the agriculture of England had made considerable progress within the last few years ; one of the chief causes of this was, that landed proprietors had wisely devoted their attention to the improvement of their estates, and the neighbourhood around them (Hear, hear). In the next place they found the best practical farmers combining "practice with science," and thinking nothing of expending thousands of pounds sterling in artificial manures and oil cake. He alluded to such men as his friend Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre, who sat near him (Hear, hear). Then there was another class of men who, going from the towns into the country, expended their capital in experi- ments, liberally diffused the benefits of the experiments which succeeded among the agricultural community, and paid for those which failed, without grumbling ; and such was his other friend, Mr. Mechi (Hear, hear, and laughter). But besides these gentlemen they were also much indebted to the three great agricultural societies of the United Kingdom, without whose efforts he did not believe they would have been able to carry on their experiments, and do what they had done. He had great pleasure, therefore, in proposing " Success to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the Highland Society of Scotland, and the Improvement Society of Ireland," and in askmg them to drink "The Health of Mr. Eobert Smith," a member of the council of the first-named body (loud cheers). After a suitable response to the toast, Mr. R. Smith said, if other gentlemen whose names are coupled with toasts felt honoured, he surely ought to feel highly flattered at being called upon on that occasion to repre- sent the three great national societies of the three kingdoms. Allusion had been made to his name more particularly in con. nection with tiie Royal Agricultural Society. It was true he became an early member of that national institution, as he had also been of most local societies in neighbourhoods where he had happened to reside; but he did that only in common with many others, and he had certainly received his reward in being nominated a member of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society. This was an honour which he felt deeply, and he hoped that while he filled that capacity he should endeavour to discharge the duty which he owed to the agricul- tural body. This was an important period in the his- tory of agriculture. Although a young member of that institution, he could recollect a period when the show of the Smithfleld Club was held in a yard in Goswell-street, when it was difficult to assemble half a dozen members of the com- mittee, and when everything connected with agriculture was in a very low state of development. And, looking back to those times, he must say that, much as they had been abused, the farmers of England had been moving with the age (cheers). Who, moreover, ever heard in those days of an Irish Improve- ment Society ? (Hear, hear.) Who ever heard even of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ? From a little gather- ing in Goswell-street, aided by the energies of a few persevering men, sprang the great enterprise in Baker-street. The time at length arrived, too, when the late Lord Spencer proposed the formation for Eigland of a Royal Agricultural Society, similar to the great institution which had done so much for Scotland. The result was, that such a society was formed ; and this event was succeeded by the establishment of the Improvement Society of Ireland. Now these societies, he asserted, each had their merits ; and though many men in that room could speak on those merits with far more ability than he could, no one was more sensible of their importance to agriculture. Ihe Royal Agricultural Society of England had done much for this country. There were, he regretted to say, many who did not hesitate to find fault with and abuse it ; but such persons little knew the difficulties which the council had to contend with, and many who grumbled did not come forward to uphold and support the society in the manner that they ought to do as English farmers. (Hear, hear.) Many persons were gratified at hearing that the society numbered some five or six thousand members. Why, it was a disgrace to Englishmen that its numbers were not ten tiraes as great, (Hear, hear.) They heard complaints that it did not try to make improvements in this direction and iu that, while, perhaps, those who indulged in such complaints did nothing themselves to assist its efforts. He hoped he should be excused for having exhibited a little warmth on the subject; but they might depend upon it that this was an important period in their lives, and that while they looked back with some degree of pleasure and satisfaction to the past, they should look forward with resolution and hope to the future. In common with Mr. Ramsay, he was delighted that there had been an accession of 76 members to the Club within the past year, and that 27 persons were awaiting admission ; and he further hoped the time would soon arrive when, instead of their having to go to others to ask them to join the Club, others would come to them entreating them to enlarge the accommodation of the Club, in order to receive them. In conclusion, he would only say, with regard to the three societies included in the toast, that he hoped those whom he addressed would become members of one or other of them if they were not so already, and would give them their best support. (Cheers). Mr. Mechi said he rose to propose the Central Agricultural Society of a neighbouring country with which our own was now happily in alliance — he meant France (cheers), coupling with the toast the name of a French gentleman who had recently become a member of that club, and who happily united iu himself the three-fold position of a considerable agriculturist in France, a literary man, and a large pur- chaser of cattle in this country for exportation to his own — a man who was useful to the agriculture of England, and especially so to that of his own land. (Cheers). As had been remarked by Lord Berners, it became them on such occasions as that, instead of confining themselves to paying compliments to each other, to express their sentiments to some extent with regard to the position of agriculture. They had just been congratulated on the progress of agriculture now, compared with its position some time back. He, for one,did not think they were going to stop where they were, On the contrary, he 84 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. thought that if auy of them were to come to that table half a century hence, they might find their successors wondering how they could have been such slow coaches (laughter). It was gra- tifying that within the last year an excellent opportunity had been afforded to them of seeing what was going on, on the other side of the water ; and, as one of those who had availed themselves of it, he had great pleasure in acknowledging the urbanity and kindness of their neighbours, and the readiness which they had manifested to impart information (cheers). Next May there was to be an exhibition of live stock in Paris, and he hoped that many English breeders and farmers would attend on the occasion. Gentlemen who were not acquainted with France might require to be informed that the Central Agricultural Society of France in some respects was not like the Royal Agricultural Society of England. The number of its members was very limited ; so limited, indeed, that it was supported principally by the French Government. It comprised among its members many men of great eminence in science ; but he believed it was generally felt by those gentle- men themselves that it, would be much better for the agricul- ture of France if it more resembled the English society, and were supported by the great body of the agriculturists of France (Hear, hear). However, though that was not the case at present, he had no doubt that would be one of the bene- ficial results of increased intercourse with this country. While he (Mr. Mechi) very often severely criticised British agricul- ture, and expressed his conviction that it fell far short of what it ought to be, and what he hoped it soon would be, he must say, founding his remark on the statements of some of the greatest authorities in France, that bad as the agriculture of Englaud was, it was twice as good as that of their neighbours (laughter). In both countries, however, he hoped to witness great improvement. ' The toast having been cordially received, M. RoBiou DE LA Treiionnais, who was received with loud cheers, said he considered it a very high privilege that the duty of responding to this toast should have devolved on him ; but his gratification was somewhat dmiinisbed by the conscious- ness of his want of power to do it with the efficiency which the very flattering manner in which the toast had been proposed, and its own intrinsic value and importance demanded. They had drunk to the prosperity of the Central Agricultural Society of France in connection with his humble name. He must, however, admit that he was not connected with that society ; he could, therefore, only answer in his own capacity as an humble representative of French agriculture rather than for the Central Agricultural Society of France, of which he confessed he knew very little. Unfortunately his country was very differently situated as regarded agriculture from this. In every district of England agricultural societies were established. Here there were central, national, and local societies, and all these were composed of the bones and sinews of the agricul- cultural community (cheers). They were not composed merely of men appointed by the government (Hear, hear) — men who had distinguished themselves by writing deep and profound books, which no practical man could read (Hear, hear, and laughter). It was not of such men that the English agricul- tural societies were composed. No; but of the tillers of the soil, the tenant farmers (loud and protracted cheering). They were also often distinguished by the names of great men — names which every nation had need to be proud of (Hear, hear) — aud these men, though not unfrequeutly elected as their presidents, were, notwithstanding their high social position, the glory of their ancestry, aud the erablazoued distinctions which shone around them, well content and satisfied to take rank as members of those societies with their own tenant far- mers (cheers). Happy was that country which could gather around the convivial board such an assembly as the one he then saw before him, in whose countenances he could perceive blended in happy delineation, the intellect of theory and the solidity of practice (cheers). Happy was that nation which could read in the annals of its agricultural history that noble array of names which commenced with Arthur Young, Bakewell, Collins, Bates, Lord Spencer, and Lord Ducie, aud could point to Buch names iu our own times as the Duke of Richmond, Lord Berners, Jonas Webb, and Mcchi (much cheering). Happy was that country which exhibited the beautiful spec- tacle of all branches of the community, beginning at the first step of the throne, and going through every gradation of the social scale down to the humblest agricultural labourer. uniting their efforts for the attainment of one end ; all vying with one another, exerting their powers, aud having no other rivalry than that of a desire to contribute the most to the cause of progress, in order to reach at last that high pinnacle of perfection to which English agriculture was speeding, and to which the energy of such men and such societies as he had mentioned could alone speed it (cheers). With regard to the union which so happily bound this country to his ow^n — that that alliance would be permanent he felt confident (cheers). True, there might be times when difficulties would arise ; when diplomatists might exchange angry notes, and grave plenipotentiaries advance what they called their " points" (Hear, hear, and laughter) ; but let them depend upon it, that the union and the bond of brotherhood which France and British heroes had signed on the Crimean shore with the point of the bayonet dipped in Russian blood would never be rent asunder (immense cheering). But we must look forward to something else besides the gratification of our patriotism and our patriotic pride. Military glory was, no doubt, well calculated to excite m one's bosom the most exalted feeliugs ol pride; but military glory was no boon to a community. (Hear, hear). And in passing through the streets of this huge me- tropolis how frequently did they perceive the mourning escutcheon affixed to the fronts of aristocratic mansions ! What tale did that tell ? (Hear). Hark to the wail of the widow and the orphan 1 Hark to the gloomy mutterings of hungry people demanding cheap food. Hark to the ominous and portentous associations of the labourers in manufacturing towns connected with strikes. These things told us, as thoughtful men, that military glory was no boon to the com- munity (Hear, hear) ; but let us hope that, united in military glory, and in the power of destruction, the two nations might also be united in the power of production (loud cheers). Let us hope greater fruit from that union, and that the agriculture of France and of Englaud might be so united that one day we should see French agriculture, which they were told was now so inferior to that of England, brought more and more within the vortex of that great and glorious movement which was speeding English agriculture to the highest pinnacle of per- fection, aud the agriculture of both countries in so happy a position that we might contemplate them as leaning arm in arm against one another in the dignified consciousness of a glorious equality (loud and prolonged cheers). The Chairman next proposed " The Smithfield Club." He observed that at this season of the year the show provided by that Club was the great attraction of London, and that the agriculturists of Great Britain generally, and the members of that Club in particular, ought to feel deeply indebted to the managers for the care which they had bestowed on the splendid exhibition of that week. The greatest praise of the Smithfield Club was to be found in the fact that it had so many ^imitators in different parts of the country. He re- gretted that the Birmingham Cattle Show was held in the same week as the metropolitan one ; but, at all events, the midland counties had to thank tha Smithfield Club for ori- ginating the idea of their exhibition ; and he was happy to say that they had in fact acknowledged the great utility of the Smithfield Show, aud their obligations to its promoters. la asking them to c rink " The Smithfield Club," he felt that he should greatly enhance the interest ol the toast, and the cor- diality of its reception, by coupling with it the name of a gentleman whom he had not the least hesitation in calling the first farmer in England — he meant Mr. Hudson, of Castle- acre (cheers). The toast having been drunk, Mr. Hudson said he begged to return thanks for the honour which had been conferred on himself personally, and on the committee of the Smithfield Club, of which he was a member. He was very much gratified that the exertions of the committee had secured the approbation of tlie company assembled ; and considering tlie great numbers who visited the yard, he felt convinced that the Smithfield Club had secured a large share of public interest. A few years ago the cattle exhibited were condemned, on the grouiul that ihey were too fat ; but the supply of food iu this country was not so extravagantly large at present that they ueed be under any apprehension of being called to account for raising as large an amount of meat as they could on the smallest frame. (Hear, hear). Mr. R. Baker proposed "The Local Farmers' Clubs." There was, he said, a gentleman in the Club-room who had THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 85 recently obtained great honour in a neighbouring country, now happily in alliance with our own, he meant Mr. Jonas Webb (cheers). How did that gentleman first appear before the public ? Why, as a member of a local farmers' club (Hear, hear). Beginning thus, he gradually acquired distinction in his own county, and latterly his fame as an Euglish breeder had been diffused over the whole continent of Europe. The local farmers' clubs might be regarded as at once a cause and an effect of the proceedings of the London Farmers' Club ; and the two, acting in unison, have done much towards bring- ing science to bear constantly and generally on the pursuits of agriculture. It was through local clubs that those who desired the general improvement of agriculture must seek to promote that great national object. He would couple with the toast the name of Mr. Lear, of the Arundel Club. The toast having met with a due response, Mr. Lear returned thanks ; and, in doing so, he took oc- casion to express regret that in his own district the local clubs were not now receiving so much support as they did formerly ; adding, that he attributed the falling off to a complaint which he termed " £20 a load" (laughter) ; and that he supposed this evil would be cured by the return of adverse times (Hear, hear). The Chairman then proposed " The health of Lord Ber- ners," remarking that his lordship was one of the original founders of the Club, and that on occasions like that he had almost invariably honoured the members with his company. The toast having met with a very cordial reception, Lord Berneks, in acknowledging the compliment paid him, said he had from his earliest youth taken the deepest interest in agriculture ; and, having been brought up, if he might so express himself, in the school of which Mr. Hudson of Castleacre was a member, he meant the Holkham Sheep- shearing School, he had always endeavoured to carry out the principles which he was there taught, and which he thought ought to guide alike landlord and tenant. If he might allude to a subject which had just been disposed of, the proceedings of the Smithfield Club, he would, as Vice-president of that society, congratulate every member of it on the position which it then held. An attempt had been made in a certain quarter to set one class of agriculturists against another. He was utterly surprised, on his recent arrival in London, to see the Smithfield Club heralded before the world in the manner that it was, in the "leading journal;" he was astonished to find an attempt made there to draw distinction between the interests of the consumer, and those of the breeder and feeder. As a breeder and feeder, he knew perfectly well that the interests in question were identical, as those of landlord, tenant, and labourer were identical ; they must all sink or swim together. He would not enter into an examination of the remarks to wkich he referred ; but he would be sorry if the statement went forth to the smaller tenantry, with anything like the appearance of authority, that the farmers of England did not know how to breed their cattle, and that the Smithfield Club did not know what prizes they ought to offer. They were not to be dictated to by any person, or by any class of persons; they knew, he believed, what was best for the interests of agriculture, and in promoting the interests and prosperity of agriculture, they were promoting the interests and prosperity of this great kingdom (cheers). As their worthy Chairman had alluded to improvements which were being made on his (Lord Berners') estate, he would repeat what he had said formerly, that regretting, as he did, that his house would not accommodate a larger number at once, he should he happy to receive a visit from a party of five, ten, er fifteen members of this club, who might be disposed to examine the improve- ments referred to, in order to satisfy themselves aa to their merits (Hear, hear). Mr. Wilhams gave " The Committee," which was responded to by Mr. Cuthbert Johnson; Mr. Trethewy proposed "The Secretary," answered by Mr. Corbat ; and the Chairman, "The Visitors," with which the company broke up. THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING took place on Thursday, B. P. Shearer, Esq., in the chair. Mr. Corbet, the Secretary, read the following report from the Committee, which was received and adopted : — " The Committee can report with more than usual satisfac- tion on their experience of the past year. The call they made on their brother Members at the last General Meeting has been ably answered. Since then seventy- six new Members, coming from all parts of the kmgdom, have been proposed and elected. This is the largest accession of strength the Club has ever received m any one year, and its effects are propoitiou- ately encouraging for the future prospects of the Society. There are already twenty-seven new Members proposed for the ensuing year. " One of the first and necessarily most important conse- quences of this additional strength is a material improvement in the financial condition of the Club. The Committee can accordingly leave the Balance Sheet of the year, as passed by the Auditors, to the examination of the Members, feeling that it never showed the Club to be in a better position than it is at present. " As the means at their disposal increase, it will of course be the endeavour of the Committee to add to the inducements for others of their friends to join; and they are glad to say they have still further proof of the good policy of publishing the reports of the Discussion Meetings. It is at the same time satisfactory to know that the subjects selected during the past season have been both appropriately timed and well treated. " The Committee can only further report that these Meetings have now a hold on the attention of the country, and that they shall feel obliged by their brother Members responding to the invitation, and increasing the list of subjects from which they have to select. As a Central Club, they would wish to give the claims and rights of agriculture the fullest hearing." A discussion took place on the adoption of the report, when the following motion — proposed by Mr. Trethewy, and seconded by Mr. Bullock Webster — was put and carried: " That the Committee be requested to consider the expediency of obtaining such increased accommodation for the Members of the Club as their numbers and position require." It was then moved by Mr. S. Skelton, seconded by Mr. Carter, and also carried : "That the following Members of the Club, with power to add to their number, be appointed to confer with the Committee on this subject — J. Bailey Denton, E. Purser, G. H. Ramsay, J.Thomas, and J. Wells." The appointment of Mr. Robert Baker as a Trustee of the Club was confirmed. Messrs. J. Bailey Denton, E. Purser, and J. Thomas were re-elected Auditors, and a vote of thanks passed to them for their services. The names of the Committee going out by rotation were read, and the majority re-elected — Messrs. W. Crosskill, L. A. Coussmaker, J. Thomas (of Bletsoe), and J. A. Williams being elected to fill up the vacancies which occurred. It was recommended to the Committee that for the future the discussion in the Smithfield week should be held on the Monday, and the dinner of the Club follow on the Tuesday. The proceedings terminated with a vote of thanks to the Chairman. IMPROVEMENT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEESE. — Considerable interest was excited in Gloucestcj market by the exhibition of " apparatus for cutting, filtering, and pressins the curd, and Jot more readily and effectually separating the whey from the curd." The apparatus, which promises to be exceedingly useful in the manufacture of cheese, is the invention of Mr. Keevil, of Stroud Farm, Lacock, near Chippenham, Wilts. By the process hitherto observed, after the milk has stood to curd for one hour it is broken up with the " stirring stick," which generally badly bruises the curd, and separates much fat or whey cream from it — a source of complaint among the cheesefactors, and a continual and serious loss to the farmers. By the use of this apparatus these evils are entirely avoided ; the curd with very trifling labour is cut sufficiently small, by means of a set of knives, which pass gently through the curd and cut it so cleanly that no whey, cream, or fat is separated from it. The cutting of the curd is thus effected with very little labour, no waste, and in such a simple manner that the most inexperienced dairy- maid can readily perform the operation. The labour and waste attendant upon the existing process of separating the whey from the curd, after the latter has been broken up, are also ob- viated in this apparatus by the use of a self-acting filter and tap, through which the whey is drawn off, H 86 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE, CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. January is often the most stormy month of winter, with lasting frosts and heavy snows, though fresh weather not unfrequently happens. Stubble grounds are to be ploughed and subsoiled for green crop fallows, and leys for Lent crops. All vi'ater furrows and cuts must be opened, to allow the free discharge of water. In favourable v/eather pull and store turnips for a supply during storms ; thatch the heaps lightly with straw, or lay the turnips under cover, not exceeding four feet in height. Collect manures of all kinds about the farm -yard. In frosty weather deliver grain carry fuel, and do other necessary carting. Carry out dung from the yards to the fallow-fields ; lay the heap in a con- venient corner, and make it square, sloping at the ends that the carts may pass over it. Spread thinly and mix evenly the rough and finer materials, and the dung of the different animals, to have the heap of equal quality 5 when finished, dress the heap neatly and lay soil on the edges. Clean water-courses and scour ditches, and carry the materials to a heap for lime compost. Prepare artificial manures for top-dressings. Cat hedges, underwood, and copses. Sow common and spring vvheats on lands cleared of turnips, and on fallows where stopped in autumn. Cut drains in fresh weather to half the depth, the other half to be taken out when filled, A yard in depth will allow IS inches of broken stones, and IS inches of earth over them. Tiles are better, vv-ith a covering of stones or gravel. Float water- meadows, and lay dry occasionally. During this month live stock of all kinds will require the most earnest and constant attention of the farmer, and that attention must be his own. Milch cows must have cleanliness and comfort, regular feeding with steamed chaff, dry hay, steamed roots, cabbages, and beet ; ample httering must be provided. Suckle both veal and weaning calves : no substitute yet known can take the place of nature's mode. Have the calf-pens opening into the cowshed for convenience of suckling, each calf in a single apartment of four feet by six or eight, bottom raised and boarded, latticed or bored with augcrholes to carry off the water, and to afford a dry bed change the litter frequently. Feeding bullocks in t'le yard, or tied up, require a regular supply of roots from the store pits in hard weather, as much as can be eaten but not wasted, and the troughs cleaned at night. Cribs latticed or bored let off water most freely. Litter the yard often and thinly. Keep them level ; spread over the surface all substances equally, the contents from the working-horse stable especially, and no heating or scorching will happen. It is most essential that all animals lie dry. Arrange the t-heep flocks in proper lots of age and quality in the fields, and give keeping ewes one feed of turnips daily, carried to a field of grass or stubble 5 the feeding flock a full allowance, eating on the turnip ground, confined, or carted to an adjoining field if the former be too wet ; the last year's lambs a very full allowance, easy treatments and a dry lair : no future usage will compensate neglect at this tender age. Early ewes will begin to drop lamb ; a master of his business will have provided good shelter, both for day and night, in a paddock or small field, with a covered shed stand- ing dry, and an ample supply of juicy food in turnips, beet, and cabbages. One thing in abun- dance or superfluity is lost, v/ithout the necessary adjuncts. Attend to the feeding hogs with ample food of steamed roots mixed with meal, and to- wards finishing give one meal a day of hard corn, in order to produce solid flesh. The food of brood sows may be more watery. Feed store pigs with raw and steamed roots occasionally. A dry bed and warmth are essential to the thriving of pigs, and cooked food is more useful to them than raw, in a much greater proportion than to other animals. Feed poultry with light grains, and with steamed potatoes mixed with meal, put into troughs for them in a shed under cover. Have a hatching house separate from the roosting-house, and both heated by pipes below the fire, by fire or hot water. Bacon hogs and good store pigs will sell well during this month, and the fattening bullocks fore- most in condition, when put up in the end of autumn, will come out for the butcher ; such articles 1)eing often scarce at this early period, a better price will be obtained. Feed work-horses with cut chaff of clover, hay, and straw, steamed and mixed with potatoes, or ])oth singly. Give a hot meal in the evening when they come home from work. ri^ rHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. b7 METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Thermometer. Wind. Atmosphere. Weat'r. 1855. 8 a.m. I0]).m. Min. Max. 10p.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 p.m. Nov.22 in. cfs. 29.86 ill. cts. 29.85 33 41 35 S. West gentle cloudy fins fine dry 23 29.79 29.79 36 40 33 Westerly ji^entle cloudy sun cloudy drv 24 29.79 29.91 35 40 37 N.N.E. brisk cloudy cloudy fine rain 25 30.05 30.20 35 41 33 N. East lively cloudy fine fine ram 26 30.33 30.20 28 43 39 E. by N. gentle fine sun fine rain 27 30.05 30.05 34 45 43 N.N.E. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy drizzle 28 30.05 30.12 40 45 41 N.N.E. gentle ! cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 29 30.12 30.05 38 42 40 N.N.E., N. c;;lm cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 30 30.05 30.06 35 43 35 West calm cloudy cloudy fine dry Dec. 1 30.08 29.84 32 41 39 Westerly gentle haze sun cloudy dry 2 29.84 29.83 37 41 39 N. by East var. cloudy cloudy cloudy drizzle 3 30.00 30.00 28 39 34 N. by East calm haze fine cloudy drizzle 4 29.90 29.76 28 44 4i W. by S. var. haze cloudy cloudy drizzle 5 29.58 29.52 41 42 334 N. West lively fine sun fine dry 6 29.38 29.46 31 39 34 N. West lively cloudy fine fine snow 7 29.46 29.52 304 36 31 N. West lively fine cloudy cloudy dry 8 29.52 29.80 304 33 29 North lively cloudy fine cloudy dry 9 29.92 30.06 24 32 32 N. by East gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 10 30.06 30.05 30 34 31 N. West gentle fog cloudy cloudy snow 11 29.99 29.91 28 32 31 W. by N. gentle haze cloudy cloudy snow 12 29.72 29.83 27* 33 24 W. by N. gentle haze cloudy fine dry 13 29.94 30.06 20 32 29 West gentle fine sun fine dry 14 30.05 29.85 25 38 42 West lively cloudy cloudy cloudy drizzle 15 30.05 30.18 42 45 40 West airy haze cloudy fine dry 16 30.28 30,20 32 45 39 Variable calm fine sun cloudy dry 17 30.14 30.04 33 38 36 Variable gentle fine cloudy cloudy dry 18 30.03 30.20 36 36 30 E. by S. brisk fine cloudy fine dry 19 30.22 30.20 20 32 25 East brisk fine cloudy fine dry 20 30.12 29.90 22 32 23 East brisk fine cloudy fine dry 21 29.79 29.70 19 25 17 East airy cloudy fine fine dry Estimated Averages of December. Barometer. Highest. 30.3-2 Lowest. 29.12 Thermometer. High. 55 Low. 17 Mean. 39.3 Real Average Temperature of the Period. Highest. 38 Lowest. 31.0 Mean. 34.2 Weather and Phenomena. November 22. Morning dreary; fine afternoon. ■ — 23. A fine day. — 24, 25, and 26. Frosty; more or less showery or drizzly. — 27. The same. — 28, 29, and 30. Dry, but generally overcast. Total rain of November 1.598. Lunation. — Full moon, 23rd, 7h. 51 ra. p.m. December 1. Beautiful; noon dull, cloudy. — 2. Changeable. — 3. Much ice. — 4. Small, drizzly rain. — 5. Cold change. — 6. Snow ; thawing. — 7 and 8. Similar. — 9. Sharp frost and ice. — 10. Partial thaw. — 11. Another sprinkle of snow. — 12. Hazy; yellow mist all day. — 13. Keen; no sun. — 14. More drizzle: variable temperature. — 15. Much warmer. — 16 and 17. Sunny; no frost during the westerly winds. — 18. Wind veers to east, and frost returns.— 19 and 20. Keen, clear frost.— 21. Red sunset, followed by various forms of cloud. Lunations. — Last quarter, 1st, 2 h. 11 m. p.m.; new moon, 9th, 10 h. IS m. a.m.; first quarter, l6th, 6 h. 57 ni. a.m. Remarks connected with Agriculture. It will be evident that the entire period has been unusually cold. Frost commenced on the 26th of November and recurred on several occasions. The snow did not cover the grass (here, at least) ; but it remained several days unthawed. The roots have been well secured, and in great abundance, as refers to mangel-wurzel, and will be found a great supply. Ploughing progresses safely till the very -severe access of frost on the 19th. The rigour is increasing, and while I write the mercury is reduced to 23 degs. Fah. Hitherto all is safe; and over- lu.x.uriance is completely prevented. Dec. 21, John Towers. II 2 88 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR DECEMBER. The continuous fall in the value of all agricul- tural produce, notwithstanding that the supplies brought forward have been by no means extensive, has created surprise in some quarters. Those who calculated upon almost famine prices, as the result of the war with Russia, and the partial failure of the crops on the continent, have been greatly dis- appointed. The fact appears to be, therefore, that our means of drawing importations from abroad have been greatly underrated, and it is possible that the yield of our own crops has been larger than had been anticipated. It would be manifestly unfair to draw an unfavourable picture of the future as regards imports of food from abroad, or to maintain that a general deficiency in Europe will be inevitable from the war, because other sources of supply than our own have yet to be tested, and we doubt not that they will prove nearly, or quite, equal to our wants, in the event of our offering a good and remunerative value for produce. The great source of supply must un- questionably be the United States and Canada. Accustomed as we have long been to exaggeration in reference to the progress of the States, we fre- quently look with suspicion upon statements de- rived from those quarters; but when we regard the exertions already made to supply Europe with wheat and flour, and when we look to the moderate prices and drooping markets on the other side of the Atlantic, together with the effects produced by them in this country as well as in France, we may safely conclude that \ery large supplies have yet to follow. In the present state of our markets, however, there is very little room for profit; and the extent of our future importations will, in a great measure, be regulated by the value at which corn is held on the Atlantic seaboard. Considerable inroads have already been made upon the new crop of wheat ; yet it is ascertained with some degree of accuracy that the stocks of that grain on hand are still seasonably good. The yield of barley is turning out tolerably well as to quantity ; but an unusually small supply, compared with the total bulk, has been grown fit for malting purposes. The price of this article has receded to some extent, and dealers almost generally have restricted their purchases to immediate wants. The same may be said of other kinds of corn. It is gratifying to find that the potato- crop is proving remarkably large and of sound quality. The me- tropolitan and other markets have been abundantly supplied with this esculent, and the highest price realized for the best York Regents has been llOs. per ton. Very large supplies of fat stock have been brought forward and disposed of for Christmas consump- tion ; indeed, they have exceeded all previous cal- culations, and consequently have changed hands at prices which have disappointed the graziers, whose profits this month have certainly been small, con- sidering the high value of artificial food. The great gainers have been the butchers, who, from the se- verity of the weather, were able to purchase largely, and to dispose of their purchases somewhat before the usual period. The demand for English wool has continued steady, at full prices; but the trade for foreign and colonial has been in a most unsatisfactory state. Evidently the manufacturers of woollen goods are heavily stocked, and until the supplies are worked up, we may look in vain for any improvement in the trade. The supply of wool now on passage from Australia is comparatively small, and our latest advices from the colony bring firm quotations. The turnip and carrot crops have turned out very abundant this season. The roots are keeping well, and afford a most seasonable relief to the leading graziers, as the supply of hay is small, and prices in all parts of England are very high. Although immense quantities of guano have come to hand during the month from Callao, the price of that article still continues fixed. The small farmers are in too many instances consequently de- j)rived of a manure which ought to arrive here in private hands, and be subject to competition as well as other commodities. In that case, the Peruvian Government would derive double its present annual income from the sale of the article, because the in- crease in its use would rapidly extend with a lower range of value. It does appear a perfect anomaly, in the present advanced stage of competition, that the monopoly of the sale should be held by one house; and for what purpose? Simply that the bondholders in this country may receive their in- terest upon Peruvian stock ! To us it is a matter of astonishment that one class of men should be the instruments by which the country's produce should be kept in check. The Irish and Scotch markets have been very moderately supplied with all articles of grain. The THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 89 demand, however, has been very inactive, and prices have had a downward tendency. The shipments of produce from Ireland have been good, and we are glad to find that large supplies of fine sheep and beasts have been received in the metropolis. Those from Scotland have been very moderate. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Although a very extensive business has been transacted in fat stock, both in London and the provinces, prices, owing to the large supplies on offer and their heavy weight, have not been very remunerative, especially if we take into the account the present high value of artificial food. We may observe, however, that a finer collection of beasts than that shown in the Great Metropolitan Market on the l7th of the past month was never equalled, much less excelled, in the most palmy days of old Smithfield. There have been numerous arrivals of prime stock from Ireland via Liverpool, and very high rates have been realized for them ; but we understand that most of the butchers have been sadly disappointed at the dead weights of both the beasts and sheep. However, the whole proceed- ings of the month, so far as the metropohs is con- cerned, have passed off remarkably well, and the butchers, as a body, have realized a large amount of profit, as the cold weather lasted sufficiently long to enable them to dispose of their supplies to considerable advantage. The cattle shows have been most important in their character. Large numbers of unusually prime beasts and sheep have been exhibited, but chiefly of the pure breeds, so far as the former have been concerned. This feature does not appear to have been relished by a portion of the pi'ess, the writers in which have contended that, as these breeds are chiefly in the hands of the large graziers, and as the little men stand but a poor chance in competing with them, the bulk of the prizes in the Smithfield Club should be awarded to cross-breeds. Now, this is a most dangerous fallacy, although its eflfect upon the mind of the practical breeder must be that of ridicule. What we require in this country are pure, not mongrel breeds. Let crossing be extensively carried out, and these shows will speedily lose their attractions, and a much smaller amount of food would be the result. We need, we presume, scarcely say that cross-breeds, in a general way, contain less consumable food than the pure breeds ; consequently the latter are deserving our first consideration ; and were the committee appointed to watch over the interests of the Smith- field Club to fall into so glaring an error as to give cross-breeds leading classes, they would betray the important interests committed to them. The following figures show the total numbers of stock exhibited in the Great Metropohtan Market during the month : — Head. Beasts 22,412 Cows 590 Sheep 94,030 Calves 1,376 Pigs 3,184 The bullock supphes were principally derived as follows:— Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and North- amptonshire, 11,700 short-horns; Norfolk and Sufiblk, 1,000; other parts of England, 2,600; Ireland, 1,500 oxen; and Scotland, 1,156 Scots. COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES. Dec, 1852. Dec, 1853. Dec, 1854. Beasts .... 21,018 23,314 20,298 Cows 540 484 120 Sheep 86,880 88,480 88,880 Calves 1,898 1,143 1,573 Pigs 2,259 2,402 2,746 Prices have ranged as under : — Beef from 3s. 4d. to5s. 4d.; mutton, 3s. 4d. to 5s.; veal, 3s. lOd. to 6s.; and pork, 3s. 6d. to 5s. per 8lbs., to sink the offal. COMPARISON OF PRICES. Dec. 1852. Dec. 1853. Dec. 1854. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef. . 2 2 to 4 0. . 3 2 to 4 10. . 3 4 to 5 4 Mutton 2 10 5 0. .3 0 5 2.. 3 6 5 4 Veal.. 28 4 4.. 38 5 0.. 40 58 Pork.. 2 8 4 0.. 3 4 4 10. .3 2 4 8 The imports of foreign stock into London have been liberal, or as follows : — Head. Beasts 3,973 Sheep 14,972 Calves 532 Pigs 38 Total .... 19,515 In the corresponding month in 1854 we received a total supply amounting to 18,349 head ; in 1853, the numbers were 21,918; in 1852, 17,870; in 1851, 21,594; in 1850, 20,435; and in 1849, 16,368 head. Over 100,000 carcases of foreign stock have arrived up to Newgate and Leadenhall, in the course of the month, from various distant parts of England, including Scotland, and about 100 tons have arrived from abroad. A good business has been transacted, and prices have ruled tolerably firm. Beef has reahzed 3s. 4d. to 4s, 8d. ; mutton, 3s. 2d. to 4s. 8d.; veal, 3s. 8d. to 5s. 6d.; and pork, 3s. 6d. to 5s. 4d. per 8lbs. by the carcase. 93 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. ASHBOURN FAIR was well supplied with store and fat stock ; for the former there was a decline in price even for the best sorts, but especially so for lean stock, while fat ones met with ready sale at good prices. There was a good supply of fat sheep, but sales were heavy, there being but few customers for them. BODMIN FAIR was a dull one, and though there was an average supply of cattle and sheep, but few changed hands. GRINGLE Y FAIR.— The attendance was numerous. The number of stock brought fur sale waa equal to former years. Fat beasts realized from 7s. 6d. to 83. per stoi;e. Heifers near calviug were much sought after, and any worth attention readily changed hands. &teers fetched as much as they were worth; but yearlings moved off slowly. Well-bred drapes broii-ht remunerating prices. The show of sheep was confined to two pens, and prices readily obtained. Pijrs were considered dear; young ouea from lOs. 6d. to 12s. 6d. each; and store proporiionately high. There were no fat ones offered. The show of horses was small, and attracted no attention. PERTH FAIR sold ot from GOs. to 50s.; fat heifers fetched £10 to £22 ; they also sold some prime fat pigs at abo\it lis. a tcore. Beef wuj worth from (id. to 7d. ; nuUton, 6d. to 7d. WORCESTER FAIR.-It was certainly not well sup- plied with such prime meat as would serve for the Christmas show, but a good deal of fat stock was aold off by the auction- eers. Fat cows made from 6d. to 6|d. per lb. ; mutton, if very prime, brought about 7d, ; pork, lOs. 6d. to lis. 6d. per score. A great many sheep went back unsold in consequence of the languid demand, and the determination of the holders not to sell at falling prices. Pigs went off well. The horse fair con- tained but a poor supply, chiefly of cart horses, with a nag or two amongst them. This department partook of the general slackness of trade. YORK HORSE FAIR— The importance of this fair, and the amount of business done, places it as the first mart in the world for horses of the best descriptions. Many very fine animals were shown, adapted as hunters, hackneys, or harness ; and the demand, as usual at this fair, exceeded the supply, where quality of breeding and condition were combined. On Monday morning the stables opened for business transactions ; on this day and Tuesday nearly all the first-class horses were sold at high figures. On Tuesday, Wednesdaj, and Thursday, the middle and lower classes of horses were brought out of the stables to be paraded in Blossom-street, and sold to the best bidders. Ou the whole, they met with rather a dull sale, many having been bought of the breeder at prices which could not agniu be realized in this mart. Horses adapted for the army had, of course, a ready call; indeed, all animals with any pre- tensions to good breeding realized highly remunerating prices to the breeders. Every year affords additional evidence that in breeding horses the path to profit is to take care that the brood mares are of good quality, and to secure the best siies of the day. IRISH FAIRS. — Aedeb turned cut one of the best held in the neighbourhood for a long time. The supply of stcck was large, and the attendance of pnrcliaaers numerous. Well- finished grass beef sold remarkably well, and a good business done throughout the day. A very large supply of stall-feda were offered for sale ; they were not well finished, however ; some transactions took place at a high figure, but many of the beasts rem.ained undisposed of. The supply of mutton was comparatively good, but generally speaking perhaps so much could not be said of the quality : the most numerous of the lots offered were composed of a mediocre and inferior descrip- tion. The pig fair was pretty well supplied ; every kind, from the beat bacon down to the sucking pig, brought remunerating prices, when contrasted with many of the fairs lately held ia this and the neighbouring counties. SALISBURY MONTHLY CHEESE MARKET.— The supply was much less than usual ; it proved, however, quite suflicient for the wants of the trade. Prices were rather in favour of buyers, and may be quoted : Skims 32s. to SGs., half- skiras 523. to 53s., doubles 583. to 63s., Somerset 61s. to 703., and Cheddar 723. to 8O3. DERBY CHEESE FAIR.— Prices ranged from 62s. to 723. There was a good supply, considering that the fair is but just established. There were plenty of factors present, but trade was dull. AGRICULTURAL QUERY. Sin, — Observing in the Farmer's Magazine for this month the question asked as to the difference in the quahties of blue vitriol used for soaking wheat, and observing your answer to be (in substance) that a great deal sold for blue vitriol has no bene- ficial effect upon the wheat, and also that blue vitriol is only supposed to have a beneficial effect, I should be glad to know from any of your sub- scribers whether or not the use of it is any benefit in cither jireventing smut in wheat or promoting its growth, how the effect is produced ; and also, if wheat is wetted with water, and lime sifted on it, will not have 'the same effect as the vitriol. My reason for troubling you is, that much corn in this neighbourhood is prepared by each method, and a little doubt exists in the minds of some as to the 1)enefits of either. I am, Sir, yoius truly. Pro Bono Publico, Hacheslon, Dec. 22, 1855. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE 01 REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF DECEMBER. The trade has at times been considerably de- pressed by the reports of negotiations for peace, and these have at intervals been renewed with much appearance of genuineness, and the minds of buyers have been often influenced, so as to refrain from purchasing beyond small quantities for their imme- diate wants. This applies to all articles of the trade, which throughout the month have been sup- plied liberally by the farmers, but particularly wheat and barley; the thrashing-machines having no respite, being always engaged, and bespoke three or four deep. The sudden changes in the weather have had their wonted effect, and whenever the frost gave way, which has in two instances of rapid thaw been the case, the condition of the wheat was materially affected ; and this caused a dulness in the trade for new samples, without improving the demand for old. Prices have, under all these influences, re- ceded on the whole nearly Is. per bushel, without giving any confidence to the millers, who have acted with the greatest caution, and generally they are low in stock ; neither will they be free buyers until the question of peace or war be entirely set- tled one way or other: and every despatch is waited for with great anxiety from the Russian and Aus- trian capitals, whence the main reports emanate. The supply of English wheat the first Monday in the month was A'ery limited from Kent, but mo- derately fair from Essex ; and owing to the damp state of the weather during the previous week, the condition of many of the samples was quite indif- ferent, notv/ithstanding a sharp frost had been experienced that morning. This circumstance, combined with various reports that negotiations had again commenced, had a considerable influence on the minds of the buyers, and there was a quiet- ness in the trade v/hich had not been witnessed previously since harvest. Factors were, however, indisposed to give way sufliciently to bring buyers forward, and both alike kept aloof; a few transac- tions for immediate consumption were entered into, and prices of the best qualities were about main- tained ; but had business been forced, a decline of 2s. per qr. must have been submitted to. Future rates will of course depend on the progress made with the diplomatists ; but Austria must be dealt with as a treacherous nation, and v»'e think little progress will be made in bringing about peace at present. Foreign wheat remained nominally un- altered, with scarcely any transactions in this de- scription. The imports consisted of 900 qrs. from Bergen, 200 qrs. from Copenhagen, 880 qrs. from the East Indies, 65 qrs. from Hambro', 620 qrs. from Philadelphia, and 30 qrs. from Uddewalla, making a total of 2,695 qrs., against 7,068 qrs. in the corresponding week of 1854. The London average registered 85s. 6d. on 5,933 qrs. The weekly general average was 82s. Id. on 134,952 qrs., against 74s. 7d. on 126,455 qrs. in the corre- sponding week of the previous year. The quantity returned being greater than that of 1854, many would conclude the crop of this season to be larger than that of last. Thisis,however, not so; but it is owing to greater vigilance on the part of inspectors, and many more returns are now made in consequence than formerly, and the correct comparison is con- sequently lost. There was a good supply of vvdieat from Essex and Kent at Mark Lane the second Monday of the month ; and although the condition had somewhat improved, the town millers took it off very slowly at a reduction of 4s. per qr. on the currency of the previous week, and even then some quantity was left over unsold for future markets. The top price of new red was 81s. per qr., and of white 88s. per qr. The sales of foreign wheat were to a limited extent, at Is. to 2s. per qr. under the currency of the past week. The top price of Dantzic was 96s. per qr., and of fine Pommeranian red S8s. per qr. The imports consisted of 1,070 qrs. from Alexandria, 650 qrs. from Oporto, 700 qrs. from Seville, 1,200 qrs. from Swediac, which, with a few smaller lots, summed up 3,680 qrs., against 5,258 qrs. in the corresponding week of last year. The London average registered 84s. 4d. on 6,279 qrs. The general weekly average was 83s. id. on 1 17,405 qrs., against 74s. 4d. on 109,071 qrs. in the corre- sponding week of 1854. This week's return shows a falling off to the extent of 17,547 qrs. on the previous week; and this may continue to be the case during the remainder of the season, the farmers having thrashed more barley than wheat, and are now at full work on that article. The quantity of wheat brought forward the third week from Essex and Kent at Mark Lane was very moderate; but being in poor condition, it met a dull sale at about the prices of the previous week, and again some quantity was left over unsold for future markets. After this date, severe frost set &d THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in, and lasted until Saturday night, the wind blow- ing the whole time strongly from the east ; and during these five days the weather was excellent for thrashing, and condition must consequently improve considerably. The quantity offering from distant counties was very limited, as prices at home are as high as those in the metropolis. There was a limited sale for foreign wheat, this description being held so much higher than home grown ; the holders of it having no prospect of any increase in the imports. The arrivals consisted of 2,000 qrs. from Alexandria, 2,040 qrs. from the East Indies, 2,310 qrs. from New York, 2,220 qrs. from Phila- delphia, 20 qrs. from St. Ubes, and 1,420 qrs. from Seville, making a total of 10,010 qrs., against 2,991 qrs. in the corresponding week of 1854. The London average registered 83s. 4d. on 4,641 qrs. The general weekly average was 83s. id. on 114,853 qrs., against 73s. on 114,793 qrs. in the corre- sponding week of the previous year. In these ave- rages there was only a difference of 60 qrs. in quantity, but 10s. id. in price; and the falling off from the previous week was 2,552 qrs., although each of these two weeks was precisely the same as to price. At the fourth Monday's market in Mark-lane there was a very short supply of wheat from Essex, and only a very moderate quantity from Kent; and although some portion of the most recently thrashed samples was in improved condition, yet a consider- able quantity came forward still in a soft state; a complete change in the weather had taken place the previous day, being at times wet, with a sudden thaw: the morning was fine and mild. Business opened very dull, partaking more of a holiday market, owing to the approaching festivities than one of activity. The Essex factors refused to make any concession in price, and consequently sold very little ; but most of the Kentish was dis- posed of at about Is. per qr. reduction in price. There was very little passing in foreign wheat, and prices were generally unaltered. The imports con- sisted of 4,330 qrs. from Alexandria, 1,789 qrs. from the East Indies, 800 qrs. from Jaffa, 1,012 qrs. from New York, 1,580 qrs. from Seville, 600 qrs. from Stockholm, and 400 qrs. from Udde- walla; making a total of 10,511 qrs., against 3,119 qrs. the corresponding week of the preceding year. The London average registered 82s. 4d. on 6,439 qrs. The general weekly average was 79s. lid. on 112,716 qrs.; against 72s. 3d. on 110,395 qrs. the corresponding week of 1854. This week's return exhibits a further falling off in the quantity of 2,137 qrs., the farmers being still on barley in preference to wheat. The flour trade has been subject to many changes during the month, and Norfolks have moved up and down at times throughout the same market-day, but have mostly settled down to a lower figure at the close of business. At the first Monday's market in Mark-lane there was a liberal supply of country marks, and the trade was some- what firmer ; the top price of town-made was 77s. per sack, and Norfolks were held at 60s. The arrivals coastwise were 3,116 sacks, by the Eastern Counties railway 13,403 sacks, by the Great Northern 4,215 sacks, from foreign ports 400 sacks and 10,117 brls., the last from the United States, the quality of which is very various, and some evi- dently has been made of sprouted wheat, and the selection in buying requires more care than usual : the highest price of fancy brands was 47s. per brl. The second Monday of the month the town millers put down the top price 2s. per sack, that being 75s., and all country marks sold at a similar reduc- tion. Norfolks were oflPered freely at 58s. per sack, and scarcely any buyers thereat, the state of the wheat trade causing this reduction. The arrivals coastwise were 1,432 sacks, by the Eastern Coun- ties railway 12,015 sacks, by the Great Northern 3,739 sacks, from foreign ports 250 sacks and 229 brls. Notwithstanding this small import of foreign, American receded Is. per brl., the top price being 46s. per brl. Trade was hfeless for all descriptions on the third Monday's market, and from the recent and continued dulness there was an accumulation of stock generally, and the supplies have well over- taken the demand of the metropoUs, notwithstand- ing the imports of foreign have been to a very moderate extent. The top price of town-made was 75s., households 66s. to 68s., No. 2's 62s. to 63s. Norfolks were offered at 5Ss., and the best brands of American were worth 45s. per brl. ; other sorts down to 42s., as in quality and strength. Inactivity was still the ruling state of the trade on the fourth market of the month. There was no change in the top price of town-made, but households were offer- ing about Is. per sack lower, and sales of most sorts were effected at irregular and varied rates. Norfolks were offered freely at 58s., but no buyers beyond 57s. per sack. The arrivals coastwise were only 792 sacks, but by the Eastern Counties rail- way there were 11,390 sacks, by the Great Northern 2,095 sacks, and from foreign ports 2,700 sacks and 4,097 brls. Spanish flour sold slowly at 65s. to 67s. per sack, and American at 42s. to 45s. per brl. : colour and strength are both wanted in that from the United States this year. Tlie barley trade has received a check during this month. In some districts it had first touched 5()s. per qr. for the choicest Chevalier samples ; but once the deliveries had overtaken the demand, from the want of animation in the sales of malt, prices receded, more for secondary sorts than for THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 93 prime samples. At Mark -lane, the first Monday, there was no quotable change in the best sorts, and middling qualities were easier to purchase. The arrivals coastwise were 5,095 qrs., by the Eastern Counties railway 3,670 qrs,, by the Great Northern 58 qrs., from Scotland 63 qrs., and from colonial ports 134 qrs. ; making a total of 9,026 qrs. The second Monday's market, at Mark-lane, middling and inferior sorts were Is, to 2s. per qr. cheaper. The arrivals coastwise were 3,500 qrs., by the Eastern Counties railway 4,034 qrs., by the Great Northern 1,048 qrs., and from Scotland 20 qrs. ; making a total of 8,602 qrs. The trade was very limited on the third Monday's market, without any material variation in the value of any description. The arrivals coastwise were 5,721 qrs., by the Eastern Counties railway 3,977 qrs., by the Great Northern 190 qrs., from Scotland 21 qrs., and from foreign ports 1,550 qrs.; making a total of 11,459 qrs. There was scarcely any change at Mark-lane the fourth Monday of the month, but no life was experienced in the demand, the sale of malt being worse, and the large metropolitan brewers entirely out of the market. The arrivals coastwise were 6,023 qrs., by the Eastern Counties railway 3,081 qrs., by the Great Northern 227 qrs., and from Scotland 13 qrs. ; m.aking a total of 9,344 qrs. The general averages since our last have been 40s. lid. on 103,394 qrs., 42s, 3d. on 119,076 qrs,, 42s, 5d. on 128,143 qrs., and 41s. 3d. on 121,845 qrs. There have been the most scanty supplies of oats from our own coast and Scotland throughout the month; but this article has participated in the general dulness. At the first Monday's market of the month samples of old and the best descriptions of new supported prices. There were no arrivals coastwise; but 1,070 qrs. of English by the Eastern Counties Railway, 385 qrs, by the Great Northern, 601 qrs. from Scotland, 2,860 qrs, from Ireland, and but 20,341 qrs, from foreign ports, making a total of 25,257 qrs. The supplies at the second Monday's market being limited, prices of good corn were well supported ; but light parcels gave way 6d, per qr. The arrivals coastwise were 70 qrs., by the Eastern Counties l,6l7 qrs., by the Great Northern 742 qrs., from Ireland 2,863 qrs., from foreign ports 3,983 qrs., making a total of 9,275 qrs. At the third Monday's market good foreign samples were steady in value and demand ; but Irish and light qualities of foreign were 6d. ]3er qr. cheaper. The arrivals coastwise were 104 qrs., by the Eastern Counties 1,527 qrs., by the Great Northern 1,668 qrs., from Ireland 28,771 qrs., and from foreign ports 19,958 qrs., making a total of 52,028 qrs. At the fourth Monday's market there was a large portion of the previous liberal arrivals left for sale, and being combined with a fair fresh supply, trade was languid : the coming holiday interfering with working ex-ship, tended to increase the dulness, and prices were in some instances 6d, to Is, per qr, lower. The arri- vals coastwise were only 40 qrs., from Scotland 1,084 qrs., from Ireland 4,730 qrs., from foreign ports 14,019 qrs., by the Eastern Counties Railway 1,927 qrs., and by the Great Northern 1,158 qrs., making a total of 22,958 qrs. The general aver- ages have been 28s. id. on 19,261 qrs., 28s. lOd. on 20,558 qrs., 28s. 6d. on 17,203 qrs., and 27s. lOd. on 16,636 qrs. Beans have been in less favour during this than the preceding month, owing to good deliveries of secondary qualities, many of them also coming for- ward in a tender condition, and Egyptians offering more freely at many ports ; but the consumption has been well kept up, and continues to be large : and this will no doubt continue to be the case throughout the winter months. At the first Mon- day of the month fine old samples brought as much money; but new receded Is, to 2s, per qr., with a very limited demand. The arrivals coastwise were 589 qrs., by the Eastern Counties Railway 170 qrs., by the Great Northern 20 qrs., and from foreign ports 130 qrs., making a total of 909 qrs. At the second Monday's market soft samples of new were again Is, per qr, lower. The arrivals coastwise were 435 qrs., by the Eastern Counties Railway 193 qrs., by the Great Northern 46 qrs., and from foreign ports 2,893 qrs., making a total of 3,567 qrs. At the third Monday's market there was no material change in the value of any description. The arrivals coastwise were 339 qrs., by the Eastern Counties 165 qrs., by the Great Northern 20 qrs., from foreign ports 2,365 qrs., making a total of 2,889 qrs. At the fourth Mon- day's market trade was languid; but good qualities of old and dry new were not cheaper : other sorts were obtainable on lower terms. The arrivals coastwise were only 153 qrs., by the Eastern Coun- ties 195 qrs., by the Great Northern 20 qrs., from foreign ports 3,209 qrs., making a total of 3,227 qrs. The general weekly averages have been 51s. lOd. on 5,024 qrs., 53s, 3d, on 5,156 qrs,, 52s. 3d. on 5,646 qrs., and 51s. 8d, on 5,227 qrs. There have been several changes in the value of peas during the month, the severity of the weather now and then bracing up the demand for good boiling qualities. At Mark Lane the first Monday of the month there was no quotable change in the value of any description. The arrivals coastwise were 440 qrs., by the Eastern Counties Railway 152 qrs., by the Great Northern 15 qrs,, and from foreign ports J, 655 qrs., making a total of 2,262 qrs. The cold state of the weather induced the buyers on the second Monday's market of the 94 THE FARMER*S iMAGAZlNE. month to take fine samples of boilers more freely ; but other sorts were Is. to 2s. per qr. cheaper. The arrivals coastwise were 375 qrs., by the Eastern Counties 115 qrs., by the Great Northern 57 qrs., and from foreign ports 1,287 qvs., making a total of 1,834 qrs. The third Monday's market of the month prices were steady and demand moderate. The arrivals coastwise were 517 qrs., by the Eastern Counties Railway 161 qrs., by the Great Northern 94 qrs., and from foreign ports 195 qrs., making a total of 967 qrs. The previous sharp weather had rather increased the sale of fine boilers at the fourth Monday's market of the month, whilst for hog samples the demand has evidently fallen off, so many swinish mouths having been stopped by the great slaughter for the Christmas week, and this description may recede in value steadily from this cause. The arrivals from the coast were 493 qrs., by the Eastern Counties Railvvay 218 qrs., by the Great Northern 96 qrs., making a total of 3,227 qrs. The general averages have been 52s. Sd. on 2,851 qrs., 52s. 5d. on 3,055 qrs., 50s. 9d. on 2,658 qrs., and 49s. id. on 2,037 qrs. The imports of foreign grain for the month ended the 30th November, as published in the London Gazette of the 14th December, v.-ere 398,623 qrs. grain, and 203,799 cv/t. flour, against 327,377 qrs. grain, and 43,718 cwt. flour, in the corresponding month of last year; and the diflfer- ent sorts stand thus, viz. : — 1854. Qrs. Wheat 104,907 Barley 9,294 Oats 66,070 Rye 551 Beans 43,194 Peas 34,114 Maize 09,241 Buckwheat . . — Bere . ...... . — 1855. Qrs. 103,929 7,881 105,774 21,814 25,426 73,379 4 416 Total 327,377 -.. 398,623 Flour. . . . 43,718 cwt 203,799 cwt. The imports of November have not been so much increased as was generally expected, the prevalence of contrary winds keeping out the vessels from America, from whence parties have looked for such superabundance. The increase is in wheat and flour from the United States, and of oats from Denmark and Sweden. During the month now closing the quantity will be larger of American produce ; but the gales blowing strongly from the east, from the l7th to the 22nd, will have kept many vessels at sea, and there will consequently be good imports from that quarter of the globe for the month of January, afterwards a great falling oft' from all quarters of the globe, and we shall thus have worked up foreign stocks very closely by the time spring shipments begin to arrive. The Baltic ports are all closed by the severity of the weather, and previously the supplies from thence had been of the most trivial character; their stocks are completely exhausted, and the quality of the new grain being very inferior, we shall get httle assistance from thence next spring. The stocks at Dantzic were reduced to 16,000 qrs. wheat, of which 5,000 qrs. of old quality v/ere lying there for account of mills in the interior, 5,000 qrs. of old, quite inferior stuff", and the remainder out of the new crop, divided among the dealers, who are supplying the local demand for it for want of better. The quality of the new is most miserable stuff. In the Bug quarter there are still some lots of old fine wheat, of which sales have been made at prices corresponding with 70s. to 75s. per qr. free on board. From the lower Baltic ports better qualities of wheat may be expected, but no great quantity from any, the demand to the interior being hkely to be large up to next harvest, from the failing crops in those countries usually sending down supplies to the Baltic. At Hamburg holders are very firm in their de- mands, from the low stocks generally held at that port: 60 to 61 lbs. Mecklenburg red wheat may be considered worth 84s. to 85s. per qr. free on board; 58 to 59 lbs. Marks wheat 84s. per qr. ; Danish, 59 to 60lbs., 81s. to 82s. per qr. Barley, 52 to 52 1 lbs. from Denmark and Holstein, may be quoted at 41s. to 42s. per qr.; and kiln-dried from Jutland, 49 to 492 lbs., at 39s. per imp. qr. free on board. Good oats, 30s. to 31s. per 336 lbs., on the spot for home consumption. Rye is there in great demand, the necessities of Germany in- ducing merchants to purchase this article freely. The Dutch markets have latterly given way 3s. to 4s. per qr. for Zealand new wheat, the supplies of this description having been large. At this re- duction buyers have come forward for Belgian account. Samples of red have only given way Is. per qr., and rye has receded also Is. per qr. Prices are however higher than in England, and none can now be shipped to this country. In Belgium very high prices for wheat have been obtained -of late, although there is little ac- tivity at the moment. Their own growth of white is worth about 90s. per qi'., whilst red commands less, realising 87s. to SSs. per qr. English red wheat, 63 lbs. per bush., brought 89s. per qr. ; Rostock and Stralsund, 88s. per qr. Rye in that country brings extravagant prices : Belgian, 59s. to 6ls. ; English, 64s. to 66s. per qr. ; American, 64s. to 65s, per qr. ; Belgian barley, 38s. to 39s. per qr. ; Danish, 40s. 6d. to 41s. 6d. per qr. ; and large Ijeans, 48s. per qr. An improved demand is THE FARJilER'S MAGAZINE. 95 generally anticipated in that country from the low state of stocks. The French markets exhibit a dull and declining tendency. In most departments the buyers of both wheat and flour are waiting for the eflfects of the large imports expected from the United States, which may now soon be expected with the present gales of wind from the south-west, and some quan- tity is also looked for from Spain. Havre and Dunkirk will be the ports which will receive the most, from whence it will be sent into the interior to the best markets of consumption. The general opinion appears to favour an enhancement in prices after the extent of supplies has been ascertained. A secondary description of bread is about to be recommended, and introduced into Paris on the 1st January, in order to save the differences made good by Government between the price according to that average, instead of that charged to all con- sumers at a great loss for a long time past. Stocks at Paris have steadily increased, and are novv' 23,622 quintals 95 kilos.; and the price is 106 francs per 159 kilos., equal to about 70s. per sack of 280 lbs., or 5s. per sack under the top price in London. Wheat is worth 84s. to 86s. per qr., weighed 63 lbs. per bush. At Havre, a considerable supply of American wheat and flour is daily looked for, and then business may be re- sumed with more activity. The flour from the United States has not given satisfaction, and some which had appeared for the first time in the Parisian market, had been considered so inferior as to be placed under the third classification of that market, and not fit for the best bread. By the last advices from New York it appeared that the canal navigation did not close until the 10th December, at which period it was considered that all the supplies had arrived at tide water, and that these had somewhat increased, and overtaken the ship-room, vessels being then scarce, and freights so much advanced as to check the pur- chases for export. To Liverpool, 5s. per brl. for flour, and Is. per bush, for wheat were the current rates then being paid. Common State flour was worth 37s. to 38s. ; best extra Genessee, 46s. to 48s.; Ohio and Indiana, 39s. to 41s. 9d. ; extra ditto, 41s. 9d. to 4Ss. ; Baltimore, and other southern, 4()s. 8d. to 41s. 9d. ; extra southern brands, 44s. to 47s. ; Gallego and Haxall, 56s. ; Canadian, 39s. 7d. to 46s. per brl. Wheat was sold at a shght decline, but some large purchases has been made in the west, by parties likely to pur- chase for continental European orders. White Genessee, 74s. 6d. to 76s. 9d.; white Western, 74s. 6d. to 76s. 9d.; red Western, 66s. 6d. to 7ls. 6d.; white Southern, 74s. lOd.'^to 78s. 2d.; red Southern, 69s. lOd. to 71s. 6d.; Canadian, 74s. lOd. to 77s. 7d., all per 480 lbs. Prices of Indian corn have slightly receded, holders showing more disposition to get out of stock, and the ten- dency was decidedly downwards. Southern yellow was worth 37s. 6d. ; white Southern, 38s. 2d. to 39s. 3d. per qr. ; mixed Western, 37s. 6d., 56 lbs. per bushel. These prices all free on board. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Shillinjja per Quarter 76 to 90 extra 92 94 Wheat, Essex and Kent, white, old. Ditto new . 65 84 Ditto, red, old . 7S 82 Ditto, new . 60 78 Norfolk, Line, and Yorksh., red, old 80 86 Ditto, new 60 76 Barley, maltinfj, new. . 37 40 .... Chevalier. Distilling 37 38 Grinding. MALT,Esaex, Norfolk, and Suffolk. . .. 75 77 Kingston, Ware, and tovvu made. . 76 79 Brown 65 70 Ryb — ~ Oats, English feed. .27 28 Potato. Scotch feed, new 29 31, old 34 35 .. Potato 3i Irish feed, white 25 26 fine Ditto, black 23 25 „ Beans, Mazagan 40 40 „ 40 Ticks 40 42 „ 43 Harrow , 42 45 „ 44 Pigeon 47 51 „ 52 Peas, white boilers 49 54.. Maple 42 46 Grey 42 Flour, town made, per ssck of 280 Ibg. — — 73 Households, Town 64a. 66a. Country — ■ 59 Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship .... — — 57 FOREIGN GRAIN. 86 90 87 89 39 36 extra 50 28 44 37 83 83 51 35 35 28 28 43 45 47 54 44 75 61 58 Shillinj^s per Quarter. Wheat, DantEic,mixed. . 89 to 91 high mixed — 92extra 97 Konigsberg 84 86 „ ~ 90 „ 92 Rostock, new 82 86 fine 90 „ 94 American, white 88 90 red 80 83 Pometa.,Meckbg.,andUckermk.,rcd 84 85 extra 83 89 Silesian „ 81 83 white 85 87 Danish and Holstein „ 74 80 „ 80 84 Odessa, St. Petersburg and Riga. . 75 77 fine 79 82 Rhine and Belgium , — — old — — Russian French. none Barley, grinding 34 37 Distilling. . 37 33 Oats, Dutch, brcw.andPolanda 30s. to 33s. Feed.. 27 29 Danish & Swedish feed 29s. to 31s. Stralsund 29 31 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 44 46 Koni,a:3berg.. 42 45 Egyptian.. 39 41 Peas, feeding 42 43 fine boilers 52 55 Indian Corn, white 40 41 yellow 41 45 Flour, French, per sack — — Spanish 67 68 American, sour, per barrel 42 44 sweet 42 47 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the last Six Week.s. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rve. Beans Peas. Week Ending : s. d. 3. d. 8. d, a. d. s. d. 8. d. Nov. 10, 1855.. 30 5 39 6 28 4 52 1 51 11 51 4 Nov. 17, 1855.. 80 10 39 11 28 0 52 10 52 0 50 4 Nov. 24, 1855.. 82 1 40 11 28 0 52 9 51 10 52 8 Dec. 1, 1855.. 83 1 42 3 28 10 53 0 53 3 52 5 Dec. 8, 1855.. 81 6 42 5 28 6 53 9 .52 S 50 9 ' Dec. 15, 1855.. 79 11 41 3 27 10 55 4 51 8 49 1 Aggregate average of last ;ix weeks 81 4 41 0 28 3 53 3 52 2 51 1 Comparative avge. same time last year 73 0 35 1 28 8 44 6 49 5 49 1 Duties 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 96 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages from last Friday's Averages from the correspond- Gazette. Av. ing Gazette in 1854 Av. Q,rs. s. d. Qrs. s. d. Wheat.... 112,716.. 79 11 Wheat.... 110,395 .. 72 3 Barley.... 121,845 .. 41 3 Barley.... 114,753 .. 34 6 Oats .... 16,636 .. 27 10 Oats .... 17,446 .. 28 B Rye 507 .. 55 4 Rye 472 .. 47 4 Beans.... 5,227 .. 51 8 Beans 5,260 .. 48 9 Peas .... 3,032 .. 49 1 Peas 2,933 .. 48 3 MONTHLY RETURN. An Account shewing the Quantities op Corn Grain, Meal, and Flour, imported into the "United Kingdom, and admitted to Home Con- SUMI-TION, in the MONTH OP NOVEMBER, 1855. Species of Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour. Wheat Barley Oats Rye Peas Beans Maize or Indian Com Buck Wheat Beer or Bi^'g Total of Corn and Grain Wheat Meal and Flour . Barley Meal Oat Meal Eye Meal Bean Meal ............ Indian Meal Buck Wheat Meal Total of Meal and Flour T . . Imported Imported f^om British from foreign possessions outofLurope Countries. qrs. bushJ qrs. bush 158103 6 6825 4 6 7^81 0 105774 4 23927 7 21812 1 73578 7 3 4 416 0 1498 3 1 6 391297 5 7825 5 cwts. qr.lb.l cwts, 195942 3 18 7855 qr.lb, 2 18 23 18 2 25 I 6 C 3 • • 0 153* 14 1 0 1 0 150 'o • • 0 196156 1 21: 8012 1 18 Total. qrs. bush. 163929 2 7881 0 106774 4 25420 2 21813 7 73378 7 3 4 416 0 398623 2 cwts. qr.lb. 203798 2 8 29**1 25 18 I 6 308**1 0 14 1 0 204168 3 11 Custom-Hoitsc, London, Dec. 12. W. Maclean, Secretary. PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Tares, winter (per bushel) 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d Coriander (per cwt.) 20s. to 24s. Carraway (per cwt.).. .. new.. 8. to 50s., old .. s.to . . s. Canary (per qr.) 633. to 68s. Hempseed (none) 00s. to 00s. Linseed (p. qr.) sowing . . 8. to . . s., crushing 77s. to 84s. Linseed Cakes (per ton) £14 10s. to £15 Os. Rapeseed (per qr.) new 90s. to 94s. Ditto Cake (per ton) £7 lOs. to £8 Os. FOREIGN SEEDS, &c. Hempseed, small, (per qr.) .. s. 56s., Ditto Dutch, 583. Coriander (per cwt.) 15s. to 203. Carraway 423. to 46s. Linseed (pr qr.) Baltic, 753. to 78s.; Bombay, 80s. to 83s. Linseed Cake (per ton) £13 lOs. to £14 lOs. Rapeseed, Dutch 90s. to 94s. Rape Sake (per ton) £7 10s. to £8 Os. HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday Dec. 24. Our market continues tolerably active for this period of the year, and there is a fair demand for all Hops of good quality. Fine and choice samples being scarce, bring rather more money, and the general currency of last week is fully maintained. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE. Monday, Dec. 24. During the past week the arrivals have been small ; 8. d. 8. d. 90 OtollO 0 75 0 95 0 85 0 95 0 80 0 90 0 50 0 85 0 65 0 70 0 still the trade is extremely dull, and last week's prices barely maintained. Yorlc Regents Kent and Essex do East Lothian do , , Ditto, reds Perth, Forfar, and Fifeshire do. Lilto, reds BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. Monday, Dec. 24. Coastwise and by land-carriage the arrivals of Po- tatoes since Monday last have been but ndoderate. The demand is inactive, as follows : — York Regents, 100s. to 110s.; Kent and Essex ditto, 90s. to 100s. ; Scotch ditto, 80s. to 90s.; ditto cups, 80s. to 90s. ; middlings, 55s. to 65s. ; Blues, 80s. to 90s. ; Lincolns, 80s. to 90s. per ton. WOOL MARKETS. ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. Down tegs Do. eives Half-bred hoggets Half-bred wethers Kent fleeces , Leicester fleeces, mixed. , Combing skins Flannel wool Blanket woo I 8. d. 1 1 1 0 1 I to 1 1 d. 1 2 1 0 11 0 10 1 0 0 8 1 1 1 1 1 H 1 Oi 1 1 0 0 to iO 0 0 13 6 0 13 6 6 14 6 0 16 6 6 21 0 0 26 6 LEEDS WOOL MARKET, Dec. 21.— There has been a steady demand for combing wools this week, and prices are firm, with an upward tendency. Clothing wools are without any material change in demand or prices. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKETS, Dec. 22. Scotch Wool. — There continues that steady retail demand for laid Highland which has been experienced for some months, without any alteration in price. White is still in fair request. Crossed and Cheviot are in moderate request at late rates. s. d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 24lbs. .. 9 White Highland do 12 Laid Crossed do.. unwashed .... 12 Do, do. .washed 13 Laid Che dot do . .unwashed ... . 14 Do. do..?vashed 17 White Cheviot do.. do 24 Foreign Wool. — There is on the whole a better feeling in the trade, but stocks being light prevents anything like the amount of business that could otherwise be done. The whole of the imports of East India are being held over for the next public sales, expected to take place about the middle of January. MANURES. PRICES CVRBBNT OF GUANO. Peruvian Guano per ton £11 6 0 SlranA WSP . M' N? 3 imSlGN JE&R J. CO^^KEB fiOME STEAD DESIGNED BTD.1\TD DICXSQN, ESTATE ^GENT lATHE^TCEKIRK , INT . B . m' mCfffSOf^ A TVXFOi9D. in HO. 246. STRAND LOfJDON PLAN OFROOF THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. FEBRUARY, 1856 PLATE 1. PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM MILES, ESQ., M.P. PLATE II. NO. III.— DESIGN FOR A COVERED HOMESTEAD, AT SILLYFLATT, KINCARDINESHIRE, N.B. DESIGNED BY DAVID DICKSON, ESTATE AGENT, LAURENCEKIRK, N.B. (A full description was given with the first plate in the last October number of this magazine. ) WILLIAM MILES, ESQ., M.P., LATE PRESIDENT OF THE Royal Agricultural Society of England. Mr. Miles was born in the city of Bristol on the 18th of May, 1797; he is, consequently, now in the fifty -ninth year of his age. He was early sent to school in his native place, to Mr. Faithful's, at Horfield, from which he was removed in due course to Eton. On leaving her classic shades, he spent a year with a private tutor in Essex ; and then en- tered at Christ Church, Oxford, where he remained three years. On passing his examination, he was immediately elected member for Chippenham at the general election which took place in 1818, thus going into Parliament immediately on attain- ing his majority. He sat for this borough during the short period previous to the death of George the Third ; and subsequently spent much of his time in Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, where he was known chiefly as a keen sportsman and good rider to hounds. Mr. Miles re-entered the House of Commons as member for New Romsey, which he represented during 1830 and '31 ; and contested the Eastern Division of the county of Somerset, where his father had landed property, in 1832. He was on OLD SERIES.] this occasion defeated ; but at the death of Mr. Brigstock, in 1834, he was returned for this Divi- sion of the county, for which he has ever since continued to sit. The career and opinions of Mr. Miles have from the first identified him with " the Country Party." He has always professed what were known as Tory principles, and was very strong and consistent in his opposition to the Anti-Corn-Law measures of the late Sir Robert Peel. He occasionally took part in the many discussions which arose in the memorable session of 1846 ; and voted in Novem- ber, 1852, in the minority of fifty-three in the cen- sure of free trade. Such is but a brief outline of Mr. Miles' life as a public man. As an agriculturist he commenced almost as early, farming in a small way during his residence in Nottinghamshire, and afterwards occu- pying about 280 acres of land in Gloucestershire. As far back as 1832 we find him a vice-president of the Bath and West of England Society, while he was one of the original mem.bers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. He took office, I [VOL. XLIV.— No. 2, 98 THE FARMER'S iMAGAZlNE. moreover, from its very commencement, continuing to act as one of the stewards of implements up to the meeting at Newcastle-on-Tyne, in 1846, when a new system of steward-service was introduced, and he retired by rotation. Beyond this, he has from time to time contributed valuable papers to the Journal of the Society — the results of his own ex- perience upon the growth and varieties of wheat, of swedes and mangel-wurzel, and the effects which followed the application of different kinds of ma- nure. It has been our fortune to see much of Mr. Miles, in the discharge of those duties which he has undertaken in the cause of agriculture ; as president not only of the Royal Societj^, but also of that he is more immediately connected with — the Bath and West of England, over which he again presided in 1854. As to his conduct in either, we can only repeat what we have already had so much good reason for saying. At Carlisle we wrote — "The full attendance at the dinner — the most fully attended dinner we ever remember — was t e crowning compliment to Mr. Miles' year of office, and few could have better deserved it. From what wehave seen of his kind, unassuming, and business- like conduct at many meetings of the Society, v/e believe we are justified in recording him as one of the best of those who have been called to the chair. This is high praise, but we feel it is merited." At the same meeting. Lord Berners, after refer- ring to his character as a sportsman, thus pro- ceeded : — "He knew there was no one who had watched Mr. Miles's conduct in the senate, or those who had had the pleasure of being in his neighbourhood, and had watched him in the per- formance of his duty as a country gentleman, that would not bear testimony that there was no one who stood higher for honesty, for straightforward and high-principled bearing. He had to congra- tulate his honourable friend on the successful ter- mination of his career as President of the Society. This he knew, that of all the Presidents that they had had, they had never had one who devoted more of his time or more of his attention to the interests of the Society. Their President was one, he need not tell them, who was an ardent lover of agriculture, and a successful practical farmer ; but he was one of those who knew— and who practised in their conduct — that, though he supported the cause of agriculture, and knew the prosperity of England depended on agriculture, it did not en- tirely depend on it. He had known the Chairman from his boyhood, and knew him to be one of those who had ever attempted, and successfully attempted, to unite in stronger bonds of union landlord, tenant, and labourer." We quote this as no merely friendly or flattering opinion. All who are acquainted with Mr. Miles will at once acquiesce in its truthfulness. Agricul- ture has seldom bad a better friend, and the coun- try gentlemen none amongst their body who have more ably fulfilled the duties of their station. In addition to great natural ability and sound judg- ment, Mr. Miles has much personally in his favour. With a goodly presence he unites much faciUty and ease as a speaker, being very remarkable for a " taking" agreeable manner. We have rarely listened to any one more thoroughly unaffected in his style, or more straightforward in his tone. In addition to the other public duties we have already enumerated, we have to rank Mr. iMiles as an active county magistrate, and the chairman of a bench. His own agricultural labours, too, have considerably increased ; for he now farms no less than eleven hundred acres of his own property, at his seat, Abbott's Leigh, near Bristol, Here, into the privacy of domestic life, we may not follow him ; though, had we occasion to do so, we should still find him the same good man and warm friend. It is not always that popularity is any test of real merit. Still, if we wanted any example of its sometimes being so, we could perhaps give few better than the career and character of the Honour- able Member for East Somerset. ■ UNDERGROUND LABOURERS. BY CUTIIBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. Almost every advance in pursuit of agricultural knowledge seems to increase our acquaintance with the creatures that are our fellow-labourers in the culture of the earth. We are too apt to regard ourselves as the only instruments, under God's guidance, for and by whom the richest soils are created. We conclude much too complacently that it )3 \ve who till the soil, and that it is man only by whom it is drained, fields are ploughed, and harvests wave. If, however, on some rainy Feb- ruary day, we have a little time for reflection, we then begin to remember (our plough-teams being idle) that we have a few partners in our labours, and in the enjoyment of their harvests. We think of our noble farm-horses, or our working oxen — perhaps reflect dubiously of some steamy scheme j for supplanting them at the plough. We see plainly enough that theij lend their aid — that therj THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 99 put their honest shoulders to the wheel ; and if we are stock farmers, we, perhaps, have a kind of small conviction that the short and the lonjy wools too lend a helping hand. These are, however, labourers above the ground ; they work in the daylight — we see them hourly. But are there no other of God's creatures who are at work to improve our soils ? — hid, too, beneath the surface ; labouring when we are asleep, unasked, and unthanked by us ; beings apparently so abject that we are wont to exclaim "They are only common earthworms!" And yet to these mysterious and interesting creatures we are deeply indebted. At a period of the year when, owing to the increased coldness of the surface-soil, those " common worms " are led by an unerring instinct, imparted by the Great Artificer to beings such as these, to dive into a deeper and a warmer soil — at such a season, it may not be useless if we briefly inquire into the habits and uses to us of these little labourers, who, like some others of a largergrowth, are nowcompelled by the frost tocease for a while from their work. Let us, then, descend with them below the surface ; let us pay the earth- worm a visit in his home, explore his long passages, and view him resting in his chamber. We may by this means slightly refresh our memories, stumble upon unnoticed facts, and have reason to see the benevolence and the wisdom of a Divine Architect, even in "only a common earthworm." That worms swallow earthy matter is well known, and also that they eject the unserviceable undi- gested portion at the mouth of their burrows, in little spiral-shaped heaps or " earthcnsts/' the pests of our lawns, and the dislike of our graziers. These eartheaters, like the Otomacs described by Humboldt (a clay-devouring tribe of Indians of the valley of the huge river Amazon), find, it is evident, nutriment even in the earth of the poorest soils, still more in the richer and highly-manured lands abounding in organic matters. Of the great ex- tent to which these little miners in agriculture affect the soil — aye, and beneficially too — few of us are sufficiently aware. It was in a paper communicated to the Geological Society in 1838, that Mr. Charles Darwin proved that there is reason to believe that the layer of black mould which commonly rests immediately beneath the turf of old pastures, owes its presence to the labours of the earthworm ; although this "vegeta- ble mould," as it is commonly named, is more gene- rally supposed to arise from the decay of the suc- cessive varieties of the grasses which tenant these lands. In the volume of the Gardener's Chronicle for 1844, p. 218, he recurs again to the subject, and gives the result of his observations, made in a Staffordshire pasture, since ploughed and planted with potatoes, where, thirty years previously, the grass had been dressed with marl, the sinking of which marl into the unploughed soil, sorely puzzled the holder of the farm (as such sinkings commonly do all persons). He observes that wishing to ascer- tain the stated depth at which the marl now lies buried, he had three holes dug in different parts of the field, and in each the inarl was found, together with some cinders and broken pottery, in a layer 13 inches beneath the bottom of the potato furrcws, which were about 4 inches below the general surface, so that the marl is now buried at a depth of about 1/ inches. They will never, Mr. Darwin thinks, be undermined by the worms to a much greater depth, as they now almost rest on the general substratum of pure white sand. He particularly examined the occupier, who spoke very clearly as to the fact that the field had never been ploughed to a greater depth than 6 or 8 inches. In some other fields, the examined substances were also evidently sunk lower than they were when, 4| years previously, Mr. Darwin had noted their position. He found the layers of lime and cinders in almost every case about an inch lower than when first observed. It v/as curious (he continues) to notice in some of the holes how distinct the three layers were preserved ; the uppermost of cinders being two inches beneath the surface (on the former occasion it was only one inch below), the middle layer of hme at four inches, atid the lowest of cin- ders and burnt marl at from 10 to 12 inches. He found this lowest layer wherever he dug, and also the other layers, but they wepe less regular, owing to diflferent parts of the field having been limed and cindered at different periods. "When digging in this field, after a long drought, he noticed that one single clod of earth, about as large as a man's two hands, was penetrated by eight upright cylindrical v.-ormholes, nearly as large as swan's quills, so that he could see through them ; and this, as he well re- marks, shows the amount of earth in a small space which is probably often removed by the worms, and brought to the siirface. He also mentions a boggy field, on which, 2^ years previous to his observa- tions, a thick layer of bright red sand had been strewed, and which was then f of an inch from the surface : 4h, years subsequentlj'-, or 7 years from the application of the sand, he found it 2 inches below the surface. In another rather boggy field, which had been reclaimed 15 years previously, the burnt marl was buried at a depth of 4 inches, so that the rate of sinking, or rather undermining, by the worms has been nearly the same, or about 2 finches in 7 years. In the fields, however, to which Mr. Darwin more particularly alluded, in which the marl was put on 34§ years previously, it then lay 17 inches below the surface; the rate of under- mining was therefore much quicker, being nearly T o 100 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 3| inches every 7 years. This field, it appears, is dry, and consists of black, poor, very light, sandy soil. That our earthworms avoid ingesting calca- reous matter seems tolerably evident; but then there are other insects, of another hemisphere especially, who feed on the lime which forms the coral-reefs. Mr. Darwin tells us that in the bright sea-water of the Pacific, he found in the stomachs of the fishes (of the genus Sparus) which pasture on these rocks a substance resembling an impure chalk, and the very coral-reefs are bored full of holes by a sea-worm — nay, the coral itself, com- posed chiefly of carbonate of lime, is the work of myriads of insects, and is probably previously passed through their bodies. We may note then that earthworms are carriers of earth, that they mix together the strata of different depths, and thus render it more fertile : but the benefit of their labours is not thus limited. Of the value of the borings of the earthworm, in conveying the water to the drains, most farmers are aware. Mr. Robert Beart, when treating of the mode in which water enters land-drains, remarked (Jour. R. A. Sac, vol. iv., p. 412) that on well- drained land the water does not enter the drain by the furrow, or from the surface immediately over the drain (or where the drain is not in the furrow through the filling in) ; but, as it falls, enters first the tilth, or surface, and afterwards the fissures and borings of the common earthworm. The utility of the worm^,in the drainage of land is unquestionable, for it loosens the soil by its boring operations; and (adds Mr. Beart) " tlie bores of the worms alone, on some grass-lands, would be suffi- cient for the infiltration of the water, if the drains were laid at a proper depth to carry it off. I have found (he adds) that the worms bore quite as deep as the main drains, and some of the bores are half- an-inch in diameter." The observations of Mr. Josiah Parkes, another skilful drainer, are to a similar effect. He remarks (ibid, vol. vii., p. 266) that when examining with Mr. T. Hammond, of Pens- hurst, part of a field which he had deeply drained, after long previous shallow drainage, they found that the worms had greatly increased in number, and that their bores descended quite to the level of the pipes. "Many worm-bores" (he continues) "are large enough to receive the little finger, and it is possible that one worm has several bores for its family, and refuge holes from rain ; I have found worms twisted up into knots, and berthed in a ni- dus formed by the side of the vertical bore, and in communication with it by a lateral hole about an inch long." He adds one or two instances of the ill- effects to the land from the destruction of the worms by sea-water and night-rollings. To the very | considerable extent of these worm-borings in grass- lands, the late Mr. Pusey alluded, in one of his many interesting papers. When speaking of the con- siderable consumption of water in irrigation, he observed Cibid, vol. x., p. 475), " Even though the stream be strong, it sinks through the worm-holes, from which the escape of the air bubbles produces a general noise like the distant singing of birds : the ground indeed is said to sing." Then, again, it is certain thattheearthwormis con- cerned in the storing up of the seeds of plants, whose reappearance is in many instances so remarkable. A Forfarshire correspondent of the Gardeners' Chronicle observes in a recent communication, that "whenever in that county the whin fUlev europcBusJ is rooted up or burnt, the common pansy comes up invariably in great abundance. So far as the soil can be examined by a common-hand microscope no seeds are visible, and yet when a portion of it is exposed to favourable circumstances (as in a pot exposed to heat) the pansy makes its appearance. In that county a flagstone is very extensively quarried for ; it is frequently covered to the depth of 20 feet or more by what is known provincially as the ' till' and as the ' mortar' of the geologists; this has to be removed to get at the stone, and in the deep sec- tions of it thus exposed, the under-ground opera- tions of the earthworm may be very commonly seen, and his route traced to the depth of 10 or 12 feet. At the bottom is a chamber which generally contains quantities of small stones and seeds : of these I have noticed particularly the rough ' boll' of flax (of the fondness of worms for the flax fibre, see Jour. R. A. Soc. vol. x., p. 1 78), the stones being a size larger than these : the cavities run from 1 inch to 1 4 inches in diameter. The perpendicular track or tube (and the chambers also) is lined by an exceedingly fine black earth, like that which forms the "casts' of the surface ; and although to common observation no seeds are apparent, yet whenever the bisected pipe or chambers happen to remain exposed to the weather on the face of the hard clay section for a sufficient time, the whole becomes green from the growth of grasses, the seeds or germs of which must apparently have existed in the fine black earth. Such evidences of the beneficial labours of the earthworm might be readily extended; but rapid as have been our surveys of those works, we may yet see that he not only mingles together our soils, but that he materially aids in their drainage, and even in the storing up of those i)lants which were ordained to serve, amongst other great purposes, as the pasturage for a superior order of beings. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. l'.)2 THE ABUSES OF THE PATENT LAWS. In the " Clay Farm Chronicles," where Talpa ex- pounds to Mr. Greening the principles which should guide the application of steam power to tillage, in- sisting upon the absurdity of any other than a ro- tary implement for a power whose favourite motion is circular, the worthy farmer exclaims—" Why, you'll be quite an inventor ! It's just like Colum- buSj as discovered America. You ought to take a pattern out, sir." *"' Did Columbus take out a patent, Greening ?" " Oh my ! that's capital — a pattern for America ! Well, that is a good'un, however. No, no ! I guess his diskivery was a little too big for a pat- tern— 'Wide as a world and broad as 'umanity,' as our jjarson says. No, no ! he died quite the wrong side o' money-making, now I think of it." And certainly the man who enunciates a new truth, and labours to acliieve its demonstration to the world, ought to be insjiired by a nobler motive than that of filling his pocket. Vet so incurably has the mercenary spirit insinuated itself in every field of human thought and occupation, that if one now-a-days should happen to suggest a notion that can be embodied in a scheme for making gain, some keen-witted and quick-fingered speculator will be sure to get the profit of the proposal ; and the only way in which a disinterested teacher can secure his claim of originality and priority, and establish a title to property in his own ideas, seems to be by appealing to the law courts, or taking shelter in the Patent Office. Talpa himself was compelled to the course of becoming a " patentee," in order to defend his right to his own idea against the peculating intellects of ingenious men. By no means j)repared to expunge every statute relating to patents and copyrights ; holding the principle that every man has a right to call his the products of his own free labour, we are not going to advocate a socialist system as regards mechanical inventions — making all improvements at once com- mon property, and reserving no possibility of re- muneration for the labours of the patient inventor. But we do affirm that, with all its advantages, both to individuals and the public, the present system of patenting often proves exceedingly annoying and antagonistic to inventors, besides delaying, and sometimes altogether depriving, the community of important improvements. How irritated and dis- couraged must James Watt have felt when— after perfecting his steam-engine, and overcoming all denser," he was debarred from converting the re- ciprocating motion of his beam into a circular mo- tion for actuating revolving wheels and shafts be- cause another man had jjatented the "crank" ! But just try to hem a genius in a corner, and you will learn something to your astonishment. W'att accordingly devised his ingenious "sun-and- planet" motion, which served as a [iretty good ex- cuse for a crank until the latter itself might be law- fully employed. When, however, you are only a skillful combiner, and no genius, such a check to your scheme by a previous patent obliges you to one of two courses — either to wait until the hindering right has expired — by which time you will be lucky if some person has not pounced upon your idea; or else to compound with the patentee — which is both costly to yourself, and renders your invention so much the more expensive to customers, and there* fore less likely to find them. This kind of difficulty is strongly felt in en- deavours to accomplish steam culture. Patents for field engines, boilers, traction-ropes, pulleys, anchorages, digging, forking, and ploughing machines, and even for small details of gearing, or the most unimportant parts of cultivating apparatus, exist in considerable number, as will be seen by a list in another column. Owing, indeed, to the ability of some people to exjiend heavy sums of money about the most trivial or ridiculous contrivances, these are stir rapidly accumulatmg. Yet how many of these cecured inventions have been practi- cally tested upon the land; how many have been really brought into successful and economical use ? Worthless, however, as the great bulk of steam cul- tivator schemes have hitherto been,many of them are acting or rather standing as clogs and obstructions to better ones afterwards proposed ; for an utterly impracticable invention may sometimes involve a general idea, or may possess some singie detail which, inoperative in its present form and a])plica- tion, may yet be indispensable to the working of an efficient machine diflerent in every other i)art of its construction. By way of illustration, take the following case : A gentleman of our acquaintance, brimful of Mr. Hoskyns' theory of clay-commiun- tion, and well-read in the Mechanics' Maguzine — beside being tolerably familiar with every-day hus- ,bandry in a county which, though mainly occupied by precipitous fells and mountains, possesses never- theless some fine tracts of not over-stony soil — conceived anew notion for performing steam tillage. the difficulties of valves and pumps, and the "con- This was no suddenly-formed idea, but what had 105 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. i)e.--u fji-adiially and tlioii.^htfully worked out in the course of long study and many experiments. Wliat dies of his papers have ws seen, scribbled all >)i'i ov.-v V. it'll diagram;;, rough ph;ns and sections; re- j)ri seiiting every iniaginable and (as it fecemed) every inconceivable forker or revolving tiller, and all melhode of actuating digging-machines and arrangements of tackle for steam ploughing! Then, in tJK: uitle " sanctum" at the top of the house — •,vhat v/hccls and riggers and pocket-knife models ! what an endless variety of claw-shaped tines or cutters, and strange-looking oscillating spades with a fiort of valve apparatus for delivering the dug earth I All v/hich contrivances have been made to scratch and delve in the garden, to prove their re- spective capabilities. Convinced by his own ob- servations, and coafirrned by the opinion of a few confideniird friends, that his iinally-proposed machine is '•'mo.>t ingeniou^:i" and exactly the right thing to answer, this gentlenian took steps with a vi"wto its maniifai'ture and public J.'!biit — wl\ca he Ie;;rnt, ti) his chagiin, that his plan comes in colli- sion w'n'.x three cr foLii- patent-rights; and he must tht-refore gi\ c vp his projected undertaking, ahinned by the penaliies for infringement. Now, had he found, as many an inventor before him has done, th.'.t he !)as been wasting years of inquiry, trouble, and expense upon a scheme v/hich others have long ago tried and abandoned, he coidd only l.iave blamed his own wdnt of information. Rut the principle upon which his machinery operates is peculiar to no patent; it is in detail alone that he clashes with previous inventors— in a particular form of v/heel, and in the arrangement of certain parts. Again, were the obstructing inventions in actual use, this might be some consolation in having to purchase their aid ; but when at least two of them — also very recent— are utterly destitute of value, it becomes very annoying that our friend cannot set his tiller in motion without paying down a handsome royalty to a previous patentee, although trenching on but one insignificant " claim." It is true that by waiting two or three years there is a chance of the useless patents becoming void; still it is only a chance, as the patentees may think it worth while to secure for the whole four- teen years. Can any alteration of the existing patent law be advantageously introduced? Or must we submit to these inconveniences as unavoidable evils if inventors arc to be favoured with any privileges at all? We do not know: but have written not so much by \vay of complaint, as to shov/ the sympathy we feil for those mechanics, engineers, or agriculturists who may be preparing to aid us with a good steam cultivator; and, as a secondary consideration, to let the world know that there ate individuals in this kingdom intent and resolved upon the desired object, and, indeed, quietly and privately waiting until the field is clear for their public announcement. THE IMPEDIMENTS OFFERED TO AGRICULTURAL PRESENT SYSTEM OF COLLEGE IMPROVEMl'NT HOLDING. FROM THE [n tlr.t spifif of reformation, upon which the present age is somewhat Inclined to plume itself, there is nothing more remarkable than the increased interest evinced in tlu; administration of the affairs of public bodies and companies. Everybody's businc;;--. has turned out to be somebody's busi- nc«s aftov all, and many tho onslaught accordingly wluch has been made on the alnise of routine, or lb.; ap;;ihy of habit. Few, indeed, can hope to escape. From my Lord Commissioner of this or that department, down to the worthy Alder- man over his turtle soup, all alike are open to attack. 'J'b'! dan.dy clerk at Somerset House is no longer invulnerable. The na- tional benefit of a sinccura is no further appre- ciated. It will h.T useless to argue now that public property shall not be made the most of, simply because it would i)e too much trouble to certain too well paid oflicials to do what they should do. It may, perhaps, be a work of some time and diliiculiy to move an obstinate man, strong in his own right of might ; but surely we must not pas- sively submit to b.ave improvement retarded by the inertness of any publicly-paid class of men, who I should know and do better. : And yet we have been pabsivcly submitting to I this kind of thing for some time. Many agentle- ' man who has risen in his place to tell the farmers ! of his district how they may do something more than they have done, is cither directly or indirectly chargeable with being party to tho continuance of the greatest jiossilde obstacle to all lie advises. The relation between the agriculturist and the clergyman is a close and now generally a good one. The latter, indeed, is interested in a variety of v.'ays in the ])rosperity of the farmer. The more the art advances and (lom'ishes, the better will he the posi- tion of the pastor and his flock. He will always have a practical friend to go to, whose feelings will I correspond very much with his own, in promoting the good of the ])arish, I What, however, do we find in the face of this? THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. lo:i What reciprocity of kindly act and consideration ? Often worse tlian none. A kcsr.-eyed traveller going through districts we could name, shall note down certain plots or estates as but too palpably remarkable for the little justice dono to them. He shall see good land not half fanned, wretched buildings, and disj)irited tenants. If not knowing too much of the country, he will write these down as disputed properties, most hkely in Chancery, or yet attaining to an owner who reajts little more from them tlian the mere name of possession. Natural lhoun;h such a suppo-sition might be, it would be anything but a correct one. There is no mistake as to whom these lands belong. We could almost wish there was. It is no impoverished owner, either, who still clings to them. They arc in the hands of a rich family, in too easy circum- stances we might say, to attend, as they should do, to their own interests. They take regularly and methodically enough what may come, but they wish for no more. They will not only not do better themselves, but they carefully ])rovide that none else should do it for them. The great featui'e in the management is a system of lines —handed down and religiously observed from one generation to the other; and the more any too-aspiring occupier improves their lands, the more is he fined for so doing ! Strange as it may sound, tliis is all true. The farms are badly cultivated, the buildings arc dis- graceful, and the tenants are directly incited vot to progress. The owners are rich, for they are no others than the heads of colleges — the Deans and Chajjters, and other church dignities, who thus grossly abuse the talent entrusted to them. Not one shilling will they lay out, though many the pound they might reap by it. Should the farmer venture to do it for himself, down on his devoted head comes this admirable system of fines. The property is clearly worth more than it was, and a conscientious assessor at once declares that the man who has done this good must be taxed in proj)Ortion. The evil is by no means unknown, but it has been suffered to con- tinue far too long, and with too little attention to its effects. There cannot be a question but that the plan on which these properties are let is essen- tially a bad one, though, at the same time, it is patent enough that even under present circum- stances far more might be done in improving them. We cannot avoid the conviction that great blame rests with these heads of colleges, and that in a word they have proved themselves utterly unworthy of the trust reposed in them. We speak not merely uj)on hearsay evidence. We have' ourselves some tolerable experience of the county of Oxford, and we could name more than one tenant, of capital v.dio has dribbled his fortune av.-ay over tlic^c college holdings. Ail beyond "just living on" is an impossibility. There- is a general air of depres.-.iou about tlie whole home • stead, and a man feels beat and sinking, with all the means about him for doing well. If v/e v/anted any further corroboration, v/e have it in a very good letter, signed "T. R. R. C," and pub-.ished in th'' T/j/!« during the past week. T''/! 'vv'ier gives hi' own case as the example: — "The Dean and Chapter of Windsor are owner' of extensive farms, Ic! to ijUunts on leases lox ?.) year.?, which it has been 'he f'ustomto renev,' cverv seven years at a low rrni on payment of a propor- tionate fine. Tiie general l)ad condition of j 'roper- ties so held is notoriou.'J. The':e gentlemen nntonly set their faces against ])arish improvements t*.; v/hicb. they may be asked to contri!)Ute — and upon this much may be said — but it will appear they are such enemies to innovation that they net only refuse to assist their tenants in improving their farm.';, but will not even give them the opjiortunity of doing: so at their own cost. I am the lessee of a large farm of theirs in Oxfordshire, whicl; might be made very productive, but which is nov,' almost a wa.stc, tuid I am debarred from improving it by its want of draining. .' therefore lately applied to tlieir f:te\vard to aid me in obtaining a Covernment loan to drain it, ex- ])ressing my v.-illigness to p.'iV Lbs wliole of the rent-charge during my occupancy of twenty-or. years. It may be ncc;'-^':ary to exjjl.'.in tliat th Government advances nnney for drainin;^, to \)f- repaid by an annual rent-charge of G?. per crnt.fi'> 22 years ; but to obtain tids a leaseholder for 2i years must get the lessor to join in his application. One would think that, as I am ih? lessee at a nominal rent for 21 years, and the money is to be expended in the permanent improvement of the land to at least the extent of the rent-charge, the lessor.s would be most liappy to join in an application by \fhicb they v.ould get their land permanently benefited, at the expense of the ti^nant, to at least the extent of the tni'^lay, namely, about £5 ])er acre — J say to at least the ex- tent of the outlay, becau.?e it is only on conditiori that the draining shall benefit the land to thi'' extent that the Government advance is tn be obtained ; and, in addition to the benefit from the draining, the land would further have tlio ad- vantage of the other improvements wiiich the drain, ing would lead to, but which its present v/ct .state is a bar to. But no ! the steward sees the possi- bihty of the dean and chapter having to pay the rent-charge for one year at the end of 21 years, and does not see that by that time the estate will have been benefited by my having made 21 payment^ 104 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, out of 22, and that I am desirous of incurring the rent-charge for 21 years, from seeing that the farm must each year be benefited move than the addi- tional rent I undertake to pay, and at the end of iny lease tlie lessors would come into tlie improved rent my outlay would have created, at the cost of one year's payment; and so, by this refusal, I must continue to hold the land in its present unimproved condition for 21 years; and the dean and canon will, at the end of my lease, find their farm remain- ing in its present comparatively valueless condi- tion." The very natural question which arises here is, why not, then, go on in despite of these sloths ? This same admirable system of Fines is the an- swer: — ''Were I to do so, when the time comes, seven years hence, to renew my lease, the same steward would be the first to assess the farm at the improved rent my outlay would have created; and thus I should increase the fine I should have to pay by my own act; and this, I think, every one in my position would declme doing." Just eight years ago, Mr. Houghton spoke thus to a Committee of the House of Commons : — " Upon Ruother farm I liave in Berkshire, which is lease- hold property iiuder tlie college, which I have a beneficial interest in, there I pay a fiuc every seven years, and a very gmall reserve rent ; thac was also in a state of nature, ornearly 80, when I took to it ia the year 1S30, Wliat I complain of, and what T most certainly wish to call the attention of the Committee to, is this— the very great hardship we labour under, after going through that time ; when our fine comes round at the end of the seven years, a very great increase is put npou our improvements. With regard to fines, I have known a very great increase put upon thera, and I think it a very hard case, because every shilling of the improvemecta has been made by the tenant. It ia one of the greatest impediments to the improvement of agriculture that the whole of the college property and church leases are let out for a terra of years, on paying a fine every seven years. If you happen to break up your waste lands, or build a new house and premises, and lay out a large sum in making it a fit residence to live in, they come round at the end of seven years, and make you pay an increase upon your own capital expended. That is the same with respect to improvements of land, they not having contributed one shilling towards those improvements ; you have the beneficial interest, and if you do not choose to pay them what they think proper to ask, they will not renew, and at the end of fourteen years more you have to give up the whole coucern." "A fo.x well found," says the sportsman, "is half killed." At any rate we have here a fine view ; and if we only cap on to thera at once, we may force them to break, and take over a better line. If they don't, we must "worry" thera on their own pastures, where there is not even a drain to run to ground in. The Oxford Farmers' Club, we see, is one of the few now strong in discussion. Might we suggest to its members an appropriate theme? — "The impediments offered to agricultural improvement from the present system of college holding." THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The press of this country has been aptly termed the " Fourth Estate ;" and doubtless, in a poli- tical sense, it is so. Concurring in the im- portance claimed, it may be worth while to see how far it has influeYiced the department we advo- cate— that of agricultural development; and by reviewing the past, endeavour to tj-ace ii» the future what may ultimately Ije its position at the expira- tion of the next decimal period of (en years. In carrying out this intention, wc shall not take the period, in point of time, so greatly into account; but the rather compare generally farming as it was with what it is at the present moment. It has always happened, as it always will happen, that any new or great discoveries, on becoming fully developed, are passed as of things gone by, and future generations accept them as discoveries oi the past, without relation to time or circumstance; but should the man of investigating mind hereafter devote himself to the task of tracing their origin, he will find that the past thirty years have been more fruitful of discovery and invention, as m'pII as the advantages derived from their assistance have been more extensive and beneficial than all those of the preceding century put together; and he will be desirous of ascertaining how it has so happened, and why at that ]-)articular period they should have become so fully developed. There is even in our scholastic leaching, however humble it may have been, some things impressed upon the memory, that rise upon an occasion like the present, and supply an answer — AVho is there, as we hear persons of limited education sometimes ejacu- late, that has not written //io/inhis copybook? And who is there, we reiterate, that has not written that "Necessity is the mother of Invention r" But, on the other hand, although the moral or suggestion may be quoted, who is there that applies it to the j passing occurrence, and weighing the result fairly in the balance, leaves to truth the decision of the question at issue ? If the prosperity that distinguished the farming interest during the preceding period of which wo are writing had not been suridenly withdrawn, the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 105 adversity that succeeded during the next 30 years would not have been felt in one-half that formid- able severity by which it v/as attended. Wheat at 100s. per qr. during the first, and wheat at 40s. per qr. during the other period, showed a discre- pancy so vast that at the present moment it is matter of astonishment that so many farmers with- stood the shock, rather than that all did not suc- cumb to its violence. Of the many ships that leave the port, how few return successful ! — those that have gone down cease to be remembered, or leave but a transient existence on the memories of their more fortunate rivals that proudly sail into port with increased importance that they have succeeded in overcoming dangers to which others have fatally succumbed. So on retracing the scene and extending the view — how many of the preceding age (still fresh in our memories), who at the termination of the war were looked upon as wealthy, have disappeared, and with their families have sunk into oblivion ! "Whilst, on the contrary, a few, endowed with per- severance and tact, have with good fortune, intelli- gence, and industry succeeded. " Necessity became with them the mother of Invention ;" and, as in nature the offspring quit the fostering care of the parent when arrived at maturity, so Invention no longer acknowledges Necessity, but selects its own path for the future, and, forgetting its parent, proceeds onward in its course to fulfil its destiny for the benefit of the surrounding mul- titudes. From the altered circumstances of the times, farmers were comjjelled to resort to the mode of making " two ears of corn grow where only one had grown before ;" or, in other words, were neces- sitated to meet the deficiency of price by increasing the production, which endeavour unforeseen events tended in no small degree to aid them. The discovery of guano and the triumphs of chemistry, materially assisted to accomplish for them what otherwise Invention never could have at- tained. The cultivators of the worst descriptions of soil became benefited in a more conspicuous manner than the cultivators of those of the best description ; with less charges and outlay, by way of rent and labour, their returns were more than proportionably increased, and it became notorious that the oc- cupiers of inferior farms took a position in relation to those of a better description that they had never before attained. "Whilst, the extensive introduc- tion of under-draining still further contributed to bring them nearer the point of productiveness ; so that, under the further advantages of season, the inferior clay soils in the last year have generally produced crops superior to those found upon the best soils of the kingdom; and, although it has been in this case mainly attributable to the beneficial influence of a dry season, we are not to forget that this has been only proportionately with the previous high cultivation employed. The ap- plication of machinery to the uses of a farm has given to other purposes the labour formerly de- voted to thrashing, and many other processes now superseded wholly or in part by it; and these again acting and reacting, have tended to produce a higher degree of cultivation than had before never been attained ; and thus going on year by year v/ith accelerated force, it must at length ramify to all those districts and farms not hitherto reached. The thrashing and converting our crops, which should be accomplished by the least expensive mode, is now effected by machinery ; and therefore so far invention has yielded a vast amount of benefit, and done its duty. "We now require its application to the cultivation of the soil, and thus to place us upon a footing with the manufacturers of iron as v.'ell as of our cotton and woollen fabrics. Machinery has, in these cases, so far reduced the cost of production, that it has enabled them to compete with the whole world, and to undersell the manufactures of other nations. Machinery, when placed in competition with manual and horse labour, not only excels it for quantity, but cost. "Upon an ordinary farm, the horse labour is as two to three of manual; the two combined, as one to two of the produce. The importance of superseding it in any degree is, therefore, apparent ; and ought to be the step next taken, to enable the farmers to meet the competi- tion to which, whenever peace is established, they will again be subjected. Another point that has almost escaped attention, is the great advantage that has been derived by the introduction of new varieties of grain and roots. If any one will take the trouble to compare those of the last period we have referred to with the preceding one, he will at once become convinced of the fact. The knowledge that has been obtained in the physiology of plants, and the advantages de- rived by hybridizing, have tended materially to this result. The varieties of wheat of which the Syer and Spalding varieties are types, when brought into a comparison with the Burrell and now almost extinct varieties of a former period, will show an increase in quantity of fully twenty per cent, in acreable production. The Tartarian varieties of oats, in comparison with the original varieties, exhibit a still greater increase. The Chevalier, and improved varieties of barley; the Italian, and improved varieties of grasses ; the Skirving, and improved varieties of turnips ; the same of mangel-wurzel, and its adaptation to the heavier descriptions of soil, are all advantages of lOG THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which it is almost impossible to calculate the benefits. These are subjects coming under the denomina- tion more of practical than of scientific develop- ment ; or rather may we not say it is practice with science, aided as it has been by invention stimu- lated by necessity? As, however, we intend to return to this subject, we must postpone for the present any direct consideration as to how far agri- culture has profited by the exertion and the agency of the Press. ON FATTENING CATTLE. The London, or Central Farmers' Club, in the late discussion on fattening cattle, entirely over- looked the chief point on which the matter rests, viz. — the quality of the straw and turnips in North and South Britain. This division of the kingdom happens in Yorkshire, as in the north of that county very different systems and qualities gener- ally prevail from the southern parts, arising from the soil and climate, and the attendant conse- quences. The early climate of South Britain hastens the maturation of strawy crops, and the dry aridity exsiccates every moisture, and leaves the culms in the condition of silicious fibre that afford no nutri- ment, and only fit for being converted into manure. In North Britain, the humid climate permits a later growth of vegetation, which is reaped with more moisture, and thus inherits a nutritious qua- lity. In these parts, work-horses are sustained by wheat- straw during winter; oat-straw is a dainty ; and even barley-straw is used, when the crop has been well harvested. The best beef in Britain is there matured from turnips and straws, and without any other article whatever. The climate produces a harJ, glossy turnip, very moist and sweet, that is very far superior in quality to the soft, foggy bulbs that grow in South Britain, where are wanting the eflFects of cold, tempered with moisture, to mature the turnip for fattening. The straws will not maintain any animal life, much less support horses that work, and are even useless to maintain young stock that are being reared. Hence the resort to oilcake and extraneous articles, to supply the deficiency in straws and roots. On the other hand, the hay of South Britain much exceeds that of the northern parts, as the dry climate allows the storing of the crop with much greenness and moisture retained, and which is thereby very nutritious. But hay is not an effi- cient article for the purpose of fattening : waste attends the use, and with straw that attendance is converted into manuie. The value of hay grudges being made into dung, without being used for feeding. The beef of Scotch Kyloe cattle, which is the best in Britain, is not so good when the animals are fattened in South Britain as when produced in Scotland, which arises from the very potent influences of climate both on the articles of food and on the animal organization. After all the fine breeding of animals that has been accomplished, these Kyloe cattle pay more per head and per acre than most cattle in Britain, because they are reared at such little cost. Beasts are most conveniently fattened in yards, provided with a shelter- shed, with one opening, and low in the roof. The dressed turnips are placed in the morning, for a day's supply, in cribs, along the side-walls of the shed, and from which all filth is removed every morning. A widely- latticed rack, in the centre of the yard, contains the straws, which are placed in a fresh supply in a daily store, and are eaten or rejected at pleasure. Two of the largest- sized beasts may be in one yard, and three 9r four of the medium bulk. Of young cattle, six or eight are lodged in a yard, and are supplied with turnip-tops and small roots. The yards are strewed with litter, thinly and evenly, every two or three days. The cutting or slicing of turnips, to be eaten by sheep and cattle, never rested on a stable founda- tion, but is nevertheless a practice that continues longer than some other fancies, by reason of acci- dental circumstances. An apple is best when bitten by the human mouth ; and when cut, as done with turnips, the volatile juices fly off; and they form the most nutritious portion of the articles. The animal delights to exercise the jaws, by which the saliva is produced, that is essential to the produc- tion of the agents of decomposition. The expense of cutting roots adds to the outlay of manufacture. After all that has been spoken, written, and prac- tised on the use of turnips, it may be stated that the easiest and most effectual mode consists in drawing from lands of good quality the one-half of the crop, dressed from earth and roots, and spread- ing the bulbs daily over a surface of ley or stubble, and there consumed by a fattening flock, which will eat all but a few rinds, which pass into ma- nure; and the animals repose where and when their freedom directs. A very long, varied, and extensive experience enables the assertion that no better way exists of fattening sheep ; and the ex- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 107 pense is the least that can be incurred. The half of the crop left on the ground is consumed on the land by a store flock, or by a portion of sheep in a condition advanced to become fat from the early grazing. One-third of the crop may be dressed from tops and roots, and carried for stall- feeding ; a third used as described ; and the other third left to be consumed on the ground. This is the mode on the best quality of turnip- lands. On the light soils, on which turnips are raised with auxiliary manures, the whole crop is consumed on the ground ; a fresh portion is given daily ; the roots are eaten where they grow, and the shells of the bulbs are picked up, and the rinds only remain. The sheep are confined nightly in a fold that is moved regularly over the ground, be- hind the consumption of the turnips. The land is thus equally benefited, and the sheep have daily freedom for exercise. It is very true that turnips cannot be raised in the dry climate of South Britain to compete with the northern parts, where dews and very frequent rains are so abundant j but potatoes may be largely produced by autumn planting, which secures to the plant the benefit of winter moisture. Potatoes will rear cattle, along with straws, very beneficially ; and, though not equal to turnips for fattening, a large amount of assistance may be got from the roots. Cabbages may be winter-raised in the same manner. Fattening of cattle without roots is not an eligible piece of farming ; and when extraneous articles are bought, and an expensive process of manufacture incurred, the whole cost bears heavily on the profits. Food raised on the farm glides into use, and without any great expense in one date. A cost is incurred ; but the outlay is in differ- ent times and items, and no large aggregation is raised. More than one purpose is answered : the beast is reared and fattened, and the land is im- proved for cropping. The cutting of straws and hays into chaiF rests on the same foundation with slicing turnips : straw in chaff is straw still; and with hay, the article passes unreduced by chewing, and the necessary saliva is not produced. Nature acts by simple 1 modes ; and in following them, the most certain ! success is obtained. J. D. THE SPREADING OF FARMYARD MANURE, A frozen surface of grass — a thermometer show- ing a night temperature of 18 and even 16 dags, sets the dung-cart busily to work; the pastures are extensively top-dressed. Within one hundred yards of the windows of the room where we are now writing, this operation is going on, in an old park. The turf is refreshing, in this wa)'', over a large breadth of an old domain, whose soil the plough has not disturbed since good Queen Eliza- beth walked under its venerable trees, with Howard of Effingham, and the other great sailors of the Armada, in her train. The manure thus spreading tells us plainly enough, even through our noses, that it is not the dung of poor straw-fed animals that forms this rich top-dressing ; it is too nitro- genous, too ammoniacal in its fumes for that. \\e look forward to a rich breadth of spring grass, that will refresh our eyesight wherever its influence extends ; but as Nelson, when only a post-captain, once said to his admiral, who was rather too wont to travel on in the old v/ay, " Never let us say we have done well if we could have done better." So we feel that the ordinary spreading of farmyard compost over grass lands is one of those practices that might be improved upon ; it is, in fact, one of the few operations of the farm which modern agri- culturists, and the science of our times, have left much in the same state as in the days of the Tudors, v/hen good old Judge Fitzherbert gravely assigned to the English farmer's wives of his time the very dehcate office of aiding their husbands to fill the dung wain i Is there no way, then, of profitably improving this practice ? Could not a " turf manure drill" be con- structed, that would depositjif not ordinary compost, at least artificial manures, beneath the surface of the turf; something which should combine the advan- tages of the sub-turf plough with the manure drill ? Or, if this is not yet to be accomphshed, is there no mode by which the ammoniacal gases of the dung, when spread over the surface of the turf, shall cease to be swept away by the dry March winds ? We rather opine that this is to be done to a very profitable extent, and we should be glad if some of our readers, whose teams are now thus employed, would make a few easy comparative ex- periments, and report to us the results. Why not try the effect of common salt mixed with the dung ? It is a good fixer of ammonia, and its presence would produce other and beneficial effects upon the manure, the grasses, the soil, and the insects which tenant them all. We should not be afraid of applying the salt liberally. If the farmer has ready access to lime, another portion of the dung might be dressed with this earth; but let us not forget in any ease that, if we want knowledge, we 108 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. must "gang warily," and not either lirae or salt the whole of the application of dung, but a portion of the dressing only. That the evolution of even the ammoniacal fumes of Peruvian guano is stayed by a copious admixture of salt, has been lately shown by an able French chemist. M. Barral made his experiments both in his laboratory and in his fields [Quar. Journal of Agri. 1855, p. 705). He took two samples of pure guano, mixing one with its own weight of common salt. He exposed equal weights of the pure guano and of the salted guano, in the same stove, to a current of air main- tained at 100 degs. They were equally spread, occupied the same extent of surface, were alike pul- verized. At the end of three hours the pure guano was found to have lost 5.1 per cent, of its nitrogen; but only 1.9 per cent, was lost from that mixed with salt. The next trial was made in the open air. For fifteen days equal weights of the pure and the salted guano were exposed in plates. At the end of that period the pure guano had lost 11.6 per cent, of its nitrogen; the salted guano only 5 per cent. These important observations are of a class which well repay the careful study of the grazier, for some light might, perchance, be thrown in this way upon the fitful growth of the red clover, whose success seems in many cases promoted by the preservation in its soil of nitrogenous manures. This plant appears to delight in close soils. It has been re- marked generally to succeed better after sheep-fed turnips than after a carted-ofF crop. And, as a writer in the same able periodical we have just quoted tell us [ibid, 1856, p. 198), manure seems to have a material influence on the growth of clover. We remember a case where the manure had been carted out during a frost, and laid in heaps, which were not spread out at the time. The frost was succeeded by very wet weather; the dung remained unspread ; the best part of the manure was therefore washed into the soil under the heaps. When the field was in hay, there was scarcely a plant of clover to be seen in it, except where the heaps of dung had lain : there it flourished luxu- riantly. In Scotland (adds the same author) we find that the nearer in the rotation is the application of the manure to the clover crop, the more likely it is to succeed ; and that if the manure is applied to the barley rather than (as is usual) to the turnip crop, the greater is the chance of a crop of clover. All these observations appear to us to point in a similar direction ; viz., that the greater the amount of ammoniacal or other nitrogenous matters present in the soil, the better for the grasses : and although we may not yet be able to apply volatile manures to our grass lands in any better way than by spreading them on the surface, in the sunshine, to be dispersed by the breezes, yet it is always beneficial in any case, when we remember that the course we have long adopted can hardly be made worse. The hero who invented beer no doubt kept it at first in an open vessel. It was only when time pointed out that the air carried oflF its most prized and volatile portion, that covered vessels were employed : the formation of bung- holes was no doubt a later improvement, and bungs and vent-pegs a still more recent. "PROPOSED SALE OF THE CHINCHA GUANO ISLANDS.' " Be it decreed that the guano of the Chincha Islands — say 11,670,152 tons — be sold at public auction, in nine months, at a price not less than 30 dollars per ton" — is the proposition of the Peruvian Government for the solution of the guano monopoly question. How does it affect British agriculture ? For some time past we have been loud in our complaints, every province in this kingdom echoing the exorbitant charges it was paying for this invaluable manure, upwards of 50 dollars having been paid per ton ! Now, we have the offer of the whole at Utile more than half the money ! Who amongst us ever dreamt of so propitious a settlement of this inter- national question ? How should we respond to it ? But is the story " too good to be true " ? Whether true or not — whether there is any probability of the contemplated " Bill " passing the Peruvian Legislature or not, the proposition raised suggests two things worthy of consideration : First, if true, ought not the landed interest or Government of this country to close with the offer made, so as to prevent, proba< bly, higher prices than now paid being demanded by guano speculators ? And, second, if the measure falls to the ground, ought they to make such an offer to the Peruvian Government as is here contemplated, in the hopes of procuring a suitable supply of guano to meet the wants of the country ? Considered first in respect to Peru, there cannot be a doubt that Senor Roca's measure is a prudent one for the republic, and that the 350,104,560 dollars, if judiciously invested in the paying off of her national debt, the en- couragement of immigration, education of the people, and in the irrigation and improvement of the country generally, would be of far more value than the immense accumulations of guano on the Chincha Islands. Ex- perience has already proved, to the satisfaction of the National Convention, that the latter is not such a pro- fitable source from which to derive a revenue as the general prosperity of the commonwealth. So far, there- fore, as Peru is concerned, the proposition is probably the most important which has ever been enunciated in her political economy. To England the question comes home wilh double in- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 109 terest at the present moment, owing to the high price of agricultural produce. The extra demand for artificial manures proves this, that for Peruvian guiino exceeding many times the supply. Now, as an increase of supply would be equivalent to an increase of produce, the bene- ficial results at issue may be more easily imagined than expressed. But the mere change of proprietorship would be no guarantee for an increased supply. On the contrary, it might prove the reverse, public or public speculators turning out greater monopolists than what the Peruvian Government have been. Free trade in guano is obviously, therefore, the practical question at issue ; and to obtain such a deside- ratum we may at once conclude that the British Govern- ment ought to become the purchasers. The guano might be equally safe iu the bands of the landed interest as to monopoly ; but here, we fear, the lack of enterprise and capital is such as to render the proposi- tion practically impossible, so that the result would be the loss of the guano. The first point is, to secure it at the highest price it is worth ; the second, to protect the islands after the purchase is made; and the third, to secure the delivery of the guano to the British farmer. Now, under each of these heads, the Government possesses many advantages over private commercial in- terests. It is able, for example, to give a longer price, and thus secure the guano ; and also to control the whole aflfair afterwards, both as to protection and delivery. To this, no doubt, exceptions may be taken, in behalf of commercial and international riglits. In a country like England, where capital is so plentiful and enter- prise so great, it may be asked, for example, Why make a Government job of the Chincha Islands ? But the objection falls to the ground, for two reasons— _^ri^, there would be nothing to hinder Government from handing over to commercial parties the guano at prime cost, on their granting the necessary security to offer it in the British market at a stipulated price ; and second, even granting that Government sold the whole through the instrumentality of commission agents, transactions with the landed interest and retail dealers would be of such an open recognized character as to prevent the possibility of jobbing. The other question of international rights is not so easily disposed of ; for England will find in the United States of America, France, and the other continental states of Europe no mean competitors in the first market. " The law," we are told, is " to be published in all languages, and circulated, through the Govern- ment representatives, in Europe, Asia, and America ;" so that no favour or partiality is to be shown her. At the same time, it is evident that she stands most in need of the guano — is the wealthiest and best able to give a fair price for it ; so that, if we lose this national acquisition of so much importance to us in our present exigencies, the reason must obviously be attributed to bad management — a conclusion which need not be concealed. We have said that Government ought to give the highest price the guano is worth to England. Now, as this is somewhat opposed to the opinions hitherto ex- pressed by the country, its soundness may be queried, and therefore it may be as well to review it before passing to the second head of our subject. (1). Peruvian guano is still one of the cheapest artificial manure in the market, and if the Chincha Islands fall into the hands of our transatlantic cousins, who are not insensible of their value, those who have hitherto been loudest in their complaints against monopoly prices to Government maybe the first to reprove them, for a want of duty and respect to the welfare of the agricultural interest, should they lose the guano by offering too small a price. (2). The proposition of the Peruvian Government is doubtless calculated to reprove the policy of the landed interest and government of this country, hitherto being not a little tinged with short-sighted selfishness, and to warn them in business-like terms at present not to lose sight of the best interests of their country for the future. (3). And lastly, the present exigencies of the country demand of Government to secure the guano at almost any reasonable price. International duty may no doubt call upon her to respond to the interests of other states. Granted ; but nevertheless if England neglects her in- terest in the Chincha Islands, she obviously loses sight of what is equivalent to her staff of life — the daily bread of a large portion of her people, now experiencing the hardships of a short allowance. With these conclusions we are prepared, briefly to dispose of the second part of our subject. If the De- puties of Peru reject Senor Roca's measure, it will neither diminish England's dependence on guano for our increase of bread-corn, nor lessen the duty de. volving on her Government and landed interest to con- sult, at present, the productive resources of their country for the future. The question of purchase has been raised, and no stone ought to be left unturned to conclude a bargain. The mutual interests of both countries de- mand this ; and although postponed, the day is not far distant when they will reciprocate together; for what England has to spare (a surplus population, machinery, &c.) Peru wants, and what Peru has to spare (guano) England wants ; so that under such circumstances the interchange at issue is but a work of time. At present, therefore, England demands of the landed interest of this country to do their duty. TO KILL WORMS. — Where worms are numerous, and throw up their casts in such quantities as to disfigure grass- plots, a strong decoction of walnut-leaves, if in the seaaoD, watered from a pot over the ground, will cause the vermin to leave their holes, when they may be easily destroyed. In frinter-time a good irrigation of strong brine (salt and water) will produce a similar effect, but the herbage will perish on its application, although the same may be used safely and effectually in gravel-walks, &c. no THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE GAME LAWS AND LANDLORDS. There are certain abuses which, in the still faith- ful observance of a time-honoured custom, are sure to be made the most of. Prominent amongst these stand game and the game-laws. The of- fence here is not so much in breaking the law as in enforcing it. Perhaps in no other act for which the Legislature is answerable are the sympathies of the people generally so little in unison with that they have to observe. The game-laws, in fact, are made for one especial class of society. More than this, to that same body is their jurisdiction almost entirely entrusted. The man, then, who sins against such enactments, does so with the full consciousness that his judges will be those chiefly interested in maintaining the full dignity of the law. The knowledge of this ought to have the effect of making us all more than usually careful. In saying so much, we would address not merely him who may be tempted to transgress, but equally so such as may have to sit in judgment upon him. At best "they have a disagreeable duty to perform." Their prejudices and their interests will all be assumed to go against the offender. They v/ill be looked upon by many not so much as justices as pro- secutors ; and woe to them should they strain any point or enforce any penalty for which they are not fully warranted. As we have said, this is certain to be made the most of. The Press of this country have not often much in common with the sportsman. Town and Country will be alike ready to fasten on such an error of judgment. From his own imme- diate neighbourhood to the most distant parts of the kingdom will the oppression and injustice of the country magistrate continue to be dwelt upon and denounced. Surely, then, it behoves us all to be doubly care- ful in what we do with the game-laws j and surely the country gentleman should be even more careful than any other, in handling so tickhsh a subject. He is commonly regarded only as the influenced exponent of a bad law ; while a keen sense of his own honour and character should urge him to afford every reasonable contradiction to so un- favourable an opinion. Let him hazard no con- viction but on the clearest evidence; and even when he does convict, let mercy be as ready to temper justice in the death of a pheasant, as for the stealing of a loaf, the pulling a turnip, or any other crime where poverty and necessity may have induced to ils commission. Let him, on the other hand, be but hasty and harsh, and, like another Midas, all he touches shall turn to game — he himself being made more palpably game of than his finest pheasants or fattest hares. Surely, we repeat, he should be careful here. If he would have his neighbours respect him, and the Government uphold him, he should endeavour to read the game-laws temperately and dispassion- ately. If he will not, seldom in these days can he hope to escape retribution. It is not only the poor wretch before him that the abuse of power will arm against him. Every hand is ready to be raised. He and his laws are not merely oppressing the la- bourer, but robbing the farmer, and disgracing the community. All this has been said within this very week. There is hardly a paper in London but has de- nounced the monstrous decision of the Wing- ham Bench of Magistrates. We are not going to tell the story over again here. It v/ill be found in another place ; and it will be seen from this that the whole charge rested with one of those terrors of the country — a game-keeper. We speak advisedly. We know from our own experience how often characters are whispered away and petty cases trumped up by these men ; and it is simply a disgrace to the landed proprie- tors they should exercise with their employers the influence they do. Can anything be more over- strained than this man's conduct ? The firing of a gun was with him offence enough, and v.'ithout an atom of evidence beyond, the worshipful Bench of Magistrates agreed with, and supported him ! Mr. Rice may consider himself in no way implicated in this matter. Had, however, an over-zealous police- man, in his anxiety to convict, forced the so-called evidence which his servant did from a half-witted boy, the man would most probably have lost his appointment. It remains to be seen whether " a gentleman's service" is to tend but to the training and encouragement of mere spies. As to the conviction indeed, no evidence what- ever need have been offered. The game-keeper influence runs through the whole proceedings. The lad's character had evidently been whispered away. What says Mr. D'Aeth — "Your father and brothers have all been at it ; and if they have not been taken, they ougtit to have been.' Been at what, Mr. D'Aeth ? Doing their duty to their em- ployers, and, in so doing, accidentally killing game they did not care to pick up. That " ought to be" is a convenient phrase. According to Mr. D'.\eth, the whole family of the Hoyles " ought THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. HI to be" in prison for offences never proved against them ; while Mr. D'Aeth " ought to be," no doubt, the grand luminary of the Wingham- Bench of Magistrates, from that excellent discretion and common sense of justice he has now so signally proved himself to possess. The case, however, has still another reading, and that peculiarly an agricultural one. The farmer's bird-boy has now his duties clearly defined, and it is only right these should be generally known. There are certain birds he is to warn oft'; while there are others to which he is to pay the utmost possible respect. With rooks, pigeons, and such likerapscalhons, he will have no mercy; but at the same time he must take care not to inconvenience the game. " I am sorry to trouble you, really," he will say politely to a gentlemanly cock-pheasant, " but I will drive these blackguards o9f in a minute, and then you will have it all to yourself." Tliis, indeed, can be the only safe course ; for, remember, there is sure to be a keeper to mind the boy that minds the birds. We hope even this may be carried yet a step further, as with the Yorkshireman who hesitated to bet with the Londoner. " If you doubt me," said the latter, " my friend the captain here shall hold the money." "Aye, aye," returned the other, " but who's to hold the captain ? " We should like to have somebody in turn to mind the keeper— might we suggest his employer ? And what is the effect of all this ? Mr. Bright is urged by one writer to return to his proper labours, and aid us to do away with these abomin- able game-laws. By another, farmers are told to profit by the lesson before them, and never to think of taking land on which there is any reservation of game. A third has some similar advice, quite as well-intentioned, and more or less as impracticable. The game, no doubt, is a landlord's privilege, that will long yet continue with him. How many tenants would now be without occupations, did they stand out for it ? Temperately and fairly exercised, we believe it to be a right which the tenantry of this country do not often dis- pute. They are glad to see their landlords enjoy themselves as they should over their own estates, so long, of course, as this be not to the serious injury of those who have to live by their cultiva- tion. W^e could instance very many properties where this good feeling has long existed; and others, on the contrary, where the system of game- preserving is to the farmer and the community, little short of direct robbery, waste, and abuse. The great power, we say again, is with the owners of land. They have yet the game-laws in their own hands ; and it is for them to show that these laws may be retained without that outrage on common sense and justice with which their ob- servance is now so often associated. VERMIN, AND GAME LAWS. Sir, — From the letters I see, from time to time, in your paper, on the subject of Preserving Rabbits upon Estates, it would seem that the landlords of England — some of them, at least — were growing more and more demented about their game. What ! give the rabbits as a perquisite, in part of wages, to the gamekeepers, and thus establish for them a direct interest in making every farm a preserve for their benefit ! This is surely the extreme of reckless injustice and folly, and argues as little regard for the interest of the estate as for that of the tenants. Never would I place myself in the power of a man who, to the practice of preserving game (really such) for his own pleasure and amusement, adds that still more gross injustice of giving a set of men, gene- rally devoid of principle, the privilege of converting every farm on an estate into a rabbit warren, for their own especial benefit. I have known something of the destruction caused by these vermin, both to the crops and fences, even where the tenants had full liberty to destroy tliem ; and I Lave no hesitation iu saying that no farm is worth having, on any pecuniary terms, where the gamekeepers have the rabbits for a perquisite ; nor does any landlord wlio practises it deserve to have a respectable tenant. It may be said that I have applied a harsh epithet to gamekeepers ; but although there may be some who do not deserve it, my own experience convinces me that the majority of them are what I have described them to be. In innumerable instances they are men who have been the most successful poachers themselves, and are chosen, not only on account of their cleverness, but of their intimate knowledge of the peasantry in general, and of the poaching fraternity in particular, in the neighbourhood. Most of them, I believe, too, do a little in that way, under the rose, themselves, and in some cases with the connivance of their employers, who wink at it for a very palpable reason. A circumstance occurs to my recollection which will serve to illustrate this case. The Earl of B. was once exclaiming against the lawyer who had the management of his estates, for some peccadilloes he had just then detected. " Well, my Lord," said the Countess, " it is entirely your own fault. You know him to be a villain, and that lie is robbing you every day of your life ; why, then, do you not turn him off.'" " Most true, my Lady," replied the Earl ; " C. does rob me right and left, but he takes good care the tenants shall not do so ; and, with submission to your Lady- 112 THE FARMER'S MAGAZIN-E. ship's better judgment, I had rather have one thief about me in the shape of a stetvard, than three hundred in that of tenants." Just so : and on that principle the landed gentry act who give their keepers the privilege of robbing both themselves and their farmers, and submit to the degra- dation of employing around them a set of men who, out of their livery, they would most willingly hang or trans- port, if they could. It is, in fact, the guilty knowledge these men possess of the poachers and their habits, that alone obtains them the favour of their masters. That many of the keepers, if not most of them, are themselves poachers, I have abundant reason to believe. The following case is so much in point that I cannot refrain from stating it. Some years ago, the late General B. went to a certain noted public-house, the resort of poachers, in the city of N., and asked the landlord if he could procure him thirty brace of live pheasants, to stock a young plantation on his estate at H., away from his old covers. " If you come here next week," replied the innkeeper, " I shall have seen several parties in that line, and shall be able to tell you." Accordingly, the General went at the time appointed, when the man told him he might have the required num- ber at two days' notice, and off any estate he chose ; " including," said he, " your oton, if that will suit." "No, no!" exclaimed the General hastily; "any- where but out of my covers," The plain and naked inference to be deduced from the above anecdote — which I know to be true, it having been related to me by one of the General's tenants, who bad the account from the innkeeper himself — is that all the gamekeepers on the surrounding estates were poachers, and known to be so by their employers. And although, probably, none of the latter counted upon such a whole- sale raid upon their covers, they kept these men, with a full knowledge of their " ruling passion," upon the principle of the old proverb, " Set a thief to catch a thief." Now, to place a body of tenantry at the mercy of such men, giving them a direct interest in keeping up a large head of these vermin upon the farms, is nothing better than downright robbery. It is plain that the more rabbits there are, the larger are the gains of the keepers, who cannot be expected to feel any com- punction about the damage they inflict. Indeed, if the landlord himself pays no more regard to the welfare of his tenants than to render them subject to such a gross injustice and injury, it cannot be expected that his keepers will be more considerate. I have myself known many estates on which the game was preserved with great rigour, the tenants not being allowed to shoot, though they might destroy the rahbita by ferret- ing. Even in these cases, as they had not the liberty of entering the covers for that purpose, the injury sustained by the constant inroads of these vermin, in addition to that inflicted by the game, was a continual source of annoyance and vexation, as well as of loss. It is hopeless for the owners of such estates to expect their tenants to carry out those iuiprovemcnts which the spirit of the a^e would other- wise suggest. The tenants on them are generally poor and dejected ; for no farmer possessing the spirit of an English- man wonl 1 take land under such abject conditions. But when to this is added the monstrosity of creating a second prc.'irn'c, by turning every farm into a rahbit-warren for the prolit of the game-keepers, the degradation of the tenant becomes complete. It is bad eDOu^ii to have these artful fellows (for such ia the character of all I ever came across) constantly about you, prying into your affairs, and carrying to their employers every little circumstance they fancy will please them to know, and injure the tenants. More mischief, I firmly believe, has been created between landlord and tenant by their means than by any other. But nothing whatever can justify a landlord in giving them an interest in the destruction of the crops, by allowing them the rabbits as a perquisite— a system sure to intensify the bickerings and quarrels which arise through the influence of these men. I have at this moment in my eye a farm occupied by a relation of my own. It contains seven hundred acres of excellent land : the tenant is wealthy, and has farmed it well, and successfully ; but, through the vile insinuations of an artful keeper, who is jealous of his destroying the rabbits, he has had disputes with his landlord, and the probability is that, as soon as he can procure another farm, he will leave it, rather than submit to the degradation of being subject to the constant surveillance of a spy, who cares for no other interest than his own. In fact, so enlightened and respectable (in point of intel- ligence) has the agricultural interest become, that it is high time an alteration should be made in the game-laws ; and that those who feed the birds and hares should be allowed the pri- vilege of sharing the pleasures of the chase, as well as the profits of the game. Under the present system the landlord may multiply his game as much as he pleases ; and the tenant must stand quietly by, and see his crops destroyed, without re- dress, or even the privilege of remonstrance. These laws are the remains of the ancient feudalism, and are as much at vari- ance with the spirit and intelligence of the present age as would be military service. I do hope that the aristocracy of England will open their eyes to the injustice and impolicy of allowing these laws to remain on the statute-book ; still less that they will continue the mean and unworthy custom of paying their servants' wages out of the just profits belonging to their tenants. Your correspondent S. A., writing from Leamington, has estimated the damage of one rabbit at 10s. per annum ; but if to the loss of the wheat be added the injury to the fences, and that sustained by the constant hunting and ferreting by the keepers, I believe that sum will not half represent the mischief, independent of the continued vexation and annoy- ance the tenant must suffer. Hoping that you will take this subject up, and expatiate upon it in your leading articles, I remain, yours, &c., Dec. 21th. Fairplay. LONDON CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. The following subjects have been selected for discussion during the present year, 1856 : — Feb. 4. — Agricultural Statistics, combined with a Practicable and Equitable System of taking the Annual Average Price of Corn. Proposed by Mr. J. A. Williams, of Baydon, Hunger- ford. March 3. — The Form of Farm Agreement best calculated to give a stimulus to Agricultural Improvements. Proposed by Mr. G. Jackson, of Tattenhall Hall, near Chester. April 7. — The Relative Values of Artificial Manures, and their Comparative Adaptation to different Crops. Proposed by Mr. J. C. Nesbit, of 39, Kennington-lane. May .5. — On the Application of Geology and Hydraulics to the Drainage of Land. Proposed by Mr. K. Baker, of Writtle, Chelmsford. June 2. — On the Expediency of Converting Grass Land into Tillage. Proposed by Mr. J. Wood, of Ockley, Sussex, November 3. — The Moral and Social Condition of the Agricultural Labourer, and the best Means for Improving it. Proposed by Mr. W. Spearing, of Chilbolton, Stockbridge. December 8, — On the Rotation of Crops, more especially as to how far the Four-course System is susceptible of Improve- ment. Proposed by Mr. J, Thomas, of Lidlington Park, VVoburn. The discussions commence at half-past 5 o'clock. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 113 GOOD HUSBANDRY, AND THE NECESSITY FOR ITS EXTENSION. From the high price of bread-corn, the con- sequent competition for farms, and probable conti- nuance of high rents, an unsophisticated stranger from the other side of the world, or even a juvenile political economist at home, would be likely to infer that the food-bearing capability of every acre of English soil is now being tested to the utmost, and that no means of increasing productiveness, which are open to a nation of great wealth and good appetite, can possibly be neglected in any corner of our kingdom. But, alas ! we know that lands culti- vated to the highest pitch of fertility are often the exception rather than the rule ; that the profitable investment of capital in improvements might be immensely extended ; and that estates may be quickly reckoned up on which almost a double amount of produce could be raised. Not only Britain, but the world, wants bread : a searching scrutiny will surely be made into the conditions which prevent the best use being made of the soil ; and if any legal or social trammels shall be found in 'the way, woe to any class of the community who, by upholding such obstacles, shall deprive their fellow-creatures of any portion of food. Tenant-farmers have been blamed and exhorted by landowners and agricultural writers, too often after the fashion of masters accusing la- bourers of improvidence, while screwing down their livelihood to the lowest rate of wages. We observe, however, that the landlords are now having their turn of appeal and reproof, of instruction and warning ; and we trust that the noble words uttered by Lord Stanley, followed by other ener- getic declarations at several agricultural societies' meetings, will lead to a great movement amongst the " sons of the soil." Notwithstanding the modern extension of good husbandry, we know that tenant-farmers may go to yet greater lengths in the profitable investment of capital in the soil : indeed, we believe that, as a general rule, the occupiers of Enghsh farms are exerting themselves beyond their strength, strain- ing to cultivate more acres than they have means to manage. But let landowners consider whether, in the majority of cases, their tenantry are not de- terred from expending capital to the full extent sanc- tioned by the experience of the best managers, by the circumstance that the permanent improvements which it is the landlord's duty to make are not yet fully undertaken. Last summer, we chanced to walk over some land belonging to a nobleman's estate, and occu- pied by one of the best business farmers in the district, and which, furnishes a pretty good illus- tration of our meaning. The land referred to lies in one of our midland counties, upon the oolite formation, and consists of several fields of clay soil, connected with a large farm of good loam and " red land," growing first-rate turnips, wheat, and barley. The clay is not particularly stiff, soapy, or tenacious, but what is called " poor and hungry." And this poverty-stricken and faminous character it seems likely to preserve under the following system of culture : Every third year it is dead- fallowed, without manuring, and never ploughed more than four inches deep ; the crops procured by all the ploughings and workings needed to keep the ground from becoming unconquerably foul consisting of three quarters of wheat per acre the first year, and a ^vretchedly thin yield of oats the next. The rent being only some ten shillings an acre, it is possible that, with good prices, the tenant may make this kind of tillage pay its way. But this is not the point we are contending for. We say that that very land could be made to yield by ordinarily good husbandry double the amount of human food at present got out of it, at the same time affording a fair profit upon the extra capital invested, and an increased rent. Some years ago, a former tenant pretended to drain the land ; and so absurdly shallow were his views of " filtration," " subsoiling," &c., that if the ploughman now dips his share an inch or two deeper than usual, he ploughs up the tiles ! The fields want draining ; and there is a first-rate fall, and not a stone big enough to hinder the spademen. The land lies in high-backed ridges, to shoot off the rain-fall into the sodden water- furrows, each furrow showing itself at harvest as a stripe of three yards in breadth, without an ear of corn from end to end. The tenant is a man of considerable capital, but has no lease. He may quit next year, and cannot, therefore, expend his money gratuitously in improving another man's property. The landlord here is clearly to blame. The fences are neither ditch, hedgerow, nor copse, but nuisances of bramble, couch-grass, and overgrowths of trailing and spreading plants, several yards in thickness. Is the tenant-at-will to grub up all these rubbishing land-marks, and sub- stitute neat quicks ? Here again the landlord is bound to interfere. Examine the soil. The subsoil is bad. It is sticky, and has that pale yellow-brown appearance K 114 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. denoting the presence of the unkindly protoxide of iron. But the thin cultivated staple itself was once of the same quahty : tillage has improved the sur- face, making it brown, and tolerably wholesome for plants ; and why not, therefore, extend the pro- cess further in ? why not ameliorate and enrich further down ? in one word, why not deepen the staple? The landowner, as before, prevents this improvement by neglecting or not being able to underdrain the land. There are some kinds of permanent improve- ment which are admissible in one district, and hazardous in another ; but surely the underdrainage and subsequent deep culture of a strong loam or clay soil is an established point in good husbandry, if any rule at all can be said to have been proved in agriculture. Either Smith of Deanston lived and worked for nothing, and Smith of Weedon has never improved his subsoil; drain-tiles and trench-ploughs are useless playthings, and Fowler's draining plough a futile invention, or else the ground we are describing must be miserably ill- treated, and the nation thus deprived of grain that might be reaped, and meat that might be fed from it. And are there not thousands of acres in this kingdom, in little better plight, requiring much the same sort of improvement ? We repeat that, in these times of scarcity and high price of provisions, the people ought to know whether the best use is being made of the land ; and if the matter should continue to be neglected by " those whom it concerns" — if landowners do not speedily set about improving their own estates, and occupiers do not study and adopt the best ma- nagement—depend upon it, the prolonged exist- ence of an inadequate cultivation will cause a deep discontent to pervade the consuming classes. It will be for " the landed interest" to consider how far this may be justified by any neglect on their part. AGRICULTURAL PROGRESSION. THE FARM LABOURER. The safe and satisfactory progress which every department of ordinary farm practice is now under- going ranks amongst the most important improve- ments of the age, and is one of the greatest and best of blessings enjoyed by this highly-favoured country. Its commencement may date from the first estab- lishment of agricultural societies throughout the kingdom. It was from these sources that it received its greatest encouragement, and from them emanated that mass of information which has in such an extraordinary degree contributed to expand the views and stimulate the exertions of the practical farmers of every grade of society. Take the past season. Never has there been such a general adoption of autumn-culture, and never such determination evinced to clean and improve the soil, as was manifested during the past season. The extensive and almost universal introduction of steam-power thrashing machines having set at liberty vast numbers of horses for the other labours of the farm, these have been most advantageously employed in autumn fallo^nng, or in the various purposes of cleanly culture; and this extended preparation of the soil for its final, its highly- fertilized seed-bed, must result in a healthy and vigorous i)lant, giving very hopeful promise of a full and profitable crop. But to my subject. I well recollect the introduction of the common machine for thrashing by horse-poicer j and not many years have elapsed since the whole country was under considerable alarm, in consequence of the working population becoming inimical to their extension, lest it should prevent the necessity of thrashing with that most old-fashioned of all machines — the flail. What a change has come over the agricultural labourer since that time ! No flails now : men cannot be found to work at such downright drudgery for any lengthened period — it is considered a degradation. To set a man to thrash with a flail is to say he was unfit for other employment. Farm labourers now enjoy the excite- ment, hurry, and bustle of steam-thrashing days. The great improvements recently introduced in these machines for economising labour, tend only to increase their wonder and admiration rather than incite their envy and opposition ; and it is very gratifying to find that this class of men are almost prepared for innovation upon their customary employment ; and why ? Because they see that the demand for labour is constantly on the increase — that every improvement in farm business has led to a greater outlay of capital in labour. I have long mixed with farm labourers, and in my younger days laboured daily with them ; and although I cannot commend their high inteUigence, yet, taking them as a body, and keeping to their sphere of observation, which must of necessity be limited — often confined to a single farm or parish, or at most the district— I fear not to assert that they exercise as much common sense as their neigh- bours about matters with which they are con- versant, and as great skill and ingenuity in the execution of the various employments to which THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE 116 they apply tliemselves. Is it nothing to cut and turn over with a plough a furrow straight, clear, and clean, for half-a-mile in length, without bend, swerve, or shake ? Is it nothing to build a series of stacks as upright, straight, and high, with simply the eye to guide, as a builder could erect an edifice by aid of plumb-line and rule? The farm labourer can do this, and many equally clever performances in his own peculiar depart- ments of labour, so as to astonish the beholder by the precision and accuracy ot its execution. Take any operation : the sowing, drilling, and reaping of corn; the works of draining and hedging ; the shearing of sheep — are often beauti- fully done, and very many other farm operations. It is a mistake to class the farm labourer of the present day with his fellow of sixty years since. He is now ready and willing, to the best of his ability, to undertake any kind of labour connected with the introduction of the modern improvements n agriculture. No opposition will in future be encountered by modern innovators upon old estab- lished farm practices ; prejudice — that bane of the ignorant — is disarmed, the way is fully open, and expectation on tiptoe ; and delighted am I to see these innovations creeping in everywhere, and to witness the vast improvements that accrue from their adoption, and the readiness with which they are received by the labouring classes generally, and who now begin to vie with each other in carrying them out. One of the greatest evidences in favour of agri- cultural progression is this desire on the part of farm labourers to foster the introduction of every implement likely to decrease laborious employment. They were slow to learn, certainly; but works of great magnitude were ever arising before them, so that it was soon found impossible to live in a country of railroads, with trains continually startling the plough-horses they drove, without expanding their views, opening both eyes and heart too. Soon were to be seen steam-engines puffing away in many a farm-yard. Then, again, the numerous appliances to be worked on the farm, to diminish labour and promote more speedy culture and pulverisation of the soil, have become proof to the dullest " clodpole" that at least great changes were going on ; and by degrees he has been led to acknowledge them to be decided improvements. Thus the minds of the farm labourers have become enlarged ; and having become teachable, our great aim should be to aid them to encourage this disposition to acquire such practical knowledge as will ere long be more than ever requisite in the conduct of farm practice. Nor is this desire to acquire a knowledge of im- proved farm practice confined to the culture of the soil and the various operative departments con- nected therewith, but it extends to the management of stock, and to the various improvements conse- quent upon the introduction of new modes of breeding, of rearing, and of fatting the live stock common on every well-regulated farm. This is of very great importance. Who does not recollect the favour professed to be given by graziers of cattle to " out liggers", grass wintered, and to grass-wintered sheep, &c. ? The farm labourers can see clearly enough that warm yards, with plenty of turnips, cake, and straw (not hay necessarily) for cattle, and warm folds in the turnip field, with a plentiful feed from his cutter, is infi- nitely preferable ; and it is thus (not to enlarge) that he looks upon every other phase of stock management. We must, at no distant period, be prepared for still greater innovations in farm practice, such as cultivation by steam, sewage irrigation; for a more extensive stock fatting by artificial food, &c.'; for the growth of crops, .by chemical aids or otherwise, on a far more surprising and sur- passing scale than hitherto practised. For these we must prepare, and for a vastly extended and improved agriculture. It is for this purpose that the minds of the farm labourers should be educated, should be prepared ; and that by the diflfusion of agricultural knowledge amongst them, either by reading or oral lectures. And what is easier? Such readable information i^ cheap enough now : every farmer ought to have his papers and periodicals, his Mark Lane Express, his Farmer's Magazine, his Agricultural Journals, or the like, and circulate them amongst his labourers. This may and ought to be done in every locality, and I conclude this imperfect paper by earnestly recommending these and all similar means to be adopted for their especial benefit by every well-wisher to their class not only as desirable, but imperatively necessary. THE FARMER. Let us take a retrospective view of the Farmer^ and enquire into his state and condition prior to the advent of modern agriculture, or to the days of the late Lord Leicester (Mr. Coke) and Francis Duke of Bedford, those noble patrons and pioneers of a new order of agriculture, and compare him with the farmer of modern date. These noblemen had to do with farmers of the old school— the old British yeomen — the jolly farmers — in most respects honest, worthy men enough, but glorying in their ignorance, and per- tinaciously following in the old track, the steps of .their forefathers ; obstinately prejudiced, and gene- rally opposing all alterations and innovations upon the old-established order of things. Visit him on his farm. Notice him in his homely K 2 116 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. everyday dress — the long brown and threadbare coat, straight in cut; or his blue slop, tucked tightly around him; his most ca])acious waistcoat, with its ample pockets, and their promiscuous stores ; his large nether garments, tied at knee or far below it ; with stockings of coarsest knitting ; his neck either bare, or protected by a coarse. Haunting tie; his head surmounted by a round, low-crowned, slouching broad-brim ; his feet shod with enormous slioes, and large, bright buckles to match. Or take hira in his holiday attire. See his long " true-blue" coat, with straight front and bright metal buttons, reaching to his ankles ; his yellow or white, but spotless, buckskins, and heavy, topped boots ; his bright yellow waistcoat, ample beyond measure ; his splendid shirt-frills, and flowing neck-tie ; his handsome large-brimmed beaver, with broad band, and large, shining buckle ; mth his heavy hunting whip in hand, and mounted on his heavy, strong-framed " bob-tailed" charger. Enter with him into his most hospitable home. You have the best of homely fare ; the strongest and purest ale, and plenty of it; the boar's head and the stuffed chine; the home-made loaf ; the choicest of cheese, and the best of butter ; the pie, the tart, and the pudding of the best — and all given with the heartiest hospitality and primitive simplicity; and your evening is enlivened and cheered by your pipe and glass, the song, and social converse, followed by some one of the many old English games so common at that period — or the dance, the riddle, and the jest. In giving this very short sketch of old EngUsh life, one is tempted to eulogize the old English character, the old English farmer, and his mode of living in the "good olden time." Its tendency was good, and evidently intended to promote har- mony and good-will, and to pass the time plea- santly, convivially, and heartily, as it was then termed; but we must remember that there was nothing intellectually good in all this. The mind was not cared for : the object was rather to pre- vent intruding thought, and to " drive dull care away" — to make man an unthinking, jovial being, as if he possessed nsither heart nor soul for more intellectual attainments. We rejoice to know that in the present day the mind of man has far out- stripped his animal nature— that amusements like those named are very unsatisfying now, and have no power to restrain his mental asjMrations. " Mind is victorious over matter." But to " the good old English farmer." Follow him in his business — his daily rounds. He was a man of early and regular habits, and frugal in his personal expenditure (much to be commended in the present day). He breakfasted at six, dined at twelve, supped at eight, and to bed at nine o'clock. His course of business was simple and easy, his great aim being to avoid expense in management, re- gardless of the results either in the paucity of his crops or the unthriftiness of his stock. On the best of soils, his course of cropping would not exceed oats, wheat, and fallow — often a bare fallow. Turnips were almost unknown, in many districts, and not generally cultivated in others, particularly for stock. On the inferior soils it would not always include wheat : on the lighter soils cultivation was at a very low ebb— rabbits and a few scattered sheep being preferred to the cost of culture. Neither drill husbandry nor the alternate system of cropping had begun to prevail ; artificial grasses, particularly clover, had but recently been brought into notice, and had not met with much favour from these farmers, nor had artificial manures come into use. Adventitious aids for the fattening or improvement of stock were unknown, or, if known, not resorted to or cared for ; no in- formation was diffused amongst them or sought for by them as a class, and no inquiries were insti- tuted, or motives for improvement excited ; they were for the most part considered to be an un- educated, unimproveable, isolated body ; no person of condition associated with them, or held the slightest intercourse. " Like the clods they culti- vated," their minds were held to be as dull and impenetrable ; and these farmers " of the good olden time" were therefore left to themselves and their own resources till about the time we have named — the days of the two illustrious improvers of their country's agriculture. But a brighter era was dawning upon them : agriculture became a study. Tull wrote and pro- pounded a new order of husbandry in the early part of the eighteenth century : his writings and practice began to make way about this period. The Northumberland farmers, headed by Mr. Dawson, adopted his practice to a considerable extent ; and though distrust, arising from deep-rooted pre- judice, prevailed, yet such was the extraordinary result, and such the excellence of his crops, and the amount of his gains, that converts were numerous, and the Tullian system of drill-husbandry at length became general, although very imperfectly carried out, owing to the imperfection of the drill imple- ments. This, however, appears to have been the grand discover)' — the great starting point for the renovation of British agriculture. The agricultural mind was interested— was aroused ; Arthur Young sent out his Annals ; Sir J no. Sinclair instituted the Board of Agriculture ; writings, numerous and good, were fast diffusing over the land, carrying the best information then attainable into every dis- trict of the kingdom. Societies for the improve- ment of agriculture and the advancement of the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 117 farmer were established in many parts ; new orders of culture, new systems of management were pro- mulgated, and freely and generally discussed ; patriotic noblemen aud gentlemen undertook the task of experimenting on these new theories, and invited all classes of farmers to attend, examine, and criticise their practice. Who does not re- member the Woburn sheep-shearings ? the Holk- ham sheep- shearings, &c. ? These were followed by extraordinary results : from them sprung the new order of agriculture under which we now live, and which has been fostered and matured by the innumerable societies which now exist throughout the country. With them has also arisen a new order of cultivators, a new class of farmers — the modern farmers — a body of men who have won for themselves great renown, and deserve well of their country ; but as my limit is full, I must leave my notice of them as a class for a future paper. THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR. Excelsior ! The close of a year is always a | subject of deep interest to a thoughtful and re- i flective mind. It is the winding-up of a period of time, circumscribed in its duration by the com- pletion of those successive revolutions which measure its various seasons and divisions. We then stand more directly and palpably upon a point between the past and the future, between that which has melted away into the ages of eternity and that which is still belonging to the present. The past is jjresent with us only in knowledge of its events ; the future is all uncertainty as to what awaits us. Surely, then, it is the part of wisdom and prudence, at such a period, to take a review of the past ; and by an honest and faithful examination of what has been passing around us, to learn how to guard against error, as well as to mark the progress already effected in what is excellent, and instead of resting satisfied with present attainments, to make them serve as a fulcrum on which more firmly to plant the lever for future efforts. Our agricultural readers, we trust, will perceive the drift of this exordium. The closing year has been one of extraordinary prosperity, and of un- exampled progress, to the body to which they belong. Events too, of the greatest moment as affecting their interests, have occurred, plainly pointing out to them the course they ought to take, in order to turn them to the best advantage, and at the same time to prepare themselves for reverses which are not yet out of the range of possibility. On the present occasion, therefore, we v/ish to im- press upon our readers a consideration of the past in respect to the benefits they have derived from it, and the progress they have effected ; and of the future, in regard to the prospect it affords of continued prosperity, with the necessity of not relaxing in their effort to attain still higher degrees of excellence, and to make a more liberal use of the means of future progress. Several events have occurred in the past season to render the condition of the farmer more pros- perous. The war has had its effect in cutting off a portion of our usual supplies of cereal produce, whilst it has increased the demand. But we must look further and deeper for the cause of the present high prices of agricultural produce; and we find it in the occurrence of a series of natural events, which produced a deficient harvest in England in the year 1853, in America in 1854, and in conti- nental Europe in 1855. The first was of such an extent as to cause a complete exhaustion of the stock of wheat at the close of the cereal year ; the second produced a similar exhaustion in the United States the following year ; and the third has now deprived us of what has ever been considered our sheet anchor in extremity — the cereal supplies from northern and western Europe — leaving us depen- dent for this season chiefly on America for the year's importation. It is to these successive events that we must ascribe the fact that in 1854-5, although we had the heaviest crop of wheat that ever was reaped in this kingdom, the price of that grain was as high as in 1853-4, when the deficiency amounted to nearly two-fifths of the average growth. What the present season may yet prove, with an exhausted stock of old wheat at harvest, and a de- ficiency in the new of one-eighth or one-tenth, it is not for us to prognosticate ; but we think it is at any rate probable that present prices will be fully sustained. Then, as to the progress made in agriculture during the past year, we have reason to congratu- late our friends as much on that score as on the prosperity they enjoy. Never was there so much unanimity and good feeling displayed at the public gatherings, or so much liberality in the diffusion of useful knowledge on all subjects connected wilh or relating to agriculture. In the whole body of British agriculturists increased efforts have been jnade to render their system complete, by the adoj)- tion of those improvements which, whether by the employment of machinery for economising labour, or the use of artificial manures to increase the pro- lis THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. duce,or the extension of draining and other means of rendering the land more valuable and productive, have effected a revolution in the practice of hus- bandry, by which labour is liberated from its ancient slavish uses, and turned into other chan- nels more efficient and less onerous. In this pro- gressive improvement ])ast grievances have been forgotten, because they have been overcome, and the present seized on as the moment for exertion ; whilst the future is looked forward to with less anxiety and more confidence, for the realization of the plans which the past has suggested and the present matured. With respect to the future, and the prospect it affords of continued prosperity, there are several reasons to induce us to believe that such will be the case. Our readers, at least some of them, will probably revert, in idea, to the war as the grand source of that'prosperity. But we would most un- willingly dwell upon that event with anything like exultation, or as a desirable thing even to an agri- culturist. War is an exotic with us. For hundreds of years no hostile force has been permitted to tread our soil or to ravage our coasts. But this im- munity from its immediate horrors ought not to blind us to everything involved in a state of war- fare, except the high prices it brings for our pro- duce. Besides, unless hereafter our present friends become our enemies, the war, in ordinary years, will not deprive us of an adequate supply of cereal produce. The only effect it ought to have upon the agriculturist is to stimulate to greater efforts to supply, by superior and extended cultivation, that deficiency in our foreign resources actually occa- sioned by it ; and thus, by moderating the price of the chief necessary of life, to alleviate the sufferings of our labouring classes. Of the increasing population, however, we can speak more freely, and with less mixed feelings. It is self-evident that a people increasing after the rate of compound interest will require a supply of food increasing in the same ratio. For the last eight or ten years we have imported at the rate of nearly 5,000,000 quarters of wheat per annum ; and it is quite evident that unless a corresponding increase in the growth of native wheat with that of the population takes place, we shall annually require larger 8upi)lies from abroad. The events, too, of tlie last three years, which we have already referred to, and more especially the present one, ought to warn us, that a time may come when we shall be thrown wholly upon our own resources, whether by tlie continuation and extension of the war in Europe or elsewhere, or the simultaneous failure of the cro]is in those lands from whence we draw our supplies. It is therefore doubly incumbent on tlie agriculturist to adopt every improvement calculated to increase his produce. Much has already been effected in this way; but we are far from having reached either the maximum of production, or the minimum in the economization of seed corn. We leave the details to the consideration of those most interested in them. Never was there a time more favourable for carrying out improvements than the present. The high price of all produce the last three years has placed the farmer in comparative aflfluence ; and the most rational and profitable use he can make of his prosperity is, to invest a portion of his profits in the land. Without paying any additional rent, this would be equal to adding to his occupation, in- dependent of the pride and pleasure he would feel in seeing the effect, and the extra profit he would derive from it. The motto, therefore, of the British farmer must be that at the head of this article — " Excelsior !" climb higher and yet higher to- ward the summit of moral, intellectual, and indus- trial perfection, until every occupier of land be- comes a man of science, every farm the laboratory of a practical chemist, and every field exhibits the neatness, regularity, and productiveness of a well- managed garden ! In this race of progressive improvement, the farm labourer must never be forgotten : not only is there a moral obligation upon his employer to pro- mote his advancement in knowledge, as well as his temporal welfare, but self-interest imperatively commands him to do so. The vast changes in progress, in the substitution of complicated machi- nery for manual labour, requires a new class of mind to superintend them. There is, however, no occasion to change the men ; and it would be un- just, as well as unwise, to do so. Let the present race of labourers — especially the rising generation — be instructed in mechanics and in machinery ; let them have every facility for increasing that knowledge ; and, above all, let every encourage- ment be afforded for the improvement of their moral condition; and we pledge ourselves that there are ample materials in every parish in the kingdom for carrying out the new system, without going beyond the present class of farm labourers. We should feel that we had very inadequately noticed the period of the year if we neglected to remind our readers, of the agricultural class, of the source from which they derive their prosperity, and the Power on whom it depends. The farmer, above all other men, must feel how helpless he Is, after all his efforts to secure his own welfare, or insure the safety of his crops. A blast of wind, a tempest, a vegetable pestilence, may in one short day lay his hopes prostrate, and defeat his best- arranged plans. On the other hand, gratitude for the past, and hope for the future, ought to till every THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 119 heart, and constitute a motive for increased effort and enterprise. Wiiilst with humility we should recognise the hand of a superintendiiig Providence, we should consider who it is that has given us faculties and powers/or use, and not for inaction or ahuse — that we should both " plough and sow in hope," and labour as if all depended on ourselves, leaving the event to Him who hath assured us that " while the earth remaineth, seed time and harvest, day and night, summer and winter, shall not cease." THE INCREASED USE OF GREEN CROPS. At several of the meetings held during the week of the Sraithfield Show, we could not but rejoice to find the progress which science has made in the good opinion of the English agri- culturists. There appears, indeed, to be a very just and hopeful feeling diffused, that all that science has hitherto done for the English farmer is just nothing, compared to what it will at no very distant day accomplish. The advantageous use of green crops, for instance, which was one of the chief improvements that occurred at the dawn of our modern system of agriculture, has never yet been clearly explained by the chemist, as regards their influence in the success of a rotation of crops. True, it is now pretty well agreed that it is in the different amount of nitrogenous matters of the different crops, and the source of the supply of those matters, that we must seek for an explanation ; but then, as in what particular portion of the soil or the atmosphere we must search for the origin of the nitrogen of our food, is by no means so well agreed. Some chemists, indeed, attribute to the decomposing matters of the soil, or to the ammonia which the earth con- tains, or which exists in the atmosphere, the power of supplying the growing plant with all its nitro- gen. But there are other distinguished chemists, who do not believe that plants take all their nitrogen in this circumlocutory manner : they see those plants vegetating in an atmosphere of nitrogen — enveloped in the very gas ; which they have only to absorb and assimilate in the same way as they are without any doubt enabled to do with another portion of the atmosphere (the carbonic-acid gas), although that is present in the atmosphere in very much smaller proportions. Of the number of such distinguished chemists is M. Ville. In his searches after truth, he did not content himself with theorising upon this great practical question ; he instituted a series of exact experiments upon growing plants, the soil in which they grew, and the atmosphere in which they breathed {Jour. Roy. Ay. Soc, vol. xvi , p. 256). M. Boussingault some little time since has shown by his experiments that plants do acquire nitrogen in some form or other from the air; but then he did not ascertain whether it was from the atmospheric nitrogen, or the ammonia always to be detected in the atmosphere, that the nitrogen was obtained. It was to deter- mine this point that M. Ville made his trials; he adopted two methods --in the first he employed an apparatus, by which he was enabled to supply, at regular intervals, a copious but accurately measured quantity of air to plants growing in glass cases ; the ammonia contained in a similar quantity of air was at the same time carefully ascertained. The seeds from which the plants were raised were transplanted, as soon as they came up, into calcined sand, to which a certain quantity of the ash of similar seeds was added; they were watered with distilled water. The proportion of nitrogen contained in them having been carefully ascertained by analysis of a similar quantity of the same seed, it only remained for M. Ville to ascer- tain the quantity of this element present in the crop. For we shall readily perceive that if the ammonia in the air supplied is sufficient to account for the excess of nitrogen in the crop over that in the seed, we might be justified in concluding that this ammonia is the source of the increase. If, on the other hand, the increase in the nitrogen was found to be more than could be ascribed to the ammonia, we should be forced to acknowledge that to some other source of nitrogen, probably that found in the atmosphere, the increase must be at" tributed. Such was the careful reasoning of the French philosopher. The plants employed in his trials were cress, lupins, rape, wheat, rye, and Indian corn. The result of his experimenta was, that the crops in most cases contained considerably more nitrogen than that present in their seeds, and (as ammonia) in the air supplied to them. He arrived, therefore, at the conclusion that plants assimilate the nitrogen gas of the atmosphere ; and in this opinion he was further confirmed by his second series of experi- ments, which were made to check the first. In these he adopted the precaution of depriving the atmospheric air, before it entered the cases, of all ,its ammonia, so that any gain in nitrogen of the produce over that in the seeds could not be traced to the agency of ammonia. The result of these ex- periments confirmed that of the previous, the gain of 120 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nitrogen was undoubted ; and thus his first con- clusions were confirmed. It is true that these are not assented to by every considerable chemist; but their importance is such, that they must lead to other and more varied researches. It is very probable that the power which plants are hence supposed to possess of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen may vary to the utmost extent ; moreover, that some crops do not possess any such power. Put in whatever way the future experiments upon our ordinary field crops (to clear away any such doubts) may terminate, the facts which are likely to be ascertained during the inquiry can hardly fail to be most serviceable. They will pretty certainly materially tend to illustrate and furnish practical suggestions for improved rotations ; and it is more than probable that they will serve to explain certain 1 failures in particular crops, which are at present alike unaccountable and injurious to the agricul- turist. THE EXTENDED USE OF MACHINERY PURPOSES. FOR AGRICULTURAL Improvements in agriculture are of slow growth, and it is not until time has established their success that they become extensively adopted. Our attention has been lately directed to this subject ; and although we are disposed to think favourably of agricultural development, we are, nevertheless, bound to state that the farmers, as a class, are slow to advance in a direction new to them, and hitherto unexplored. To convince them, is the work of time ; and to bring them to the adoption of a new principle, requires the utmost perseverance of an inventor, as well as the demonstration of its successful result. As an in- stance of this, let any one carry back his recollec- tion to the introduction of machinery, at the commencement of the present century ; and he will be convinced of the correctness of our remarks. Thrashing machines alone have required fifty years to become universal, and after having been assailed by hordes of dissatisfied labourers, who travelled from parish to parish, destroying them wherever they had been introduced, or as incendiaries en- deavouring to deter their employers from the using them, until at length, in spite of this ressitance, they have become so universally adopted as to have superseded thrashing by flail altogether ; so ihat at the present time, labourers cannot even be induced to resume it upon an emergency. So also of the progress of thrashing by steam. It is at present barely developed, and even now has to contend against ignorance and obstinacy, in districts where it has not become general. The advance that has recently taken place in the wages of the labourer will, however, tend ere long to render it universal. At the present moment, two important subjects engross public attention — the application of steam for ploughing, and the adoption of the reaping machine for severing the crops of wheat and grain at harvest. The first meets with no resistance to its introduction by the labourers themselves ; but the latter, we fear, will require some time to overcome their prejudices and dislike. The har- vest month is to them the climax of the year, and they foresee that, if their labour can at that period be superseded by machinery, a considerable reduc- tion in harvest wages may follow. This objection, it must be confessed, has some weight ; but when applied to the former subject, falls at once to the ground, and the desideratum sought, therefore, rests in the capability of the machine itself. That accomplished, all the rest that may be required will follow. It appears, however, that insuperable diflficulties siu-round any attempt to make steam ploughing subservient to the purpose. The superseding the plough is no mean under- taking; and when we consider the perfec- tion that has been attained in that implement, as well as the excellent manner and regularity in which our experienced hands turn over the soil, we need not wonder at the difficulties that attend its supersedence. It is therefore we state un- hesitatingly that, in our opinion, it will require a very long time to bring ploughing by steam to such perfection as even to approach the nicety of execu- tion of even our second-rate ploughmen; whilst to accomplish anything equal to that which is effected by our expert hands is so far totally out of the question. Still we are not disposed to set at naught the attempts that have already been made, as we foresee that if they become successful even in a minor degree, an extensive field is open for their competition. From what transpired at the gathering of agri- culturists during the week of the Smithfield Show, we are led to suppose that our leading machinists do not enter into the production of a steam- ploughing machine with any degree of spirit or enterprize. Without one exception, we fancied that all of them viewed it rather as a speculative and visionary attenijjt than otherwise. But when we I witnessed the sanguine and enterprising spirit of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 121 one of our farmers, unaided and unassisted in his attempts to bring it to perfection, it contrasted greatly with the cool manner by which he was received by the leading machinists of the day. Mr. Williams certainly strove hard to convince them of its utility and the successful result that had up to that time attended his endeavours, and which ap- peared not altogether unlikely to be accomplished. Indeed, so far as his clever model explained its working, we must give him credit for skill displayed in its construction and application, and heartily wish him success in its final accomplishment. We have endeavoured to trace the cause why our leading manufacturers of agricultural machines put forth their utmost energy for the production of a perfect reaping machine, and, on the other hand, are so apathetic as regards the construction of a machine that by the power of steam may some day supersede the plough. We hope that we may be forgiven, if we hint that in the one case a novel and extensively required machme would enter largely into manufacture; whilst, on the other hand, a steam-ploughing machine will but supersede a more universal implement of large and extensive manu- facture, and upon which many of them have ob- tained great celebrity in their respective districts. In the one instance, that of the reaping machine, we find most of the leading manufacturers en- deavouring to excel each other in its production, and the labourers resisting its introduction ; in the other we find the manufacturers leaving the inven- tion to be carried out by the agiiculturists, who are not unwilling to adopt the principle of ploughing by steam if it can be made available ; but if accom- plished, they will have to look to themselves both for the invention and application. The Royal Agricultural Society we appeal to as the medium by which such great undertakings might be achieved. How could its funds be better applied than by stimulating invention ? and for what purpose could a reward be better bestowed than upon the person who should attain the de- sirable object of ploughing successfully by steam ? The agricultural community would hail it as a great boon ; and we know that we are not alone in our opinion, that it is within the province of the leading agricultural society of the kingdom to facilitate it. Something more is expected of it even than has already taken place, and we know of no other sub- ject upon which it might render itself so popular as by systematically encouraging the invention under notice. CHRISTMAS PRIZE MEAT. So far as we have been able to examine, fat stock exhibited at the Smithfield Club Show, ia Baker-street, this year, have yielded meat fully equal in quality to what was expected from handling them in the Bazaar ; but, generally speaking, progress cannot be reported since the previous meeting. At the same time there are numerous individual exceptions deserving of a more lengthened notice than our limited space will permit us to give. The butcher's stall is doubtless the place forjudging satisfactorily, both as to the quantity and quality of meat. Daily experience is adding fresh testimony to the soundness of this conclusion, farmers and butchers feeling more and more disposed to do business in the dead- meat market, in preference to the live stock ; and if once a proper market-place was erected on the site of old Smithfield, an improvement so beneficial could not fail to give a fresh impulse to this branch of commerce. But while the carcase trade is thus slowly superseding the live stock, we are not to be understood as antici- pating that Christmas shows of butcher-meat are also to supersede the present ; on the contrary, the two ought to go together, or, rather, the former ought to follow the latter, in order to enable breeders and feeders to see the result of their labours, and thus determine their future practice. There is something about the portly dimensions of the Smithfield Club-Show— cattle, oxen, sheep, and pigs, that unites the capital with our provinces, in a manner which hardly could be so happily otherwise done. Here, for example, not merely the farmer, salesman, and butcher meet for the first time, it may be, or to renew a former acquaintance ; but also our landed nobility and city princes, to handle the stock, criticise them, and otherwise enjoy themselves in a manner more easily imagined than described ; and were they to meet again, as we now meet the carcase salesmen and butcher, their Christmas meetings would be tenfold more enlivening, instructive, and interesting, alike to breeders, feeders, sellers, and consumers. A fair proportion of the stock has this year been slaughtered in the capital. In taking a cursory glance at butcher's stalls and the dead-meat markets, we shall observe the order stated in the catalogue, confining our remarks chiefly to meat from the Bazaar ; but at the same time not overlooking purchases from the great Monday market, &c., &c., thus commencing with Devons. At the same time, to avoid repetition, we shall notice the whole of every stall, as we proceed, re- serving to a future article the comparative merits of the meat of diff'erent breeds apart from party considerations. Mr. Jeffery, of Foubert's-place, Regent-street, is the largest exhibitor of Devon meat in the metropolis. The quality is superior and uniform as to size and weight, thus presenting to the sight-seeing multitudes of the capital an appearance which we rather leave our 122 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. readers to imagine than attempt to describe. Besides Devons there were a good many Scots, with the necessary complement of Down, Scotch, and Welsh mutton. Altogether this is the largest show we have examined, and the finest in quality. Of this immense stock five Devons and twelve South- downs were from Baker-street, viz., His Royal Highness Prince Albert's and the Earl of Leicester's two prize oxen of the first class, and also his Lordship's four-year- old of the second. From the fourth class the Prince's first prize heifer, and from extra stock his 5 years and 10 months old ox, bred by Lord Portman. The sheep are Lord Walsingham's pen of wethers (No. 177), Sir John Shelley's (No. 183), and the Duke of Richmond's (Nos. 185 and 192). Generally speaking the Devons carried rather an extra quantity of fat, but the proportion of lean was fair and well grained. In the sheep the fat rather predominated in a greater degree, but the carcases were very even and finely coloured. On the whole, both lots have turned out fully equal to expectation. A Trade Memorandum deserves favourable men- tion before leaving this stall. A baron of beef from His Royal Highness Prince Albert's prize Devon ox, and two haunches of mutton from His Grace the Duke of Richmond's first prize Downs, may be seen ticketed for the well-known firm of Treadwell, Acker, and Co., St. Nicholas Hotel, New York — the largest in the world, as our readers are no doubt aware. This must be no less gratifying to His Royal Highness and the noble Duke than to Mr. JefFery and every Englishman ; while our transatlantic cousins, one and all of them, will be more than delighted to hear it. For some time past they have been our highest and keenest purchasers at all our sales of improved breeding stock — " Romeo," for ex- ample, the brother of the Marquis of Exeter's gold medal ox, having just been declared the best shorthorn in the United States ; and now it appears our choice pieces of dead meat are to follow in the wake of our best live stock! The St. Nicholas accommodates about 1,000 persons, some of the rooms costing as much as ^""SO per niglit, owing to the lavish expenditure of gold, satin, &c., &c., with which they are furnished. With such facts before the readers of the Mark Lane E.vpress, we shall leave them to form their own conceptions of the interest and sensation which the above choice samples of our Christmas meat will create among a fellow-feeling sight-seeing people, with their minds full of English associations, and their pockets stuffed with Californian gold. His Royal Highness Prince Albert's three-year-old prize Devon ox (Class IL, No. 7), bought by Mr. Col- lingwood, Islington, " dies bad in the kidneys," but well in loose fat. The lean grains pretty well, but the quantity of fat is considerably in excess. Mr. C. has also the Prince's five-year-old Scot (No. 79), which turns out well, the quality being excellent, and of a great thickness along the chine and rump. Indeed, levelness, thickness, and a fine grain, characterize all the best parts. He has also the Duke of Richmond's 20-month Downs, and Mr. Lugar's of the same class ; both pens being good level sheep, the former the best quality of the two. Mr. Game, Cannon-street, City, exhibits the car- case of Mr. Trevor's Devon — quality fine, being thick, even, and well grained. He has also the Earl of Rad- nor's Downs — good quality, having a fair proportion of lean. Of Herefords the two young prize-animals have turned out well. Mr. Niblett's first prize ox, so much admired in the Bazaar for fineness of quality, yields about the richest grained and thickest meat we have seen, and which has met with a ready sale. The pur- chaser, Mr. Scarlett, Quebec-street, Edgeware-road, has got a fine likeness of the animal taken, and is highly pleased with his transaction altogether. The only fault to be found was the wasting of the fat of the kidneys. The second prize ox, fed by Mr. Longmore, and bought by Mr. Underwood, Eccleston-street, South Pimlico, is rather deficient of lean, but even, of great thickness, and fairly grained. Mr. Underwood has also Mr. E. F. Whittingstall's fine pen of Hampshire downs, which yield a very supe- rior quality of mutton, with a large proportion of well- mixed lean. This pen was highly commended in the Bazaar, and merits the same here. Mr. James's four-year-old of this breed (Hereford), bought by Mr. Barclay, of Well-street, also turns out well, all the best parts being level, thick, and finely grained. Mr. B. has also Mr. Lee Bradshaw's first prize gold-medal pen of long-woolled sheep (No. 118); very even as to quality, but greatly too little lean ; colour good and graining fine, what there is of it. He has also the Marquis of Exeter's pen of the same class, and also his heavy weights in the next, still more heavily loaded with fat and wanting of lean. Whether more exercise while rearing would develope muscle and check the tendency to fat, is a question we respectfully suggest to the atten- tion of breeders of long-wools. Mr. Mill's Hereford, bought by Mr. King, Padding- ton-street, has not turned out so well as the last. Mr. King has also a pen of the Duke of Richmond's downs — very good mutton — a second Lord Walsingham's, a third of the Earl of Chichester. The former are ex- cellent sheep ; the latter not so good, but yet pretty fair quality. Besides the Bazaar stock, Mr. K. has a large exhibition of fine Devons and polled Aberdeenshire Scots, and about 60 fine Hampshire downs, the quality of both beef and mutton being superior. Of shorthorns, Prince Albert's ox, bought by Mr. Bottril, of Rochester-row, Westminster, turns out well. Wc have seldom seen one of this breed carry more lean, and mix better ; while the colour of fat is fine and pinky, and the quarters thick and level. He also slaughtered Mr. Lindsay's pen of Southdown wethers (No. 190), which are rather too fat, but on the whole of fair quality. Prince Albert's heifer, bought by B. Bull, Chapel- street, Westminster, has wasted considerably. We note the quality pretty well mixed, but over-fat on the out- side. Mr, B. has also Mr. Overman's cross-bred long THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. na and short wools — very good mutton. (Gold medal ox not slaughtered yet.) Of Scots, Mr. Stirling's ox, whose fine head of horns attracted so much attention, has hardly turned out so well as generally expected. The quality is certainly fine, the graining being rich, and colour " blooming ;" but the weight of the carcase is deficient, the animal having wasted greatly. Of Welsh, Mr. Kirkbj, Park-street, Grosvenor- square (Purveyor to her Majesty), slaughters Colonel Pennant's prize five-year-old ox. Quality of meat su- perior, but unfortunately the carcase was not cut up, so that our pen cannot do it justice. He has also Sir John Shelley's pen of Southdowns (No. 171) — a fine sample of Baker-street mutton. Mr. K. also slaughters five fine Highland Scots, of very superior quality, and shews along with them a proportionate quantity of excellent down and Scotch mutton. Mr. Elphick, Brixton, has Mr. Bennett's "Welsh ox, and also heifer. Both yield meat of a superior quality, there being plenty of lean, well-mixed with rich fat. Few samples of better meat are shown in the capital. Ayrshire : Mr, Elphick, of Hampton Wick, Middle- sex, slaughters Sir Williamson Booth's three-year-old heifer of this breed. The quality is superior — the meat being thick, even, and well-mixed. His brother again (East Mousely) exhibits Mr. Overman's Shorthorn cross with this breed, also a splendid body of meat, but does not yield quite so much loose fat. We now take a short review of the sheep not already noticed. Passing over the pure Long-wools, we come to the Cross-breds, Class 25. Mr. Attwell, of Oxford- market, exhibits Lord Walsingham's pen. Very fine mutton, but rather fat. In the same market, Mr. Reynold shows Mr. Stephen's crosses, yielding also good mutton. Mr. Bentley, Henrietta-street, Man- chester-square, shows Mr. Howard's pen; quality fine, fully equal to expectation. Mr. Davis, of the Black Bull Tavern, has Mr. Over- man's pen in this class, which turns out pretty well. Mr. CoUingwood, of Paddington, has the Earl of Leicester's pen of crosses, Class 2G ; very fat. Also Mr. Overman's Southdown pen (No. 180) ; pretty good quality, with blooming colour. Also Mr. Overman's pen of extra stock, which we have noted "comes out clean and blooming, with not so much fat as expected." Hampshire Downs : Mr. Hawkins, of Oxford-market, sells Mr. Wm. Browne Canning's pen; only one sheep was cut up ; the quality is fine, but rather deficient of lean, to what we expected ; it is the largest, and very thick on the loin, a chop which we have measuring four- and-a-half inches through ! The other two, we aver, have more lean. Pigs have turned out well, fully equal to expectation, both as to weight and quality. Mr. Coates's gold- medal pen, bought by Mr. Hedges, High-street, Notting-hiU, stands high in the scale of merit. Now that they are slaughtered, it were difficult to say which of the three is the best, their quality being so equal. Mr. H. has also Mr, Stewart Marjoribank's pen (No. 235), also fine quality, but not nearly so rich in the colour as the previous pen. Mr. Wall, Jermyn- street, has two pens of his Royal Highness Prince Albert's, both fine quality, so far as slaughtered and cut up. Mr. Garland, of Oxford-market, has 15 pigs from the Bazaar, Baker-street, 6 from the Earl of Radnor, being one pen in each of the first two classes, both yield good pork ; 6 from Mr. Druce, of Eynsham, Oxford, being three pens — one in the second class, one third, and the other extra stock ; they are of excellent quality ; and one pen from Sir J. B. Mill's, the best of the lot. Mr, Squire, of Tottenham-court-road, has two pens of Prince Albert's ; quality fair. Such is a glance of stock from Baker-street. Butchers were complaining loudly of the frost taking off the bloom and injuring the quality of the meat, when ex- posed outside ; but the vast majority kept the whole meat within doors. The trade may be divided into two classes — those who make a show at Christmas by exposing a week's meat at once, on what is termed the " Great Day," and those who kill and purchase from Newgate as they require it. The latter greatly pre- dominate in numbers ; while the former is yearly getting farther and farther into disrepute. The supply of meat for the capital fully equals the demand, both in the Metropolitan Cattle Market and dead-meat markets. Both in Newgate and Leadenhall, salesmen are complaining that there is a serious want of consumption among the labouring classes, whose demand upon this source is always great when employment is plentiful and wages high ; the frost having thrown thousands of bricklayers, carpenters, &c., out of em- ployment ; hence the consequences. With regard to the actual quantity and quality, com- pared with former years, we believe both are about an average. In the great Monday market for live stock, it was generally supposed that quality was something below it ; but we had some difficulty in arriving at this conclusion. On the contrary, we rather felt disposed to attribute any difference of appearance to the new site, believing that had the 7,000 bullocks been crammed into Smithfield they would have looked larger, alike in- dividually and collectively. During the past week, among the trade we have found butchers generally well pleased — a fact which corrobo- rates the above conclusion. All the principal shops exhibited splendid shows of meat — those with the meat inside as well as those with it outside. To notice the many shops containing splendid Christ- mas shows of meat in the metropolis, exclusive of those already mentioned, would fill a volume. Add to the carcases of the 7,000 bullocks and 25,000 sheep of the live stock market the thousands of tons of dead meat delivered by the railways, and our readers may form some idea of the quantity of butcher-meat required by the British capital at this season. Out of this vast num- ber, we shall take only Slater's of Kensington, and iJannister's of the City of London, both butchers being purveyors to her Majesty. Mr, Slater has a large display of meat at each of his 124 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. shops; but that at Kensington, where he himself resides> is the best. It consists principally of Devon and Scotch beef, Down, Scotch, and Welsh mutton. Besides what is exhibited outside and in his shop, there are about a dozen Devon and Scotch carcases hanging in the slaughter-house. Mr. Bannister's new shop is the finest in the capital. It is only but recently built, is very lofty, and sets a laudable example of architectural progress to the trade. That meat keeps longer in it, and is of better quality, than in low crowded places with a confined atmosphere, is plain ; but into details of this kind we cannot enter at present. All the meat here is of the finest quality, and exhibited inside some of it the richest in the grain we ever saw. Mutton is equally fine, and consists of Southdown and Scotch. There are also several very fine lambs to be seen at this season, stock not large. From what we have thus said, we are driven to the conclusion that the fattening of stock of every kind for Baker-street is yet far from perfection. Taking a general view of the meat exhibited, its chief charac- teristic is a deficiency of lean, with an excess of fat. The rule, therefore, is to grow less fat and more lean ; and the cure for this appears to be a little more exer- cise when the muscles are growing, and a little less fat- producing food. Of late an opinion has been gaining ground that the Hampshire Downs carry more lean and less fat than the Sussex Downs. The soundness of this conclusion has not been so forcibly illustrated by the carcases this year as the last, the former carrying more fat ; but they have, nevertheless, a decided advantage over the other Downs, so that the Smithfield Club docs not do this fine breed of sheep justice as regards premiums. The Hampshire Downs we have examined from the Metropolitan Cattle Market carry far more lean than those from Baker-street. 'THE MEMORY OF THE PAST," REVIVED BY A SHORT VISIT TO THE CATTLE SHOW IN BAKER-STREET. Dear Sir, — After an interval of nearly twenty yearsi a considerable part of which was spent in the " sister kingdom," I embraced an opportunity afforded me of paying a visit to the far-famed Cattle Show, held in Baker-street last week, and I now sit down, not to pass a regular criticism upon what I saw, but rather to give an account of an old fellow's feelings upon being again brought into juxtaposition with what once constituted his highest earthly enjoyment, and of the pleasurable reminiscences it produced. As soon as I entered the place I experienced those sensations which a broken-down old hunter may be sup- posed to feel, when coming suddenly in sight of a pack of hounds in full cry ; or a cast-ofF dragoon horse, on hearing the trumpet sound the charge. By-the-by, I recollect an anecdote of the latter kind, which occurred to the wife of a farmer, with whose family my own was connected by marriage. The good lady attended the stall market at Norwich, and, as was the custom some sixty or seventy years back, usually rode thither on horseback, between a pair of panniers containing ducks, geese, and poultry, pork and veal, butter and eggs, &c., the produce of the farm. She was, on the occasion referred lo, riding soberly along on an old charger, when all of a sudden the trumpeter of a corps of yeomanry cavalry, who were exercising in a large field near her route, sounded the charge. Immediately the old veteran pricked his ears, reared his head, cocked his tail, gave a most euphonious responsive neigh, and instantly set off at full speed to join the ranks. The good lady strove to stop him, but in vain ; and to her great dis- comfiture, but to the equally great amusement and gra- tification of the corps, he never halted till he had placed himself in position in the ranks. Well, it was with some such feelings I entered the Bazaar in Baker-street ; and what a treat was there in store for me, who attended rather as an amateur than a critic ! The first object that attracted my attention was a pair of Galloway Scots, just such as we used to see droves of them at Hempton Green and St, Faith's fairs, and also on Norwich Hill weekly during the season. A long-sided Scot of the name of M'Laren was then the principal agent for the Scotch breeders. He was a bit of a wag, and one day the canny fellow was encountered on the Hill by the Hon. and Rev. A. B., who bore the title of the " fighting parson." The ruling passion, it seems, was strong upon him on this occasion from what followed. " Can you spar ?" said he to the Scot. "Spar, spar!" he replied; "I dinna ken what ye mean." " Can you box," said his reverence, throwing himself into position. " Nae, nae, I dlnna ken ; but if ye ha'e the mind I'll try wi' ye;" and so, suiting the action to the word, he reached the Hon. and Rev. A. B. a rightforward hit, which sent him heels over head, and laid his six-feet-four at full length on the ground. But this is an awful digression. These Galloways are old acquaintances, and noble fellows they are. There are no beasts fatten more " kindly," or yield better beef. The Devonshires, too, were perfectly familiar to me. Prince Albert's Devons are truly royal and aristocratic ; but, as an old farmer remarked to me, "if he can't produce good cattle, who can ? " I fully agreed as to the truth of the remark, but I thought it was spoken in a rather discontented spirit, as if the Prince had no right to be a competitor, and in this I could not hold with him. As long as that competition is open, and the judges impartial, which there is every reason to believe is the case, every one who enters the lists has the same opportunity of winning the prizes. It is not merely a question of expense, but of judgment and at- tention ; and so far as I am able to form an opinion, the Prince was fully entitled to the prizes be so fairly gained. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 125 The Earl of Leicester's Devons looked to me just as if they were part of the very herd I saw at Holkham, five or six-and-forty years ago. Mr. Coke had intro- duced them amongst his tenantry ; and one of them, Mr. Purday, of Egmere (the farm, I see, is now occupied by Mr. Overman), was a very successful breeder of them. He had so splendid a dairy of Devon cows, that gentle- men came far and near to see them. Mr. Coke never had any agricultural visitors at the Hall but he took them to see this far-famed dairy, which^ by-the-by, were but indiflferent milkers, being, I suspect, too highly fed. On one occasion a nobleman, who was staying with Mr. Coke, was taken, as a matter of course, to Egmere. After inspecting, admiring, and praising the cattle in the highest terms, he said, " Well, Mr. Purday, nothing can possibly exceed the symmetrical beauty of your stock ; but what in the world can induce you to keep those ugly brutes amongst them ?" pointing, at the same time, to three Suffolk polled cows ; " they quite dis- grace and spoil the whole thing." "That's very true, my Lord," replied the farmer, " my Devons are very beautiful, and I am proud of them ; but, after all, we must have a little milk for the family !" It will give a good idea of the estimation in which this stock was held, when I state that Mr. Purday sold a two-year-old bull for ^£500. Some of the sheep exhibited at Baker-street were beautiful specimens of their kind, perfect in symmetry, and wonderfully small in the proportion of bone to the size and weight of the carcase. Mr. Overman, of Burn- ham Sutton, sustains the character of a sheep breeder held by his father, whom I well knew. I recollect a circumstance respecting him, so honourable both to him- self and Mr. Coke, his landlord I believe, that I am sure it can give no offence to the family to relate it. When Mr. Overman, still comparatively a young man, was on his deathbed, Mr. Coke paid him a visit. This was no visit of form, curiosity, or empty condolence. A sincere friendship subsisted between them, owing to the hearty zeal and good will with which Mr. Overman seconded and carried out the views of his landlord. On reaching the bedside of the dying man he found him greatly depressed in mind, and endeavoured to console him with the hope of recovery. " I am not afraid of dying," said Mr. Overman; " but when I think of my poor wife being left with a family of sixteen children, you cannot wonder at my anxiety on their account." "If that be all. Overman," replied Mr. Coke, " make your mind easy. Your eldest son is now able with assistance to manage the farm for his mother and the family. A.nd with regard to the latter, if they conduct themselves well, I will provide farms for the boys, as fast as they are ready for them ; and should your daughters marry farmers, I will see that they too shall be provided for." I think this was about the year 1810, but I am unable to state the sequel respecting the family. I presume that the Messrs. Overmans, of Weasenham, Burnham Sutton, and Egmere respectively, are sons, or at least de- scendants, of the one referred to. The Southdown and half-bred sheep of the Earl of Leicester and the Duke of Richmond are perfect in their kind. The closeness of their fleeces, the squareness of the carcase, the fine head, and the slender but firm and short legs of these animals, prove the sedulous care that must have been taken to bring them to such a pitch of perfection. The patronage given by such men to agriculture and grazing is of infinite ad- vantage to the farming interest, if it were only for the purpose of furnishing a supply of breeding stock from their flocks and herds. But it has a far more beneficial effect in superinducing a spirit of enterprise and inquiry, and a desire for the higher acquisitions of the mind, which alone can elevate and ennoble the profession, and raise it to a science. Would that all the landowners of the kingdom would follow the example of such noble- men, and by uniting with their tenantry in those asso- ciations which belong to the agricultural class, give them that personal and unassuming encouragement which would elicit talent where it exists, and stimulate enter- prise and inquiry, which are otherwise apt to flag and lie dormant. In the Implement and Machinery Department I was completely lost and confounded. Portable steam engines, reaping machines, hay-making machines, thrashing ma- chines, which not only thrash and clean the corn, but put it up in sacks, all without the labour of man, except in laying the corn on the table of the machine — these, and a hundred other novelties (to me at least), suggested a train of reflections as to the immense benefit that must accrue from the transfer of labour from the more oppres- sive and exhausting employments, to be applied to other purposes ; for the farmer must not employ fewer hands on account of these improvements in machinery, but rather avail himself of their liberation to execute other works that the condition of the land and the increasing wants of our population demand. But I find I am exceeding the bounds of moderation in respect to the length of my letter, and must conclude. The benefits accruing from these periodical exhibitions are perceptible in every branch of rural economy, and they must continue to exercise a salutary influence in every respect, on the whole body of agriculturists. There is, however, one point on which I would venture to make one observation. It is in reference to the apparent effort to produce fat, rather than perfectly-formed, cattle. I maintain that the latter ought to be the main object of the competition ; but from the number of cross-made stock exhibited — fat enough, it is true, in parts, but most unsightly — it would seem that grazing alone had been the object of the owners, and that breeding had in some instances at least been neglected. I am quite aware, from my own experience, that a cross-made bullock may fatten as quickly, and pay the grazier as well, as the handsomest Galloway Scot or Devon. But if they do, it is the exception, and not the rule. For decidedly the best method of ensuring good grazers is by attending to the true breeds, continued generation after generation, to attain that symmetrical perfection which accumulates an equal proportion of meat on every part of the carcase. Yours truly, An Old Norfolk Farmer. London, 20th Dec. 126 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. LIGHT-LAND FARMING. The term "light-land" implies, ia agricultural lan- guage, all soils that are capable of being reduced in the texture to a pulverization that allows the growth of green crops in the plants of tubers, bulbs, and esculents. A large variety of lands occurs under this comprehen- sive term ; varying from tlie loamy clay, that produces beetroot, to the light loams, chalks, and sands, that change in quality according as the position is alluvial, or rests upon the rocky sediment. Three divisions will sufficiently mark the soils of light-land farming : Clayey loams, which are adapted for potatoes, beetroot, and Swedish turnips ; sandy loams, which produce only the common turnips ; and the sands, chalks, and gravels, that are restricted to turnips and other feeding crops, with one seed-bearing crop in the rotation. These lands vary much in the productive capability ; chiefly in the sandy compositions, as they may be alluvial, marine, or sedimented. The former term is the most prevalent, and abounds in the interior of Britain. The clayey loams comprehend the richest soils in Britain, bearing wheat after the removal, in autumn, of the potatoes, beetroot, and rutabaga, which are the most valuable crops that the climate allows. The lands are super- imposed on very deep and extensive beds of alluvial debris, and rest chiefly on the primitive formations, not rising above the old red sandstone but in very few situa- tions. The colour is generally a dark hazel, sometimes black, and occasionally a clay red. The subsoil is mostly a soapy or indurated clay, that retains the neces- sary moisture to cool the upper soil without an excess to saturate the earth into a noxious cjuality. Gravel and sand are frequently intermixed ia the substratum, when a corresponding variety in the soil is produced. A vast collection of diluvial aggregates often forms the basis of loamy clays, which are thereby much varied in the com- position ; but the quality is most generally very pro- ductive. These loamy clays are fresh-water formations, as few or no instances occur of the marine clays having been transformed into the modification of green- crop land. The adjacent mixtures retain the viscous quality, and still constitute the lands of bare fallow. Some few cases do occur when the alliance is very remote, and the formation had passed through many changes from the original deposit. Even in these instances the viscous quality always shows its presence, and forms a soil that barely allows the culture of roots. These formations accompany the chalk and oolite deposits, and not beyond these upper geological sediments. The highest quality of the soils occurs in over-lying the sandstones without the intervention of a vast depth of alluvial debris, that is often of very discordant qualities and very mixed com- position. Unfortunately the class of clayey loams is a small one, and in many cases the lands are used in grass, when the value and utility would be more liian doubled in arable cultivation. The grounds mostly lie in low situations, and are consequently favoured with a genial atmosphere. Loamy clays being a species of the original aluminons earth, the ploughing of the ground requires a power of draught which is able to penetrate a depth of seven or eight inches in the stubble furrow of the early winter. For this purpose two very stout horses are required, or better done by three animals that are yoked, with two walking in the furrows by chains in tandem, and one horse on the land, with an advantage of the long and short end of the main tree, which equalizes the strength of the drawing powers. A deep furrow at this time affords an abundance of loose soil during the other operations. The ploughing should be done in Novem- ber and December, and, if possible, not beyond the month of January. The wettest kind of the land is best laid into ridges of fourteen feet, and the drier sorts admit large breadths of ten to twenty yards, which are alternately reversed by the ploughings of the ground. The headlands are cloven, in order to keep the ridge of a medium height, by being alternately gathered and split. In the case of fourteen-feet ridges, five or seven of the spaces may be cleaved and the furrows ploughed up, as the wetness of the land does not require open furrows, and the odd number of ridges brings the end of the work in an open furrow on the top of a ridge. This precaution, and the ploughing up of the open fur- rows, are purposely intended to bring the land into a level condition for the drilling of the green crop. The narrow angle of soil that is cut by the points of the coulter and share must be laid in the most upright position, which exposes two sides of the furrow- slice to the action of the weather, or the greatest possible quan- tity of the up-turned soil. The penetration from both sides of the atmospheric action produces the alluvium or comminuted earth, which is the grand object to be pro- cured by every means of cultivation. A furrow too much inverted, or only half up-raised, exposes to the weather only one surface, which is solid and difficult of penetration ; the upright narrow section or slice pre- sents two sides to be mellowed, and thereby affords the most alluvium. These lands will be sufficiently dry to be cross- ploughed in the early part of April, or sooner, in favour- able positions of soil and climate. The operation is done by the common plough and two horses, with nar- row furrows, in order tha! the soil may be cut into small pieces for the purposes of reduction. The in- creasing length of day and of sun of that season will soon render the surface of the ground fit to receive the action of the harrows, which is done across the plough- ing, and repeated till the power ceasrs of breaking the clods of earth by their passing unhurt between the tines of the implement. The roll, in cast-iron of one ton in weight, follows next, and squeezes the clods of earth ; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 127 the harrow is again applied, and the roots of weeds are thoroughly disengaged. The stones and filth are care- fully picked by hand, and removed from the field ; the land is then ploughed lengthwise in large widths of twenty to thirty yards, and the open furrows are filled by reversing som.e rounds by the plough. The land is harrowed, rolled, and harrowed as before, and the weeds and stones removed — processes which will generally prepare the land to be planted with potatoes and beet- root. But another ploughing may be required for stiffer lands that are foul with weeds, and it is done as above described. The land having been completely levelled on the sur- face by the operations of tillage, a straight furrow is drawn in the direction in which the drills will be best laid, by the common plough drawn by horses abreast. The furrow must be deep, and the plough returns in the same place, which throws the earth equally to both sides of the line of traction . Ridglets are formed on each side of this farrow by means of one movement of the plough up and down the land, with the left-hand horse walking in the furrow,, and the. right- hand one walking on the firm ground, and widely as possible from the other horse. The plough makes a deep rut, and moves the land as widely and deeply as the power of the horses can effect. The tops of the ridglets are 30 in. apart. The day after the drills are made, the farm-yard dung is brought forward in one-horse carts, deposited in re- gular heaps along the drills, and spread by hand fork very evenly along the hollows of the drills. The quan- tity must cover the bottom of the plough rut, and will not be under twenty cart-loads of one horse's draught. The cuts of the potato tuber, with an eye in each set, are placed by hand singly over the spread dung, at the distance of nine or ten inches apart, and fixed in the position by a tread of the foot of the person that de- posits the seed. The ridglets are split by the plough, and the earth is reversed over the dung, and the drill is formed where the hollow was placed. The horses walk two drills apart, and the main-tree of 5 feet in length allows the separation. The right-hand horse walks in the furrow of the last split drill, and the left-hand animal walks on the top of the second drill that is un- moved— the plough splits the intervening drill, and being deeply wrought, a heavy furrow of earth is thrown over the dung and planted potatoes. The plough returns along the back of these split ridglets, moving in a hollow between the horses, which walk in hollows that aretwodrills apart. Aheavy furrow of earth is thus thrown from the other side over the dung, which is covered deeply with loose earth freshly moved. A light roll levels the narrow top of the newly-made ridglets, and produces an even brairding of the potato shoots. So soon as the young shoots have all appeared above ground, and the weeds have become numerous, the horse-hoe commences its labours by passing once along each interval, by which the weeds are cut, and the sides of drills and bottom of the intervals are moved by the share and knives of the implement. Potatoes require a deep cultivation, and a heavy tool is indispensable to till the intervals. Morton's expanding horse-hoe is the best single implement, as the duck-footed coulters effectually move the bottom, and the knives are ranged in a rising tier to cut the sides of the drills. A miniature or skeleton plough of iron drawn by one horse is pro- bably the most effectual of all horse-hoes on the stiff soils of clayey loams : the time required is double, as it moves twice in one interval, laying a small furrow into the centre of the interval, which has been taken from the sides of the drills. But the angular point of the common ploughshare penetrates the ground better than any tine or coulter of the common horse-hoes, and the double quantity of time may not be misapplied in ob- taining the very important object of deep tillage and an abundance of comminuted soil. One ploughing may be advantageous, and the light scarifier may suffice for the summer operations in checking the growth of weeds. The hand-hoeing follows the first grubbing, and cuts all weeds between the young plants, breaks the ground, and pulverizes the soil. A second hoeing is intermixed with the scarifyings that are done during summer, and destroys any tall weeds that may arise. When the stems of the plant wholly cover the drills, a double mould-board plough drawn by two horses, with a main- tree of five feet in length, moves along the interval be- tween the horses, which walk two drills apart, and throws a heavy furrow of earth to the drills on each side. This operation may be repeated in the course of two weeks after the first earthing, as it will afford to the tubers of the plant an ample quantity of comminuted soil in which to be multiplied. In this state the potato field remains till October, when the stems are pulled, and carried to the piggery as litter, or in a mixed dung- hill; the tubers are raised by plough or fork, and carried to the pits, and covered for use ; and the land is ploughed with one furrow, and sown with wheat. The planting of potatoes is done from the 16th to the end of April, when the land intended to be sown with beet-root will be continued in the preparation. The ground is prepared, drilled, dunged, reversed, and covered, as above described : the drills are 27 or 28 inches wide. The seeds of the plant, steeped and dried with quick -lime, are inserted by hand dibble on the tops of the drills in holes of 2 or 3 seeds, and 6 or 8 laches apart, or are sown by the two drill machines in drop or a continuous stream. Axles with cups are pro- vided for these machines, and are removed and ex- changed with the turnip -seed barrels, as the occasion requires. In either way of sowing the seed, a light rolling of the drill finishes the process. When the young plants of beet-root are risen to the height of two or three inches, the horse-hoe, as for potatoes, grubs and scarifies the intervals of the drills, when the tops of the ridglets are mowed by the hand- hoe, the weeds cut, and the plants left to grow at 8 or 10 inches apart. The scarifyings are repeated as the weeds grow, and the stiffness of the soil requires pul- verization, the hand-hoeing is repeated, and any tall weeds that arise during the latter season are pulled by hand. No earthing-up of the roots is done, as the contact of earth induces the growth of fibres from the bulb, which always render the quality to be coarse and ]28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bitter. The crop grows till November, when the roots are pulled by hand, dressed clean from earth and fibres, and the tops cut off by sickle. The tops are eaten by young cattle, and the roots are stored in thatched longi- tudinal piles, for the use of cows and sheep in the months of spring. The land is ploughed without delay, and sown with wheat. The sowing of Swedish turnips on clayey loams is done from the middle to the end of May, and for this crop, the land is every way prepared the same as for beet-root. The seed is sown on the top of the ridglets reversed over the dung, by the means of a double drill sowing machine, and covered by alight roll. The scari- fying of the intervals of the drills during summer, and the hand-hoeing of the crop of plants, are done as be- fore directed ; the plants are left to grow at nine inches apart, and the furrowed earth is not laid to the roots, as the contact of soil produces a fibrous growth from the bulb, which renders the quality coarse and bitter. In November, the crop of roots is removed to store-pits for the use of the spring months ; the tops are consumed by cattle and sheep, and the land is ploughed and sown with wheat. The farm-yard dung is carted to a heap in the fields, to be sown with the above crops, or laid in the lane which adjoins the gateway ; but it is best in two or more heaps in the field, and so placed as to suit the pro- cess of laying-on the manure in the proper season. The heaps are formed during the months of January, Feb- ruary, and March ; the carts pass over the sloping ends, and deposit the strawy excrementitious mass in a trampled consolidation, which prevents the fermentative process. A week before the potatoes are planted, the heap is turned over, and shaken into small pieces, which engenders a very active fermentation, during which the dung is deposited in the drills, and the seed placed upon it, and covered with earth by the plough. For beet-root, the heap may be turned over for two weeks previous to being used, which will advance the fermentation a stage further towards rottenness, and the same for Swedish turnips, as that plant and beet-root require a more rot- ten state of the dung than the potato plant. In all the applications, the plants derive much benefit from the fermentation going on after being deposited in the drill, and evolving a heat that is highly conducive to vegetable growth. The lime newly slaked from the cinders, and in the hottest possible state of pulverizalion, is best ap- plied on the surface of the ground before the drilling is done, of which the two operations in opening and re- versing the ridglets mix and commingle the soil and the lime in a very advantageous manner. The quantity should not be under 200 bushels on an acre, and re- peated at every third rotation of the cropping. The temperature of the soil will thus be kept high and uniform. The rotations of crops to be followed on the lands of clayey loams, vary in the number of years from five to seven. For the very best qualitities of soil, the follow- ing course of seven years cannot be exceeded, and it has been before recommended in the case of loamy clays which require to be summer- fallowed. Th>is, 1, green crops, potatoes, beet root, rutabaga, and cabbages ; 2, wheat or barley ; 3, hay ; 4, pasture ; 5, oats ; 6, beans ; 7, wheat. Notwithstanding the very great esculent value of cabbages, the plant does not form an eligible crop of general use ; the very fibrous root does not penetrate and divide the soil as the tap descent of the turnip and carrot, and the swelling tubers of the potato ; and there is no feculent exudation, as in the latter cases, from the fleshy bulb. The management of the plant in cultivation is generally more expensive than that of the turnip and potato. The rotation of five years is adapted for the second quality of clayey loams, to which beans are not fitted, and wheat is to be omitted. Thus, 1, green crops j 2, wheat or barley ; 3, hay ; 4, pasture ; 5, oats. The grass seeds for both rotations are per acre, 1 bushel of ray grass, J bushel of cock's-foot, 41bs. of meadow fescue, lOlbs. of red clover, 41bs. of white clover. The course of five years will be the most generally useful, and most fitted for clayey loams, with the exception of the very best qualities of soil, on which the rotation of seven years may be adopted. The crops on these soils are large, but the quality of grains is rather deficient. The barley is thick-skinned, and dingy in the colour, compared with the grain that is grown on gravelly soils and sharp loams ; and the wheat is not so fine as the quality produced on the lands that are more purely aluminous. The quantity of pro- duce very much overbalances this deficiency, and the bulk of straw adds much to the aggregated value. The green crops are the great basis of productiveness, by which the land is fitted for the future crops, besides yielding in themselves an inestimable value as food for man and beast. The root crops and the wheat are the staple articles. J. D. {To be continued.) SONG OF THE SPADE, BY J. BEDFORD LENO. Give me the spade and the man that can use it ; A fig for your lord and his soft silken hand ; Let the man who has strength never stoop to abuse it. Give it back to the giver — the land, boys, the land. There's no bank like the earth to deposit your labour— The more you deposit the more you shall have; If there's more than you want you can give to your neighbour. And your name shall be dear to the true and the brave. Give me the spade — Old England's glory, That fashioned the field from the bleak barren moor ; Let us speak of its praise with ballad and story. While 'tis brightened with labour, not tarnished with gore. It was not the sword that won our best battle, Created our commerce, and extended our trade. Gave food to our wives, our children and cattle ; But the queen of all weapons — the spade, boys, the spade. Give me the spade, there's a magic about it That turns the black soil into bright shining gold ; What would our fathers have done, boys, without it, AVhen the lands lay all bare, and the north winds blew cold ? Where the tall forests stood, and the wild beasts were yelling, Where our stout-hearted ancestors shrank back afraid. The corn-stack is raised, and mankind claim a dnelhng. Then, hurrah for our true friend — the spade, hoys, the spade. iTHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1:9 FISH MANURE. Dear Sir, — I know not whether the excellent practical lecture of Professor Way on the properties and uses of fish manure has been followed by any at- tempts to establish manufactories on our coasts. An inquiry, however, of Mr. Prideaux, one of your corres- pondents, respecting the possibility of obtaining a supply of fish, accompanied with a complaint that neither the learned Professor nor myself in my letter had given suflScient information on that point, leads me to suppose that such an undertaking is at least contemplated. With regard to your correspondent's complaint, I beg to say that the lecture was necessarily confined, in the main, to the scientific view of the question ; and that any remarks upon the modus operandi, including the source from whence the raw material is to be obtained, could only be incidentally, if at all, adverted to. My own letter, which appeared on the same day in your paper, was in- tended to draw the attention of commercial men, and especially of those employed in the manufacture of con- densed manures, to the identity, and consequent equal value, of the fish manure with guano, and thus induce them to form establishments for its manufacture on the coast, in order to provide against the time when the supply of guano will be exhausted. Believing, as I do, that the use of condensed manures will indefinitely increase, both from the superior cfl'ect produced by them in the produce of the land, and the saving of labour and time in their application, and that the subject has attained an importance that must force itself upon the attention of both commercial and agri- cultural men with daily extending and increasing interest, I think that it cannot be too frequently brought before the public, and that every word of information calculated to throw light upon it ought to be made the subject of discussion and consideration. I therefore propose to supply in this letter the omission complained of by your correspondent, by saying a word or two upon the most eligible places for obtaining a supply of fish for the manufacture of fish manure. It was well remarked by Professor Way in his in- valuable lecture, that in the prosecution of this enter- prise the motive for the fishing must be reversed, and that instead of the capture of edible fish being the primary, and that of other kinds the incidental or rather accidental object, the fishing for the manufactory must become the primary object, and only the more valuable kinds of fish reserved for the market. For this purpose, boats must be fitted out strictly for the worli, independent of the purchase of yseless or uneatable fish caught by the regular boats, and the refuse of curing establishments. It might be supposed that this would injure the fishery by lessening the shoals or driving them off the coasts. I believe, however, that such a fear would be groundless, that the quantity of fish is perfectly in- exhaustible, and that tJie instinct which brings the shoals periodically or otherwise to our coasts is too powerful to be overcome by any draughts upon them, however large or numerous. The progress of the migratory shoals— such as mackerel, herring, pilchards, &c., so far as I am able to judge, is as regular, deliberate, and unconcerned, after centuries of fishing, and, I may add, as numerous, as ever. Nor do I hear that the in- creasing demands upon the shoals of cod fish on the banks of Newfoundland have either alarmed or lessened the quantity of the fish. The fact is, so enormously prolific are all species of fish, of the edible kinds espe- cially, that the idea of exhaustion is perfectly absurd. The "take" of cod, for instance, at Newfoundland is about 1,400,000 tons per annum, which, if we reckon the fish to weigh, upon the average, 81bs. each, will give the sum of 392,000,000 of codfish. Now, as the roe of one fish contains a million eggs, it would require only three hundred and ninety-ttvo fish to supply the whole take, supposing all the eggs and spawn from them were to live ! A large proportion, however, of these are un- doubtedly devoured by the fish of prey ; but still enough are preserved to afford an inexhaustible supply for all the purposes that man can devise for their destruction. And now with regard to the places most eligible for such an establishment. Our largest fisheries (in Eng- land), I believe, are on the eastern and western coasts, say, the eastern counties and Cornwall. In Ireland the whole line of coast, but especially the western or Atlantic side, swarms with fish which for ages have remained almost unmolested. It is a fact that in Dublin Bay the take of fish by the Cornish fishermen amounts to from i'60,000 to ;£:'70,000 per annum ; yet not a boat is sent out from Dublin, and the fish mar- ket of that city is chiefly supplied by the Cornish fisher- men. The boats are furnished and fitted up, and the capital supplied, by tradesmen at Penzance, St. Ives, &c., who share in the profits of the venture. But an illimitable quantity of fish might be taken in the bay and its neighbourhood ; whilst there are plenty of sites, either at Ringsend, Howth, or Clontarf, for an unmo- lested establishment, which might not be the case nearer to Dublin. On the west coast, however, the scope is much wider than near Dublin ; and the only question is, how far would the inhabitants of those parts tolerate such an establish- ment ? Hitherto they have resisted all attempts of English capitalists to form fisheries upon their fishing grounds, and have illused and driven away the men em- ployed in them ; whether they are now less inimical to the intrusion of " foreigners," as they call us, and are willing to assist by their labour on reasonable terms, I cannot say ; but as a beneficial change has already taken place in that country in other respects, it is possible that now, the fishermen of the western coast of Ireland may have seen their error, and are willing to lend thefr aid in establishing what will certainly be of immense benefit to their country. L 13a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Supposing, then, that no opposition would be raised against such cstablishmeuts, any part of the western coast would furnish an abundant supply of fish at all times and seasons ; and the innumerable bays and inlets afford eligible sites at almost every mile or two. But perhaps the most convenient part would be towards the south, from Galway Bay to Baltimore. Independent of the deep-sea fishery, which could be prosecuted with the greatest success by large boats, the whole range of coast is well adapted for the employment of the smaller craft, whicli in the various estuaries and inlets could pursue their avocations with safety and success. The certainty of an immediate return at a fair price for the produce of their labour would be an unfailing inducement to its prosecu- tion. With regard to England, any of the port-towns where the herring, mackerel, pilchard, or other fishery is carried on, would be eligible. All the refuse of those establishments would of ooursa be available. Professor Way referred to the sprat fishery on the coasts of Essex, Kent, and Sussex, as aff'ording at present a large supply of manure to the neighbouring farmers. This might be extended indefinitely, and applied to the pur- pose of the manufacture. Of the dog fish in Dorset- shire, also referred to in his lecture, I had not before heard ; but if the quantity taken is considerable, it might answer the purpose. Regard, however, must be paid in some degree to the composition of the different kinds of fish. The learned professor showed that the mackerel contains 24^ per cent, of oil ; this is a most important fact. Tn the report of the establishment at Concarneau by Messrs. Payen and Pommier, they estimate the pro- portion of oil extracted at 2i per cent, of the weight of fresh fish, which is considered an important item in the produce, as it sells at SJd. per lb. If, therefore, mackerel yields even half the proportion stated in the lecture, it would add materially to the profit of the con- cern. With regard to the whale fishery, there is no question that the flesh, if it could be cured and condensed when taken, would be available for the manufacture, bid not at half the price of guano. The fish manure at Concar- neau sells at about ^7 10s. per ton,* and the proprietors of the new establishments could not afford to give ^5 per ton for the refuse flesh of the whale, even if the shippers could afford to give it room at that price, in lieu of oils, which I much doubt. With respect, however, to the bones of the whale, I can speak with more certainty, that they will not answer the purpose of cattle bones at any price. I speak now from a personal knowledge, happening to be acquainted with a bone crusher who purchased a large quantity of them, and ruined his trade by mixing them with his other bones, the effect of which was to spoil both. When he found out his error, he attempted to sell the whales' bones by themselves ; but when I last saw him he had not succeeded. The fact is, fish bones do not contain the properties of cattle bones, and will do but little, if any, good to the land. Perhaps some of your chemical correspondents will be able to explain the cause of this, and the diff'erence, which I cannot. Whether a " porpoise fishery" would prove profitable, I cannot say ; but certainly there are at times large shoals of them on our coasts. They are, however, a very cunning fish, and are not easily taken in any way. As to sharks, I hope they are not sufficiently numerous with us to form an object of profit to the fisherman. When accidentally caught, however, they will be avail- able. The porpoise, I apprehend, would prove more profitable on account of the oil, if they could be taken in sufficient quantities, either by net or harpoon. The common herring or mackerel net would be of no service in this fishery, which would require a strong and deep net of large dimensions, to drive the porpoises upon the shoals, where they could be destroyed with the spear, harpoon, or club, at leisure. Upon the whole, I see no reason to fear that a fish manure manufactory, on any part of our coast, would ever have to stand still for want of raw material ; whilst depeniling upon their own fleet of boats, they would most assuredly have the assistance of the regular fisher- men, if the remuneration given was liberal. I should be glad to see the experiment tried, being convinced that it would prove amply remunerative to the parties engaged in it ; whilst it would confer a lasting benefit upon the agricultural interest. Yours truly, N. F. London, \5th October, 1855. STEAM CULTURE. ROTARY ACTION. Now that we have entered the field with the powerful arm of steam, it is high time to bring to the bar of practice the favourits proposition of rotary cultivation. The slow, straight-forward pace of the plough may har- monize with the measured step of hoary age ; but child- hood and youth— how fond are they of running after whirligigs, just because of their rotary action (.'). And in yoking steam, like an untrained colt, let us beware lest experience accuse us in the long run of having spent * 20 fr. per 100 kilogrammes. the best half of an apprenticeship to steam culture in playing ourselves with toys. The curve which the edge or point of all rotary im- plements describes is either a cycloid, or that where the base is greater or less than the base of a cycloid ; and in order to comprehend its action in the soil, it is necessary to attend to this curve, whatever it may be. In the following diagrams, fig. 1 is two cycloids, (A) and {D), representing two revolutions of the implement ; and lest any of our readers may not be acquainted with the curve, the following explanations will enable them THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 131 to follow us, and draw the necessary practical conclu- sions at issue. The three circles numbered 1,2, and 3, represent three different positions of the implement, in which the letters A, B, c, and D are the same points of it in each case — as shown at No. 1, representing four ploughs ; or the points may be those of any other tiller our readers may imagine. If a circle roll along a straight line— such as a cart- wheel along the surface of level ground — a point in the circumference of this circle or wheel will during an entire revolution describe a curve, which is called a cy- cloid. Tiie circle is termed the generating circle, and the point in its circumference the describing point. In the diagram, either of the circles may be termed the generating circle (say No. 1), and a the describing point in each position— A (fig. 1) being the point at the bottom of the furrow or cultivated soil. In rotating from left to right, it describes the cycloidal curve a a A. When it has made half a revolution it is in the posi- tion No. 2, a being then in the vertex. The third posi- tion (No. 3) represents the circle when it has made one complete revolution, the describing point having reached the base ; a a A is thus the cycloid, a c a its base, and a straight line from a to c (No. 2) its axis. The circle (No. 3) is that which most interests us, as the implement here enters the soil and again leaves it. When A (or the point of the implement) has reached the base here, it is stationary for an instant of time, when it again arises, describing the cycloid (B). If any of our readers do not see this properly, let them put a mark on the felloe of a cart-wheel, and then follow or trace the curve it describes during two revolutions, when they will find it is that of our diagram. If we suppose the diameter of the implement four feet, and the depth of cultivation one foot {i. e., a cubic foot of earth at each spit), then the base would be some- thing more than twelve feet in length ; so that we must either have twelve ploughs, or make the implement per- form three revolutions, in order to invert or cultivate the furrow- slice or spit m' n' m a, the line m m' being the unplou hed land, and the dotted line o o the ploughed — or 24 ploughs, with a spit of 12 x 12 x 6. Now, we need hardly waste words in proving to our readers that this is an absolute im])ossibility, as they must see it at a glance, from the positionofNo. 3 compared with No. 1. They will also be able to account for the heavy draught of Samuelson's digger, and all imple- ments of this kind working on the cycloidal firinciple, from the action of the back of the diggers against the unloosened soil ; and also for the imperfect manner in which they cultivate the bottom, from the curve which the points of the diggers describe in rising, as repre- sented at A No. 3. By making the implement revolve the opposite way (say Usher's ploughs), its points or shares entering at the bottom of the furrow instead of as at the surface of the unploughed land, the curve which A would then de- scribe would be an inverted cycloid. The point of the implement would then enter at the vertex, instead of where the ordinate or dotted line o o meets the curve at M. If we turn the cycloid (B) upsidedown, and suppose the implement moving from right to left, then No. 4 and No. 5 will represent two positions of it. In the former, the point of the share a is supposed to be at a of the latter when d (No. 5) is about to enter the soil to de- scribe the dotted line d'. It is from this also manifest, then, that we must have either twelve ploughs in the series, or else three revolutions. How far the proposition of slow motion in this case would meet the demands of practice, experiment must answer ; but so far as mere theory is concerned, there is nothing impossible apparently about it, with very nar- row furrow-slices. With twelve ploughs there would be three furrow-slices for one with four ploughs, so that the dotted lines m n would show the first furrow-slice of a wedge-shaped form ; m' n' the second, and d d' the third. Two difficulties would doubtless be experienced — the one in constructing the ploughs, from their close proximity to each other ; and the second, competition with our old friend the straightforward going plough, perhaps the latter the greatest of the two. The second diagram represents two curves (C) and (D), described by the point a moving at a uniform velocity around its axis three times that required in the cycloid. We may call it a tricloid. The letters and positions of the generating circle and describing point are the same in every respect as in the cycloid, only the difference of velocity gives a difference of curvature, with a corres- ponding difference in the length of the base. As in the former case, a a a is the tricloid ; a c a its base ; and a line from a to c No. 2 its axis. In this case a considerable advantage is gained in the effect produced on cultivation, but at a great sacrifice of power. It is a well-known fact in mechanical science that an increase of velocity cannot be gained without a corresponding increase of power ; so that to increase the velocity three times with a given power, is just to diminish the effect produced to one-third. This, then, we may briefly say in one word, is a sacri- fice of steam such as to render steam culture an absolute impossibility. True it is that Mr. James Boydell has enunciated a new proposition in mechanical science, viz., that power 'may be gained without losing space, by making the two gearing teeth of the crank-shaft pinionand spur wheel on the carriage wheel of his " Traction Engine," each gear in the vertex of the cycloid which it describes. But although the truth of this proposition is all but L 2 132 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. selt'-evideut to those who compreheud practical me- chanics, it must nevertheless pass at the bar of prac- tice before it can be admitted as an exception from the general rule. It is a well-known fact, for example, that the top of a cart-wheel moves with double the velocity of its axle ; that the describing point a of a generating circle passes the vertex (a No. 2) of the cycloid a with double the velocity of its centre, or progressive motion along the base a c a. The crank-shaft ginion again rolls along an imaginary line parallel to the ground, each tooth describing an inverted cycloid, having its vertex in the vertex of the opposite cycloid described by the gearing tooth of the spur wheel (the pinion), thus orming an endless plank as it revolves. Mr. Boydell takes advantage of this circumstance to save space and velocity, and by applying power to the end of a lever of the second kind (which may technically be termed an endless lever), is able to comply with the conditions which it demands of sustaining a traction force equiva- lent to twice the power applied. But even granting that the Patentee of the Endless Railway shall establish the truth of his proposition, so that it may be admitted into received science, it will not balance the loss of power sustained by tricloidal action ; much less will it balance the loss of power sustained under a pentacloid, hexacloid, heptacloid, octacloid, nonacloid, decacloid, or any other cloid with ten-times-ten the velocity of the generating circle. But apart from this view of the subject, our rea- ders will readily perceive that almost all the obstacles of the cycloid stand in the way of the tricloid, progres- sion being impossible with continuous motion from the action of the implement against the unploughed land m', and the imperfect loosening of it at n' No. 3. With intermittent progression we have, of course, circular action. Let us glance very briefly at this as the last alternative of rotary culture. Starting from a state of rest to one of motion is, we fear, a difficulty in the way. Boydell's engine, for ex- ample, when stopped in ploughing, has to back a little in order to enable it to advance again. Supposing, then, we take on six inches at every advance, we would then have six inches " back her," and twelve inches " for- ward," " stop her" and " back her" again, &c., &c. Now we need not stop to ask the opinion of our practical readers on the issue in this case ; for were we to enter the field with it, the conclusion would be obvious. It is much more easy to imagine results, than for us to convey anything likea just idea of them in this case. Six- and-a-half tons — " back her ! " — then forward with a velocity of five miles an hour — would impinge against the unploughed soil with a momentum not easily calculated. Then follows the commotion of hot water and steam within, and cold water and oil without, in the faces of the engineer, and all within reach ; with twisted axles, broken bolts, cracked saddle-boxes, besides the risk of bursting the boiler. In a word, when we enter the field, intermittent action has its difficulties to remove as well as continuous progression. From these hasty observations we would rather have our readers to draw their own conclusions, than sum up in a single sentence a sweeping verdict against this kind of culture in any form. Cycloidal action we have seen impossible, tridoidal little better, while the extremes on cither side arc t;n degrees worse. In short, the longer we live, the more our ideas harmonize with the straight- forward action of our old friend thk Plough, with his faithful allies, "drag-harrows," "cultivators," &c. No doubt objections many are brought against them ; but these we shall briefly dispose of in a subsequent article, as worse than imaginary. Meantime, let none of our readers suj)pose that we look upon the plough and our present system of culture as perfect. On the contrary, it is not long since we advocated spade or fork-husbandry as preferable to horse- ploughing, &c. But horse culture and steam culture, we hope, will yet be proved two very different things. STEAM CULTURE. Sir, — In your journal there is an article on Fisken's Steam Plough, which professes to discuss the merits of that machine ; but the writer of the article misrepresents the principles of tlie machine, and makes statements which are calculated to mislead those who wish for the truth on such an important subject as steam culture. The article sets out by stating that " Fisken's project is a compound of several old ones;" and in proof of this averment, mention is made of Chapman, Saxton, McRae, Osborne, and some others, whose schemes we have copied, and combined into our machine. In an- swer to this, we have to state that these schemes or plans were entirely unknown to us when we projected ours, and consequently we could not copy from that of which we knew nothing. But the best evidence that our machine is not a com- pound of these jdans is the fact that we do not adopt the patented parts of those machines. The ropes and pulleys or riggers do not act on each other in the way they are represented in the article referred to. There is no part in our machine where the rope crosses, as is said, like the cord of a drill bow. We avoid that saw- ing of the rope which defeated the success of some of the above plans, as is represented, and we adopt a plan of our own. As to the arrangement of the ploughs in or on a car- riage, we also had to follow our own plan, for we had no other to copy from ; and none but those who have attempted the adjusting of ploughs to work together in one frame or carriage, can have any idea of the difficul- ties in the way of success. But neither the originality nor excellence of the ma- chine consists in the arranging of ploughs in a carriage, or in tlie mere employment of ropes and pulleys. The way that our machine is sought to be deprived of its merit is by saying that it is a copy of others. All in- ventions in mechanics would be stripped of their merits by saying they were only a compound of the three or five mechanical powers or principles, as all machines are but a combination of these simple elements. All inventions, in one sense, must be but combinations or compounds ] and all inventors in mechanics, great and small, in that sense are compounders. The great peculiarity and novelty in our machine con- sist in transmitting power for field purposes by a small rope moving at great velocity, and in being so arranged that the motive power always maintains one position while the field is being ploughed. The engine, or mo- tive power, is stationed either in a corner of the field or in any field adjacent. None of the plans, which I have seen or heard of, adopt the principle of the small endless rope at great velocity for transmitting power : our me- thod in this respect stands out in full distinctness from all other projects of steam ploughing. Let me shortly now direct your attention to some of the great advantages gained by this mode of transmitting power, by which the objections raised in the article re- ferred to are avoided. First. Our method allows us to have all the sheaves, cajistans, or anchors, and other fixtures, much lighter than in other plans, which employ ropes and pulleys, and consequently are more easily shifted from field to field. Secondly. All the heavy strain by which the cultivat" THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 133 ing apparatus is moved along the soil comes upon fixed drag ropes, which are taken up by the travelling ma- chine by means of drums or a grooved rigger (for we have employed both ways), and consequently the fric- tion and loss of power occasioned by a heavy drag rope in motion are avoided ; and, also, by this arrangement the machine is capable of moving over all kinds of sur- faces— hUls or steep declivities are no obstacles to its action ; and they who know the irregularities that abound in our cultivated fields must admit that a machine which possesses the power of travelling wherever horses can travel, or land requires culture, is endowed with rare merit. In the article referred to, it is stated that our drag rope requires to be double that of Osborne's or McRae's ; the fact is, that ours is lighter, as we do not require to provide for those heavy strains which must attach to their system. The attempt at reasoning to prove that our rope must be double shows that the writer does not understand the machine he professes to describe, and also that he knows not the first elements of mechanics. Strange that such a writer should assume the air of warning his readers against imaginary results, reslingon his own misconceptions. Thirdly. Our scheme possesses the advantage of having the power concentrated, as it were, in the moving car- riage, which gives the ploughman complete control over its motions, as, by a simple touch of a handle, he can in an instant stop, reverse, or set the machine in motion, without ever interfering with the action of the small rope; so that stones or sudden obstructions are found to be no difficulty in practice. Fourthly. The scheme transmits power with great economy. An eminent engineer (James Stirling, Esq., Edinburgh), who was sent by the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland to report on its merits, found, after a careful measurement of the power, that one plottgh with its carriage, weighing together 15 cwt., was pro- pelled at the usual speed of a plough, and taking also an average funow, by the nominal power of two horses, the plough at times working 300 yards distant from the motive power (which was a water wheel). Subsequent experiments by steam power have realized still more favourable results. In a late experiment at Walworth Castle, near Darlington, an engine seven years old, and less than seven horse power, propelled two ploughs and their carriage (weighing 17 cwt.) 1,920 yards in twenty minutes, the ploughs working from six to seven inches deep, and the work also of a superior character : this was within a fraction of siv acres per day, with less than seven-horse power. Such are some of the unparalleled results which the apparatus has actually eftected. But lastly, and what may appear to some the most valuable advantage, the scheme affords the ready means of employing other modes of acting on the soil than by the common plough ; and from the beginning we con- templated the employment of a more effective method of cultivation than the plough, and are prepared to carry it out as soon as circumstances allow. The de- sign of the scheme, when fully carried out, is, that the cultivating apparatus will leave the soil thoroughly pul- verized for the seed as it proceeds, and thus avoid the awkward and antiquated method of comminuting the soil by the mere traction of implements through it. It has been enough for us at present to show how the plough can be profitably drawn by steam. The plough's ancient reign is, however, doomed to fall before the revolutionary notions that accompany the introduction of steam into a new region of action. In the article reference is made to the fact that when the machine is working two ploughs, and with a leverage of 11 to 1, the small driving rope has then only the tractive power of one- third of a horse-power ; and this is held up as a gross absurdity. Now, a person, before he begins to ridicule, should first see that he is in the right. Had the writer who made this gross reflection taken the trouble to acquaint himself with the principle of virtual velocities, he would at once perceive that one- third of a horse-power, with a velocity of 22 miles per hour, is about the power of four horses moving two miles per hour. We claim nothing for our machine but what is founded on the principles of mechanical science, or what has been proved by the stern realities of experiment, before which all conjectural objections entirely vanish. Trusting that the above will find a place in your next publication, I am, yours truly, William Fisken. Stamfurdham, hi/ Neutcaatle-on-Tyne, Dec. 13, 1855, SiR,-^I notice, in the Mark Lane Express, your correspondent's remarks about Steam Culture, and as my machine is several times brought forward in connec- tion with the subject, I beg you will give a place to the following reply. May 1 ask if your correspondent has ever seen my machine at work ? The tone of his remarks leads me to infer that he has not ; and if so, it would surely have been a little more in harmony with the practical cha- racter of your journal if he had avoided so sweeping a condemnation on merely theoretic principles. The day has gone by when science ventures to pronounce impos- sibilities on her own dicta, and it is happily a rare occurrence to have the facts of an experimentor, strug- gling with difficulties enough in the general apathy of practical men, coolly impugned because the theorizer has never recognized the principles of operation, or taken the trouble of examining the results. Hence your cor- respondent styles the whole thing as " Usher's proposi- tion," as if the whole were some theory of my own, which he might meet and overturn by a counter theory of his ; while I present it to the public, aud ask the judgment of the public upon it, not as a proposition, but as an experiment — a fact needing development, it may be, but as far removed from a proposition as the dictum of your correspondent is from that rational theorizing which is most of all afraid of running its head against facts. I may notice one or two points of detail which, in reference to my machine at least, have so obviously the elements either of prejudice or ignorance, that I can only claim, yet scarcely expect, that candid examination which a proposition really applied will always receive at the hands of the truly scientific. Your correspondent repudiates the idea of my revolv- ing ploughs being propellers, but this has been proved by many experiments. I can take my machine over newly-ploughed land, and turn it over a second time, both operations of driving the machine and turning over the land being carried on with as much ease to the en- gines as when ploughing the stubble land for the first time ; the ploughing apparatus being driven at double the speed of the machine. Now, as it would require twelve horses to draw a five-ton carriage over a ploughed field, and ten horses to draw five ploughs through the same after that weight had passed over it, I think it fol- lows that the power exerted in the cultivation is trans- ferred to propelling, as a 14-horse engine could not perform both operations at once. Again : he states that the heels of the ploughs are Wktrailway drags, and tend to repel instead of propel the machine ; but this is en- tirely obviated by the fact that the heels are kept so much nearer the spindle than the points that they merely touch the ground. This was a point that engaged my 134 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. very earliest attention, and which I successfully over- came. 1 only wish, Mr. Editor, that I had you on the field, on a dry day, with ray machine, when all your cor- respondent's theories about " octacloid and nonaoloid," *' back her, and stop her," would soon be dissipated, as I never require to stop from one end of the field to the other, unless when coming on a rock ; and the sole of the furrow is never more than one inch shallower at one place than another, which is surely of much less conse- quence than the hardened and smoothed sole made by his " old friend, the plough." Your correspondent's last paper, On the System of Cultivation by Rotary Machines, is not for me to de- cide on, as it enters upon points more adapted for the decision of farmers themselves ; but I shall give you the opinions of practical agriculturists on the subject, who have witnessed my machine in operation, and with a foot-rule gauged and measured the work performed. One of our most distinguished farmers' clubs, at one of their meetings, thus record their sentiments on steam ploughing: — " That, in the opinion of this meeting, it is not essential, in the introduction of any new principle of cultivatiou, that the old system of working on the metliod of the plough shnuld he maintained, but that any process, hy which the soil is tho- roughly comminuted to a sufficient depth, would be preferable to any system of grubber or plough cultivatiou." One farmer writes : — " After witnessing the trials of Usher's machine, I may with great confidence say that the day is not far distant when the object will be accomplished. The average depth that the plough went on Wednesday was seven inches ; and, as far as I can judge, it will turn over five acres per day, for twenty-two shiUings." Another writes : — "If a practical man had been brought to the field, not knowing bow the sod had been stirred, he would have pro- nounced the complete operation to have been the work of the most perfect grubber or cultivator. As a cultivator and pul- verizer of the soil, Mr. Usher's steam plough proved equal, if not superior, to the common plough or any cultivator that I have seen in operation." Another says: — " The earth was completely broken up, as if it had been done by spade labour, leaving scarcely a clod for the harrows to break; while the bottom of the furrow, in place of being hard and stiff, was as clean and open as if a rake had passed over it." Another : — " Perhaps the severest ordeal to which the steam plough was subjected was when it passed a second time over land newly turned up ; but here the trial was an.ply successful : the machine moved on as steadily and firmly as if it had been cutting the surface for the first time." An eminent agricultural engineer says: — " It was with no small amount of pleasure that I first be- came aware of Mr. Usher's iuveutioa of a locomotive machine, in which he had combined the processes of both ploughing and' 'JiSg'ug. 'V"^ ^^'^ moreover adopted for its action that mecha- nical appliance which has in iiumberless cases been so emi- nently successful — rotatory instead of rectilinear motion- and it has indeed become my own farther and firm conviction that steam tillage, to be successful, must be on the h comotive principle, with rotatory motion." I am, sir, your obedient servant, James Usher. Edinburgh, Dec. 18, 1855, FISKEN'S PLOUGH. In addition to what we said last week on this sul>ject, we have only, in reply to Mr. Fisken, to append the following : — (I.) Practice has never yet been able to overturn sound theoretical principles, for reasons too obvious to ref uirc notice, the latter being the laws which govern the former. (2.) There is nothing novel in the transmission of power " for field purposes by a small rope running at a great velocity ;" so that all that can be claimed here is any peculiarity in the mechanical construction for doing so. (3.) There is nothing novel in the motive power always maintaining one " position" (?) while the field is being ploughed ; so that all that can again be claimed is mechanical construction. (4.) There is nothing novtd in the engine being sta- tionary in the corner of the field. (5.) It will be high time to sing the requiem of the plough when rotary tillers have been adopted in practice. (6.) Power is, in the first instance, sacrificed to gain velocity, and then velocity to gain power. Now, with all due respect to Scotch engineers, we beg most respectfully to query the economy of steam in such a combination. We have had enough of experience in field-euiiineering to know that it is an easy matter losing power, but not such an easy one taking it up again, under less antiquated systems than rigger motion, traction, and friction. (7.) Is not Mr. Fisken aware that his " virtual velocities," as applied to our case, are " essentially stationary"? an absurdity gross enough, we repeat, " for the most unlettered rustic swallowing." We entreat him to read our paragraph again. Let us put the question in another form. First, How many levers are there involved in a rigger ? only one, as some have ignorantly supposed ? and if two is the ritle, then P + W, or 2 P + 2 W ? And seco?id, Will his motive power propel his implement in the absence of riggei" friction, &c. ? Certainly not I With rigger friction, then, what is the additional power required? As this friction is always equal to the tension of the driving and traction ropes, will not one-thiid more or less of a hor.«e-iiower be required to overcome it, including the resultant forces involved ? (8.) When inventors fall into such errors as the above, wdiat value can be placed upon their own reports of their cxpeiiments? We are the last to call in question the value of evidence of this kind, or to throw any obstacle in the way of progress in the field ; but experience has long ago proved that the public cannot with safety rely upon experiments perfurnied by those who, in nine cases out of ten, arc too enthusiastically sanguine of t'Uccess. C'lUi- ti(ni is necessary on the part of agricultural journals, before giving credence to every thing reported from the iieldj the more so when reporters appear not always to comprehend the principles on which machines work. But while we thus award to expc- limeiit its full merit, we beg to remind our readers at the same time that cxi)orimental blunders are much more numerous than theoretical ones; and with these premises we have only to add, that the exjieri- ments, asquotedby Mr. Fisken in su))portof hisplough, arc wanting in detail to be of reliable value to us. (9.) Neither Chapman's nor Saxton's riguers weie thrown aside because of the sawing action of the ropo in crossing, as stated by Mr, Fisken, that having been obviated by pulley-gnidcs ; but because of the extra THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 185 power required for rigger- friction, as stated under last Leads. (10.) When Mr. Fisken acknowledges what he does of rigger mechanics, are we not entitled to tlianks for the information we have aflbrded him ? Our object has heen to treat the subject impartially, dealing cqual-handfid justice to all inventors; and if we have failed in this, it is more than what has yet been suc- cessfully laid to our charge, while all the complaints brought against us disappear as we approach Ihem like an Egyptian mirage. USHER'S PLOUGH. (1.) When Mr. Usher makes the startling announce- ment that " the day has gone by when science ventures to pronounce impossibilities on her own dicta," what are we to understand by it ? That Received Science has fallen asleep? or that she is )o have nothing to do with inventors and their steam-culture projects ? Has not Mechanical Science laid it down as an established fact in practice that the points of his ploughs are momentarily in a state of rest in the soil, and therefore can produce no effect whatever upon it ? and that it is absurd to talk of the heels being " kept so much nearer the spindle than the points, that they merely touch the ground ;" as will be seen from the following diagram, where a b c" is the curve described by any point of his plough, and as c c' b a that described during the second revolution of the implement. Let e d be the surface of the soil, a c" a the bottom of the cultivated soil, 1 and 2 two positions of the implement, o o the spindle in each case, and c" n c c" the spit of ground to be cultivated ; aud draw the radius 0 c (fig. 1) from the spindle to the surface of the soil e d in c"' c. (2.) Now it will appear manifest at sight to our readers that the radius o e" (fig. 2) acts upon the soil as the point of the implement c moves to c'" in rising out of it, and consequently that it checks the progress of the machine like a drag. The heel of the plough, therefore, must, instead of being kept nearer the spindle than the periphery, as stated by Mr. Usher, be in advance of the point or radius o c (fig. l) ! but were it so, the action would be abrading, not ploughing, as our readers will perceive. The patentee may summon to his assistance all the leading farmers in the kingdom, but they will not get him over the impossibility which Received Science has here thrown in the furrow before his plough. Mr. Fisken has dragged us into " virtual velocities" above, and a very slight insight here ought to convince Mr. Usher that to make the velocity in the one direction equal to the velocity in the other, so as to produce an equilibrium in the point c", where the greatest velocity was required, is neither sound doctrine in the columns of an agricultural jour- nal nor effective practice in the field. We are not here saying that 14-horse power of steam and 5 tons of solid metal will not break the surface of ordinary soils ; but the practical question at issue involves the economy of time, steam, and iron, in doing so. (3.) Again, it will be seen that the soil loosened by the implement is represented by the triangle e c" c'", and that in wet, tenacious, clay soils during winter, the area e"' n c" would not be loosened at all. In friable soils it might be so, in the same manner as imperfect work with a pick, such being the principle of culture ; but in the plastic clays of Surrey at present it would be otherwise. (4.) The principle of action, it will be seen again, is that of loosening the soil as with a pick, as we have just stated above ; so that the fine theory of rotary culture, perfect comminution, and so forth, is a fiction only existing in the minds of some opiniative writers and speculators. (5.) With regard to propulsion, a correspondent has very graphically compared it, in the columns of a con- temporary, to the action of the paddle-wheels of steam- boats in the river. Now as the idea of sailing in our fields must be very refreshing during Christmas times, we may safely leave this part of the question in the hands of our readers for solution. INIoreover, as pad- dles are giving way to screws, why not have Bonsen and Pettitt's screw " propellor" ? since by adopting it we avoid the stumbling-block of " virtual velocities." Our readers will perceive that we are here presenting them with mechanical " nuts to crack " more worthy of patents than paddle systems, and therefore we hope they will make the best of their winter evenings — Q' parts of •1 Total Acres Extent of each County included in District. Acres. 851,200 1,657,200 4,000,000 1,315,040 1,035,000 18,000,000 35,840 Extent of Land cultivated and Land capable of improvement. Acres. 680,000 1,215,000 2,997,000 1,215,000 565,000 628,390 20,000 26,894,280 ' 16,320,390 Proportion of wet Land. Acres. 255,000-1 400,000 J 1,250,000-1 750,000 J 360,000-, 5,000,000 J 10,000 Amount of Money applied for, uuder the Public Money Drainage Act. 8,025,000 £. 63,702 223,863 1,941,168 ^2,228,733 Amount expended under the Act. £. 27,040 83,297 1,165,683 £1,276,020 The system of drainage applicable to this district being for the most part occasional or " spring drain- age," the expenditure will be brought rather below the cost of parallel or uniform draining. Where parallel drainage has been deemed necessary in the valleys of the granite district, the cost has been generally high, owing to the large quantity of boulder stones and rock frag- ments which crowd the debris of which the soil is con- stituted. In the clay-slate valleys, too, the cost has been found to be very great, owing to the necestity of breaking through and blasting protruding rocks, frequently bringing the cost as high as £7 or £8 per acre. The drains in the hill-sides, however, being at com- paratively wide intervals, will be executed at from £2 10s. to £4. per acre ; and the average cost of the whole will thereby be much reduced. It may be as- sumed that the quantity of land permanently drained in M 2 148 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. this district, by means of borrowed capital and by private outlay, does not exceed 500,000 acres, and that ^35,000,000 will be required to perfect the under- draining of the remaining 7,525,000 acres of wet land. 2nd. The middle district, including all the secondary strata from the basis of the Devonian, Cambrian, and Cumbrian ranges, up to, but exclusive of, the chalk formation, comprises the mountain limestone, the coal measures, the new red sandstones, and magnesian limestone, the lias, the oolitic strata, and the portion of the green sand, with the gault lying to the west of the main ridge of chalk. In these several formations clays abound, sometimes of very considerable width and thickness, and sometimes only thick enough to act as a parting between beds of porous rock, sand, and gravel. Boulder, or transported clays, frequently cover the foundation rock and out-cropping clays. The following counties, parts of counties, and parts of Wales and Scotland, make up the middle district : TABLE II. Name of County. 1 Devon Somerset ^ parts of Dorset Gloucester "^ Monmouth I Worcester > parts of Salop and | Wales ...J Lancashire Yorkshire Northumberland )» parts of Westmoreland . . j Cumberland. ■ . • J Durham Scotland, parts of Lincolnshire Norfolk . . . Cambridge . Huntingdon . Bedford . . , Buckingham Oxford ■ Berks Wilts Warwick . . . , Northampton Rutland . . . . Leicester ... Nottingham . Derby Stafford . . . . Cheshire . . . parts of 1 L- part parts of Extent of each County included in District. Total Acres Acres. 1,200,000 2,434,080 5,920,120 702,080 1,352,320 1,321,040 488,640 1,020,000 574,080 650,240 95,360 500,000 535.680 657,920 757,760 673,280 Extent of Land cultivated and Land capable of improvement. Acres. 1,170,000 2,340,000 5,387,000 650,610 1,200,000 1,286,000 450,000 965,000 525,000 620,000 90,000 480,000 510,000 590,000 720,000 630,000 Proportion of wet Land. Amount of Money applied for, under the Public Money Drainage Act. Acres. 650,000 -^ 1,350, OOo3 3,000,000 400,000 700,000 800,000^ 250,000 600,000 £. 252,678 704,831 106,174 640,000 158,133 18,882,600 17,613,610 10,415,000 350,000 20,525 375,000 27,208 40,000 100 250,000 17,385 300,000 39,792 300,000 9,550 550,000 39,200 500,000 37,104 Amount expended under the Act. 125,955 442,062 64,101 314,000 70,113 16,189 13,108 12,155 16,952 3,261 28,930 23,234 I £2,052,680 £a, 130,080 This district, consisting of nearly nineteen millions of acres, comprises soils of every degree of tenacity and porosity, from the stiflFest clays to the freest sands. About one-half, or eight millions of acres, of the culti- vated lands, and lands capable of improvement, are be- lieved to be either clays, or loams requiring drainage on the parallel system, with more or less distance between the drains, and about three and three-quarters millions of acres are of comparatively porous matter, which re- quire occasional drains, or drains at very wide intervals, to free them of the water upheld by the underlying clays. Some of the stiffest clays, however, particularly patches of the red sandstone clay, some deep beds of the lias and Oxford clays, and the gault, require very close drainage to be effective. An interval of six to eight yards is quite wide enough for these soils. The necessity of thus increasing the number of drains in some places will counterbalance the comparatively small cost of the occasional drainage of the water- logged strata, and will bring the average cost of the whole to £b per acre. We cannot assume that there are less than ten millions of acres in this district still to be drained. This is supposing that 415,000 acres have been already permanently drained ; and, on such assumption, it will require i,'50,000,000 to perfect the under-draining of the district. 3rd. The eastern district includes the chalk (the uppermost formation of the secondary strata), the green sand which surrounds the Weald clay, the Wealdea clay, and Hastings sands, the Loudon aud THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 149 plastic clays, the Bagshot sand and associated clay, the crag of Norfolk and Suffolk, the rich deposits of Hol- derness, in Yorkshire, and the more recently recovered fens of Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and Lincolnshire. Boulder and transported clays are very frequently found in this district also, covering the out- cropping strata. The following counties or parts of counties make up the district : TABLE III. Name of County. Dorset Wilts Berks > parts of Hants Oxford Bucks and Beds, parts of Cambiidge and Hunts, parts of Hertford Middlesex Surrey Sussex Kent , Essex Suffolk , Norfolk, part of . . Lincoln, part of . . Yorkshire, part of Outlying portions on the Western side . . Extent of each County included in District. Acres. 2,203,840 280,000 546,560 403,200 180,480 485,760 938,240 996,480 981,120 969,600 1,285,360 600,000 450,000 254,480 Extent cultivated and capable of improvement. Total Acres! 10,575,120 Acres. 2,130,000 265,000 1 519,000 375,0001 160,000/ 450,000 1 900,000 y 940,000 J 940,000 920,000 \ 1,215,000/ 550,0001 425,000/ 235,000 10,024,000 Proportion of wet Land. Acres. 600,000" 250,000_ 300,000 1,300,000 650,000 700,000 600,000 50,000 4,450,000 A.mount of Money applied for, under the Public Money Drainage Act. 55,473 273,846 Amount expended under the Act, 21,313 r 18,750 17,363 10,625 3,176 29,155 13,155 52,768 22,253 23,620 8,293 21,805 6,782 f 8,990 5,495 [18,260 6,853 35,000 18,000 122,683 A very wide portion of this district is chalk, and re- quires no draining. A considerable portion, too, con- sists of the fens, of which I have estimated only half as requiring under-draining. Already the prejudice against under-draining these lands is giving way, where the vegetable matter is shallow, and the underlying clay comes closer to the surface. The deep peat, or " black fens," may be considered sufficiently well-drained by open dykes, and have not been included in the fore- going statement. I may remark, however, that, where under-drainage has been tried, it has been found to consolidate the soU and improve the quality and weight of the corn grown. The whole breadth of the fens in the several counties is about 700,000 acres. Of the denser clays, we have in this district the Wealden and the London clays, the former of which covers 650,000 acres, and the latter l,oOO,000 acres, all of which re- quires parallel and close drainage. Besides these clays, we have a very large space covered with the clays and loams of the Bagshot sand, and with boulder and di- luvial clays of every degree of tenacity. As the metropolis and suburbs are included in this district, I have assumed that 450,000 acres have been permanently drained, leaving 4,000,000 acres requiring draining, the cost of which cannot be estimated at less than ^22,000,000. The following summary gives the totals of the districts :— TABLE IV. DISTRICTS. Total Extent. Extent cultivated and capable of cultiva- tion. Propor- tion of wet land. Amount of money expended under the Public Money Drainage Act. Amount of money expended under the Private Money Drainage Act. Estimated Amount of money expended by Incorporated Companies. Estimated extent of Land drained permanently by borrowed money and by private means. Extent still remaining to be drained. Estimated amount of capital required. Western and North- Western District .... Middle District Eastern District Acres. 26,894,280 18,882,600 10,575,120 Acres. 16,320,390 17,613,610 10,024,000 Acres. 8,025,000 10,415,000 4,450,000 £ 1,276,0^0 1,130,080 122,683 £ i 128,723 £ 350,000 ] Acres. 500,000 415,000 450,000 Acres. 7,526,000 10,000,000 4,000,000 £ 35,000,000 50,000,000 22,000,000 Total 56,352,000 43,958,000 22,890,000 2,528,783 128,723 350,000 1,365,000 21,525,000 107,000,000 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I have to thank the Inclosure Commissioners for the figures I have quoted relating to the advances under the Public and Private jMoney Drainage Acts. Having trans- posed them for my own purpose, I tbinls it best to give the totals with which they have so obligingly furnished me in another form. They are brought up to the 31 st October last ; — TABLE V. PUBLIC MONEY PRIVATE MONEY Applied for Expended. Sanctioned. Expended. England . Wales . . . £ s. d. 1,940,227 11 6 123,863 0 0 2,491,167 16 6 £ s. d. 1,059,804 0 0 44,297 2 1 1,424,682 17 6 ■ 292,056 0 0 72,083 0 0 111,098 0 0 17,625 9 0 364,139 0 0 128 723 0 0 To exnend . . . « 4,555,258 8 0 2,528,783 19 7 1,471,216 0 5 Total amount of 4,000,000 0 0 Thus we see that there will still be required ^107,000,000 for the under-drainage of Great Britain, towards which the balance in hand of the Government Loan, £"'1,471,216, is applicable, leaving the sum of J^105,528,784 to be provided from private sources. Of this it may be assumed that four-fifths, or about £80,000,000, will be required on loan, and that the col- lected capital of incorporated drainage and insurance companies will be the future source of supply ; for it is hardly to be supposed that the legislature will again sanction the advance of public money for the particular benefit of one class of the community, after experience has shown that private companies are able and willing to lend money upon the lowest rate of interest ruling in commercial affairs. The sum of £80,000,000 appears large when placed in juxtaposition with the Government loan of i£'4,000,000 ; but, when compared with the sums ex- pended in other national enterprises, such as the ^£286,068,794 expended within the last twenty-five years by railway companies, it cannot be so regarded, particularly if we remember that 3^ per cent, is above the average interest now gained by railway investments; whereas, in drainage advances, not only would the capitalist be made secure of the current interest of money by a first charge on the freehold itself, but both the owners and occupiers of land would derive a paramount advantage from an enterprise in which they practically run no risk and advance no capital. And, while this result would be gained by individuals, the community would be benefited by an increase in food, by drainage alone, which cannot be estimated in the aggregate at less than 5,830,000 quarters of the several kinds of corn which constitute the country's produce. The pubUc loan being all bespoken, the means of bor- rowing money now at command of landowners are : — The Private Moneys Drainage Act (12 and 13 Vict., cap. c), the term for repayment being 22 years ; the West of England, or South-West Land Draining Company's Act (11 and 12 Vict., cap. cxlii.), under which a land- owner may charge his estate in perpetuity ; the General Land Drainage and Improvement Company's Act (12 and 13 Vict., cap. xci.), the term for repayment being 50 years; and the Lands Improvement Company's Act (16 and 17 Vict., cap. cliv.), the term of repayment being 25 years. Having explained how under-draining became the obligation of the landlord, when it was converted from a temporary to a permanent work, and having shown the source whence borrowed capital is to be obtained, and how little progress we have made in comparison with what still remains to be done, I will pass to those results which the actual practice of the last ten years afford, and which will influence our future mode of executing works of drainage. In order to trace the progress now making towards the realization of that adequately deep drainage which Dr. Lyon Play fair has so well described in the article " Theory of Drainage," in the Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, we must have reference to the relative merits of the several methods which have been propounded in direct opposi- tion to or as a compromise of the principle of depth. First on the list is the shallow- draining system, which admits the use of pipes in lieu of bushes, but adheres to drains 18 to 24 inches deep in the furrows, as the quicker means of getting rid of water falling on the surface, than drains laid at a greater depth. I do not propose to dwell very long on this system, for so numerous are the instances throughout Great Britain of the complete success of deep draining, when properly executed, and so generally is deep draining now substituted for shallow draining, that it is difficult to admit of a compromise of depth under any circumstances whatever. But as the advocates of shallow draining have been enabled, by certain defects in the development of the deep drainage system, to maintain a position for a time, it is advisable to trace at once the causes of such defects, that we may not be led away from true principles by accident or the influence of prejudice. We cannot hide from ourselves that the operations under the first Public Money Drain- age Act were stimulated by erroneous notions of economy. It was thought that the greater part of our clay lands would be drained at a cost of £3 or £4 per acre, or even less, and to this delusion may be attributed the greater part of the defects which have brought dis- credit on the system. Experience has shown that the average cost of adequately deep drainage is as near as possible £b per acre, although at this time the general increase in the price of labour and materials has increased it to about £"5 15s. Drainage, to be perfectly satisfactory in its effect upon the soil, must render it uniformly permeable to the full depth of the drains. The soil midway between them must be in the same condition to receive and infiltrate the rain that falls upon it, as the soil nearest the drains. If this be not accomplished, they are not producing that united effect which should be sought for and obtained, and there is no more certain way of producing ati irregtdar condilion of soil, than by placmg the drains so (ar distant from each other, that the influence of one drain cannot perfectly meet the influence of another. Cases have been quoted as failures of deep-draining, in which a desire to keep down the cost has led to an in- discreet widening of the distance; and the unsatisfactory THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 151 result to which I have referred, following that indis- cretion, has proved that the increased depth of drains will not compensate for increased distance, and that soils which should be drained 24 feet apart cannot be suffi- ciently well drained at 40 feet apart, let the depth be what it may. But the effect has been no other than this —the principle of depth has remained unshaken. It has simply proved that good draining is not to be done for as little money as bad. Among the instances of this species of partial failure, I may state that I have been obliged in several instances to introduce intermediate drains when I have been over- careful of expenditure, and have placed those first laid out 30 feet, where they ought to have been 25 feet apart. Mr. Gow, of Morpeth, writing to ine last year said, *' I have had one or two failures in deep- draining, where, from a desire to economise, I have placed the minor drains at too great a distance apart ; and I find, too, that some of our earlier performances, at a depth of three feet, will require to be re-drained at a greater depth." It is a common assertion, "that water cannot get down through clays," but in no one instance has it been suc- cessfully shown that water will disobey the laws of gravi- tation, or will fail to descend through any clay soil, how- ever absorbent and retentive, to an approximate level with drains of reasonable depth (not less than four feet), if they be placed sufficiently vear each other to coun- teract such absorbent and retentive properties, and to meet the effect of atmospheric humidity in maintaining them in force. Frequently has it fallen to my lot to meet men retain- ing prejudices in favour of shallow draining, on clays which they have declared to be so stiff and retentive, that it was impossible water could find its way down, and so dense and dry in the subsoil, that no water could be gained from cutting into it. These clays have neverthe- less been drained from four to five feet deep, and v.'ater has flowed copiously from the outlets; still the advocates of shallow draining, when asked " from whence comes the water ?" reject this simple proof of their error. In the same way they refuse all evidence of the superior effect of deep drains afforded by the facts that they generally commence running before shallow drains; that they invariably run as soon and more copiously than shallow drains ; that they continue to run long after the shallow drains have ceased to run ; and that they dis- charge clear water, while the shallow drains discharge discoloured water, showing how perfectly the former act as a means of conveying to the subsoil (which the shallow drains hardly penetrate) a proportion of the manure the farmer has taken the pains to put on his land, but of which he is robbed of his shallow drains. If the advocates of shallow draining cannot adduce any instance^of the failure of deep draining, it cannot be said that no instance can be found in which shallow draining has failed to keep even the surface of land dry, leaving out of consideration the many benefits incidental to deep drainage, and which are altogether lost sight of, but which are of equal importance with drainage itself. The following extract of a letter will show that land carefully drained 18 inches deep with tiles, becomes, in a few years, as wet or even wetter than before. It is from Mr. Macvicar, of Barkwith, in Lincolnshire. He says : — " I have met with several cases of shallow drainage which at first have been followed with beneficial results, and have become after a time inoperative. Thus, in the parish of Colsterworth, a field of strong retentive clay land was drained in 1842, at a depth of 18 inches ; for a time the land was apparently laid dry, but in succeeding years it showed symptoms of returning wetness. " I saw the field last week ; it is sown with wheat, and, although water-furrowed, the land is saturated with water. I examined the outlets, which were running very slowly, although I beheve the drains are open." I have never yet heard a satisfactory reason for land returning to a state of wetness after being dry. One thing, however, is proved by Mr. Macvicar's case, and that is, that it is not merely by the substitution of the durable pipe for the perishable thorn that the surface of land can be rendered permanently dry, as the shallow drainers say. It will be observed that it is about 14 years since this specimen oi permanent shallow draining was done. This length of time accords with the period which is generally understood to be the time which elapses before bush-draining would be renewed. Now, I have often heard the remark from farmers who were about to renew this latter description of draining, that they could not account for the land becoming so wet as to require re-draining, when their drains which were put in 12 or 14 years back were open and running, but such was the case ; and I believe it will be found that pipe- draining 18 inches deep will be as little durable as bush- draining of the same depth ; for whether it be from increased succulency of the surface soil, or from any other cause this discussion may elucidate, it is certain that time will render shallow drainage useless without any rupture of the drains themselves. Before leaving the shallow-draining system, I will take the liberty of referring to a circumstance which, I trust, will prove to Mr. Bullock Webster, who has long advo- cated shallow-draining, that he has been misled, and by that he has inadvertently misled others. In 1850, Mr. Webster published, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, a short paper, headed " Mischief arising from Draining Clay Soils too deeply," and without giving any proof whatever of the mischief to which he referred, he gave currency to what the agent of the Duke of Wellington was doing, and quoted a letter, signed by Mr. Charles Easten, in which he said it was intended never again to put a drain upon the heavy clay at Strathfieldsaye at a greater depth than three feet. I presume he meant to convey that these clays could not be drained effectively at four feet deep or more. It for- tunately happened that the Speaker of the House of Commons, whose estate at Heckfield is intermixed with that of the Duke, determined in 1852-3 to drain a por- tion of his estate. He employed the General Land Drainage Company to do the work for him, and instead of draining at Mr. Easten's depth of three feet, the Company have not laid a single drain less than four feet deep, and the major portion have been laid four feet six inches and more. So prejudiced were the tenants against deep drainage in the first instance, that they threw obstacles in the way, and the Speaker kindly limited the work to one farm. When this was done the tenants, one and all, begged that the wet lands of their several farms might be drained, and the Speaker thereupon entered into a second contract for several hundred acres, allowing them to select, as far as was practicable, the lands they called "wet." On the completion of this second contract, the tenants, with the same unanimity, but with increased earnestness, begged to have the very lands drained they had withheld as dry, and not requiring draining, because they found by comparison with the drained land — the " mischievously" deep-drained land — that the excepted drv land was insufferably wet ; and to oblige his tenants the Speaker has just entered into a third contract. I have passed over the clays of Strathfieldsaye, and I can recognise no difference between them and the clays of Heckfield. 'I will not dwell upon the tangible evidence the instance affords of the efficacy of deep drainage, nor the contradiction it gives to the reputed " mischief" arising from the practice. 132 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. It must be manifest, I hope, to Mr. Webster and to those who generally agree with him. As an advance upon the extremely shallow drainage of 18 inches and 24 inches depth, we find Mr. Denison, Mr. Mil ward, and several other gentlemen of high repute, draining from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet deep, and they still, I believe, express themselves satisfied with the result ; but, as drains of the medium depth of 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet cannot fail to do some good (and, perhaps, a lasting one, so far as the discharge of water goes^, the fact that the result has been satisfactory to those who performed the work, does not prove that such medium depth is the best. On the contrary, I hope, by referring to a few facts, to show that drainage as shallow as 30 inches or 36 inches, fails to provide for all the objects in view. Three important advantages attend deep drainage beyond the primary object of discharging superfluous water. The first is— the increased quantity of soil ameliorated and rendered serviceable to vegetation ; the second — its improved temperature ; and third — the re- moval of the pipes beyond the reach of deep cultivation, and beyond the reach of annual vegetation, to stop the drains by the growth of roots within them. With regard to the first advantage, it can hardly be necessary to say that the staple of aerated soil into which the roots of plants can travel and seek their food, cannot be too deep. Every inch of additional drainage gives 100 tons of active soil per acre, rendered, by drainage, so free and porous, as to gain fertility from the rain passing through it, and from the solution of the ingredients of the soil, and from the manure which is brought down from the surface by the rain. I published recently some very curious illustrations of the dislike plants exhibit for stagnant water in the soil. They afforded proof that directly the roots reach the standing water level, they ceased to penetrate further. I have evidence now before me that the roots of the wheat plant, the mangold warzel, the cabbage, and the white turnip, frequently descend into the soil to the depth of 3 feet. I have myself traced the roots of wheat 9 feet deep. I have discovered the roots of perennial grasses in drains 4 feet deep ; and I may refer to Mr. Mercer, of Newton, in Lancashire, who has traced the root of rye grass (which is daily coming more and more into cultivation) running for many feet along a small pipe drain after descending 4 feet through the soil. Mr. Hetley, of Orton, assures me that he disco- vered the roots of mangolds in a recently-made drain 5 feet deep ; and the late Sir John Conroy had many newly-made drains 4 feet deep stopped by the roots of the same plant. These facts are mentioned to show that the roots of o»r cultivated crops do des'jend and appropriate the soil to as great a depth as they are permitted ; and we have proof, too, that the greater range of active aerated soil we can give them, the more prolific and weighty is the grain they produce. This has been satisfactorily shown at \ ester. By deep cultivation the produce of the wheat crop there has been increased from three quarters and six bushels, to five quarters and four bushels, and the weight per bushel in proportion. Instances could be given of advantages arising from the removal, by deep draining, of the injurious presence of oxide of iron, which it known to pervade many of our clay soils ; but I refrain from multiplying cases which may appear at all speculative or incapable of proof. Upon the second point, the temperature of the soil, we have at present no positive evidence to show that any advantage is gained by increasing the depth beyond three feet; but it cannot, nevertheless, be doubted, that the deeper the drainage which regulates the height of stag- nant wat«r in the soil, the more likely it is that exces- sive evaporation, and its chilling effects in the soil itself, will be prevented. Mr. Parkes has clearly shown, in his admirable paper in the 5th volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the loss of heat by evaporation of water in undrained land. The experiments carried on at Yester show that in winter a higher temperature of 2\ degs. was gained by draining ; while in summer there appeared to be no gain. By the act of deep cultivation, however, in addi- tion to draining, a gain was effected of 2 degs. in summer and 4^ degs. in winter. In this case the drainage was only 33 inches deep, and the comparisons of heat were not made on the same land before and after drain- ing, but on adjoining lands. What would be the effect of an adequately deep drainage has not yet been com municated ; though I believe that experiments are iri progress which will show that a higher temperature can be produced than any that has attended drainage only 33 inches deep. But as a proof of the sensibility of a soil drained 4 ft. deep to atmospheric changes, I may mention that my attention has been on more than one occasion called to the circumstance that drains have been observed to run after a discontinuance of that duty without any fall of rain on the surface of the drained land, and upon refer- ence to the barometer it has been found that the quick- silver has fallen whenever this has occurred. Mr. George Beaumont, jun., who first afforded tangible evidence of this extraordinary circumstance, has per- mitted me to read the following extracts of his letter : — " I can verify the case of the drains running without rain during a falling barometer beyond all doubt. "The case I named to you last year of the barometer falling four days consecutively, and with rapidity, was a pe- culiarly favourable time for noticing it, as it occurred in a dry time, and the drains cculd be seen distinctly. My man, on being questioned and cautioned by me not to exaggerate, has declared the actual stream of water issuing from one particular drain to be as thick as a f-inch wire. All the drains ran — they did more than drop — and ditches which were previously dry became quite wet, with a perceptible stream of water ; this gradually ceased with the change in the density of the atmosphere, as shown by the barometer. " During last harvest, 1855, the men were cutting wheat, and on getting near to a drain outlet, the ditch from the outlet downwards was observed to be wet, and the drain was drip- ping? No rain fell in sufficient quantity to enter the groimd. The men drank of the water while they were cutting the wheat A few days after, it was dry again, I have seen and noticed this phenomenon myself." A correspondent of the Agricultural Gazette has stated that Professor Brock lesby, of Hartford, in America, had observed the same phenomenon in the case of two springs in that country ; and explained that the cause was " the diminished atmospheric pressure which exists before a rain." With respect to the third point, I wish to avoid spe- culative views as to the extreme depth to which cultiva- tion may reach ; but I believe with the present mode of subsoil ploughing (without the aid of steam-power, which is advancing upon us) a depth of from 17 to 22 inches is gained ; it is, therefore, obvious, that pipes laid 18 inches deep would be lifted by the plough, and it is not improbable that when we have the aid of steam- power, pipes laid 24 inches deep will be moved as readily. With these anticipations, it would be a very bad provision for futurity if the owner of entailed pro- perty called upon the next generation to contribute to the cost of draining at any depth which 20 years hence may appear as shortsighted as drainage 18 inches deep is now deemed to be. It is true that pipes laid 3 feet deep may not be directly touched by the instrument of subsoil ploughing ; but we have evidence of the disposi- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 153 tion of the roots of plants to thread their way through stirred soil 4 and 5 feet deep, and of the stoppage of pipes by the roots of cabbages, mangold wurzel, and turnips, at a depth of 3 feet, ivhere the soil is firmly consolidated. With this experience, it must be admitted that the insecurity of 3 feet drainage will be increased by subsoiling, and that therefore the adoption of such a medium depth may operate as a bar to an improvement which may become a natural sequence to draining. I trust that these few remarks — difficult to condense — in explanation of the collateral and secondary benefits of deep drainage, will serve to show that, in the aggre- gate, they are of equal importance to the primary object of discharging injurious water, and that any system of drainage which does not provide for them is imperfect as a permanent work. With these observations I will pass to that system of draining which has recently acquired the title of the Keythorpe system. Allowing for a difference in the mode of carrying it into execution, this method is based upon the same principle as Mr. Baker, of Writtle, has enunciated; viz., that if there be a porous soil only 2 feet deep, resting on an impervious subsoil, nothing is gained by carrying the drains into the latter. All practical men — I mean practical men, qua drainage — will at once dispute the assumption that there exists any clay subsoil at a depth of 2 feet below the surface which is impervious, and that therefore any system founded on it is nothing more nor less than an indirect mode of shallow draining, aiming only at the discharge of water, without seeking any of those collateral advantages just referred to. The Keythorpe system, which has been very ably ex- plained by Mr. Joshua Trimmer, the eminent geologist, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, is brought before agriculturists with the flattering recom- mendations of cheapness and scientific treatment. Lord Berners, the owner of the Keythorpe estate, having certain lands in hand, commenced his draining opera- tions by causing numerous holes to be dug. By obser- vation and experiment, which appears ultimately to have led to a definite practice, his lordship was enabled to arrange his drains so far distant from these holes as just to suffice to draw the water out of them. Mr. Trimmer explains the mode adopted to be a system of draining by pipe channels transverse to certain ridges and furrows, found to exist between soil and subsoil, or, to use the words of Mr. Trimmer, " between the warp driit and the erratic tertiaries of the older strata, on which the warp drift rests," with a view to intercept the water which finds its way through the porous warp drift into the furrows ; these furrows acting, in fact, as minor drains to the transverse channels, which act, as sub- mains. The characteristics of the system are : — • Firstly. That the drains are neither equidistant nor of regular depth, their position and depth being determined by the shape of the subterranean undulations and the depth of the furrows. Secondly. That the drains cross the line of greatest descent (obliquely) in order to intercept the water flow- ing down the farrows referred to; " which are generally found," Mr. Trimmer says, " on land with a conside- rable fall, and run, in most cases, in the direction of the fall." And Thirdly. That the efficacy of the drainage depends upon a precise knowledge of the breadth and depth of the ridges and furrows. Without venturing to deny the statement of so sound a geologist as to the existence of these subterranean ridges and furrows, and without presuming to deny that Lord Berners has rendered his land dry for the time being, I am content to state what appear to me insupe- rable objections to the general adoption of the Keythorpe system. The first is, that the depth of the drainage must necessarily depend upon the depth of the furrows, whether they be 18 inches or 10 feet deep (if they are found to exist of sufficient regularity to become appli- cable as drains at all). We have the evidence of what has been done at Keythorpe, showing that they are sometimes found to lie only 18 inches deep, one-tenth of the drains being that depth. If, therefore. Lord Berners should follow the example of the Marquis of Tweeddale, and determine to subsoil this drained land next year to a depth of 22 inches, he would not only plough up all his 18-inch pipe drains, but, inasmuch as he would decapitate and deform the ridges alternating with the furrows (which are his minor drains), the destruction would not be limited to the 18- inch drainage, but would extend to the major part of the work. The second objection is, that the direction of the pipe drains is across the fall of the land, and therefore opposed to the influence of gravitation. And the third is, that there exists no tangible data generally applicable for setting out the pipe drains. In many instances I am satisfied that the knowledge Mr. Trimmer has made peculiarly his own would be not only beneficial to landowners, but might frequently assist draining engineers in solving problems in nature, which correct geological knowledge alone can solve. But I do not think it will afford tangible data for the execution of drainage works, particularly those in which expedition forms an item of profit, as is generally the case. The next system which intervenes as a compromise with the principle of depth, is that of the late Lord Wharncliffe. It is called the combined system of deep and shallow drainage, and has been described by his Lordship, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, in the following terms : — " In order to secure the full effect of thorough drainage in clays, it is necessary that there should be not only well-laid couduit3 for the water which reaches them, but also subsidiary passages opened through the substance of the close subsoil, by means of atmospheric heat, and the contraction which ensues from it. The cracks and fissures which result from this action are reckoned upon as a certain and essential part of the process. " To give efficiency, therefore, to a system of deep drains beneath a stiff clay, these natural channels are required. To produce them, there must be a continued action of heat and evaporation. If we draw off effectually and constantly the bottom water from beneath the clay and from its substance, as far as it admits of percolation, and by some other means provide a vent for the upper water, which needs no more than this facility to run freely, there seems good reason to suppose that the object may be completely attained, and that we shall remove the moisture from both portions as effectually as its quantity and the substance will permit. Acting upon this view, then, after due consideration, I determined to combine with the fundamental four-feet drains a system of auxiliary ones of much less depth, which should do their work above, and contribute their share to the wholesome discharge, while the under-current from their more subterranean neighbours should be steadily performing their more difficult duty. " I accomplished this by placing my four feet drains at a distance of from eighteen to twenty yards apart, and then leading others into them, sunk only to about two feet beneath the surface (which appeared, upon consideration, to be suffi- ciently below any conceivable*depth of cidtivation), and laying these at a distance from each other of eight yards. These latter are laid at an acute angle with the main drains, and at their mouths are either gradually sloped downwards to the lower level, or have a few loose stones placed in the same in- tervals between the two, sufficient to ensure the perpendicular descent of the upper stream through that space, which can never exceed, or, indeed, strictly, equal the additional two feet." In order to give you the most authentic account of 15d THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the results of this system, I willread you the following extracts from a letter I have just received from Mr. William Hunt, of Wortley :— " I am now able to give you my opinion of the success of the same system of draining upon the Carletou property, be- longing to Lord WharocUffe. The combined system has suc- ceeded most admirably there. The soil f!:euerally is a stronfT loam for about 1 foot in depth, then a stiff clay subsoil ; but I found, on making trial pits in several parts of each field, that at the depth of about Sh feet, and between that aiid 4 feet, the clay was a little more porous, although below that depth it became quite stiff. I therefore set out the 4 feet drains according to his lordship's usual practice, by 20 yards apart, with the two feet drains slanting into the four feet at 8 yards apart. " The tenants were at first much averse to the combined system, but they are now highly in favour of it, in preference to the regular system at whatever depths ; and they are now preparing to sow turnips next season where such practice was never thought of previously. The rapid manner in which the surface has become dry after the heaviest falls of raiu has quite surprised all parties who have wituesaed the effects of the combined system of draining at Carleton. I have no doiibl hit i feet drains, placed at reyalar distances, would hane drained the land I have named, but the cost would have been much higher ; and what is of greater importance than the expense ?" I desire to draw your particular attention to the last paragraph of this letter. My kind correspondent could hardly have made a more candid admission of the influ- ence of expediency. It would only be repeating the observations already made, were I to explain the several objections with which practical drainers regard this system. I may shortly observe, however, that no one would contradict that the lands were improved by the method of draining adopted, simply because it would be impossible to deny, as I have before implied, that any drain, even two feet deep, could be put into land without doing some good ; but it is equally impossible to reconcile with any laws of hydraulics, engineering, or economy, the union of the two depths in one system. The drains of the greater depth must detract from the utility of those at the less ; and the two directions, with the fall and across it, cannot both be right. The numerous junctions, too, are liable to constant disarrangement. It would appear that, by adopting an uniform depth of 3 feet 6 inches (which, although not so good a depth as 4 feet, is a re- spectable depth) at intervals of 25 feet, a much more permanent drainage could have been secured for ^5 an acre (a sum to which Lord Wharncliffe limited himself) than by any method of which a depth of two feet is an element, if the advantages of uniform aeration and deep cultivation are recognised — considerations which Mr. Hunt would appear to have overlooked in the question with which the quotation closes, and which shows clearly that the combined system is simply one of expediency. I have avoided the subject of spring draining, because all practical men seem to agree on the principle of action, and the length to which this paper has already extended forbids any further enlargement. Having described the several systems of shallow draining, semi-shallow draining, subsoil furrow or Key- tliorpe draining, and the combined deep and shallow draining, we now approach that of the adequately deep draining, and a consideration of the means by which that object is to be obtained at the least cost. But let me premise in distinct terms that there are many who are convinced of the advantages of deep draining (I admit myself to be one), who, when dealing with the poorer and denser clays, yield to the views of the late Sir Robert Peel, when he said that he could conceive a case in which, if the amount to be expended was limited, increased closeness might compensate for diminished depth. Deep drainers do not admit this compromise, however, because " the surface water cannot get down ;" tliey do so with the candid acknowledjiment that they do not like what they are doing ] but inasmuch as the draining of these soils must be asclose at one depth as at another, they concede 6 inches in depth, in order to re- duce the amount of interest a tenant will be called upon to pay to cover the outlay. In determining the distance between drains, it is ne- cessary not only to have regard to the nature of the soil, but to the amount of annual rain-fall and the frequency of rain. A practical knowledge of the different clays of the different formations enables the draining engineer to determine pretty accurately the draining properties of each. To enable a landowner whose experience is compara- tively limited to form a judgment on the subject, I may venture to recommend a means of mechanical analysis which I have found useful, and which I explained last year (See Land Drainage and Drainage Systems, page 23). The proportions of sand and clay are ascertained by washing a given quantity in a flat-bottomed medical phial. The sand subsides below the clay, and is visible through the glass. The existence of lime is ascertained by means of acid. If it effervesces, lime exists ; and if the lump dissolves very rapidly, there will be a consider- able proportion of lime in the soil. The capabilities of the soil to expand and contract are ascertained by weighing and measuring a given quantity at different times, and under their different conditions of wetness and dryness. In cases of difficulty, recourse should be had to the chemist. The necessity of a careful examination into the drain- ing pioperties of clays will be seen by a statement of (he comparative cost of draining at different widths. A single yard too near may be a pound per acre thrown away, while a yard too wide may occasion dissatisfaction for ever. Taking labour at 7d. per rod, and pipes and haulage at 228. fid. per 1,000, the cost will be as follows : — £ s. d. At 18 feet apart 7 18 4 21 „ 6 16 3 24 „ 5 19 8 27 „ 5 6 9 30 „ 4 16 5 40 „ 3 12 1 Experience shows that a consideration of the amount of rain-fall is a matter of much moment in determining the width between drains. It does not appear, practi- cally, to govern the size of the pipes to be used ; for if the ends of the pipes can be made to join securely, and the fall is good, the smallest-sized pipes will be suffi- ciently large. But in proportion to the rain-fall, all other considerations being equal, should be the distance of the drains apart, in order that the soil may be suffi- ciently free at all times to absorb and discharge the maximum amount that can fall on its surface. We find, from sundry careful records, that 141 in- ches may be taken as the average annual rain-fall of the wettest place in Cumberland, while lOi inches may be taken as the average fall in Essex. It is not enough to ascertain the quantity of rain that falls — we should know the prevalent periods of continu- ance of rain and moisture ; for in accordance with the length of time intervening between rains will be the op- portunity for soils to undergo those changes of condi- tion which are essential to complete development of draining, and which conduce to an improved "climate of the soil itself," We find that the average number of days in the year in which rain falls in the wettest districts of Cumberland is 210 ; and at Castle Hill, in Devonshire, 191 days; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 103 while at CLiswick, the average number of wet days in the year is 124, with an average fall of 24 inches. Fortunately, however, the clay soils of the west and north-west of England are comparatively open and porous, and thus counteract the humidity of atmosphere under which they exist; whereas the denser clays, lying to the east of the lias out-crop, have the advantage of a greatly reduced rain-fall, although the number of days on which rain falls is not proportionately less. With respect to the direction of drains, I believe very little differencsof opinion exists. All the most success- ful drainers concur in the line of steepest descent as essential to eflective and economical drainage. Certain exceptions are recognised in the West of England ; but I believe it will be found, as practice extends in that quarter, that the exceptions have been allowed in error. There is much difference of opinion as to the adoption of an equi-distant parallel system in lands of the ridge and furrow form. In arable land, the most successful drainers throughout the country disregard the furrows ; whereas we find the majority of those in the Midland Counties leaning to the adoption of the furrows as the course of the drains in grass lands. The same difference of opinion prevails as to the use of collars. Some good drainers object to them on account of the cavity left be- tween the collars ; but the majority approve of them, and would use them in all soils were it not for the additional cost. In sandy and gravelly soils they are indispen- sable. With regard to the admission of air to the heads of drains, as advocated by Mr, Simon Hutchinson, very few think it advisable, while some go'so far as to say it is decidedly injurious. Upon the question of outlets there appears to be much difference of practice where there should be none. In the whole process of draining there is nothing so de- sirable as permanent and substantial work at the point of discharge, so as to reduce to a minimum the ill effects of inattention on the part of tenants, and the neglect of communication between present and succeeding owners. It is considered that the more frequent the outlets the more active the drainage ; but as every additional outlet involves additional cost in erecting, and care in preser- ving them, prudence suggests that the number of acres draining to one outlet should never be more than 20, or less than 6, if the form of the land and size of the fields will permit of these limits. On this arrangement, iron pipes, with swing gratings, set in masonry, may be provided at the cost of Is. per acre. The outlets should be numbered consecutively. If these several objects be borne in miud in carrying into operation the main principle of adequate deplli, there will be but little chance of failure. Having perfected the work, one thitig still remains to be done. A plan or record of the lands drained, and the position of the drains, is necessary ; and in order that such a record may be preserved for future genera- tions, it is desirable that a national office, connected with the Tithe and Inclosure Commissions, should be set apart for the purpose. It would be invidious to point out instances in which recent works of drainage have already become useless from change of ownership and the indifference of successors. The cost of planning the drains after execution need not exceed 6d. to 9d. per acre where a map of the lands already exists ; and after we have spent £5 per acre in draining, does it not ap- pear the very heiijht of folly not to preserve a record of so expensive an object at a cost of 6d. per acre ? I cannot leave my subject without congratulating the coun- try generally on a few points of great moment connected with it. First is the improvement observable in field labourers from their occasional employment in systematic drainage. This improvement is to be particularly noticed in those coun- ties wliere the wages were lowest and the labourers were esteemed to be inferior. I wi'.i instance the counties of South- ampton, Wilts, and Dorset. When the General Land Drainage Company first commenced works in those counties, the use of the spade and graft appeared unfamiliar to the farm labourers. We introduced labourers at nearly double wages from North- umberland and Yorkshire, to teach them their use; and we ob- tained more profitable labour from tlie Northumberland man at 18s. per week, than from the Dorset man at lOs. But the tables are now turned ; we have at this moment Dorsetshire men employed at Swine, in Yorkshire, who surpass the York- shiremen in the quality and expedition of their work. And as it is known that a good drainer is necessarily 'a good hedger and ditcher, and a handy man at nearly all field work, we may consider that one good result from a general extension of draining will be to increase the capabilities of the farm labourer, and give him a just claim to better wages. The next subject of congratulation is the increased healthi- ness of those districts in which any considerable extent of land has been drained. And the last is the admission, now becoming very general, that the time has arrived wh^n the main and tributary outfalls throughout the country must receive attention. The whole question is growing daily more and more serious; and I earnestly commend it to the consideration of those who, having influence, are willing to exert it in favour of an object of the highest national importance. **» Since Mr. Denton's paper was written, he has made the following addition to it : — I must here refer to some observations made by Mr. Baker, last night, at the Central Farmers' Club ; and I do so because it was evident that his words, uttered with all the effect of nis high standing as an agriculturist, seemed to strengthen preju- dices which are based on error. He stated that it was impossible that drainage works could be permanent, and instanced a particular case of pipes being silted up though laid 3^ feet deep. Upon my asking him what they filled up with, he told me sand ; and, on my asking if the pipes were laid with collars, he said, " No." Now, I need only remark that the whole question of perma- nency depends on the mode of execution. If gravelly and sandy land is drained only 3 feet 6 inches deep, it is hardly necessary to say that the drainage may be as deficient of depth as 18-inch drains are known to be in clays ; and to drain any gravelly and sandy soil without collars is simply throwing money away. If such works as these afford Mr. Baker the data upon which he declares it is impossible to render drainage works permanent, I can readily concede the fact. Again, Mr. Baker referred to some works executed by means of the Government loan ; and repeating the fact (in which I can corroborate him) that lands of different character have, in certain instances, been drained alike — he was pleased to attri- bute this to the influence of scientific drainers. Now, what is the fact of the case ? The works that have been so executed under the commission are those which landowners entrust to their own bailiffs, under the nominal instructions of the Go- vernment Inspectors, who really have no more to do with the actual execution of the works than men can have who are only called in at the commencement and finish. But on this point I hope there are some here who will spealc and disabuse the public mind of the fallacy of holding public officers responsible for woik requiring such particularity of management as drain- age, who, perhaps, may not see it during the whole time of execution. LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Agriculture — All Systematic Works on Agriculture contain chapters on the Drainage of Land ; as, for instance, those of — 1, Low; 2, Stephens; 3, Loudon; 4, Johnson; 5, Morton ; 6, Wilson ; 7, Rham ; 8, Sir J. Sinclair ; 9, Cleghorn; 10, Jackson; 11, Andrews; 12, Martin Doyle ; 13, Spooner, &c. 1, Elements of Practical Agriculture (Longman) ; 2, Book of the Farm (Blackwood) ; 3, Cyclopaedia of Agriculture ; 4, Cyclopajdia of Agriculture (Ridg;way) ; 5, Cyclopffldia of Agriculture (Blackie) ; 6, -Rural Cyclopaedia (Fullarton, Edinb.) ; 7, Dictionary of the Farm (C. Knight) ; 8, Code of Agriculture; 9, System of Agriculture; 10, Treatise on Agriculture (Chambers) ; 11, Modern Agriculture (Cooke, Strand, Lond.) ; 12, Practical Husbandry (Curry, DubUn) ; 13, Practical Agriculture (Dublin). Arbuthnot, Right Hon- C. — Letters on deep draining.— Jour. ofR. Agric. Soc, Vol. Vl.,pp. 129 and 573. = On the advantage of deep drainage. — Jour, ofR, Ayric, Soc, Vol X.,f, 496. 156 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Aekell, Thomas— On the drainage of land— Prize Esaay.— Jour. ofR. Agric. Soc, Vol. IV., p. 318. Beart, Robert— On the economical manufacture of drain- ing tiles and soles.— JoHr. of R. Agric. Soc, Vol. II., p. 93. On the proper materials for filling up drains, and the mode in which water enters them.— Jour, of R. Agric. Soc, Vol. IV., p. 411. Brown, H. H.— On the drainage of land.— Jour, of R. Agric. Soc, Vol. III., p. 165. Burke, J. French- On the drainage of land. — Jo^ir. of R. Agric Soc, Vol. II., p. 273. Chadwick, E. — Sanitary effect of land-drainage.— Jo!'e repeat it is remarkable how thoroughly the advocacy of this principle extends over the whole discussion. It is not, however, the Farmers' Club, or farmers only, who still publicly proclaim the justice and ad- vantage of the English tenant-right. We are glad to say there are landlords who continue to think with the late Mr. Pusey on this subject ; that these, too, have authority as agriculturists, and some of them moreover their places in Parliament. Amongst these, few of late years have evinced a more active interest in the cause of agriculture than Mr. Ker Seymer, the member for Dorsetshire. He has shown in a variety of ways that his desire is to see the art really advance and improve ; and it was thus he spoke a few days since to a meeting of agricul- turists in his own county : — " I am anxious to explain a vote which I made this year in the House of Commons. You are aware I have always professed myself an advocate for liberal arrangements between landlord and tenant. In spite of that, I felt it my duty to op- pose a measure called the Tenant-Right Bill, which was brought in more with reference to Ireland than this country — though if it had been good for Ireland it ought to have been extended to England. I have no hesitation in saying that the principles of this bill were entirely destructive of the rights of property ; and I will tell you why. First of all you know that Irish tenants have not been exactly what we should call good tenants, and perhaps the landlords have not been quite what we should term good landlords ; and I am not prepared to say that in former days the tenants were not as good as the landlords deserved, for a bad landlord does not deserve a good tenant. Bearing in mind the character of the tenants, let me tell you what was the provision of this bill. It was, if a tenant was removed for any reason from his farm, that he should be entitled to compensation to the amount of four entire years' rent for so-called im- provements, about which his landlord had never had an oi)portunity of saying he wished to have them or not. I have no hesitation in saying that such a principle as that is entirely inconsistent with the rights of property, and would not be toie- rated for one moment ; therefore I opposed it, and I always shall oppose it." TBE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE. ICl Here we see that invasion of the rights of property, and tendency to fixity of tenure, which people who do not know what they are talking- about will even yet confuse with the English claim. Let such follow Mr. Seymer a little further :~— " I did sup- port a bill which was, unfortunately, called a Tenant-Right Bill. I say unfortunately, because when we hear of such things as the Tenant-liight Bill for Ireland, the name gets much prejudiced. The bill to which I now allude was for the purpose of enabling landlords and tenants to make mutual arrangements for giving security for any unex- hausted improvements, that security to be extended beyond the life of the owner of the land ; that is, supposing a person held an entailed estate, and wished to make arrangements with regard to per- manent improvements, he might afford compensa- tion to the tenant. This bill was intended to en- able him to do so, but he cannot as the law now stands. It appears to me that tenants should be entitled to remuneration for unexhausted improve- ment. That, I think, is a sound principle, and I re- gret that the bill did not pass. It was introduced by as good a friend to agriculture as ever lived. It was brought forward by Mr. Pusey, and it died with him; still I hope it will be brought forward again ; if so, it shall always receive ray cordial support. I know the land is very well farmed without it; but still, if the tenant has capital, and is disposed to lay it out in something ])eyond ordinarily good cultivation of the land, and that the landlord has a right to expect, every facility should be afforded him to enable him to do so; and, although I would not say one word to destroy the confidence that happily exists be- tween landlord and tenant, still I must say, speak- ing for myself, if I were a tenant — knowing that life is uncertain, and that properties change hands — I would not go to a great outlay beyond good cultivation, unless I had security that my family should receive the benefit of that outlay," We can add nothing to this beyond our hearty concurrence with every word of it. It was a sound principle, introduced by as good a friend to agri- culture as ever lived. We hope, with Mr. Seymer, it will be brought forward again. Could it be in better hands than his own ? And if it is brought forward, we trust to test by it, far more closely than ever yet has been, who are the supporters of " sound principles," and " the good friends to agri- culture." THE YOUNG WHEAT PLANT. Although resting with the happy circles around our Christmas fire, we can hardly fail to sometimes recur to our fields : to-day hard frozen ; yesterday soaking in rain-water; to-morrow, perhaps, covered with snow. Amid all these rapid changes we think, too, of the young wheat plants : what is their con- dition ? — do they vegetate ? — or is all nature torpid? The agriculturist well knows that, even when deeply covered with a mantle of snow, his y oung wheats still vegetate — still " work," and extend their roots in search of nutriment. It would perhaps be well if we thought oftener of these phenomena, and noted a little more carefully the movements, not only of the stems of our cultivated plants, but those of their roots; if we now and then consi- dered ivhy these extend in a certain direction in preference to others, and what induces certain movements of those roots — extensions always so interesting, and yet commonly so inexplicable. Their search after food — the power which they possess of resisting considerable extremes of heat and cold, are facts as yet only explained in our present state of knowledge by using certain mystic phrases as an explanation of the mysteries of vege- tation. When the farmer says that his young wheat " works" under the surface of the frozen soil, he explains to us quite as much as when the botanist informs us more solemnly that it is in consequence of "a specific vitality," and that it is this which enables the young wheat plant to vegetate in a tempera' ure in which the barley plant perishes. In this case the observant farmer tells us the fact, without attempting to explain it; the botanist favours us with what he has really persuaded himself is an exj)laualion of tlic fuct, and dosd not wake up in time to see that he has merely succeeded in stating in eight syllables what our more practical friend accomplished in one. The wheat grower knows it " works," and that of the cause of this he knows very little ; but our scientific friend is not satisfied with this way of observing, without theorizing ; he steps in, and says, " It is specific vitality ;" though he very truly adds, " What specific vitality is, I do not know." But when we see the folly of such modes of reasoning, we shall fall mto another error, if we conclude that we have realized the utmost amount of knowledge that can be attained by watching Nature's operations. The phenomenon to which we have been alluding, the extension of roots, is one full of practical interest, and yet we know little more than what every ploughman has long remarked. The extension of the roots of the growing plant in certain directions^ — the tenacity with which those of the turnip encircle a fragment of decomposing bone — the depth to which the wheat, the lucerne, and some other commonly- cultivated plants extend theirs — and the particular directions in which the roots of most plants extend, for the sake of a copious supply of food — seem to indicate a something more than mechanical to belong to the plant. That all vegetables absorb their food in a fiuid state, is a truth pretty nearly established; but in what way this is accomplished, we do not always so clearly understand. How the phosphate of hme and other insoluble substances are absorbed, we do not know, nor have any researches been in- ^ituted to dispel our ignorance. It has, however, been shown that plants possess the power of mak- ing a selection of the substances presented to them in solution, and this power, to us so remarkable, N 162 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. mi/rht most probably be examined with very useful results. The experiments of M. Saussure, made nearly half a century since, are of this class. He dissolved together in vi'ater various salts in equal proportions, so that each salt was equal to 1 per cent, of the weight of the water, and then placed in these solutions growing plants, with their roots, and others with their roots cut oiF. When they were deprived of their roots, the plants absorbed indis- criminately all the salts dissolved in the water ; but when their roots were carefully preserved, then the plants separated the water from the salts dissolved in it, in a very remarkable manner, and this not in uniform proportions ; for when nitrate of lime and muriate of am.monia were present together, the plant absorbed 16.5 per cent, of the salt of ammonia. but only 4.5 of that of lime; and when glaiiber salt, common salt, and acetate of lime were all dis- solved together, the plant absorbed 6 per cent, of the glauber salt, 10 per cent, of the common salt, but not any of the acetate of lime ; and when gum and sugar were dissolved together, instead of the salts, then the plant absorbed 26 per cent, of the gum, but 34 per cent, of the sugar. The preference which the plants evinced for the muriate of am- monia in these trials is noticeable ; and such trials, we think, if repeated and extended, might throw some light on several questions very interesting to our readers ; and this opinion is confirmed when we reflect that the enlarged application of manures to the soil in a liquid state will, in all probability, long engage the attention of the agricultural world. THE ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF STOCK. At the meeting of the Grimshoe hundredth Agricultural Root Club the following interesting discussion took place. Mr. Philips said, there was no doubt that the question of the economical feeding of stock was one of the most in- teresting and important which could occupy their attention as farmers ; and it was no wonder to him that their attention was now beginning to be roused to that subject, but rather that this question should not have forced itself upon their considera- tion before. His idea was that there was great waste com- mitted in the feeding of animah by giving them at one time more highly nutritious food than they cnuld properly a?3imilate to themselves; it hence passed through them in waste; and his remedy was to add largely to that nutritious food other more bulky and less nutritious substances, which while it filled their bellies, which it was essential to do, would not throw into the system more nourishment than it was capable of assimila- ting. Thus in feeding farm horses whose work was slow, in- stead of giving them a feed of unmixed oats, he gave them their oats reduced (so to speak) with a large portion of steamed straw chaff ; and even for the oats, or at least a large part of them, a portion of roots, either carrots or Swede turnips, minced with his patent mincing machine, might be substituted in mixture, with the steamed straw chaff; so that instead of giving working horses what in this district was the usual allowance, namely, two bushels of oats per week, weighing about 35 lbs. per bushel, he only gave them half that quantity, and sometimes even less. He held it to be important also, in the fceOiiig of horses, to crush their oats. He was satisfied there was a great saving effected by so doing. It was also an excellent method in the feer'.ing of horses, where it could be ob- tained, to feed them largely with gorse or furze, crashed ; they were exceedingly fond of it, and did extremely well upon it ; and in the feeding of neat stock he carried on the same system. He never gave them highly nutritious food unmixed with food that was less nutritious ; whether therefore he gave them linseed-cake, cr even roots, he always mixed them with a large portion of minced straw chaff, steamed, v, hich they ate with avidity. The q\iantity of highly nntritious food thus went lully as far again, and though the animal did not per- haps graze altogether so fast, yet they had the agreeable con- viction that there was no waste committed. The same applied to the feeding of sheep, whcthf r fitting or otherwise; let their roots ba reduced to a fine state by mincing, and mixed, in their troughs, with n portion of steamed straw chaff. It was an excellent plan also, in the feeding of sheep (indeed, he did so with all sorts of stock, and even horses), to let a lump of rock-salt remain in their troughs or mangers. But as to sheep (he meant fatting sheep especially) he thought it highly im- portant to furnish them with shelter, even while they were grazing on the open breaks. For tHis purpose he had portable houses as lightly made as possible, consistent with a proper degree of strength, ten and a-half feet long and five feet wide, open on one side, and closed at the back and the two ends. These he spread about the fold, and the sheep, after they had filled themselves, retired to them for warmth and shelter. Thus a great portion of the food, which would otherwise have been expended in keeping up the animal heat, became converted into nutriment, and was, consequently, so much food saved. In feeding of pigs, too, he resorted to the same expedients. He never gave them meal unmixed with bran or pollard ; and he aho moat frequently gave them steamed roots in addition ; and thus in feeding pigs for the London markets, for which purpose pigs from 40 to 50 lbs. were amply large enough, of which he fed a large quantity, he hardly gave them ary corn at all. Parsnips, by the bye, were excellent roots for fatting pigs. H. B. Caldwell, Esq. (the Chairman), said he would offer a few observations upon what had fallen from Mr. Phillips, on the subject of feeding stock. And first, as to feeding of horses with gorse. He did not deny that gorse was an excellent food for horses, indeed he was one of the first in this part of the country to bring it into notice ; and he believed that one of the first macbiaes that was got up for the crushmg of gorse, which went under the name of " White's Patent," v.as of his suggesting, and might properly be called his machine. But bis grand objection to gorse lay in this : That in parts of th2 country exposed to the ravages of game, and to browsing by sheep, it required to be fenced off, which was an expensive proceeding; aud again, in times of deep snow, it was apt to be covered up ; and thus, when you were depending upon it for a supply of daily food, you were apt to be disappointed. The same objections in part lay against growing a crop of car- rots. Hares were so inordinately fond of them that it was almost impossible to pieserve them from their ravages. Besides, in point of tac!', he believed a crop of swedes to be equally as good — at the same time that they might be grown with half the trouble and expense, and would keep equally as ! long. And so with rrgard to the housing of grazing shcop. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1C3 there existed this objectiou, that, by so doing, they were liable to get their teathe laid unequally upon the land, and thus found their barley crop growing in some places so long and rank as to go down, and in others so thin and poor as to amount to nothing. Captaia CALD^YELL said, as far as his observation and experience went as to housing grazing sheep, he concurred with his brother (the President.) He had one piece in particu- lar in his eye, which was a piece of old pasture, in which was an opaa shed. On this pasture were a number of fat sheep ; and go into the piece what time of the day they might, they always found the sheep in the shed ; and the dung from t'nem had accumulated to that extent that he was obliged to have it carted out. And he had noticed the same thing, where bunt- ing or other protection had been hung on the hurdles around a fold, that the sheep all huddled together around the sheltered part, and there was scarcely any teathe laid on any other part of the fold. Mr. Phillips said, in answer to the objections raised by the Chairman and by Captain Caldwell, that he farmed land in a district of country that he should say abounded in hares more than any other, and yet he did not find that they at all damaged the "gorse cover ; which indeed they were not likely to do while they could get food which they liked so much better. And then as to his objection that carrots could not be grown without fencing them off — why that would be a very small consideration to him, who had a sawing mill, working by steam power, and abundance of ordi- nary timber, which was of no earthly use but either to burn or to cut into rough palings. He (Mr. Phillips) had several paled-in pieces of ten acres each, on which he grew carrots and wheat, alternately, varied with other root crops. On these pieces, which were, of course, well farmed, he could grow up- wards of a thousand bushels of carrots per acre, aid from eight to ten coombs of wheat. What was the expense of fencing, compared with such bencGcial results as these ? And then as to the objection which had been raised agaiust housing grazing sheep — he begged to say that they did not apply at all to his system, which did not consist of a fixed building, like that alluded to by Captain Caldwell, nor yet a protected fold, like that alluded to by the President, but a number of light portable wooden boxes, or huts, dispersed equally all over the fold, and removed every day. By this system he found no accumulation of teathe at one part of the fold more than another, but it was equally diffused over all parts alike ; for they must mind that, although the sheep resorted to the huts to lie down, yet their feeding troughs were spread equally all over the fold. The Chairman said, it might be as Mr. Phillips said, that fencing to him was not cf that serious import that it might be to others ; but still he thought he might find more profitable use for his saw mill, and for his rough timber, than sawing fencing stuff, by employing them in the construction of covered yards for cattle, to the great benefit of his tenants, and he had no doubt his own too ; for whenever he had his farms to let again, they would of course bring more rent with these con- veniences upon them than without them. The Chairman ex- plained that his tenant, Mr. Brassnet, for whom he had built a covered cattle yard, had said that he considered his farm worth £50 a year more with it than without it. THE NEW YEAR. Farmers, as a body, have commenced the new teak with prospects more than ordinarily promising. This is equally true whether viewed in an agricultural or political sense, no previous period of history, perhaps, furnishinfc proof so self-evident of progress. In giving a condensed notice of tlie present position and prospects of British agriculture for the current year, we have first to observe that Science and Practice were never in a more healthy and prospering state in the memory of the oldest farmer now in the field. The truth of this is evident from the fact that prejudice and opiniative speculations are disappearing before the progress of scientific and experimental inquiry, in a manner unprecedented. In other words, those antiquated habits and customs, which have hitherto so conspicu- ously characterised our respective provinces from one another, are fast being superseded by modern improve- ments. Individually, no doubt, much has yet to be done before uniformity of practice is attained in ac- cordance with the demands of soil and climate ; but when once principle is fairly espoused, the victory must be considered as half won. Adverting more to detail, draining, and all those im- provements the more immediate province of the landlord, are being slowly carried out, in spite of the political obstacles, all but insurmountable, in the way, as subsequently noticed. Much diversity of opinion no doubt still exists as to opposing systems ; but experience is daily cementing divisions of this kind together, giving to public discussions and practices a more scientific and profitable character. The various operations of the farm, the special de- partment of the farmer, are also being more success- fully performed than they ever have been, and conse- quently must produce corresponding results. The increased amount of improved machinery being brought to bear upon the cultivation of the soil, and the har- vesting and thrashing of its produce throughout the length and breadth of the land, may be stated in evi- dence of this J and were tenants' capital unshackled, as afterwards shown, the productive resources of the country would respond still more abundantly to the increasing demands of its consumption. Steam culture, again, is exciting a livelier interest than it did last year. In 1855, the premium offered by the Royal Agricultural Society on this head was £200, while this year it is £500, thus giving a difference which may be taken as a fair index of the progress of this subject in public estimation. Considerable ad- vance has unquestionably, no doubt, yet to be effected before success can be declared in the field; but the praiseworthy efforts now being made, may be taken as a safe guarantee that no stone will be left unturned to obtain the desideratum at issue. In the rearing and fattening of live stock, with the manufacture and application of manure, like favourable testimony must be given. A deficient hay crop is no doubt experienced ; but this may be accompanied with more than a counter-equivalent, by the additional know- ledge acquired of the real value of straw as food for cattle— generally, we aver, under-estimated, especially in our southern provinces. In a political sense, the position and prospects of the Landed Interest are highly satisfactory ; rents not only being well paid, but rising ; while the circumstances of tenants correspond. In a few exceptional cases an N i 164 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. undue advantage may be taken of the present level of high prices, in letting and renting farms ; parties for- getting that the corn supplies of the country are in a very unsettled state, owing to the war with Russia and our previously too great dependence upon that empire for bread stuffs ; but our commercial situation in this respect may soon be established on a surer foundation, an ample supply being obtained from other quarters of the globe, so as to render us entirely independent of the revolutionary state of the shores of the Baltic and Black Seas. But the more important question (important because national) which the war with Russia has already raised, is the necessity for liberating land, without delay, from the bondage of antiquated statutes — '^tatutcs which cripple both landlord and tenant, thus preventing the agricultural resources of the country, already men- tioned, from supplying its own wants. Every one ex- perimentally acquainted with the permanent improve- ment of land and high farming must be perfectly aware that were the proper security for capital thus invested given by the law, an increase of produce could easily be obtained from the British soil far greater than our present imports. Now, with such facts before us, on the one hand — a fair average price being paid for bread ; and the immense drain of bullion from our shores on the other, with extravagant prices at home, must not every political journal in the kingdom ac- knowledge the justness of the imperative claims which farmers as a body have upon Parliament for the imme- diate attainment of the important question at issue — ample secuiity for capital invested in land ? War, however, is not the only schoolmaster now abroad ; the more artificial position of agriculture, ! from the progress made in chemistry and mechanics, having also proved the necessity for a thorough revisal of the law of land so as to adapt it to the improvements of modern times. The year 1856 has brought the land- lord and tenant to a stage in the march of progress which must compel them to take a new view of things ; and that view obviously involves a more independent principle of action, each putting his shoulder faithfully to his own end of the yoke. Nor can the labouring man any longer remain an ex- ception from this rule of independent though conjunct action, the progress of things now demanding that he also bear his own burden upon his own shoulder. It is an old saying, that " The honest labourer's loaf is sweeter than the beggar's" ; and the maxim thus ex- pressed must be faithfully extended throughout the whole industrial fabric of rural society. To distribute gratui- tously food, fuel, and clothing to a ragged and half- starved population at Christmas and other timrs is doubtless charity in the common acceptation of the word ; so that to condemn the practice as the contrary, might sound harsh in the ears of those who have not yet divested their minds of feudal usages and that men- dicant subserviency which characterized the alms-giving times of our forefathers in the palmy days of popery. But those practically acquainted with the successful management of this class can verify, from fact, that the fewer gratuities you give them so much the better j provided you teach and make them to purchase honestly with theirlabour — that comparative independence, which they invariably prize so highly. To screw out of the poor man more than your own at one time, and to return it again at another in the shape of a donum, is neither sound doctrine nor consistent practice. The fact is, we have now arrived at a period in the history of British agri- culture which will compel landlords and tenants to culti- vate the independence of their labourers mutually with that of their own, giving them an interest in the soil and its produce, according to the amount and quality of labour they annually expend. THE DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND AND HIS TENANTRY. It is aniongst the surest signs of an advancing age that class interests are gradually coming less and less into collision. The argument of knocking one man down to enable another to rise is happily obsolete. It is now by no means necessary that the worker in cotton should be the deadly enemy of the grower of corn. The true spirit of com- mercial life is becoming better appreciated, as we find the most jjtomising i)lan for all doing well, is for all to deal on fair terms with each other. We may thus unite to amend any wrong, or the better establish any improvement that may be de- sirable. On the other hand, so long as our own progress was to be fought step by step against somebody else, we could make Init little way. The real advance of a nation can only come of a strong pull altogether. If this good feeling l)e necessary for the pros- perity of a whole population, how much more so must it be for the welfare of the several sections in any one class of them ! We map out our people, in the first instance, into so many distinct states— the manufacturing interest, the agricultural interest, the commercial interest, and so on; while these, again, we subdivide according to the means by which such dilferent estates may be maintained. Still, the perfection of any one must mainly depend upon the unity with which it is worked by its own members. It is, in fact, but again that clock-like movement, in the which, let one wheel only go wrong, and the whole will soon be out of order. In any such identity of interest nowhere does this suggest it so forcibly as in the art of agriculture. It is the very key-stone of the whole building. Landlord, tenant, and labourer are inseparably bound up with each other. If one does well, they all, at least to some degree, must share in his good fortune. In hard times, on the contrary, each will be a sufferer. The argument is not merely too old and well known to be here elaborated, but has grown into something of a registered answer to every inquiry or objection. If the man of business, or the man of law, urge on us that the hiring and letting of land is hardly conducted in that business-like manner it should be, they will be often assured that landlord and tenant understand one another too well to require anything more. If a farmer is laying out more capital than his terms justify, he and his landlord understand one another too well to fear anything amiss. Landowners make it the great pride of their speeches ; occupiers the great prop of their fortunes. Let other jieople say what they like, they understand each other too well to be so .1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 103 fettered ; and the more they trust to this good understanding, the better will they go on. Be it so ! Prudence might, perhaps, advise something more; but let it go. Landlord and tenant will be the last to injure or fetter each other, as to wound that fine feeling they are so mutually jealous of. AA'e may best illustrate this by an example. In the northern part of the kingdom dwells a nobleman of great estate and high cha- racter. It may be sufficient to say that those who live under him are worthy of him. Had we been asked to name a landlord and his people, who, from the terms on which they lived, and the manner in which they discharged their diflferent duties, were a credit to each other, we might well have instanced the Duke of Northumberland and his tenantry. His Grace has long shown a strong interest in the proper cultivation of his property — has given all the support in his power to the agricultural associations of the neighbourhood ; while he has gone something beyond this in the due en- couragement of those with whom he is more immediately connected. It was only this last summer, indeed, that the Duke offered a pre- mium of thirty pounds for the best-cultivated farm of the district. The judges, after their round of inspection, unhesitatingly awarded this to Mr. Wil- liam Wetherell, of Kirkbridge. It must have been satisfactory to all to know that the donor of this prize himself heartily concurred in the decision arrived at. He did so in the following grateful terms, which we can fancy the recipient of them cherishing far more carefully than even the memento on which he might have spent his thirty pounds : — " It gives me much pleasure," writes the Duke, "to send you the amount which the judges have awarded to you for the best-managed farm near Stanwick, and this pleasure is much increased by a knowledge that there never was a prize more justly awarded, nor a farm in a higher state of cultivation, than yours at Kirkbridge." A well-merited compliment, well paid. Happy landlord in such a tenant ; and, again, happy tenant in such a landlord ! How well they appreciate each other ! Don't talk, after this, of your business con- tracts and bindings down, when men can work on with such an understanding as this between them : " I can show you some of the best farmed land in the world," the Duke of Northumberland might say, with a proper pride, to his friends; "my tenant does it admirably." "And what do you mean to do with him now," might remark these friends in turn, in a conventional, common-sense way; " leave him alone to do as he has done, no doubt?" "Not I," answers the Duke. "Not I," thunders the Agent. The common-sense friends feel they must have been saying something very absurd, and say no more ; while the Duke and his adviser set their wits to work to alter what has led to so prosperous a condition. " A man cannot do better than best; can he?" meekly enquires somebody or other. " But he can, sir" — and how he can do so we must let our readers gather from an advertisement sent us a fortnight since by a body of the leading Yorkshire and North Country far- mers. The object of this is another testimonial to Mr. Wetherell— the reason, his being about to leave " the-best managed farm near Stanwick." Few of our readers will require to be told why, as few, but have gone through that correspond- ence with pam and regret. Picture the return to a man, who has been told by his landlord that no one could farm better, in the arbitrary enforcement of new conditions that could but impede and de- grade him ! Let us consider, too, the spirit in which the tenant met these ill-considered proposals. Seldom, we say advisedly, has a better letter ever been written than that by Mr. William Wetherell to his landlord, the Duke of Northum- berland. We give it again in an adjoining column, no longer as an advertisement, so that none may lose the opportunity of seeing it. There is no affectation of the martyr, barely a reference to that distinction his landlord has himself allowed, but a singularly temperate, logical, and feeling ap- peal against the feudal conditions attempted to be forced upon him. Nothing can be possibly better than Mr. Wetherell's conduct in this matter : the Yorkshire farmers may tell us what might possibly be worse. We confess we have referred to this subject with reluctance, feeling as we do how unprofitable it must be now to place landlord and tenant in antago- nism with each other. We are not amongst those who name the one only as " tyrannical landlords," and the other as " tenant serfs." We would, how- ever, warn the landed gentry of this kingdom that a case like this is certain to be made the most of, while it will be very long before it is forgotten. We have outlived the age when an act hke this could be passed over with indifference. No explanation has yet been offered for it either by the Duke or his advisers. Should, however, any be yet thought desirable, we can only say we shall be too happy to give as prominent a place to it in our columns as we have to that which has led to these reflections. And, then, the moral effect alas ! of a premium from the landlord for the best-cultivated farm. Imagine the unhappy tenant thus distinguished, sitting, like another Damocles, with all his honours thick upon him, and waiting only for the sword to fall. " Yes," he cogitates, " I am the best farmer on the estate, that's settled. I wonder what they will do with me ? Raise my rent, turn me out, or send me into bondage?" When, next year, the judges report the tenant who has best done his duty by the estates of his Grace the Duke of Northumberland, and when his Grace in a particularly civil letter confirms this from his own experience, what, in the excess of his joy, will the happy man do with himself ? Go to Australia, or seriously think of some other pursuit? MR. WETHERELL'S CASE.— It is juat possible that in these days of high prices, when rents in some parts of the country are being doubled, his Grace may experience less diffi- culty than is supposed in finding farmers who will comply with the terms which are driving his present tenantry into lebellion ; but with such strong proofs before him of their unreasonable- ness, he will probably, on reconsideration, be induced to give way. High-farming, up to a certain point, is shown to be a ]GG THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. very profitable system, worthy of all encouragemeut ; but com- puUory high-farming, uuder a heavy series of cumulative fines, does not rtcommend itself to common sense, and will, we trust, not be insisted upon by the Duke of Northumberiaud. — Car- Ijtle Journal, MR. WETHERELL'S CASE. LETTER FROM MU. WETHERELL TO HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF NORTHUMIiERLAND. Kirkbrldge, Oct. \9l7i, 1855. My Lord Dukf, — In sending this communication to your Orace, I feel that I must ask f ^r much indulgence. I am aware how unpleasant it is for a landlord to g\vo. his personal ciiusi- (l(.ration to matters left generally to the Agent : but your Grace has hiiherto shown me so much condescension that I now ear- nestly hope for a kind consideration of my letler. I am also (he more eujboklened in making tliis appeii! (o your Grace from the sincere toiivic'ion that duiinsf the whole time I have had (he honour of being tenant to your Grace, I ha.e expended all the skill aud capitid I could command in the cullivatioii and im- provement of my farm, wliich I could no longer continue to do under the agreement Mhich Mr. Moore has submitt<:d lo me, and for refusing to sign which I am now discharged from my farm. Tiiis agreement is so leaded with penalties, and in my case so impracticable, that I am sure if your Grace fairly considers my olijections to it you will not blame me for not having sigi'ed it. I will now state to your Grace the olyectionable clauses, and why I consider them so. By the 3rd clause I am to lay on twenty tons of manure on each acre of turnip land, and by clause 8, twelve Ions on each acre of meadow. I have calculated that this would require mo to produce from my farm 1,160 tons of good roKen manure yearly. I can assure your Grace that my farm couli not pro- dnce one-half this quantity, even adding to it the oil- cake, guano, bones, linseed, horses' corn, straw, Imie, &c., which have cost me, on an average, £300 yearly ; hence I should farfeita penalty of^esSO each year, simjdy for not performing an impossibility. I cntrest your Grace to allow the Cth clause, which requires all the manure produced to be expended on the farm, to staud in lituofthe 3rd and 8ih, which are really impracticable in my case. With reference to the 5lh clause, which forbids mo grow- ing any turnip seed, I trust when your Grace considers my large ouilay in manures, and the importance of liaving good seed from roots which have hitherto produced such successful crops, that your Grace will accord me this privilege, which I can assure your Grace is one of great moment to me. What is obtained from the seedsman is never to be relied on, and I have pride in saying chat I think I can produce a quality from my own roots ■whi. h no one can excel. Your Grace will see thit the 6th clause gives all manure after the 1st October in the last year to the incoming tenant. By this clause I should be deprivei of manure for my away-going crops, as it mvist be bred from the produce of the harvest, which at that time is but just completed. I beg of your Grace to allow the custom of the country to prevail in (his matter, which fixes the 1st Feb- ruary, and not the 1st October. I think also in the lOtli clause the incoming tenant should pay for the labour as well as the seed. This, I humbly submit to your Grace, is not only sanctioned by cusb)m, hut is based upon the fairest principle of justice, inas- much as the incoming tenant reaps all the advantage. The 11th cbiuse requires the tenant to uphold and keep in repair all build- ings, and so leave them at the end of his term, but does not ex- cipl damages arising from fire or tempest or inevitable accident. So that a tenant, in any such event, would have to rebuild what might be destroyed, even to the extent of the entire farmstead. I beg yout Giace (o allow (his almost invariable exception lo be included in that clause, on the ground of its being simply an act of justice to the tenant to do so. The 23rd and 2-ith clauses provide for a valuation of (he away- going crops immediately preceding harvest, giving power lo the landlord's agent to Settle the amount of the valuation, if two ar- bitrators do not agree, and requiring the amount to be paid into the hands of the Agent, who has power to deduct from the amount whatever he thinks fit for breaches of the agreement. The powers here given to (he Agent, I very respectfully submit (oyour Grace, place the tenant entirely at his mercy, and might result in very great injustice to him. I beg to urge on your Grace that the usual arbitral ion clause should be adopted, which leaves the ar- bitrators to choose (heir own umi)ire, and allows the tenant out- going to receive his own money. I have now given your Orace, as shortly as 1 could, my ob- fections to the agreement, and entreat your kind consideration of them. I am extremely reluctant to give your Grace this trouble, and have the most anxious desire not to cause your Grace '.he slighiest annoyance; but as Mr. Moore explained that he could allow no modification of the clauses, I am compelled lo make my humble suit to your Grace in person. I await with great anxieiy your Grace's decision, and do most earnestly hope that my connection with the Stanwick Estate may not cease, and that I and my son may long continue under your Grace to set the example we have always honestly striven to do, of farming up to the highest state of improvement which our skill and capital can attain to. With every apology for thus addressing you, and witii the greatest gratitude and respect for your Grace's uniform urbanity and kindne.ss, 1 have the honour to remain, ray Lord Duke, Your Grace's most obedient humble servant, WILLIAM WETHERELL. LETTER FROM MR. 'WETHERELL TO MR. THAIRLWALL. Kirlibridgc, Darlington, Nov. 27, 185.5. DkAr SlH, — I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of yesterday's date, requesling to know the result of my interview with his Grace the Dukeof Norlhumberland, respecting (he agree- ment offered for my signature by his Grace's Agent. Mr. Moore. Although I was most courteously received by bis Grace, ha nevertheless positively refused to entertain one single objection I made to the agreement, and when I offered to sign it if he would allow the words " or an equivalent" to be added to the condition binding me to lay twenty tons per acre of rotten dung on the land (o be sown with turnips, and twelve tons on the land to be mown with hay, he refused to allow any alteration, and said he would make no exceplion in my case. I then offered to sign it if he would give me his word that I should take no harm from it, to which I got a similar answer. This interview was all the reply I got to my letter to his Grace. 1 am, dear Sir, your most o'ledient fervant, F. Thaiblwall, Esq. WILLIAM WETHERELL. LETTER FROM HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF NORTHUMBER- LAND TO MR. WETHERELL. Alnwick Caslle, \5th August, 1855. Sir, — It gives me much pleasure lo send you the amount which the judt:es have awarded to you for the best managed farm near Slanwick, and Ihis pleasure is much increased by a knowledge that there never vas a prize more jusdy awarded, nor a farm in a higher state of cultivation than yours at Kirkbridge. Yours, &c , Mr. WETaERELL. NORTHUMBERL.iND. GREAT AGRICULTURAL SHOW IN UPPER CANADA. NORTHUMBERLAND, NEWCASTLE DISTFICT, CANADA WEST. The Provincial Agricultural Show changes its locality ati- nually, after the plan of the English Agricultural Society, and has been increasinu' in efficiency year by year since its es- tablishment some ten seasons ago. The present e.\hibition was held during the second week of October, at Cohourg, a thriving town of 2,000 or 3,000 inhabitants, about midway along the northern shore of Lake Ontario. This place has a good piered harbour, at which the lake steamers regularly call, and is coiiuccted with the interior by a railway, extending thirty railcB, to Peterboro'. Good gravel roads, too, proceed from it, intersecting the surrounding country in all directions. The ground chosen for the site of the show was situate on the Bunimit of a gentle swell, to the west of tlie town, and included a space of about fourteen acres, enclosed for the occasion by a high board fence, the entrance gates, with committee rooms, offices, &c., forming the southern front. Facing- you on en- tering, at some little distance, was the Floral Hall, a large build- ing in the form of a cress, each arm of which extended to 75 feet ill leuii^th and 40 feet iu breadth, 16 feet high, and sur- mounted in the centre by a square tower and flag-staff, on wiiich floated the British ensign. The four compartments of this structure were devoted severally to fruit, flowers, aud ve- getables, ladies' fancy work, ami the arts, mechanics, manu- factures, and furniture, music, aud marble work. In rear of this structure were pitched three very large mirquees, one for grain roots, dairy produce, &c., cue for carriages, aud the other THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. IG" for the receptiou of the Goveraor-General. Six large refresh- ment booths were ranged round the exterior of the central space. The open ground towards the front or south end was occupied by implements, while the rear or north space was formed into a large circular drive, surrounding the hoise ring. Enclosing all these compartments, and at a suitable distance from the pens, was an oval drive for visitors, planted on either side with evergreen trees, and sweeping round the whole ground. The pens surrounded the whole line of external fencing, beginning at the south-west corner with pigs, which, with the sheep, occupied the entire west side, about 80 pens. The north side was occupied by about 60 covered and enclosed pens, appropriated to horses and cattle which were wished to remain on the ground at night ; about 60 more peus on the east side contained the remainder of the cattle, after which a long range of poultry coops completed the circuit. These pens were 12 feet square, and each was fully tenanted by 8 to 10 sheep, or 4 to 6 head of cattle. The amount of timber con- sumed in the buildings and enclosure was 200,000 superficial feet, and the arrangements cost from £600 to £700. Tlie sum offered in premiums was about £2,000. About 20,000 were admitted at the gates ; 10,000 of whom paid sixpence each, the remainder being members, subscribing 5s. each. Monday and Tuesday were devoted to arranging the arrivals ; on Wed- nesday the judges were at work, and only members were ad- mitted; Thursday and Friday were public days, the latter marked by the reception of the Governor-General and suite. The early part of the week was. threatening and rainy, but Wednesday morning, as if to favour t!ie occasion, shone forth bright and clear. On entering the town, we encountered a continued stream of vehicles proceeding to and from the ground — hacks, cabs, carriages, buggies — we were particularly struck with the small number of lumber or farm waggons, in- dicating the great advance of our farming community, who now ride in comfortable carriages or buggies, generally driving a pair of horses ; twenty years ago lumber waggons were the rule, buggies the exception. The crowded stream of pedes- trians on either hand wore everywhere the garb of refinement and Competency. We don't remember in the whole scene to have encountered one indigent-looking person or beggar ; and, happier still, very little intoxication, although all kinds of re- freshments were on the ground. We were not able to obtain the number of entries under the various agricultural heads, but should suppose there were about 200 of sheep, and a like uuuiber of cattle, and perhaps SO or 100 in the various horse classes. The Durhams stood certainly in the position of the favoured class of cattle, their numbers exceeding any other, though in quality we caufess ourselves to have been rather disappointed. The first prize bull, owned by Mr. J. Walton, of Smith Township, though perhaps showing equal to a-jything on the ground, was certainly behind what we have seen in his place on other occasions. In the class of cows too we felt dis- appointed ; the first prize going certainly to a very pretty and well got up animal, owned by Mr. Stone, of Guelph, yet carry- ing the old hard Yorkshire hair and some other marks of coarseness. We had instances of the thick soft velvety hair, so characteristic of the mellow hide of our newer families of Durhams, as iu the stock of Messrs. Wade and others, but we are sorry to say they were poorly got up, not in fact in a con- dition to show to advantage. We examined every animal care- fu ly, to the number of 60 or 70 pure bred, and must say onr favourite breed were rather in the shade. Several of these animals were recently imported from England — a bull out of the prize-taker Bellville, and three or four cows, by Messrs. Wade ; seven heifers, by Mr. Miller, of Markham Township, from Dumfriesshire, the latter large animals of their age, but certainly coarse both in form and colour. The entries of De- von* amounted to some 40 or 50, and among them some very handsome animals. Mr. Lock, of Yarmouth, Elgin County, seemed here to carry the day in all departments, and his herd were certainly most sweet-looking animals, distancing all com- patitors, iu the soft rich wavy coat, and the sprightly active- looking sweep of the back, so different from the stiff line of the Durham ; in thickness of shoulder too, and full barrel of the front tWts, they certainly excelled. They were originally iroported from the stock of Mr. Q,uartley, of Molton, Devon- shire. We are pleased to see the progress made in this class during the last few years, as in the absence of any really pay- ing demand for butcher meat, the Devons, from their valuable properties as working cattle, promise to be a most valuable I slock for Canada, where so much rough work is required, to which oxen are certainly better adapted than horses. In Ayr- shires there was an unusually large turn out ; but many of the animals entered in this class could claim little connexion with that district but the name : something of the Crummie appear- ance was sufficient to refer them to the land of Burns, and their owners wjere perhaps influenced more by the poetic or fatherland feeling than anything else in cherishing the name. One or two of the bulls were, however, genuine importations, and some of the cows, removed in the third or fourth degree ; few of them assuredly would have been drafted into the Myer Mills byres. The prizes seemed pretty equally apportioned between Mrs. Ewart, of Dundas, and Mr. Boyce, of Amherst Island. But in our old friends the Galloways there certainly could be no mistake, with a coal-black coat, thick enough to protect them against a Canadian winter, the polled head, and deep hardy-looking carcase ; we never remember to have seen a better shoulder on the race : one of the calves was literally beef to the heels. There was only one lot shown. They were imported by Mr. Roddick, of Hamilton Township, from the stock of Mr. Beattie, of Newbie, Dumfries (one of the cows being sister to the bull which took Mr. Head's prize at Car- lisle). Some half-bred calves were shown, in which the sire's characteristics predominate, and they promise to be a valuable acquisition, especially to the population of our winter barn- yards. A few Herefords, imported from the United States, assuredly did little honour to their family. The show of grade cattle, almost entirely Durham crosses, was neither large nor very satisfactory, except in the herd of Mr. Dow, of Whitby, who showed one or two very fine cows. Unfortunately the cattle of various ages and sizes were very much mixed, and iu many cases very injudiciously crowded, by each exhibitor wishing to keep his stock of all kinds as much as possible together. We must not, however, forget some fine fat steers ; only about half a dozen were shown, but they were certainly mote than could be desired for eating. A Ca ladian cow, the property of Mr. Bright, of Toronto, certainly did credit to her race ; her form seemed a perfect parallelogram, with a very fine bone and offal, carrying probably from 1,000 to 1,100 lbs. of beef. We are sorry to see the society cast overboard the native breed of cattle, as they are often good dairy animals, and well adapted to our rigorous winter ; a judicious selection, if fostered, might result in a valuable class of animals for the coimfcry. We fear we are occupying too much space, and must hurry through the sheep. Here again is no native class. Leicester, Teeswater, and Cotswold predominate, and it would certainly be difficult to define the boundary of each of these families among our long-woolled sheep ; they have been annually as- suming more of the huge frame and long rough wool of the Cotswold, the characteristics of which we by no means consider as adapted to become the general stock of our inhospitable regions. We were glad this year to see the bell borne away by an importation of a different character. The prize ram was shown by Mr. Walker, of London ; a handsome animal, by no means large, arid partaking of the more refined Teeswater type— a level beautiful back, and finely rounded contour, a broad shoulder, and thick muttony arm, but having the shank carried out^much lighter than we have been of late wont to see among our prize rams ; a sweet light head, without the coarse Roman physiognomy, which the mania for a huge gigantic animal has too often brought along with it. Mr. Walker also took the second and third prizes for shearling ewes, of the same type, imported from Mr. Lee, of Gardham, near Beverley, England. In long-woolled sheep the Messrs. Miller, of Markham, stood next to Mr. Walker. Those sheep which had longer wool than common, or larger frames, were shown as Cotswold, in which class there was less competition. The show of these sheep was certainly of the highest merit. We question if the same number of fine long-woolled sheep could be collected anywhere out of England. After the first lot or two there was a level excellence, not mediocrity ; for our farmers have spared no ex- pense iu this department, £80 or £100 being no unusual price for a ram. We saw top lambs of next year spoken for, on chance, at £25 to £30. The dusky faces and shanks of South- downs were very numerous, hardly worthy of the name how- ever, excepting one lot shown by Mr. Gordon, of Paris, C. W., imported from the Babraham flock. We never before saw the true beauty of this valuable breed, but these were certainly splendid creatures. A large number of Merinos, too, showed their long spiral boms, and got abused by the spectators ai? 168 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. horrid iialy brutes, and certainly they were such : our idea is that they wouM soon starve to death, under ordinary licep and a Canadian winter. There was a pen too of our oki chums, the Cheviots, from tie green hills and mist of the Borders, for which, as for the Galloways, we were indebted to the enter- prize of Mr. Koddick. We could have selected better at Ha- wick or Boswells Green, but were glad to see their hardy frames among us, albeit whiter fleeced than was characteristic of a loup into Beamish or Till. We have little doubt that this will turn out a valuable stock under the hard usage of our zeroic winters. We should have less objection to the grosser families could they be induced to follow the example of uncle Bruin, and suck their paw durnig winter. Between 400 and 500 sheep were shown in all. In horses the turn-out was strong, both for draught and har- ness ; we here do the Nimrod afoot. The main fault seems to be the want of plan in aihering to any definite type. Good horses enough have been been imported, but no distinct fa- milies have been kept up, and crossed according to the fashion of each day ; they form an oUa podrida, a heterogeneous com- pound, seldom advancing beyond mediocrity in any one fea- ture. A pretty Clyde, owned by Mr. Nattrass, of Cavan, took the first draught prize, and some promising young animals were shown of various descriptions, a more active agricultural horse being required here than at home. We ventured little among the swinish multitude, as un- savoury here as elsewhere, and under the advancing refinement of our farm servants, seldom rejoicing in the show-day festivities of soap and water. We had Lord IJucie's pigs, and black and white Berkshires, and the old Yorkshire, and we presume young Canadian, a great variety. But the interest of this depart- ment is sinking, as our farmers find they cannot compete in the barrel of pork with the mild winters and corn fields of more southern regions. In poultry, quacking duck and crowing roisters, bubbly jocks, Shanghae, Bramah-pootra, Dorking, white buff, Hindoo coloured, adorned some 100 or 200 cages : some of the coarse long-legged gentry would have made good steeds for Bil!y Buttom on his equestrian journey. We almost overlooked a couple of Maltese cats, quietly enjoying their captivity. But the wilderness of implements is yet spread out before \i?. Thrashing machines, travelling saws, reaping and mowing apparatus, drain pipe presses, harrows, ploughs, drills, chaff cutters, gates, apple parers, little dog churns, and all the Yankee kuick-nackeries, scaritiers, scratchers, thistle cutters, and every manner of machine to torture the face of the earth, and many to torture their users. Every exhibitor told you his Oivn reaping machine worked the best of any in the world, and no other was worth having. Tiie McCormick character seemed this season to predominate. Our Yimkee friends showed us many things which really puzzled our sober-headed farmers to discover their object. "All flesh is grass," &e., strikes up a very reve-cnd-looking gentleman at your elbow, and, unfolding a port-ible desk, he accompanies a bri«k trade by a long serio-comic dissertation on the invaluable qualities of his medicines. I observed one of these gentry hold forth for six hours without ceasing, to the astonishment of a knot of admiring parsons, healing by the touch of his wand, as he went along, a continuous stream of warts, wens, bunions, toothache, and all manner of diseases. He told the people at starting that he was determined to pocket 100 di'llara, and I doubt not he succeeded. But when I wander into Floral Hall, among the dahlias and cabbages, apricots and apples innumerable, I am bewildered. SuHice it to say, our apples and pears are unsurpassed, grapes and peaches partaking more of the rara avis : cauliflowers and onions show that they are completely at home among us ; as well as the immense variety of funny-looking articles, of the squash and c»lnbash tribe. How shall I describe the Ladies' Clianibcr? — quilts and comfortables, collars, true love knots, and babies' pinafores, lovely bunches of waxen flowers, little curly lap-dogs, Jephthas and daughters (a favourite subject) without nuraber.makeus wonder where female hands have found, in this labour-craviiig region, so much time to spend on the inutile of life. But oh I that they should have blasted with their abortions of the fine arts this charming region ! Hideous landscapes, the drawing completely out of keeping, and Chi- nese perspectives hung in sucli a light as fortunately to reflect back the image of the observer like a looking-glass, and hook- nosed portraits which ccrtninly tell of distance from the possi- bility of purchasing colours. Some few sketches of merit would doubtiess have been found had they been hung otherwise than as covers to the bare-boarded walls, and could we have propitiated the indulgence of a magisterial looking old gentle- man who kept in a loud tone urging us to move on. Without more taste be in future called into this depaitment, it were certainly better omitted. Baths, furniture, pianos, with senti- mental blackvested performers, mingled with vaaes, inscribed grave-stones, and all sorts of funny things too tender to besecH out of doors, grace the remainder of thu house. One of the marquees is full of the most splendid carriages, coaches too fine for anybody to ride in, and too shiny to trust in com- petition with the sun, alternate with buggies of most attenuated form, the painted glass panels of which would shiver at a corduroy road and recoil even from the rough embraces of M'Adam. It were certainly better that this department was of a more utilitarian character. Here, as a contrast to the last, is the agricultural marquee for farm produce — the butter and honey, wheat and potatoes, the solid necessaries and sweets, smelling of country air so much coveted by the citizen. This is an important part of the show, and its able manager, Mr. Kiddle, furnishes us with the following account. In proceeding briefly to take a survey of the agricultural tent, we were impressed with the thought that a very few years ago the whole of the land producing these grains and roots was one dense forest, traversed only by the Red man in his bunting excursions, though now teeming with all the ap- pliances of civilized life. Wheat having always been looked on by our farmers as their principal dependance, we were surprised to find so few lots shown for the prize of £25, offered by the Canada Company for the best 25 bushels; 5 lots only were shown — all good, but not superior, if equal, to the samples of former years. Mr. Neese, Amelias- burg, Prince Edward's County, here stood first. We think if our farmers would pay more attention to keeping their wheat pure, it would be to their profit, all the samples of that grain shown being mixed up more or less of different varieties. In the class of wheat shown for the 2 bushel prize there was more competition, there being 27 entries, all of white or mixed wheats, not one sample of red appeared. Mr. Anderson, of Flamborough West, here carried the day. Spring wheat next demanded our attention ; it was brought forward in good quan- tity and of excellent quality, Mr. VV. Riddell, of Hamilton Town, taking the first prize. Spring wheat is of great import- ance to all lowland farmers, aa until such soils be thoroughly drained they are unsafe for fall wheat. Of rye there were only two lots shown, as this grain is rarely grown on land which will yield wheat. Of oats and barley there was a fair number of lots, though we saw nothing superior to the turn-out of former years, our farmers not giving that attention afforded these grains in British agriculture. Side by side with the Canadian oats were shown four bags of importe.l, far superior to those of native production. Of peas there was a capital turn-out, though prizes were only offered for two kinds. Those shown were all of the white or green varieties. The large marrowfat appeared to be the favourite, judging by the amount brought forward. There were four or five lots of cloverseed in the tent, all of them good in quality, but too small in quantity for this important seed, which ought to be raised more extensively by our farmers thau has yet been done. lu this wheat-growing land, cloverseed is of great importance. Of Timothy-grass there were several very good samples shown, but we saw no other seed. Indian corn made a good display, all in the ear ; some of the lots seemed scarcely ripe, this season having been rather late and cold for that grain. There were a great number of roots — this is a department of the show which is annual'y increasing in importance, as our farmers are bfginning to find that they cannot carry their stock through our long winters without them. We think that this department was far in advaiice of any pre- vious year. The mangel wurzel in particular was here in every size and variety, from u single root of 351bs., by Barou Longieul of Kingston, to the commonest size. The yellow globe appears to be the favourite variety. Next to the mangel wurzel the carrot appeared in greatest minibera, single specimens of the white carrot weighing ten and twelve pounds ; the red carrot being smaller and harder, and we think more nutritious. T:iero were several varieties of turnips shown ; but none of them in large numbers, except the Swedish, which is the oi;ly one adapted to our climate : some very large specimens appeared. There were several lots of parsnips and some haudaome parcels THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 169 of potatoes, but the numbers were small. Of pumpkins, aud tqnashes too, tliere was a larse display, some of tliem weighin;; we heard, over 150 lbs. We Vieie sorry to see such a small turnout of dairy produce. Surely this departmeut deserves more attention at tlie hands of our farmers. Of cheese there was very little ; in butter the show was better, there being thirty lots shown, all we believe good. There were several baijs of hops, the product of Lower Canada. Many other articles, too, appeared in tliis tent, as turnip seed, carrot seed, flaz seed, &c. There was some very nice-looking honey, aud likewise essences and oils extracted from native herbs. The whole exhibition passed off in a most satisfactory manner, for which we were greatly indebted to the unwearied exertions of Mr. John Wade, the leading local manager. Our horticulturists too, especially Mr. Jecka' and Mr. Fleming, must have due praise for the floral decoralions. Our praise of the management must be unqualified when we consider that our locomotive exhibitions are dependent on local management; the want of an organized staff attached to the society causing each year's experience in carrying out details to be in great measure thrown away. This disadvantage is, however, in some degree compeiisated by the greater variety resulting. Would not a deputation from your English society to our next year's meeting tend to foster our spirit of improvement, and keep up our loyalty and home feeling ? Colonists are too apt, under the present system, to forget that they are Englishmen. Dec. 5. Robert Hume. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE WOOL TRADE. Sir, — A review of the trade of the past twelve mouths could hardly be expected to present many favourable features for comment. Engaged in a serious but highly popular, be- cause necessary, war, and while the country was willing cheer- fully to submit to any sacrifice so long as it was conducted with energy, the utter want of management which had become apparent during the early months of the year through the disunion in the Government (causing so great suffering and disaster to our troops), produced a universal feeling of discon- tent almost amounting to despair, and a sting was given to the national feeling to which, for the time, every other consi- deration gave place. Added to this, the failure of the harvest in France, and throughout a great portion of Northern Europe, and the high prices both here aud abroad for all kinds of pro- visions, and, in a great measure the natural consequence, an increasing value of money, with even periods of great pressuie during the latter months such a combination of adverse cir- cumstances could not fail to exercise an unfavourable influence on the general trade of this country. It is, nevertheless, gra- tifying to observe that the general export of manufactured goods still continue on a large scale, aud contrast favourably even with the most prosperous years, whilst the latest pub- lished returns for the same period of the year show that the exports for the month have been the largest on record, and embraces nearly all the leading articles. This is strong evi- dence of the healthy state of the trade of the country; and although increased taxation, together with the high cost of the necessaries of life, have pressed heavily upon the people, they have been to some extent mitigated by the extended employment occasioned by the war, and we believe that on the whole the labouriug population has selJom been more fully or profitably employed. There is perhaps no branch to which these remarks more particularly apply than to the wool trade, the large contracts which have been given out for army clothing having given a great stimulus to this branch of busi- ness. These orders, as far as concerns our own government, I'.ave been mostly completed for the present, although for the French governmep.t there are still some orders in execution. HOME DEMAND F )R WOOLLEN GOODS.— This trade has been by no means active, which is not to be won- dered at ; for we invariably find that when the first necessa- ries of life are dear, a check is given to the consumption of all other articles, the humbler classes haviag little to spend on the comforts of their families. EXPORTS OF WOOLLEN GOODS.— The trade has, on the whole, been good, and on a sound and solid basis ; there has been no overtrading, and most of our colonial as well as our foreign markets seem to be in a healthy state — not over- stocked ; and we look for a great expansion of trade, particu- larly in the United States, owing to their abundant harvest ; and the high prices which they will obtain may be expected to lead to a great increase in our exports, the trade there being in a prosperous condition ; and as the shipments during the last two years have been much below the average, there has' been no opportunity for stocks to accumulate. CONSUMERS.— With the exception of those branches of the trade which have been occupied with Government orders, we do not think that in general they have done a profitable business, having been to a great extent deprived of their best customers— the home trade ; but, fortunately, they have had the advantage of cheap raw material, and if they have not made large profits, they have at any rate been enabled to work their concerns without loss, which, during a period of such uncertainty, cannot be considered altogether unsatisfactory. We have previously, on various occasions, alluded to the rapid progress making on the continent in wool manufactures, and in particular, to anyone acquainted with the German trade, the change that has taken place there during the last fifteen or twenty years is truly marvellous ; while in France and Belgium the improvement has been almost as great, and even in many minor States this branch of industry has assumed a degree of importance within comparatively recent years. Unfortunately, we have too long trusted to our own supposed supremacy; but as regards the finer branches of the cloth trade, it has for some time been apparent that this was altogether illusory, and that we must yield the palm entirely to our continental rivals, who have attained such superiority in dyeing and finish that their goods completely supersede ours in all foreign markets. These facts have been more fully brought out at the late Paris Exhibition ; aud it has been fully conceded that also in the finer qualities of plain stuff goods we are far behind the continent. To whatever cause this is to be as- cribed, it is little creditable to our national industry, possess- ing, as we do, the free aud unrestricted import of all raw materials from every quarter of the globe. It is said that the superiority of French Merino goods is to be attributed to their being made from French wools. For many years great attention has been paid there to the subject : the growth has been materially extended, and is now estimated at about 150 millions of pounds annually. If these wools really possess such peculiar properties, it seems strange that none have hitherto been imported into this country ; it would surely be worth while making the experiment, to ascertain if this be really the cause, or whether it may not be more properly ascribed to the greater ingenuity of the French manufacturers ; and it is known that their mode of washing aud preparing the wools differs materially from that in use in this country. The French are regular buyers of large quantities of wools here, which are burdened with very heavy import-duties ; snd so extensive are their purchases of Irish wools, that if it con- tinues at the present rate, they will in a few years almost absorb the entire clip. It is understood that the question of import-duties has for some time engaged the attention of the French Government, with the view to the introduction of a more liberal tariff; and should this be carried out, it will more than ever render it necessary to adopt every improvement in this country, as the competition will be so much increased. Our pre-eminence seems to rest in the lower qualities of goods, aud everything seems made subservient to producing an article to sell at the lowest possible price, and in this depart- ment at least our position appears to be unrivalled. It is gratify- ing to observe that in the manufacture of alpaca aud mohair, mixed with cotton and silk, our superiority was fully estab- lished at the Paris Exhibition, and a just tribute has been paid to Mr. Titus Salt, of Saltaire, whose energy and successful enterprise have done so much to develope the trade, by awarding him the decoration of the Legion of Honour. 170 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. WOOL TRADE. — Business has been heavy throughout the year, and buyers have shown the greatest caution, limiting their purchases to immediate requirements, which, as events have sliowu, has been the wisest course they could have pur- sued. There has been little change in prices, except in such kinds as have been required for military clothing, some of which, through scarcity and a pressing demand for the moment, as iu the case of gray wools, were forced up to extravagant prices ; but they have since declined, and the general range of prices at the present time present an unusual affinity to the same period last year, except bright-hair combing wool?, which have advanced Id. per lb. during the month. The blanket and flannel manufacturers have had a profitable trade ; but iu most other departments complaints have been general, and, we be- lieve, not altogether without cause. WOOL IMPORTS.— The receipts at this port bear testi- mony to the growing importance of this market, greatly ex ceeding any former year ; but, while the total imports into the kingdom show a trifling increase in the number of bales, it should be observed that this excess is chiefly iu small bags, namely, 4,400 ballots Alpaca and Peruvian, and 9,100 bags mohair, whilst German, Russian, and Mediterranean, the bales of which are mostly of a large size, show a considerable decrease ; consequently, the total imports iu pounds falls far short of the previous year. This deficiency in foreign maybe traced to the unremunerating prices, and a better demand existing iu other countries ; mauy kinds which we have been accustomed to im- port freely are at present quoted from 10 to 20 percent, higher at the shipping ports than they would realize on this side ; the consequence is that we are left completely destitute of stocks, and certainly at no period wi-thin our memory has there beeu so small a supply of foreign wool in this country. WOOL EXPORTS.— A uniform and at times brisk demand has existed. This trade is each year assuming more impor- tance, and new markets are constantly opening to us. For many years the French have been large purchasers, chiefly of Irish and Kent wools, while the Belgians and Germans (con- fined to the Rhenish Provinces) were regular customers for certain descriptions, and occasionally there has been a large business done to the United States ; but so extended has this trade now become, that we have a regular demand for all parts of Germany, besides Italy and Sweden, while even occasional purchases of fine wools have been made for Barbary ; at the same time the demand has giown so general that there is scarcely a description which is not now taken for export. As compared with the diminished import and greatly in- creased export of 1854, the past year shows a still further very considerable decline in the import of foreign (33 per cent.), and a continued lars;e increase in the export of both foreign (54 per cent.) and British (30 per cent.) ; assuming the growth of the latter to be the same as in the previous year, and deducting the export of colonial, foreign, and British from the entire import, the supply for home consumption is leas by 21 per cent, at the present time than at the same period last year. AUSTRALIA. — The public sales in London have been gene- rally well attended throughout the season, but notwithstanding the failing supplies of Russian, Spanish, German, and all other fine foreign descriptions, prices have ruled moderate, iu a great measure to be ascribed to the very large quantities brought forward at each series, which offer a good opportunity to specu- lators, but is certainly detrimental to th^. interest of the im- porter. The growth scetns to have assumed a stationary posi- tion, and we look in vain for the accustomed increase which we have relied upon in previous years ; still, under the circum- stances, this is as favourable as could be expected, considering the changes that have been brought about in the colonies since the discovery of gold. Each year more attention is being paid to rearing cattle, which must eventually materially interfere with the 8;ro.vth of wool. It will be not ced that a coi'siilerable quantity of Aiistralian wool has beeu received here this season — witli very triflng exception it has been sent forward for sale in l^oudon. We have long felt the fullest confidence that a large portion of the clip wc.uld reach this port ; it cannot he otherwise, considering the close connection we now have with the Colonies, and the very superior class of our vessels, in addition to tlie inducements which the owners are prepared to offer to promote a trade here, and the time may not be distant when our fine colonial wool sales will attract as much attention as those in T,oni'on, For the present, however. it is an important fact to record that last year we received 18,756 bales of Australian ! against 1,096 bales in 1854, and that the largest import in any previous year was 5,512 bales. The importers, of course, must have felt good reason for re- moving them to London for sale, but they must be based ou sounder arguments thau have been set forth by some of the parties most interested in the present state of things, the chief of which are— "the central position and eitahlished advantages of the London market," and that '■ buyers prefer the wools not being brought for sale into too great proximity to the consuming districts !" very reasonable conclusions in some respects, but certainly not calculated to promote the interest of the importer, who can have little difficulty in inter- preiiug the real meaning. The position of the cotton trade is in a great measure aualogous ; and it can scarcely be ques- tioned that it is altogether owing to its proximity to the chief consuming districts that Liverpool owes its pre-eminence. Here, also, as in the case of wool, there is a large regular export demand, and vast quantities are auuually sold for all parts of the contineut of Europe, and yet we hear nothing of the disadvantage of our position as regards this trade, while C'ltton is in a great measure subject to a higher rate of freight, the bales, in some cases, not being so tightly compressed as wool ; and also, the cost being generally less, the freight forms a higher per-centage thau on wool. It is estimated that about three-fourths of the import of Australian and Cape wools is consumed in Yorkshire and Lancashire, which are so easy of access that buyers cau visit this market, and, after transacting their business, return, if necessary, ou the same day. For the manufacturing districts of Wales and Scotland we are also certainly more favourably situated than Loudon, both in eco- nomy of time and carriage. Their only advantages are the West of England and the contiiient of Eurone; but even those are trifling, and it requires only a few hours more to come to Liverpool, whilst by way of Hull and steamers, the carriage to the coutineut is reducea to a very low rate to promote the trade, and there is very little delay in goods reaching their destination. Besides, our charges are much less both to the merchant aud the buyer. We can soe no reason why this should not become an important market for the sale of fine colonial woo! ; our positiou is a strong one, and better reasons must be assigned than any hitherto broiight forth to the con- trary. We have heard it asserted that the system of sampling here is considered very objectionable, it being inferred that the wool pulled out of the bales at the time of examination, and sold as samples, is the perquisite of the broker; but it is well known that this is sold in the catalogues for owners' account, and is generally considered a more preferable plan to stufling promiscuous qualities into the bales, which, with the greatest care, cannot be avoided- under that system. Such a statement is hardly worth referring to, as, it could only proceed from parties not conversant with the trade, or with a view of per- verting facts. We should certainly not advocate bringing forward public sales here, unless of sufficient magnitude to command a -full attendance of both the home trade and forei:;n buyers, say 5,000 bales as a beginning, or in the early mouths cf the year less would suffice to draw a full atteudauce, and acting upon this our disinterested advice has hitherto been to send the wools to Loudon. The only argument we can conceive to weigh against us is that London brokers are more competent to conduct the business than "local agents," as they are pleased to call us ;. but this is surely no reason to incur the expense of forwarding the wools to London. At any rate, if this be the case, we think the trade will soon become of such importance that they will find it worth their while to establish branch houses here. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE WOOLS have engaged consi- derable attention throughout the season, aud have com- manded uniformly steady prices, which is due to the very marked improvement that has takeu place in the flocks generally, aud we look upon the prospects of the colony as eucouraging in the highest degree, particularly as regards the Algoa Bay district. There has been a considerable increase in the growth of wool, of which tlie import of this year, large as it has been, forms only a partial index, a great quantity having been kept back for waut of shipping. GERMAN. — There has been a still further falling oS iu our imports, and prices have ruled so much higher there that it would have paid to re-export, which has been done in some THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 171 cases. For certain purpoaea German wools are almost indis- pensable with our manufactarer3, but beyond this the trade may be considered to have ceased, the greatly increased cou- suaiption there, and the superiority of their fabrics, having outstripped their production, and they have even become im- porters to a considerable extent. SPANISH AND PORTUGAL.— There has been a very trifling supply of the finer descriptions, and business has been altogether of insignificance, the moderate prices of colonial wools being quite a barrier to imports. In Portugal stilt fur- ther restrictions have been placed upon our goods, with the object of protecting native industry, and, in consequence, the receipts have been very limited, the growth having been chiefly retained for domestic consumption. Long Oporto fleece is at present in good demand, owing to the improve- ment in value of English combing wools. UNITED STATES.— Our commercial relations with this country are of such vast extent that any unfavourable circum- stances existing on the one side must to a conaiilerable extent exercise an influence on the other ; and, we believe, the eliect of the war and the pressure in the moiicy market have been felt there scarcely less than in Europe. Everj thing there seems to be en a sound footing, and holJs out the prospect of an active business at, we hope, no distant date. Tiie adoption of a more liberal tariff of import duties, on the principle of our own, which stems likely to be brought forward this session, will, if carried, prove a great boon to trade. The transactions in wool have not been of any importance, and the export has not equalled the quantity received from there, consisting chiefly of Peruvian. BUENOS AYRES AND RIVER PLATE.— We have had a full average import, including most of the usual flocks so favourably known here, and we believe growers are per- fectly alive to the advantage of consigning them regularly, rather than seizing an apparently tempting oflfer to sell on the other side. These wools continue to be taken more freely for home consumption, and we have no doubt they will be much more used, and if our manufacturers will retain even their present position they must give up old prejudices. The burr has hitherto been an insurmountable objection with many, and we have had the greatest difticulty to get them to make the trial — but there is no longer the same reason for these objections, owing to the improvements that have been made in burring and raoiting machines— and most of the best flocks are now sent home classed and packed with the same care as Australian wools, and the marks can be as much relied upon ; consequently, those who have had them before, purchase them with the fullest confidence. This is no slight advantage, equal to 5 or 10 per cent, besides insuring a more ready sale ; for these w ools, being generally so extremely tightly packed, are difficult of examination, and buyers have therefore to depend to some extent on the good faith of the shippers, or the representations of the brokers. Common qualities have been very much neglected ; but during the last few months a considerable clearance has been made. Cor- dova : The early arrivals of the season met with ready sale at full value ; but for some months the sales have been limited, at rather reduced rates. PERUVIAN AND ALPACA.— The receipts of Alpaca have been on a rather liberal scale, although not equal to former years. The demand has been good, and sales have been freely made for arrival, so that scarcely at any time v,e had any stock in the market. Prices have been constantly advancing, and have ruled with great firmness, having reached at one point 2s. 9d. per lb. ; but this being found so much above the relative value that could be obtained for the goods, the transactions for some time past were limited ; of late, however, there has been more disposition to do business, and some large sales have bten made for arrival, including, also, the only parcel on the spot, at 23. 6-id. to 23. 7d. per lb. Sheep's wool baa only been in moderate favour, excepting superior qualities, which have always been in demand at full prices. There is very little stock of any kind. Lima wools, or as they are here more favourably known as " Chili," being an article liked, have met with ready sale at full value. EAST INDIA. — The total receipts into the country have fallen short of last year, as we ventured to predict they would, but still they have been of consideiable extent, and this trade promises to become of great magnitude — already it is next in importance to the AustraUan trade ; and with remunerating- prices and judicious management, there seems still a fair field for extension. We have frequently suggested the ad- vantage of the introduction of our heavy-wooUed tups for crossing with the native breeds, by which means we should secure a much heavier weight of fleece, with the still further important consideration of, to some extent, eradicating the kemp, which is the chief objection to East India wools, as it prevents them from taking the dye, and therefore renders them uusuited for certain purposes. AVe are fully aware of the difficulty in carrying out this view, but still we think it is wo.'thy of attentive consideration ; for Eust India wools have now become so essential to the wants of our consumers, and the demand is constantly extending, that we feel no hesitation in still assertiiig, as we did when the import was comparatively trifling, that the trade would freely take any quantity that could be sent. It is satisfactory to be able to notice that the shipments of this season have, on the whole, presented a favourable contrast in comparison with former years, and the more remunerating prices such kinds have invariably com- manded will prove the greatest inducement to persevere in this system. We may point with some degree of exultation to our position in this trade, our receipts being very nearly three-fourths of the entire imports, and as these wools are now very largely taken for export, it still further disproves the assumed advantages of the Loudon market. CHINA. — A moderate import has taken place, all of which has been to London. We are unable to state any improvement in the mode of getting them up, while in many cases the wool has been slightly moth-eaten, which has operated agains t their sale. This description is more free of kemp than East Indian, and also of a softer nature, making every allowance for the grease which generally exists to a great extent. If these wools were sent to market in good order, they would meet with ready sale. They should be properly washed, and if this was done in the first instance, it would in a great degree prevent the yellow tinge which so much prevails. And here we may also remark, that the universally large quantity of yellow East India, quite out of proportion to what we receive from any other quarter, is in a great measure to be traced to the wools being allowed to remain too long in the grease ; and, in addition to this, if they become wet or damp, it would cause them to sweat, which would prevent them washing a white colour. RUSSIA. — There has been a total cessation of the trade, with the exception of one parcel scut through Prussia, at such an enormously high rate of carriage that the experiment was found too costly to repeat. We have not at all found the want of these wools, and the stocks in the country, consisting alto- gether of Donskoi fleece and autumn, which have been held for two or three years, small as they have been, have exceeded our requirements, owing to the moderate prices of Enghah combing wools, and the depressed state of the moreen trade. Of late there has been a better inquiry, and the stock is reduced to a mere trifle. There is no prospect of obtaining supplies from any outports, as they would stand in fully 20 per cent, more than they are at present worth here. MEDITERRANEAN WOOLS generally have engaged little attention, and prices have been unremunerating. The efl'ects of the war have checked the import, while the supplies have been freely absorbed on the continent for the purpose of mditary clothing, which has caused prices to rule throughout the year much higher than in this country, where there has been a good choice of home-grown and East Indian wools. EGYPTIAN is not in so much favour as formerly, and has in a great measure lost its character, being now often mixed with Syria and other inferior kinds, which are unsuited for tlie same purposes, and it is now rare to see the good parcels we formerly received ; still, when these are to be met with, they find ready sale at full prices. TURKEY GOATS' WOOL AND MOHAIR.— The high prices ruling at the beginning of the year, we stated.' in our last annual report, were likely greatly to stimulate imports, and such has proved the case, our receipts having been nearly double the previous year's; prices have ruled with great stea- diness, but have scarcely at all participated in the advance that has taken place in alpaca. The Greek houses in London still retain this trade chiefly in their hands, and seem somewhat jealous of the mouopoly they enjoy. 173 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. MOGADORE AND BARBAKY.— The receipts have fallen off considerably, and have been less than for many years past. For some months there has been a good demand, and stocks have been completely cleared off. Fair parcels have generally met with very current sale, at full prices, and are at present much sought after. The temporary demand on the continent, occasioned by the war, has diverted many shipments into other channels, and as long as this continues vce do not look for imports of any consequence. ICELAND. — There has been a considerable falling off in the import ; several cargoes which have reached this country have been sent on at once to Copenhagen, being limited a trifle above what could be obtained here ; but we think the result has proved that the owners would have done better to have accepted current rates here. There is nothing held by importers, but a fair stock in second hands, which is held off the market for the present. DOMESTIC WOOLS.— At no former period have we known such uniformity of prices to prevail during twelve months, and, owing to the great caution displayed by buyers, and the tenacity ot holders, there has been an extremely firm tendency throughout this period, which even the unprecedented advance in the Bank rate of discount, in scarcely more than one month, during September to October, from 3j to 6 and 7 per cent., at which it still stands, failed to produce any effect beyond a temporary dulness. The general average of prices is somewhat higher than at this period laat year, and with more tendency to advance than the reverse. There has been at times a good deal of machinery standing idle, but when we take info account the number of new mills brought iuto work during the last few years, we think it somewhat questionable whether the consumption has not been to an average extent. — Irish : The principal demand has been for export, aud the business has been rather considerable. What remains is alto- gether in growers' hands, who are not disposed to part with their stocks unless at advanced rates, consequently there is little doing at present, although there is a brisk iuquiry. — Scotch: Cheviot wools have been in good demand for military clothing, aud have brought full prices ; but since the com- pletion of the Government orders they have engaged less attention, and prices have given way a little. White Highland has been in fair request, but all other kinds have been rather dull, although of late they have met with more inquiry. SHEEP SKINS, — Buenos Ayres have been in good demand, aud the better kinds have been of very current sale at full prices. Of Australian skins the supply has been limited, but they can always be sold at their proportionate value. Inferior and bad-conditioned skins are of difficult sale, and can only be disposed of at low prices. Hughes and Ronald, Wool Brokers, Liverjpool, 1st January, 1856. HULL GENERAL ANNUAL TRADE REPORT. PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF A eOMMITTEE APPOINTED RY THE HULL CHAMBER OF COMMERCE AND SHIPPING, — P. BRUCE, SECRETARY. On taking a retrospect for the past year of the trade of this port — which, it is well known, is largely concerned with the North of Europe — it does not appear that the business has been so much limited by the war with Russia as miglit have been reasonably anticipated, although it must be remarked that no port in the kingdom has suffered so much from the interruption of business with that country. The principal imports from Russia previous to the war consisted of hemp, flax, iron, tallow, linseed, hides, wool, tar, and deals, with large quantities of wheat and oats, when prices in this country were such as to induce a trade in grain. The frontiers of Prussia being open for the transport of goods to and from Russia, it appears that the articles of flax, hemp, tallow, and linseed, to some extent, have been able to bear the heavy laud-carriage charges for shipment from Memel aud Konigsberg, so that the importation of these articles (except linseed) has been kept fully adequate to the consumption of this district. With a continuance of the war there seems no probability of a want being felt for these articles, as, with increased experience, the arrangements for the land transport will be more maturely effected ; and this expense of carriage is not so injurious, on the whole, to Russia as was expected — that on their exports being greatly paid by the enhanced prices in this country, whilst their imports, as being much more limited in quantity, obtain the benefit of back carriage, which, being in considerable supply, can be furnished at much reduced rates. A large por- tion of this land-carriage goes iuto the hands of the Russian landowner. The land-carriage on hemp, flax, and tallow from the Peters- burg districts to Memel is understood to be about £10 to £12 per ton, wliilst return goods are taken at much lower rates ; thus ihe lower values bearing the heaviest charge. As with the transport of Russian articles over the Prussian frontiers, 80 it has been by the coast of Sweden on the Gulf of Bothnia. Previous and subsequent to the blockade of the Finland ports considerable traffic has taken place between these two countries, and it is through this channel we have received the Finland tar; while considerable imports into Russia have thus been effected of colonial and other produce. The principal disturbing features affecting the general trade of the country during tiie past year have been the reports, both early and late in the year, of the probability of pacific arrangeraeuts being effected ; the dclicient result of the wheat crop not only in this country, but to a greater extent in Ger- mr.ny and in France ; aud the gradually increased rates of dis- count of the Bank of England, the latter having a natural ten- dency to limit trading operations. The shipping which has entered the port during the year ia about 770,000 tons, against 850,229 tons in 1854, and 888,056 tons in 1853. In taking a review of the CORN TRADE for the year just closed upon us, the first striking feature is that a country like this, so largely dependent on foreign imports, and at war with so formidable a power as Russia, furnished with only a mode- rate crop for present use, could pass over a period of twelve months with no greater fluctuation in the staple food of the people than has proved to be the case. The present age of steam communication and telegraphs, combined with the gene- ral spread of knowledge amongst our second-class or smaller agriculturists, appears to have dissipated the former notion of loar prices ; and the speedy transmission of information by the reduction of the newspaper stamp affords to rich and poor alike ready access to those elements which govern the values of the chief articles of commerce ; and to these, in a great measure, is to be attributed the comparative steadiness of the corn trade, under circumstances which to sanguine minds would appear to have induced a much higher range of prices. The predictions of those fabulous rates indulged in at the commence.neut of the war appear not likely to be realized. The corn trade during the past year, may be said to have been almost entirely devoid of speculation ; the relative high value has checked the cautious, whilst the stringency of the money market, and the rauch-to-be-admired and increasing mode of prompt payment for all cereal produce has put a stop, in a great measure, to the incautious operator; and the uncertainty as to the intentions of Government with regard to the overtures of peace, have continually kept in abey- ance that spirit for speculation which is one great characteristic of the corn trade ; and whilst colonial and Russian produce has been affected to a great extent by the uncertainty of peace or war, the value of grain has been regulated almost solely by " xniiph/ and lajitimale demand." The Press has made 8e\«rtl uncalled-for attacks on the trade, as to the price of corn being kept up by speculation and heUi back on the part of the groiv- crs ; this need scarcely be referred to, as to any at all conver- sant with the trade such remarks must appear mere fiction. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 173 An encomium shoiild rather be passed on the agriculturists for bringing forward their supplies so freely, indicating anything but a speculative feeling. One great feature in the corn trade this year is a conti- nental demand, and export of Wheat to the Baltic ports ; but this was limited by advanced markets in this country. The year commenced with high prices ; but taking into con- sideration the splendid quality of the WHEAT crop of '54, fully 7s. to 83. per qr. below the present value. We find in January, '.55, fine red Wheats of home growth quoted 703. to 723. ; red Danish and Hambro', GGs. to 68a. ; Konigsberg and Uantzic, 78s. to 80s. These quotations are for English GSlbs. per bushel, foreign per bushel of GOlbs. The trade continued dull and drooping in February — prices had receded to 683. to 7O3. per qr. for good red English ; and this state of things continued until March, when there was almost a stoppage to business, owing to the deatli of the late Czar of Russia, and the uncertainty this important event would have on the future. The warlike attitude of Russia, and extensive preparations for carrying on the war by the present Emperor, appear to have dissipated all ideas of peace ; and at the latter end of April and beginning of May, there was a general rush to get into stock, and prices forced up 63. to 8s. per qr. in a few days. In the first week in May prices advanced for English from 683. to 70s., to 76s. to 783. per qr., and foreign in proportion ; and to- wards the close of May farmers were holding out for " even money," or 8O3. per qr. for best-class of English red wheats. June and July passover with very trivialfiuctuations, a shilling or two up or down, 80s. continuing about the standard for English. At the commencement of August markets began to recede — a false idea appears to be formed of the coming crop. Arrivals exceed demand, there is a disposition on the part of holders of foreii;n to sacrifice; and, in spite of heavy rains, crops laid, and acknowledged injury done to a very great extent through- out the kingdom, prices continued to decline, and about the middle of August good English wheats are quoted 73s. to 74s., and foreign red 703. to 723. The depression was not destined to be long-lived, for at the close of August and com- mencement of September there is again a sudden start, and prices rally 4s. to 5s. per qr., 8O3. being again the value of English red, and foreign in proportion. This advance was not only well maintained, but rather exceeded during the early part of September, until the news of the fall of Sebastopol and glorious successes of the allied armies in the East caused a temporary stagnation to the trade, and prices again rather gave way until the end of the month. When the new crop comes to be tested by the thrashing-machine, the quality is found very indifferent compared with the crop of '54, and the yield also to a much greater extent than was anticipated ; and prices gradually advanced during October, until the first or second week in November, when farmers were busy with seed- time, and owiug to the lateness of the harvest could scarcely supply consumptive demand, and about the middle of November the climax, or highest point, is reached, red wheats of old crop realizing close upon 90s. ; and in several of the agricultural markets IOO3. was not only reached, but exceeded for fine old white wheats. Meetings were held in London, and fears entertained at this period of some outbreak in the manufac- turing districts ; but these fears appear to have been unfounded. A splendid seed time enabled farmers to proceed rapidly, and get their work finished under the most favourable circum- stances ; the continental demand rather abated, the thrashing- machines were in full work again, and markets abundantly supplied. Although there was little or nothing reaching from abroad duritg November and December, compared with the average of years, still the supplies of home-grown have been amply sufficient to meet the present consumptive demand, curtailed in a great measure by the relative cheapness of pota- toes, and we close the year with trade dull and drooping, 76s. to 78s. (631b3.) being the value of the best runs of red wheat of the ne.v crop. Old wheats, from scarcity, command higher rates, but are generally held above the present value. The quotations for foreign are more nominal than otherwise. Tlie stocks are very low — 11,000 qrs.— and imports show a consi- derable falling-off from the previous year, being only 118,160 qrs., against 208,175 qrs. in 1854. There can only be one opinion that great inroad has already been made into the present crop, dearly ascertained as under an average both in quality and quantity. Without speculative remarks as to the future, it may still be observed that there are strong forebodings of higher prices of wheat before another harvest, especially if the war continues. The accounts from America appear to show more of a shadow than a substance, and at the present moment this seems the only country to louk to iu case of emergency. There is but little to hope for or expect from the continent of Europe, from whence consi- derable supplies are usually drawn ; and, under existing cir- cumstances, it behoves all classes of the community to practise economy, and to bear in mind the proverb, " Waste not, want not." BARLEY has, during the present year, not played the usual prominent part in the trade of this port, in consequence of the bountiful yield of the crop of 1854, which has almost been sufficient to supply the requirements of the country, and caused Denmark and other northern countries to seek other markets, or to use their surplus produce at home ; whilst from the Levant very little has come this year. It is thus found that the total import amounts to only 27,015 qrs., which is scarcely more than one-third of the imports of the previous year — viz., 72,906 qrs. — and even smaller than 1845 ; whilst in all the intermediate years of the last decennium, each year has been considerably larger, some even by eight or nine times the quantity imported in this. The fluctuations of prices have also been less marked than last year: a decline of 3s. to 43. per qr. took place during the first three months ; since then a gradual rise of lOs. to lis. per qr. was experienced, but prices are now again not so high by 23. to 3s. as they were some five or six weeks ago, when the highest point was reached, being at present 403. to 42s. per qr. (561b3.) for English malting, and 37s. to 393. per qr. (52|lbs.) for English and foreign grinding qualities. The corresponding prices at the same period last year were 36s. to 3Ss., and 3l3. to 333. The yield of this year's crop is also abundant, but the consumption is very extensive upon this grain for various purposes ; and since the 1st October a law has come into operation allowing malt to be used in the distilleries duty free (in lieu of the drawbacks and allowances made before), which also tends to augment it. It is therefore probable that foreign supplies again will be re- quired ; but hitherto the relative values here and abroad offer no margin for importation. The stocks in this port are very insignificant, being only 3,000 qrs., against 8,511 qrs. in 1854 OATS have also been subject to less fluctuation in value this year, compared with last ; and it is a curious fact that neither this nor any other spring corn or pulse, though generally fol- lowing wheat as regards the movements of the market, have reached the same height as last year by several shillings, although wheat, on the average, may be considered 63. to 8s. per qr. dearer this year than last. It may be remarked that the increased cultivation in Sweden, and even Norway, bids fair, with this grain, fully to fill up the gap caused by the blockade of the Russian ports, especially that of Archangel, and will be a rival to the Russian markets for future years. The lowest point was in March, when oat prices were 4s. to 5s. below their present range, which again is a shade above what they were a twelvemonth ago. The foreign imports are about one-third in excess of those of the previous year, being 36,059 qrs., against 24,245 in 1854. Stocks are, viz., 3,600 qrs., against 3,638 qrs. Present price of new foreign, 29s, to 31s. per qr. (421b3,) BEANS have been less imported from abroad than last year, especially from Egypt, and the sanguine expectations indulged in by many holders were not realized, 503. to 54s. per qr. hav- ing never been exceeded for fine old, and in March last that description could be bought as low as 40s. to 41s. The present value of new English, which has been a good and abundant crop, is 493. to 50s. per qr., being about 2s. below prices at the corresponding period last year. Imports are 42,050 qrs., against 62,019 qrs. in 1854 ; and stocks 8,500 qrs., against 8,511 qrs. PEAS. — The fluctuations i n this article have been greater than in any other, wheat excepted. The lowest period was in March, when white boilers were selling as low as 41s. to 42s. per qr. (631bs.), and the highest in October, when 56s. to 57s. was reached ; but transactions have mostly been of a retail character. The imports having been 9,018 qrs. against 9,710 qrs. in 1854, the year closes with stocks computed at 2,600 qrs., against 2,914 qrs. The present nominal value is 523. to 53s. per qr. (631bs.) for white boilers, and 48s. to 50a. for grinding qualities, or about 5s. more than quotations were in January, 1854. \u THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. LINSEED, being the article most largely imported here for local consumptiou, claims special notice. The only supplies from Russia came during the first six moaths in the year, amountiug to 106,416 qrs. of Black Sea seed, since which period the total absence of direct imports from Russia has been severely felt, although some parcels resembling the fiue Petersburg aud common runs of Riga have been received through Prusiia. The stoppage of Russian direct imports by virtual blockade has tlirown a great demand on the East Indies, which has been freely responded to, aud it is apparent the supplies from thence can be annually increased to a considerable extent, so long as prices remain encouraging. Our imports in 1853 were 455,000 quarters ; in 1854, 305,610 quarters ; and in 1855 only 233,800 quarters— thus showing a deficiency as compared with last year of about 71,800; while as compared with 1853, the present year ex- hibits a deficiency of nearly one-half. It must be also stated that the import has been very unequally divided over the year, about 155,000 qrs. being received during the first six months, and only 78,800 qrs. during the last half year. On the 1st of January, 1854, the computed stock was 121,236 qrs. ; in 1854, ditto, 83,695 qrs. ; and 1855, ditto, 31,000 qrs. These facts will account for the general high range of prices during the year. In noticing the fluctuations which have oc- curred, and taking good average Black Sea linseed as a standard, we fimi the price opening in January iit 693. to 70s. per qr. Towards the close of that month rumours of peace ncgociations caused a gradual decline, and at the beginning of March such quality was barely worth 63s. per qr. The grave event of the death of the Czar early in that month caused a further sudden fall, and Black Sea seed at one period declined to 57s. No sooner, however, had the abortive result of the Vienna Conference in April been made known than prices immediately sprang up 53. to 6s. per qr., aud the value was 66s. at the early part of May. During that month our import was no less than 69,940 quarters. lu June it was evideat that the great bulk of the Black Sea shipments had come to hand, and that no further supplies from that quarter could be looked for; such expectation was subseqnenily realized, as will be seen by co.nparing the relative import of the first and last half year as above named. The idea of short siipplies caused a gradual and steady advance, and November closed with Black Sea aeedatSOa. perqr. Since then, in consequence of slacker demand for cake and lower prices of oil, a slight reaction followed, and the year closes at 763. to 77s. per qr. Tlie values of oil and cake as compared with seed being uu- remuuerative to the crushers, a great portion of the mill power has i.een at a stand ; aud at the present time (which is usually 80 active a period) not more than three or four mills are at work, out of a total number of 27 mills. Had the consumption of seed, instead of beiug thus curtailed, contiiiued at the same ratio as in former years, there is little doubt that the stocks would have been long since utterly exhausted. It must he observed, that during the year a small quantity has been taken off for Holland aud Belgium ; while, on the other hand, there has been received a considerable quantity coastwise from London. The total consumption of tKe year for this town and immediate neigiibourhood is estimated at about 290,000 quarters. S-hould the crushers find encouragement to resume full operations, it is evident a very considerable addi- tion to the present meagre stock will be required during the next few months. From the lower Baltic ports little can be expected before spring. Shipments from India of considerable mas^nitude arc reported as being afloat, chiefly destined for London, and some portion di-ect for this pert. Tiiis source must be mainly depended upon f')r the requisite supply, assisted perhaps by a few cargoes from the Mediterranean ; still the period of such arrivals is always a matter of much uncertaiuty, aud leaves ioora for some anxiety lest a crisis of temporary Bcarcity shouhl occur. The remarks already offered as to future prospects refer chiefly to tlie early months of the year. Extending the view to the closing months of the coming j ear, the hope of honour- able peace with Russia must not be discarded. The impulee already given will doubtless have paved the way for very large and regular supplies from India. LINSEED OIL. — Though the importation of seed has much decreased here, it is not felt in proportion in the produc- tion of oil; the southern aced yielding, ou an average, 20 per cent, more oil than the general shipments from the North- ern ports. The market has been considerably influenced by speculators ; but when left merely to a consumptive or foreign demand, prices gave way. The article was in lively demand to the commencement of the year, the price being 38j. 6d. per cwt. in casks ; but the fluctuations in the trade were of almost daily occurrence, and speculators seemed influenced in their operations in a great degree, quite irrespective of the price of seed, aud in many cases even of political events ; these in January were £3 per ton downwards, at which the month closed. In February the price continued steady, and consider- able business was done at £35 for home consumption and ex- port. March : The transactions still continuing, prices rather improved the first week in the month ; but on the death of the Emperor of Russia they became irregular, and the quota- tions were reduced to £33. The export commenced towards the middle of the month, and the demand was good at £32 5s. to £33 lOs. ; about 2,000 tons were awaiting ship-room. The final quotations of the month were £33 lOs. firm. April com- menced with areduetion to £32 15s. ; afterwards £32 lOs., when speculators came more freely forward, and advanced to £33 lOs. with free buyers. Later on, the market improved consider- ably, and the closing quotation was £36 10s. May — the early part of the month £36, down to £34 15s., then £35 15s., £36, £37, closing at £36 10s. June — a gnod business, with gradually advancing prices to £37 lOs., towards the close £38 10s., finishing at £39 lOs. July opened rather slack, but in the middle of the month the price had run up to £42 lOs. by speculation, again drooped, and at the close of the month stood at £41. August began with advancing prices of 303, per ton, which afterwards reached £43, aud attained £43 lOs. at the close, with a good export demand. September — a fur- ther advance to £44, and during the month business continued active, the last quotations being £-!3 153. October. — Market rather languid ; forced sales brought it gradually down to £42, the closing price of the month. November — an improvement ; in the middle of the month the value was £43 15s., subse- quently forced sales drove it down to £41 15s, and through- out the mouth of December the ariicle has continued dull, with declining prices, closing at £41 5s. Thus the extreme fluctuations of the year were £11 per ton. It might have been supposed that higher prices generally would have ranged throughout the year, the opinion being formed ou the state of the seed market ; but though crushers have generally been free buyers of seed, they could not so readily find purchasers for their oil, the stocks of this article having been in advance of the demand. The export of oil has considerably increased iu its points of destination, and may now be considered equally as regular a trade as that for the consumption of the country ; but the United States, to which occasionally very heavy shipments have been made, has not taken tff any of consequence this year. The total export is circa 5,684 tons. LINSEED CAKES, on the other hand, have felt the effect of the diminished import of seed, the high prices of grain, and a very deficient hay crop ; they have obtained a price which has not been known for the last thirty years. The opening value of Hull-made in January was £12 Ss. per ton; after this a general decUne occurred until the end of March, when good quality barely obtained £11. In the month of April, with a brisk demand and crushers working very spa- riugly, the stocks wcro all taken off, and it was found, iu the early part of May, a great scarcity existed, while large con- sumption was still going ou, and prices iu consequence rose to £12. Genial weather now following, there was a reduction iu June, and £11 brcime the value for a short time ; s.arc.ly, however, had the mouth closed when a speculative demand appeared, owing to the appearance of the grass crops, aud stocks being exhausted, a sudden rise of £1 per tou occurred, dealers being free buyers at £12 per ton. After this a steady trade ensued at advancing rates. The continued drought gave a further impulse, and in September prices were driven up to £13 lOs. per ton ; a slight reaction took place in October, but during the following month a brisk trade ensued, m»d best makes ran up to £14 7s. 6d. and £14 lOs. As the year closes the trade is quiet at £13 ISs. to £14 per ton. The new year will commence with comparatively light stocks, and quite iu- suificient to meet any urgent demand. The import of foriiga cakes has been to a fair extent, and they have sold at prices corresponding to the value of English. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I/O RAPESEED.— The imports of the year have fallen far short of the previous one, being only 14,230 qra., against 61,478 qrs. iu 1854. It is considered ihat the cviltivatioii of this plant is annually decreasing in Europe, owing to the encouragement for the growth of grain given by the alteration in the Corn Laws of this country, and also by the increasing annual supplies of the seed from the East Indies. Of the small import the greater part has been direct to the crushers, leaving but a very small portion for sale upon the market ; iu fact, during the tirst nine months of the year, in the absence of stock, the prices were quite nominal. Since Septeaiber a few sfiiall cargoes offered upon the market established a value for the article, good quality of Danish seed fetching £45 per last — varying, with one exception at a particular juncture, up to £45 lOs. ; while for seed of less choice quality £44 to £^14 53. was submitted to. There is at present no stock in the port, except in the hands of crushers — about 500 qra. RAPE OIL. — The price at the commencement of the year was £53 for brown, when the consuEiption, occasioned by the high price of tallow, being groat, the stocks became very much reduced both at home and in the countries from whence of late years large supplies have been drawn, and prices kept advancing until the high point of £60 per ton was attained, which checked the demand ; prices, however, from the small quantity making in this country, and the deficiency of imports, 1,190 casks, against 3,055 casks in 1S54, are well supported. OLIVE OIL. — The scarcity of rape oil and high prices of tallow threw a very considerable demand on this article, which was freely provided for by current increased imports. The prices iu January for Galipoli were £58 to £59 per ton, and for Spanish £55 ; these continued steady until March, when there was a decline of about £2 per ton ; recovered a little in the summer, the largest consuming period of the year, and with the cold weather, and when the use is much curtailed, the value stands at £55 lOs. for Galipoli, and £53 to £53 lOs. for Spanish. The import this year is 4,363 tons, against 765 in 1854, and 853 iu 1853. The stock is 775 tous, exclusive of six cargoes just arrived. FISH OIL. — The result of the northern fishing was more unsuccessful than known for many years. This trade has been anuually on the decrease, owing to bad success, always con- nected with heavy expense of outfit — but attempts are this year making to prosecute a winter fishing in the northern regions, and should this prove more fortunate, it will doubtless influence great attention again to this branch of commerce. Tlie price in January was £44 ti £45 without casks, and has gradually improved to the present rate of £53, none being iu the importer's hands. RAPE CAKES. — The import has been to a fair extent, and prices during the year have ruled high, occasioned by the best descriptions being used for feeding purposes, as a substitute for linseed cakes; their present value is £7 Ss. to £7 los. per ton, and the quantity on hand, of good quality, small. FLAX. — The total imports of flax into this port during the present year amount to 14,909 tons, against 12,389 tons m 1854, 16,262 tons in 1S33, and 14,050 tons in 1852. Of the present year's import 7,465 tons are from the Baltic, against 4,331 tons iu 1854, 7,332 tons iu 1853, and 6,317 tons 1852; the remaining quantities are divided as follows, viz. : — 2,875 tons from Holland, 4,519 tons from Belgium, and 50 tons from sundries. Prices during the year have not greatly varied, although csntiaually affected by the influence of political events and rumours. In the month of August the arrivals of Russian flax (via Jlemel) very much slackened, iu consequence of which, holders pressed for higher rates, and prices in this marka advanced 203. to SOs. per ton. The arrivals into the flas-impoiting ports of Dundee, Aberdeen, Montrose, Arbroath, Kirkcaldy, and Hull, from the.lst of January lo the 31st of August displayed a deficiency of 17,151 tons, being only 21,716 tons, against 38,867 tons to the same date in 1854; coiitrary however to general expectation, this loss has since been fully recovered, as the returns of imports into the above p ;rts from the 1st of January to the SOth November were 48,226 tons, against 47,081 tons last year ; and it is presumed by the end of the year there will be found little difference as corapr.red with the close of 1854. Ihe spiiiners have seriously felt the entire absence of the imports of the Archangel tow, which article, from its scarcity, has ruled high through the year. The Germaa tows have corae to hand in v. very mixed and dirty state, and have given general dissatisfaction iu this district, where good clean tow is always extensively demanded. The present storks of flax are moderate, although only a small proportion of the fine and light-coloured Riga kinds. For several weeks past the trade has been without animation, and in some instances holders have yielded a little from their pre- vious demand. The spinners, under the present uncertain aspect of political affairs, act with much hesitation and caution. The present value of good usual W.C.M. may be noted at £50 per ton, other marks bearing a relative value thereto. In case of jjeace it is not thought the prices would be seriously affected, such not being at present extravagantly high — with the bless- iug of peace great revival in the demand might be looked for, whde it IS certain prices in the Russian markets would at once advance; added to which, the high prices of grain will tend to limit the cultivation of flax iu Ireland. If luar is to continue, the trade must struggle on as best it can. The total export of flax from Memel from the 1st of Juue to the SOth November, was 43,310 tons, against 31,958 tons to the same period last year, consisting mainly of Russian growth. HEMP. — The year's import of hemp into this port, includ- ing cordage yarn, is considerable. With the increased facilitiea for land and other transport of Russian hemp vi^ Prussia, which is apparent from the improved condition in which goods have latterly arrived, doubtless further supplies would have been received, had prices ruled sufficiently high on this side to have better remunerated the continental dealers. Prices, which opened in January at £57 for clean hemp, fell before the end of March to £45 ; in May they were at £47, and ruled during the remainder of the year at £42 to £43 for good clean and Rhine. The market is at present very inanimate. As anticipated in the last report, the consumption of Russian hemp has been materially affected by the substitution of other fibres. As of linseed, the East Indies are found capable of supplying any deficiency the war with Russia may occasion, in fibres from thence of similar adaptations as hemp ; and with the inducement to competition, these articles will become better known and more available for purposes of machinery, so as to become staple articles of import. The Italian hemps are coming into more favour, and it is reported that the govern- ment have taken considerable quantities thereof for the purposes of the navy. The import this year is 3341 tons, and the pre- sent stocks here are estimated at about 1200 tons. TALLOW. — The whole of the import has come through Prussia. This has been more influenced by speculation than any other article of Russian produce, and aided also by the price of home produce, which stands at high rates in conse- quence of the deficiency of food for cattle. The import is 1,528 tons, against 616 tons iu 1854, and the supply has been less than usual for sale on the spot, so that business ia this article has been exceedingly limited ; prices idmost invariably follow the London quotations. The present stock is about 400 casks. IRON. — The whole of the year's supply has come from Norway and Sweden ; but there are still stocks of Russian on hand. Prices have ruled tolerably regular throughout the year, and the market, except for Russian, has not been influ- enced by the war, and consequent cessation of Russian im- ports, though the consumptive demand has been far from brisk. HIDES. — The import has been fully equal to last year, with the exception of Petersburg kips, of which there have been none. Prices of hides end skins have gradually advanced during the year, and are now considerably higher than at the commencement, from f d. to Id. per lb. BONES. — The imports have considerably fallen off, and of guano there have been but trifling direct supplies this year. It may be noticed there has been an increased intercourse with the River Plate, having had from thence seven cargoes with 2600 tons of bones and bone ash ; this latter a new article of import, and for which there is likely to be a regular demand in consequence of the great attention now given to the manufac- ture of artificial manures, which appears to be annually on the • increase, and must necessarily be so, as so amply remunerating the agriculturist by their extended use. The supply of bones from their customary ports of shipment is gradually diminish- ing. The import is 12,158 tons, against 15,706 tons last year. The stock is estimated at 1000 tons. Prices have gradually 176 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. advanced during the year, and are now at £7 2s. 6d. per ton ; bone ash, £5 7s. 6d. TAR AND TURPENTINE.— Since the abolition of the duty ou foreign spirits of turpentine, the distilleries here con- suming previously about 50,000 barrels annually of rough turpentine (chiefly indirect importations) have curtailed their operations fully to the extent of 2-3rd3 of that quantity : the British spirits are greatly substituted by the American. The increased consumption of resins, chiefly for the purpose of manufacturing into oil and antifriction and locomotive greases, are also principally supplied by the United States. Tar is likewise only distilled to a small extent, and the consumption of this article is materially affected by coal tar and its pro- ducts, and the antifriction greases. The import of tar (all from the Baltic) is 13,820 barrels, against 11,069 in 1854, and 29,300 in 1853. The price in January was 30s., but declined as the year advanced, and went down to 23s., but subsequently recovered, and is now at 263. to 27s. per barrel. COTTON. — There has been only a small importation this year, and that from Bombay entirely ; but the mills at this place are consuming about one million pounds per mouth, tht larger portion for export twist. WOOD. — This, one of the leading staple articles of the port, has throughout the year presented an unusually uninteresting aspect, and in no preceding season, for a great number of years, have imports, generally speaking, been conducted upom so reduced a scale. With only light stocks of Baltic wood at the commencement of the year, the trade ruled dull, with consequent depression in prices, and this state of things con- tinued, with scarcely any intermission, throughout the spring and summer, the continuance of the war having apparently exercised an unfavourable influence upon this branch of trade in our consuming districts. Towards the autumn, however, a somewhat improved demand from the country sprang up, which continued for some time, and caused more enquiry for imports in first hands, with gradually improving prices, to exist ; although with the then advancing season, and consequently enhanced rates of freights, this favourable reaction in the trade did not draw forth any marked increase of supplies. The stocks in first hands, now lying over at the end of the year, are quite in- significant ; whilst those in the hands of the trade, excepting two or three principal holders, are light in comparison with what in former seasons have usually been the case. The stocks of wood on hand are mainly composed of Swedish and Prus- sian descriptions (although there are still some Russian deals held by the trade), with a smaller proportion of Canadian than for a number of years. It is needless to add there have been no supplies received from Petersburg, Wyburg, Riga, or Arch- angel. The custom-house returns of timber and deals in bond are discontinued, as calculated to mislead ; immense payment of duties having been made in thebeginningof this year, appa- rently in anticipation of an advance in the duty, which however did not take place. This, coupled with the partial nature of the return, has induced its discontinuance. COAL. — The export of coals this year by sailing vessels amounts to about 62,500 tons, which is an increase of 7,000 tons compared with last year. The South Yorkshire Railway Company having made a beginning to send their own waggons direct from the Barnsley district, greater accomniodaiion will now be afl'orded to this port for the exportation of steam coal on the government list. Tlie amount of light tonnage from hence to the Tyne and other coal ports has decreased one- half compared with last year, which proves there is a great falling off in such charters, and shews that Yorkaliirs coal is gradually getting more into favour. SALT.— A considerable improvement has taken place this year in our export trade in salt ; this is chiefly owing to the low price that has ruled here throughout the season, as compared with the Liverpool rates, and which diverted a considerable portion of trade to the East Coast. In the early part of the season, the cost of salt, free on board, was 17s. per ton; during the spring a slight fall took place, but 16s. 6d. to l7s. may be considered to have been the average price almost up to the close of the ship- ping season. In the month of October, various circumstances, and amongst others the high price at Liverpool, brought an influx of orders, and the value of salt rose rapidly until it attained 20s., at which it now stands. Freights have been moderate to Memel : the rate has varied from Ss. to 6s. 6d. during the greater part of the season. To Konigsberg and Danzig very high freights have been paid — say from 8s. to 12s, To Lubeck charters were effected at 123 towards the close of the season. FREIGHTS. — At the commencement of the season freights were extremely dull, and even at the low rates quoted as cur- rent, transactions were very few indeed — merchants, especially in the wood trade (a most important one for our shipping) seemed disinclined to do anything, although tonnage offered at rates quite unremunerative — as for instance, 30s. Quebec and Hull timber. About July an improvement took place, and from that time to the end of the year there was a better demand for vessels at increasing rates of freight. The year has been a very extraordinary one, and, although some vessels have done very well, there is no doubt that generally shipping has not been profitable ; it is, however, a satisfaction that the prospect for tne future is more cheering ; and let there be peace or war, there is decidedly an opinion that the coming year will be a good one for shipowners. In A 1 freights there has been rather poor employment during the whole of the year, but during the latter part of the year vessels generally were wanted for export cargoes to the Baltic ports. SHIPPING. — It is very true that the auxiliary screw is fast trenching on the sailing vessel, as steam vessels are annually ou the increase, and wherever there is a direct trade, there a steamer is placed. Besides the long-established lines to Ant- werp, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Bremen, Kampen, Hamburg, Christiania, and Gothenburg, we have them now to Harburg, Tonning, Copenhagen, Konigsberg. Memel, and Stockholm ; and this latter has opened out the route by the inland naviga- tion, commencing at Gothenburg, without discharging the cargo, and thus avoiding the passage of the Sound, and the payment of its dues, and giving a prospect of this route also being adopted for goods to Petersburg, whenever communica- tion with Russia is revived, at least for the more valuable and less bulky goods, should the Sound dues not be abolished. At present many of our largest-class steamers are employed in government service, but these were chiefly in the Petersburg trade. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LINSEED TRADE. Sir, — We have again the pleasure to address you our An- nual Circular; and, in doing so, beg to call your attention to the complete revolution effecteil in our trade by tiie war unhappily still continuing between this country and Russia. The range of prices and sources ol supply lire altogetlier dilfurent from former years; and tho latter consiquence of the war is a subject for great con^ralulHtion, and more than reconciles ns to the loss of llussian produce, inasmuch as it so materially benefits our own Kast Indian dependencies. When we last wrote, the southern Russian ports were still unblockiided, and, witli respect tiiereto, as linseed is one of tho princijial articles of export, the effect upon her Irado in those provinces can hardly bo said, until very lately, to have been matpiially ritVi-rted, for thoy were onnbled t'i dispose of llieir crop of 18j4. Now, however, tho actual block- }tde must be very detrhncntal lo it; and, as sli" has no friendly neutral territory next her frontier in those districts, across which to smuggle her produce, the cflfect upon her commerce must in- deed be most seriously felt. The advantage to Zndia would be even now considerably greater were it not lor I lie unsettled state of pulilics, for doubt always paralyzes trade, anil both crushei-s and merchants are dettrred from sending out orders whilst these pacific rumours are afloat. It is to bo hoped, immediately on the assembling of Parliament, we may have a full and honest statement of the actual conditions entertained, so tliat mer- chants may have the opportunity of exercising tlieir own judg- ment, and not bo left in a state of idle perplexity by the stock- jobbing rumours daily prop.igated to the groat prejudice of legitimate busiies's. Our relrosp March and April; £132 to £136 in May. After tl>is it receded gradually until Oc- tober, when it stood at £115, but lias since recovered to £128. Pale seal has risen steadily from £18 to £57, and is very scarce. Southern is but little used now, and prices are very nearly no- liiinal ; net £4-i to £40 were the spring and summer quotations, since when It has advanced to £50 to £32, and the latter is to- day's value. Cod oil was £43 in January ; £41 in April, but has gone on advancing since until it now marks £49 to £50. TALLOW has been subject to the most serious fluctuations throughout the year, and in the present political uncertainty, with a large consumption and a manageable stock, there is every prospect of its cominu'incc in a very feverish state for the next few months. As in 1854, so in last year, prices have varied si- multaneously with tlie events and prospects of the war. In fol- lowing the course of |>rices it will only be npcessary to call your at'enlion to the facts narrated in the earlier portion of tliis Ciicular, to account fo. the rie or fall which has occurred, and we shall therefore content ourselves with merely quoting the fluctuations which have occurred, and they were as follows :— On lot of January the price was 64s.; a few days subsequently it was 59s.; and receded step by step to 55s. before the end of Feb- ruary. There was quite a panic when the news of the Czar's death reached us, first wcrk in March, and it was at ones quoted 47s. ; for a whole month it rallied very little, and early in April was still quoted 47s. 6d.; after that, however, returning confi- dence sent it up fo 55s. at the end of the month, but the rise was not maintained, and 4s. to 5s. per cwt. less was accepted during May, leaving the value imly ojs. We are, Sir, Your most obtdient servants, Edwards & Eastty, 80, Old Broad Street, London, Ist January, 1856. CULTIVATION OF POTATOES. Dear Sir, — I have forwarded a gentleman's practice of growing potatoes, which is so good that I trust you A'ill give your readers the benefit of it. This gentleman vras one of the early purchasers of my Potato Pamphlet, and he has made large sums of money by following out the priuciples which I have recommended. I am, sir, your very obedient servant, Camherwell, London. James Cuthill. TO MR. CUTHILL. Dear Sir, — My plan for wintering potatoes is as follows : Having allowed the seed to green and harden on the land \phfn the crop is raised (which causes the potato to make a firmer shoot), I place them in a barn end, and cover them over with straw until the eud of January, by which time I find, by having been kept warm, they begin to show shoots. They are then laid out as thin as we can, say six inches deep, and 80 remain until they are planted, by which time the shoot nil. be quite lirm. I never like to plant a potato less than one inch in diameter, and set them whole. I always preserve the strongest and best manure I make, a considerable portion bei!ig from pigs. My land for next year's crop is now deeply ploughed ; as soon after the first week in February as it will work, I shall harrow the top fine, put on twelve tons of manure, well spread it, and then set my crop as follows : — Each plough has two women to follow it, with sets, who plant the potatoes in every third furrow. The ploughs are set so as to leave a space of 26 inches between the rows, and we place the sets 14 inches apart. This appears wide, but I have tried and weighed all distances from 8 to 14 inches, and find 12 and 14 inches the best; and the latter distance has this advantage — it produces as much weight and less small potatoes, and also takes less seed for planting. Having ploughed them in, I leave the land exactly as the plough lays it ; thereby it is open and light underneath, giving the potato room to throw out the wires; and being rough on the top, weeds do not get forward. As soon as the plants are well up in the rows, I roll the land down, and harrow it with a pair of light harrows, which moulds up the plants, and gives you a fine top. As soon as necessary, I hoe the rows well, cleaning out all weeds, and then mould them up. I find this plan inexpensive, and produces fine crops. The care of the seed is not so fully carried out as by your instructions, but I think it is close enough to your prin- ciple to derive all the benefit, and is more in accordance with a farmer's means, space of premises, &c., &c. I remain, yours truly, JValcr Newton, Jan. 9, 1856. E. C. Dear Sir,— In reply to yours I beg to say that I have never cultivated any sorts of potatoes but the " Regent" and " British Queen" — two varieties so similar in shape and s-.ze that there is little other differei.ce in them than that the latter is aa earlier sort by about ten days. If you examine a sound potato, you will find oeb or two eyes at on3 end, and from four to five at the opposite ; I rub off the shoots from the end last mentioned, leaving only the two ; and hereby they are stronger. With the exception of three fields, which are good deep gravel, my farm consists of mixed soils ; indeed, I can dig brick, clay, and gravel or stooe, in every other field I occupy. When I took it, I found the strata of clay drained twelve inches deep, for which it was none the better : to the horror of my ni^ighbours, I cut through that, five feet deep, into the gravel, where I found the water pent up. The clay is now disappearing eutirely, for waut of one of its component parts — water. I get good crops of pota- toes on all these varieties of soil, generally the finest tubers on the strongest laud. Since I have followed your plan of carefully attending to my seed—early sowing, early digging — I have had no disease of consequence ; and for the last three years have not seen a really diseased tuber. Yours truly, Water Ne'Mon, Jan. 11, 1856. E. C. P.S. I plant about sixteen acres yearly ; this year I shall have eighteen acres. TITHE COMMUTATION. Sir, — As your readers may feel an.xious to know the result of the Cora Averages for the seven years to Christnaas last, published by authority in the London Gazette of yesterday, viz., s. d. Wheat 6 6 per imperial bushel. Barley 3 8>- " ditto, Oats 2 11 ditto, I beg to state, for their information, that each £100 of tithe rent-charges will, for the year 1856, amount to £93 IBs. lid., which is a little more than 4 per cent, above the last year's value. The following statement, from my Annual Tithe Commutation Tables, will show the worth of ,£^100 of tithe rent-charge for each year since the passing of the Tithe Commutation Act, viz. :— £ s. d. For the year 1837 98 13 9^ 1838 97 7 11 1839 95 7 9 1840 98 15 9§ 1841 102 12 5i 1842 105 8 2f 1843 105 12 21- 1844 104 3 bi 1845 103 17 Ui 1846 102 17 8| 1847 99 18 101^ 1848 ...» 102 1 0 1849 100 3 7f 1850 98 16 10 1851 96 11 4| 1852 93 16 Hi 1853 91 13 5| 1854 90 19 5 1855 89 15 8f 1856 93 18 1} 20) £1972 12 7i General average for 20 years . . £98 12 7^ I remain, sir, your most obedient servant, Charles M. Willich, Actuary University Life Assurance Society, 25, Suffolk-street, Pall Mall East, 12th Jan., 1856. 0 2 ISO THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Thermometer. Wind. 1 Atmosphere. Weat'r. 1855-6 8 a.m. lOp.m. Min. Max. 10p.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. fine 2 p.m. 10 p.m. Dec. 22 in. els. 29.82 in. ct5. 29.90 14 27 27 Variable gentle cloudy fine dry 23 29.53 29.49 24 45 43 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy fine rain 24 29.60 29.66 38 47 42 S. West lively cloudy fine fine rain 25 29.66 29.43 38 45 41 S. West calm cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 26 29.27 29.26 40 48 47 S.W., S.E. strong cloudy cloudy fine rain 27 29.53 29.62 45 50 46 s.s.w. gentle cloudy fine fine dry 28 29.62 29.73 41 50 49 s.s.w. lively fine sun cloudy dry 29 29.91 30.00 43 48 47 s.s.w. lively cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 30 30.10 30.28 41 47 39 s.s.w. gentle fine sun fine rain 31 30.28 30.09 38 48 33 s.s.w. gentle cloudy sun fine rain Jan. 1 29.95 29.82 324 42 42 S. by E. lively cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 2 29.70 29.55 38 48 44 Easterly- var. cloudy sun fine dry 3 29.55 29.57 40 45 44 South gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 4 29.65 29.64 41 44 43 E., S. by W. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 5 29.54 29.45 41 50 47 South gentle cloudy cloudy fine rain 6 29.35 29.17 44 47 46 S. East gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 7 29.11 29.00 40 50 42 East airy cloudy sun cloudy dry 8 29.00 29.15 38 42 40 North gentle cloudy sun cloudy dry 9 29.15 29.17 38 34 38 E. by N. gentle cloudy sun cloudy snow 10 29.33 29.57 34 37 30 N. East gentle cloudy sun fine dry 11 29.82 30.02 27 33 31 N. East lively cloudy fine fine dry 12 30.25 30.45 29 34 31 North fresh haze sun fine dry 13 30.60 30.54 24 37 27 N. East gentle fine sun fine dry 14 30.32 30.08 25 36 26 E. by N. brisk fine sun fine dry 15 29.96 29.00 24 41 39 S. Westerly gentle fine sun cloudy dry 16 29.92 29.85 37 42 40 S. Westerly airy fine cloudy cloudy rain 17 29.61 29.50 38 45 48 S. V/esterly lively cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 18 29.42 29.43 45 49 45 S. Westerly airy cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 19 29.30 29.22 43 48 45 S. Westerly lively ' cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 20 29.17 29.08 45 48 46 S. Westerly airy cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 21 29.09 29.07 44 50 49 S. Westerly gentle 'cloudy cloudy cloudy Estimated Averages of January. Barometer. Highest. 30.77 Lowest, 28.80 Thermometer. High. 52 Low. 11 Mean. 36.1 Real Average Temperature of the Period. Highest. 43.77 Lowest. 36.0 Mean. 39.88 Weather and Phenomena. December 22. Coldest; variable; double clouds. — 23. Rapid change ; wind and showers. — Much rain for several days (total fall of the month, 1 in. 7 1 cts.). — 31. Fine and sunny. Lunations. — Full moon, Dec. 23rd, 19h. 39m. A.M.; last quarter, 31st, Oh. 4m. p.m. (five changes in December). January 1, 1856. Overcast. — 2. Sunny, with at night a shower. — 3. Overcast, drizzly. — 4. Occa- sional gleams. — 5. Damp. — 6. Changeable and showery. — 7. Fme till sunset.— 3. Overcast. — 9. Cold, with sleet and snow (melting). — 10. Frosty. — 11 to 15. Frosty period. — 16. Sudden thaw. — 17. Confirmed. From this date, an overcast sky; repeated drizzle ; sharp shower on the 19th evening. — 20 and 21. Cloudy, with small rain at times; last evening wet. Lunations. — New moon, 7th, Uh. I7m. p.m. ; first quarter, 14th, 3h. 43m. p.m. Remarks connected with Agriculture. A changeable period. One access of severe frost, terminated abruptly on the 23rd of Decem- ber, On the 22nd, a frost of 28 deg. produced 5 inches of ice, and must have mellowed the ground deeply. Every fact, however, demonstrates the in- adequacy of our draining. The land wants a deep tillage of at least 20 inches ; and that, with a sys- tem of drains 12 inches deeper, would develope the resource and productiveness of our favoured land. Without them, generous, high farming is un- attainable, Croydon, Jan, 21, John Towers, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 181 CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. This montli introduces the spring quarter of the year, and in early climates begins the sowing of crops, as early peas on newly-stirred soils, in broad- cast or by drilling ; beans may be dibbled by hand or in ridges, or by drilling on the flat surface. Sow spring wheat on lands where sheep have consumed the turnips, and on last year's clay fallows, if any left from autumn sowing ; sow spring vetches for feeding horses and sheep, and mix with barley, oats, or beans ; sow cabbage-seeds on warm and well- prepared grounds, for plants to go to the field in May and June. The general operations in this month will continue the ploughing of leys for Lent crops, and of stubbles, where impeded by frosts and snows during the pre- vious mouth. In frosty weather, carry dung from the cattle-yards to the fields, earths for composts, and stones for drains. Provide fresh straw for live stock by regular thrashings, and provide a store of straw not to impede the spring work that is now approaching. Begin to feed the fattening cattle with oil-cake, broken or bruised, in troughs for cattle in the yards, and for sheep in the fields. It much hastens fatten- ing, and greatly improves the quality of the dung. Oats are very well used with it, and a portion of salt. Ewes will now drop lambs very fast : attend to shel- ter and ample supply of food. In good weather pull, dress, and lay in store-heaps turnips of all kinds, that the grounds may be ready for sowing. Continue the feeding of beasts in the yards, as has been directed. Plant during fresh open weather, on suitable grounds, all kinds of forest trees, especially oak, ash, elm, and larch ; the second year cut close by the ground all sprouting trees, to secure a more vigorous growth ; and when two or three years grown, cut away all other shoots, leaving the strongest and most vigorous for a tree. Plant osiers in rows, on beds made on low damp grounds, that are not convenient for other use by reason of inundations. Lay the beds as dry as possible, and done a year before plant- ing. Cut underwood, and fell timber during the whole month ; plant new hedges, and plash and repair old ones. Prepare artificial manures of all kinds possible, flood meadows, and, if the weather be fine, lay dung on grass lands, rough or strawy ; bush-harrow and roll in dry weather, and pick off by hand the stones and rubbish. Begin to repair gates and fences, and to put grass lands into order by spreading tufts and mole-hills, and by removing any obstructionst Dig hop grounds, open the hills, and apply strong manures — well-rotted farm-yard dung, composts of lime and salt, rags, and briny oleaginous substances do well. Dress the roots, and cut off the shoots for sets. Continue underdrainiug and subsoil ploughmg, and the thrashing of grain ; sell and deliver it. Collect and prepare all substances that can be burnt into ashes for manure, POTATO CHOLERA. — This inscrutable disease has greatly prevailed in this region again the present year, and it is almost an absurdity to speculate on its cause, as every sug- gestion as yet on that subject proves unreliable and futile. The preventive nostrums which have been time and again pro- posed by speculators and investigators, are at a dead fault. If Rochester knockings and spiritual mediums are to be of any benefit to mankind, they should be interrogated, and settle this much mooted point. There has, perhaps, been double the usual breadth planted with potatoes this year, owiug to the high prices during the winter and spring — and many of them very late and in situations where it was too wet for corn until its period was passed. It has been a year of much rain, which, with late planting, is generally supposed to be provocative of the disease. In proof of which supposition, all those planted early and on high, light ground have mostly escaped infection. Early varieties, like the Early June and Manly, which ripened before the appearance of the curl on the leaf, have entirely es- caped, and if we are to be annually visited with this pestilence, it would be well for farmers to turn their attention to this variety, as it produces fair crops and is as edible as any of the yellow-fleshed kinds. The great bulk of the loss this fall has occurred since digging and burying, and many large pits in three or four weeks became a perfect undistinguishable mass of rot and decomposition — particularly those buried wet, while those thoroughly dried and put in small lots in the cellar have not materially increased in the affected parts. We should like to hear from any of our readers, if they have tried either of the two leading nostrums recommended the past year, — one, the cutting off the vines close to the ground on the first appearance of the curl ; and the other, thoroughly drying the tubers, after cutting, at a heat near to scalding water — both very strongly asseverated under hand and seal of the discoverers. We are not able to conjecture any reason why the cutting off the tops or vines should not arrest the growth in an immature and im- perfect state, greatly reducing the quantity and injuring the quality. The generally received opinion of vegetable physiolo- gists is, that the virus causing the disease is received through the leaves — the lungs of plants — and distributed by means of the circulation of the sap or the prepared pabulum for the in- ' crease of the tuber. The potato tuber has no roots — no spoDgioles wheieby nutriment is procured to increase its bulk, and its sustenance is only derived from the single vmhilical cord attaching it to the roots of the vine. The leaves of all planti are almost perfectly analogous to the lungs of the lt-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, auimal being, through which a great portion of our diseases are derived, particularly the febrile and contagious ones, whish sustains the probability that the potato rot has its origin from that source — some invisible miasm m the atmosphere, that chemical science has as yet been unable to detect. It may be a fungus ; a mildew ; a filiform gossamer, on which rides the destroying angel; cholera.— i!/oore'« Rural Neio Yorker, THE LATE PROFESSOR JOHNSTON. BY A SCOTTISH FARMER. Our readers will already be apprised of the melancholy death of Professor Johustoii, which took place at Durham on the 18th of September last. We embrace the first opportunity afforded us of paying a passing tribute to the memory of one who has eariched the pages both of this Journal and of the Tmnsaclions of the Hiyliland Society mt\i his contv'ihutioua. We are sure that we will meet with the sympathy of all lovers of scientific agriculture, in our expressions of grief at the loss of one of its principal promoters, AScctchmaa by birth and parentage, Johnston received that solid education usually given to the children of the middle classes in his native country. We are not aware that he mauifested any predilection for the natural sciences bsfcre he went to Glasgow University to prosecute his studies ; where, after bis attendance at the chemical class, he resolved to devote his attention more particularly to chemistry. With tliis view, after grounding himself in his favourite science, he wei.t to Sweden, and siulied under the celebrated Berzelius. The years immediately succeeding his return to this country, and after his appointment to the office of Reader ia Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Durham, were devoted to in- veatigatioDs in the laboratory, which he prosecuted with the greatest ardour. The reiults of his labours were, at this time, c jufined to valuable communications to the British Association, and interesting articles in some of the principal scientific periodicals of the day ; so that his name was comparatively unknown, save to a limited circle of men of science. Scientific agriculture, with which his name is now priucjpaKy associated, did not rppear to have occupied much of his atten- tion til! 1341, after the first part of Liebig's brilliant report upon the stale of Organic Chemistry had been laid before the « British Association for the Advancement of Science". Oc- cupying a high position in science, he, nevertheless, devoted his talents and energies to explaining to farmers the scientific prlr.ciples of their profession. His Leclures on Agriculliiral Chemistry and Geolorjy, addressed to practical agriculturists, bear testimony to the great success \\hieh attended his attemiits to make everything plain to his hearers and readers; for " everything," he said, "in such lectures, which is not, or may not be easily understood liy those to whom they are addressed, is wor5e than useless." And yet these lectures, addressed to a non-scientific audience, form one of the standard works in agricultural science. Not content with teaching the fathers the hidden truths of his favourite studies, he addressed him- • -If to the children also, and used his utmost endeavours to have a class established ia our parochial and other schools, for teaching the elements of a;;ricultural chemistry, and, with this view, published his Catechism of Acjricultural Chemistry and Oeohipi, which has been of immense benefit to more than teachers and scholars. Its wide circulation has been evidenced by the publication of nearly forty cditioLS, His mind and pen were ever active to keep pace with the rapid progress of agriculture, and from time to time, important elementary and other works were issued by him, bringing before the farmer the latest discoveries in the science of his profession. Among these works we may particularise his Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, which Las already reached a sixth edition, and is mainly an abridgment of his lectures, with the subject still more popularly treated. His E.rperimenlal Agriculture is an admirable digest of all the pub- lished agricultural facts at the time ; aud though the suggestions for future experiments therein offered have been considered by some practical men as comparatively worthless, from their having failed when tried, we ought not to forget, in judging of them, that the facts at his command were comparatively fewi and that, probably, the experiments suggested were tried under circumstances totally different from those on which he founded his opinions. His work On the Use of Lime in Agri' culture brii.gs before us all that is known on that important subject, displaying that searching diligence for which he was distinguished, aud the power he possessed of explaining the simplest facts by a reference to scientific principles. And we must not omit to mention his Contributions to Scieniifc Agri' culture, which is a collection of the very valuable aud interest- ing papers which were published by him when Chemist to the Agricultural Chemical Association of Scotland. He accepted an invitation to deliver a course of lectures in North America ; and on his return he published the results of his observations. As was to be expected from his powers of observation, his extensive scientific acquirements, his knowledge of tlie applications of science to agriculture, and his clear and attractive style, his Notes on North America forms one of the best books ou that country, and is alike interesting and in- structive to the general reader, and most useful to the emigrant. Were we to attempt to characterise the lectures and writir;g3 of Professor Johnston, we would say that they were eminently suggestive. He carried his hearers and readers to the very verge of known truths, to the ultima Thule of well- ascertained facts ; but he did not leave them there — he showed them what they might expect to find beyond, and suggested how they might discover it. We have often thought that it was owing to this — a power of inspiring hopes in his readers and heaiers — a most invaluable quality in a lecturer or writer — that some practical men were apt to consider him too theoretical in his suggestions aud advices. But this was a mistake, arising very often from a misappreheusiou of his meaning — a want of discriminating between v.hat he said would happen, and what miglit happen. We believe that, carried away sometimes in conversation by an enthusiasm in his studies, he did make statements to which few practical men would subscribe ; but such were sedulously avoided in his lectures and works. We are certain of this, that there was none more conversant with the mass of agricultural facts published, and none who subjected these to a more rigid ex- amination and comparison, than Professor Johnston. We will not extend this sketch by any laudatory expressions of ours. His works bear testimony of what he has done for science, for the instructiou of the people, and for »griculture ; the last of which, in particular, is deeply indebted to him for his valuable services, — services which will be ever more highly appreciated and acknowledged the more advanced the state of agiicullure htcoxaea.— J ourmd of Agriculture. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 183 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GExNERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JANUARY. The state of the weather has been a source of some anxiety to the farmers : numerous changes, many of them by no means beneficial to the land, have been observed in it, and the progress of out- door farm labours has been slow compared with some previous months. It must, however, be satis- factory to learn that our accounts from nearly the v.'hole of the leading districts, bearing upon the general appearance of the winter wheats, are favour- able, and, further, that a very large breadth of land, compai'ed with former years, is now under cultiva- tion. The state of the political atmosphere has been productive of great anxietj', and a slight panic in the trade for wheat and other produce, followed by a corresponding reduction in prices, has been the result. Statements have been pubhshed tending to give a further depression to the quotations ; but a little calm reflection on the part of the growers must lead to the conviction that to sell grain at a considerable reduction would be an act not warranted by present supplies, or by the prospect of future arrivals. It is just possible that we shall have peace with Russia, from the force of circum- stances, because it is clear that that power is no longer in a position to continue the struggle ; and the question is, what amount of supply will peace bring us from that country? Now, unquestiona- bly, our wants, as well as those of France, are large ; that the whole world will have to ship largely to keep down prices to their present level ; and we may safely assert that the stocks remaining in this country are wholly inadequate to meet our requirements. Russia, it is well known, has made enormous sacrifices. She has withdrawn a large amount of able-bodied labour from the soil, and she has suflfered from the failure of her harvests both in Poland and in the southern provinces. Had the war progi'essed favourably to Russia, and had there been no failure of the crops, we might well regard peace as the great indicator of plenty ; but we feel great doubt whether the actual exports from the whole empire this year (assuming that peace will be shortly concluded) will be sufficiently large to exercise any great influence upon our quo- tations : indeed, this appears to be the opinion o most parties conversant whh the trade. The pros- pects of peace, however, have induced great cau- tion on the part of millers and others in adding to their stocks ; and there appears to be a decided determination amongst dealers generally not to pur- chase beyond immediate wants. Spring corn and. flour have become heavy from the same cause, more especially as the imports of the former from European ports continue seasonably good, and as the arrivals of the latter, both from Spain and the United States, show no falUng off. As regards the supply of wheat at this time in the hands of our growers, we find that a great difi:erence of opinion prevails on that subject. It is, however, tolerably evident that not a few farmers have under-estimated the yield of last year, and that they now find comparative abundance where actual scarcity was at one time apprehended. These fea- tures, coupled with the steady arrivals of food from abroad, and the prospect of heavy shipments of grain and flour from America, have rendered us in a great measure independent of Russian produce ; and it would appear as a generally accepted prin- ciple, that prices of wheat have seen their highest range of value. We may mention one other cause which has operated against the value of wheat, viz., the immense abundance of the potato crop. Now, it will be recollected that, shortly after ifc was raised, we stated that we had secured a very large growth, notwithstanding that disease was observed in some districts ; and the result of the trade during the last two. months has fully confirmed the view we then took. Not only in England, but likewise in Ire- land and Scotland, the root has turned out most abundant; and so large have been the supplies for- warded to the m.etropolis, though partly in bad condition, that growers have given way, from the impossibility of finding a demand. High prices invariably result in a decreased consumption, and this has been partly the case as respects wheat. True, we find that full average quantities of Eng- lish wheat have been sold during the month ; but then we perceive that the transactions rn foreign have been on a very Umited scale, the actual demand for food having evidently been made good by the large arrival of potatoes. The various cattle markets have been tolerably well supphed with both beasts and sheep, but the demand for them — arising, in some measure, from the lov/ value of rough fat — has been heavy, and prices, though fluctuating, have given way. The supplies to come forward this season from Norfolk are stated to be very large and in good condition, and we may anticipate extensive arrivals of beasts from Scotland, As regards future prices, we are 184 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of opinion that they will not be so remunerative as were those of last year, because we perceive that supplies have in reality become more equal to our wants. Both meadow and clover hay have continued to sell at very high rates ; but the value of straw has been rather drooping. In the stock districts a large quantity of roots for consumption is still on hand. The wool trade has become in a more healthy state than for some months past, and prices have shown a tendency to advance. The next sales of colonial wool will be held about the 20th of February. In Ireland and Scotland most agricultural affairs have progressed steadily. The corn trade, how- ever, has relapsed into a state of great inactivity, and prices have ruled lower. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. The continuous changes in the weather, added to the immense supplies of slaughtered meat which have been received in the metropolis from Scotland and various parts of England, have had a most depressing influence upon the cattle trade during the greater portion of the month; and we have, consequently, to report a serious decline in the general quotations, although prices improved to some extent on the 28th. Another cause, viz., the sudden fall of 8d. per 8 lbs. in the value of rough fat, in consequence of the great depression in the price of tallow, the result of peace prospects, has induced butchers, generally, to purchase with extreme caution; and, altogether, the trade has been by far the most unsatisfactory we have had to report for many months past. That the numbers of both beasts and sheep exhibited in the Great Metropolitan Market have not been in excess of most corresponding periods, must be evident from our returns ; but at the same time we must remark that, compared with the arrivals in the last six months of 1855, the stock, as regards weight, has come to hand in a much better state, though its condition has not been to say prime, if we except the sup})lies from Norfolk. As the graziers in that county have a full average supjjly of winter food on hand, and as we have received very few complaints as to the health of the stock generally, wc may safely calcu- late upon full average arrivals from that county during the remainder of the season. The heavy fall in prices has led many persons to the conclusion that consumption is rapidly falling off : we, however, entertain a contrary opinion, and we are convinced that the inactivity in the trade is the issue of two causes, viz., unfavourable weather and over-abundant supplies of dead meat, together with the dulness in the tallow market ; on this lat- ter point, much might be said, though of a specu- lative tendency, because until peace is actually con- cluded, it is impossible to state with accuracy at M'hat price rough fat may be selling. And the question to consider is, are we likely to have an abundant supply of that article? Judging from the state of those districts from whence the princi- pal portion of our bullocic supplies will be drawn for some months, we should incline to the opinion that the supply of fat will be somewhat large : in the event, therefore, of our information proving correct, and in the event of a speedy peace, it would appear certain that fat stock has seen its highest range of value. But here another question presents itself; in previous Reviews we have dwelt upon the enormous demand for stock in Holland, on French account; this demand has drawn from England large numbers of both beasts and sheep which otherwise would have been shipped to England. But already, we find that French dealers are less eager in their purchases, and that prices have as a consequence become more moderate in Holland. It must not, however, be assumed that we shall receive over-abundant imports this year, because the Dutch graziers are not in a position to meet any great excess in the demand ; but as the markets throughout France have become much better supplied with native cattle, and as profits are now less certain, we may look for rather increased numbers being forwarded to this country, com- pared with last season. The total arrivals into London during the m.onth just concluded were as follows : — Head. Beasts l,G8S Sheep 1,227 Calves 377 Pigs Total. 3,292 Same time in 1855 9,102 1S54 7,919 „ 1853 12,847 „ 1852 10,567 „ 1851 9,018 „ 1850 3,220 Thus it will be seen that our importations of foreign stock, taken on the average of the six pre- ceding years, for the month of January, have been unusually small. The severity of the weather on the continent has greatly interfered with shipments, and those which have come to hand have exhibited very little improvement in quality. The total supplies of stock exhibited in the Great Metropolitan Market have been THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 185 Head, Beasts 17,532 Cows 435 Sheep 101,600 Calves 757 Pigs 2,930 COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES. Jan., 1852. Jau., 1853. Jan.,1854. Beasts Cows Sheep Calves Piss 19,687 510 95,080 887 2,279 Jan.,1855. 19,717 500 120,470 962 2,625 17,325 20,717 442 480 102,976 96,800 1,336 2,148 2,515 2,360 The highest and lowest quotations reahzed last month were as under : — Beef from 2s. lOd. to 4s, lOd. ; mutton, 2s. lOd. to 5s.; veal, 4s. 'id. to 6s.; and pork, 3s. 8d. to 5s, per 8lbs., to sink the offal, COMPARISON OF PRICES, Beef. , . , Mutton Veal . , , Pork... 2 2 3 2 4 0 10 Beef, . . Mutton Veal . . . Pork.,, Jan., 1852. s. d. s, d. 4to3 10 8 4 0 4 8 3 Jan., 1854. s. d. s. d. 3 Oto4 10 3 2 5 4 3 4 5 6 .3 4 4 10 2 2 3 2 Jan., 1853. s. d. s. d. 6to4 2 6 5 0 0 4 8 10 3 10 Jan., 1855, s, d. s. d. 2 to 5 4 5 2 6 0 4 3 3 4 3 From Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridge- shire we received about 8,000 Scots and short- horns ; from the northern counties, 900 short- horns ; from other parts of England, 1,850 of various breeds ; and from Scotland, 1,480 Scots. There have been about 900 beasts, 1,200 sheep, and 2,500 pigs on sale from Ireland, partly direct by sea, but chiefly via Liverpool. This stock has come to hand in good saleable condition, but the dead weights have much disappointed the butchers. It is calculated that fully one hundred thousand carcases of Scotch and country-killed meat have been received up to Newgate and Leadenhall in the course of the month. This enormous supply has caused the trade to rule heavy, as follows : — Beef, from 2s. lOd. to 4s. 4d. ; mutton, 2s. lOd. to 4s. 4d.; veal, 3s. lOd. to 5s. 4d. ; pork, 3s. 4d, to 5s. 2d. per 8lbs, by the carcass. BEDFORDSHIRE. lu sending you this, our first report for 1856, it may per- haps prove interesting if we take a retrospect of the harvest of last year, and its results, which are now pretty well ascertained — glance at the operations which have since taken place, and give you a short sketch of our present state and prospects. It was a happy circumstance that the weather was most propi- tious during the operations of last harvest ; never was there a finer opportunity offered for securing our crops in excellent condition, and those farmers who failed to do so have only to charge themselves with their own apathy or indolence. Much doubt was expressed about the probable produce of the wheat crop. The intense frost and the boisterous driving east wind which prevailed during the first few mouths of last year had damaged to a great extent, and in many parts utterly de- stroyed, the young plant ; but this took place only on the ex- posed hiils, and light sands, chalks, and gravels of this county. On the retentive soils, which form the larger part of it, the crop where the laud was properly drained promised well, and has not deceived the expectation. On the whole, then, we gather, and believe, that whilst the wheat crop here falls short of that of 1854 by about twenty per cent., still we secured about an average crop — that of 1854 having exceeded an average to that extent. That the crop has been consumed to a vast extent, may be gathered from the fact that we have been told lately by all the owners of the portable steam thrashing machines that vre know, and who work for hire (and these are not a few), that from harvest until this time their employ- ment has been without interruption, and that their means have been quite inadequate to the calls made upon them. Our barley crop, in point of quantity, was certainly beyond an average ; but as iu general is the case, where the crops are very heavy, but a very small portion of the produce is of fine quality. This has been eagerly caught up by the maltsters, as much as 483. per qr. having been paid in Bedford market. The heavy malt duty, which applies alike to all qualities, causes a wide range in this description of grain. Oats, beans, and peas an average crop. The turnip crop has had (although at first promising well) so many difficulties to contend with that it may be deemed now almost a failure. Late in August the leaves of the most luxuriant plants, as well as others, became covered with myriads of lice, which completely checked their growth, and iu some cases destroyed the crop. Then came mildew, and fingers-aud-toes (grapes), to an extent altogether unprecedented; and it was n3t until he rains which ushered in November that the plants exhibited any return to vitality. In the hope that, although late, they might still improve, far- mers iu general neglected to pull them until past the usual time; then came the intense and early frost in December, which, acting on the diseased bulbs, completely effected their ruin. Such havoc amongst a once fine crop it has never been our lot to see before. As a pleasant reverse, we may state that the crops of mangel-wurzel were never finer, and were all secured in good order. It wou'd give us much pleasure to see this invaluable crop cultivated to a far greater extent; and as the land in this county gives each year more and more unmistakeable evidence that it is becomir g wearied of the oft-rejieated swede, we have no doubt but that it is destined before loug largely to supply its place. In con- sidering the weather which hastalien place during the last few months, and referring to our diary to help our recollection, we are thankful to acknowledge thst, on the whole, it has been most propitious to the active agriculturist. Wheat was never committed to the soil under more favourable auspices ; nor did we ever see it at this period present a more cheering aspect. Slug and wireworm appear to have absented themselves, and the plant is regular and flourishing. We believe the quantity of acres sown is under the usual extent ; and this is not sur- prising, when we recollect the great breadth devoted to this grain during the two previous years. Winter ploughing is well advanced, and the general condition of well appointed farms is satisfactory. Stall-fed cattle have this season entailed a most serious loss ; the high price of linseed cake is far from adequately met by that of beef. Our corn markets were cheerful and buoyant until the close of last week, when the anticipation of an early peace put a stop to all business in grain for a time. A rally must, however, soon take place ; the consumption of the miller will not be lessened; and where for the next few months are we to look for increased supplies, from the continent ? We indulge a confident hope that in the struggle for improving cultivation, this county will not be behindhand in the race ; and, with the example and encou- ragement which is proffered not only by the most extensi\e proprietor, but by many extensive proprietors, it were shame were it not so. On their part we see everywhere around us new piles of farm buildings, excellent cottages for the labourer, small enclosures disappearing, miles of old hedgerow b stocked up, and extensive parties of drainers employed. 186 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, Among the tenantry we see each year improved cultivation, a more liberal use of fertilizers, more perfect implements, and steam-power and complete sets of barn machinery introduced. To such perfection has the latter been brought in many cases, that the most experienced purchasers cannot distinguish the barley which has been prepared by it from that which is thrashed by the flail. We have however two or three anti- quated maltsters in our markets who will not buy any barley without being assured that it has been thrashed by the flail, and then they will give three or four shillings per quarter more than the market piice. But some sad tricks are frequently played_i!pou these worthy men. — Jan. 25. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. AYLESBURY JANUARY FAIR, (Friday last.)— There was a large supply of Cow stock, and there being a good at- tendance of dealers, very little remained on hand at the close, prices being as follows : Milch Co.vs, £10 to £19 ; barreners, £8 to £12 ; and stirks, £4 to £7 each. There were very few Horses on offer, and trade rather dull, prices asked being very hi»h. Sheep in short supply, and tjade dull, at the following quotations: Store wethers, 269. to 403.; store tegs, ISs. to 28s. each. In Pigs verv little doing, at high prices. BANBURY FAIR.-^Fat beef was in good supply and demand at a reduction in price, the prices being from 4s. to 4s. 4d. per stone. Store cattle did not sell quickly, but former prices were maintained. We had an average supply of sheep, but buyers would not purchase except at reduced prices ; consequently the trade was very flat. We quote the prices, ewe mutton from Ss. 6d. to 3s. Sd., and shearlings 4s. 4d. to 48. 6d. per 81bs. The supply ol horses was but limited, there not being near so many in the fair as in former years, whilst the attenilance of buyers from all parts of this district was more numerous than heretofore. Good cait horses and nags were very scarce, by far the greater number of those exhibited for sale being of an inferior quality. The highest prices ob- tained were 73 or 76 guineas ; but we may safely say tliat the prices realized were equal to the value of the animals. There was a great demand for good horses, and, the supply being so short, many of the dealers had to leave the fair without making a purchase. BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— We had a good show of fat beasts and sheep, which were readily sold at last market's rates. Lean stock and incalvers were in request. Beef, 63. 6d. to 73. per stone ; mutton, 5^d. to 65d. per lb. GLOUCESTER MONTHLY MARKET was abundantly suptilied with beasts and sheep, which were of an inferior quality; consequently many rcniained unsold, and the trade w ai generally dull. Beef realized from Ggd. to 6|d. j mutton, 6.^d.to7id.per lb. 'GRAMPOUND fair.— There was a very small number of fat bullocks, the demand for which was tiot so good as it was a few weeks since, still the best ones were worth from 563. to 6O3 per cwt. There were rather more working-oxen and steers than have been at this fa^ for several years ; but the sale was not brisk, and several pairs were not sold. There was a good supply of sheep, which sold freely at e^d. per 11). KELSO FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.—There was rather 8 small supply of fat cattle for the season, a few of the lots of which were of excellent qnality. There was no scarcity of buyers, but prices were about 6d. per stone down from the market that day fortnight. Beef may be quoted at from 63. 9d. to 7s. 3il., and some of the 6upetior quality a shade higher. The sheep market was fully supplied, and a fair de- mand, at from 61. to G^d. per lb. A small show of milch cows, which were selling at from £9 to £14. MELTON FAIR.— The show of cattle was not so large as en former occasions ; still all kinds of stock made good prices. Good horses sold well, while inferior or,C3 went off at about an average price. The show of meated beasts was larger than required, and prices had a downward tendency Stores and milking cows were not very numerous. PENRITH FORTNIGHTLY MARKET— A very large supply of sheep, in very good condition, Prices a shade lower. Beef may be quoted at former rates ; easier, if any- thing. PETERBOROUGH FAT STOCK MARKET, (Wednes- day last.) — A good supply of Beasts, but the butchers did not evince much inclination to buy, and rather lower prices were submitted to. Sheep were not so numerous as last week, nevertheless there was a dull sale at from 6d. to 6hA. per lb. Pigs were more in demand, it being asserted that at this period Pork is more freely purchased than any other kind of butcher's meat. They sold readily at from 7s. 6d. to 78. 9d. per stone. SHREWSBURY FAIR.- Best fat beef made 6|d. per lb.; fat calves, 6^ d. ; weiher sheep, 7d. ; nice light weights making 7^d.; cows and calves in request, and fresh stores selling at fair prices ; fat pigs, 6d. per lb.; stores selling well. TADC ASTER FORTNIGHTLY MARRET.— The stock had fair demand. Beef, 6s. 9d. to 78. 3d. ; bacon pigs, 7s. per stone; mutton, 6d. to 6|d. per lb. WORCESTER FAIR.— There was a very good attendance of buyers, who were anxious to do business. There were but few horses on offer, and little business done. Pigs a ready sale at lOs. 6d. to lis. per score; stores very dear. Small supply of cows ; fat beef made from 6d. to 7d. per lb. ; in barrens prices lower, and many went back unsold. Good sup- ply of sheep, which were not all disposed of; prices somewhat lower — ewes 6d., « ethers 7d. per lb. YORK FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— Fat beasts were ia greater supply than demand at from 6s. 6d. to 78. per stone, kill and weigh. Mutton sheep were also above the require- ments of purchasers, at from 5id. to 6^d. per lb. Grazing hog sheep were greatly above the demand, at an average of from 28s. to 3.2s. per head. Calving and dairy cows were very abundaut, at prices tending downwards. Lean beasts had very dull sale, at lowering rates. The market altogether was a very dull one. IRISH FAIRS. — Athlone was largely attended by both buyers and sellers of all kinds of stock ; the demand was gooJ, and prices, generally speaking, mo;t remunerative to the breeder. The hone fair contained an immense number of animals, several cf them hunters ; the majority, however, suited for farming purposes. They were in excellent request, and fetched capital prices. In the black cattle fair there was a gieat falling- off in the show of beef, compared with past years; but stores were as well represented as ever, and changed owners freely, at, however, £i a head under Ballinaslce. Sir. Kirwan, of the county Galway, sold a lot of heifers to Mr. Evans; Mr. Maher, of Galla, bought 130 do. from various persons ; and Mr. Whelan, of Smithfield, 100 do. There were a few first-class springers, which fetched as much as 20 guineas each, and a good supply of young stock, which sDld well. The sheep fair was rather scantily supplied, the class exhibited of a very mediocre character, and the business transacted unim- portant. The pig fair was the largest held in this, the most ceirtral town in Ireland, and coiitaiued all kinds — bacon, stores, and porkers. Bacon was most in request, as it was largest in supply, and brought, on the average, 483. per cwt. BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter : Shipping price, lOOs. to llOs. per cwt.; firkins and crocks, 10|d. to lljd. per lb.. Bacon, 56s. to 623, ; Hams, prime, 74s. to 8O3., second qnality, 66s. to 7O3. per cwt. ; prime mess Pork, 923. 6d. to 95s. pir brl. ; Beef, 105s. to 1403, per tierce ; Irish Lard, iu bladders, 743. to 76s. ; kegs or firkins, 6Ss. to 70s. per cwt. Baiter. Bacon, Dried Hanis, Mess Po>k. Jan. per cwt. per cwt. per cwt. per brl. 2). e. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s, d. t, d. s. d. 1852.. 77 0 82 0 S3 0 -l-t 0 51 0 CO 0 60 0 62 0 1853.. 8« 0 9;> 0 51 0 58 0 70 0 74 0 87 6 90 0 18oi.. yu 0 102 0 53 0 58 0 70 0 74 0 87 6 87 6 1855.. DG 0 106 0 5(5 0 CO 0 70 0 76 0 93 6 95 0 185G.. 08 0 108 0 56 0 02 0 74 0 80 0 92 6 95 0 GLASGOW, (Wednesday last.) — There were four carls, and through the weigh-house 4 tons of cheese. New cheese, SOs. to 523. per cwt.; firat-class, ekim milk cheese, 27s. to SOs. per cwt. GLOUCESTER CHEESE FAIR was well supplied for the season, about 40 tons being pitched, which met a ready sale at the following prices : Best doubles, 633. to 663.; singles, 5 8s. to 6O3 ; seconds, 529. to 56s. ; skim, 3 Is. to 368. per cwt THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 187 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF JANUARY. The month of January commenced with the usual holiday appearance, to which pacific rumours (scarcely credited) brought uncertainty, which, with high prices, kept business on the most re- stricted scale. To all this was added an unusual arrival of foreign wheat from the Mediterranean, viz., 88,002 qrs. on January 2, and rates were only sustained by the general conviction of a somewhat deficient harvest, and that we scarcely knev/ where to look, excepting to America, to furnish the fiUing up of the average supply of five million quarters. Confidence not being full as to the adequacy of this resource, deliveries from farmers have been proceeding at much the same rate as at the same period last year, with its splendid crop, viz. : for the first week, 96,964 v/ere Gazetted, at 77s. 2d. ; the average of the first four weeks being 94,106, at 76s. 7d. ; the average of tlie first four weeks for 1855 being 95,062, at 73s. 6d., being only the trifling weekly difference of 956 qrs. in favour of last year, with an increase this year in price of 3s. Id. per qr. In foreign imports, this January exceeded the last by 47,510 qrs., the quantity ar- rived being 193,656, while the last was only 146,146 — the difference being traceable to the heavy arrival on 2nd January. London, including flour, has been well supplied, the month's arrivals in wheat being 24,785 qrs. English, 26,013 foreign ; country flour, 65,773 sacks ; foreign, 3,258 sacks, 8,074 brls. The fluctuations of the weather have been great, and the preponderance of damp has done much injury to samples, while the liberal supplies of Norfolk flour have made millers indif- ferent buyers, even on short supplies of wheat. The first Monday gave a proof of this, when, with a heavy wheat market, flour was in demand at im- proved rates. As the week progressed the weather improved, and with it the tone of the markets gene- rally, though quotations were not altered in Lon- don. The second Monday presented a healthy tone, and business commenced briskly at an advance of two shillings per qr. on all dry samples, v.hich were far more ])lentii'ul ; but the day closed with less animation than its commencement. All through the country there was a similar feeling, and the news up to Wednesday of Russia's partial rejection of the Austrian ultimatum left the general conclusion that the point of depression had been passed, and that 'there was nothing left to the Allies but a most vigorous prosecution of the war. On Thursday, the 17th, however, the tidings came by telegraph that Russia had rescinded her qualified acceptance of the " Peace Proposals," and accepted them simply and purely, as the basis of pacification. Every market which this intelligence reached was immediately changed, and, as though the whole country had been in a state of siege, which was suddenly raised by the fee, who had left all his stores behind, the generality of holders took alarm, millers seemed to forget the bareness of their stocks, and business in the general surprise was utterly postponed. Under these circumstances the third Monday opened ; and, whh nothing oppres- sive in the supplies, it was evident enough that the paralysis of the previous Friday continued. Some, under the influence of a perfect panic, actually ac- cepted 12s. under the former quotations, and the fortunate buyer found himself in immediate posi- tion to make a handsome profit; but we believe the benefit was received through the 7niU. Generalh', the millers protected themselves by offers of 8s. less. Very near this reduction was occasionally taken, but it was generally resisted as beyond the necessity of the case ; and the admitted fall on quo- tations was 5s. per qr., with very little trade. As the week progressed some recovery from the panic became manifest. In London there was a better feeling. In several of the country markets, as at Liverpool, Hull, Manchester, Birmingham, and Wakefield, there was a somewhat better price ; but buyers mostly kept as much as possible on the reserve. The fourth Mondfl^ showed some readiness to quit by a better show of samples on the London market; and at its commencement factors evinced more confidence, asking fully, and occasionally exceeding the pre- vious rates. Bat millers were retired ; and as the day wore on, what with the increase of samples, the inferiority of the general condition, and the greater probability of peace, no way could be made, though the previous Monday's prices wonld rea- dily have been accepted. A few picked parcels v.ent o(F to necessitous consumers at unchanged prices, but the bulk was obliged to be passed over to the next day's chances. While, therefore, the estimated fall on good English wheat has been 5s. to 6s. per qr., foreign has only experienced a retail sale, for mixing off with the damp new, at about 2s. less money. Prices may be further influenced 188 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. by depression for a timcj and the effect of the news has everywhere been felt in Europe, especially in France, which has received good American sup- plies; but the time that negociations must take, the barriers of the winter season, the exhaustion of Russia, the poverty of her last crop as well as that of Northern Germany, and the almost impossibility that she can do much in the way of export before next harvest, seem to indicate that unless America can greatly excel her past exports from her this year's crop, we may yet be dearer again before next harvest. The arrivals of barley in London have been quite on a moderate scale, the average supply per week being only about 9,300 qrs. ; the foreign being quite trifling, viz., 746 qrs. for the month. The first Monday commenced with an indication of a tendency towards some reaction from the previous fall, prices for the best malting having settled at about 43s. to 44s., though business was far from active; the sluggish state of the malt trade, and the general inferiority for malting purposes this year, making maltsters indifterent buyers ; and distillers showing no eagerness to add to their stocks, there being only a moderate consumption for grinding purposes. The second Monday, however, showed a further progress ; and prices were generally quoted Is. higher, but without a brisk demand being experienced. On Friday, the 18th, the steady progress was changed to an almost cessation of business by the news of the previous day ; and on the third Monday, a fall of fully 2s. to 3s. was gene- rally noted ; and though, on the last Monday, there were symptoms that the depression had reached its point, by the greater facilities of business no improvement in value could be reported. The fact that Belgium has taken some of our malting qualities, and the improbability that they will be this year replaced from Silesia, seem against any consideratile further reduction in the better sorts ; while the generally high prices of corn for the pur- poses of human food, throughout the Baltic, are against low rates, even in grinding and inferior sorts. Of oats, the supplies in the London market have been fair, the four weeks showing the quantity to be 1 13,000 qrs., about half being foreign, and the remainder from the United Kingdom; leaving the average arrival at rather over 28,000 qrs. per week. Trade at the commencement of the year opened dull, the open weather in the Baltic giving the idea of continued supplies from Denmark and Sweden, whence chiefly they have been obtained. The second week showed no im- provement on the features of the first, the foreign arrivals being then at their height, say 38,000 qrs,. and the tendency to improve being thereby lost. On the following week the eff'ect of the news was shown by a reduction in the quotations of Is. 6d. per qr., with extreme difficulty to sell, especially Irish, which then were arriving in some quantity. More Scotch and Irish afterwards appearing, though the fourth Monday had scarcely an average exhibition of samples, and was deficient in foreign, quotations were still further reduced 6d. to Is. per qr., the greatest reduction being on inferior Irish, which this year form a large proportion of the growth of that country. We can scarcely look for much lower rates, as England is now relatively cheaper than the Baltic ; and should there be peace, and an accumulation of oats at Archangel, the arrivals from that port can only appear here on the eve of our next harvest. At Stralsund 32 lbs. oats have lately brought 28s. to 30s. per qr. The month commenced with small arrivals of beans, but closed with a liberal supply from Egypt. In all, the foreign have been about 8,500 qrs., the English 3,040 qrs., making the average weekly supjjly nearly 2,900 qrs. The trade opened dull, v/ith only short arrivals ; but improved the following week to the extent of Is. per qr. ; then came the news, and a fall of 2s. per qr. on all sorts, the foreign requiring to be placed in granary for want of buyers; and at this point prices have rested. There is no doubt that liberal supplies will be forthcoming from Egypt. In continuation of our own samples being good this year, we do not expect high rates, though the present depression can be hardly expected to last. Peas have not appeared in such quantity as res- pects foreign, there being only 1,025 qrs. for the month ; but in English sorts they have about equalled beans, viz., the month has produced 3,033, making the average supply over 1,000 per week. The first Monday noted a fall of Is. in hog peas,' and 2s. in white boilers; the next week showed still a downward tendency, to the extent of another Is.; and the peace news, in the third week, brought another fall, to the extent of 2s. per qr. ; from this there was a partial recovery on the last Monday, so far as white boilers are con- cerned, which were quoted Is. to 2s. higher, from their scarcity; all other kinds remaining a slow sale, at unaltered rates. The cloverseed season is towards its commence- ment, and though there have been liberal importa- tions from Bordeaux, holders have been firm, in the confidence of the almost total failure of the English croj) of red ; very little of the latter has appeared, and that only in trifling lots ; the quality, however, being fine, from 80s. to 86s. per cwt. have been realized. French is held at about 76s,, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 189 and prices are rising in France, 4 to 5 francs advance per bale having been paid there lately. Linseed has fallen about 4s. to 5s. per qr., and cakes have become easier to buy. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Shilling's per Uuarler 72 to 85 extra 87 90 Wheat, Essex and Kentj white, old Ditto new . 60 76 Ditto, red, old . 72 76 Ditto, new . 58 73 Norfolk, Line, and Yorksh.,red, old 75 80 Ditto, new 58 72 „ — Barley, malting, new. . 35 38 .... Chevalier.. 36 Distilling.... 34 36 Grinding.. 33 MALT.Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk 74 76 extra Kingston, Ware, and town made. . 75 78 „ Brown 64 69 Rye — — 50 Oats, English feed. .26 27 Potato, . 27 Scotch feed, new 28 30, old 32 33 . . Potato 31 Irish feed, white 23 24 fine Ditto, black 22 24 „ Beans, Mazagan 35 36 Ticks 35 Harrow ; 39 Pigeon 41 Peas, white boilers 46 50. . Maple 36 39 Grey 36 Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — — 68 Households, Town 648. 663. Country — 55 Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship .... — — 52 FOREIGN GRAIN. 81 84 82 84 41 34 82 82 54 32 32 27 26 37 39 43 46 38 70 57 53 Wheat, DantEic,mixed. Shillings per Quarter . 87 to 90 high mixed — 90extra 95 Konigsberg 82 84 „ — 88 „ 90 Rostock, new 80 84 fine 88 „ 92 American, white 86 88 red 78 81 Poraera.,Meckbg.,andUckermk.,red 82 83 extra 83 87 Silesian , 78 81 white 82 85 Danish and Holstein „ 72 78 „ 78 82 Odessa, St. Petersburg and Riga. . 73 75 fine 77 SO Rhine and Belgium „ — — old — — Russian French. . none Barley, grinding 32 34 Distilling.. 34 35 Oats, Dutch, brew.andPolands 29a. to 31s. Feed.. 26 27 Danish & Swedish feed 26s. to 2Ss. Stralsund 26 29 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 40 41 Koaig^herg . . 40 42 Egyptian . . 35 36 Peas, feeding 37 39 fine boilers 47 50 Indian Corn, white 40 41 yellow 41 44 Flour, French, per sack — — Spanish 62 61 American, sour, per barrel 38 39 sweet 40 42 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the last Six Weeks. Week Ending: Dec. 15, 1855.. Dec. 22, 1855.. Dec. 29, 1855. Jan. 5, 1856.. Jan. 12, 1856. Jan. 19, 1856. Aggregate average of last six weeks Comparative avge. sametime last year Duties Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d. 79 11 41 3 27 10 55 4 51 8 78 9 40 4 27 1 54 6 50 8 77 2 39 4 26 11 54 11 49 0 76 10 39 0 26 9 52 7 47 7 76 2 38 3 25 11 53 6 46 5 76 1 37 8 26 7 53 4 46 0 77 6 39 4 26 10 54 0 48 7 73 1 34 1 27 7 46 7 47 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Peas, s. d. 49 1 48 11 47 6 47 3 45 7 44 9 47 2 45 6 1 0 Wheat Barley Oats ,, LONDON AVERAGES. £ s. d. 3,713 qrs. 3 18 2,150 1 19 3,111 1 6 Rye . Beans. Peas . 3 qrs 318 386 £ 9. d. 2 12 0 2 1 1 2 5 1 PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Tares, winter (per bushel) 63. 6d. to 7s. 6d Coriander (per cwt.) 20b. to 248. Carraway (per cwt.). . . . new . . s. to 50s., old . . s. to . . a. Canary (per qr.) 6O3. to 63s. Hempseed (none) OOs. to OOs. Linseed (p. qr.) sowing . . 8. to . , 3., crushing 73s. to 80s. Linseed Cakes (per ton) £14 Os.to £14 10s. Rapeseed (per qr.) new 883. to 908. Ditto Cake (per ton) £7 lOs. to £8 Os. FOREIGN SEEDS, &c. Hempseed, small, (per qr.) .. s. 56s., Ditto Dutch, 58s. Coriander (per cwt.) 15s. to 20s. Carraway 42s. to 468. Linseed (pr qr.) Baltic, 71s. to 73s.; Bombay, 75s. to 788. linseed Cake (per ton) £13 lOs, to £14 Os. Rapeseed, Dutch 88s. to 908. Rape Cake (per ton) £7,0s. to £7 lOs. HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, Jan. 28. Our market has continued steady during the past week, and all Hops of good quality are in fair demand at fully the currency of the last few days. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE. Monday, Jan. 28. During the past week the arrivals coastwise have not been large, but a fair supply by rail, and from Kent and Essex more liberal than it has been at this period of the season for the last ten years. Trade is extremely dull, and second-rate or inferior stuff quite unsaleable. The following are this day's quotations : — 8. d. 8. d. York Regents 80 0 to 100 0 Ke}it and Essex do 65 0 75 0 East Lothian do 80 0 85 0 Ditto, reds 75 0 85 0 Perth, Forfar, and Fifeshire Regents 50 0 70 0 Billo, reds and cups 45 0 60 0 BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. Monday, Jan. 28. Very large supplies of Potatoes continue to arrive up to our market, coastwise and by land- carriage. The trade generally is heavy, as follows : — York Regents, 80s. to 100s. ; Kent and Esse.ic do., 80s. to 90g. ; Scotch do., 70s. to 80s. ; do. Cups, 60s. to 70s.; middlings, 50s. to 60s. ; Blues, 70s. to 80s. ; Lincolns, 70s. to 80s. per ton. The imports last week were 1 ton from the Continent, and 215 bags from Ireland. COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— York, Jan. 19: We bad a good supply of potatoes, of moderate quality. They sold at from 7d. to 8d. per lb., 2s. to 2s. 3d. per bushel. Leeds, Jan. 22 : A moderate show of potatoes sold at from 8d. to 9d, per 211b9. wholesale, and from 9d. to lOd. retail. Malton, Jan. 19 : A moderate show of potatoes sold at from 2s. to 23. 3d. per bushel. Sheffield, Jan. 22 : Afairsupply of potatoes sold at from 93. to 9s. 6d. per 18 stones. Rich- mond, Jan. 19 : Potatoes, 23. 8d. per bushel. Manchester, Jan. 22 : Potatoes, 73. to lOs. 6d. per 252!bs. POTATO TRADE.— At our Friday market purchasers of potatoes were few, and prices on the decline even for the best samples. The accounts from the southern markets show a still farther fall in prices, even below what are current here; and, besides, the cargoes now arriving in London are in bad condition. — Perth Courier, 190 THP: FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Butter, per CTvt. g, s. Friesland ,...1.112 CD 118 Kiel 100 120 Dorset ... .... no 120 Carlom ... .... 108 112 Waterford .... 93 102 Cork, new . . .... 100 llii Limerick .. .... 98 102 Sligo .... P4 108 PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. j Clieese, per crvt. s. s. I Cheshire ........ 70 Co 84 Cheddcr 74 UO Double Olouccs.., 66 72 Single do 60 70 Hams, York,old^G 108,7if)!,' m !'2 XTestynoreland. .» 91 104 Irish 84 90 Bacon, Wills., dried., 70 72 Fresli,pcr doz.lSs. Oil. 18s. Od. ' Irish, green.,,, GD el ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. January 28. We note a dull trade, except for fresh Butter, whic':- is scarce, as usual at this period of the year, Dorsetfine lOS*. ?o \\2s.per cv:t. Bo. middling 93s. to 100*. Freih 12s. to 17». per doz. lbs. CHICORY. LONDOX, Saturday, Jan. 23. The ceniand fnr most kinds of Chicory ii very inactive, rn former terms. This week's iinporls are 1163 bags from Harlingen. Per ton. £ 8. Foreign Ttoo t Cin £ s . bond)Harlingcn\l 0 English RootQ'ree) Quernsey 9 0 York 9 10 je s. 11 10 9 !0 10 0 £ s. Roasted <5" gro und English 14 0 20 10 Foreign 30 0 86 10 Giierfisei/ 2C> 0 28 0 COVENT GARDEN MARKET. SATURDAY, Jan. 2C. The supply of most things lias greatly improved this week, and prices generally are lower There his been some excoll'-nt salad- in?; froin France, consisting of Endive, Cabbage Lettuce, and Barbe du Capucin. The arrivals from Cornwall in (he shapeoi Broccoli iiave also been good. En;;Iish Pines are in somewhat belter demand tlian they have been hitherto. Pears consist of Winter Nelis, Glout Aiorceau, and Colmars. Chesnuts are 185. per bushel. Spanish Nuts fetch from 163. to ivs. per bushel, Bai-cel/s, ditto .... 1 3 Cauti/towcrs,pdo. 4 0 Broccoli, x>er bun. 1 6 B.S27routs,p.7if.s. 3 0 8 F. beans, per 100 3 0 4 Potatoes, per ton 60 0 100 Do., per cn-t. 4 0 0 Do., pcrbush. 2 0 4 Carrots, p.buneh 0 5 0 Turnips, ditto,., 0 3 0 Spinach, ]). sieve. 3 0 4 Cucumbers , each 4 0 CO Beet, per doz..., 10 2 0 Ilhubnrb.p.bund. 0 9 13 Asparagus, p. 100 4 0 10 0 Scahnle,p.punnet 10 3 0 t. d. Pears, per doz .. 10 Do.,pcr hf.sv. 2 0 Filberts p.doz.lbs 9 0 Cobs, do 11 0 TEGETABLES, s. d. s. d. s. d. 1 0 I OlCeler!/,pcr bund, 0 9 2 0 OniO'is, p. bnsh. 2 G s. d. 3 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 *. d. Do.,Portug.,eack 0 2 Leeks, per bunch 0 2 Artichokes, p. i.e. 1 3 Shallots, per lb.. 0 6 Garlic, per do... 0 G Endive, per (core 1 0 Lettuce, Cab., do. 1 0 SmallSal.p.jiun . 0 2 lIorscrad.,p.bnd. 2 0 Mnshr'ins,2>.pot. 1 0 Parsley, ]}.buneh 0 4 Mint,green,ditto. 0 9 Marjoram, ditto, 0 2 Savory, do. .... 0 2 0 8 0 8 WOOL MARKETS. ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. This Day. — The firmness with which the public sales have progressed, both at Liverpool and Edinburgh, has given more confidence to the holders of home-grown wools ; and the prospect of peace has operated favourcbly to the market. The business doing since Monday last has not been to say extensive, yet prices generally have been well supported. The supply here is but moderate. s. d. $. d. Down tegs 1 1 to I 3 Down evjes 1 1 — 1 2 Half-lred hogs 1 1 ~1 2 Half-bred wethers 10 — 11 Kent fleeces 1 1 — 1 1^ Leicester fleeces (mixed) Oil — 1 0^ Combing shin 0 10 — 1 1 Flannel wool. .,, , 10 — 12 Blanket wool 0 9 — 10 EDINBURGH WOOL SALES.— The January sale took place on the 23rd iust., within tlie Corn Exchange. The attendance of buyers was very large, those from England being more numerous than on any previous occasion. The curaber of bales was about 900, and, apparently, had the quantity beeu twice or three times as large, all could have been well disposed of. The competition for "laid Cheviots" of good quality was keen ; and one lot from Swiney, in Caithness (Mr. D. Guam's farm), fetc>ied 22s. 6d per stone, while other Caithness and Sutherland wools of this class varied from lOs. to 203. For good parcels of Cheviot and half-bred wools, suitable for comb- ing purposes, the competition was animated in the extreme. In Cheviots, a parcel of " Border wool" brought 29s. 6d. per* stone ; and the Thurston clip brought 273- wethers, and 288. hogs, per stone. In half-bred wools, the Thurston lots topped the l:st also, and fetched 28s. and 293. 6d. per stone. The Southdowns from the same estate were also good, and brought 293. 6(1. to SOs. 6il. per stone. A few parcels of half-bred from Caithness were highly credit-tble, and fetched as high as 293. per stone. Farmers mvist be pleased with the result of this sale, and doubtless the prices realized will be compared with those of Liverpool and elsewhere. In this, however, theEdin- burgh wool sales will lose nothing, but the reverse must be the result, and prove they are the best mart for the sale of Scotch grown wools. The following aie the prices realized: — White wools. Highland unwashed, lis. to 13s. 6d. ; do., wa.<;he'l, 14s. to 17s. 6d. ; cross, washed, 18a. to 21s. ; Cheviot, washed, 21s. to SOs. 6c].; bred and ha'f-bred, 23s. to 293. 6d.; Southdown, 283. 6d. to SOs. 6d. Laid wools— Highland, 8s. 6d. to 93.; do., washed, 93. 6d. to lOs. 3d. ; cross, unwashed, 123. 6d. to 133. 6d.; Cheviot, 153. to 18?. : do., Sutherland. 17s. 6d. to 203. ; do., Caithness, 193. to 22s. 6d. Mr. Gird- wood has advertised for consignments for auother sale.— Scotsman. LEEDS YfOOL MARKET, Jan. 25.— The alteration in the duties ou wool and yarns, &c., by the French Governroent has caused considerable purchases of combing wools on French account this week ; and prices of middle qualities m8y be quoted 53. tolOs. per pack higher. There has also been more doing by the spinners and manufacturers in consequence of it. We do not quote any alteratiou in t!ie demand for, or price of, English clothing wools. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKETS, Jan. 26, s. d. t. d. Laid Iligh'and }Vool,])er iilbs. ,. 9 0 \ I I ^1 ^ -J n~ vt t Iv ^ H^ ■W:^>.{'^ THE FARMEK'S MAGAZIITE, MARCH, 1856, PLATE I. A HEREFORD BULL-"ATTINGH AM;" Bred by and the property of the right honourable lord Berwick, of cronkhill, shrewsbury ; For which the prize of 30 sovs. was awarded by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, at the Carlisle Show, August, 1855. pedigree. "Attingham," calved in September, 1852, was got by Walford (871), dam (Damsel) by Tom Thumb (243), g. d. (Damsel) by Young Trueboy (32), g. g. d. (Pretty Maid) by Cholstrey (86s), g. g. g. d. (Old Damsel) by Coleman's Bull (purchased from the late T. A. Knight, Esq., of Dounton Castle), g. g. g. g. d. (Old Daisy) by Chancellor (156), g. g. g. g. g. d. (Cherry the Second) by Mr. Knight's Bull (winner of the Hereford Cup in 1807), g. g- g- g. g. g. d. (Cherry the First), bred by the late Mr. Knight. performances. At the Shrewsbury Show, December, 1853, Attingham took the first prize as the best Hereford bull. At the Lincoln Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1854, he was highly com- mended. At Ludlow, September, 1854, in the Sweepstakes, he was passed over without even a commendation. At the Carlisle Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, he took the first prize as the best Hereford bull in the Aged Class ; and at the same meeting an own brother (Denistown), since sold for AustraUa, took the first prize as the best Hereford bull in the Young Class. " Walford," the sire of these animals, took, amongst other prizes, the first prize of 40 sovs. for Hereford bulls, at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England at Windsor, 1851; and the first prize of 40 sovs. and gold medal, for Hereford bulls, at the Paris Exhibition, 1855. Lord Berwick has long been renowned as a breeder of Herefords, which he appears to be even still gradually improving. In our own report of the Carlisle meeting it is written — " There were many good judges considered Lord Berwick's bull the best in the yard;" while one of our correspondents, who made it his duty to go at more length into the several classes, thus describes him : — "Attingham, red, white face, two years nine months and twenty-six days old : This is a superb animal ; he is high enough, is well formed, cylindrically shaped, deep and good throughout ; good girth and chest, level back and broad, but ribs, thighs, and twist not quite corresponding; extraordinary fiank, long and good; frame long, full, and noble ; head and neck commanding. We incline to class him as the best bull in the yard; such uniform depth and substance, and offal very fine." To this we may add, that Mr. W. Simpson, in reporting as senior steward, in the new number of the Society's Journal, on the stock exhi- bited at Carlisle, speaks in yet more unqualified terms of approval : — " Herefords : The two bulls in Classes 1 and 2 were considered, taking into consideration weight, quality, symmetry, and early matu- rity, the best animals ever shown," These were Attingham and his own brother Denistown. OLD SERIES.] P [VOL. XHV,-i-No. 3. 193 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PLATE II. THE VEDETTE. " Notwithstanding the prospect of peace," writes The Times' Correspondent from the Crimea, " horse- flesh, at first depreciated by the announcement, is in pretty good demand, and there was some brislc bidding at last Donnybrook horse fair. In the first place, many people are disposed to be incredulous about peace, and then they say that even if it be made it will be months before the army can get home, and meanwhile they must have horses, which here are no luxury, but a necessary of life." Not only here, but there and everywhere a good horse will still command a good price ; and peace, we should fancy, will no more stop the breeding of horses than it will the growing of wheat. It is one of the agreeable varieties of a farming life, that with all the opportunity for pursuing it, it has never yet been done anything like justice to. We seem, however, at last to be gradually improving. The entries for the last two seasons, of hunters, hacks, and harness horses, at our different agricultural shows, have been much on the increase both in numbers and merit : it will be our own fault if this be not still further encouraged. Strange to say, though, after what we saw brought together both at Lincoln and Carlisle, the prize sheet of the Royal Agricultural Society for the next meeting, as yet, offers no premiums for such classes. Chelmsford, we are afraid, has no mayor to aid us here ; and if the Council cannot still step in with a prize or two for that grand desideratum, " a good sort of horse," we can only trust some patriot may yet be found in the district we are about to visit — say, a small " whip" from the different masters of hounds, and the thing is done. It would be a great addition to the attractions of the show, and a seasonable compliment to the agriculturists of the eastern counties. We have seen a good hack show, ere this, only next door, in Suffolk; while the Royal Agricultural Society, with a little stir, might give us a grand one. Was the meeting to be held a town or two lower down we have no doubt this hiatus would be speedily filled up, and we have only to hope Chelmsford, or the county will do as much. OUR UNDERGROUND LABOURERS. BY CUTHBERT "W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. When, on some former occasions, we were em- ployed in tracing the burrowings of the common earth-worm — were marking in the excavations of the Surrey claypits and of the Suffolk crag his deep and useful labour, we noted that he did not possess the subsoil all to himself; we found that there were other living things, whose roots seemed to keep pace with his almost unnoticed borings. If the worm had penetrated close to the surface of the water-line beneath the soil, and when that water-line was by improved drainage lowered, if the worm by this operation was able to deepen his borings, so side byside, and sometimes even within these borings, the roots of the other tenants of the soil to an equal extent increased and kept their way. But in noting these facts, another and equally interesting question arises : for what purpose are these roots extended into soils ajjparently so barren ? and why do they seem to follow as it were the retiring water ? Are there no small hints to be derived from the labours of the chemist, that in explaining the phenomenon may be useful to us, now that the best season for land-draining is approaching ? We may perhaps usefully remember, before we dive down into these pits, for the purpose of tracing the long roots which the gently caving in of the earth has uncovered, that through these roots, more than one, by us little understood, operation is going on ; that through them are absorbed, not only the substances soluble in water, which the plant requires, but the silica, the alumina, and other matters, which are not so easily dissolved. It is evident, however, that these roots in some mystic way accomplish these things ; and when we notice, as in the pits to which I have been referring, the roots of the wheat plant extend- ing to a depth of four or five feet, and those of some of the common field grasses nearly as far, we can hardly escape the conviction that there must be something in the soil ; " some good," as the ploughman says, in these apparently inert subsoils, of which these rootlets are in search. My exami- nation of these roots were chiefly confined, on the J Cooper E^ ^Vr ^/ London.. PablLshed hy Sogerson tTwcrordL.246 Stna\3J.e56 ■ THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. 193 recent occasions to which I have alluded, to those of the cereal and other grasses ; other persons have noticed the great and interesting extensions of the roots of plants of a larger class, and of the way in which they occasionally obstruct the farmers' drains. It was when speaking of the deep drains made by the late Duke of Portland, at Clipstone, that Mr. J. E. Denison had occasion to notice the considerable depth to which the roots of certain trees will penetrate in search of food : when alluding to these works, he remarked (Jour. R. A. S., vol. i., p. 364) that great care must be taken not to carry these deep drains within a very considerable dis- tance of trees ; their roots seem to be attracted in a wonderful manner by the moisture of the drains ; and if they once find their way into the tiles they throw out bunches of fibres, which soon mat toge- ther and stop the drains. " It is astonishing," Mr. Denison continues, "the depth that the roots even of the smaller vegetables will descend after the water J a deep drain outside the garden wall at Welbeck was entirely stopped by the roots of some horse-raddish plants, at the depth of seven feet in the ground. At Thoresby park, a drain fourteen feet deep was entirely stopped by the roots of gorse, growing at a distance of six feet from the drain. At Saucethorpe, in Lincolnshire, a drain nine feet deep was filled iip by the roots of an elm tree, growing more than fifty yards from the drain ; but then it was under these peculiar circumstances : the elm grew at the end of a sunk fence, the wall of which was formed of turf; the root of the elm got between the turf wall and the solid bank, and worked its way along until it got into the drain, which it soon filled up. The roots of all trees will stop drains, but especially of soft-wooded trees, such as willow, alder, poplar, &c. : ash trees, too, are very dangerous neiglibours to deep drains. In one case the roots of grass stopped a drain two feet deep, in the parish of Mansfield Woodhouse ; the drain had been carried across a field of old turf, to convey water for cattle from a higher level." The explanation of this disposition of the roots, both of vegetables and trees, to strike deeper than ordinary in pursuit of drains, appears to Mr. Denison to be this : in digging the drains, the sides are cut down straight, and the ground left like walls on each side, while over the drain the earth is all moved ; between the solid and the moved soil, for a long time some- thing like a fissure or crevice remains j when the roots in their progress through the solid land reach this fissure, they pass down it, and so follow its course into the drains. This, however, I take as only a partial and too mechanical an explanation of the phenomena ; it only tells us that the roots penetrate because their progress is facihtated by loosening the soil, but it leaves unnoticed the exciting object, as to what the roots are in search of. It is probable from the later researches of the chemist, that the almost insoluble substances of plants may be absorbed by. the roots of plants, in combination with lime, ammonia, or other sub- stances, silica for instance, being when thus com- bined slightly soluble in water. Way and Paine, when recording their observations on the silica strata of the lower chalk, did not omit to notice this property of the silicates ; they determined (Jour. R. A. S., vol. xiv., p. 241) that a gallon of water will dissolve about 20 grains of the silicate of lime, of which 15 are sihca; we can mark, then, one substance which the roots of the wheat-plant for instance are in search of, to supply the abounding silica of its straw. Neither are the subsoils of many a farm so devoid of even nitrogenous matters, as we are too often content to believe. The source indeed from whence plants derive their nitrogen has for some little time engaged the attention of the chemist, and it was when dwelling at considerable length on this important question, that Mr. Way had occasion to remark (Jour. R. A. S., vol. xvi., p. 262) "that plants do absorb nitrogen in some form from the air, seems evident. Recent examinations of the ammonia contained in soils, some of them taken at considerable depths, and long out of the reach of cultivation, have shown a large quantity of this substance to exist in them : whence was this ammonia derived ? not from ma- nure nor from rain, for in one case I examined a clay of the plastic-clay formation, dug twenty feet from the surface ; it was physically impossible, one would think, that either air or water could in any quantity at least get access to this depth, in so close and tenacious a material yet I found more than one part of ammonia in 1000 parts of this clay, and I ascribed its origin, as it appears to me it should be ascribed, to the waters of the seas or lakes from which the clay was first deposited, and from which, by its absorptive powers for ammonia, it had removed this alkali in an insoluble form.'' The existence of ammonia in a soil seems an inherent and inseparable result of the presence of clay in the soil, and we may well question whether all ordinary soils in a state of nature] do not con- tain within reach of the roots of plants, especially of large trees, suflficient ammonia to account for any accumulation of vegetation. The tracings, then, of these underground opera- tions, lead us to still more and certain views as to the advantages derived from deepening the soil and lowering the level of the permanent water-hne; we again see, in even the extensions of the roots of plants, and those of the borings of " the common earth-worm," that Nature's hints are ever the most certain and the most valuable. p 2 194 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE OBJECTS AND PURPOSES OF DRAINAGE. Our agricultural progress may be measured in two ways — by the amount of knowledge gained, and the amount of skill practised by the best far- mers in the application of that knowledge; or by the absolute extent to which the best principles and practice have been followed. And how different the result of the two methods — of vvhat we may designate the qualitative and quantitative analyses of our agricultural condition ! Employ as your test the cattle and implement shows, and you form a very high opinion of the excellence of the breeds and superior character of the machinery common to British husbandry. Visit the more famous es- tates and farmsteads, or read prize essays and at- tend discussions, and you will obtain a like favour- able view of the vast improvements in drainage, manuring, feeding, and general farm management, and also of the intelligence and ability of the owners and occupiers. But come to a quantitative estima- tion of the several ingredients ; inquire what ex- tent of land is managed in the best style — what pro- portionate number of the farmers work first-class implements, feed superior animals, and embark the large amount of capital in their business which is sanctioned as safe and profitable by many ex- amples ; ask what proportion of the farmers of England take an interest in the more scientific and theoretical questions connected with tillage, and which occupy so large a space in our lectures and discussions and the columns of the agricultural press ; and you will find it true that, while a few adventurous spirits have pushed forward, and while much certainly has been accomplished of late years, yet the great want still remains for a diffusion over the entire kingdom of the light now shining from many but widely-separated centres. John Bull in fact has yet room to improve on his character as a practical man of business. When cholera sweeps off our neighbours and friends, we make a loud outcry for improved sewerage ; but the scourge will come again, and find the towns still uncleansed. And in agricultural drainage— proved to be the first requisite of good husbandry fifteen years ago, tried in all parts of the country, and discussed until the subject seemed long ago exhausted — wc find that our country is most miserably behind-hand. The authorities who have lately discussed the subject were obliged to confess that, after so many years of experiment and practice, no conclusions had been come to, as to the precise principles whicii should govern the practice of the art; and, indeed, the very objects and purposes of drainage seem to have been apprehended as yet by only a few of our chief drainers, more stress having been laid upon the importance of drying the surface soil than of carrying water and air deeply down into the subsoil in order to feed it with fertility. And, to the discredit of the agricultural public, we have had no systema- tic observations instituted to ascertain the relative amounts of rainfall and discharge on different soils, and with various depths and arrangements of drains. After so many years, it remains true, as affirmed by Mr. Bazalgette, that " we still want data for comparing the relative value of pipes at given depths for carrying off" rainfall; whereas upon a number of carefully recorded facts it would become easy to base sound theories. We want to know, with showers various in density and duration on dif- ferent kinds of soil, what proportion of the rain will pass off through the surface channels, and what proportion through the under-drains ; and v/hether this latter proportion is greater with deep or shallow drainage. Again : we want to know how soon, after the rain commences, the drains begin to run, and how long they continue to dis- charge after the shower is over. Some of the farms already drained must afford excellent oppor- tunities for such observations, the results of which, carefully recorded and collected, cannot fail to be of national benefit." But after all these years of teaching and trial, of Government loans and drainage companies, of tile-and-pipe machines, draining-tools, and Fowler's steam draining-engine, how much of the land ori- ginally requiring it has actually been drained? Two-thirds, or three-quarters ? No. Astounding as the fact may appear, permanent under-drainage has been confined to mere plots and corners, as it v/ere ; and only one part out of sixteen of the Eng- lish acres needing it have received this improve- ment. Mr. Bailey Denton computes the area of land in England, cultivated or capable of cultivation, to be 43,958,000 acres ; and estimates the proportion of "wet land" in this area at 22,890,000 acres, or rather more than half. And of this quantity of wet land he assumes that 21,525,000 acres still re- main to be drained. Had we an organised system of collecting the statistics of our produce, it would be comparatively easy to arrive at a pretty accurate estimate of the extent of land under-drained ; or, indeed, to discover the relative prevalence or re- strictedness of any other practice of husbandry. But, reckoning from the public and private moneys THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 195 borroived, from reports, from correspondence with all parts of the country, and practical acquaintance with many different counties, Mr. Denton has tabulated approximative results, which no person, during the consideration of his paper, ever ven- tured to call in question ; and which, indeed, agree with calculations previously made by Mr. Scott. As only pennanerit drainage is included, how- ever, there must be a considerable extent of land besides, which is receiving the benefit of partial or temporary drainage; as, for instance, such as is treated every few years with thorn or bush draining, the use of the mole-plough, &c. But if we take the area so periodically drained as equal to that permanently drained with tiles, and thus double the above estimate, we shall then have only 2,730,000 acres, or about one-eighth of the wet lands, brought under the improvement. It is natural to suppose that the most dropsical grounds have been the first tapped ; lands the most obviously and ruinously wet have been for the most part drained or begun with, excepting low places oppressed by flooding streams. Still, however, the enormous remainder consists of corn-producing fields, upon which under- drainage would be fol- lowed by an augmented yield ; upon which high ridges and surface-grips are a necessary and pro- longed nuisance, tilling operations are hindered many seasons, and no valuable plants grow healthily. If drainage, then, be after all a comparatively rare and undeveloped improvement — almost un- known in some districts, and fully completed in none — how can we expect that the subsequent practices of subsoiling, deep trenching, and high farming, should universally prevail ? Here are we, setting Professor Way to work, to investigate the action of the atmosphere in the recesses of the soil, offering great premiums for the invention of a steam cultivator that shall surpass the spade ; and yet, over the larger portion of our country, the want of the very first requisite of good husbandry is practically repudiating all such advances as in- applicable, and therefore absurd. We will not say, let us relinquish all other speculations and improve- ments until the land has been drained ; but we do assert that no landowner has a claim to be heard on the side of agricultural improvement until he has shown himself in good earnest in draining so much of his property as requires it ; and that no tenant-farmer has a right to be considered as a practical " authority" as long as he lives resigned to his fate upon an undrained farm. If land- owners will not attend to their duty, occupiers must be instructed to feel the disadvantage under which they labour ; and a public cry for the drainage of the soil ought to proclaim itself in a voice which no one shall dare to disregard or deny. THE POWER OF THE PRESS TO PROMOTE THE ADVANCEMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Upon a previous occasion we adverted to the influence of the Press upon agriculture. In re- turning to the subject, we may have no hesitation in saying that the Press has been mainly instru- mental in the dissemination of information upon every department of science and art, and especially in our own province upon agriculture itself. As public journalists, therefore, we claim for our- selves a privilege in that respect, not ostentatiously, but, as we trust, for the advancement of that interest upon which, as the mainstay, the prosperity of the nation reaUy depends. When agriculture came to be acknowledged as a science, and the necessity of invention had widened the channel for its advancement, the press undoubtedly supphed the current upon which it was borne onward; and by such aid it became advanced to a degree of perfection never before attained, and even now advances at an accele- rated force, with increased speed and more power- ful impetus. As we proceed, one fact becomes the stepping-stone to another, which is dis- seminated by the press throughout the breadth and extent of the land, so that where formerly but one mind investigated a question, thousands are now brought to bear upon it, and by the reflux of the same tide that had carried it forward, it becomes returned again to be investigated with accumulated power, throughout districts situated many hundreds of miles from the original point of introduction, and into recesses as dark as they had hitherto been remote. We thus perceive that the extension of informa- tion has consummated the maxim of the great philosopher Bacon, that ''Knowledge is power;" and as it becomes advanced, the pure rays of science so dispel prejudice and error, that, combined with practice, it inevitably attains a position that even the most sanguine scarcely contemplated. Whoever, therefore, asserts that agriculture is but in its infancy, even comparatively, cannot be right ; whilst, on the other hand, he who places it at perfection may, too, in a measure be wrong— like 1 the tidal current of the ocean, it is ever flowing 196 :^HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. onward, yet never appearing to reach its desti- nation. In a country like England, with its hraited area and increasing population, the contemplative mind foresees that the time must quickly arrive when her own productions will not suffice for her growing population; and that, however we may extend the one by improvement in cultivation, yet notwith- standing, the data supplied establish the fact as sooner or later inevitable. But as in human affairs the impending blow is warded off as long as possible, so in a matter affecting the destiny of a nation, it behoves its statesmen to foster and encourage agriculture, and by every means to ad- vance the production of grain, to meet the exigencies of deficient harvests, or of such an eventful era as that through which we are now passing. It was in fashion some years since, with the advocates of free-trade measures, to argue that Great Britain needed not to cultivate wheat at all ; that her lands should be converted into pastures, and that her hardy sons of toil should divert their labour to manufactures and the development of her mineral treasures. This, if carried out, would have been the utmost rashness and folly; it would, in fact, have been reducing us to a state more dependent than that which existed in the early pastorad times, when the patriarch of old had to seek the susten- ance of himself and his family in a foreign land. A question here presents itself, as to how far England would be prepared, in case of failure of her harvests, to meet even one year of great deficiency ; and if that year should be succeeded by a series of others having deficient harvests prevailing not only at home, but throughout the states of Europe, what would be her position ? It has been subject of notoriety in the present year, that, long before the late harvest had been gathered in, such was the pressing demand for wheat throughout the king- dom, that all the improved appliances of steam and mechanical power barely enabled her to obtain a supply equal to the daily demands of the people. And had the harvest been untoward, or had the wheat been carried in a damp state, unfit for immediate consumption, how then could the supply have been afforded, unless of a character that had been before experienced, but which few now living recollect, when war, famine, and disease threatened to overwhelm the country at the same time. It was the custom, when the imposition of duties upon corn existed, to accumulate it in large quan- tities under what was then called the bonding system. Immediately, however, upon the reversal of the corn-laws, that practice was abandoned, and England became dependent upon the supplies from month to month or week to week as the specu* lation or cupidity of merchants and farmers might have determined. And it had been carried to such an extent, that we had not one month's consump- tion upon the market at one and the same time. Such events themselves only forebode others of like character ; but, with all such experience, where is the wisdom of our legislators ? Are we not in these matters as deficient in foresight as in every other that pertained to the late campaign — without statistical information of any kind, without anything as a guide beyond mere guess computation of the cultivable acres of the kingdom ? We are steering onward like a vessel without a compass and shrouded in darkness, we may, perchance, under a kind Providence, hit the port ; but the chances are much against our doing so; whilst in the endeavour the ship may become a wreck, or the crew perish by starvation. The fact is, that nothing beneficial is effected by legislation until the pressure from without compels it. The object of legislators is but too often to secure party advancement rather than to promote beneficial measures ; and as agriculture is worse represented in Parliament than any other depart- ment, little beyond the imm.ediate necessity is ever attempted. A spontaneous act of Government is rarely directed to an admitted grievance, or to remedy a glaring defect. The subject of statistics has long occupied our attention ; yet here we are, in the third session of Parliament since its general agitation, in much the same position as regards its completion as when we first started the question. How long are such things to remain ? is a question no one can answer; but if the Press does its duty and proceeds as it ought, little fear need be entertained of the result. Still is there nothing more required ? Would it not be beneficial — nay, is it not abso- lutely necessary, that the Government should by enactment, as far as it is able, ])rovide for a regular supply of breadcorn ? And might it not be eflfected in a beneficial manner, not only to the consumers, but the ])roducers also of the kingdom at large ? The Press can effect all this, and more ; and if the Legislature may not take the initiative, let it come from the " Fourth Estate." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 197 THE POTATO TRADE.— S M IT H FI E LD FOR A CENTRAL MARKET. One of the most remarkable features in modern farming is the extraordinary improvement and in- crease that have taken place in the culture and growth of potatoes. The chief cause of this in- crease is unquestionably the high price to which they have attained since the commencement of the " potato disease," still inexplicable. Happily we have encouraging tokens of its disappearance, and grateful shall we be to the Giver of all good, when it shall please Him to remove this severe and trying scourge from amongst us. We, however, believe it has been of signal service to the popula- tion of the sister kingdom. It has taught them the more extended use and value of other kinds of food, particularly that cheap and nutritious variety of human food to be obtained from Indian corn, the consumption of which is so rapidly on the increase in Ireland, that the imports have been, for the five years ending 1854, 'as follows ; — Qrs. 1S50 1,286,263 1851 1,821,513 1852 1,479,890 1853 1,554,434 1854 1,356,379 Total 7,498,479 of the money value of about from £20,000,000 to £21,000,000 sterling. The first year of its very general adoption as food for the Irish people was in what is termed the year of famine — 1847-8. Since then it has become a necessary and prime article of food, and a most satisfactory substitute for the potato — the Irish- man's potato. However, it has by no means re- tarded the culture of that invaluable root in that kingdom. The growth of potatoes is regularly in- creasing, and is becoming one of the principal articles of export from that country. The following account shows the gradual increase, since the year 1 852, in the number of acres cultivated for potatoes : Acres. 1852 876,532 1853... 898,733 1854 989,660 1855 _, 981,529 being an increase of more than 110,000 acres in four years. The returns for Scotland give 143,032j acres of potatoes, and the eleven counties enumerated in England and Wales give 192,2&7 acres under potatoes ; but none of these counties comprise a large potato-growing district, i, e. Jjincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, East-Riding, and Huntingdonshire, and others, where they are grown to a large extent. We believe the number of acres cultivatedforpotatoesinEnglandand Wales mightbe taken from 800,000 to l,000,000acres atleast, which would give a total of nearly 2,124,6611 acres — nearly 2} millions of acres annually cultivated for and under growth with potatoes ! The weight of food grown is enormous, and the trade that has sprung up out of it is immense. Besides our own growth, large importations arrive from other countries. During the three years ending 5th January, 1854, the importations were as follows — ■ Cwts. 1852 636,771 1853 773,619 1854 1,133,609 a large portion of this supply no doubt coming from Ireland. Be that as it may, the quantity brought into the British market is astonishing, and demands the most attentive consideration of the pubhc, as to the best means of its disposal ; the regulation of the supply ; the cheapest means of transit ; the eligibility of markets ; and the best mode of effecting sales. In London, the principal markets are the Borough, Covent Garden, Spitalfields, and a few smaller markets, where the business is more or less carried on by a class of men called potato salesmen, who sell on commission, and transact their business after the order and regularity of commission agents generally, as in the cattle and stock markets. The greater portion of this amazing supply does not pass through a public market at all, but is sent to the warehouses of potato-salesmen in various parts of the town, at great expense, and is there sold by them to the re- tailers and green-grocers, &c., to be again sent out. I advocate public sales in public markets, where every opportunity is given to inspect the samples and compare their quality, so that the best samples shall make the best price. The salesman at his warehouse can only dispose of his stock to the customers of his connection, which may be more or less extensive. This is not open competition. What would the corn-factors of Mark Lane say to this mode of doing business ? What would the salesmen at the Metropolitan Market say, if each was expected to have his own cattle-sheds or sheep- pens on his own premises ? And v/hat would the customers of both say, if they were compelled to visit the offices of the one, or the sheds and pens 198 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the other, to procure their weekly supplies ? The analogy holds good with respect to potatoes. The gieat importance to which the potato trade has attained, the amount of capital involved in it, the immense quantity sent to the London markets, and the thousands of individuals engaged in carrying it on, demand, we repeat, the best public attention, but more particularly the attention of the authorities coanected with the Metropolitan Markets. What is wanted is a large central market contiguous to the principal railway stations con- nected with the northern part of London, i. e., so as to be easily reached from the various termini of the goods' stations. This would ensure a more equable price in delivering. The cost of carriage for potatoes from the Great Northern station to the Spitalfields market is 3s. 6d. per ton, from the Eastern Counties station Is. 6d. per ton, and others in proportion. It appears to me that the Order of the trade should be thus, — 1st. A central market shall be established. 2nd. Samples should be sent to the different salesmen in this market, from the stations or shipping, for sale. 3rd. Thebulk, till sold, shall remain at the various stations, or on board ship, and from thence be delivered to order, as given by salesmen. This would save much expense in carriage to both consumer and grower. The minor details could be readily arranged. I am myself a grower, to some extent, of pota- toes for sale at the London markets, and feel seriously the loss I sustain in costs. My last bill, dated Jan, 22nd, gives account of the sale of 5 tons 5 cwt. : they made £22 l7s. 6d., the charges de- ducted £4 16s. 6d., balance £18 Is.; more than one-fifth the price in costs, to which the retailer adds another cost of carriage from the salesman's warehouse to his own store. I desire to call attention to this matter as one of considerable public importance, and hope to see it taken up by the press generally, as a subject well worth their advocacy. I would urge it upon the City authorities as well worth their most favourable consideration; I would suggest to them the desira- bility of converting a portion of the old Smith- field Market into a Central Potato Market, or to appropriate for that purpose, a site on Copenhagen Fields, near the Metropolitan Cattle Market : but this would not be so convenient as the old Smithfield site, which is now the resort of many dealers, &c., to purchase hay, straw, &c. There is ample room for this appropriation besides following out the decision lately come to, i. e., to make of it a dead-meat market, &c. I believe the project would be well received throughout the country, by the growers, as a step taken in the right direction; I believe the purchasers and retailers would approve it. The trade would become more general. Innkeepers and householders, and others, would be able to make their purchases in the potato market as they make them in the corn, cattle, meat, and other markets. Salesmen would have good reason to approve it, as giving less occasion for providing expensive warehouse room, and the City authorities would approve it as yielding an im- proved revenue. THE GROWING FEELING IN FAVOUR OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. There are some matters, which however remote at times they may appear from attainment, we feel nevertheless must " come." The question of Agri- cultural Statistics is one of these. Whatever the difficulties which still remain to be dealt with, there are few amongst us but who regard their ultimate establishment as a foregone conclusion. Day by day we find all opposition gradually low- ering its tone. The most hostile now admit that, with certain provisos, no great harm may follow the collection of such information. A vast ma- jority, on the other hand, affirm far more decisively that not only no injury would result, but that a great benefit even to the agriculturist himself would be a necessary consequence. It is remarkable that whatever objections in- dividuals ofier, no public body of men who meet to fairly consider the question ever now separate without expressing their approval of the object con- templated. We speak here more especially with reference to those immediately interested in the pursuits of agriculture. The Lords' Committee, after taking evidence of all kinds and from all quarters, commence the series of resolutions they arrived at with this unqualified opinion — " that amongst the many classes that would benefit by agricultural statistics, none would derive greater advantage than those connected with agricul- ture." The Highland Society of Scotland afford us a yet more practical reply. The members of that body have not merely given in their assent to the proposition, but they at once set to work to realize it. The London Farmers' Club, again, has been by no means unmindful of so im- portant a matter. The Club has now discussed the question on no less than three separate occasions — in December 1846, in March 1854, and in Feb- ruary 1856; that is, on Monday evening, Feb. 4, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 199 From each and all of these meetings we gather but the same conclusion. At the first of these, when the subject was introduced by the late lamented Mr. Shaw, it was unanimously de- clared "that, in the opinion of this meeting, an accurate svstera of agricultural statistics would be highly beneficial." At the one held two years since, when a practical farmer, Mr. William Ben- nett, of Cambridge, opened the question — " that in the opinion of this Club it appears to be expedient for the public benefit that an efliicient system of agricultural statistics should be established." And on Monday evening, when another essentially practical man, Mr. Williams, of Ba^^don, had the topic of debate associated with his name, the mem- bers decided, "that a system of agricultural statistics, carried out on broad and equitable principles, would be of general advantage to the country." Individuals, we repeat, may demur ; but no united body of men has yet declared against the good policy of obtaining the statistics of agricul- ture. There has up to this time, to be sure, been a kind of exception where silence might be inter- preted to mean anything but consent. The Royal Agricultural Society of England has been remark- ably coy in committing itself to the experiment. Up to this very last week we would defy any one to have said what the members, as an associated body, thought on the subject; while this doubt was of itself anything but encouraging to the ad- vocates of the measure. We are happy to an- nounce that this exists no longer. The new num- ber of the Journal is just published, and in this number one of the most remarkable and able articles is devoted to a full and comprehensive consideration of agricultural sta- tistics. The paper has, too, all the weight of au- thority, as well as of ability, to recommend it ; for it emanates from one of the editors of the Journal — Mr. Chandos Wren Hoskyns. We pay this gen- tleman but a justly-merited compliment when we add that he has proved himself so far signally well qualified for the duties he has undertaken. On this thesis he has left nothing untouched— the blue-book of the Lords, the letters and arguments offered in our own columns and those of our con- temporaries, the opinions of the farmers themselves, for and against, are all in turn considered and summed up. The conclusion is still the same : " It is a thing too mortifying to believe that the agriculturists of England have ever seriously de- clined or hesitated to perform their part in this most useful national inquiry. We would rather believe — and we do believe — that the ' attempt, and not the deed, confounded us' ; that the mode in which they were appealed to was erroneous. Evidence of this has been sufficiently adduced on the part of those whose admission is conclusive ; leading to the conclusion that nothing is really wanting but the ado].>tion of a system specifically suited to the end in view, and which the agriculturists as a body can recognise as the natural and proper channel of communication between the Government and themselves." We need hardly recommend a careful perusal of Mr. Hoskyns' paper to the members of the Society. It is certain to command the attention it deserves. The report of the meeting at the Farmers' Club will be also read with interest. It will be seen from this that the introducer of the subject scarcely went as far as some of those that followed him, and that the majority of the meeting was, consequently, against the qualified resolutions he submitted to them. What is very noticeable here is, that toning down of the opposition to which we have already referred. Mr. Spearing, one of the Hampshire dissentients, who but two years since sent back the forms, and distinctly refused to make any return, " has since mo- dified his opinion, and is inchned to think there can be no danger in furnishing the acreage returns sought for." Mr. Stenning, we believe at one time by no means prepared to admit as much, " anticipated that something could be done in re- gard to agricultural statistics, and for his part he had no objection ; for he thought it was only right the country should know what were its capabilities of production." The other speakers are nearly all one way, the chief points being as to how far the collection of statistics should be carried, and what advantage the farmer himself could reap from the command of the information thus arrived at. We shall take some early opportunity of returning to the consideration of two so important items in the account. The general advantage, then, of agricultural sta- tistics, like that of the good wife in the old song, is a settled question : the only difficulty is, "how to get them." To this we have still seriously to apply ourselves. Mr. Hoskyns, " in bringing to a close for the present " what he modestly terms " a mere preliminary and imperfect essay to open a subject itself as yet imperfect," stilt gives us a promise that it is one " whose growing and self-correcting details will probably furnish hereafter a topic of annual notice in the Journal of the Society." Might we venture a suggestion on this ? The Council of the Society has at times, we believe, both a difficulty in selecting its subjects and obtaining competition for the premiums they offer. Let them devote one to this question. They will serve both themselves and their country by doing so. It is not even yet too late, and they will be sure to have several good papers to choose from — " A prize of fifty sovereigns on the best means to be employed in obtaining the statistics of agriculture," 200 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Monthly Council was held, at the Society's House in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 6th of February. The following Members of Council and Governors of the Society were present : Colonel Chal- LONER, Trustee, in the chair, Earl of Essex, Lord Berners, Lord Feversham, Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Sir Archibald K. Macdonald, Bart., Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Hodgson Barrow, M.P., Mr. Barthropp, Mr. Barnett, Mr, Bramston, M.P., Mr. Brandreth, Mr. Cavendish, Mr. Evelyn Deni- son, M.P., Mr. Druce, Mr. Garrett, Mr. Bran- dreth Gibbs, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Holland, M.P., Mr. Wren Hoskyns, Mr, Jonas, Mr. Kinder, Mr. Lawes, Mr, Laurence, Mr, Milward, Mr. Main- waring Paine, Mr. Allen Ransome, Professor Simonds, Mr. Simpson, Mr, Thompson, Mr, Turner (Barton), Professor Way, Mr. Burch Western, and Mr. Wood- ward. The following new Members were elected : Alison, Johu, Ilford Lodge, Ilfoid, Essex Appold, Johu George, 23, Wilson-street, Finsbury-square, Loudon Barnard, Henry, Snettisham, King's-Lynn, Norfolk Bickley, Andrew, jun., Lineal Wood, EUesmere, Salop Biggs, James, Desborough, Market- Harborough, Leic. Brown, Lord Johp Thomas, Weatport, Co. Mayo, Ireland Cameron, A. H. F., Lakefield, Gleu-Urquhart, Inverness-shire Chick, Thomas, Stratton, Dorchester, Dorset Cottam, George H., St. Pancras Iron Works, Old St. Pancras Road Crosskill, Alfred, Iron Works, Beverley, Yorkshire Finnis, Steriker, The Elms, Hougham, Dover Gibson, Sir Alexander Maitland, Bt., Clifton Hall, Edinburgh Gouthwaite, Richard, Lumby, Melford-Junction, Yorks. Greenock, Lord, Wood End, Thirsk, Yorkshire Gulston, Alan James, Corabe-Royal, Kingsbridge, Devon Leader, Nicholas, Dromagb, Bonteen, Ireland Leigh, John Shaw, The Hoo, Luton, Bedfordshire MacLagan, Peter, jun., Pumpherstone, Midcalder, Edinburgh Monro, Mordaunt Martin, Enfield, Middlesex Ord, Rev. J. A. Blackett, Whitfield Hal), Haydon Bridge, Northumberland Osborn, Henry, Wee ford, Lichfield, Staffs. Pope, John Raymond, Chaceley, Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire Ray, Samuel, St. Paul's, Belchamp, Halstead, Essex Selmes, Frederick, Dibden, Southampton Sherrard, James Corry, Kinnersley Manor, Reigate, Surrey Simpson, John, Potterspury, Stony-Stratford, Bucks Stafford, Marquis of, Lilleshall Hall, Shropshire Tawke, Arthur, The Lawn, Rochford, Essex Walker, Johu, Seatoubarn House, Newcastle-on-Tync Wells, Charles, Bartou-Seagrave,' Kettering, Northamptoush. Western, Thomas Sutton, Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex Williams, John, sen., Trimley, Ipswich, Suffolk Williams, Williams, Walton, Ipswich, Suffolk Winnall, John, Eccleswall Court, Ross, Herefordshire, Finances. — Mr; Raymond Barker, chairman of the Finance Committee, presented the report on the accounts of the Society, from which it appeared that the current cash balance in the hands of the bankers wasi£'2,671. He explained that this general balance included ,£1,200 received from Chelmsford as a sub- scription towards the reduction of the expenses of the Society's country meeting to be held at that place in the present year. He also laid on the table the quarterly statements of account connected with the several branches of the Society's income and expenditure, assets and liabilities. Honorary Member, — The Emperor of the French having graciously expressed his consent to the proposal that he should be elected an Honorary Member of the Society, the following resolutions were carried unani- mously : — 1. On the motion of Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., seconded . by Lord Berners: — "That his Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the French be duly elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 2. On the motion of Mr. Brandreth, seconded by Lord Feversham : — •' That a Diploma of the Society, signed by the President, and countersigned by the Secretary, with the Great Seal of the Society attached to it, be forwarded." 3. On the motion of Mr. Thompson, seconded by Mr Hos- kyns : — " That a copy of the sixteen volumes of the Journal of the Society, appropriately bound, be for- warded to his Imperial Majesty, together with the Diploma of his appointment as Honorary Member of the Society," Standing Committees, — Reports were received from the chairmen of the standing committees of the Society, stating how often their respective committees had met, and how many reports they had made to the Council, Journal and Library, — Mr. Thompson, chairman of the Journal Committee, laid on the table a copy of the new Part of the Journal (XVL, 2), and submitted to the Council suggestions from that committee for arranging, cataloguing, and completing the library of the Society, These suggestions were adopted. Chemical Lectures. — Sir John V, B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., reported from the Chemical Committee the suggestion of an alteration in the arrangement of the lectures to be delivered this spring by Prof. Way, the consulting-chemist of the Society, and announced on the 4th of July last. The Council adopted the suggestion, and agreed to the following amended sche- dule : — 1. Ou the influence of climate on the action of manurea. 2. On the composition of laud-drainage water. 3. A review of the progress of chemical science with reference to agriculture at home and abroad. Guano-Substitute Prize.— On the motion of Mr. Raymond Barker, seconded by Sir John V. B. John- stone, Bart., M.P., it was carried: " That the period THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 201 of the Society's liability for the offer of tlie guano- substitute prize shall terminate with the year 1856." Chelmsford Meeting. — Mr. Barnett, Vice- Chairman of the ChelmsTord Committee, reported to the Council the suggestion of the local authorities and of the Chelmsford Committee, that the period of the Society's ensuing country meeting, to be held this year at that county town, should be fixed for the week com- mencing Monday, the 14th of July. He also reported that the Committee had adopted the plan of the show- yard submitted to them by Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, the Honorary Director of the Show, and had given direc- tions for the commencement of the works. This report was confirmed by the Council. Agricultural Implements. — Colonel Challoner, as chairman of the Implement Committee, laid the fol- lowing report before the Council : — The Implement Committee have taken into their deUberate consideration the subject referred to them by the Council at their Special Meeting on the 10th of December last ; namely, such a classification of implements for competitive trials at the future country nieetiugs of the Society, and for which alone in each' year prizes shall be offered, as shall insure the trial of every description of agricultural implement once in three years. The Committee recom- mend to the Council the adoption of the following rota- tion for the ensuing period of three years, namely : — 1856. 1857. llage and Drainage of Cultivation and Harvesting of Land. Crops. Ploughs Drills Harrows Manure Distributors Cultivators Horse hoes Subsoilers Hay machines Clod-crushers Mowiug machines Rollers Reapiug machinta Tile and Brick Machines Horse rakes Implements for Drainage. Carts Waggons. 1858. Preparation of Crops for Market, or Cattle Food. Engines Chaff engines Thrashmg Machines Mills Dressing machines Oilcake Breakers The Committee accordingly recommend that the Imple- ment Prize Sheet for the Chelmsford Meeting should comprise implements in the first of the above classes ; with the addition of special prizes for the best Steam- cultivator and the first and second best Reapiug Macliines, and of a department for miscellaneous as well as for new implements. The Committee beg to suggest : 1. That implement makers wishing to have duplicate implements in the show-yard, may do so for the purpose of showing such implements at work. Stewards are to reserve to themselves the power to arrange such hours as may appear most convenient for the implement makers to exhibit their different implements in motion. The exhi- bitors to find the materials for such exhibitions. 2. That if any exhibitor shall send machinery away from home, so that it is not possible for it to arrive in time to be admitted into the yard, he shall forfeit the right of the reduced rate of railway transit. (Signed) C. B. Challoner, Chairman. The Report having been confirmed by the Council, Mr. Ransome and Mr. Garrett submitted to their con- sideration a Memorial, signed by a great proportion of the exhibitors of implements at the Society's meeting at Carlisle last year, and conveying their views on the system of offering individual money prizes for competi- tion among the implement makers ; their satisfaction at the triennial division for the trial of implements already decided upon by the Council ; their desire to have main- tained the full severity of the tests for trial ; and their strong wish " that the report of the judges, in such form as may express their approval, either entire or qualified (as the case may be), should be placed in the hands of the exhibitors before the general exhibition day, in sub- stitution of the individual money prizes as heretofore offered on the Society's prize sheets." On the motion of Lord Berners, seconded by Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., this Memorial was read, and received the fullest consideration of the Council. On the motion of Mr. Thompson, seconded by Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P,, it was resolved : — ' ' That in case of equal merit in two or more implements of the same class, the judges be instructed to divide the prize equally between them." On the motion of Mr. Brandreth, seconded by Mr. Thompson, the following sums were voted for the respec- tive classes of implements for which prizes would be offered for the Chelmsford meeting (exclusively of the steam-cultivator, ^^500 ; reaping-machines, £bO ; and miscellaneous awards), viz. : — For the class of ploughs £40 „ harrows 20 „ cultivators, &c 20 „ subsoilers *. . , . 20 „ clod-crushers and rollers. . 20 „ tile and brick machines . . 20 „ drainuig implements .... 20 160 And on this motion it was further resolved: — "That the several sums shall be divided or withheld at the dis- cretion of the judges ; and in 7io instance shall a prize be given unless there be deemed sufficient merit." On the motion of Mr. Brandreth, seconded by Mr. Hoskyns, it was resolved that the following should be the terms in which the Society's Prize of .£'500 for a steam- cultivator should be offered, viz. — " For the steam-cultivator that shall, in the most efiicient manner, turn-over the soil, and be an economical substitute for the plough or the spade." Paris Agricultural Aiyro Industrial Exhibi- tions.— On the motion of Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., seconded by Mr. Thompson, it was re- solved : " That the best thanks of the Council are due to those of its members who so ably represented the Society at the International Exhibitions at Paris, for their exertions." Sir John Johnstone explained that it was intended to include in this vote of thanks the De- putation to the International Agricultural Meeting held at Paris in June last, consisting of Mr. Miles, M.P., as President of the Society ; Mr. Hudson, as Secretary ; Professors Simonds and Way, as Professors; Mr. Garrett, Mr. Hudson (of Castleacre), Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Jonas, and Mr. Mil. 203 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ward, as Members of Council : — Mr. Milward, as the English Juror of Cattle ; and Mr. Fisher Hobbs, as the English Juror of Sheep and Pigs on that occasion : — and Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., the English Juror of Agricultural Implements at the Universal Industrial Exhibition held at Paris, subsequently, in the same year. Mr. Denison, M.P., and Mr. Fisher Hobbs, re- spectively acknowledged the compliment thus paid to themselves and their colleagues. They expressed their entire conviction of the great advantage which could not fail to arise in favour of the two allied countries from the friendly intercommunication so happily sub- sisting between them. Foreign Cattle. — Lord Feversham reported that the separate prize-sheet for the foreign cattle prizes, conditions, and regulations, would be submitted to the Council at its next monthly meeting. Poultry Prizes. — On the motion of Sir Archibald Macdonald, Bart., seconded by Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, the schedule of prizes for farm-poultry proposed by Mr. Fisher Hobbs for competition at the Chelmsford meet- ing was unanimously adopted. Foreign Office. — Communications received from the Foreign Office by instructions of the Earl of Cla- rendon were referred to the Journal Committee, and the best thanks of the Council ordered for them. The Council adjourned to their weekly meeting on the 13th of February. A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 13th of February ; present, Colonel Challoner, Trus- tee, in the chair ; Mr. Appold, Dr. Calvert, Mr. Gray, Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Ma- jendie, Mr. Marriott, Mr. Mainwaring Paine, and Prof. Way. Sea-Sand. — The Rev. S. N. Kingdon, a member of the Society residing at Bridgerule, near Holsworthy, in Devonshire, informed the Council that a great quantity of sea-sand was brought into the adjoining district from Bude Haven, on the north-western coast of Cornwall, to be employed by the farmers as a manure ; also from a neighbouring part of the coast called Widemouth Bay. No less than 59,000 tons of this sand had been sent inland for manure, in the course of a single year, by a canal formed for the express purpose ; and a very large amount was brought away by waggons and carts sent to the sea- shore itself. As the fertilising qualities of this sand appeared to be very evident, he thought it would be an interesting inquiry to ascertain by chemical analysis the probable cause of such fertilising action. — Professor Way expressed the satisfaction it would give him to investigate the nature of this sand, and report the result to the Council, if the Rev. Mr. Kingdon would kindly send to him a portion for analysis, along with information under the following heads : — 1. The nature of the soil benefited. 2. The quantity of sand put on. 3. How often applied. 4. For what crops. 5. The cost of application. Professor Way remarked that last year Mr. Scott had called the attention of the Council to a peculiar deep-sea sand containing fibrous matter and used in Ireland as manure under the term " wool." —Colonel Challoner was acquainted with a sea-sand on the Wexford coast, which produced won- derful crops of asparagus, and other similar vegetable products. Clinker-Manure. — Dr. Ritterbandt desired to place at the disposal of members of the Society five tons of a manure obtained from the vitreous substance pro- duced in the fluxing of iron and other ores, and known in the country as "Clinkers." This substance was treated with sulphuric acid, and a dark gray sandy powder obtained. This powder Dr. Ritterbandt had found very advantageous to Potato crops. — The Council decided that they could take no cognisance of any manure sub- mitted to them, unless accompanied by a suitable che- mical analysis showing its composition ; and that, even in such case, the trial of manures could only be under- taken by the members in their individual capacities.— Col. Challoner and the Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt ex- pressed their willingness to give the manure a trial, in their private capacities, should the chemical analysis Dr. Ritterbandt might hereafter furnish hold out a probable indication of favourable results, and the estimate of cost and quantity to be employed render the application economical. — Mr. Jonathan Gray stated that in South Wales the use of clinkers to the land had been attended with no advantage. African Grasses. — Mr. Donovan favoured the Council with a collection of African Grasses and a stuffed specimen of the great locust bird, referred to in the fol- lowing communication : — 37, NottiDgbam-place, New-road. I beg you vidll receive, for the acceptance of the Royal Agricultural Society, the accompanying specimens, consisting of four books or vols, of Grasses, &c., two of which, marked Nos. 1 and 2, contain specimens of the common uncultivated indigenous Grasses of that part of Africa situated between the chain of Dengouaberg Mountains and the Orange and Vaal Rivers ; vol. 3 contains, beside pasture, herbs, and grasses collected in the districts of Colesberg, Richmond, and Beau- fort, W., S.S. W. of the Orange River, some rough mountain heath, common vegetation in the Cape western district. The small collection. No. 4, are a few specimens hurriedly collected in the immediate neighbourhood of the Emperor Napoleon's tomb, St. Helena. I must also mention a specimen of natural history, " the great locust bird," which I am induced to pre- sent to the British agriculturists on account of it being an object of great interest and service to the European agricul- turists in Africa, who welcome with much pleasure the rare, unexpected, and mysterious visits of these birds, because of their habit of exterminating vast swarms of destructive locust. It will be found on examination that this specimen bears a great resemblance (with exception of the legs and beak) to the white storks in the British Museum. In conclusion, I beg you will intimate to the society that I shall be happy to answer any inquiries they may be desirous to make concerning the agriculture, wool, &c., of those parts from which I have gathered the grasses in question. (Signed) John Clarke Donovan. The Council voted their best thanks to Mr. Donovan, for the favour of these presents and communications, and would feel further favoured by his attendance at any of their weekly meetings, for the purpose of fur- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 nishing such additional information as he might possess in reference to African natural history. — Professor Way had received information from the same part of Africa, where, he was told, the summers were short and bright ; the grasses there were represented to him as being well worthy the attention of English agriculturists. — On the suggestion of Mr. Majendie, it was moved by Mr. Fisher Hobbs that Mr. Robert Brown, of the Linnsean Society, so eminently distinguished for his acquaintance with the botanical productions of the southern hemi- sphere, should be requested to examine these grasses, and favour the Council with his report upon them. Irish Grasses. — The following is the report of Mr. Brandreth Gibbs on the dairy-land grasses obtained from Ireland last year by Mr. Thomas Scott, at the request of Mr. Miles, M.P., and referred to the favour of Mr. Gibbs's examination : — " The packet of cut grasses from Blarney Castle coataia — Holcus lanatus, Italian Eye-grass, Dactylis glomerata, Cyno- surus cristatus, AQthoxaathum odoratum, Lotus corniculatus, Cares, Plantain, Agrostis, Festuca ovina. White Clover, Yarrow. " In the turf, the only kinds that are in flower are the Authoxanthuru odoratum, Cynosurus cristatus, and Plantain. There are, however, apparently, several other kinds of grasses in the turf ; but they have not any culms or flowers. We have, therefore, planted the turf in bits, so as to get the individual plants to spread and throw out flower, and when they have come to sufficient maturity, we will let you know the result." Grain- Aerator. — On a former occasion Mr. Brown favoured the Council with his attendance, for the purpose of explaining to the members the progress of his inquiries into the best mode of fumigating growing crops, on the principle so long tried and found effectual in his hand-fumigator for garden use, namely, that of driving any kind of air or vapour, by means of revolving fan- wheels, through the fumigatory chamber, into a pipe conducting the air or vapour immediately to the plants, shrubs, or trees to which the application is desired. At the present Council meeting M. Salaville exhibited a working model of his machine for the preservation of grain, to which a first-class medal was awarded last year at the Paris Exhibition. The principle of M. Salaville's machine appeared to be similar to that so long ago adopted by Mr. Brown ; its application, however, was different, namely, to large masses of grain, vegetables, or other substances in barns, warehouses, or ship's holds. The construction consisted of a fumigatory chamber, for receiving air, or for generating the sul- phureous or other antiseptic preservative vapours, and of revolving fan-wheels for driving these vapours from the chamber into a horizontal layer of perforated tubes, over which the deep mass of t: rain, potatoes, hops, &c., was placed, and which received into their whole bulk the action of the vapours thus passed up through them. The fan-wheels are set in motion by hand or steam power. M. Salaville stated that by means of this machine, not only were all insects and their eggs de- stroyed at a very small cost, but a greater weight and brighter appearance were given to the grain. He invited the members to inspect these machines at full work at the wharf of Messrs. Charles Devaux and Co., 62, King William-street, London-bridge. The Chairman expressed to M. Salaville the thanks of the Council for his attention in submitting this ma- chine to their notice ; at the same time informing him that the Council in such cases expressed no opinion on the value of inventions brought before them. He would be at liberty to enter it for exhibition at the Chelmsford meeting, where it would come under the notice of the judges. Microscope. — Colonel Challoner gave notice that at the next monthly meeting he should move that the Society should purchase a microscope of the most ap- proved and complete kind for investigations similar to those to which M. Salaville's operations on grain would lead, namely, to ascertain the exact difference produced on the grain by the action of the vapours to which it had been exposed. In the meantime he would suggest that Professor Simonds be kindly requested to attend on that day fortnight with his own microscope, and show to the members that difference between the original and the vaporised grain. Locomotive Railway.— Mr. Manning Fellows of Ormesley, near Great Yarmouth, informed the Council of an invention made 16 or 18 years since by Sir George Cayley, of a steam locomotive laying down its own rail- way ; and of which a plate was published at the time in the " Mechanics' Magazine." He also referred to " a trial with an endless chain for propelling boats in a canal; the chain, or the slack part of it, sinking to the bottom of the canal, and there, being detained by the mud, &c., formed a basis for motion : the scheme was found to be sound in principle, but was abandoned in consequence of the room the machinery took, and the water and dirt which came on board the boat." Cottages. — The reference made in the report on the farming of Dorsetshire (Journal XV., 442) to Mr. Start's cottages having excited much attention, Mr. Sturt, on application to him, has kindly stated to the Council his willingness to give any of the members all the information he possesses in reference to their con- struction and cost. Treacle for Cattle.— Mr. Tollemache, M.P., referred to the probable advantage that would arise, during the high price of oil-cake, from the use of treacle for the purpose of feeding cattle. It had already been tried, as such a substitute, with con- siderable success by some farmers in the eastern coun- ties. A West Indian merchant had informed him that coarse brown sugar contained 95 percent, of saccharine matter, while treacle contained not more than 15 or 20 per cent. He thought it desirable to ascertain how far the amount of nutritive value in food depended upon the sac- charine matter it contained. — Professor Way remarked that treacle consisted almost entirely of saccharine 'matter, although not of that kind which could be crystallized out of it. The Government had a few years ago appointed a commission to inquire into the feeding properties of malt, when it was found that barley 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. malted was not better than barley unmalted; in other words, that sugar was not better than starch. Implement Report. — Mr. Fisher Hobhs gave notice that, in consequence of some omissions having been made in the Report of the Implements at the Carlisle Meeting, published in the last Journal, he should bring the subject before the Council at their next Monthly Meeting, The Committee having referred to the Journal Com- mittee papers by Mr. Fullbrooke on Meteorological Cycles, and by Mr, Dickson on Flax Operations, arranged that on that day fortnight the following sub- jects be brought before them : — 1. Colonel Cliatoa'a communication on Improvemeuts in the Machinery for Raising Water and other Fluids, by which a great Economy of Steam-power is effected, 2. Mr. Riddell's Exhibition and Explanation of his Model of his new Reaping Machiue. 3. Mr. Haucock'a Exhibition and Explanation of his new Chaff cutting Machine. The Council then adjourned to their Weekly Meeting on Feb. 20. THE IMPLEMENT MAKERS AND THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. The continual development of agricultural me- chanics, during the last ten or fifteen years, is a fact as remarkable as it is altogether satisfactory. It would be only idle for a moment to question but that this advance is mainly attributable to the pro- ceedings of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land, Its endeavours to incite invention and encourage improvement have been ably responded to by the manufacturers ; while the exertions of either have been fully appreciated by the agri- cultural public. At this present time, perhaps the greatest attraction, as certainly the most in- teresting feature, is the implement department of the Society's shows. The system, then, upon which this section of the prize list has been carried out must be con- sidered as eminently successful. We may still occasionally find a poor class or two of stock, but it is now rare indeed that the implement entries are not well filled. There may not be quite so many on the ground, but it is the inferior only that have been weeded out ; and, as at Carlisle this very last year, there is scarcely a ])iece of ma- chinery in the catalogue but is worthy of a place there. So far, certainly, so good. If we wished to pay the Society the highest compliment we could, we might instance what it has done, and is doing, in this respect. The only rea- sonable deduction to be drawn here is, that it should pursue a path that has so far been followed with so much general ad- vantage. It is a very old bit of advice that tells us to let well alone ; and many a man has been ruined, ere this, by not being satisfied with doing very well indeed. Some of our friends, though, seem to think we have done quite enough. It is but a year or two ago that nearly all our most dis- tinguished implement-makers signified to the Council of the Society that they did not want any more prizes ! Let the yard in future be merely a bazaar, v/here each man might show off his wares to the best advantage ; taking care, of course, in doing so, to proclaim the premiums he had received when premiums were in fashion. It is right to say that this magnanimous offer was never for a mo- ment entertained. We are not now quite sure, indeed, whether it ever came on to a hearing ; at any rate it died out very quietly — sufficiently so to lead us to imagine there was an end of it. This, however, is not the case. The same idea has been revived in a considerably modified form. The manufacturers now petition that the trials should not come so frequently. When during this last winter the proposition was first broached to us by the head of a very eminent firm, it was that the Society should only have trials of implements once in two or three years, or, as it immediately appeared to us, there should be two dead years to a live one. A better mode, if it must come, and one which we suggested at the time, was, that certain implements should be tried triennially, but that at each show there should be something put to the test. To this the prayer ultimately came, and with this the Council have agreed. There is no doubt but that the experiment is something of a hazardous one. The annually recurring test kept men continually on the spur as to what they could do better by the next show ; and it is a question whether we shall now make more improvement in three years than we have done heretofore in one. Our different in- ventions have certainly arrived at a high degree of perfection, so that a very frequent examination of their merits may not jierhaps be so necessary as in times gone by. Let the Council, however, not forget to make a liberal use of that department by which they can still incessantly urge onwards " miscellaneous and new implements." We are quite \villing to admit the immense ex- pense to which manufacturers are put, in attending the different agricultural meetings of the three kingdoms ; though we cannot help thinking there must be something of a ]n-oi)ortionate bene- THE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE. 205 fit attached to their peregrinations. Above all, let us ever bear in mind that there are still young men coming on. Some of these may be made, as some have been made, eminent by the trial of their inventions before the Royal Agricul- tural Society. We could name flourishing houses, now well content to rest where they are, whose fortunes could never have been what they are, but for the incentive their founders received from the prize-sheets of the Royal Agricultural Society. This brings us to another point. The triennial trial being admitted, the exhibitors recur to their first resolve, and request there may be no individual money prizes. They, nevertheless, desire " to have maintained the full severity of the tests for trial," but that the decision should only extend to a report of the judges — an approval, " either entire or quali- fied." It is difficult at first to understand the motive for this, if there are to be trials, why should there not be prizes for those who come best through them ? ' But,' say the makers, ' there are no best — we are all good, and the difference is often so slight as to puzzle the judges which shall have the first prize, which the second, and which the commendation. Be kind enough to announce that we are all very good, and we shall be satisfied, but don't go and give a distinguishing prize to some fellow who won't be satisfied until he has done better than very good. It is unfair; for, according to this plan, there will always be sure to be somebody trying to find out some improvement or other, and there is no knowing where will be the end to it.' Of course there will not. And is not this just what the Royal Agricultural Society ought to and does aim at ? — Keeping you all continually alive to improvement. Never mind the very slight differ- ence. If you are awake and watchful, you may turn that slight difference to your side, by the next show. It is precisely this slight difference that keeps us moving. Destroy the spirit of emulation, and you destroy the spirit of improvement. It may be argued, though, that such a course as that con- templated would not injure the spirit of emulation. We believe it would, in a very great degree. " It is honour," or honours, " prick us on," as Falstaff says. What would be the result of reporting a class of boys at school as a very good class, without any distinction for the best of them ? Or the examina- tion of our prize men at the universities, without prizes to give them ? It is the tangible rea- lized reward; the goodly-bound books, scho- larships, fellowships. Royal plates, gold cups — aye ! and Royal Agricultural prizes and gold medals, that keep us all going at our best pace. Who would be likely to do. his best when he knew there could be nothing better than " a dead heat with the lot" ? This request has, according to the report of the Society's proceedings in our last week's paper, " received the fullest consideration of the Council." If it has not, we have only to trust it may. There will be some advantage in the triennial trials, as it will give more time and opportunity for a proper examination of those implements under inspection. The trials of ploughs, for instance, at Chelmsford, we look forward to, as something particularly in- teresting. On the other hand, we can see nothing likely to be beneficial, either to the Society, the public, or even to the exhibitors, in the abolition of premiums and medals. Many a farmer will give a prize implement a trial, who would often pass it over without such an assurance of its worth. Let the Council, too, remember how, when they walk through the show-yards, they find everywhere these prizes and medals made the most of; and let them also bear in mind how seldom these have been ill awarded. They furnish the very metre of agricultural advancement, and when we lose them we shall proceed no farther to " the quick march" we have been accustomed, but fall back under orders to " stand at ease," and " as you were." MEMORIAL PRESENTED TO THE COUN- CIL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND AND ITS COM- MITTEE ON IMPLEMENTS. We, the undersigned Engineers and Manufacturers of Agri- cultural Implements, and Exhibitors at the Annual Meetings of your Society, desire to submit to your consideration our views on the question of the present system of offering indi- vidual money prizes for competition among the makers. We object to this system on the ground that it operates as an undue stimulus to competition, tending less to the produc- tion of useful and practical machines, than to the development of ingenious peculiarities, by which, with the aid of highly skilled manipulation, the prizes may be won; but more espe- cially is our objection taken on the ground of unfairness of its operation, having the effect of marking in a manner altogether disproportionate to the circumstances the appreciation of one to the depreciation of all other competitors, although, as very frequently occurs, the merits of several may fairly be considered to be equal. We are desirous to express our entire satisfaction with the resolution of the Council, at its meeting in December, for di- viding the trials of implements into three sections, so as that each section may be tested triennially. This will greatly re- lieve the labours of the exhibitors, and at the same time afford opportunity for more deliberate judgment. We have no wish to lessen the severity of tests by the instruments of your en- gineer, or by the close observations of competent judges ; but we are desirous that the reports of the judges, in such form £3 may express their approval, either enlue or qualified (as the case may be), should be placed in the hands of the exhibitors before the general exhibition day, in substitution of the indi- 206 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. vidual money priaes as heretofore offered on the Society's prize sheets. In our desire for the abolition of general prizes, it is not our wish to prevent or discourage occasional offers of special priaes of high reward for such implements as may appear to require the peculiar application of mechanical intelligence to render ideas, not fully developed, practical for general usefulness. Nor do we wish the Society to be limited in the distribution of its smaller medals, in such cases as it may appear desirable to mark approval of new inventions as '}x&a heretofore been the practice. We beg respectfully to press these views on the considera- tion of the Council, feeling confident that, if carried out, the a:tive co-operation of implement makers, as a class, will be most effectually secured, and the objects of the Society more practically obtained. (Copy of signatures.) Alfred Crosskill. J. & F. Howard. R. Garrett & Son. Tuxford & Sons. E. R. & F. Turner. Richmond, Chand- ler, & Norton. Barnard & Bishop. Wm. Busby. Hill & Smith. James Woods. James Hayes. Ransomes & Sims. Barrett, Exall, & Andrewes. K. Horusby & Son. E. H. Bentall. Smith & Ashby. Fowler & Fry. R. Coleman, Holmes & Sons. Chas. Hart. Clayton, Shuttle- worth, & Co. Pro B. Samuelson, B. Booth. John Palmer. Hugh Carson. Robt. Reeves & J, Reeves. W. Williams. F. Kealey. Hy. Goddard. Chas. Bunting. David Harkes. (Signatures Emerson Archer. Whitmee & Co. E. Wier. Hare & Co. W. N. Nicholson. W. Cambridge. W. Smith. Jas. Smith & Son. Samuel Nye. Robt. Hunt. W. P. Stanley. W. F. Roe. Jno. Patterson. W. Pearson & Co. Mapplebeck & Lowe E. & B. Johnson. Jas. Harkness. Jas. Blair. attached by written E. Brayton. C. Burrell. Jno. Goucher. R. Forshaw & Co. Williamson Broths. Wm. Coulson. Arthur Lyon. John Dalton. Thos. Buxton. Wm. Dray & Co. J. D. Ferguson. Anne Gilkerson. Robt. Tinkler. Robt. Boby. Caldow & McKin- nell. W. Archbold. Ju. Caborn. authority.) Jno. Gray & Co. E.& T.Humphries. Isaac James. John Hope. John Richardson. Thos. Robinson. Reeves & Sou. Robt. Sewell. Wm. Sharraan. Alfred Sparke. Fred, Wilson. Rd. Read. S. A. Williams. — Comes. — Morley. — Foster. — Geddes. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. SiK,-T-The following remarks, representing the feeling of ex- hibitors pretty accurately, and offered with a view to show the desirability of the Royal Agricultural Society altering their arrangements in a manner so as to secure good andefScient im- plement trials, as well as to effect the entire abolition of money prizes, I will thank you to insert in next week's Mark Lane E-^' press. Money prizes are a delusion to the purchaser of machines, and an injustice to the makers — mora especially of lateyears, because the perfection and equality of many manufacturers have become a matter of certainty. A prize is offered for a machine ; many go to trial ; the decision is diflicult because three, or perhaps four, are so near an equality in their results that the makers themselves might " toss for it." The judges arc however com. pci; J to decide upon one, and they then have to do a manifest injustice to the other three. If these four implements were put into a class, say first class, and the second-beat lot put iiito a second class, there would be some chance of a proper conclu- sion being arrived at, and the purchaser might be decided by some pohit that might be quite separate from its real qualities. Practically the decisions of the Royal Agricultural Society's judges cannot be of that importance they suppose in fixing upon one implement, to the condemnation of its equal. For mstance. Comes' chaff engine has, with one exception, taken the prize since the York show, in 1348. It is a good implement, and should have become universal from so many repetitions of this decision. It is made by msfny makers be- sides the original, and yet it only takes its place upon an equality, and even inferior in number, to some others. The trials of combined thrashing and winnowing machines is perhaps the most important of any. These machines are tried by judges who are capable of telling a good sample from a bad one, and also well able to tell whether it is well thrashed and dressed, and there is no doubt of their re- spectability and anxious desire to do what is right to the best of their judgment ; but for the most part they are quite incapable of understanding the mechanical capabilities of what, under any circumstances, must be rather a complicated piece of workmanship. Its simplification as much as possible, liability to derangement, portability, the arrangement of parts so as to be easily got at, to adjust or repair or lubricate, and that important matter, the quality of work and materials, and the proper distribution of the latter to afford the greatest strength with least weight — these are all matters requiring a peculiar judgment, which is supposed to be given by the Con- sulting Engineer, but who, to render him qualified, should have the knowledge of the first-named judges combined with his own. But, granting the judges to be good, and quite competent to perform the task assigned them, it is a perfect absurdity to suppose a trial of 20 or 25 minutes, with everything prepared, and men up to their work, and perhaps a " dodge" besides, can determine the merits of such a machine, or what the result of a day's work would be : in fact, some of them might not last a day through, and others might require to be pulled up to get at some difficult part to lubricate, so that at the day's end the last might be first and the first last. A farmer requiring an engine and machine does not uni- formly buy from the decision of the Royal Agricultural Society's judges. He goes round his own neighbourhood, or fre- quently many miles away, to see the machiues of different makers, and hear their faults as well as good qualities, and then he decides. Why should not the Society adopt such a system of trials that it would be an advantage to the purchaser to know its decision ? With regard to steam engines. The trial of steam engines has become a matter of such notoriety that it is not likely the Royal Agricultural Society of England will again try them oa the old system. The decision has hitherto rested, not on what the manufacturer sends out in his usual way of business, but by what he can produce in a single engine for that particular trial. The engines tried at the shows would scarcely be re- commended by their makers to any of their customers, as not being so serviceable as their regular trade engines. In some cases they are very different in construction, in others fitted with three times the usual number of tubes. It would be curious, if it could be obtained, to have an exact specification of the engines shown at the Carlisle meeting ; but unless some- thing of this kind is done, the merits of the engines will not be imderstood. The Judges' reports too should not be delayed for six months — until the next publication of the Journal — but be ready by the first public show day. An Exhibitor. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 207 ON THE UNDER-DRAINAGE OF LAND IN GREAT BRITAIN. THE DISCUSSION WHICH FOLLOWED THE READING OF MK. DENTON'S PAPER.* The Chairman of the evening (Mr, Chandos Wren Iloskynj) was extremely happy in being the medium of conveying the invitation of the Society to those gentlemen present who would kindly favour them with their opinions upon the interesting topic before them ; but in doing so he would make the remark, that as their time was extremely limited, and as the different branches and views of the subject were, be expected, numerous, it would be most interesting to learn the experience of as many as pos- sible, and this would be best carried out by gentlemen making their remarks in a condense'l form. The subject was not a new one, and the views of each speaker would be rapidly gathered if that plan were adopted. Mr. Joshua Trimmer said, the remarks which he should make would be confined to the case of drainage upon the Keythorpe system, the principles on which it was founded, and the success which had attended it ; and he should endeavour to reply to the objections raised against it, not only by Mr. Denton, but by others, on various occasions. The distinguishing character of that system of draining was, that it took advantage of certain subterranean furrows between the soil and the subsoil. He had for many years pointed them out to geologists as having important bearings upon the changes which the earth's surface has undergone, and to agriculturists with a view to drainage purposes. The last time he had brought them under notice, in respect to draining, was in a lecture before the Royal Agricultural Society, on which occasion he pointed out for examination a section of a railway cutting, showing the irregularities which existed in the junction of the soil and subsoil. Those irregularities were the sections of certain channels be- tween the soil and subsoil, of which the Keythorpe sys- tem of drainage took advantage, by laying the drains to intersect them. He could not better illustrate these natural furrows, or channels, than by supposing the artificial ridges and furrows made by the plough, in Leicestershire and other clay districts, to be covered to the depth of three or four feet with a surface soil more permeable by water than the subsoil on which it rested. Rain sinking through the soil would collect in the fur- row ; and if there were any declivity in the channel, it would follow the line of the descent." The Keythorpe drainer cuts his drain across this diagonally, so as to preserve a sufficient fall in the channel. If it were asked how he finds out these channels, he would say that the drainer must dig numerous trial holes to find the point at which water enters, the height to which it rises, and the relative height which it maintains with respect to the holes above it. He then puts a drain in at the greatest distance from his upper hole that he has ever known to free it from water, and if that does not succeed he puts in another, and sometimes a third. Those were the principles upon which he proceeded. He (Mr. Trimmer) then came to the advantages, which might be summed up in a few words. They were thus enabled to effect the draining of a certain area with fewer drains than by the system of parallel drains at equal distances. A saving of from 30 to 50 per cent, was effected on the cost of drains over intervals of eight or ten yards. The Keythorpe drainage had been suffi- ciently tested on the occasion of the ploughing match on Lord Berners's estate, on the 1st of November last. There had been 48 hours of incessant rain ; indeed, it rained so heavily that it was feared the match would have to be put off. However, it cleared up towards morning, and the match took place in the presence of gentlemen who represented every possible system of drainage^ though he was not aware whether a certain Welsh farmer was present, who, when advised to drain his land, said, "it was not intended to be drained, other- wise it would have been made dry by Providence." All those gentlemen were perfectly satisfied with the state of the drainage of the farm on which the match took place. He now came to the objections which had been urged against the system — the first being, that the land could not be sufficiently drained. He would not go into that question, but refer to those who were present here, and had seen it. The next objection was, that if it was drained, the description of the soil, subsoil, and sub- strata which he had given could not be correct, because it was impossible it could be drained in the manner stated. He had, however, put the facts on record in the " Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," and should be happy to meet any objections urged against them in print. The third objection was as to the price, it being stated that 30s. per acre for the labour of drain- ing land was preposterously low. Lord Berners had a map, on which, besides the areas of the fields, were laid down the distance and the depth of the drains, and the amount paid for the labour iii draining each field. When he was drawing up the statement as to the cost, he took the average of nearly 400 acres, supplied to him by Lord Berners from the map. Lord Berners bad also been examined before a Committee of the House of Lords on the improvement of land, when he put in a portion of this map as evidence, which gave an average for more than 100 acres, closely agreeing with the preceding statements. The result of these collective averages was only a few pence over 30s. Another objection was, that there were a certain number of drains only two feet deep ; the answer was, that those were made in the old furrows between the old ridges. Immediately the draining was finished these were ploughed down, so that there were now no drains on the farm less than three feet deep. The Chairman : There are a few at 18 inches on the map Mr. Trimmer said, Lord Berners was present, and * Mr. Deutou'3 own paper was given last month. Q rs* 2t in ctses where the strata had become disrupted suddenly, the dis- positions of the substrata were constantly alternating from a porous to a retentive one, and that in almost every case where a porous stratum was found, it would be found resting upon one of an impervious or retentive character, and this invariably occurred ; so that through- out the whole disposition of nature, exhibited over large districts, the same law ]irevailed. Take, for instance, the district upon which liis own farms were situated in Essex— the upper-surface strata consisted of beds of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •211 gravel sand, loams of every degree of tenacity iTsting upon the tenacious London clay, which in many in- stances rose to the surface abruptly. This clay was found resting upon chalk prevailing at the north-west portion of the county, the chalk also resting upon the tenacious gault clay, that resting upon the green sand, and that, in its turn, resting upon a tenacious clay. Thus the provision of Nature was fulfilled, of supplying spring-water at every point where these various descrip- tions of strata approached the surface ; and he begged to call the attention of drainers to this particular, as essentially necessary to the development of the science. As regarded what had been stated respecting the Key- thorpe estate, he was willing and pleased to corroborate all that Mr. Trimmer and Lord Berners had stated upon it ; for when he visited the spot in the early portion of last month, it had been raining almost incessantly for nearly sixty hours previously, and when almost every field had become more or less submerged in water, not a drop was observed stagnating upon the drained portions of his lordship's estate. And to such an extent did this prevail, that in a field upwards of twenty ploughs were in motion for a ploughing-match without being in the slightest degree incommoded by any superabundance of water; whilst in the adjoining field, that had not been drained, within 100 yards, a draining match was exhi- bited ; and such was the quantity of water discharged by the drains as they became opened that the drainers were unable to proceed with the work, by reason of the large quantity that followed them during the operation ; thus exhibiting, by contrast, one of the greatest triumphs of draining, and showing how mind had been brought suc- cessfully to bear upon matter in an astonishing manner. He would not longer trespass upon them, although he could have desired to have said much more upon the subject. He regretted, however, the diversity of opinion that existed between agriculturists not only upon this, but upon other subjects ; for it would be generally found, that if ten of them offered an opinion upon sub- jects of the most ordinary nature, all of them would differ. The Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck wished to say a few words with reference to the observations made by Mr. Trimmer on the peculiar geological condition of the sub- terranean surface of clays, with reference to which the Keythorpe system of drainage had been carried out. Referring to a section of a ditch cut into the gault clay, the clay rose in waves, or in ridge and furrow, to within about two feet of the surface, the indentations or fur- rows being filled with drift, and the whole covered with the cultivated soil. Mr. Clutterbuck had observed this condition of subsoil not only in the gault, but in the kimmeridge and Oxford clays ; and it no doubt was the same in the lias at Keythorpe. So far as his observa- tion went, these furrows ran at right angles to the dip of the strata, and had no reference to the inclination of the soil, which might or might not be in the same direc- tion as the geological dip of the stratum, but that in a great measure depended on the depth of the drift over- lying the substratum of clay. Draining land, where this condition of subsoil existed, must depend more on the direction of the drains than on their depth. A drain cut transversely through the subterraneous furrows would drain the land, by allowing the water in the drift to escape ; whereas drains cut along the line of these furrows would not draw the waterwhich was impounded in the next furrow, though at a distance of only a few feet. A remarkable instance of the effect of cutting through one of these subterranean ridges occurred in making a drain at Oxford, known as the Jericho Drain. This drain was cut through the Oxford drift into the Oxford clay beneath ; by the sectioa made at the time, it appeared that the drain did not cut across the subter- ranean' ridges up to a certain point, but at that whence it took another direction. Two of these ridges were cut through, and the consequence was that the wells in that part of Oxford were wholly, or in part, deprived of their water. Had the drain been cut longitudinally to the ridges the probability was that the effect would not have been the same ; and it was mainly to the loss of the water from those wells that might be attributed the suc- cussful opposition offered by many of the inhabitants of Oxford to the plan of drainage proposed by Sir W. Cubitt, assisted by Mr. Macdougal Smith. Any one might easily be convinced of the existence of this condi- tion of surface in these clays; and wherever it did exist no depth of drain would be efficient, except their direc- tion be studied. Trial holes, as described by Lord Berners, or trenches cut in various directions, would enable the drainer to ascertain the existence and direc- tions of these ridges and furrows ; and all drainage, to be effective, must have reference to the condition of the subterranean surface of the clay : by this the direction of the drains must be ruled, otherwise large sums might be expended to no effect. This geological con- dition seemed to be referable to a recent geological period that was long after the deposition of the strata in which it was found to exist. When the clays were covered with the stratum iii situ, that was, for in- stance, where the kimmeridge clay was covered with the superincumbent green sand, these ridges were not seen ; but where the clay was only covered by drift, then the wave or ridge-and-furroived condition was easily traced. The Chairman said that, as the hour for adjourn- ment was passed, the discussion must now be brought to a close ; at the same time he hoped that another oppor- tunity would be afforded for resuming the discussion, as it was impossible in so limited a time to do even mode- rate justice to so important and varied a subject. It would be presumptuous in him to make any remarks on the theme submitted for discussion that night ; at the same time he would be glad to offer a few observations, in order to arrange the matter which had been set before the meeting, and to state his own views as a conclusion of the debate. In discussing a subject of this nature they must all remember that they were but learners. They could not lay down a rule, but they might lay down a principle ; and he thought he was justified in saying that a certain principle had been established. It might be considered as established that under-draining a wet soil gave a rapid descent to the water, and secured the dryness of the subsoil. No one, he thought, would deny that, although shallow drainage might answer locally, the operation of deep drains had been uniformly successful ; and that, although shallow drains were often taken up, there was no instance of deep ones being dis- turbed. No doubt there were peculiar geological forma- tions that enabled the drainer to accomplish his object at a less expense. His own experience led him to sup- pose that a drain of from three to four feet in depth, at intervals of between six and ten yards, came as nearly as possible within what might be laid down as the best principle. The ancients appeared to have had no de- fined plans of drainage, as their climate was not so moist as ours ; and, therefore, no light was to be gathered from them. But, having seen so many different .depths tried, on the whole his own experience was so conflicting, that he could not venture to lay down any rule ; at the same time he had seen surprising results follow from the difference in depth between three and four feet. He thought that the Keythorpe system was one in which the science of geology was made to assist 213 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the labours of the drainer, and that a great reduction of expense was effected by its application. Lord Bekners said, with respect to depth, one of the great advantages of trial-holes was, that the proper depth could be ascertained. First of all, you must dig to such a depth as that the water will come in freely ; a little deeper, then, to see whether the water would accumulate fast, and by that means, if you came to anything like a porous soil, it was deep enough. Mr. AcLAND stated, as one more fact bearing on the ques- tion of the direction of drains, that in Devonshire it was found to be of great importance to lay the drains across the lines of stratification, which generally run from east to west. The Chairman trusted the subject would be taken up on another evening, and that as many woidd attend as possibly could. Although the subject of draining had beeu really, in some sense, exhausted, still the local peculiarities had to be attended to; and the question would bear much further dis- cussion. A vote of thanks was then unanimously passed to Mr. Den- ton for his paper. Mr. Denton thanked the meeting for the vote the Chair- man had just communicated to him, and said that, as he did not wish them to separate with an impression that he was an advocate of one universal system of draining for all soils, and under all circumstances, he must take that opportunity of re- peating that he only acknowledged o?!e fixed rule, and that was the principle of depth. In accordance veith the suggestion of the Chairman the discussion was resumed on Friday, December 19, when, in the absence of Mr. Wren Hoskyns, Mr. P. L. Simnaonds presided. The Secretary stated that he had received com- munications from Messrs. Arkell, Bazalgette, Beattie, Blamire, and Girdwood, on the subject before the meeting, which it was desirable should be read before the discussion was re-opened. Mr. Thomas Arkell said — "The principal object I had in view in attending your meeting of the 12th inst., was to assist in correcting two er:ors in the drainage of land, which I consider to have been attended with the greatest disappointment for several years past, and will continne to be if still per- severed in. " These are — using small pipe tiles as at present made, and not putting the drains in the furrows on arable land, more especially on clay soils. These I consider to be the great c vils of the present day, though not so at the time I wrote my ' Essay on Draining,' in 1843. The great evil then was the extreme shallowness of the draining, being but 1 foot, 16 inches, IS inches, and 2 feet deep, seldom more than the latter, that being- then considered deep draining. This error has been generally, though not wholly, remedied, and if any- thing gone too much to the extreme the other way. Still, I do not think the harm has arisen so much from the drains being put in deep, as from using too small pipes. " Pipe tiles were scarcely known in 1843, except in an isolated district or two, so that I said nothing re- specting them ; bnt in the same Journal, Vol. iv., part 2nd, of the Royal Agricultural Society, in which my essay apppared, there is a report of Mr. Parkes', ' On Drain Tiles and Diainage.' It will be seen there that they were originally made 3 inches in diameter, by bending the clay over a round stick, consequently leav- ing a narrow slit tlie whole length of the pipe, which was then thought necessary to admit the water. These were found to act well. He then gives an account of the pipe-tile machine, and of land drained with pipes of one inch diameter, which was said to answer well ; and no doubt it did, that being the first winter after its execution. This appears to havo beeu the commence- ment of draining with pipes of so small a diameter as one inch. The next year, in 1844, the Show of the Agricultural Society was held at Southampton, which I attended, and there saw Clayton's and other pipe and tile machines at work, and I almost wished I had not been so fast in draining my land, seeing tiles could be made so much cheaper by machinery than I had been having them made by hand. However, in the year 1846,1 had drained a few acres with l|-inch pipes, about 3 feet deep, and 21 to 25 feet apart from the fur- rows ; the ridges were not very high ; .they might be nearly one foot higher than the furrows. The drains acted well, and the land was tolerably dry and healthy for the first few years, but afterwards, in wet seasons, it was very wet, and appeared full of water, like undraincd land, although at the same time all the drains were running, but very slowly. The land lying favourably for the purpose, each drain emptied itself into an open ditch, so that I could see each one separately. " About that time, seeing by the newspapers that other parties who had drained their land with small pipes v.'ere suffering in the same way, it was recom- mended to have air drains at the top, cr, ojien each one to the surface to admit air. I acted on the former plan, and put a much larger pipe, a 2-iuch orre I think it was, along at the top of the piece, and run every fur- row drain into it. This had little if any effect, as in the wet seasons of 1852 and 1853, it was very wet and soft, not in spots, as some of the drains were at fault, but generally over the piece ; then, again, in the dry sea- son of 1854 the land was in a very healthy state, thus showing the drains to be sound and in good condition. " Now, seeing the drains are sound, but that after hsavyrain they do not discharge to anything like their full capacity, I should say not above one-eighth at most, and that they continue running a great length of time after the rain has ceased, although it is not springy land, I have come to the conclusion that the water 'can- not enter at the joints sufficiently fast to keep it from rising above the pipes. And if the rain is of long con- tinuance it fills the soil to the surface, which is for a time as wet as though there were no drains in it ; this, of course, on clay soils, forms a mud round the pipr s, and the ■nater entering the drains naturally carries the mud with it into the crevices by which the water enters, and stops them up. Such being the case, it must be also plain that the dcper the drains are put in, the more danger in the joints silting up, from the greater amount of pressure against them. The pressure due to a head of water of four or five feet, may be imagined from the force with which water will come through the crevices of a hatch with that depth of water above it. Now there is the same pressure of water to enter the vacuum in the pipe-drain as there is against the hatches, supposing the land to be full to the surface. " This difficulty of the water entering the pipes in so small a space, was seen by some at the time of their in- troduction, but the idea was pooh-poohed and ridiculed by a few of the clever ones; in fact, some went so far as to say, if there were no joints at all, the pipes would drain the land through their pores; and others said, let anyone try to carry water inside them any distance, and see what difliculty there would be; but carrying water inside is a very different thing, as the pressure would then be reversed, being from the inside. But to i-eturn to the hatches or floodgates. Wliat does the miller do THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 213 jn times of drought, when be is in want of every drop of water for his mill ? He does not get below the batches, and plaster a little clay against the crevices to stop the water ; that would be about the same thing as trying to ca?ry water in a pipe-drain with the clay outside to keep it in ; but he gets a sbovelfull of coal ashes, and puts them in above the hatches to stop the leakage, and this has the desired effect. Now, if coal ashes will stop the water, is it not plain there is danger in clay and sand stopping it under the same pressure, and the smoother and better the pipes are made, and the closer the joints fit, the more likely they will be to get Stopped? " What I should suggest as a remedy, would be to return to the slit in the pipe, say one-eighth of an inch wide, of a dovetail shape, with the widest opening in- side the pipe. This would prevent the mud or sediment withstanding the pressure of the water, and would not be wide enough to allow mice to enter; and, in the inch pipes, it would give nearly four times the space for the water to enter that there is at i)resent, and in two-inch pipes it would be twice as much. This open- ing in the side would not be necessary in the large- sized pipes used for the main drains, but in all those used for the furrows I think it would act beneficially. Of course it is most requisite in the smaller sizes, say all under two inches' diameter. '•'The extract of a letter, read by Mr. Denton, from Mr. Macvicai', of Lincolnshire, describes an exactly parallel case to my own, and, I have no doubt, the failure was caused by the inability of the water to enter the drains ; for where I have used the horse-shoe tiles (with which the principal part of my drainage is done) they act as well now as when first put in. " Putting the parallel drains at equal distances apart, regardless of the furrows, I consider a very great evil, especially where the lands or ridges have been gather- ing up for a great number of years, and are too high to be levelled without injury to the soil, or without going to a considerable expense. " It will be admitted, I think, on all hands, that at times we have heavy rains, and of such long continu- ance that clay soils will not admit the rain as fast as it falls, and that this occurs much oftcner on land drained with pipe-tiles than on that where the hor»e-shoe tile is used, so that the rain runs on the surface into the hol- lows and low places, and if the drains are not placed in the furrows or under these low places, it will lie suf- ficiently long to kill the wheat, or any other crops that are planted. Putting the drains in the furrows, which are the low places, appears so reasonable, and carries such a common-sense view of the case with it, that to argue in its favour must appear to many altogether unnecessary and absurd, were it not that the contrary is upheld and acted on by many of those who are classed amongst the greatest authorities on draining of the present day. Is it not reasonable and common-sense, that when you want the most water to run off in the shortest time, it should have the least distance to run ? Suppose the drain to be only half-way up the side of the ridge (some, of course, would be under the tops of the ridges where they are of irregular widths), but suppose them to be only half-way up the side, in these hasty rains the water would run from the whole side of the ridge to the furrow, and then it would have to filter or percolate back again through the subsoil to the drain ; and this is not the worst ot the evil — when the land is drained, and the drains act properly, the water table is lowest at the drains, and highest midway between them, and this water table rises and falls between the drains according to the quantity of rain ; so that where the land ought to be in the best state to receive the water it is the worst, from the water table being nearest the surface ; and, again, when it is in the worst state to re- ceive water, that is in very wet times, there is most to i-eceive, when, of course, if there is no outlet or open furrows to take the water from the surface, it stands and makes itself a bed of mud, which will hold it long aiter the subsoil is dried by the drains. " Instead of putting the drains in at equal distances, supposing the ridges are too wide for one drain to be sufficient, I should say there are two ways to act — either put one half-way up the side of the ridge as well as one in the furrow, or, which I think better, gather up a rather low narrow ridge in the old furrow, and put a drain on each side of it, in the new- made furrows, keeping the land rather lowest over the drains. I have not mentioned any cases of failure to support my ai-guments except my own, as it is far from my wish to expose and injure any individual ; but if any parties who may read my remarks shall be able to explain anyfailurein their draining, and profit thereby, I shall be satisfied for the little trouble I have taken in the matter. "After hearing the discussion of the 12th instant, I would beg to say that my remarks are meant to apply most particularly to the flat uniform clays and lime- stone soils that are in tillage, as the slow drainage of th^ pipes on grass lands may be advantageous; and that the opening in the side of the pipes may be objectionable on sandy soils, where they are apt to silt up ; but on our Oxford clay, and the calcareous clays of the oolites, I have never had any drains silted up, although they have been laid in from 12 to 15 years, " With respect to Mr. Trimmer and the Keythorp- system, where there are subterraneous ridges and furo rows, it is obviously right to cut across them, as the result has shown;; but I am inclined to think that these are exceptianal cases, and that the rule is to keep the greatest descent, and in the surface furrows. " Mr. Thompson said it had never been satisfactorily explained to him why the deepest drains sometimes ran sooner than the shallow ones, and sometimes not. I can easily account for it to my own satisfaction, but to explain it we must refer to the water table, or, as some people call it, the stagTiant water in the soil. "To hear some people talk on the benefits to be derived from drainage, and the injury to plants where the land is undrained, one would almost suppose the water table was always within a few feet or inches of the surface, but such is not the case. Let any one re- fer to a little pamphlet by the Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, on the ' Drainage and Replenishment of the Subterraneous Reservoir in the Chalk Basin of London,' and he will there see how the springs and outlets are continually and gradually lowering the water table in the chalk, as soon as the wet season has passed, and although the water table may reach the surface in the height of the rainy season, that for nearly the whole of the vegetat- ing and ripening seasons it is very many feet below. Also on the level clay land, the water table is reduced by evaporation tlii'ough the spring, summer, and autumn months, probably from 10 to 20 feet below the drains, according to the dryness of the seasons. It may be more or less, but it could easily be ascertained by boring in the autumn. But, for argument sake, I will suppose it falls 10 feet below the surface. The first rains in the fall of the year are taken up by the dried soil and sub- soil. It may take, probably, two inches of rain to sa- turate the land, if it falls steadily, without raising the water table, and consequently not making the drains run. Now, supposing the soil fully saturated down to the water table, the first rain, in excess of this, begins to raise the water. It is possible, I think, for one inch of rain then to raise the water table from 10 to 20 feet, or more, in a clay soil, where the pores are so fine that 2U THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the water rises iu the subsoil. It, of course, reaches tlie deep drains first, which begin to run before it touches the shallow ones. Then, supposing after some continuance of rain it ceases, and both deep and shallow- drains have lowered the water tables again to their re- spective depths, as is the case at the present time in Wiltshire, and in the winter season only will it remain at the level of the drains without rain for any length of time, when very little vegetation or evaporation is going on, so that the next rain we have, the drains will im- mediately run, in consequence of its meeting with the water table, and, if anything, the shallow ones first, but the difference would be scarcely perceptible." Mr. J. W. Bazalgette, engineer-in-chief to the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, said — " The discussion on the 12lh inst., on Mr. Bailey Denton's able paper, showed very plainly that in spite of all that has been written and spoken on the subject of land-drainage during the last tni years, we still want data for comparing the relatixo value of pipes at given depths for carrying off rainfall; whereas, upon a number of carefully recorded facts, it would become easy to base sound theories. The terms deep and shallow drainage are vague in the extreme, and we have at present no sufficient information as to the real effect of 3 feet, 4 feet, and 5 feet drainage upon the same and different kinds of soil. " We want to know, with showers various in density and duration, on different kinds of soil, what propor- tion of the rain will pass off through the surface channels, and what proportion through the under drains; and whether this latter proportion is greater with deep or shallow drainage. Again we want to know how soon after the rain commences the drains begin to run, and how long they continue to discharge after the shower is over; comparing the results of the 3 feet, 4 feet, 6 feet, and 10 feet drains iu this respect. " I put out of the question the value of drains 4 feet deep and upwards for increasing the temperature of the soil. " Some of the farms already drained must afford ex- cellent opportunities for such observations, the results of which carefully recorded, and collected, cannot fail to be of national benefit. I would, therefore, suggest to those gentlemen who have the opportunities, and are desirous of advancing this science, that a i-ain-gauge should be fixed in a convenient position, near to the outfall drains, and the quantities of rain falling noted every five or ten minutes during heavy storms. A thin plate of tin, or iron, with a rectangular opening at the top, should be placed as a dam across the lower half of each outlet, and the depth of the water flowing over these weu's at the same time recorded. During uniform and continuous rains, it may be sufficient to miike these observations once in every hour. The operation is so simple, that an intelligent and careful farm foreman could, after a short time, be entrusted with it. The re- quired information might be periodically forwarded to the Society of Arts, in the form of tables, similar to, or modifications of, the following specimen : — " Locality. " Description of soil. *' Size, depth, and distance between branch drains, whether laid with collars, or not; and date of construc- tion. " Number of outfalls, with the diameters and incli- nations of each. " Number of acres drained through (accompanied by a plan, if possible). " Length of rectangular opening or weir. each outlet Rain|~ O cS CD 1^ a o a 2 'rt a « o a a fcc 13 -4_3 o tD-:< o xi M;2 ■■-< o a '^ — a o +^ o ?> S rU /3 j3 CS Depth of water at outfall. SI a a : a General Remarks. " These tables will not only show the quantities of water drained out of the soil, and the rapidity with which it is abstracted from it by drains of different depths, after it enters, but they would also become most useful records respecting the phenomena of rainfalls, and their effects upon agriculture. " Should my suggestions be acted upon, I shall be most happy, in a future letter (for the benefit of non- professional persons) to publish the rules by which the actual quantities of rain falling, and the proportionate quantities carried off by the surface and subsoil drains, may be calculated ; or, so important do I consider the inquiry, I will myself undertake to perform this part of the investigation. " I may mention, in conclusion, that rain gauges may be had in London for about thirty shillings each, with explanations as to their use." Mr. James J. Beattie (of Aberdeen) said: — " I have just glanced over the paper in the Journal of the 14th, and beg to say that I concur in the views entertained by Mr. Denton. There are several parti- culars that I should have liked, had time permitted, to lay before the meeting of the 21st, corroborative of the depth of furrow drains not being less than 4 feet, and the effect produced in improving the climate where drainage has been pretty extensively carried out. " At lirst (1840) drainage was begun here at shallow depths ; but in the course of two years it was gradually carried deeper, until 4 feet was generally adopted at distances apart of 24, 27, and 30 feet, the latter being the greatest distance that I countenanced. I may mention that the sum expended under my directions, arising from loans from Government and private outlays by the owners of laud, since 1846, is about j£'200,000. " The nature of the ground over this and the adjoin- ing counties is exceedingly variable ; indeed, it is not unusual in a drain of 6 or 7 chains long, to pass through three or four different descriptions of subsoil. A great part is difficult to cut, from the number of stones and large boulders imbedded in hard, gravelly clay. The expense, therefore, is much beyond the cost spoken of by Mr. Denton, being here from £6 to £9 ])cr acre. Pipes and collars are now invariably used by the most experienced drainers. " I have discontinued -trench ploughing immediately after drainage. I observe that the soil, when drained, subsides in dry periods and expands during wot seasons, so that an action takes place naturally sufficiently strong to break up even the moorbaud pan which is so frequently met with in this district. This is more ajjparent where the drains have been deep and not far apart. 1 have recommended old grass land that had THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 215 become in its wet state tough in the surface, to be left at least two years unbroken up after being- drained. The grass improves in quality, and the land, when afterwards ploughed, is friable and mellow, more easily prepared for cropping, and produces better crops. The saving of labour is also very greaf, particularly when it comes to be prepared for turnips. The green surface is replaced on the drains, and rolled down flat. " Before adopting 4 feet deep drains, I had much difficulty in dealing with the iron ore, which generally appeared at two to three feet from the surface; but by the extra depth the water filters off to the pipes, free of ore. Occasionally iion ire is found at a greater depth, but the floating substance is then in most cases lighter, and does not adhere to the pipes in the same way as that found near the surface." Mr. Wm. Blamire (of the Inelosure Office) said: " The Commissioners have no suggestions to offer ; but in my private capacity I take the liberty of stating that I do not think the attention of the public has yet been directed to the important results arising from the system of deejj drainage in as forcible a manner as it might be." Mr. JoHN^ GiRDWooD, in a letter addressed to the Chairman of the meeting, ' said that " in order to obtain any practical benefits from such discussions, the subject in hand must be much more closely adhered to, and the discussion confined within the limits which Mr. Bazalgette endeavoured in vain to draw attention to on the last evening." lie further suggests — " That some such arrangement as the following would be useful : — 1st, What are the aims and objects of land drainage, and what have been its results ? This is nece.^sary, as there are some important questions involved, which must guide all our future steps, as, for instance, Is drainage of land to be considered as mere water chan- nelling ? or has it other aims affecting the quality of the soil ? 2nd, "What principles ought to guide us, in fixing the direction of the drain ? 3rd, What depths ought to be used, and on what grounds are they to be fixed? &c." Mr. T. Scott, on being called upon by the Chair- man, said : — After fifteen years' constant connexion with the execution of extensive works of landdrainaErc. watching the results of our various practices, and rea- soning on the principles by which those practices were guided, he thought we had arrived at a sound solution of the problem, as to what constituted thorough and permanent drainage, based on the theory of Mr. Josiah Parkes. Mr. Smith of Deanston's practice had, shortly before Mr. Parkes's time, superseded the wayward operations of local districts to such an extent as to have become almost a national system, causing the expendi- ture of hundreds of thousands of pounds, not altogether unprofitably, but still without a princijile to guide it; for it appeared to him (Mr. Scott) that Mr. Smith never had got hold of one. About ten years ago Mr. Paftes brought reasoning to our aid, and showed how dependent the efftctiveness and permanency of drainage (the latter especially) was, upon the application of sound prin- ples in its execution. Smith's teaching ceased to be followed ; much drainage executed according to his rule become effete, and was taken up and replaced by deeper drains; time confirmed the practice, and now, when we were settling down to our work with a satis- factory confidence, our equanimity was suddenly dis- turbed by the rise of the " Keythorpe system" of Lord Berners. He had read Mr. Trimmer's paper on this system in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, and had heard Lord Bei'ners's vei'bal expla- nations ; but he was still at a loss to know if it was of national application, or simply adapted to the locality in which it was practised. Even there we had not had its application guaranteed to us as a iiernianent im- provement by an authoritative report ti-om the Enclo- sure Commissioners, or, rather, recognized public functionaries. He had never in his practice met with such a geological formation as was said to exist at Key- thorpe, except in such large areas as to admit of their being drained in the usual gridiron, or parallel fashion. As economy was one of its features, we had every in- ducement, however, to study its merits, and to avail ourselves of the invitation his lordship has so liberally given us to make a personal inspection. In 1838 he (Mr. Scott) seeved his apprenticeship to land draining on the farms of Mr. John Dudgeon, in West Lothian ; and in that and the two following years superintended the execution of 140 miles of drainage, executed at Mr. Dudgeon's own expense, as a tenant on the farms of Almondhill and others, on the principle recommended and then practised by his friend Mr. Smith, of Dean- ston. These drains were dug 27 and 30 inches deep ; the conduits being formed by 2J inch tiles and soles, or 12 inches of stone broken to pass through a 2^ inch ring. Thb effect of this drainage was wonderful, and repaying at the time; but when he wrote to Mr. Dudgeon, in 1860, just ten years afterwards, to know the result, he karned that, having become alive to the superior advantages of deep drainaue, he (Mr. Dudgeon) with the concurrence of the landlord, had terminated his old leases several years before the date of their expiry, that he might have the inducement, which the beginning of a new lease would afford, to take up these very 30-inch drains and re-lay them four feet deep, which he had done. Here was a material guarantee, by one of the leading and most acute tenant farmers in Scotland, that deep draining on the stiff and cold sub- soils of West Lothian, was the most effective and remu- nerative drainage. Having gone into Cheshire in 1 841, and remained in that county for nearly seven years, he (Mr. Scott) there applied and carried out the system he had learned. He thus drained upwards of 1,000 acres of land, superseding the " fishbone" system, which was the only one then known and practised in the stiff clays in that county, the depth of such drains averaging only 20 inches. For the execution of these works he received a silver medal from the Manchester and Liverpool Agricultural Society in 184.3, and again in 1844. The depth, as well as the inclination of this drainage, was ridiculed at the time by his local friends, and the landlord began to doubt the propriety of putting his money into such a sinking fund, and the tenants were unwilling to promise a per-centage on the outlay. But what was now the result ? Why, the landlord, agent, and tenants, were all superseding these drains, though many of them were 3 feet deep, with deeper ones still ; the minimum being 3 feet 6 inches. It was, therefore, with some degree of humility that he held this handsome medal for work now obsolete in principle, and being superseded in practice; but he had rather blush for the past than hold out against reason and experience for the future. The rules of the same society now say, " No drain to be less than 36 inches deep; but the society recommend it still deeper." The drainage he had spoken of was executed on the estates of R. E. E. Warburton, Esq., and the Lord do Tabley. He now came to a happier epoch in his draining experience. In 1850 he went into the county of Wilts, as resident agent to Joseph Neeld, Esq., M.P., and being then fully convinced of the soundness of deep draining, and hoping that his Wilt- shire friends might not know how much comparatively shallow draining he had been guilty of, he commenced by draining from 3§ to 5 feet deep, on all soils. Being 216 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a stage in advance of local practice, a war of words ensued with tlie tenants and neighbours, but he perse- vered for tlnec years; and until nearly 2,000 acres of land in Wilts and Somerset had been thoroughly drained in this way, being supported by the confidence of the proprietor throughout. At the end of the time mentioned he began to perceive that he was being fol- lowed, but still at a I'espectful distance, by a good many of his early, but thinking and observing, opponents; and his mis.sion ended by a handsome testimonial being presented to him, as an acknowledgment that he had practically exemplified in that district a sound system of land drainage. Thi-ee more years had rolled by, and time had so far confirmed the result, that the ordinary farmers in that district were now deep-drainers from experience, if not from principle. He thought that no stronger proof could be adduced than these examples, that 3 feet 6 inches was the minimum depth for drains on the stiffest soil, for permanency and effect; and though such drains might be put too far apart, as Mr. Mechi had recorded from his own experience, all drains sunk to a less depth must be too shallow to ac- complish these two objects. As a further proof of this, he had evidence that the late Mr. William Smith, of Braydon, near Swindon, in Wiltshire, executed some drainage on his own lands there in 1812, 4 feet deep and 20 feet apart ; and though this was the most un- porous soil and subsoil, he believed, in the three kingdoms, these drains were still running, and the land was effectually dry. He wished also to record here the result of an experiment which he made in 1851 with Fowler's draining plough, on loO acres of the Braydon . land, and which land Mr. Bravender, of Cirencester, had described in the Journal of the Royal Agricul- tural Society as almost untractable. This drainage was done by contract, 3 feet 3 inches deep, and 16j feet apart; the main drains being dug by hand and laid with 3 and 4 inch pipes; the outlets having grated pipes built in stone work ; and the minor drains being left without pipes, except for about 12 feet in length from the main di'ains upwards. The economy of this work was great. Sheep were now folded with advan- tage on the land which was formerly unsafe for cattle, except for about three months in the year ; the aquatic grasses had died out, and better herbage had taken their place ; and the annual value of about 100 acres of the grass land so drained was doubled. The average cost of this comparatively deep draining on Mr. Neeld's estates did not exceed that of the shallow and tempo- rary operations previously in vogue in this district, namely, £4 an acre, on 1,800 acres of thorough-drained land ; labour being then at least 30 per cent, less than it is now. That the drainage was thorough he had good reason to believe, from not having heard a single statement to the contrary from any of the thirty or forty occupying tenants over whose farms the drainage extended. An assistant of his (Mr. Seal) who superin- tended and measured the whole of this drainage, and now occupied one of the drained farms, s dd: — " In no case have I found the deep drains fail on the most tenacious soils; and the same maybe said of those on springy land." Mr. Seal had also given him some interesting facts relative to the supposed imper- vious soils of Strathficldsaye, and which he (Mr. Scott) commended to the nolice of Mr. Bulluck Webster. ITe said : — " My father, who was land steward on the estate when purchased for the Duke of Wellington, and for many years afterwards, drained the greater part of the park, upwards of 35 years ago, at various depths, in some instances more than four feet deep, using tiles without soles, and covering them with heath — the result was satisfactory. A great part of the Speaker's land which adjoins Strathfieldsaye is also very stiff, but, notwithstanding, it will draw very well four feet deep." Mr. Easton, the present agent at Strathfieldsaye, confirmed this practice to him by stating — " On the stiff clay lands we put in the drains 3 feet deep, and 15 to 20 feet apart ; on the more loamy soils 4 feet deep and 35 to 40 feet apart, and 25 years' expe- rience proves to me that this answers well." If any one was at a loss to discern why 4 feet drains might be placed further apart than 3 feet drains, and still be more effec- tive, he had only to consider that 4 feet drains removed the water 12 inches further from the surface, and left some 1,000 tons more dry soil per acre above the drains. The vacated water tubes in this large mass of soil then became air cells, and rainwater reservoirs in turn, and thus both of these elements were continually imparting to the drained soil ammonia and nitrogen, the most con- centrated and essential food of plants, changing and ameliorating the most noxious subsoils to the depth of the drains. Four feet, then, appeared to him to be a settled standard of depth for minor drains on the great majority of soils in this country, and he thought this principle had been so well reasoned by scientific scholars and eminent engineers, and so carefully arrived at by practical men, that it would not now be easily disturbed. The principles then, which were so important, being now settled, mainly by the sound and deep reasoning of Mr. Parkes, and which Mr. Bailey Denton had lent no unim- portant testimony to confirm, our next most important study should be the careful execution of the work. Relative to the advantage of draining, it was now too late in the day to speak — no one disputed it — it was an admitted fact, and to dwell upon its sanitary or agricul- tural benefits would be as unnecessary as to elaborate on the advantage of the sun's rays. The necessity of good pipes, though not yet alluded to in this discussion, was of vital importance. Whatever their shape, they must be well burned, and never less for any drains than Ig inch in diameter, smooth inside, and well rolled at the ends to prevent their internal capacity being diminished by ragged edges. He had laid on the table a specimen of what a pipe ought to be, and also a new kind of junc- tion pipe to connect the minor with the main drains. When a field had been drained, it should be immediately mapped for reference. He had always practised this, and would just give one illustration of its utility. Pro- fessor Simonds, of the Royal Veterinary College, was lately advised by him to take a considerable farm in the neighbourhood of London, part of which he (Mr. Scott) had drained five or six years ago. The ditches round one of these drained fields had been neglected, and some of the drains were stopped up, but the professor did not know where to put his hand upon the evil, and wrote to him. He immediately obtained for him a copy of the drainage map, and he was thus enabled to dig down upon any drain or point of a drain he wished. Another and still more important point to be attended to, when the drainage was finished, especially on large estates where it had been extensively carried out, was to appoint a steady and experienced hand as " drain-mouth inspec- tor," who should be continually going about, seeing that all the outfalls were clear, and all the ditches kept below the level of the drain-mouths. He had always carried this out in his own practice, and found it a great satis- faction, and saving of money in repairs. To prevent the ingress of rabbits, rats, or other vermin, it was advisable always to adopt some kind of grating. His practice was simply to insert a three or four-barred wire or wrought- iion grating between the third and fourth pipes : it was thus secure from injury, and always within the reach of examination. Thus far he had spoken from personal experience alone. If he now looked back to the previous night's discussion, he confessed he was at a loss to say what anyone coming to learn, and intending to drain, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 217 could gain by it. Some seemed to adopt geology as their guide, others abstract principles, while the aids of practice, eyesight, and common sense, were very much overlooked. Now, be thought the latter qualifications bad a good deal to do with the practical part of the ques- tion. Deep drainage was now the rule, and shallow the exception; but when we took that for granted, we must use the qualifications he had named, to modify it, and suit it to local peculiarities As far as he could judge, Mr. Denton appeared to him to have adopted correct principles, and to be guided by sound personal discrimi- nation. It was a curious coincidence that Mr. Denton's estimate, in 1855, of the sum required to drain all the wet land in Great Britain, £80,000,000, was the same as that calculated by him (Mr. Scott) in 1850, and re- corded in a paper on Land Drainage, read before the Chippenham Farmers' Club, and published in the Farmer's Magazine for March, 1851. If both, these estimates were correct, it showed that the rise in the value of drainage labour and material since 1850 was equivalent in amount to the whole expenditure in drain- ing between that and the present time, probably £10,000,000. He demurred to Mr. Denton's apparent desire to draw the expenditure of all borrowed capital under the control of public drainage companies. The idea of giving cirain-piiies to farm tenants, to bury as they liked, he hid seen to be a most impolitic practice ; but it would be equally impolitic to bring all the drain- ing in this country into the hands of Act of Parliament companies. For his part, he did not see why they should contiiiue to possess the monopoly they now did, and why entailed proprietors should not be at liberty to borrow on the most advantageous terms from any one, whether a private individual or public body, to drain their lands, and give permanent or terminable charges on their estates, if the work were sanctioned and passed by the Inclosure Commissioners. In Ireland, the Board of Public Works was the great monopolist, preventing all private enterprize from going there, either individually or collectively, to facilitate the drainage of land by loans, and only itself advancing driblets to private owners, and these under the most embarrassing restrictions. One great good done in Ireland, however, was the opening up of the national arteries of the country. Here, we im- peded them by thousands of petty corn mills, and there was no immediate sign of these impediments to land drainage b^ing done away with, although the value of the extra produce that would thus be obtained from the lands at present injured by back water, or altogether ex- cluded from tillage, would probably exceed the money value of such water-power. That Scotland was all but a completely drained country he had often thought, from observation, and we might infer as much from Mr. Den- ton's figures, for we found that £1,424,682 of a recent public loan had been expended there, with perhaps ten times that amount of private capital, in addition, uu an area of 5,000,000 ciiltivated acres; while England had not expended even so much public money, and probably not more private capital, on an area six times greater. We thus saw the important work that was still liefore us in England, and had good reason to commend the prac- tice of land drainage to the fostering attention of our great national association, the Royal Agricultural So- ciety. Mr. Bullock WtiBSTER was sorry to disagree with so many authorities on the subject before the meeting ; but he did differ in opinion materially as to the advan- tages of a uniform depth of 4 feet in strong clay subsoils not surcharged with under-water. It appeared from Mr. Denton's able paper, that more than two millions of money had been expended on drainage during the last few years, eithu- governmenC loans or borrowed from companies. Now what had we learned from that large expenditure? Pie quite agreed with Mr. Denton, that the results of the practice of the last few years had con- firmed the principle, that depth might govern distance in soils of an uniformly open and porous nature ; that in the denser clay soils this compensating principle was in- admissible, much clay land having been drained imper- fectly from having been drained too widely. In lands suffering from springs, or from pressure of water, where each drain should be designed for a special service, there was no dependence of one drain upon another, and, therefore, no rule of distance could apply. He also agreed with Mr. Denton in opinion as to the arrange- ment of the drains — that the result of the practice of the last few years had shown that the principle of parallel equi-distant uniformity was applicable only where there exist uniform texture of soil, and uniform inclination of surface ; that it required modification directly the soil varied, and the surface became irregular, and that the desire for uniformity had led to a waste of money and imperfect work. He did not agree with Mr. Denton, when he said four feet should be the minimum depth for all drains, and " that it is difficult to admit of a compro- mise of depth under any circumstances whatever." Ex- perience had shown us that porous subsoils could be drained more effectually and economically with deep drains, and that springs should be cut off in the confined measures at various depths before they had injured the land below them ; but he contended that soils resting on retentive clay subsoils not surcharged with under-water (he was not speaking of subsoils with veins of gravel and sand containing water) should be drained not less than three feet deep, but that the depth must be regulated by the extent to which the clay cracks, and to where the water was checked by the retentive nature of the sub.';oil ; for his opinion was, that these particular soils required drainage because the water did not get into the subsoil, not because the subsoil was full of water. Our object, then, was to tempt the water through all the soil we ■could, and then get rid of it. Effectual three-feet drain- age left no water below the drains ; they were out of the way of all agricultural implements ; roots of plants would as freely go into a fcur-feet drain as a three- feet one, if they had a tendency to stop up a drain. As to water running clearer out of four-feet drains than three. Pro- fessor Way's experiments had proved a much less depth of soil above the drains would extract all valuable matter from rain water or manure. He thought it would be found that the temperature would be quite as high on those lands drained three feet as four feet. He objected to the four, feet drains on these retentive clay subsoils, because you could not get your drains further apait, as Mr. Denton admitted. He objected to them because the extra foot, after three feet, often costs nearly as much as the first three feet. He objected to them on account of the expenses of the outfalls in many cases, and the sub- sequent annual expense of keeping these outlets open. Let the roots of the crops be kept within the influence of the sun, in eighteen inches of well-manured soil, and he thought it would be found that the produce would be far more than if you tempted them into four feet of clay subsoil, if you could do so. With regard to the deep drainage on the clay at the Duke of Wellington's estate, at Strathfieldsaye, it was tried and given up some years since. He was not aware of what was being done there now. He could show an estate in that rreigbbourhood where deep drains at wide intervals did so little good, that drains closer together and not so deep had since been put in. With regard to the Keythorpe system, he spent some days there, the end of last October, and although there had been several days' rain, he never saw land in a more perfect state for all agricultural opera- tions ; and he did not think it fair of people to say any- 218 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. thing against this drainage till they had seen it, and he believed Mr. Denton had not. We often heard of the retentive clay subsoils completely changing their charac- ter by the action cf four-feet drainage ; now he had fre- quently seen strong clays exposed a whole summer to the sun and rain in brick-yards, year after year, and yet they remained much the same. A soil might be altered by freeing it from water, and admitting air ; but beyond the depth to which it was moved no very great change would take place in the dense clay subsoil. He felt con- fident that many estates in this country would not cost half the money to drain, if all the main outlets were well opened, the springs cut off, and some of the upper lands laid dry, and then left for a year or two before the rest of the drainage was proceeded with. Mr. G. Donaldson said, as he had for many years been engaged in works of land drainage, though not of late so employed, he still took much interest in the sub- ject, which was one of the greatest importance, not merely to the agriculturist, but to the community at large. He regarded drainage as merely one step, and that a most important one, in the cultivation of the soil — for on a very large proportion of our lands good culti- vation was quite impracticable until the soil was freed from superfluous moisture. It might be regretted that so many conflicting opinions had been upheld by those who had studied and practised draining, as it tended to throw doubt and difficulty in the way of those who wished to ascertain the best method ; and possibly it might have led to the expenditure of money in inefficient work in some instances ; but as this diversity of opinion and practice tended to excite attention and discussion, and to lead to a record of the eff'ects of each method, it would eventually bring them to a knowledge of the best system for general adoption. Speaking of the results of drain- ing, he would mention a piece of land in Clydesdale, which he drained in 1821-2. The land was previously so wet and boggy that it was unfit for cultivation. It was drained on the Deanston system from three to five feet d.iep, and the third year after it was drained it pro- duced a crop of wheat of six quarters to the acre, and 641bs. weight per Winchester bushel, and had ever since been in profitable cultivation. And he might mention another instance- that of a field of nearly 300 acres, on the granitic formation, also in Lanarkshire, which had never previously been cultivated, producing only a mix- ture of coarse grass and heath of little value ; but after being thorough- drained it was ploughed up, and pro- duced a crop of oats which sold by public auction at ^£"9 an acre, and the land was let for a second crop (let for one year only) at ^'11 per acre. Much had been said as to the proper depth of drains, or what was called deep and shallow draining. Now he believed that no general rule as to depth and distance apart would apply in all cases. What was deep for some lands would be shallow for others, and the most advantageous depth in each case must be decided according to circumstances. Some remarks had been made as to the depth to which the roots of various crops penetrated the soil, and the value of the crop no doubt greatly depended upon the depth of active soil available. Now it was well-known that the roots of p'ants penetrated the soil only so far as the at- mosphere had prepared a way for them, but the atmo- sphere was inoperative in a soil surcharged with water ; hence the utility of drainage. There were, however, two or three kinds of water to be dealt with in draining : first, the surface water fiom rainfall; then there was deep water which rose from below ; and these must be differ- ently dealt with. In most cases a few well-placed drains would suffice to dry many acres of under water, while the removal of upper water required a greater number of drains of less depth. Again, of under water, some was more hurtful than others ; for instance, in the South of Devon, where irrigation with spring water was success- fully practised, there were to be found frequently in the same farm what were called cold and warm springs. The water from what was called the warm springs had a sin- gular effect in fertilizing the soil, while with the cold springs it was quite the reverse. Now, in draining the land of under water, wherever it was of the nature of those cold water springs, the deeper it was drained away the better ; while removing water of the quality of those so- called warm springs to a great depth was less necessary, as the land was not so benefited thereby. The various qualities of soils should be well understood, and also their capabilities of improvement, in order to their being economically dealt with in draining. The question of depth in drainage ought to be decided by the depth of active soil requisite for profitable cultivation. The best test of efficient drainage was to be found in the tem- perature of the soil. The superior value of a deep warm soil was well known, and the object of draining was to give depth and warmth to the soil. There were soils — some clay soils, for instance — in which no under water was found, and no great depth of drain was re- quisite for removing the surface water ; but the drains should be deep enough to give such a depth of active soil for cultivation as might be desirable, even though a less depth of drain would carry off all the water. In many instances, great difficulties were experienced in obtaining outfalls, owing to water-rights on the course of rivers, for mill-power, irrigation, &c. It was very desirable that the legislature should devise some means of obviating this, and it was equally so that records should be kept of the action of drainage, by a registry of the rainfall, and the discharges from the outfalls ; these records would become of great use as data for calculating what discharges ought to be provided for in future works. Mr. R. B. Grantham, C.E., wished to remark upon the latter portion of Mr. Bailey Denton's paper, in which he referred to the question of main outfalls for drainage. Some few years since, the Earl of Carlisle had introduced a most valuable Bill into the House of Lords for this purpose; but nothing whatever had since been done towards that most important national object. The measure consisted in forming drainage districts, and appointing trustees to superintend them ; and lie considered that very great benefits would arise to the country if such a measure were adopted, so as to give power to lower bridges and culverts under public roads, straighten and deepen rivers and streams, and deal with the rights which would be affected by such operations over large tracts of country ; but, above all, the removal of mills, dams, and other obstructions in rivers, which in many cases did incalculable injury, many times exceeding the A'alue of the mills, by keeping up the levels of rivers, and rendering it totally impossible to drain the adjoining lands by pipe or any other kind of drainage. He wished to impress it upon those who are interested in the improvement of land by draining, that they should use their influence to procure from tlie Legislature, next session, such a measure as would enable subsidiary drainage to bo more efiectually carried out ; and ho hoped that this Society would also use its influence to promote such an object. He was not advocating any particular plan ; but thought that some such provisions as those contained in Lord Carlisle's Bill, under the control of the Inclosure Com- missioners, would answer the purpose. Ha had for some time past paid much attention to some of the suggestions contained in Mr. Bazalgette's communica- tion, and had prepared some tables for his own guidance, by which the sizes of main pipes to drain given areas THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •219 could be determined, having especial reference to the discharge of water at certain inclinations, both of the minor pipes and the main pipes, and one with the other, as also the relative widths at which pipes should be laid apart, having reference also to the discharge of water at certain inclinations. He thought that it would be difficult to jirocure the return in the form which Mr. Bazalgette had pointed out, as many who are really interested in agricultural land drainage would not take so much trouble as it really was when properly undertaken. Mr. R. F. Davis said the matter just stated was so important that he could not refrain from making a few observations relative to it. If they were to go into the Midland districts, they would see great injury done from the damming up the water for mills. In the valley of the Nene they would not see less than a dozen such mills, which threw the water back upon the land. If the farmers of this country had not been indifferent with regard to undrained lands, they would not have seen their canny friends north of tlie Tweed obtaining so large a portion of the Government loan as they had done. In draining lands, some years ago, he found that 4 ft. 6 in. was the best depth for retentive clay soils. At first he stojiped at 3 ft. 6 in., but afterwards found he had to deepen the drains to 4 ft. 6 in. Lincolnshire was an evidence of what might be done by district drainage. From a comparative marsh, it now pre- sented the finest arable land in the country. He was rather astonished to hear the remark that deep drainage was only necessary for a sandy soil, inasmuch as that would not hold the water. What they wanted to do was to draw off the cold water, which was unhealthy to the land, and destroyed its powers of vegetation ; and Mr. Parkcs had quite settled that deep drainage was the only effectual system. He considered it was the stiff clayey soil that required most draining, and from 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. he thought was about a proper depth. A Lincolnshire farmer, ten years since, who paid £400 a year rent, told him he must give up the farm, or that, if he went on without drainage, he must take off £100 a-year. He replied that he should increase the rent to ^£"450 a-year, and charge 6 j per cent, on the amount expended in draining. The year after the drainage he gave the farmer £^b to spend on oilcake, upon condition that he would spend £50 for a like pur- pose. This was on a farm of 175 acres, and last year, he was told, upwards of £250 was spent on oilcake, and i£'50O a-year was readily paid for the farm. The cropping ibr ten years was — 3 crops of wheat, 1 of oats, 1 of barley, 1 of bean s, 2 of seeds, 1 of rape, and 1 of turnips. This was working the land, and some persons maintained that there woiild be a falling off in its value ; but where, under the old four-crop system, it would only produce from 4 to 41 quarters per acre, it nowproduces 7 quarters. That was the result of drainage. It was too often found, that for the drainage of land, the land- lord found the tiles, leaving the farmers to put them in. That plan would never succeed^ — the work mu'-t be done by an engineer. The landlords ought also to see to the outlets being properly kept, for on half the estates in England where ^1,000 had been spent in draining, the expenditure had been useless, from the flow of the water having been left to John Smith or Joe Williams, who knew nothing about the subject. It was no use draining land without being provided with a good plan of tlie di'ainage. Draining was frequently rendered of little avail from the tiles being put in without any plan by which they could be traced. A tenant farmer once told him that some grass land did not produce so much after draining as before. Probably it did not in the first year ; in the second, however, it was better ; and in the third he saw lambs and ewes on it in February ; in the fourth and fifth years it was still better, and in the sixth he did not believe it could be surpassed. No doubt it was originally a wet grass, which would not grow in a dry soil, and therefore the difference was not seen at first. The grass upon a dry soil might not appear so luxuriant ; but the backs of the beasts would soon tell whether they had been fed on a wet or dry grass. He was anxious to impress upon both landlords and tenant farmers the advantage of drainage. Land should be drained in such a manner as not to put the tenants to any expense. Some landlords found tiles for drainage, but taxed the farmers to find the horses and carts for their conveyance. Why should they do so ? By draining, the landlords were adding to the value of their own land, and ought therefore to pay for it. In lands he was connected with, the tenants paid Gj per cent, on the outlay for drainage ; and he found they were benefited to the extent of not less than 10 to 15 per cent., and in some instances even to the extent of 30 per cent. Once more he .impressed upon them never to leave the drainage to be carried out by un- skilled hands. A man should be no more his own drainer than his own doctor, or make his own will. Mr. John Clutton stated the result of his ex- perience to be, that in the generality of soils, and in clays especially, di'ains should be laid at a depth of not less than four feet; that in the strong clays of the Wealden district, and in Dorset, &c., experience had proved that pipe drains four feet deep were, if not placed too far apart, more effective in draining land than any of a less depth. When he (Mr. Glutton) began business 30 years since, he found his father making drains three feet deep, of broken stones and chalk ; but the whole of the lands so drained had been for some years re-laid with pipes, at a depth of not less than four feet. He (Mr. Glutton) stated he was not aware of a single instance of deep drains having been replaced by shallow ones ; but he knew of nume- rous cases of shallow drains having been replaced by deep ones. It was remarkable, he thought, that there was not an advocate of the shallow system of draining in the room, with the exception of Mr. Webster, whose arguments tended to show that the strong clays were pulverised and ameliorated to the depth of the three- feet drains; but it did not appear to strike him that if the drains were laid at four feet deep, the clays would be converted to that depth into active soil, adapted to the growth of plants. The effect of deep draining on clay soils was not only to alter their texture, but also to change their colour — a yellow clay becoming, in a few years, a good hazel loam. These changes were not effected at once, but were brought about gradually, by the operation of wcu-ms, insects, &c., working together to tlie water level, whereby the atmosphere was more readily admitted with the rain-fall water, which im- parted to the soil, to the increased depth, all the ad- vantages so well pointed out by Professor Way, in his recent lectures to the Royal Agricultural Society. He (Mr. Glutton) had had considerable quantities of three- feet drains taken up, as quite ineffef tual to dry the land, and the land re-drained at depths of not less than four feet, by which it had been effectually dried. He gave an instance of a dairy farm in Dorsetshire, upon a very stiff blue clay, drained four feet deep, where the stock had been increased at least 25 per cent., and a flock of sheep kept where none could live before ; while upon an adjoining farm, on which three-feet drains had been laid, the land was unimproved, and remained nearly as wet as before the drainage. He could not agree with Mj-. Denton in recommending that the number of acres draining to one outlet should 230 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, never be more than twenty, as he had found by ex- perience lliat the largest possible amount of interior drainage should be carried into sufficiently large main drains; indeed, as a question of ultimate advantage and economy, he would, if it were possible, take the whole drainage of a farm into one outlet, as few tenants were found who would pay the necessary attention to the mouths of drains; and as the number of mouths was increased, so the danger to drainage, through over- sight and neglect, was increased. This last point of outfall brought him to the consideration of the arterial drainage of England, and to the vei'y insufficient power at present existing to enable owners to obtain increased depths for the outfall of drains and water-courses through the lands of adjoining proinietors. The Legis- lature, fi'om a desire to protect private rights, had not hitherto gi'anted sufficient enabling or compulsory powers for the improvement of the arterial drainage of England; and without controlling and sufficiently com- pulsory powers many districts in this country could not be beneficially cultivated. The time, he contended, had now arrived when authority should be given to commissioners, or other competent i^arties, to carry oiit the works necessary for the proper drainage of the districts requiring it; and he urged the inijolicy of landlords entrusting to tenants and others, not qualified by education and experience, the execution of drainage works, and showed the danger of supplying tenants with tiles, and allov.-ing them to put them in, without the supervision necessary to insure the proper formation of the drains. Engineers and otliers who devoted their time and attention to the subject should be employed to lay out the drainage of land, and see to the proper execution of the Avcrks. One-half of the drainage hitherto constructed was inoperative, because the neces- sary— and he might say the essential — knowledge and experience of scientific draining engineers and surv ey ors had not been called in to aid the local — and it might be the practical— knowledge of the tenant or bailifi", to whom the works had in too many instances been en- trusted. Without intending any reflection upon tenants generally, it must be admitted that they did not appre- ciate the difficulties attending the proper laying out, be too strongly urged. Without this, drainage works, and the execution of a comprehensive scheme of thorough drainage. The necessity for a correct plan of drainage, executed on a comprehensive scale, could not however well executed, would become deranged — if not destroyed — in a few years, as the direction and outfalls were forgotten ; and he would again urge that where the outfalls were numerous, they were the more likely to be forgotten or neglected than if the drainage of large tracts were concentrated and carried into mains of large dimensions, whose magnitude would command attention. Mr. Hewitt Davis said his experience in draining had been so decidedly in favour of what was termed deep draining, that he had long ceased to drain shallower in any soils than four feet, whenever a fall of that depth could be gained ; and he gave four feet as a minimum depth, because he was convinced occa- sionally that there were soils and conditions where it was advisable to go much deeper. The wetness of tiic surface of land appeared to him to arise from two different conditions of the soil, and thnt these called for different systems of draining, both as regarded depth and distance. He considered most soils, and more particularly what were culled "strong," were made wet by the surface water sinking only a short distance, and accumulating in the pores and fissures of the subsoil until it reached the surface, and it was with this standing water that the drainer usually had to operate ; and he gave four feet as the minimum depth of the drains in these soils, because he had always found that the cracks and fissures formed by the drought and changes of temperature, on the strongest clay, and which made these soils permeable, extenfled below this depth, and the water from the surface might be made to reach the drains at this distance. Ho did not advise going deeper when the object was merely tb take off the surface water, because the diffi- culty and expense then too rapidly advanced to admit of doing so with advantage. As these descriptions of soils were made wet by water that soaked perpendicu- larly, and rested in the soil, and called for draining solely to rid them of water that reached them from the surface, they were only to be laid dry by parallel drains down the fall, at widths regulated by the depth of the drains and the facilities that the openness of the soil offered for the water to draw into the drains. The other descrijition of draining solely applied to land that was made wet by land-springs, or water which reached it from a distance, as well as from its own surface, and was brought to the surface by the cropping out of the impervious strata on which it lay. It was to this de- scription of land that Elkingtou's system of draining by spring-tapping was applied with so much success a hundred years ago as to gain him a parliamentary grant of £5,000. He found that by cutting up the hill and across the clay into the watery bed upon it, that he frequently succeeded, by means of a single d(ep drain, in laying a considerable distance dry ; but we must not forget that his success lay in dealing with land made wet by \\ater brought to it and oozing on to its surface, and in intercepting it before it came to the surface. Had he (Mr. Davis) heard Lord Berners' de- scription of his soil, and its watery fissures, previous to Mr. Trimmer's account of it, he should have under- stood that he had dealt with land-springs or watei- brought from a distance, and that he had succeeded in laying it dry upon Elkington's system of cutting through the side of the strata that basined it in ; but this system of draining could be applied only to parti- cular soils and circumstances, and the greater advan- tages from parallel draining were found to still more narrow the field for its adoption. With respect to Mr. Bullock Webster's remarks, with reference to 4 feet and shallower drains, and his objections to the rule '• that depth should govern the distance between the drains," or, in other words, " that increasing the depth in clay to 4 feet extended the distance they drew," he need say little, for every fai'mer's experience in ditching and water-furrowing was against him ; and Lord Lonsdale had well exemplified the effect of depth in drying the land, by saying that he early learnt the greater benefit of depth in his experience in road making, from ob- serving the assistance that deep draining the road-sides gave in laying the ground between the drains solid, and he (Mr. Davis) appealed to Mr. Denton to say whether or not he did not find that the deeper the drains on all soils the wider they drew. He (Mr. Davis) began draining ^o years ago, by laying bushes two feet deep, and a rod apart, but he soon found that by going deeper the drains drew farther and laid the laud drier; and for the last 20 years he had never drained less than four-feet deep. Mr. J. Bailey Denton was glad of the opportu- nity of saying a few words in reply, and they would be addressed rather to what took place on the first eve- ning's discussion than to that which had occurred that night, to which he had very little objection to raise, for every opinion expressed seemed but to confirm the l)rinciple of depth for which he contended in his open- ing i)aper. They certainly went very far from the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 221 objects of the disevission, when they listened so long to what was said with regard to the Keythorpe system ; and he said this because so little was understood in what was stated. Without detaining the meeting on the Key- thorpe question, which he hoped to say a few words on presently, he would refer at once to the remarks made by the various speakers at the last meeting. Objections were made to his having omitted certain topics. He believed Mr. Hewitt Davis went so far as to say that he should have gone more at length into the theory of draining : another gentleman said he ought to have discussed more in detail the practice. But he thought the objections made wei-e undeserved, for it was not from underrating the importance of the omitted topics that he left them to be spoken of by other persons, but because he had not time to enter upon them. He thought, as Mv. Scott stated, that we ought, after ten or fifteen years' experience, to liave come to some conclu- sion upon principles which should govern our practice. We ought to be in a condition to coniirm those views that practice had shown to be sound, and to reject others, without discussing the first principles of drainage at this period in the progress of the art. On the last occasion there seemed to be altogether wanting a right knowledge and appreciation of the several elements with which we were dealing in draining. The various speakers confined their observations to the one object of discharging injurious water; they disregarded the benefit and influence of air on the soil. Others disre- garded the force of gravity in carrying water, which is 815 times heavier than air, through a soil rendered permeable to both by draining to an approximate dej^th of the drains. Mr. Glutton had shown that evening the effect of air and water admitted by drainage into the subsoil. Lord Berners, on the contrary, stated the other evening that water would not percolate through clay. His lordship stated this without giving any proof of the fact, and left the meeting without explaining where and how he had conducted the experiment upon which the assertion was based. It was a fact, however, that some of the lias clay (to which his lordship parti- culai'ly alluded) had been effectively drained at a uniform depth of four feet and upwards; and he (Mr. Denton) was prepared to show that such clays were as homogeneous in character as any clays in the country. Lord Berners spoke of the cheapness of his drainage, and to this point he (Mr. Denton) would now refer. He did not propose to touch at all the question as to whether the land at Kepthorpe was effectually drained, as far as the mere removal of water went. He did not presume to deny that; for water would run quickly off land witli a rapid slope, even with surface gutters; but this he did not regard as answering all the objects of draining. Lord Berners had probably got rid of the water too quickly by his shallow drains, and had lost all the benefit to be derived from air and water passing through an adequate depth of soil. With respect to cost, some evidence was afforded by the plan which Lord IBerners laid before a committee of the House of Lords last Session, and which had been ap- pended to the evidence taken before that committee, as a specimien of tl^e description of plan which should ac- company all works of drainage, and for that purpose it was unexceptionable. But in the margin his lordship stated that the " cost of draining" 46 acres of land was £79 19s. 7^d.; and this was put in, indirectly, as evidence of the cheapness of the Keythorpe system. Now he (Mr. Denton) found that at least one-tenth of the land was drained only eighteen inches deep ; and when this was objected to, the other evening, it was stated that the drains were laid in the furrows, and that a sufficient depth was obtained by throwing the ridges into those furrows, and thus gaining a uniform surface. This might be very good as an act of after-treatment of any drained land ; but if it was positively necessary, to overcome the evil of draining 18 inches deep, the cost of doing it should be added to the cost of draining ; but this item was omitted. Then, again, seventy-six loads of stone were charged for, at a cost of £3 lOs. — he presumed as the cost of material. Mr. Trimmer— That is collecting the stones out of the drain, for which the men were paid extra. Mr. Denton — That might be so, but where was the material used for the drains, if this 70?. did not repre- sent its cost. If stones were used and a shilling repre- sented the cost of collecting, where was the cost of breaking them fo the proper size ? Where was the cost of haulage ? Where was the cost of superintendence ? All these were items which must be paid for, and which were entirely omitted; so that in fact it was patent on the face of this Parliamentary plan, that the cost of £79 19s. 7|d. represented simply the operation of cutting and the mere collection of stones. Mr. Trimmer — The men were paid a certain price for cutting the drains, and extra for sorting the stones. Mr. Denton — Just so. He had said enough to draw attention to this paper, which, when regard was had to the character of the work, he pledged himself could not fail to disabuse the public mind on the score of cheapness. For one moment let us go into the question of the subterranean furrows. They were de- scribed by Mr. Trimmer as the minor drains of his system, by which water would flow down into certain transverse pipe drains; but, as he had just said, Lord Berners excused the 18-inch drains, on the ground that they were laid in the surface furrows. Ilow were we to I'econcile these two facts ? Was it possible, by some strange coincidence, that the ^rface furi-ows adopted by his lordship as the course of his drains should exactly accord with the drains prescribed by Mr. Trimmer as necessary to draw the water out of the sub- terranean furrows ? or was it not more likely that the surface furrows would agree in their course with the subterranean furrows ? An answer was wanted to these questions. Unfortunately, the public mind had been distracted from the main question of permanent drainage — its results and progress — by the proposition of Lord Berners setting forth the cheapness of his system, and the explanation of Mr. Trimmer giving a scientific beai'ing to it. He said distracted, because we had not got at the real cost nor all the facts of the case, and which we must have before the Keythorpe system could be generally entertained. Mr. Bullock Webster had alluded to his having stated that it required tlie drains in heavy clay lands to be placed as near to each other whether they were deep or shallow. He had stated that opinion rather more positively perhaps than he ought, but at the same time he must repeat that his experience led him to the conviction that in decided clay soils — homogeneous clay soils — the theoi'y appli- cable to the more porous lands, that was that depth might govern distance, did not hold good. He could not but repeat also, that with regard to the prevailing mode of carrying out works of drainage, we adhered much too closely to the parallelism of drains, and that, undoubtedly, different descriptions of soil had been drained upon too uniform a system. There M'as another point upon which he thought we were much in error. He referred to the disregard that was manifested to the influence of hydrostatic pressure. We did not sufli- ciently attend to the fact that water taken in at a higher level finds its way out through porous strata at a lower level, and with such force as to overcome the gi-avitation due to drains which would otherwise be effectual. He ■222 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, was desirous to make himself understood upon this point, because he considered that it was an essential element in securing successful drainage. As pressure of water was always due to height, and not to quantity, we ought to have regard to the source from which the water, finding its way out at the hill sides, flowed. Any person who had but a faint knowledge of geology would be able to follow his remarks. We might frequently observe that water falling on the tops of the hills found its way through the soil, and burst out at the sides, often drowning the lowest lands. Now, he knew from frequent intercourse with landowners and occupiers, that the lands first selected by them to be drained were those which exhibited the gi'eatest amount of wetness, and he had known much discontent follow efforts of draining, because tlie hill-side lands occa- sionally showed wetness, and the lowest lands were fre- quently but slightly benefited. The cause was manifest. The water which had travelled through the porous soil to its lowest vent rose to the surface by those poi-es and interstices of the soil which were nearest and freest, to the disregard of any drains at a greater distance, and thus the objectionable wet spots in the hill-side lands occasionally occurring in drained land. The lowest lands were even more affected still, for they not only had their own quantum of water to bear, but they received the surplusage of the hills, and until these hills were drained no number of drains, however closelj placed, would effectually drain the lowest lands. The remedy was in such a combined system of operations — he did not mean uniform parallel drainage — that the pressure from above should be removed at the same time that the lower lands M'ere being drained. With regard to outfalls, which was the last subject to which he should allude, he was happy to say tliat he believed there was some prospect of an Outfall Bill being introduced into Parliament during the ensuing session. We were, in truth, approaching the time when the matter must receive attention; for although the quantity of land drained was small in comparison to that which re- mained to be drained, the water which was discharged by the drainage already effected found its way so rapidly to the outfalls, that the consequences were becoming more and more injurious every day. The millers were now suffering from two causes. At times of excess after a considerable fall of rain, and when the miller was injuriously over-loaded, the excess was increased by the rapidity with which the under drains discharged themselves, and as the quantity of water thus dis- charged must necessarily lessen the subsequent supply, the period of drought was advanced in a corresponding degree. As the millers already saw this, and were an- ticipating increasing losses, they would join in finding a substitute for water-power upon fair terms. Although steps should be taken before the evils accumulated too much, it was obvious that every year's progress would make the miller less anxious to retain the water land- owners were graduallj' ridding themselves of; and thus we might hope that the millers would think it their true policy to abstain from opposing the passing of a proper Outfall Bill. The Chairman, in summing up the remarks, stated that although practically he could not lay claim to that thorough knowledge of the important subject under dis- cussion evinced by those gentlemen who had spoken on this and the former meeting, yet theoretically he had oil frequent occasions been obliged to investigate closely the principles and practice of drainage, especially some years ago, as one of the editors of the Farmers' Ency- clopcedia, and subsequently in different agricultural periodicals with which he was connected. The groat importance of the subject, whether in a national or in- dividual point of view, could scarcely be overrated, and the deep interest taken in thoroughly ventilating the question was well evidenced by the large attendance of agricHlturists when Mr. Denton's paper was read. Although they were less fortunate in their audience on this evening, owing to the farmers and others attending the Smithfield Cattle Show having returned to their several districts, yet it was clear that there were many who took a deep interest in listening to the views of those competent to give information, or they would not have cjuitted their comfortable firesides on a severe winter evening like this, to attend a discussion on drainage. So many vital interests were identified with the correct practice and principles of drainage, and its general adoption in an island like this was so necessary, since much of the land without drainage would be perfectly worthless, that the more generally the subject was discussed the better. It was quite possible by due attention to the nature of the soil, by a projier appli- cation of manures, and by a judicious course of crop- ping, to render ourselves perfectly independent of foreign grain supplies; but this was of course a matter of expense, as to the cost at which food could be raised for our population. It had, however, been shown that drainage, properly and systematically considered, al- though seemingly alarmingly expensive at first, was in its ultimate results highly remunerative for the outlay. If the exceptional instance mentioned by one of the speakers, of seven quarters to the acre, could be made the average produce, instead of tlu'ee or four quarters, as at present, our wheat crop would thus be doubled, and we should have enough and to spare, without drawing upon America or the Black Sea provinces. There were other considerations connected with drainage, besides increasing the fertility of the soil, and these were — improving the health of localities by reclaiming swamps, diverting the superabuntlant waters into proper channels for irrigation, for the supply of mill-streams, and thus furnishing adequate water power for keeping up canal navigation, river-channels, springs, and re- servoirs for the supply of towns. Much valuable information, from many practical and experienced men had been elicited by means of Mr. Denton's paper, and the weight of evidence certainly coi-roborated the value and utility of deep drains as enforced by him. Several very useful suggestions had also been thrown out, which merited attention ; especially the more general adoption of plans of the drains on an estate, and the entrusting of the works only to skilled practical engineers, so as to leave the farmer at liberty to attend to his husbandry pursuits, without meddling with the planning or management of the drainage. Not the least important of the recom- mendations in the communications read that evening was that made by Mr. Bazalgette, of carefully-kept registers of the rainfall in difierent localities. Without some general knowledge of the quantity of water received on the soil, the mean annual and monthly averages, and the number of days on which rain fell, little could be done to keep the land clear of wato', or to regulate the drains and the outfalls. Rain gauges were much too seldom kept in the agricultural districts. This was a matter which he (the chairman) had recently pressed upon public attention, in a paper which he read at the last meeting of the British Association, " On the Rainfall of various Countries," wherein he stated, " We are as yet sadly deficient in accumulated facts from various districts, which shall guide us to a knowledge of the mean average fall of rain in certain periods, the proportionate evaporation, and the alternation of wet and dry seasons. If we could obtain, from a long series of observations in various localities, any data to guide us in arriving at approximative estimates of the fall of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 223 rain, these would prove of great interest to the agricul- turist, the engineer, and the physician." Although we were considering this matter specially as it regarded the improvement of the lands of our own island, there ■was no doubt the benefits would ultimately extend further. Many continental countries took their tone from us, and watched with interest our agi-icultural impi'ovements, availing themselves of those which they found applicable to their special circumstances and localities. So also with our colonies. There were many low-lying districts in Demerara, in India, and other quarters, where di-ainage on scientific principles might be beneficially carried out for the advantageous culti- vation of staple crops, and the improvement of the health of the district. There was another portion of the subject which had been touched upon, requiring early attention in the Legislature, namely, the necessity of some enactment for enforcing uniformity of action — for harmonizing and connecting the drainage plans carried out, so as to prevent clashing, and for dealing with many private rights affected by the adoption of an effective and general system of drainage. In the name of the Society, he had now to present their cordial thanks to Mr. Denton, a gentleman whom personally he had long known, and whose scientific researches and practical operations he highly appreciated, for the elaborate and very valuable paper with which he had favoured the members. ARTERIAL DRAINAGE. Sir, — I have from time to time seen severalletters and other articles in your journal respecting the necessity and importance of arterial draining, in order to a more complete and effectual venous drainage of the lowlands of the United Kingdom, This was especially the case in the winter and spring of 1853, when the land-floods produced so much injury to the crops of corn and hay, from the effects of which we are now suffering. I have, however, hitherto seen no measure proposed by any of your correspondents bold enough to strike at the root of the evil. T therefore take the liberty of stating the view I have taken of the question, and which, under the pre- sent critical circumstances of the country, in regard to the supply of wheat and other grain, the Government would be fully justified in adopting. It is notorious that in every part of the country there is a large portion of land in the vicinity of rivers, which cannot be properly drained, and which, even inordinary years or seasons, is too much saturated with moisture to grow corn ; whilst even the grass it produces is of a rank and inferior description, and when made into hay is only fit for feeding lean cattle. The great, and at pre- sent insuperable, obstacle to the draining of this land is the existence of water-mills, which are erected where- ever an average fall of sis feet of water can be obtained, with a sufiicient run of rapid water from the tail of one mill to give a more powerful impetus to the fall of the next. It is perfectly obvious that, whilst these mill- races exist, such lands cannot be properly, if at all drained. If they belong to the miller, his own interest will prevent him from injuring the fall at his mill- head ; and if they belong to other parties, any attempt to drain them, that would in the smallest degree affect the supply of water to the mill, by lowering the head, or drawing off a portion of it which of right belongs to the miller, would involve heavy damages in case of a suit at law, which would inevitably ensue. It is, therefore, self-evident that the water-mills are the great obstacles to the arterial, and, by consequence, the venous drainage of some millions of acres now under grass, as well as corn, and of not more than half the value they would otherwise be to the community; and I therefore propose that an Act of Parliament be obtained, to authorise Government to purchase the whole of the water-mill property of the kingdom, abolish them, and carry out the system of arterial draining to its fullest extent. Tills may appear to be a startling and visionary pro- position ; but if duly considered in all its bearings, it will be found to be not only practicable, but beneficial to the country, as well as to both the owner and the tenant of the property. To the country, the benefits resulting from the complete draining of the land, which is now impracticable, is so palpable that it requires neither arguments nor statement of facts to prove or re- commend it. But the advantage to the miller, from the destruction of his " plant," is less perceptible, and re- quires a reference both to "facts and figures" to ex- plain it. I shall, therefore, now proceed to show that the water-millers would not only not be injured, but would, in the long run, be greatly benefited by the measure I propose. In the fifth paper on the Characteristics of Wheat, I have estimated the fixed capital of all the flour-milhng property of the kingdom— including steam as well as water-mills — at £5,938,000. This embraces the mill- building, machinery, stones, going-gear, &c., with dwelling-house and ofiices, which I reckoned, in all, at ^"500 per pair of stones. Now it is evident that the stones of a water-mill, as well as a large portion of the machinery, would still be available, and that the dwelling, house and oflices would remain intact and useful as be- fore. The mill building itself, too, would, in almost all cases, be sufficiently commodious to be applied to the new power. Thus there would be only the water- wheel and the value of the water-power for a given number of years to be assessed ; the latter to indemnify the tenant or landlord, as the case might be, and enable him to purchase the steam-engine, &c., that is to super- sede the water-power. My proposition, therefore, goes to establish, by Act of Parliament, the universal use of steam in the manufacture of flour ; and that all the water-mills being abolished, and the power of water as applied to machinery disused, no mill in future should 224 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. be allowed to be erected on any stieam, so as to impede the free current of water, raise its level, or pi*event the proper drainage of the land. There are two objections to this measure that may probably be urged ; first, that the expense will be so great that the Government cannot, in the present financial state of the country, entertain it ; and secondly, that it would so interfere with the rights of property as to infringe upon the constitution, whilst it would in- volve in ruin those who are the holders of water-mills as tenants. I shall consider both these objections. With regard to the first, we will assume that of the six millions (in round number.'*) of fixed capital laid fast in milling, four millions belong to water-mills ; of this, but a small portion beyond the value of the water-wheels would be unavailable in the application of the new power. I estimate that half a million would purchase the whole of the machinery rendered useless by this measure ; while a million would cover the rights of both owner and tenant of the mill race, seeing that the latter would only require to be indemnified to the amount of the expense of fitting the old apparatus to the steam engine, and the purchase of the engine. And with re- gard to the owner, if the increased value of the land improved by the removal of the water-wheel, and the consequent reduction of the level above the mill to the average extent of six feet, thus affording him the opportunity of draining effectually every acre of his low lands — be taken into account, so far from having cause to regret, or demand heavy damages for, the change, he would at once feel himself benefited • the only loss to him being that of the mill race, for which he is amply compensated by the improvement of the land. The river, too, would then assume its legitimate use. A celebrated engineer, being once under examination by a committee of the House of Commons, upon the con- struction of a canal, spoke so disrespectfully of rivers, that the chairman asked him, " Pray Mr. — , what do you suppose rivers were made for?" "To serve as feeders to navigable canals," was the blunt reply. Tiiis showed " the ruling passion," which has probably taken a new turn, since canals themselves have been laid dry, and appropriated to a line of railway. But I believe I may with perfect propriety, if the same question were put to me, reply, " Rivers were formed for the purpose of acting as outlets for surplus water." Whilst we had no other motive-power (except the wind and the horse) by which to grind our corn, the water-mills were an in- dispensable institution, and we were compelled to put up with the inconvenience of floods and other casualties occasioned or aggravated by them ; norwas the population then 80 dense that the land injured by them was required to grow corn. But now that we have a power in many respects superior to that of water, applicable to all times and places, and under nil circumstances, and that the land is absolutely wanted to grow corn for our fast-increasing population,* it behoves the Government to take this inatter seriously into consideration. It is impossible to form even a proximate estimate of the extent to which IncrcaBiog at the rate of 500,000 per annum. the low lands will be improved in value by the mere removal of the water-wheels ; but if we add to that the opportunity it will afford for arterial draining, by which a still lower level will be obtained, and every acre of land in the kingdom rendered capable of being laid dry, the amount of benefit to the country at large will ap- pear incalculable. With regard to the exclusive and universal use of steam power in the manufacture of flour, however startling such a proposition would have appeared fifty or even thirty years ago, the transition will now, I have no doubt, meet with calm and candid attention. The great objection to water-mills is, that in summer they can work only half or two-thirds of the time ; and this has of late years been the case to a much greater extent than formerly, in consequence of the more general practice of draining, by which the land floods are more rapidly and effectually drawn off, and the land itself no longer constitutes a reservoir for the mills, as it formerly did. So much is this the case, and so greatly has it reduced the water- power of the kingdom, that many mills have been alto- gether stopped, and to a far greater number it has been found necessary to attach steam power for use in the summer months. It is also a fact that the steam millers have a vast advantage over the water millers, in the facility with which they can at all times convert their stocks into a saleable shape, and execute their orders, which is equal to more than a double capital. This facility amply counterbalances the expense of coal, which is now, indeed, not more than half what it was thirty-five years ago (when steam mills first were used), owing to the improvement of the steam engine. There is, however, one view of this subject which will induce many persons to exclaim against my proposition as an act of barbarism; and I freely confess, that throughout a protracted life, I have still retained the pleasurable feelings excited nearly seventy years ago by the proximity of a water-mill. Residing in early life on the banks of the Yare, and in constant intercourse with some large water-millers, I acquired a taste for the occupation, and a decided attachment to all the ac companiments of a mill, which to my mind possessed a charm of a very soothing character. The brattling of the water, the clicking of the spindle, and the dreamy buzzing of the stones, with a thousand other concomi- tants familiar to those who have lived at, or in the vicinity of, a water mill, impart an interest to those establishments which I have felt reluctant to dispel by their condemnation to destruction. I have no doubt the proposition will meet with reprobation from a host of others from the same cause. But a broader view of the matter, involving, as it does, the welfare of society, and of the decided ten- dencies of our industrial progress, has led me to the conviction that the necessities of the country demand the sacrifice on the one hand, whilst the daily increasing application of steam power to all industrial employ, ments, on the other, renders every new use of it, with all its advantages, more and more familiar to our mind. If not only the distaff, the hand loom, the printing press, and the more obvious operations of manufacturing, but Jl Hill FARMER*S MAGAZINE. 225 also tbe flail, the Eickle, the plough, and the spade, are placing themselves under the protection of tliis monster power, I see no reason whatever why the water flour- mill should stand in the way of an improvement which the state of tbe country demands, which could be adopted with unusual facility, and which would add so greatly to the wealth and security of the country at large, whilst the proprietors themselves would derive the greatest share of the advantage. Yours respectfully. An OL0 Norfolk Farmer. London, Jan, 18. STATUTORY SECURITY FOR CAPITAL INVESTED IN LAND; AND AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. While we advocate agricultural statistics with all the sincerity and support which their importance demands, we cannot conceal the fact that they only form one moiety of a great reformation in the political economy of English agriculture, which can never work well with- out the other half — the reformation of the land laws of the country. Capital invested in agriculture, or in th growth of agricultural produce, has its rights, as well as tbe dependence of the country on foreign corn. That a commercial community, so dependent upon foreign agriculture as Englishmen now are, should have a timely knowledge of this dependence— the amount of imports which the consumption of the country annually requires —is a truism which we presume no one ever denied, not even the greatest opponent to statistics ; and that this knowledge is inseparatcly connected with that of the statistics of home produce is equally true. But to con- fine ourselves to this view of the subject is to evince a degree of short-sighted partiality unworthy of an intelligent mind ; still more so is it to conclude that because certain little arguments (rather prejudices) against statistics are fallacious, that therefore half the great national question at issue should only be solved. Premature conclusions and half-done work never do well — worse, perhaps, in connection with agriculture than any other branch of national industry. The reason of this, applied to the agricultural statistics of England as part of a great system only, is deserving of more than a mere theoretical consideration at the present period of her history. Let us, therefore, practically investigate the facts of the case for a little. The facts of the case may be thus enumerated in the form of a general proposition : To invest profitably in the soil the greatest amount of capital, so as to procure from it the largest quantity of produce of the best quality. Any system of statistics which has not this for its object must be considered as at variance with public interest ; so self-evident is the truth of this, that proof is unnecessary. The first topic here for consideration, it will be seen, is capital. When a capitalist purchases land, for example, the first thing that meets him is the fee simple ; the second, the subsequent investment required for perma- nent improvements ; third, rates and taxes ; and fourth, his household expenditure and balance going to his banker's account, to provide for the younger members of his family. Such are the statistics on the one side. Now we come to the other— y?r«^, rent; second, interest of capital, or increase of produce arising from draining, &c., &c. ; and third, his mansion and home-farm, with the solid satisfaction of being profes- sionally a modern landlord. In renting a farm, again, the first question invariably put to the tenant has refer- ence to capital (Have you £10 per acre ?). And now the progress of the times demand the amount of produce he annually procures from the soil by means of such an investment. Such is the framework of the rural fabric— or rather, perhaps, what it should be in modern times ; and when we reflect on the progress which chemistry and mecha- nics have lately made, and are now making, in connexion with agriculture, with the still greater advances which the exigencies of the times are demanding, and compare such with the statutory state of land, and the feudal customs belonging thereto, are we to conclude that agri- cultural statistics is the first step to be taken in the great work of reformation at issue ? Have we not seen that in practice it is the very last in the category ? quantity and quality of produce being the result of both the land- lord's and tenant's capital invested in the soil ? It is clear, then, that agricultural statistics is a secon- dary question in the political economy of land ; and that the first includss those means, statutory or otherwise, necessary to increase the productive resources of the country. No doubt it may be said that the two may go hand-and-glove together : — granted ; but the practical question raised is, to " put the cart before the horses" ! and to the economy of such a course we must respect- fully demur. What injury, it may be asked again, would agricul- tural statistics incur, were the necessary statutory refor- mation of our land-laws to follow, affording ample security to capital invested in land ? The question is doubtless plausible when superficially viewed ; but when examined more closely the obvious answer is, that agri- cultural statistics would have a tendency to lower the productive resources of the soil, especially in the case of tenancy at will, and towards the expiry of leases for terms of years, until the security proposed was obtained ; or rather, perhaps, it would check that tendency to increase the productive resources of the soil, which the exigencies of the country demand, and which statutory security for capital would stimulate, even when accompanied with statistics. No doubt there would be many exceptions from this rule where tenants could Jind would repose confidence in the honour and E 2 2-26 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. integrity of landlords ; but what right have tenants, as a body, to be called upon to invest their capital in agri- culture, for the mutual benefit of themselves and their country, on the mere guarantee of an aristocratic ipse dixit ? And, besides this view of the subject, the pro- fessional and business character of modern times de- mands something more scientific and exemplary than the feudal usages of a semi-barbarous age. Moreover, laws are not made for the righteous, but the unjust. Now, granting that ninety-nine out of every hundred landlords were upright men, their duty is to de- mand law for the rogue. But, righteous or unjust, it would be unreasonable to suppose that even land- lords themselves would invest capital as liberally with- out security as with it. What shall we say, then, of tenants-at-will ? It may be further said, by way of objection, that to a commercial country like England, with a redundancy of capital and shipping at her command, an increase of pro- duce would be of less importance than the actual amount, the latter being all that the corn trade requires to enable it to import the balance demanded for consumption. This view of the subject, we fear, is but too common. That it is opposed to the best interests of the country, has already been shown ; and that it contemplates the ultimate ruin of the agricultural interest, is beyond doubt. In a word, it is one of those fallacious conclusions of pseudo- economists which will not bear investigation. The fact of the increase of imports being the strongest argument for statistics, proves that an increase of pro- duce takes the precedence ; because the latter, if equal in amount to the former, would render the collection of statistics unnecessary — at least, for this purpose. Now, no one practically versed with the permanent improve- ment of the soil and high farming will deny that Eng- land might be made an exporting country instead of importing. Again, the argument that agricultural statistics alone would benefit the farmer, by enabling him to obtain the highest price for his produce, quoting 1846 as an example, is fallacious ; for the price of that year — and more so every year, now that imports are so greatly increased — depended and depends more upon the statistics of foreign agriculture than home. The substance of the matter amounts to this. The importance of the statistics of the produce of the country is of a far more elevated character than is involved in the mercenary question of high and low prices. The proceeds of harvest is a great question by itself, involv- ing not merely the result of the labours of the farmer, but the munificence of Him "in whom we live and move, and have our being." It is both the index of agricultural prosperity for the current year, and the progress of science, compared with the past ; while to the future it serves to guide both the landlord and tenant in the investment of fresh capital. In a word, it is of itself a distinct branch of political economy : to the nation, what every farmer's books are to himself. If book-keeping has become a necessity in the practice of agriculture, so have statistics. At the same time, the amount of produce must always remain a secondary question, compared with statutory security for the capital invested in procuring that produce from the soil which our growing population demands. THE USE AND ADVANTAGES OF SINGLE HORSE CARTS, On a former occasion we briefly enumerated the subjects of the principal scientific articles which have appeared, from time to time, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. Let us now advert to a fevv of the articles on the practice of farming. The first to which we shall draw attention is that by Mr. Hannam, in the second volume, " On the Reduction of Horse-labour, by the use of Single Horse Carts." The first remark suggested by the perusal of this paper, is the extreme slowness with which agricultural truth disseminates itself. In the year 1815, the writer of these pages — or rather his father — commenced farming in a district in which three and four horses were used to plough all land, no matter whether sand, loam, or clay. It was our land ; and our land always possesses certain peculiarities to justify existing practices, no matter what they may be. We were allowed three years, by those who were deemed the best farmers in the district, before we should be drag- ging the plough along the surface. The objection. however^ soon assumed another form — we ploughed too deep. The three and four-horse plough still lingers there ; but, at the ploughing matches of the District Farming Society — there were none in our time — there are now prizes given for ploughing with two horses without a driver, and there are a very respectable number of competitors. Three and four horses to a plough involve the necessity of an equal number to a waggon; and there is always the same excuse alleged for them, in local peculiarities. Go to Kent, where modern improve- ments or innovations, call them what you will, have made as few inroads upon venerable practices as in any district we know, and you will see the venerable turn-wrest plough in all its glory, plough- ing every description of soil within the county; but not extending its dominion one furlong beyond it, upon similar soils. Talk there of one-horse carts, J and the reply is, that on "our" steep hills one- " horse carts will not do : the horses are sure to fall under them. It is useless to reply that in the northern counties the hills are as steep, and that THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2-27 there the only agricultural carriages used upon the farm and the road are one-horse carts. The arguments which are used by Mr. Hannam, in the paper to which we refer, are by no means new to us; but if some advocate of one-horse carts were to urge their use in Kent and some other over-horsed counties, he would have to go over the same ground again, and to argue esta- blished truths as if they were new discoveries. Mr. Hannam's paper consists of two parts, details of the method he pursued in the intro- duction of one-horse carts on his farm, and a calculation of the saving effected by the intro- duction of them. He was led to the con- sideration of the subject by the general use of single-horse carts for agricultural purposes, both on the road and in the field, in the hilly counties of Cornwall and Westmoreland. He regards these as the original seats of the practice, and considers that it spread thence into the adjoining counties of Scotland. Having then seen the apparent economy of the principle, he determined to try it on a farm of 300 acres, near Burton, considering that a prac- tice which answered on the mountain-sides of Cumberland might not be unsuited to the easy slopes of his own district. In 1831 he sold the whole of his Berkshire wag- gons, and three-horse dung carts, having in the meantime purchased a set of carts of the best Cumberland pattern; but, while he was convinced, from long experience, that they are most effec- tive implements for the cartage of heavy materials, he was not satisfied with their native plan of a simple frame, fitted upon them for the carriage of hay and corn from the field. To remedy these in- conveniences, he constructed a cart of the length and breadth of a Berkshire waggon, keeping in view the following objects : — 1. Lightness suited to one horse; 2. Capacity to carry a weight of light materials; 3. Lowness, for expeditious loading; 4. A long and, consequently, low-seated load, to relieve any undue pressure on the horse's back or breast bone in going down or up hill. Mr. Han- nam then illustrated his subject by diagrams and calculations (through which we cannot follow him), showing how he reduced the pressure on the horse on a descent of one to two, which pressui'e he esti- mates at 465 lbs. in the cart of the Midland Counties; 401 lbs. in the Cumberland cart, fitted with its frame for harvest work; and 62 lbs. in his own skeleton harvest-cart. Having constructed a one-horse cart for haiwest purposes to his satisfaction, the next object was to bring it into use on his farm. The first step was to part with the sets of harness with which his waggons and three-horse dung-carts had been worked. This he did root and branch,' the neces- sity for whicli he strongly urges by arguments, to the soundness of wKich we can bear testimony, from experience in similar cases. One set only were re- served for timber carriage, and they were kept care- fully out of the way ; for, says Mr. Hannam, much progress cannot be made in the system if oppor- tunities are afforded for occasionally adding a trace- horse. Such pretexts must be firmly resisted, and Servants used to large implements have to learn the habit of putting up only such a load as one horse can conveniently draw. So much for the harvest cart. Mr. Hannam's dung-carts were taken from the improved Cumber- land cart, having a capacity of a cubic yard. He had seven dung-carts, and amongst them four pairs with broad wheels. All his axle-trees being of the same stage - coach pattern, the wheels can be shifted as circumstances re- quire. " I market my corn," he says, " accord- ing to the northern practice — in the dung-carts. The only objection I have heard the carters make is, that they are singular, and cut a bad figure by the side of a waggon and team of horses." To obviate this objection, he indulged them with a re- serve of the best carts, kept well painted, for mar- ket, and with harness a little ornamented. Here, after all, often lies the great obstacle to most im- provements—the prejudices of the men. These are difficulties, however, which may be overcome by a little conciliation such as that described above ; and there are often doors which may be opened by a golden key. The man who does his work with an active two-horse plough and single- horse cart is enabled to participate with his master in the saving, in the form of higher wages than his who struts leisurely by the side of a lumbering team, or follows a still more lumbering plough- with an air of importance as if he were doing some- thing great. With respect to the saving effected by Mr. Hannam, his great object, he tells us, was to reduce the number of horses required for the cultivation of his farm; and in this he suc- ceeded beyond his most sanguine expectation. His farm of 370 acres had been some years before under able management with a strength of twelve horses and six oxen ; and just before he took it into his own hands, sixteen horses had been em- ployed on it by another spirited cultivator; while Mr. Hannam tells us that he has gradually, by the joint operation of two-horse ploughs and one-horse carts, reduced his number to eight horses. He estimates the saving by the joint operation of these two improvements at one- fourth of the usual proportion of four horses to 100 acres. The last subject considered is, the expense of Q2i. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. carrying the practice into efiect. With this view, the cost of a full set of implements under the general system of the district for employing the original horse-power on the farm would have in- volved a necessity for the purchase of six three- horse dung-carts, two Dutch mould-carts, one market-cart, and five waggons — a total expense, at the prices of the day, of £295. The system adopted as a substitute required six skeleton harvest- carts and eight dung-carts, costing then £228. The paper concludes with some valuable re- marks on the means which the reduction of horse-labour affords for employing additional manual labour, and, we may add, of affording better wages to the number of men employed upon a farm. THE DISCUSSION ON DRAINAGE. — M R. DENTON'S PAPER. Complaints have been made that in the recent discussion on land-drainage at the Society of Arts, the Keythorpe system occupied too prominent a place. This was perhaps the case; but whose fault, we ask, was this ? It has been said that the discussion should have taken the turn of describ- ing an extensive experience, or demonstrating a satisfactory theory of the passage of water through the soil. It might be replied that to a certain ex- tent the system referred to fulfils those conditions. Waiving that point, however, we return to the question which we have put alreadj', and ask, •whose fault was it that the debate did not take the desired turn ? In Mr. Denton's paper, the gaunt- let was thrown down to the Keythorpe system, and its advocates took it up. Special ini'itations, we have heard, were sent to those who had suggested the principles of that system, and to those v/ho had worked them out in practice, and they v.'ere invited to take part in the discussion. They ac- cepted the invitation; their system was attacked, and they defended it. Mr. Denton's paper was on the progress of land-drainage; and if the discus- sion took the turn it did, the result may be attri- buted to an ambiguity in the expression " progress of land-drainage," which may mean either the pro- gress of improvement in the art and science of land- drainage, or it may mean the progress of the exten- sion of land-drainage, such as it exists at present, over the lands requiring to be drained. Mr. Den- ton's paper, instead of being confined to one of these aspects, treated of his subject under both, and treated it with the boundaries between them not very clearly defined. The only wonder is, that, seeing how prone all discussions at public meetings, and particularly agricultural discussions, are to diverge in all possible directions, the divergence was not greater. Then, again, there were some speakers who were not satisfied with this double aspect of the subject, but wished to treat of land- drainage in its sanitary as well as in its agricultural relations. If the question is to be discussed in all its complicated bearings, it is very evident that, instead of meeting for one or two evening discus- sions of three or four hours' duration, the sessions of the Draining Parliament would have need to last as long as the session of the great council of the nation, if not longer. In justification of these remarks, let us analyze Mr. Denton's very able paper, as given in our last number, and see if it is not pervaded by the ambiguity of which we have spoken. The paper commences with an allusion to the war, and the necessity which it imposes for in- creasing our home-grown food, together with the effect of the present high prices in relaxing the exertions of landowners in carrying those improve- ments into effect which the necessities of the coun- try demand. It asserts the drainage of the land to be a duty pertaining to the landlord, and not to the tenant, whose average capital for the ordinary purposes of cultivation would all be absorbed in the work of draining, which the author estimates at between five and six pounds an acre. Till the passing of the act for the advance of public money for draining, in 1846, the prevalence of bush draining in certain counties, at a cost of 30s. to 40s. the acre, rendered land drainage, from, the smallness of its amount, a work in which the land- lord was not required to participate; but when deeper, more effective, and more permanent me- thods of drainage were resorted to, the matter assumed another form, and drainage clearly became the duty of the owner of the soil. This is followed by a statement, backed by letters in approval of the principles of drainage inculcated by Mr. Denton, which are stated to be — 1, a minimum depth of four feet ; 2, as few outfalls as possible ; 3, the protection of those outfalls by brickwork and grated iron outlets, with a fall of not less than six feet, if possible, into the open ditch. AVe have next a geological classification of the districts requiring to be drained, divided into three areas, namely — 1. The western and north-western, or Alpine district, including the jmmary and tran- sition rocks ; 2, The midland, or district of secon- dary strata, exclusive of and up to the lower margin of the chalk; 3. Tlie eastern and south-eastern THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 229 district, comprising the chalk, the wealden, and the tertiary and post-tertiary formations overlying the chalk. The area in each county contained in these districts requiring to be drained is then dis- cussed, and by the help of certain data and certain assumptions, the general result is obtained, that there is a necessity for providing for drainage pur- poses a sum of very nearly 106 millions from pri- vate sources, exclusive of the balance of pubhc moneys appropriated to that purpose. The advan- tage is pointed out of having recourse to those draining companies which have the power of spread- ing the rent-charge over the longest term. The rise and progress of the different draining companies is next detailed, which followed the passing of the act of 1841 for appropriating a cer- tain sum of the public money to the purpose of land drainage. These are described to be — 1.. The Private Money Drainage Act, the term of repay- ment being 22 years; 2. The West of England Land Drainage Company, under which a land- owner may charge his estate in perpetuity ; 3. The General Land Drainage Company, under which the term of repayment may be extended to 50 years : 4. The Lands Improvement Company, whose term for repayment is 25 years. Then follows a dis- sertation on the several methods of drainage which Mr. Denton considers to have proceeded in direct opposition to a compromise of the principle of depth. These are stated to be, first, the shallow drainage of land, which is described as admitting of the use of pipes instead of bushes ; but adheres to drains 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. deep. This was accom- panied by a pointed allusion to Mr. Bullock Webster and his paper on the failure of deep drains on certain clay soils, which failure Mr. Denton ascribes to defects of execution. Then follows an enumeration of the advantages of deep draining, which are stated to be — 1st, the increased quantity of soil rendered serviceable to vegetation ; 2nd, its improved temperature; and, 3rd, the removal of the pipes beyond the reach of the roots of plants. This last advantage, however, is somewhat counter- acted by the statements of Mr. Denton, as to the depth to which roots will extend if the depth of soil be increased. Mr. Denton then treated of the Keythorpe system of drainage ; and started ob- jections to it, which its advocates were invited to the meeting to answer, and which they did answer, as will be seen by the report, though we have not space to notice either the objections or the re- plies to them here. From this system we are next brought to the method of draining prac- tised by Lord Wharncliflfe. Then follow some directions for a rough analysis of clay soils, and a table of the cost of draining with drains at different distances, with 7d. per rod for cut- ting, and 22s. 6d. per thousand for pipes. Next came some observations on the varying amount of rainfall in different districts, as modifying the necessary size of drain pipes — some obser- vations on the necessity of making the direction of the drains coincide with the line of greatest descent, and on the number of acres which should drain into one outfall. It is stated that these should be furnished with iron pipes, set in masonry, and provided with swing gratings, the cost of which is stated at Is. the acre. The necessity of having a plan or record of the lands drained, and the posi- tion of the drains, is insisted on; and in order that such a record may be preserved for future genera- tions, it is proposed that this record should be lodged with the Tithe or Inclosure Commissioners. The paper concludes with a statement of the im- provement in field labourers, by the extension of drainage works ; some remarks on the necessity of improving the outfalls or main lines of drainage, and a list of the writings in which land drainage is treated of. Such is a very brief abstract of this very able but somewhat discursive paper, which treats the progress of land-drainage under the double aspect we mentioned in the outset, challenges discussion with the advocates of systems of draining different from that followed by the writer, and touches on a variety of questions, each of which might furnish matter for a separate paper and a separate dis* cussion. GOOD NEWS FOR THE HUMANE : IMMEDIATE RELIEF TO FALLEN HORSES.— HUNT'S PATENT UNIVERSAL SAFETY HOOK.— We were much pleased as well as astonished at this simple and most effective inven- tion. It is a hook which can be attached to the traces of a cart or carriage, and possesses this important advantage, that it enables the load to be immediately taken from a fallen horse without cutting the harness. By a simple process, merely untwisting the joint and pressing a spring with the finger and thumb, the parts of the hook become at once de- tached, and thus releases any thing that is attached to it. This hook possesses the following important advantages, viz. : It is more than double the strength of a common hook of its own size, and will last longer, as they are made of the best Lowmoor iron. The semicircular part, which takes all the wear, can be easily replaced at a very trifling cost. They will more than repay themselves in three months, particularly in winter time, when horses are very frequently falling ; the harness being broken or cut, the expense of mending it once will often cost more than two or three pairs of hooks. In saving of time, by avoiding the tying backhand and polechain hooks with string or leather, which has frequently to be done several times a day, and at every time ahorse is changed from one vehicle to another, it is invaluable. To all parties who have property in draught horses this invention must be inestimable. 230 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, STEAM CULTURE. Williams's Steam Hauling Apparatus. ** Specification of Johu Allin Williams, Apparatus for Applying Steam Power to Agricultural Machines, No. 1,030, dated the 8th of May, 1855, and sealed the 26th of October, 1855. Price Is. 4d." The above specification, with plans, was published last month by Her Majesty's Commissioners of Patents. Mr. Williams' project bears a closer resemblance to McRae's and Osborne's than any other of its prede- cessors, but differs considerably from either in detail. We shall first give his provisional specification and claims entire, then a short description of his drawings, and conclude with a few observations as to the pro- bable success of his proposition when reduced to practice. " This invention relates to an improved construction and arrangement of machinery or apparatus whereby a simple and economic mode is effected of drawing or actuating ploughs, and other cultivating implements, by steam power. " The improvements consist in the employment of a machine fitted with a pair of windlasses or winding drums, Avhieh are driven by steam power at a slow speed by an ordinary agricultural engine. The slow motion may be obtained by any suitable arrangement of bevil gearing, such gearing being driven by a driving belt passed round a suHable driving pulley on the en- gine. The mode I prefer, however, for driving the drums is to fix a bevil pinion on the first motion-shaft of the machine, such shaft having a large driving pulley fastened thereon. This bevil pinion gears into a large bevil wheel fastened on the second motion-shaft, which is thrown in or out of gear alternately with either of the drums, which are placed opposite each end of it by suitable clutch-boxes and levers. The framing car- rying the winding mechanism is supported on running wheels, and is firmly secured by shafts to the framing of the enginCj so as to render the two perfectly firm and compact. The ploughs, or other implements for cultivating and working the land, are attached to a small carriage, giving them an independent action from the strain of the chain or rope, one end of which is con- nected to the said carriage, whilst the other is wound round one of the drums ; the free end of the other rope or chain on the second drum, when ploughing with one-way ploughs, being attached to an intermediate rope fitted with swivel hooks or eyes ; and this rope is connected at its other end to the hauling carriage. The coils of the ropes may be guided on to the drums by means of forked guiding levers working on fixed fulcra, and actuated by the attendant. A fixed table, secured to the side of the machine and engine next the ploun-hs, contains a row of holes at distances asunder equal to the width of the furrow. In these holes is successively fixed the axi? of a moveable guide-pulley, roundwhich the hauling rope is passed, after having previously passed round suitable fixed guide-pulleys or rollers secured to the framing. A moveable guide-roller is fitted on to the front edge of this table, to prevent the rope from rubbing against the edge thereof, and to guide it on to the pulley of the machine. A somewhat similar table and moveable "guide-roller, forming part of a frame- work on travelling-wheels, with small adjustable guide pulleys, arefirmly fixed at the opposite end of the field by suitable shores or struts imbedded firmly into the ground. A large fixed horizontal guide-pulley is attached to this last-mentioned table or frame-work, round which pulley is passed the intermediate rope. In ploughing by this machine, one or more furrows may be drawn at once, according to the number of ploughs employed ; and the field may be ploughed either in " towards," or in what is termed " one way." Each time the ploughs are drawn across the field, the moveable guide-pulleys on each fixed table or frame- work are advanced a certain number of holes in the tables, according to the number of furrows made at onetime; by which means the engine and machine will not be required to move until the whole length of tiie tables has been traversed or ploughed. When the engine and machine are shifted into the next land, on the ploughs arriving at one end or side of the field — if they are one-way ploughs— the second drum is thrown into gear and draws them back again ; while the first drum is thrown out of gear, to allow its rope to be un- coiled, in readiness for another traverse of the ploughs. To prevent the ropes from chafing against the ground, they may rest on suitable carriages, or troughs run- ning on wheels. A bell and signal ajjparatus is fitted on to the table, or the frame work, at the opposite end of the field from the engine, which signal serves to indicate to the engineer the precise time at which the ploughs arrive at the end of the furrow; where- upon he shuts off the steam and stops the engine, to enable the ploughs to be reversed." Claims : — " First. The general construction, arrangement, and mode of working machinery or apparatus for driving, actuating, or drawing by steam power, ploughs and other implements employed in workino- and cultivating land, as hereinbefore described and illustrated by my drawings. "Second. The system or mode of drawing ploughs and other agricultural implements over or across a piece of ground by employing a hauling machine and steam engine combined, working in conjunction with a fixed liauling platform, as hereinbefore described. " Tliird. The application and use of the perforated platform (w) and corrcsj)onding table (r), with moveable and fixed guide-pulleys, in the manner and for tlie purpose hereinbefore described. "Fourth. The peculiar construction, arrangement, and mode of working the hauling machine, as here- inbefore described. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •231 " Fiflb. The peculiar construction'and arrangement of platform (w), and the application and use of the signal and bell in connection therewith, as herein- before described. " Sixth. The application and use of the small car- riage (s) for the purpose of preventing the hauling ropes from rubbing or chafing against the ground, as hereinbefore described. " Seventh. The application and use of the carriage (m), to which the ploughs or other cultivating imple- ments are attached, for the purpose of taking off the strain of the hauling rope from such implements, and allowing them to have a perfectly free and independent motion of their own." Such are the provisional specifications and claims of Mr. Williams' patent for steam hauling apparatus. Its chief characteristic is its adaptation to any common farm portable engine used for thrashing. Other in- ventors have generally constructed their engines for tillage purposes, making provision for thrashing ; but in this case an opposite course is followed, the inventor making use of the existing things as part of his project. In doing so, a hauling machine, or carriage with tw vertical drums on a shaft, having the necessary clutch- work ior throwing them alternately out of gear, is fixed on to one end of a portable engine ; the two, when thus bolted together, being about double its length. To the side framing of both, a platform (called r). having holes for pulley guides, is fixed. On the op- posite headland, a carriage supporting a similarly, constructed platform, of equal length (called w), is used. Opposite each drum, two stationary pulleys are placed, for guiding the rope on to them while coiling and uncoiling. The rope from one drum passes out between the last-mentioned two pulleys, turns to the right or left as the case may be, passes over a moveable pulley, then along the field to the opposite headland, and after passing over two pulleys there, one at each end of the platform w, returns to the other drum or platform ii. To the former of the two ropes across the field the implement is fixed. One of the drums is then thrown out of gear, and motion communicated to the other by means of bevil gearing, &c., from the engine, when the work of cultivation commences. On the im- plement arriving at the opposite headland, the guide- pulleys are shifted the breadth of the cultivated land forward, the em})ty drum is thrown into gear, and tiie other out, when the implement is drawn back again to the engine, &c. But various other modes of working may be adopted. Mr. Williams' steam project has several points de- serving of the highest connnendation. To make a common portable engine, for example, do the work of culture, is to meet the wants of many a farmer who otherwise would be obliged to plod on in the old beaten track of anti-steam times. On the other hand, the greatest drawback to success in the field is likely to be experienced in the number of pulleys over which the wire rope will have to pass. This is accounted for in various ways. First, in consequence of the rigidity and internal friction of the wire rope over so many small pulleys. The internal grinding of the wires of which the rope is made is great, and must require a large consumption of power to effect it. Second, the resultent force at every pulley also absorbs a large amount of power. And third, the tear and wear of the rope, under such circumstances, must greatly exceed what it does in the case of Osborne's, when it goes direct from the drum. The manner of laying down the rope out of the tract of the implement, again, will, we fear, be considered an infringement of Os- borne's patent. STEAM CULTURE. Tabular list of patents under the old and new statutes bearing upon steam culture, from the records in Her Majesty's Patent Office :— Patentee. Title or principle of action 6,351 7,118 7,458 7,547 8,207 8,329 8.331 8,644 9,402 10,135 10,578 11,297 11,303 11,304 11,907 11,977 12,710 12,860 12,930 13,159 13,168 13,222 13,564 13,757 13,943 764 949 965 1,151 1,899 2,147 2,418 2,530 41 260 431 1,293 1,325 1.487 David Ramsay I Francis Moore R. L. Edgeworth James Watt John Blenkensop Messrs. Chapman Joseph Rynolds John R. Barrey Sir J. Cayley Josiah Eastou John H. Clive Miles Berry John Heathcoate 1832 Joseph Saxton 1836 Thomas Vaux 1837 John Uptou 1838 Ambroise Ador 1839 Henry Pinkua 1339 Alexander M'Rae 1840 John Lees Nicolas 1840 Henry Pinkus 1842 Joseph Hull 1844 Stace and Vallance 1845 Teissier and Triat 1846 Bouser and Pettitt 1846 Peter Claussen 1846 John J. Osborne I 1847!Sir John Scott LiUie 1847 Pierre P. C. Barrat 1849 'James Usher 1849 Calloway and Purkia 1850 Henry Cowing ISSO^Paul Rapsey Hodge 1850|Weston Tuxford I850iGeorge Thomson 1851 George Gutherie 1851;David S.Brown l852lMartyu H.Roberta 1852 Thomas Chrippes 1852 John Bethell 1852 Denis John Murphy 1853 — Romaine Traction engine Endless railway Traction engine Rack and pinion railway Rigger-traction engine Traction engine Endless railway Rack and pinion railway Traction engine u Endless railway and rig- ger traction Rigger traction Rotary tiller Traction engine )* „ hydrogen gas Endless rope traction be- tween canals Trctn. engine bycrutches An electric plough Rotary delving machine Locomotive windmill plough Trctn. engine by crutches Screw plough Rigger traction Traction — two engines and single rope Rectilinear and rotary culture Reciprocating digger Rotary ploughs Endless-chain tillers Traction engine Reciprocating digger Clod-crusher and presser Reciprocating digger Rotary tiller t> Tilling by ploughs Rotary digger 1853 C. H. Hoakyns 1853|H. Jeanneret 1853|Alexi3 Dussuc 1853|Joseph Bauer 1854'John Henry Johnson 1854 Thomas Atkins 1854 James Boydell 1854 William Southall 1854 John A. Williams 1854 John H. Johnson 1,626 1854, Beaumont Cole 35'1855 John H.Johnson 288 1855 George T. Bousfield 1855 John A. Williams 1855 Baron von Qelgenheimh 1855|A. M.Ford 1855 Messrs. Fisken 1855 John H. Johnson 1855 J. Hanson 1855 iP. A. Halkett 1855F. A. Wilson 1855 John A. Williams 1,030 1,177 1,343 1.629 1,642 1,953 2,224 2,551 2,766 2,848'1855'0. C.Evans Reciprocating digger Rotary digger (Romaine) Traction engine Endless railway Transverse rotary digger Ploughing machine Rotary tiller » „ (Romaine) Steam plough Stationary rigger traction (Not specified) It affords us much pleasure to inform our readers 232 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that Her Majesty's Commissioners of Patents, impressed with the importance of this subject iu a national sense, have commenced publishing, in a series, all the speciiica- tions under the old statute of patents, for " tilling and preparing land," " ploughs and ploughing," " harrow- ing, hoeing, and raking," " manuring," and for "sowing, drilling, and planting," which will include the whole of the above list prior to 1852, with any we may have overlooked. Our readers are aware that the specifi- cations are now printed according to the new statute. QUALITY OF PRODUCE. The more dependent England becomes on a supply of foreign agricultural produce, quality increases in im- portance in her own markets. To our readers the proposition is one of no ordinary interest at the present time : let us view it therefore in one or two aspects. In the corn and flour trade, fat stock and dead meat markets, provision trade— as butter and cheese, eggs and poultry, hams and salted provisions of every kind — in the commerce of wool, flax, and the like, and again in the vegetable and fruit markets, &c., &c., the foreign farmer is daily becoming a more successful rival. He is so, not only because experience is making him more thoroughly acquainted with our markets, but also because a better knowledge of our wealth and social circumstances (coupled with the progress which he him- self is making in the arts and sciences) is enabling him to introduce the products of his own country j thus not only giving a greater variety to our wants, but also re- ducing the demand for, and even superseding some of the daily necessities of a former age. "The ofiicial returns of the importation of agri- cultural produce, live stock, &c., &c., into the United Kingdom," which from time to time appear in the columns of the Marli Lane Eocpress, afford ample evidence in support of what has just been premised, both as to the quantity and quality of foreign produce, and the increasing intelligence of its grower. No doubt, owing to the variableness of climate and yield of soil (two seasons in succession seldom being equally pro- ductive), coupled with the unbounded wealth and speculative character of the British merchant, one season compared with the other may not afford that amount of evidence which in reality exists ; but if we compare the returns of two seasons at some distance from each other, or go practically into the consumption of this country, carefully investigating the domestic happiness of her in- dustrious and toil-worn millions struggling to outstrip each other in the march of progress, diff'erences of a magnitude will be found more than sufficient to establish the truth of both. For the future, the war (or perhaps we should now say cfl'ects of the late war) with Russia cannot fail to exercise a favourable influence upon the progress of foreign agriculture. It has, in point of fact, done so already, by stimulating, less or more, the productive re- sources of almost every corner of the habitable globe (that empire excepted) to supply the deficiency of imports from the Baltic and Black Seas — the immediate theatres of the past two campaigns; while, on the cessa- tion of hostilities, the return of soldiers to their respective homes will disseminate new ideas on the sub- ject, calling into action the latent energies of their countrymen to respond to the exigencies of the times. Then we have the position of our immense colonial empire, and the United States of America and our East Indian territory, meriting special notice. From this source, for example, the mother country is now annually receiving no small amount of her daily neces- saries of life. A moment's reflection will at once con- vince the mind that there is here a wide and varied field yielding its beneficial harvests, and administering to the domestic happiness of the British people. Engaged in the active pursuits of our respective vocations we are apt to forget what this world of States is contemplating on our behalf, or even what they are already sending us in the shape of food and clothing. To them the block- ading of the exporting seaboard of Russia has acted propitiously, giving to their industry an impetus which cannot fail to exercise a favourable influence upon their own resources and our imports for the future. We must now turn an eye to the home market, and here we are at once brought to the conclusion that in competition with the world the British farmer can no longer sell at a profit an inferior article, for various ivell-known reasons. First, for example, consumers are daily becoming more familiar with the truth of the old proverb, that " The best article is generally the chea- pest," and to this also he must respond. No doubt inferior articles are still sold and bought in every corner of the kingdom, and will continue to be so ; but not advanta- geously, and to his balance-sheet the progress of foreign agriculture will compel him to attend. Second, as we advance in the march of improvement, our labours are daily assuming more of a commercial character, arising from the greater amount of capital invested in improved machinery, artificial manures, &c., &c., and the still greater demands which the progress of things is making in this direction. Enter any field upon the farm, or any building appropriated to the rearing or fattening of stock, and the familiar question " Will it pay ?" must be solved before anything can be done, and this solution hinges upon the quality and price of foreign agricultui'al pro- duce. In short, if the home farmer cannot bring to the market a superior article to his rival's, how seldom will it pay ! The progress now being made in opening up the con- tinents of Europe, Asia, and America by railroads, coupled with improved steam transport, is greatly in favour of foreign agriculture improving the quality of our imports. It not only does so ; but it allows her farmers, at the same time, to export provisions and ve- getables which otherwise they could not do. The money THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •233 now annually paid for our total itaports of this kind is almost incredible, amounting to no small part of the earnings of our labouring population, and household ex- penses of the middle and upper classes of society. But although the foreign farmer is thus enjoying these advantages, the home farmer nevertheless is sure of a good price if he has a superior article ; and upon this the success of modern husbandry in no small degree must depend. A bare mediocrity can hardly any longer make money at farming, so great is the difference between it and the top price of the market ; and what increases the importance of this difference is the fact that quantity and quality generally go together. In the vegetable kingdom, draining, deepening, and aerating the soil, changing its character by manuring or admixture, as by laying clay on sand, and sand on clay, &c., &c., are among the means for improving the quality and increasing the quantity of produce. Then follows improved means of harvesting and bringing this produce to market. In each of these cases the details of practice are extremely interesting, affording to both landlord and tenant the broadest and most promising field within the wide domains of British industry, in which to exercise their skill and invest their capital. In the animal kingdom, again, a higher degree of skill is perhaps necessary to improve quality and increase quantity than in the vegetable, owing to the more artifi- cial state of animals, both when rearing and fattening, and also of the butcher-meat after they are slaughtered. At the same time more art is being here displayed, not only in the improvement of live stock, but also in the preservation and marketing of the dead meat afterwards. Now in both these departments the English farmer has much reason at present to double his industry and be upon his guard ; for in tliem the foreign farmer is making rapid progress, while over his rival he possesses a wider field and many other natural advantages. In this coun- try, England more especially we fear, there is too much fat, and too little lean — a growing evil among almost all our improved breeds both of oxen and sheep. Quality is thus sacrificed to early maturity, or to a greater weight. No doubt this extra weight does more than balance the account with quality at home ; but the question is, does it do so in competition with the foreign farmer ? In other words, are we carrying this adipose disposition of fat stock to too high a degree, producing a description of butcher-meat not so healthy nor so fit for human food? In dairying, again, and the management of poultry, is not the foreign farmer more than a match already for us ? There is in this department of the farm a wider field for improvement on the part of the English farmer than perhaps in any other of it, generally speaking. From these facts, therefore, it would be an easy mat- ter presenting to our readers a very interesting picture of the present position of British agriculture in compari- son with her foreign rivals — the United States of America, proverbially acknowledged as "a world of farmers," with our other colonies and East Indian em- pire. How industriously are they striving, not only to outstrip the mother country in the quality of agricultural produce, but also in the manufacture of that produce ready for our tables, converting the grass of their bound- less savannas into butcher-meat — that butcher- meat into preserved dishes — " beef bread," &c., &c.— their corn into flour, bread, crumpets, crackers, &c., as if our home provinces were to be turned into so many deer- parks, according to the corn-law theories of pseudo- economists ! The progress of things on the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, again, indicate in equally explicit terms the course which the British farmer is at present called upon to pursue, and that course is ob- viously to double his diligence in every department of bis profession. THE MEANS AVAILABLE FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF LAND. The subject of land drainage has lately excited considerable interest, and drawn such attention to the drainage question, as bids fair to rciuse some modification of existing practice. In our observations, a v/eek or two ago, on the paper which gave rise to that discussion, we alluded to the evidence given before the Committee of the House of Lords on the improvement of land ; that evidence and their report are now before us, and it may not be amiss to make our readers acquainted v/ith an outline of their contents. The Committee were appointed to inquire and report whether it would not be advisable that the powers now invested in the companies for the im- provement of land should be made the subject of general legislation. The Committee consisted of the following noblemen : — t'le Earl of Salisburv, Earl Delaware, Earl Ducie, Viscount Sidmouth, Lord Berners, Lord Redesdale, Lord Ardrossan, and Lord Portman, Their Lordships met twice, and examined the following witnesses : — Henry Charles Miles, Esq., "William Blamire, Esq., the Hon. Wm. Napier, and George Darby, Esq. — that is to say three of the Tithe and Inclosure Com- missioners, and the manager of one of the com- panies for the Improvement of Land. The result of this investigation was that the Committee reported as follows : — 1 . That it would be desirable that the powers now vested in the companies for the improvement of land should be made the subject of general legis- lation. 2. That some of the powers granted, in various private acts, to companies, established with a view 334 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to advance moneys to the owners of limited estates for the improvement thereof, are likely to be dan- gerous to the interests of reversioners. 3. That the charges are permitted to be created under the powers of these acts, either as annuities terminable at the end of long periods, or mortgages in fee. 4. That the acts do not always secure that suffi- cient notice shall be given, either to the reversioners or to the mortgagees, owners of other estates, who may be injured, and may be entitled to compensa- tion. 5. That the necessity of obtaining the certificates of the Inclosure Commissioners is not in all cases co-extensive with the other powers given by the acts. 6. That it is desirable that a General Act should be passed without delay, determining under what provisions landowners of limited and settled estates shall be permitted to obtain advances of money for their improvement from the before-mentioned com- panies, or from other sources, particularly insuring the redemption of the charges to be created, within a term not exceeding twenty-five years, for any species of improvement, and preventing any charge upon the estate of the reversioner without the order of the Inclosure Commissioners. Such was the constitution of the Committee, tlie conclusions at which they arrived, and such were the witnesses whom they examined. Let us now look a little into the evidence. The first witness examined was Mr. Mules, one of the Inclosure Commissioners. This gentleman enumerated the different com- panies empowered to advance money for the im- provement of land, and make it a charge on the estate. We described them on a former occa- sion, and need not now repeat the description. He then detailed the mode of proceeding, when a land- owner wishes to borrow money of the General Land Draining Company and the Lands Im- provement Company. The proceedings under both these Companies, when a landowner wishes to borrow money for purposes of improvement and to make it a charge on the estate, are exactly analogous to those prescribed by the Public Money Drainage Act and the Private Money Drainage Acts. A provisional contract is first made between the com- pany and the landowner. Notice of the contract is given in a local paper for two weeks. Dissent may be given by any person entitled to an estate in, or having any charge upon the property, within two months from the last advertisement. Dissents have to be dealt with, under the act, by the Court of Chancery. The draft contract or the provisional contract is submitted to the Inclosure Commis- sioners, who send one of their inspectors to report upon the works generally, and the probable im- provement which will be effected by them ; they either approve of the original contract, or direct it to be altered in such particulars as they think right. If they are satisfied with the proposed works, an original order is issued, which has the effect of making the contract binding upon all parties. Upon the works being executed, an inspection is made by the Commis.sioners' own surveyor, and if he reports that they have been executed in accordance with the contract, and upon terms approved of by the Commissioners, an absolute order is issued, which has the effect of creating a rent-charge upon the property in favour of the Company for the amount expended, with interest. For buildings, under the General Land Drainage Company, the rent-charge is for 30 years; and for drainage and other works for a period not exceeding 50 years, for repayment of principal and interest. The rent-charge for the 30 years have varied from 6 to 7 per cent., accord- ing to the value of money, and for the 50 years from £4 13s. Id. to £5 2s. lOd. The whole of the works under this Company are planned by their own sur- veyor, and executed under his direction. In all the contracts there are provisions that the works shall be kept in repair by the landowner during the con- tinuance of the charge, and buildings must be in- sured. The Lands Improvement Companies Act extends to Scotland, the other two Acts are confined to England and Wales. By this Act a declaration is required of the landowner as to the remainder- men and incumbrances, who are to be served, and notice is also twice to be given in the local papers. The same time is allowed for dissent as in the Act of the other Company, and dissents are to be dealt withbythe Courtof Chancery inEngland, and by the Court of Session in Scotland. This company have the power of charging the property for 25 years with a rent-charge in liquidation of principal and interest. The rate charged has been from £6 10s. to £6 15s., the latter being the present rate for 25 years. In these two Companies not more than two years' arrears can be recovered against the remainder-man. There is this peculiarity with respect to the Act of this Company — that it empowers them, with the consent of the Inclosure Commissioners, to issue mortgage debentures founded upon the securities created by the order of the Commissioners. These mortgage debentures are payable 14 days before the securities become due, with a view to enable the party holding the mortgage debentures to take steps to appoint a receiver, or any other step he may find necessary, in the event of its not being paid ; so that the receiver would have time to give notice to the landowner to pay the rent-charge before it became due. The commission charged by this THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 235 Company is 5 per cent, upon the outlay, and by the General Land Drainage Company the charge is lis, 6d. the acre, and 7^ per cent, upon the buildings. The General Land Drainage Company's works are planned by the Company's surveyor and executed under his superintendence : the Lands Improve- ment Company do no works, they simply negotiate terms for the carrying of them out ; they employ no staff of surveyors or other persons to make plans. THE POOR MAN'S BANE. The English labourer, or " the poor man," as he is distinguished, is generally a proud man. He has an instinctive horror of having his privacy invaded, and his hardships patronized. Silently and sullenly though he bear with the constant repetition of these Lord and Lady Bountiful visits, he feels acutely the spirit in which they are paid. None discriminate more readily. Easily enough will he distinguish between the officious vanity of so called charity, and the earnest sympathy of those who really wish to befriend him. From the in- fluence of the one, he becomes only the more dis- heartened and degraded ; while of the other he will learn the great secrets of self-reliance and in- dependence. It is extraordinary with how little judgment the wants of the poor are supplied. It would seem, indeed, that too commonly these wants are but little understood. Occasional alms - giving, routine visiting, and as methodical a distribution of coals, blankets, and tracts, are commonly accepted as the chief duties of the higher classes to the lower. There is but too often one grand want on the other side, and that is a heart to feel with, and a power to understand those we now offer such supercilious succour. It is a very old story, but it is a very true one. If we have only our pence to give to those who importune the loudest for them, we shall not do much good. The first lesson for the labourer, is that to the boy trying to swim — confidence, and the use of his own powers. If we teach him to depend only on belts and bladders, he will sink the moment he loses their support. It is gratifying to see a nobleman, in his en- deavour to serve those beneath him, going far beyond the conventional claims on his " station" — not wholly satisfied with what the clergyman may do on his behalf in the parish, or the steward on the estate. One v/ho has applied himself rather to practically understand the people, and by con- tinual intercommunication with them to find not only what they may require from others but what they can and should do for themselves. The task is not altogether an easy one. It demands tact, earnestness, and true sympathy of feeling with his condition, to tell a man not so much what you are going to do for him, but what he ought to do for himself. To declare to him that certain coarse indulgences to which he has been taught to look forward as only his right and due are totally un- worthy of him, and that until he renounces them few can acknowledge him. To see the rich man, we say, thus directly attacking the long-cherished habits of the poor one, is to watch a work likely to be fraught with some risk and much unthank- fulness. It has been attempted, however; and not at- tempted in vain. The bane of the poor man is still drink : the height of his ambition, in the rural districts at least, is beer. For beer he will do almost anything : without a grand libation of beer no great or good work can be complete. In an age when almost every other class has, or is gradually escaping from the hold of such a vice, the labourer is yet firm in its grasp. The three-bottle gentleman is no longer a hero ; the farmer " fresh" on market- day no longer a fact. Our youngsters are taught to avoid drinking, instead of being gradually "sea- soned" to it. The only exception is the working- man — young or old, he still " drinks as he oughtn't to drink." When he takes his wages — when he finishes at harvest— when he goes to fair or market — when even he goes to put by his savings — he has everywhere the too ready opportunity for drink. Judges denounce the practice from the bench, cler- gymen from the pulpit, statesmen from their places in the House; but yet has the custom continued. Employers appeared hopelessly to submit ; the men would not work without it, and as they must have it, they do. To the Earl of Albemarle is due the great credit of gradually rescuing the poor man from this abominable control. There can be no doubt that he is doing so. Any one of course, preach as we will, can deliberately go to " the drink," should he so choose ; our aim must be not to force the drink upon him — not, in other words, to further uphold his getting drunk by custom. This is the aim of Lord Albemarle. Few of our readers will require to be reminded of the effect he produced only last autumn on the celebration of Harvest Homes, or how certain the abuses he then attacked are now to give way. His lordship, however, is too ener- getic a reformer to be satisfied with one effort, or 236 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. even with the victory that follows it. More re- cently, as chairman of an agricultural society, in distributing prizes to the best vv'orkmen, he again reverted to the evil. As we do not think these re- marks were so generally reported, and as they are equally applicable to the master as well as the man, we may quote from them here with advan- tage : — " The point upon which I dwelt when I last spoke upon this subject was the connection between drunkenness and crime ; and you will find that I quoted six judges of the land, to show the effect which was produced by drink — amongst tlie rest, the dying words of Mr. Justice Talfourd ; and if I now mention his words again, it is not with reference so much to the labouring classes as to the rest of the commu- nity. Mr. Justice Talfourd accused others besides the labouring classes : he distinctly accused the class to which I myself belong, and with which I am immediately in connexion. He says: 'I cannot help thinking that this drunkenness may be in no small degree attributable to the separation between class and class which is the curse of British society, and for which we are all, in our respective spheres, in some degree responsible. I am afraid that we all of us keep too much aloof from those beneath us, whom we thus encourage to look upon us with suspicion and dislike.' And in another part of his charge, 'This feeling, arising from that kind of reserve peculiar to the British character, does, I thiuk, greatly tend to prevct.t that mingling of class with class, that reciprocation of kind words and friendly offices, which tend to the culture of the affections of the heart, and the elevation of the character of those to whom they are addressed.' I believe the judge to be right : I hope he is. I for one shall take upon myself the responsibility of my class, and endeavour, as far as my small influence will go, to promote that good feeling. Every one here present may in some way be useful. Every one who betters the condition of the poor is helping to put down that degrading vice of drunkenness, which arises, I believe, very much from the want of that expression of sympathy and those alternations of friendly offices between one class and the other of which Mr. Justice Talfourd speaks. There is another class connected with the land, to whom I would address myself more affectionately and more respectfully — I mean the occupiers of the soil ; and it is in their collective capacity that I speak to the farmers. I am not now alluding particularly to this county, but I say that the farmers ought not to treat the labouring man as a mere machine, out of which a certain quantity of work is to be obtained, but that he should remember that the power he naturally has, as an employer of labour, is a trust to be exer- cised for the benefit of those whom Providence has consigned to his sympathy and protection. My friends, labouring mem if we tender to you the hand of good fellowship, have we not a right to ask something on your parts in return ? What do we ask of you ? Do we ask for any favour ? No ; we ask you not to injure yourselves— to abstain from drink — not to do that which injures yoi^r health, ruiua your family, blasts your character, and leads you to the perpetration of crimes. We ask you not to squander that which would improve your household comforts and raise you in the scale of society. I wish to see the labouring men in this country a little more like free-born Englishmen : I wish to see the labourer raised in every possible way. Uo not imagine that I want to strike at your amusements. I was at a great tea meeting the other day, and you may some of you think I wish to drench you with tea. But when I epoke against the abominable syttem I of Lirgess — I am happy to see a tenant-farmer in another pjrt of the county calling it the diabolical system of largesa—l did not apeak against the harvest dinner, but against the abuse of it, its drunkenne?3, and its system of going begging from door to door. I spnke against that, and I implore every labouring man to set his face against it when harvest-time next comes round. I wish to see your amusement of a better kind. I wish to see the manly sports of our country, such as cricket and quoits, more generally practised; I should even like to see them taught at schools." We make no apology for so long an extract; it cannot be in too conspicuous a place, as it cannot have too much attention. But Lord Albemarle has not yet done. It is only a few days since that he addressed the labourers of his own district on the subject of Benefit Clubs. Many will already have seem the purport of this speech ; but we give it in another column. And what did his Lordship find here again ? Why, in the very conduct of these societies, estabhshed to promote frugahty, inde- pendence, and provision for the future, he also found a provision for drinking and debauchery ! A kind of monthly harvest home, only celebrated entirely at the labourer's own expense. How strangely it sounds, and yet how strong the force of habit here, once more! A sober industrious man cannot even invest his savings mthout being absolutely driven to the public-house to do so ! The temptations of Saint Antony himself are nothing to those of honest Giles. They beset him at every turn and in every form. If he is a good steady workman, he is taught to look upon beer as his great reward. If he be a prudent man, he is told to prove it by his regular visits to the beer-house; and if he is inchned to be idle or dishonest, there are few things he can poach or steal but what the beer-shop will turn into beer for him. As Lord Albemarle says, we can all of us do something to destroy so monstrous a system. And,, in doing so, we shall benefit not merely the poor man and his family, but almost equally ourselves. In this country we have every authority to assure us that the great incentive to all evil is drink ; the great criminal expenses we have to defray are traceable chiefly to drink ; the injuries inflicted on our pro- perty come as clearly from the same cause. We cannot certainly tell a man he shall not drink, but we can surely endeavour to tempt him from it rather than to it. This is what Lord Albemarle is now doing, and doing so eflTectually. May the example he offers us not be offered in vain ! THE EARL OF ALBEMARLE ON BENEFIT CLUBS. A few evenings ago the Earl of Albemarle met the agricul- tural labourers of his district in the National School-room at East Harling, and addressed them at great length on the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 237 subject of benefit clubs. Benefit clubs, his Lordship ob- served, were common things. He wished they were more common ; for nothing was more creditable to the labourer than that, while God gave him health and strength, he should lay aside a portion of his earnings to provide against any emergency of sickness or accident, and to secure an honour- able independence in his old age. As far as the principle of benefit clubs was concerned, there could not be a dissen. tient voice ; but they were very difficult things to understand rightly. There were 33,232 benefit societies in England; the number of contributors was 3,032,000 ; the capital was £11,360,000; and the annual income derived from contri- butions and interest was £4,930,000. In order, however, to realiEe the expectations fairly entertained by persons be- longing to benefit clubs, certain essential conditions must be complied with. Nothing could be more clear than that, in an institution having for its object the laying by of money, it was essentially important that there should be no induce- ment to spend money unnecessarily. He objected, therefore, to the system of meeting at public-houses. It was quite im- possible that the ruinous per-centage on the savings which was laid out by compulsion for beer could be otherwise than highly disadvantageous to the labouring man. The monthly meetings of benefit clubs were now too often scenes of riot and debauchery, and entailed terror and misery upon the wife and family of the clubman ; and it would be very desirable if the meetings could be conducted as they were iu France, where labouring men could take their families to witness them. There were more parties concerned in the question than the labouring classes, and he hoped that the time would come when the gentry, the occupying tenants, and the clergy, would take a part in it. In the parish in which he was the principal landed proprietor the clergyman had set an excellent example by attending the festival of the club of the district. A main defect iu the ma- jority of the present clubs was that they were all based upon an uniform scale of payment, and every member paid the same whatever his age might be. This was decidedly wrong, for increased age brought increased sickness, and the young man who was paying the same as his senior was carrying on an unequal struggle. In fact, clubs founded upon a system of uniform payment were mere lotteries, in which those who were scik the soonest end died the youngest got all the prizes, while those who lived the longest and had the strongest claim upon the funds got all the blanks. He recommended benefit societies not to undertake to provide for sickness beyond the age of 65 ; for at that age the vast majority of men were past their work, and it was very difficult to decide what sickness really was. Sickness ought only to be provided for, so as to make up the defects in a workman's time when he was ill and under the care of the doctor for a specific time. When chronic ailments were dealt with, the sol- vency of societies was endangered, without any propor- tionate benefit being obtained. An act of Parliament, the 16th and 17th of Victoria, chap. 45, made ample provision for every kind of superannuation allowances or allowances after death, and, in fact, appeared to meet every case of provision for the old age of the labouring man, a'though previous acts of Parliament on the subject of benefit societies bad only had a mischievous tendency. The Government annui- ties granted under the 16th and 17th of Victoria, chap. 45, were more expensive to the subscribing members than the allowances promised in benefit clubs ; but if a man was unable to keep up his subscription to a Government annuity the amount he had de- posited would be returned to him, whereas it would be all lost in a benefit chib. The general conclusions at which the noble Earl arrived were, that benefit societies should not meet at public houses ; that they should have a graduated scale of payment ; that they should not insure superannuation allowances or de- ferred annuities, but that their committees should assist the members in obtaining Government annuities, which could be purchased on safer and more advantageous terms. He con- cluded, amid loud cheers, by expressing his hope that the labouring classes would consider the subject dispassionately and calmly, and remember the homely proverb — that if they did not listen to Reason she wa« very likely to give them a rap on the knuckles. THE DECIMAL SYSTEM OF MONEY. There are a number of questions of improve- ment which appear to require the lifetime of one generation for the estabhshment of the principles on which they depend, and for the carrying of them into practice. Among these questions may be enu- merated, as we have before remarked, the education question ; that of the application of the refuse of towns in the liquid form ; the question of land drainage, together with the improvement of outfalls ; and the question of a decimal system of money, of accounts, and of weights and measures. It is to the last of these of slow progress that we shall here address ourselves. And first as to the mean- ing of a decimal system. Many persons connect with their idea of the term that of decimal fractions, or something which they deem 'to be very abstruse ; whereas it means, in point of fact, merely a system of division by ten, the easiest and simplest division of all. It is the natural method of numbers, llie untutored savage reckons by the number of lingers on his two hands. If our language admitted of our expressing a division by ten by some such English word as a tenly division, or tennish system, the question of a decimal system would be stripped of much of the abstruseness with which a name of later derivation, and the connection of the term with decimal fractions, have invested it in some minds. Of decimal fractions — which are, after all, easier than vulgar fractions — ^ vv'e hear much, but of decimal numbers we hear little. We never, however, use any but decimal numbers, though we use other than decimal fractions. Simple arithmetic is purely a decimal or tennnish system — that is to say, the value increases from right to left by tens ; we always carry ten from column to column. But while our simple ai'ithme- tic follows a decimal division, all tliat relates to money, and weights, and measures, follows a much more difficult and complex system. Every school- boy knows the difficulty of the transition from 238 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. eimple to compound arithmetic, as it is called. This merely arises from the former, or that which relates to numbers, following a system of division by tens ; while in all that relates to money and to weights and measures — that is, to numbers reduced to practice — we follow a different and more complex method. Take, for instance, our money — and in using the term money we must distinguish between money of account and money of coinage. Our money of account consists of pounds, shiUings, pence, and farthings. Our money of coinage consists of pounds, shillings, sixpences, half-crowns, ten-shil- ling and five-shilling pieces, &c. ; but none except those we have previously mentioned constitute moneys of account. Let us suppose our moneys of account consist of pounds, tenths of pounds, hundredths of pounds, and thousandths of pounds ; and let these bear the respectiv^e names of pounds, florins, cents, and mils. They might be any others which might be deemed more appropriate, provided only the new divisions do not bear old names ; but, for our pre- sent purpose, we will suppose the tenth of a pound to be called a florin, which we have already as a money of circulation, the hundredth part of a pound to be called a cent, and the thousandth part to be called a mil. The value of that important unit both of money of coinage and money of ac- count, the pound, would remain unaltered. The only change of value would be in the unimportant mil : this would represent our present farthing, of which there would be 1000 in the pound sterling instead of 960, being a reduction in the value of this small coin equal to 4 per cent. ; that reduction of value would not affect, as we have already said, the value of the higher denominations. But see how this division of our money of account would facilitate calculation, and the solution of such ques- tions as the following. Question the first. — If 1 yard cost 7 florins 9 cents 3 mils, how much will 438 yards cost ? — Again, if one pound make a jjrofit of 7 florins 9 cents 3 mils, what will £4 3 florins 8 cents make ? — Again, if a bankrupt's estate pay 4 fl. 8 cts. 3 m. in the pound, what will be the dividend on £79 3 fl. ? — All these questions, which are taken from a pub- lication on the Decimal Society, require for their solution only the following simple process of mul- tiplication : — 793 438 6344 2379 3172 347334 And give the following answers :-^The 438 yards will cost £347 3 flo. 3 cents 4 mils. The profit on £4 3 flo. 8 cents will be £3 4 flo. 7 cents 3 mils and 34-lOOths of a mil, which, of course, would be dis- regarded, just as in accounts now most people, and partners in particular, disregard anything below a penny. The bankrupt's estate will pay on a debt of £79 3 flo., a dividend of £34 7 flo. 3 cents 3 mils (and 4-lOths of a mil). All these would be worked out with the above figures. In the existing system of moneys of account, the corresponding questions would not only require more figures to be written down, but more difficult mental operations, which are not written down. To enter similar sums in our account-books, we should only require one ruled line, to the left of which the pounds would be written, while the tenths, hundredths, and thousandth parts of a pound, or the florins, cents, and mils, would be written to the right of it. Thus : — £347 3 34 334 473 733 £385 540 and these sums would cast as above — £385.540, and might be read £385 540-thousandth parts of a £; or, which is the same thing, £385 3 flo. 8 cents 5 mils. In the process of casting we should always carry ten. The following may be considered the two most important points in the question of a decimal system: — 1st. That an entirely decimal system of accounts should be introduced, in combination with such an alteration of the coinage as will be most adapted to, and will most certainly be the means of introducing, such a systeni of accounts. 2ndly. That the pound sterling should remain, as it now is, the highest and principal unit of account. We have already spoken of money of account as a dif- ferent thing from money of coinage, and pointed out in what the difference between them consists ; but as the two are frequently confounded, it may be as well to enlarge somewhat more upon the subject. A coin is a stamped piece of metal, which has, or nearly has, the value for which it is a legal tender. Moneys of account may exist without a coin, as for a long time during the last war we had nothing to represent a pound except a piece of paper promising to pay you a pound, and when it was presented to the issuer he was enabled by an act of parlia- ment, called the Bank Restriction Act, to pay it by another promise-to-pay a pound which it was not intended he should pay. On the other hand, coins may exist which are not moneys of account ; examples of which we have already cited. The decimal system is required, not for paying money, but for facilitating calculation of the sums to be paid. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 239 We know a gentleman, who is writing down the Newtonian or Copernican system of astronomy, and has jumbled the planets and fixed stars together in most glorious confusion, contending that they are all stars. He wants us to keep to what he calls the astronomy of the Bible, con- tending that the sun goes round the earth ; and because Sir John Herschel says, in one of his popular works (in the section on sideral astronomy) that we know nothing of the motion of the stars, i. e., those which we call the fixed stars, whether, though they have a proper motion in space, that motion is in a straight line or part of an immense circle, our friend cites Sir John in confirmation of his own astronomical views ! Just so the late Master of the Mint is quoted by the opponents of the decimal system, as having said that it would take twenty years to introduce a decimal system of accounts J whereas all he said was, that twenty years would elapse before those coins — the half- crowns, for instance — which are not suited to a decimal system, could all be withdrawn from circu- lation. Sir John, however, was in favour of making the transition to a decimal system almost imme- diately. In the examples we give above of calculations under a decimal system of moneys of account, the figures are the same; but the value of the different sums depends on the position of the decimal point which is represented in our example of a ruled account-book by the column to the left of which the pounds are to be placed, and the errors which may arise from mistakes in placing this point are sometimes urged as an argument against a decimal system. This is the only difficulty in a decimal system, but these are very-easily-remembered rules for ascertaining its proper position in processes of multiplication and division, and all the difficulties connected with it vanish with practice. They only exist now because in the common business of accounts we are unaccustomed to a decimal system of no- tation. Here, for the present, we stop. On a future occasion the other systems will be considered which have been proposed for decimalizing our accounts and coinage, and their inferiority pointed out to that which we have advocated, which is that re- commended by the great majority of all the wit- nesses political, of business, and scientific, who were examined before the Committee of the House of Commons on the decimal svstem. CULTIVATION BY STEAM: ITS PAST HISTORY AND PROBABLE PROSPECTS. The fate of Genius is but too proverbial — to labour and strive against difficulty and discourage- ment of every kind, and often to enjoy no better reward. By the time every obstacle has been met, and the realization of the idea is close at hand, the bold spirit droops, the last shilling is spent, and the master-mind is forced from the contemplation of its own work. History will point to us in every page how commonly this has been the lot of him who in his endeavour would serve his fellows far more than himself. The greater, too, his aim, proportionately greater are the impediments in his way. The sacrifice of a life and a fortune are not rarely the more immediate results where one sows that all else may reap. Like another Curtius, he courts certain destruction, and throws himself into the gulph, intent only on his country's good. Still is there no end to this ? Are we not day by day supposed to be becoming more practical and less romantic ? If so — if we encourage the en- thusiast, and bid invention never despair in its eflforts, let us take care that our assurance be something more than mere words. Let us not only listen, watch, or even approve ; but help also. This or that great good must come, sooner or later ; so grand a conception is certain, some time or other, to be realized — surely the sooner the better. Instead, then, of standing idly by, to see another hero self-sacrificed, should we not all lend a hand to fill up the gulph, and so save one we feel can do so much for us ? Agriculture has just now such a question to put to her people. The sacrifice is being gradually proceeded with. Talent, study, time and money are all being spent, still without the prospect of any immediate or adequate return. That success will be the ultimate effect no one doubts ; but that this will be achieved even by the immolation of any one man is by no means so apparent. We want the pull altogether ; and until we agree to it, even steam stands unable to take her set of ploughs from one side of a field to the other. The practical, moreover, has at length out-argued the romantic. Genius has happily gone into partnership with Prudence, and the firm can no longer be made answerable for any extravagances. They are wil- ling to make a contract with the nation, where each may bear its fair share of the risk and labour ; or, if 'not, the works will be discontinued. The members of the Society of Arts, in the exer- cise of a very significant discretion, decline to close their discussion meetings with any definite resolu- 240 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tions. If, however, the meeting on Wednesday, Jan, 23, did point to any one conchision as the result of the debate, it was to what we have hinted at. We subjoin the full report on " Cultivation by Steam, its History and Prospects," With its history the majority of our regular subscribers will be tolerably well acquainted. Mr. Fowler, indeed, it will be seen, acknowledged the assistance he had received from a gentleman on our staff who has already gone over much of the same ground in the 3Iar/c Lane Express. The report generally \\q can leave to the individual attention of our readers. What, though, we would dwell upon here, is not so much either the past history or even probable pros- pects of cultivation by steam, as its actual position at present. The whole discussion turns directly to this point. Mr. Fowler himself— the most suc- cessful man, be it remembered, that has yet brought the principle to practice — concludes thus : " I feel confident that a few well-directed experi- ments in either or all of these directions would bring out good practical results in the course of a few years ; but 1 would ask you whether it is riglit that the carrying out of these experiments should be left to chance ; whether, M'hen so important a matter is involved as the rapid development of steam cultivation, it would not be wise to enlist the public in the endeavour to bring them to some practical solution. If left in private hands it may, and probably ivill, take many years to arrive at any real results, and at the cost of loss and disappoint- ment to many a deserving but unfortunate class of men ; whereas I feel confident that, with public assistance, a short time would enable us to solve not only the three questions that at present seem most to claim attention, but others that might arise in prosecuting these inquiries." Mr. Garrett, sanguine though he evidently is as to the ultimate success of the scheme, as the repre- sentative of, we may say, a celebrated " manufac- turing firm does not contemplate such an under- taking. He would be pleased, indeed, to see it taken up at once in earnest by those who have more courage and means to carry it out to perfection." Mr. Atkins, more sanguine still, a thorough en- thusiast indeed in the good work, has suttered ac- cordingly. With but limited capital, "he had devoted more than £1,000, and many years' labour, to bring out the idea, and he thought it was to be seriously regretted that the engineers of this coun- try had not paid more attention to this important subject. He would be glad to co-operate with any party who might feel desirous to make a bold eflfort to solve the problem. He felt certain that, should a committee be formed, and an appeal made to the British public, it M'ould be attended with every success. For his own part, he would only say he would be quite happy to co-operate with such a committee, and endeavour to bring this subject to a practical realisation. If a subscription should be opened, he would be glad to contribute his quota, as he was only waitiny for some effective steps to be taken." Mr. Scott, feeling for those who have thus far laboured so unprofitably for themselves, beheved " their ideas were often matured when their me- chanical embodiment was still in embryo, and their means gone. Would it not, therefore, be politic that we should have a national experimental farm, under two or three highly competent com- missioners, to put all such inventions to the test, and report upon them ? Such an institution was suggested to the Highland Society of Scotland twenty years ago, by a practical farmer, and not unfavourably received. As he saw Mr. Fisher Hobbs present, he would ask him, as one of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land, if he thought such an institution would trench on the domain of that Society." Mr. Hobbs, in answer to this, cited the five hun- dred pounds premium now oflfered by the Societj--, as some evidence of the desire of that body to pro- mote the development of the invention; while "he thought that even if the Government or Parliament would not take up the subject, the public might subscribe such a sum as would assist agricultural engineers and others in making experiments to bring steam cultivation to perfection." Mr. Allen Ransome, a most fitting chairman for such an occasion, concluded the discussion in these few emphatic sentences : — " He did not believe in any engineering difficulty, except the lack of funds, and that was the great difficulty in the jjresent case. The cost of bringing new inventions to bear was at any time great, but especially great when the introduction of the invention involved, as did that, the accompanying introduction of a new system. It was too costly an experiment, and the beneficial return for that certain cost was too uncertain and too remote for unassisted private enterprise. There was no doubt but that steam cultivation might be I brought to bear, but it could only be developed by large and costly experiments, and these could only be successfully carried out by some general fund, as they could not be accomplished by individuals ex- cepting at a severe loss, and, in many cases, ulti- mate ruin." We have preferred confining ourselves to this, the really great difficulty in the way of steam culti- vation, rather than to entering on any of the detail of what has been or may be accomplished. On a great deal of the latter our readers are already in- formed, while we may next week give a paper on Mr. Smith's proceedings, the only novel feature in THE FARiMEil'S MAGAZINE. 241 the discussion. The now momentous question is, " What are we to do ?" With all respect to the Royal Agricultural Society, it is scarcely necessary to say that their premium can only be the con- firmation of a man's success. AVhat we want is some present help to encourage his endeavours and develop his abilities. Will the Government afford it — a Board of Agriculture, a Model Farm, and so on r If not, will the public : We confess we look with more confidence to the latter. And if it is to the public we are to look, will the Royal Agricultural Society take the initiative ? W' ill they hold up what Mr. Fowler calls their " little finger," and with one magic wave signal the steam-plough on its course? Mr. Fisher Hobbs, we were glad to hear, " would be happy to bring the subject before the Council." The country will look with some interest to its re- ception. CULTIVATION BY STEAM. By John Fowler, Jun. (of Bristol). The importance of the subject we have met this evening to consider, is now almost universally acknow- ledged ; it is a question affecting an expenditure of at least fifty millions sterling annually, the cost of horse-labour in agriculture J and itsprogress is anxiously watchedby men who, even three years ago, would have been sceptical of its ever attaining any practical value. Not long since it was the common remark among both engineers and agi'iculturists, that, though steam cultivation was probably practicable, yet the cost of ploughing by horse-power was not sufficient to render it remunerative or likely to be generally adopted ; but the experience of the last few years, and the advantages that have accrued from the more rapid and perfect execution of barn work by steam-power, have tended to lead the agriculturists to set a different value upon it; and I believe that that body are now quite prepared to give a warm welcome to any means that will give them greater power over the material with which they have to deal, and that will enable them to cultivate the soil more ex- peditiously and thoroughly, even should there be but little economy over the present plans. In an uncertain climate like our own, time is more essentially money in dealing with the soils than in almost any other opera- tion we can name ; and, if that axiom is found univer- sally to hold good in its application to every other sphere of human industry, it must be doubly applicable to the cultivation of the soil, where the loss of a week is often a serious injury to a crop. Of course economy would be a great desideratum, and I hope to be able to show that cultivation by steam-power may be per- formed at a little over half the cost of horse labour ; but I do not think that this is absolutely essential to its extended adoption. The change in public opinion to which I have alluded, and which I think I may safely reckon upon, will render it unnecessary for me to endeavour to show its importance, or to do more than allude to one or two matters that may give a more pointed direction to our inquiries. The work of a iiirm may be divided into two classes- field operations; and the cartage of corn, manure, &c. Steam, in its present state, may be easily applied to the former of these ; but its application to the latter is still surrounded more, I believe, with the mist of inexperience than with mechanical difficulty. The horses required upon a farm may be materially reduced by the assistance of steam in field operations, and those operations may be, as before stated, more rapidly and thoroughly performed ; yet, until steam is also available for carting, it can only be regarded as an important auxiliary ; and, though the half-loaf may be better than no bread, yet the possession of the first half only renders the other half still more valuable and necessary. Thus we have to seek the solution of two mechanical problems — first, the application of steam to field opera- tions ; second, to the carting and harvest operations of a farm. The harvest operations may possibly be brought under the head of field operations, and executed by the same machinery ; if so, we shall unquestionably have gained the largest half of our loaf. Having thus referred to the points that seem most to require our present attention, I will now ask you to follow me through the past history of our subject — a history that bears an exact resemblance to that of all the great mechanical realities of our age — the steamboat, the rail- way, and even the steam-engine itself ; except in the fact that the greater talents, means, and energies that have been devoted to those subjects have succeeded in more rapidly developing them into great facts. Time will not allow me to trace the resemblance as accurately as I should like. I think it would encourage us to look forward with perfect confidence to a similar reward to our labours in this direction, and one not less important than the best of them ; but I must content myself with remarking that its birth was coeval with theirs : like them, two hundred years ago it commenced in the minds of those who are more poets than mechanics, who over- leap all practical difficulties, and to whom thoughts are realities. Every new mind gave greater tangibility to the crude- ncss of the first conception, until, in our own time, every possible idea seems again and again to have been re- modelled and served up with some new lights ; but, unlike them, no master-spirit has as yet taken this un- digested mass and given tangible shape and practical value to their ideas. Accompanying this is an abstract of all the patents that have yet been taken out, bearing on the question of steam cultivation, with a short notice of their peculiarities, for which I am indebted to Mr. Burness, of the Mark Lane Express, and to this I must refer you for detailed information. ' There are fifty-five here enumerated, which may be all classed under the following heads : — 1st. Locomotive engines used for drawing agricultural implements ; motion given by driving the wheels, by s2 242 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ■winding along a chain or rope, by rack railway, and by thrusting on crutches. 2nd. Locomotive engines working rotary cultivators. 3rd. Rotary cultivators to be driven by steam, mode of working not specified. 4th. Portable engines, used to wind up ropes. 5th. Portable engines, driving endless ropes, working windlasses. 6th. Portable engines, driving endless ropes, working rotary cultivators. As early as 1630, David Ramsey took out a patent for making the earth more fertile, &c. Mr. Ramsey seems to have had an idea that the fire- engine then known could be employed for cultivating the earth ; there is no specification of this patent, and he, in common with many of his successors, imagined that any new power must be equally applicable to agri- culture as to other purposes. The next patent was by Mr. F. Moore, in 1767, nearly 140 years later. This patentee's idea assumed a more definite shape on the subject, and, as far as can be judged from the specifica- tion, he imagined that steam-power could be applied to agriculture by a carriage travelling over the land, driven by steam, and used for traction. So confident were the patentee and his friends of his success, that they sold all their horses to avoid loss by their reduction in value. Then follow Edgworth, 1770 ; James Watt, 1784, who appears only to have specified to prevent piracy, as he considered the boilers were unfit to bear the requisite pressure of steam; Pratt, 1810; Blenkinsop, 1811 ; Chapman, 1812 ; Reynolds, 1816 ; Barry, 1821 ; Cay- ley, 1825 ; Easton, 1825 ; CUve, 1830. Up to this date the only ideas of applying steam to agriculture, that I can find any record of, with the exception of Major Pratt's, were to travel the locomotives over the land, and draw any given implement in their wake ; this they pro- posed to accomplish in a variety of ways, but in 1832 two patents were taken out by Heathcote and Saxton, the former for traction by a direct pull on a rope from a stationary engine, and the latter by driving an endless rope, and with this rope giving motion to a windlass, to which the implements were to be attached. Heathcote's patent was, I believe, carried out by INIr. Parkes. After this date, various schemes follow, similar to those before mentioned, interspersed with schemes for giving motion to agricultural implements by hydrogen gas, by com- pressed air, by electricity, and even by a portable wind- mill. Inl836, Vaux, followed by Hall in 1842, and Bonser in 1846, took out patents for revolving culti- vators or harrows, though not specifying the way in which they were to be driven by steam-power, and this is the first record in the Patent Office of any such imple- ment, though I believe the Norwegian harrow must have been known before that date. Following these, we have an endless variety of modi- fications of the previous plans, presenting no marked novelty, but interspersed with some improvements in details, which rendered them more practical — as Claussen's, in 1846, for an arrangement of pulleys for conveying power to a long distance by an endless rope, for agricultural and other purposes (though agricultural purposes seem to have been second in importance to the propulsion of boats) ; Osborne, also, for two engines travelling along each headland, winding-up chain or rope, as carried out by Lord Willoughby D'Eresby. In 1847 appears the first plan for a locomotive engine working a rotary cultivator, which Usher and Talpa have since rendered so familiar to us, and for which an endless variety of patents have since been taken out, inter- spersed with engines working hoes, spades, &c., but which, I fear, will exhaust strength and ingenuity that might be more profitably applied in a more practical direction. The six classes previously named include all the schemes of which we find any record in the Patent Office, and I have been unable to obtain any other in- formation, though I have no doubt many plans and schemes may be found scattered through the periodicals of the last fifty years, but as far as any practical purpose is concerned, this is, I think, all that we can require to elucidate the subject. The present position of steam cultivation may be con- sidered as having been fully represented at the Carlisle meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, in July last, by the machines exhibited there in competition for the So- ciety's prize, and by the plans so spiritedly carried out by Lord Willoughby D'Eresby and Mr. Mechi. Four out of the six classes were represented at Carlisle : — No. 1. By Mr. Boydell's steam horse, that attracted so much at- tention from its elephantine movements, and which, though I believe useless as a mere means of traction to agricultural implements, yet may in time help up mate- rially to a solution of the difficulty involved in perform- ing the cartage of a farm. — No. 2. By Usher's ; for though many of the schemes for locomotive-engine- worked rotary cultivators vary considerably in detail, yet they all agree in the main principle of a rotary barrel driven by the engine, to which, of course, different kinds of forks, spades, &c., varying with the nature of and condition of the soil, may be attached. I do not think attaching ploughs to the barrel, as in Usher's, is likely to be the best mode of using the power. No. 4 may be considered to have been represented by the draining plough ; for though draining is a much heavier and more difficult operation than ploughing, and more power being required in one spot, may be thought better adapted to steam power than the ordi- nary field operations, yet a trial that has taken place during the last two months has proved its much more easy adaptability to the lighter work. Class No. 5 was well represented by the Messrs. Fiskens' plan, which for light field operations was the only machine that approached a practical result. Class No. 4 can hardly be said to belong to steam cultivation, as the mode of applying steam to them was yet to be devised. Class No. 6 was not represented at Carlisle at all, and is only an idea (I believe a very valuable one) thrown out by Mr. Atkins, of Oxford ; and, though provisionally protected, was not specified, but allowed to drop, and is, therefore, now open to the public. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 243 I shall now beg to call your attention to that branch of our subject relating to field operations, and, as the locomotive solely used for traction belongs more pro. perly to the carting of a farm, shall dismiss that for the present. There are various schemes patented in the last few years for rotary cultivators worked by locomotive engines, all varying only in detail ; and it has been the favourite subject of many of our agricultural writers ; but I believe a little consideration would have spared them all much pains and expense, as, if there is one point more difficult than another from which to ap- proach our subject, it is in this direction. The enor- mous weight of engines required in which an ordinary farm pressure of steam is used, and the weight neces- sary to give sufficient strength to the drums and frames ; the difficulty of steering such a great load to the nicety required for field operations; the yet unknown diffi- culties that may meet the rotary cultivator, though at first sight, I confess, it appears well adapted to the work, to say nothing of the power wasted in moving such a weight over arable land, and up ever so slight an incline, might well deter the most sanguine from any attempt of this kind ; but it seems, from the Records of the Patent Office, such a monomania at the present moment, that I do not think it will be waste of time to endeavour to direct the energies of my brother in- ventors to a difierent channel. Were I to undertake to make one of these engines, I should first endeavour to make a simple engine, to be used for the cartage of a farm, making it as light as possible, by the use of high-pressure steam, and rendei'ing it perfectly man- ageable for carting manure, corn, harvesting, &c. ; over- coming all the practical difficulties resulting from vibration, &c. ; and, at the same time, I should test the value of the rotary tillage, by driving a rotary cul- tivator from a stationary engine, by the use of endless ropes, as proposed by Mr. Atkins, and exemplified by Messrs. Fisken, of Carlisle. Then, should the com- bination of the two appear desirable, which is very doubtful, it might be accomplished with some chance of success. At present it will only bring with it bitter disappointment and wasted energies. Of course, with these views, I consider the drawing an agi'icultural implement by employing a locomotive for direct traction a still more roundabout and ridi- culous plan. For field operations we have, then, but two plans that can be considered as coming into competition, both of which have, in common, the important consideration of proposing to use any ordinary portable farm engine ; both propose to drag any given field implement that may be attached to them, such as a combination of ploughs, harrows, drills, &c. ; but they differ in the means by which they accomplish the end in this respect : the one draws the implement by the direct traction of a wire rope, and the other by con- veying the power from the engine to a wind- lass by an endless rope, the windlass winding itself up and down the field by winding up and paying off from two drums a wire rope, anchored at each end, or winding along a wire rope, as may be found best. I must premise my remarks on the merits of these plans by saying that I am myself a patentee of one of them, and had I not thought mine the best I should not have entered on the competition ; and -I must leave you to judge of their respective merits, after giving you the reasons that led me to that prefei-ence. We will first consider the plan of travelling the windlass up and down the field. A small hemp rope is passed round the fly-wheel of a portable engine, placed in one corner of the field, one end being carried round a pulley at the opposite end of the same headland, and again round a pulley at the top of the fui-row to be ploughed. It is then taken to the bottom of the field round another pulley at the bottom end of the same furrow, and again brought up the field to the top of the furrow, where, passing round another pulley, it is attached to the other end of the rope, passing round tlie fly-wheel in its pas- sage up or down the field ; it conveys power to a wind- lass by its friction on a pulley or series of pulleys mounted upon it ; and being set in motion, turns one or two drums mounted on the windlass, and either winds up or pays off two wire ropes, or winds up and pays off a single rope, winding along that rojie by fric- tion. The rope that conveys the power is supported at intervals by carriages; and in order to convey the necessary power must be made of hemp, and from its great length, and the difficulty of supporting it, requires to be very small. As lightness is necessary, speed is also a requisite. It will have to travel at least one- third of a mile per minute to convey seven-horse power to the windlass ; but, circumstances being favourable, almost the whole of the power is conveyed to the wind- lass, the loss by friction being very slight indeed. Any derangement of the pulleys, however, would, of course, at that high speed, consume any amount of power. The windlass, if made strong enough to wear well, with the drums and gear necessary to reduce the speed, can- not weigh less than 30 cwt., and the power required to draw that weight over the land cannot be less than one horse draught ; assuming the friction of engine, pulleys, and windlass at half-horse power, we have one-and-a- half horse power consumed in keeping the machine in motion. Some experiments I have lately made on the friction of wire rope on the land show that rather less than two-horse power is required to drive engine, wind- lass, and wire rope enough to work twenty acres of land (nearly a mile in length), the rope travelling at two- and-a-half miles per hour, and being strong enough to pull up a ten-horse engine at that speed. Thus we see that the advantage as respects friction is not greatly in favour of the former plan. The disadvantage of the windlass travelling up and down the field is very great, though the plough may be attached to either end of it, and ploughing may be thus very easily performed ; yet, if you wish to pull any other farm machine when you get to the headland, you have no means of getting the implement to the opposite side of the windlass, and going back, except by the assistance of horse-power, and this, as will be seen, does not apply to the simple rope by which the implement can be easily turned. I 244 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. think, with these disadvantages, the plan of traction by winding up a wire rope is greatly preferable, as it is much simpler, having fewer wearing parts, is less liable to derangement, and more easily managed. The wear and tear on a hemp rope at such a speed, and exposed to all sorts of weather^ is a point on which I am not competent to form an opinion ; but former experience would lead to considerable doubt on this point. Before proceeding to describe the two plans for traction, to which I shall call your attention, it will be well to con- sider what have been the causes of failure in the pre- vious attempts of Heathcote, in 1837, followed by Osboine and Lord Willoughby D'Eresby. In the experiments that Mr, Parkes, the well-known drain- ing engineer, tried for Mr. Heathcote, the difficulty experienced was to procure any material that would convey the requisite power without entailing too much weight and consequent friction on the land ; and I understand that the material he found best adapted to the purpose, were steel-bands rivetted together at the ends. Lord Willoughby D'Eresby, in the use of chain for that purpose, effectually prevented the possibility of success in his efforts, as the friction of chain on the ground is so great that it would consume almost more power than it is capable of bearing, when of any great length. The present perfection to which the manufacture of wire-rope has attained has, how- ever, entirely overcome the difficulties that beset them; and in Mr. Williams's and my own plan, wire-rope is the only material with which we propose working. Mr. Williams proposes to mount an ordinary portable engine on a frame, on one end of which two barrels are fixed, turned by the engine, by one of which a wire rope is wound up, and passed off by the other ; one end of this wire rope passes straight down the field, and the other passing along the frame at right angles to the drum for some distance, and then down the field again, running along the frame anchored at the bottom, and meeting the other rope. The implement to be drawn is fixed between the ropes, and alternately pulled back- wards and forwards by these ropes, the two frames being moved along the headlands as the work progresses. My own plan is to mount two drums on a frame, fixing them in one corner of the field, the portable engine being set so as to drive them with a short rope or chain working in pulleys. The ropes are led off the drums to opposite corners of the field, and there passed round pulleys, anchored on a chain stretched between two posts or anchors ; and the drums being alternately set in motion, wind the wire rope backwards and forwards between the two pulleys, which are moved up the field by being allowed to slip along a chain stretched between two posts or anchors as the work progresses, the engine and windlass remaining stationary until the whole field is completed. My re«son for preferring this plan is that I consider the number of pulleys in Mr. Williams's unnecessary, and injurious to the rope, as well as consuming power ; and the fixing the windlass and engine on one frame, and moviDg them along tlie headland is unnecessary, expe!i?ive for first cost, and extremily cumbrous. To these remarks I may be allowed to add that one of my windlasses has been at work for the last six weeks at Mr. Smith's, of Woolston, near Fenny Stratford, who will be able to give you the results of his experience. I believe either of the above three plans is capable of solving the problem of the application of steam to field operations ; and Mr. Smith's experience would fully justify me in saying that it may be done at a saving of 40 per cent, over horse labour. Mr. Smith's calcula- tions are as follows :• — " Four men and a boy will plough an acre in 2^ hours, or four acres a-day. Thus, only the same number of men are required as for horse labour ; consequently we have all the horse labour saved, from which deduct the cost of 7 cwt. of coal, gives a saving of nearly half, as the wear and tear will hardly exceed the wear and tear of eight horses. Another ad- vantage he considers must not be lost sight of, is that the land is not injured by the treading of the horses in wet weather, and, consequently, he can work it when he otherwise should be at a stand-still." Having thus, I think, arrived at the conclusion that any given implement may be drawn over the land by an ordinary portable engine, it will be necessary to con- sider what implements are likely to be best adapted to be used with this tackle, so as practically to make it most serviceable. Ploughing, of course, is the ordinary operation of a farm, and a series of four or five ploughs, fixed in a frame, will at any rate best meet the present wants and prejudices of the farmer. Mr. Williams has invented a series of ploughs that have very considerable merit, and I have no doubt that but little difficulty will be found in adapting ploughs to meet the requirements of the farmer. I think there is every probability that some other implement will, to a great extent, supersede the plough; and to this attention ought now to be turned. JMr. Smith is now, and has been for some years, moving with horse-power a sort of grubber, instead of the plough, and with, I hear, the best results. But I must confess I see no way of effectually and thoroughly turning over the soil, which is often necessary, both to expose it to the air and bury the stubble and weeds, but by the use of the plough. Still this operation can hardly be necessary very often in a year, and, I believe, a machine may be made which will take the soil up on a platform to a certain height, then, passing it through revolving harrows, leave it at once in a perfect tilth, and which may be worked by traction. This would offer great advantages, as the soil is often, when broken up, in a fit state to pulverise; but, after the sun's rays have heated it for a few days, it is quite im- possible to break it. The sets of implements that may be found best for different soils and circumstances, to be worked by steam-power, will be numbered by hundreds ; and it is impossible for me to estimate the changes to which the application of steam may give rise, nor will my limits permit me to dwell longer upon it. It is worthy of serious and careful attention, and, I think, deserves at once to be the subject of extended experiments. I have now to notice the working o/ a revolving cul- tivator by an endless rope, and, should experience prove THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 245 that a rope used in this way is sufficiently durable for the purpose, I should think most highly of this plan. If ever rotary cultivation is be brought to bear, I feel sure it will be in this way. and with the former proviso. I have no doubt experiments in this direction may lead to practical results of great value. It is simple in work- ing ; the experiments need not be expensive, and they have a fair prospect of success. Having thus drawn your attention to what appear to me to be all the most practicable schemes and experi- ments for performing field operations by steam, I now have to refer to the other branch of our subject, the cartage of material to and fro on a farm. A large team of horses will still be required on a farm, to do the necessary carting, going to 'market, &c. ; but during harvest every available horse is often required, especially on large light-land farms. Can our windlasses be made available for harvest work ; if so, the number of horses might safely be reduced two-thirds. The practice of ricking in the field is now common, and where this is the case, there can be no difficulty in using the windlass to bring the corn to one spot. You might fix the wind- lass in the morning, and clear a 20- acre field with it in a short time ; it can be removed and fixed again with ease in two hours. The windlass could be also used for carting turnips ; but, if a traction locomotive could be made available, it would be far better suited to the work. A tramway down the centre of the farm, using the wind- lasses to the right and left to bring material to the tram, would reduce the horse work to a minimum ; but whether the locomotive could not be made to do the carting work of a farm is well worthy of attention. I am assured by Mr. Worby, who made experiments some thirty years back on the subject, that it is perfectly practicable. He has had forty years' experience in the various farm implements with which we are acquainted, as manager for Messrs. Ransome, and may be assumed to know what practical difficulties are likely to lie in the way. The great difficulty met with by Hancock and others, on common roads, was the speed at which they travelled ; but for this purpose, three miles an hour will be a sufficient speed. I believe that a few experiments would lead to a successful solution of this problem. One essential to its success is, however, the use of very high pressure steam, so as greatly to reduce the weight of the engine, and the consumption of as little water as possible. This has been pretty much reduced to practice lately, at a mill at Navestock, belonging to Mr. Hall, and in a portable engine which he is using, in both which engines steam of nearly 300 lbs. pressure is used. These machines were made by his son-in-law, Mr. Charlton, and have been in work during two years. One difficulty that has beset this subject, the impossibility of driving two wheels, is now overcome by a very simple contrivance, which I am not at liberty to describe to you • and this is a great step in the right direction. Boydell's wheels, also, may form an im- portant auxiliary in certain states of the weather, though I think they would hardly do in constant wear. Were I to attempt the solution of this question, I should use wheels to which Bovdell's rail could be attached whenever the state of the weather demanded. Thus there are three directions in which, in my judgment, it would be well to make some experiments : 1st, in im- plements adapted to be worked with the steam wind- lasses ; 2nd, in a rotary cultivator, worked by a port- able engine, with endless band ; 3rd, in a locomotive used for traction to do the cartage of a farm. I feel confident that a few well-directed experiments in either or all of these directions would bring out good practical results in the course of a few years ; but I would ask you whether it is right that the carrying out of these experiments should be left to chance ; whether, when so important a matter is involved as the rapid development of steam cultivation, it would not be wise to enlist the public in the endeavour to bring them to some practical solution. If left in private hands, it may, and probably will, take many years to arrive at any real results, and at the cost of loss and disappoint- ment to many of a deserving but unfortunate class of men ; whereas I feel confident that, with public assist- ance, a short time would enable us to solve both the three questions that at present seem most to claim at- tention, and others that no doubt would arise in the course of prosecuting these inquiries. APPENDIX. An Abbreviation of Patents, from the Re- cords OF Her Majesty's Patent Office, FROM 1630 UP TO THE PRESENT TiME. No. 50. Date, 1630. David Ramsey, Patentee— Short title, "Making the earth more fertile." Object of the patent— to raise water from low pits (as coal-mines) by fire ; to make barges go against wind and tide; and to make the earth more fertile. No specification of this patent being enrolled, we are left to guess the mechanism at issue. At this period, steam-engines were termed " fire- engines" ; and Mr. Ramsey's ideas appear to have been to communicate rotary motion to carriage-wheels, and by such means propel the carriage and engine forward, dragging after it ploughs and other cultivating imple- ments of the period. Nos. 921 and 923. Dates, 1767 and 1769, Francis Moore, Patentee.—" Fire-engine to sup- plant horses, &c." No specification of either of these patents is enrolled, the only information we can give being the following, abridged from the " Mechanic's Magazine," vol. 16, page 135 : "A correspondent writes that Mr. Moore's new invented machine, to go without horses, for which he has obtained a patent, is not only adapted for wheel-carriages in general — such as coaches, chaises, waggons, &c.— but to ploughing, har- rowing, and every other branch of industry. Also to all other machines and engines now in use in the king- dom, in the various branches of manufactures where horses are required. The patentee and his friends were so confident that horses were doomed, and about to be superseded as a motive power, that they sold their teams in order to avoid loss, convinced that they (the horses) would soon be reduced to one-fourth their value." No. 953. Date, 1770. Richard Lovell Edgworth, Patentee.— " Endless Railway." No plans were given with the specification of this invention, and the inventor rather leaves us to guess at mechanical details. We are informed, however, that the railway consists 246 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of planks of wood on the periphery of cart or waggon-wheels. That the wheel, in rolling to the ex- tremity of one plank, lays down another in front, while it lifts a third behind — that the rails or planks on the opposite sides of the wheel would thus balance each other, so as to reduce the additional draught on the horses to a minimum ; and that the advantages on rough roads and soft ground would be incalculable, not only to the agricultural interest, but all who used carts and horses. The specification is only to be seen in the Roll's Chapel. No, 1,432, Date, 1784, James Watt, Patentee, — " Steam Carriage," In his specifications Mr, Watt states, "the propulsion of land carriages" — a specification sufiBciently comprehen- sive to include agricultural implements, as ploughs, sowing-machines, harrows, &c. The patentee, however, never built a steam carriage, for reasons which he him- self thus states : — " I soon relinquished the idea of con- structing an engine on this principle (liigh steam), from being sensible it would be liable to some of the objec- tions against Savory's engine, viz., the danger of burst- ing the boiler (constructed of wooden staves), and also that a great part of the power of the steam would be lost, because no vacuum was formed to assist the descent of the piston." — Watt's Narrative. For the purpose of ploughing, the engine would have drawn the ploughs behind it on the traction principle, as exhibited at Car- lisle, by Mr. Boydell. No, 3,309. Date, 1810. Patentee, Major Pratt. — This is an extensive pro- ject, and, from the specification being only to be seen in the Roll's Office, it appears to have escaped general notice. Cultivation of land is performed in several ways. 1. A series of ploughs revolve horizontally on a vertical axis, the ploughs being raised over the ploughed land. 2. Harrows are worked in a similar manner, 3, Land is cultivated by means of chains, having tines or grub- bers fixed in them, working longitudinally over two ver- tical pulleys, one at each end of the machine; and 4, by means of an endless chain passing over horizontal pulleys or carriages placed along the field, one pulley being on each carriage. To one side of the endless chain a plough is attached, and works alternately between two carriages, the carriages being moved forward as the work proceeds. Thus, a carriage on four wheels, one at each end or side of the field, and a locomotive or portable engine in the centre, with endless chain and two ploughs, would form the details of the project for ploughing a field of land. No, 3,431, Date, 1811. John Blenkinsop, Patentee, — " Certain mechanical means, by which the conveyance of coals, minerals, and other articles, is facilitated, and the expense attending the same rendered less than heretofore," The specifica- tion of this patent informs us that it consists of the application of a rack or toothed rail laid down on one side of the roading from end to end. Into this rack a toothed wheel is worked by the steam-engine, the revo- lution of which wheel produces the necessary motion, without being liable to slip in descending a steep inclined plane." Mr. Blenkinsop, in reply to queries put to him by Sir John Sinclair, stated that his " patent locomotive engine, with two eight-inch cylinders, weighs five tons ; consumes two-thirds of a hundred-weight of coals and fifty gallons of water per hour ; draws twenty-seven waggons, weighing 94 tons, on a dead level, at three and a-balf miles per hour ; or 15 tons up an ascent of 2 inches in the yard ; when lightly loaded, it travels ten miles per hour, does the work of sixteen horses, and costs jt'400." — Engineers' and Mechanics' Encyclo- pedia. For field purposes a portable rack railway was proposed. No, 3,632. Date, 1812. Patentees — The Messrs, William Chapman, Dur- ham, and E. W. Chapman, of Wallsend, Northumber- land. A " Steam carriage, with a rigger working on a stretched chain or rope, secured at both ends by anchors," It was worked for some time on a railway, but was obliged to be given up, it is said, owing to " the waste of power arising from the excessive friction of the chain or rope," Several propositions have been enumerated, of rigger traction for actuating ploughs, &c,, in the field, on the principle adopted in this patent. No. 3,973. Date, 1816. Joseph Rynolds, Patentee. — " Steam carriage for ploughing, carting, rolling, drilling, threshing, &c."; the former being on the traction principle. There are some good points about this machine deserving of no- tice, such as the reverse action of the wheels, enabling the carriage to turn on an area of its own length. The broad roller wheels, again, to prevent them sinking in the soil, have since been adopted by several patentees. It is only to be seen in the Roll's Chapel. No. 4,575, Date, 1821, John Richard Barry, Patentee.— " Endless rail- ways." The principle carried out in this project is that of a heavy body moving on rollers. A series of wheels and axles working in plummer blocks, fixed in two endless chains, one at each side of the carriage frame, pass over four chain pulleys, two on each side. Each axle has four wheels, two at each side, the one being less than the other. The largest two act as wheels for supporting the carriage on the ground ; and the smaller two for rollers under the frame of the carriage. When the ground wheels come to an obstacle, they remain sta- tionary, the carriage rolling over the other two, setting down two wheels in front of the carriage over the front two chain pulleys, and taking up two wheels behind for each of the two purposes involved ; the ground wheels, and roller wheels, the axles, wheels, and chains in which they work passing over the chain pulleys. No, 5,260. Date, 1825, Sir George Cay ley, of Brompton, Yorkshire, Pa- tentee,— " Endless railway," This project is nearly the same in principle as Mr. Barry's above, but differs con- siderably in mechanical details. It has less merit, in- deed is hardly worthy of further notice. No. 5,267. Date, 1825. JosiAH Easton, Patentee. — "A rack and pinion railway." This is a similar project to that of Mr. Blenkinsop's already noticed, the difl'erence being that, Mr. Easton places the rail in the centre of the roadway, whereas his predecessor had it at one side. The advan- tage of this is the obviating the strain experienced in Mr. Blinkensop's case from the rack being at one side only. No. 5,950. Date, 1830. John Henry Cline, Chelt-house, Staffordshire, Pa- tentee.— "Certain improvements in the construction of, and machinery for, locomotive ploughs, harrows, and other machines and carriages." The improvements here consist principally (1) in the enlargement of the carriage wheels for supporting the engine, (2) attachment of a crank pin to one of the spokes with a greater crank radius than ordinary, and (3) in using a broad roller wheel under the centre of the carriage for driving and steering. No. 6,172. Date, 1831. Miles Berry, Patentee. — The improvements con- templated by this invention have principally reference to engines and boilers of stationary or portable engiaes for agricultural purposes. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 247 No. 6,267. Date, 1832. Joan Heathcoat, Tiverton, Devon, Patentee.— " Certain new or improved methods of draining and cultivating land ; and new or improved machinery and apparatus applicable thereto; which machinery and ap- paratus may be applied to divers other useful purpnses." This machine is principally for cultivating soft mossy lands. It consists of a broad endless strap or floor, pass- ing over two large pulleys, one at each end of the steam carriage, and four intermediate small pulleys, each pulley consisting of three discs or wheels ; the endless floor forming a railway, and the pulleys the wheels of the carriage six on each side. Between the two endless rail- ways, the boiler and engine are placed. For ploughing, one end of a drag rope is fixed on to a long drum, situate longitudinally over the boiler, and a length equal to the length of the field coiled upon it. The rope then passes to the opposite headland round a large pulley there of an auxiliary carriage, which serves for an anchor. The rope then returns, and is fixed to the opposite end of the long drum. To one side of this rope the plough car- riage is fixed. The drum is then set in motion, when it coils up the one end of the rope as it gives off the other, the engine carriage and auxiliary carriage, moving along opposite headlands as the work of ploughing advances. No. 6,531. Date, 1832. Joseph Saxton, London, Patentee. — "Differential pulleys." This is a rigger motion and traction machine. The parts claiming notice consist of two riggers or pulleys of different diameters on one axle, situated ver- tically in the centre of front part of the carriage or loco- motive. An endless rope passing over two anchored pulleys takes a turn, the one side round the larger pulley of the carriage, and the other side round the lesser one. To gain a high velocity, motion is communicated to the small rigger, and vice versa, to the large ; this, how- ever, is only one way, out of several proposed, of putting the rope or ropes on the riggers ; a second plan was to have a single rope taking one turn round the rigger of the carriage, the two ends being alternately wound upon two* anchored drums at opposite headlands ; and a third plan was to have a single traction rope, as in the case of Chapman's patent, and an endless or single rope for driving, the traction rope taking a turn round the small rigger of the carriage ; for slow motion, the driving rope working on the other, and the reverse for quick motion. Several very ingenious plans were adopted to obviate the cutting action of the ropes where they pass each other on the riggers, as a slight divergence from a right angle with the axis, pulley, guides, &c. The pro- ject was reduced to practice, and tried on a piece of railway near Regent's- park, but did not answer. The principle of mechanism involved, as applicable to agri- cultural purposes, is that of a travelling windlass, and gave rise to numerous suggestions of improvements at che time, as the cart wheel subsequently noticed. No. 7,118. Date, 1836. Thos. Vaux, Land-surveyor, Essex, Patentee.—" A revolving harrow." Strictly speaking, this machine has no connexion with steam, but as it has on several occa- sions been quoted in opposition to patents for rotary steam cultivators, as Hoskyns's, and may be wrought by that power, we give it. The same patentee holds patents Nos. 7,446, 7,624, and 7,905, all in connexion with the culture and fertilisation of land. No. 7,458, Date, 1837. John Upton, Engineer, Surrey, Patentee. — " Steam boilers applicable to agricultural purposes," or "an im- proved method or methods of generating steam power, and applying the same to ploughing, harrowing, and other agricultural purposes, which method or methods is or are also applicable to other purposes, to which the power of steam is or may be applied." Mr. Upton's engines are on the rotary principle. There are two of them, one on each side ; on the shafts of which are two small pinions, one on each. These gear in the top of two spur wheels on the axle of the running wheels of the carriage, similar in principle to what has been adopted by Mr. Boydell. The specification of this patent has been printed, and to it we refer for details. No. 7,547. Date, 1838. Ambrose Ador, of Leicester-square, London, Pa- tentee. — Improvements in obtaining motive power for various purposes, including the propelling of land car- riages by means of ignited hydrogen gas in chambers at the extremity of revolving arms, on a common spindle, something on the principle of Barker's mill. If this gas is poured into a chamber by means of a valve in the centre of the arm, this valve closed, another opened at the side, and the gas at this vent ignited, the recoil ac- tion will force round the arm of the mill, and thus com- municate motion to machinery. No. 8,207. Date, 1839. Henry Pinkus, of the Old Slaughter Coffee House, St. Martin's-lane, Patentee. — A stationary engine forces compressed air or gas through main pipes in the ground supplying the engine of a locomotive ploughing appa- ratus, &c., by means of vertical pipes at certain dis- tances, and an elastic tube communicating between the two. As the locomotive advances, this elastic tubing is unwound from a drum, and in returning is wound upon the same. The inventor assumes that an estate of 16 miles might be laid down with main pipes, and culti- vated with one engine in a central position. No. 8,329, Date, 1839. Alexander McRae, of British Guiana, took out a pa- tent for steam culture by means of a portable engine, endless rope, the necessary anchorage, and two series of ploughs in a carriage or frame on wheels, one for plough- ing up land, and the other down. The invention was principally intended for the low level lands of Guiana, intersected at short distances with a net-work of canals. Accordingly, the steam-engine was placed in a punt or barge at one side of the field, and the anchor, so to speak, with its pulley, in another at the opposite side, the two sailing up or down as the work of ploughing or harrow- ing progressed. No, 8,331. Date, 1840. John Lee Nicolas, Clifton, Bristol, Patentee. — " Certain improvements in the method of constructing and propelling carriages on common roads and through fields for agricultural purposes." Claims the method of propelling carriages or ploughs by means of crutches or legs, and working them by means of arms mounted on a shaft, and actuated by motive-power. Vibrating levers are weighted at one end, the other having a joint with a pending lever or leg with a shoe. As the arms revolve, the shoes or feet of the legs press against the soil, forcing the carriage forward. No. 8,644. Date, 1840. Henry Pinkus, St. Martin's-lane, Patentee. — " Im- jjrovements in the methods of applying motive-power to railway carriages, canal boats, and agricultural ma- chines." As to the latter, in a given area of land a central station is erected, in which is here placed an electric battery or batteries, having wells and tanks placed in the same. From the station, main pipes are laid down, having, at intervals of 200 yards or so, short, vertical, supply branches, terminating in a box with a moveable lid. In the main pipes wires are laid, con- nected with the positive and negative poles of the bat- 2^8 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, tery, thus constituting electric circuits. In the locomo- tive engine an electric magnetic engine is applied ; and in order to set the former in motion, chemical action is induced in the batteries at the station tanks, and elec- trical influence being thus generated, the force of which acting through the metallic circuit, the wires passing round a small drum will put the impelling engine in motion. No. 9,402. Date, 1842. Joseph Hall, Cambridge. — " Certain improvements in machinery for tilling land." This is a rotary culti- vator, and, like Mr. Vaux's, is not a steam one. It involves principles, however, to which reference has also been made in taking out patents for rotary steam cultivators, and therefore we quote it. In it the rotary "delving machine" moves at right angles, or an angle from the line of progression of the carriage, so that the velocity of the latter does not interfere with that of the former, beyond giving it a diagonal direction, i. e., if the diggers rotate at right angles from the line of progression, the spit or furrow which they cut will be in a diagonal direction from it. No. 10,135. Date, 1844. Wm. Staoe, of Berwick, Farmer, and Philip Val- LANCE. — " Improvements in applying power for drain- ing or working ploughs, and other instruments used for agricultural purposes." This is no less than a locomo- tive windmill for ploughing land, &c. Two long poles are anchored, one at each end of the field; to each of these two pulleys are fixed. At the opposite ends of the two poles a frame is anchored, containing three more pulleys. An endless rope passes over the whole of these, a double rope stretching along the field. On each rope a plough is fixed, the ploughs being at opposite ends, worked by two ploughmen. A portable windmill sets the whole in motion, and the ploughmen can stop their ploughs at pleasure without stopping the windmill. No. 10,578. Date, 1845. JohnBaptiste Simson Teissier, Engineer, and An- ToiNE HippolyteTrtat, ProfessorofGymuastics, Paris, Patentees. — " Propelling vessels, carriages, and agricul- tural machines." The specification of this patent is printed ; and to it we refer for details. The method of propulsion is by crutches (or propellers, as the patentees term them). A series of these, operating by a crank shaft below the engine, forces the carriage for- ward as the cranks revolve, by catching hold of the ground. The drawing represents a series of spade- shaped cultivators, following in a second tire across the path of the carriage, forcing themselves into the ground by their own weight, and tearing up the soil on the principle of action exemplified by the old Roman plough. No. 11,297. Date, 1846. Thomas Bonser, of Merton, Surrey; and Wm. Pettitt, Lambeth, Patentees. — "Certain improve- ments in machinery for tilling land." This has been termed a " screw plough." It consists of a shaft or drum, with radial cutters, or prongs, or tines, either straight or curved, attached thereto, and arranged around it spiralwise ; and is proposed to be actuated either by horse or steam-power. No. 11,303. Date, 1846. Peter Claussen, of Leicester-square, London, Patentee. — This is a large project, under the title of " Improvements in methods of — and apparatus for — propelling, and exhausting, and compressing air and aeriform bodies." The specification is printed, and comprises nine pages of letter- press and six large draw- ings ; and to these we must refer for details. The method of working ploughs is by rigger traction ; but the plan of tackling the riggers adopted by Mr. Claus- sen is different from that of his predecessors, Chapman and Saxton. No. 11,304. Date, 1846. John Tulloch Osborne, Esq., of Demerara, Pa- tentee.— " System of steam ploughing." According to this plan, two portable engines are used — one for pulling the one way, and the other the opposite. Each engine has two drums, the one giving off rope to the opposite engine, and the other taking in rope. Portable railways, or tramways, are placed about 100 to 200 yards asunder ; and on these the engines travel across the field, ploughing the land between them into ridges. Two plough-carriages, on wheels, are used, having one- way ploughs ; one being drawn the one way, ploughing the one side of the ridge, while the other is being drawn the opposite way, ploughing the other side of the ridge, or the corresponding side of a second ridge, ac- cording as the ploughs are made ; so that both engines are always kept in use. At the headlands, the ploughs are shifted from, the one side to the other, as in plough- ing with horses. Each plough-carriage, as it advances, lays down the return rrpe. In level land, intersected by rivers, canals, or ditches, provision is made for placing the locomotives, one at each side of the field, so as to admit of the lands between them being ploughed. No. 11,907. Date, 1847. Sir John Scott Lillie, of Fuiham, Patentee.— " Improvements in machinery for tillage, &c." The specification of this patent is printed ; and we shall again refer to it for details. It is hardly possible to give, in a few words, an intelligible description of Sir John's project. The carriage has two sets of wheels, one for running from headland to headland, and the other transverse-ways, across the field. The former have endless railways, consisting of jointed rails passing over skeleton rails, one at each end of the carriage, for each endless chain of rails, passing under and over these wheels on each side. Either ploughs or rotary tillers are used, or both. A rope is stretched along the field, and anchored at each end by " grapnels" in the ditch. This rope takes a turn round a rigger, or " whelp- wheel," on the locomotive. Motion is given to this wheel by the engine, with the necessary intermediate gearing, when the whelp -wheel winds its way along the rope, ploughing or digging, as the case may be, or both, at one operation. In cutting corn, the machine moves sideways on the transverse wheels, cut- ting its own length as it proceeds. To effect this, two drums are placed, one at each end of the long carriage. Over these, endless straps or chains work, having scythes fixed at short intervals in them, and set at an angle for cutting. On motion being given to the drums, the chains and scythes revolve at a rapid pace, cutting the corn as they proceed. We cannot conclude by saying there is much appearance of successful practice in this project. No. 11,977. Date, 1847. Pierre Philippe Celestin Barrat, of Paris, Patentee. — " Improvements in machinery for tilling and working land." This machine cultivates the ground with mattocks; the object of the invention, as he tells us, being to imitate the action of such a tool when worked by man. For this purpose, or to accomplish this, a frame is placed behind the engine, about three feet from the ground. In this frame is a transverse shaft, in which are sockets for receiving the handles of the mattocks. This frame and shaft have > longi- tudinal reciprocating motion. The handles are raised by stud pins in rollers, and when up to their proper height, are relieved by means of springs, when they THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 249 fall to the ground, and thus, by the three movements, progressive, transverse, and vertical, penetrate the soil and turn it over. The patentee claims, 1st. The ar- rangement of two rows of mattocks, to which, on the one hand, an alternate rotary movement is given ; and on the other hand, a " to-and-fro movement," in such a manner as to imitate as much as possible the working of a mattock by the hand. 2nd. The mode of giving increased power to the instruments as they fall into or enter the ground. .3rd. The means for regulating the height of the frame and mattocks from the ground. 4th. The means of regulating the speed of the carriage when at work. 5. The means of regulating the speed of the carriage when travelling from field to field. 6th. •' Combining wheel," for changing the speed of work- ing, and for stopping, &C.3 and 7th. Arrangement of machinery to securing an equilibrium, notwithstanding inequalities of soil. No. 12,710. Date, 1849. Jamks Usher, Edinburgh, Patentee. — " Improve- ments in machinery for tilling land." This rotary Bteim-plough is too well known to require description. No. 12,860. Date, 1849. George Galloway and Robert Allee Purkis, Patentees. — " Apparatus for ploughing land." This machine consists of a triangular frame, connected with a locomotive engine. At each angle of this frame are three chain pulleys on one shaft. Over these, three endless chains, carrying coulters or other tilling appar- atus, work ; so that with the progressive motion of the frame and transverse motion of the chains and tilling apparatus, a furrow is made diagonally, the one tiller following the other, so as to cultivate the whole of the laud regularly. No. 12,930. Date, 1850. Henry Cowing, Blackfriars, London. — " Improve- ments in obtaining motive power, and in steam and other ploughs, in land carriages, in fire-engines, in raising water for draining and other agricultural pur- poses." No specification em oiled. No. 13,159. Date, 1850. Paul Eapsey Hodge, Adam-street, Adelphi, Lon- don, Patentee. — " Improvements in certain descriptions of steam-engines, and in their apparatus and manage- ment for cultivating and manuring the soil, and treating the produce thereof." This is an improved steam digging machine for cultivating the land, and mixing the manure spread upon it. It consists of two series of spades on two crank shafts at the back part of the ma- chine. The handles of the spades work in slide-sockets, from which they are expelled by a spring for the purpose of throwing off the spit. No. 13,168. Date, 1850. Weston Tuxford, Boston, Patentee.—" Improve- ments in machinery for crushing and pressing land, to be wrought either by horse or steam-power." No. 13,222. Date, 1850. George Thomson, Regent's-park, Patentee. — " Certain improvements in machinery and apparatus for cutting, digging, or turning up earth, applicable to ag- ricultural purposes." A craak-shaft digging machine, with apparatus for turning off the spadefuls of earth when lifted by the diggers. The machine may be actu- ated either by a stationary engine in any part of the field, or by one attached to it. No. 13,564. Date, 1851. George Gutherie, Chamberlain to the Right Hon- ourable the Earl of Stair, Wigton, Patentee. — " Im- provements in machinery for digging, tilling, and working land." A forking machine. Claims — 1, ge- neral arrangement of forks; 2, mode of turning them by a screw travelling slide ; 3, use of guides for di- recting the forks; and 4, system of digging and turning the forks. No. 13,757. Date, 1851. David Stephen Brown, Old Kent-road, Surrey, Patentee. — " An improved agricultural implement." This machine is on the rotary principle, and consists of blades or cutters fixed on spindles, of which two are used, one in advance of the other — the front cutters being smaller than those behind. The bearings sup- porting the spindles have a vertical motion, on a joint, to permit of their being raised so as to take the blades out of the ground. The machinery may be either wrought by horse or steam-power. No. 13,943. Date, 1852. Martyn John Roberts, Gerard's-cross, Bucks. Patentee. — "Improvements in agricultural implements." This is another machine on the rotary principle. A series of discs revolve on a shaft, carrying rocking-bars towards their circumference, armedwith tines or riggers. These bars, working by means of eccentrics on the axis of the discs and connecting rods, give to the tines a reciprocating motion, independent of the rotary, the object of which is to make them enter the ground in the easiest manner, and loosen the soil so as to make the best work. This mechanism is very complicated. The following are under the new statute, and hence are printed. We shall merely give the number, date, name of patentees and title, referring to the printed specifications for the rest. No. 764. Date, 1852. Thomas Chrippes, Land Agent, Petworth, Sussex, Patentee.-" Tilling land." No. 949. Date, 1852. John Bethell, Westminster, Patentee. — "Appara- tus for digging and cultivating land," No. 965. Date, 1852. Denis John Murphy, Cork. — "Machine for cut- ting, turning-up, and pulverising land." No. 1,151. Date, 1853. John Henry Johnson (pro Romaine, Canada).— " Machinery for effecting agricultural operations." No. 1,899. Date, 1853. Chandos Wren Hoskyns, Esq., Wrashall, War- wick.— " Application of steam-power to cultivation of the soil by means of rotary tilling machines." No, 2,147. Date, 1853. Henry Jeanneret, M.D., London. — " Machinery or digging and tilling land." No. 2,418. Date, 1853. Alexis Dussuc, Brompton. — " Machine for digging and cultivating land." No. 2,530. Date, 1853. Joseph Bauer, Vienna. — " Machine for digging and harrowing by means of steam-power." No. 41. Date, 1854. John Henry Johnson. — Machinery and rotary engines for effecting agricultural operations. No. 260. Date, 1854. Thos. Atkins, Civil Engineer, Oxford. — Apparatus for transmitting power to agricultural machines. No. 431. Date, 1854. James Boydell, Camden-town. — Endless railway. No. 1,293. Date, 1854. William Southall, London. — Machinery for breaking up or pulverizing land. No. 1,325. Date, 1854, John Allen Williams, Wilts.— Machinery for ploughing and cultivating land. 250 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. No. 1,487. Date, 1854. John Henkt Johnson.— Agricultural machines, &c. No. 1,696. Date, 1854. Beaumont Cole, Hertford. — Agricultural machines. No. 35. Date, 1855. John Henry Johnson (pro Romaine, Canada). — Digging machines. No. 288. Date, 1855. George Tomlinson Bousfield, Brixton. — Steam- ploughs. No. 1,030. Date, 1855. John Allen Williams, Wilts. — Apparatus for applying steam-power to agricultural machines. Patents not Specified for 1855. 1,177. May 24. — Baron Von Gelgenhemb. 1,343. June 12.— A. W. Ford. 1,629. July 19. — Messrs. Fisken. 1,642. July 20. — John Henry Johnson, Patent Agent. 1,953. August 29.— J. Hanson. 2,224. October 5.— P. A. Halkett. 2,551. November 13.— F. A. Wilson. 2,766. December 7. — J. A. Williams. 2,848. December 17.-0. C. Evans. It has been proposed to dig land on the principle of the steam-hammer. Suppose a series of oscillating cylinders, constructed on the principle of the steam- hammer ; but, instead of the hammer, a large fork, with a swivel action on the piston-rod, for turning off the spit. You will readily perceive that it would not take a vast amount of engineering to make the steam drive the forks into the ground, lift them out by one crank- shaft motion, turn the fork by a second on its swivel, advance another step by intermittent progression, and so on. All this is plain sailing, at least on paper. DISCUSSION. The Secretary stated that he had received several communications in reference to Mr. Fowler's paper, which with the permission of the meeting he would now proceed to read, taking them in alphabetical order: — Mr. W. Bridges Adams says: — "As surely as steam-power has become the substitute for wind, water, and animals, in the processes of grinding, beating, pumping, lifting, and propelling, in mills, on farms, in mines, and on land, river, and sea, so surely will it be the means of performing like operations on farms, in ploughing, harrowing, and transport, and yet other things, till such time as a new motor shall be discovered, combining equal power with diminished weight of machine. " In the application of steam to its yet desirable pur- poses, we should first define what those purposes are. The first is, to break up the ground to give access to air, and give, or get rid of, moisture. The second is, to impregnate the ground with the various chemical materials known under the general name of manure. The third is transport, to bring the mechanism and materials of produce on to the ground, and to carry the produce off the ground. " In breaking up the ground, the mode of working must be determined by the quality of the ground. If homogeneous, as clay, or loam, rapid rotary action will be found the most desirable ; if stony, and especially if the stones be of various sizes, the ploughing or grooving action will be the best. Whether the cutting of the ground be produced by a locomotive engine directly, or by a fixed engine through the agency of ropes, it is desirable that the engine should be as light as possible ; and to possess lightness together with great power, steam must be used of the utmost possible pressure. A small boiler is essential for lightness ; and with a small boiler, fortunately, the strength of resist- ance increases. But after a certain point the radiation of heat becomes excessive, though the pressure remains the same ; and for the sake of economy in fuel, the means of confining the heat must be very different from what we at present employ. " If the locomotive engine be used for motive power, we must use rails ; and then the question arises whether we are to use the portable rail laid in short lengths round the wheels, or portable rails of another class which we may call moveable, or rails laid down as a fixture. The wheel-rail, or, as we may designate it, the ground-shoe, is not all advantage. It is an addi- tional weight constantly moving about ; and extra force is required to move that weight, and overcome the adhesion to the ground. Fixed rails would be too costly, and would involve the levelling of the ground in plateaux, and many other arrangements ; and we may therefore dismiss them, and consider the subject of portable or moveable rails. " Whether they are to be used for a locomotive engine, or merely for waggons, must determine the question of position, strength, and the amount of bear- ing surface requisite to prevent their sinking into the ground; but, in any case, the attachment of the rail- bars to each other must be such as to constitute them a continuous bar of sufficient strength for the object, and without any surplus weight ; and for this purpose they must be wholly of iron, and not involving the use of timber, increasing the bulk and weight. If the con- nexion of the bars be perfect, a much lighter rail will suffice, on the well-understood principle that a beam with fixed ends will bear one-half more load than one with the ends loose, the relative strengths being the same. A good form for the rail is a bar of JL section with the vertical rib above the flat base. A better form would be a cruciform section, giving greater vertical depth. A model is laid on the table of a X rail of 281bs. per yard, connected by a joint, rendering it a continuous bar. The wheel to run on this rail should be a double-flanged sheeve, taking a vertical pressure, and not tending to thrust the rails out like an ordinary coned wheel ; and the wheels should be arranged to revolve independently on their axle, while the axle also revolves in the ordinary bearings. "If it be desired to run a locomotive on a light rail, it would be a very practicable thing to use Mr. Boydell's wheel shoes for slow rates of speed. In this mode, the bearing of the wheel being extended, the rail would not be damaged by the increased weight, and the adhesion would be increased so as to prevent slip on inclines j and the disadvantage of lifting masses of mud in wet weather would be avoided. " With the rail-bars firmly and efficiently connected together, it would be very practicable, by means of Mr. Boydell's engine arrangement, to slew the rails laterally by applying force at the end, and thus changing the course of the line when required. Something similar to this is done in Wales, for the purpose of delivering and stacking slate from the quarries. " The mode of applying the force of the pistons to the peripheries of the wheels, in order to make the portable farm-engine locomotive, is exceedingly useful. It is the converse of the plan of jNIr. Whitworth for a street- sweeping- machine, where the wheels moved by the horse give motion to the machinery, instead of the machinery to the wheels, as in Mr. Boydell's engine. "The shoes, as applied to the engine, appear clunasy, and are rather adapted to make the engine locomotive, with a view to its own transit, than for the purposes of haulage. But this is a most valuable application, and THE FARiMER'S Mx\GAZINE. •251 when applied on a light rail, to enable it to do the work of a heavy one, the disadvantages are lessened, as com- pared with the ground surface, and especially if a ploughed field, where the poaching would be very like that of horses' feet. Altogether, this simple arrange- ment of Mr. Boydell is a great move in advance towards steam farming. " Thus far we have a portable engine adapted for all the uses of machinery as a fixed motor, and also as a tool of transit ; but this is not all the purposes it may be made to serve. There are purposes other, and quite as important, to which it has not yet been applied. " The process of manuring land is tedious and costly. In the ordinary methods a large mass of material has to be carted on to the field, much of which goes into the atmosphere. In improved methods, chemistry reduces the bulk of the manure, and in modern practice dilution with water is superadded. But in all these cases a con- siderable bulk and weight has to be transported. " It is mostly considered heretical to bring novel theories before an audience, and the more especially if they be untried. But there are some processes that would not exist at all unless they began as theories, and the only hope cf their becoming practice is to promul- gate them. It is in the hope that some one may be induced experimentally to solve' the question, that the writer puts forth his problem. " In the production of vegetation three conditions are essential: First -the chemical constituents of the plant; secondly — moisture, to dissolve those ingredients ; thirdly — warmth, to assimilate them. Some of the con- stituents are gaseous in form, and are easily evaporated. It would, therefore, be desirable to dispose them as low as convenient under ground, in order that as they ascend they may encounter and be absorbed by the roots. " We drain our land artificially, and the land thereby becomes warmer, and a more generous kind of vegeta- tion grows on it. Manuring land without draining it would be of little use ; but there are times when wetting or moistening the land is also required. The problem, then, is how to manure, water, and warm at the same time, and apply these three ingredients of gases, warmth, and moisture in contiguity, to the roots of plants, in such a position below them that they may ascend. " This is a practicable matter in several modes. Sup- pose a series of earthern pipes, analogous to the drain pipes, to be laid at a small distance above them. We may imagine them a continuous pipe in a serpentine form, with a large pipe at the entrance, and a large pipe at the exit. The entrance-pipe we may suppose analo- gous to the fire-box of a locomotive boiler, the exit analogous to the smoke-box. The intermediate serpen- tine pipe would then represent the tubes. A steam boiler, which may be the boiler of our farm engine, is then connected by a pipe to the entrance of the under- ground system. In that boiler are placed the materials of carbon, ammonia, and other gases, all at high pres- sure. The valve being opened, the steam and gases will sink through the underground pipes and saturate the ground, depositing therein heat, moisture, and chemical material. At first the steam will condense near the entrance ; as the ground warms it will go further, and so on till it reaches the extremity, and the heat and the steam will ascend, carrying with them the gases : and neither heat nor gases can escape, save upwards, if the exit and entrance be stopped, and in their passage up- wards the rootlets will absorb them. " Probably smoke from a close furnace might thus be injected, being connected to the entrance-pipe, and a blower for the purpose of exhaust, worked by the engine, being placed at the other end. Whether the dry gaseous heat or smoke, or the moist gaseous steam, would be the best, would be a subject for experiment. But if the process of manuring could be performed by gases, it is obvious that an enormous cost in transit of bulky and heavy manure would be avoided. " One condition of health in human beings is said to be, to keep the head cool and the feet warm. Bottom heat is a favourite heat of the gardeners ; and the re- duction of heat in the greenhouse and hothouse, at times, is an absolute condition of the health of plants therein. In truth, plants like to keep their feet warm and heads cool, as well as we do ourselves. If a warm steam pipe or flue pipe be anywhere underground near a grape vine, the roots will infallibly find their way to it, and cling round it affectionately. " M^e want, then, to prove, practically and experi- mentally, what would be the results of the products of combustion, heat inclusive, of a ton of coals deposited underground, and to what extent of area it would be beneficially available in aid of production. " That it would be of large benefit, we have no reason to doubt. In Saxony, and elsewhere, the effect of burniug coal-pits under ground are evident enough by the green grassy sward, which contrasts so beautifully with the surrounding country when — ' The long dull wolds are ribbed with snow.' " It would be a very delicious thing to keep our gardens green throughout the winter by this process, and with dry warm walks. But there is yet more than the gratification of the eyesight. " Vegetables not required to ripen do not need much sun, as celery, which we use in the winter, though sun is most important in the ripening process. It might, therefore, be possible to grow vegetables for green use throughout the whole winter, uptm the same principle that Indian corn or maize, which cannot find in England sufficient sun to ripen it, will yet serve as a very deli- cious green vegetable. " It would add very materially to London comforts if the sloping banks of railways looking south could be thus cropped for winter use. There is also another con- sideration. We break up the surface of the ground to let in air, moisture, and gases from above. It is just possible that the steam process may fissure the ground more ad- vantageously from below, and thus the cost of digging and ploughing be saved in peculiar positions. " It may be objected that quickening vegetation under ground would the more expose it to be nipped by frost. Possibly ; but possibly also vegetables could be acclimated to this, just as trees, animals, and human beings change their character. ' There are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamed of in our [existing] philosophy;' and it were well to find them out, or dis- prove them practically. Gaseous food might prove to be to plants what hot coffee or nourishing food is to ourselves ; and it would be a useful discovery to find that the engine power of Sydenham might be turned to account to keep the gardens green at the season when fountains are too chilly to be pleasant. " In all processes for farm improvement, it will be well to recollect that the essential element, the basis of everything, is coal ; and for the transit of coal there is no cheap method but railways. Farming improvement, therefore, means the gradual introduction into farms and villages of a cheap class of railways and locomotive en- gines, worked economically at low speeds. And the same engines will ultimately draw trains, pump water, thrash corn, cut hay, plough the land, and inject it with its vital fluid — steam — as well as perform many more mechanical operations than are as yet marked out for it. " These suggestions are given in the hope that those who have leisure and opportunity, and appliances, will, after they have done laughing at what doubtless will at first be considered as wild theories, try to prove or di^- 25S THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. prove them practically. I believe it will turn out they are all of them simply new forms of doing old things, doing by art what has hitherto been done by nature, and all capable of verification analogically. Stirring the earth has hitherto been a process all moulded on the anatomical structure of a horse; the horse being invented first, the plough followed. But in cotton, iron, and machinery are to be found abundant processes applicable to the cutting and carving of earth for agricultural pur- poses. The imagination of the poet is not needed for this, but only the perception of the analytic discoverer. " In September, 1845, the writer promulgated these ideas in an article in the Weshninsfer lievieio, entitled 'Railway Improvement.' This is a second attempt to draw public attention to it." Mr. R. Garrett, of Leiston Works, Saxmund- ham, says — " I have tried portable engines to draw by wind ropes and drawing endless ropes for plough- ing, and, as far as my experience has gone, the result has not been favourable. The friction of the length of rope which is necessary for field cultivation on lands not level, and its coming in contact with the surface, added to that of the loss consequent on the friction rollers, and other guide and winding pulleys, absorbed in my experiments so much of the motive power as to leave the power given off by the engine, to be exerted upon the work done, so reduced as to render the advantage of steam over horse power of small moment as compared with the outlay. I also found some considerable diffi- culty in sufiicieatly simplifying the arrangement of such ropes, whether made of wire or hemp, for management by farm labourers, or for the ordinary shape of fields as now cultivated. I witnessed some experiments ot' Lord Willoughby D'Eresby's with much interest, some few years since, and was there equally disappointed, through the same cause; and I think the results of his Lordship's valuable experiments would lead him to the same conclu- sion as myself with regard to the loss of power by the rope over the surface of the land. If I mistake not, in the experiments I allude to, at Stratford, the power given off a 10-horse engine was barely able to draw two furrow ploughs, thus losing six out of tea horse power in a small field. I have seen some experiments in ploughing with Boydell's traction engine, and the result was certainly more advantageous, and the machinery less difficult to adjust and manage, than with a rope over a portable engine stationed. On the occasion to which I allude there was no steam indicator on the boiler, but we were informed that the engine was only working up to 12-horse power, and it drew ploughs turning four good furrows, on land which, I was informed by disinterested farmers on the spot, would have required three good horses to turn each furrow as well as this engine performed the four at one time. As all new inventions require per- severance to perfect, I am of opinion that a great deal of good is to be got out of Boydell's engine for field cultivation, as well as for other means of traction. I apprehend it does not lose so much power by its own locomotion, even upon soft and uneven ground, in large fields, as a rope does for such traction. I am aware of the immense advantages of steam over horse power in this country, and no one is more sanguine than myself of the practicability of the former for the cultivation of the land. It has been ascertained that the horses em- ployed in agriculture consume one-fifth of the whole produce of the land of this country ; therefore their dis- placement by sleam is very desirable, and every effort should be encouraged tending in this direction. I am of opinion that many of us may yet live to see it eflfectu- ally carried out. The greatest difficulty is, that the number of patents taken out under the present patent laws (good as they are) has a tendency to clog inventors. As an individual, or a single manufacturing firm, I do not contemplate such an undertaking. I should be pleased, indeed, to see it at once taken up in earnest by those who have more courage and means to carry it out to perfection. I will use no disguise or secresy as to my ideas of the means to be pursued to the attainment of this object ; I will only trouble you with a very brief outline of my ideas as to the difficulties we have to en- counter, and the remedies I would suggest : — "1st. The difficulty we have at present to contend with is, to apply our steam-power to our present means of turning the soil, either with a plough or any other effective tool ; because we find that a plough is not adapted to a steam-engine any more than a spade is to a horse'; and a rotary motion does not appear to me to be effectual at all times, or on all soils. " 2nd. That the weight of the engine to travel over the land is a difficulty as well as a disadvantage ; and although it may be done by a rope, it must be admitted that the rope has its disadvantages. "Let us therefore turn our attention to the con- struction of a tool that will effect its wo'rk on all lands in seasonable weather, and capable of being adapted to the power of a steam-engine. This, I believe, may be done by constructing a number of spades that will turn the soil as near as possible like the hand-spade ; then place an engine upon these spades sufficient to work them ; and, thus connected with its work, its weight, instead of being a hindrance, will be a decided advantage; and by such weight, in connexion with the ordinary action of the piston of the engine, the means of propel- ling and turning the soil will be more effectually obtained than with any horse-propelling implement. I do not thick that it is difficult to give the action of the hand- spade through the motion of a common portable steam- engine. Its travelling-wheels should be hung on crank- axles, or by some contrivance to raise or lower the depth of cutting and of the spade, and to regulate the same. It should, however, only partially rest on its wheels when at work, to regvdate the depth of cutting, but entirely when required to raise it^i diggers out of the ground, or in travelling. " If these brief remarks should lead any inventors to the prosecution of the object before us, my earnest desire is that they may go on and prosper." Mr. Robert Roger says : — " A few of the disadvan- tages of the fixed windlass system of tillage of land are as follows : — " 1st. The remoteness of the motive power and means of stopping, when any obstruction occurs to make this necessary, either in the course of working or at the headlands, and the great liability to serious breakage from the carelessness or ignorance of attendants, or the derangements of signals. "2nd. The great amount of wear and tear on wire rope, from trailing on the ground, in addition to the friction from winding and unwinding on the drums. " 3rd. The liability to saw itself into the soil on hills, and to derange the working of implements by pulling straight across hollows, thus making it difficult to cultivate undulating surfaces. " 4th, Considerable delay must be necessary at each funow or bout, from the stopping, reversing, and again getting away with the engine. " 5th. A much greater strength of wire rope is necessary, from having the entire weight of itself to haul, the whole length of the field, in addition to the imple- ments, thus requiring additional strength of windlass machinery and anchorage to meet this ; in fact, in the plans proposed, I see no advantage whatever over that abandoned by the Marquis of Tweeddale some years ago ; I believe, principally, on account of the wear and tear of wire ropes ; the friction of the wire rope working THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 253 light, being lio criterion for the friction when the drag of an implement is on it. "6th. With the wire rope travelling as proposed by Messrs. Fowler and Williams, there is no provision for turning any implement about, so as to be hauled back in the opposite position— I mean such implement as a grubber or scarifier ; neither is there any possible means of communicating a rotary motion to any other imple- ment, should this, as I think highly probable, be found advantageous for summer tillage. The plough will long, I think, be found best for turning over the soils. " I now beg leave to point out a few of the leading ad- vantages of the Fisken's patent mode of tillage : — " 1st. The power required to overcome the resist- ance due to the driving cordage [is extremely minute ; I have seen a man set above a thousand yards in ad- dition to the engine a-going with one hand, and with more apparent ease than he could move the engine in any other way. This Mr. Fowler admits ' is very slight indeed.' " 2ud. The weight of the travelling windlass and ploughs combined, capable of turning two furrows at once, ten inches deep, does not exceed sixteen cwt. Have Messrs. Fowler or Williams succeeded in making one to carry the ploughs with less weight ? "3id. The complete control the attendant has over the windlass, so as instantly to stop or reverse its mo- tion. This is of immense value in the case of roots of trees, stones, as well as at the headlands, or in hilly ground, where the plough may be out of sight of the engine-man, thus avoiding any possibility of its being hauled to the sheaves at the headlands; as it might be •where the motor is a distant power and under distant control. "4th. The small liability to wear and tear of the wire rope. It being subject to no action but that of winding and unwinding from the drums, not even having to bear the strain of dragging itself about, it may be made so much lighter. "5th. The facility of applying any rotary action or mode of operating that may be found advisable. Sup- pose, even for removing or raising large stones or tree roots, the whole power of the engine may be devoted to that purpose. "6th, The simple, yet perfect mode of anchorage, enabling the attendant to apply the power of the engine to shift the anchor when not required for the tillnge im- plement, at the same time giving a powerful windlass, available for placing any other implement, such as a drag or scarifier, behind the ti-avelling windlass, thus obviating the necessity for horse or manual labour for that purpose. " 7th. The efiective steering appaiartahe of the general information; and the first resolutiou of the committee concludes in these words: "That amongst the many classes that woidd benefit by agricultural statistics, none would derive greater advantage than those connected with agriculture." This plan, then, as far as regards agricultural statistics, would answer every purpose, except that against which the guardians of the Devizes Union protested ! It would be a basis on which men of business might rely; the different counties would report as at present, by practical men, the state of the crops ; a general conclusion would be arrived at, as to whether we had an average, or over or under an aver- age crop ; the effect would have a legitimate influence on the markets, either way ; and the farmer would have no cause of complaint ! As to the return of the acreage of green crops. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2G3 and of live stock, it can answer no purpose but that of grati- fying an idle curiosity, and is too prying into the farmer's private affairs to be tolerated ! The best argument of the witnesses who were examined on the subject was " that as yon were collecting statistics, you might as well get all as part." Some could not even say they were necessary.but would be jh- leresliny curiosities! Mr. Miles, M.P., and Mr. Caird recom- mended that they should not betaken at all; and the latter.in his evidence, makes use of the following observations : — "If even you could ascertain that there was a great falling off in the amount of stock, there is no means of supplying the deficiency." And again, " I think farmers are generally more reluctant to give information as to their stock, than their crop." If then these statistics of acreage were made through the church- wardens and overseers (but paid for by the Government), I have no doubt myself that a perfect return would be made ; for as there are generally four filling these offices, who, generally speaking are farmers, if one or two in the parish should decline to make their return, they would be able them- selves, having the rate book, to fill in the deficiency (signifying it as being done so), and send it complete to the Board of Trade. Thus the objection to the system, as at present acted on, and still recommended by the committee, of forwarding the returns through the Board of Guardians, would be obviated. I will assume, then, that this system was at work, and that next time a return would be sent in, stating the number of acres of corn, of each description now mentioned in the corn returns, and likewise potatoes, as before alluded to — I include them, because they have so much to do in families as a sub- stitute for bread, though often they are grown as food for cattle, more especially when they are plentiful and when at a low price. We will suppose, for want of better information, that the number of acres of wheat returned should be 3,000,000, and that at harvest it should be about an average crop, which I will put at 28 bush., or 7 sacks per acre. If this were correct, the quantity grown in England and Wales would be 10,500,000 qrs.; but as regards the estimate of the produce officially I would have nothing of the kind; all people should estimate for themselves, as heretofore, having the basis of acreage to act upon. A system of this kind would in no way injure our interest, and as thrashing continued it would soon be seen what sort of a crop we had ; and it could at all events be ascertained whether it was an average, or above or below an average. As I stated before, these statistics are worth nothing, unless they are based upon facts 1 And this conviction induced me, in proposing this subject, to consider also, "a practical and equitable system of taking the average price of corn." It must be, and is, admitted by all parties, that the present system ought to be improved ! But how can that be best done ? My own opinion is in favour of blotting out the present mode altogether, and beginning afresh ; and I will offer for your consideration' a plan which I think would prove to be practicable, beneficial, and just to all parties, and moreover useful, as a test, to prove whether our assumed produce of 10,500,000 qrs. of wheat as an average crop was correct or not. It is no doubt in the remembrance of many here present, that on the 4th of Feb- ruary, 1850, just six years ago to-night, this very subject, as proposed by Mr. Bennett, was introduced by the late Mr. Shaw, and discussed in this room. In that discussion I took part, and agreed that the buyer and seller should both join in making the return. I produced a blank schedule for the pur- pose, and recommended that at the time the buyer was paying for ihe corn he purchased, the seller should make the entry in the schedule (the buyer not being allowed to do it), but that he should at the end of each week sign his name to the following certificate at the bottom of the schedule :— " I hereby certify thattheabove entries areatrueand correct return of thequantity of corn purchased by me of the farmers, in the week ending " * It was objected at the time, that the farmers would not like their neighbours to see, on the schedule, what they sold their corn for; and I remember saying, "I thought that feeling was fast wauing away. But if that was at all an argument against it, how will they like the proposed statistics ta the full, which will almost make them prove the stale of their affairs ?" Since that discussion took place, I have given tz: > > W h-l g a- n o 0 p, •^a 0 ^ M n W re fi 0 e-t- H ^1 re cr? 71 |X3 re B a 2 re a- p- re Sj3 n o ?> to •tI < -■ < re rt- n 0 n 0 _ VJ c e-t- re H O' re B » 0 t+5 t CO » CO re B- 5' re B- .c ►0 ~k" <-^ •-< ^ 1 <1re •1 re 0 c c O* s B •=< n *^ 0 p c o 0 n U) •-d n' 2!W o a -^ Cb n rS o < h5 < so B" O* re vs o a s ^ a * n EA ro =" £? f e ,,'„„,^ or" ^ 5 .a -0 r re C o 7» n C w^ H CTJ L, re n> *" J3 C S3 B 5^ CO 0 * C ^ ■ <-.- w •-< < t^ < re O £. p ^, o c S CO re c re -■ p 3. CO a n 2^ 3 c .0 ►0 re ■s" S A « n n pa 'V S 4 a. ^ » n ^ a. < ■^ og. c re w E. re 0^ J3 ►o 53 0 c-f p P re hd c- a- - X 1 SB ?> CO ^ 1 ?r s ^ 2. S n B re -1 9- 0* ct- 73 P-" re 5' Cf5 CO 1 •-. ■•J 0 2 «) a- 0' 0^ n < tn -^ s E. ps 0 c" f^ i re QD ?5 SB 264 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the subject a great deal of consideration, and have seeu no- thing to alter my opinion, that if the buyer is to have any hand in making the returns (as many of them are not to be trusted iu doing it), it should be done in conjunction with the seller. In considering this matter, I have thought on many plans that, joined together, might make a pretty good whole ; for instance, iu this scheme, I would propose, that for the pur- pose of the Government 'nnowing whom to expect returns from, and that the returns might be thoroughly accurate, all pur- chasers of corn should be bound to take out a license to deal therein. It is not for the sake of revenue (as I would only put it at lOs. to 20?.), but to rerjlster the individual, and compel him to make his return. If he omitted to do it, he should be immediately written to, by the proper authorities, and fined if he neglected to send it. It is evident, if this system were adopted, and only the farmers were allowed to make the entries, that DO resale could be returned, and consequently the price thus given would be correct ; instead of being confined to the towns which are now employed, it would be extended, even to the barn-doors; and as far as the annual sales were con- cerned, might be correct. But to make the returns complete as to the annual growth, the churchwardens and overseers coulil be employed to ascertain, as nearly as possible, from the farmers of their respective parishes, the quantity of corn sold otherwise than to licensed purchasers, viz, that in small quantities, what they had themselves con- sumed, and, likewise, what was 'required for seed. These could be returned in one sum, and, therefore, could show no particular item for cariosity. By these means, used in con- junction, a true and just return would be made by Ihe licensed dealers, by which the annual amount of tithe and vent would be fixed ; and by adding to those returns the quantity of corn used by the farmers for consumption and seed, would give an amount at the end of the year (when it could not damage the grower), whereby we might test whether the 10,500,000 qrs. of wheat, as estimated, was correct or not ; and from the ex- perience thus annually gained, you would require no officially assumed produce of the harvest beforehand ; but you would have the facts of tKe past on which to base your opinion for the future. There is an obstacle, though, which seems at first sight to stand in the way of theje returns being made correctly, as to the produce of the year. It is the quantity of old corn remnitiing in the farmers' hands at the time of harvest; but as the greater part held over is generally sold during the first four months after harvest, this could be met by a column in the schedu'e, specifying the quantity of oM corn thus sold. The system then would work thus : In the mouth of June the churchwardens and overseers would collect and return the acreage as proposed. At the end of the farmers' year, which, for this purpose, should be the 31st of August, or as early as possible afterwards, the authorities should make known the returns made during the past 12 months. The quantity collected from the farmers by the parish officers could be added thereto; and at the end of December, the returns of old corn, taken from those made since the 31st of August, added to the other amount, would give a Biatisticil account nearly as true and perfect as under 'any system c-wW be got at ; and I take it for granted that no plan can possibly be devi?ed whereby every quarter could be returned in such an extensive affair. At the end of the year, then, it would be seen how much was grown per acre in the previous one — a fact, instead nf an assumption ; and which, I am inclined to think, would prove more satisfactory to all practical men. Having thus hid before you the imper- fections of the present system of affairs, and a rough sketch of what T think would be a much better plan, I will now leave the subject in your hands, convinced that its importance will call forth many practical remarks, from which, perhaps, some definite plan may be devised, either by improving the one I have offered for your consideration, or suggesting another, which, whilst equally serviceable to the country at large, as the proposed sgticultural statistics, would be much less objectionable and degrading jto the cultivators of the soil (cheers). Mr. Skelton (of Sutton Bridge) was p'eased with the general views expressed by Mr. Williams ; but that gentleman had not given his opinion with regard to an improved system of selling corn in the markets. After pointing out the dis- crepancy now existuig iu that respect, the paper would have been more complete had it also mentioned a remedy. Mr. Williams presumed Mr. Skelton alluded to the mea- surement. He would adopt the imperial bushel and quarter as the standard, and arrive at the average price per quarter. There should be a uniform measure throughout the kingdom, but of course sales might be made by bushel, sack, or quarter, two sacks being a quarter. Lord Berners : What is the present law ? Mr. Williams : The imperial bushel and quarter. Lord Berners : But that is not carried out. Mr. Sidney (of Peckham) said, the paper of "Mr. Williams contained some very valuable information, at the same time that it exhibited in strong relief the prejudices of a most estima- l-:le body of men. He was sorry to observe, for instance, that the proposal for establishing a system of agricultural statistics was described as "un-Euglish," " inquisitorial," and injurious to the interesls of the farmer; although the hon. gentleman himself, almost ia the same breath, said he would intro- duce the truly inquisitorial system of liceusing to deal in corn. (Hear, hear.) The fact was, that Mr. Williams had looked at the question too much from one point of view— the present hour and the latest newspaper gossip. (Hear, hear.) If he had studied the question fairly, he would have found that agricultural statistics were not intended to pu-h down prices, but tliat they were in reality no more than the concluding portion of a course of policy which this country had pursued later than others, namely, that of collecting all possible mform.ition respecting the progre s of the nati^'U ; and which had already been carried out iu ihe case of textile manufactures, by the establishment of a system of inspection, and the regu- lation and limitition of the hours of labour of women and young children: also in the cases of mines, and emigrant end passenger ships, and in the system of registration ot births and deaths. It was one of the peculiarities of the farming class to rush to sell their produce when prices were falling, and to hold hard wlien prices were rising, and the reason for this was that they were ill-iiiformed of what was actually passing around them. They were, therefore, the people of all others to whom a good snd complete system of agricultural statistics would be likely to prove most advantageous. If the existing system had been productive of benefit to the farmers, then he could conceive why a strong prejudice should prevail against statistics ; but the very reverse was the fact, for a large body of the farmers were constantly making mistakes. A cry would be raised that the crop wss excessive, and at once they rushed to the market, and the corn would come down to 40s., liiit soon this wes discovered to be an error ; the crop was short, and up it went again to an exorbitant price. In such cases, he believed inquiry would prove that the farmers were the principal losers. All were agreed that truthful iufcrmation, as to the produce of the country, was necessary, and he could not imagine that any large body of men seriously entertained the belief that the call for agricultural statistics was made for the purpose of depressing prices, but that rather it was for the purpose of destroying speculation, or acting upon and being misguided by ii'accurate information. Visit a farmer at his residence, snd the first question he put to you, if you came from a market town, was, " What is the price of corn, and what is it likely to be ?" And what was it that supported and gave weight and in- lluence to papers like the Mark Lane Express and Bell's T) 'eeUy Mvsseni/er? Simply the anxiety of the farmers on this score, which induced the proprietors o( these journals to expend large sums of money in collecting information and fiiruishing calcu- lations with regard to the market prices. Now the system THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2C( of agricultural statistics would be an attempt to gather to- gether, as well as they could, information as to what the country had produced, aud, as soon as harvest was over, what it was likely to produce ; and information like that would not only have the effect of preventing much speculation, but a good deal of ruin. At present, in respect of these matters, we had always an over or an under estimate. But agricultural statistics woidd correct all that (Hear, hear). Being agreed that some system of correct information was necessary, the question was what that system should be. In collecting the statist'cs, he would not for the first two or three years have any attempt at an estimate. The question then came, how they should be collected ; and for his own part without saying that it should be by excise officers, he would certainly say that it should be done by an organised and disciplis ed body of men, who had fixed residences, aud were at the same time in the habit of reading and writing, which churchwardens and overseers not always were. As to whether it should be com- pulsory to furnish the information or not, experience as to the census showed that if it were not made compulsory they would fail to get it all. Mr. Owen Wallis (of Ovcrstone, Northampton) saw no reason ihle objection to a correct and well-arrangfed system of a^'ricultural statistics ; and thought that-, so far from ii juring, it was more likely to benefit the farmei (Hear, hear). Exaggera- tion was, he believed, the general rule, with regard to reports of a forthcoroing harvest. V»'herever tha rumour prevailed tiiat it was to be short or productive, there was alwa3S unnecessary ex- aggeration, and in either ease mischief was the result. The year before last, when they had a very fine hsrvest, prices were so depressed that, at the eouclusion of the harvest, a great deal of wheat was sold in his neighbourhood as low as iis. per qr. ; yet, in less than a moLth from that time, tiie price rose to 70s. Who was the party injured in that case ? The sellers, of course. But if they had had a correct return of that harvest, coupled with a return of the unexhausted stocks of the pre. vious harvest, there would have been no occasion for the de- pression iu the first instance, or the great rise in price which followed. lie firmly believed, then, that the farmer had nothing to fear from any returns that he might ever be com- pelled to make. The farmer couid have no secrets. His farm was open to everybody's inspection, and he had no rer>son whatever to be ashamed of the amount of his produce, UJ.lcss he had bad crops ia consequence of pursuing a bad system of cultivation (Hear, hear). He could not be iiijtired by iiaviog correct information, iusteail of the vague and i'.Ue rnmours that were circulated daily in new.^papers by commercial travel- lers riding about the country, and even by Mr. Caird himself. As a preiimi'.iary step, supposing there were to be statistical returns male, it was essentially important that there should also be a uniform systtm of weights and measures through- out the country. It wis, he thought, a disgrace tliat every corn-merchant shouli be obliged to carry about with him a card, such as he th'n held in bis hand, for the pur- pose of enabling him to arrive at accurate conchisicns as to the relative prices of corn in the dilleicnt markets. The card was published in Liverpool, and referred to various measurements of wheat, bushels of 721b. and 751b. ; quarters, composed of bushels of 601b., 611b., and 641b.; st-^nes of flour, barrels of flour of 19."llb., loads of 210ib., aud sarks of 2'-"0!b. In short, it appeared that tlie measurement differed iu almost every market ; aud in order to arrive at the relative value of corn in each, the dealer must first refer to his re:- cl; -reckoner, instead of being able when he went into the market to know at once when a price was quoted to what exact measurement the quotation applied. In respect to the present system of taking corn averages, too, it was most vague ai:d uncer- tain ; but if, supposing Mr. Williams' plan were adopted, anj very great reduction took place in the averages, seeing that the tithes had been commuted upon the existing arrangement, they would at once have the tithe )wner3 down upon them for an increased rate upon the present commutation, so that no good could possibly arise by disturbing that question (He«r, hear). Mr. Williams : I would have justice on both sides. Mr. Wallis : You must do justice to both sides. Mr. Williams : We'd, that would be just. Mr. Wallis : No ; it was not just to disturb what he be- lieved to be an equitable arrangement. If they disturbed the ., vp,f.v,f c..^,,*^^ thev won'd cerlaiidy open the door to a very awkward and disagreeable subject, which he had long since hoped was for ever buried in oblivion (Hear, hear). With re- gard to the plan Mr. Williams recommended for getting statis- tics, he thought a mere return of the acreage would be about tantamount to having no return at all. Unless they could also get an estimate of the quantity per acre, the acreage would really be of no practical value whatever. Again, so far from being of opinion that the excise, or the churchwardens and overseers, were the proper parties to collect the information, he thought the boards of guardians constituted the best and most practicable machinery for the purpose. Moreover, every farmer should be compelled to make a return of the acreage he sowed ; and a person shoidd be appointed by the board of guardians to rrake a valuation of each separate pRrish, not of each separate fit-Id or farm, b!it of the entire produce of the acreage, iu wheat, barley, and oats ; he should then send that return under seal to some person in authority, who should make "the necessary calculations for the given dis- trict. Thus anything like returns of an inquisitorial charanter would be eflfectuftUy avoided. With such returns the public might be satisfied as to the probable results of the forthcoming harvest ; for although some estimates might possibly be in excess of the real quantities grown, on the other hand some would fall short, and the one correcting the other, something like an approximation to the real state of the case would be airived at. (Hear, hear). Mr. E. Stenning (of the Croydon Farmers' Club), as a practical agiiculturist and a tenant farmer, felt that the subject of agricultural statistics was one of greater impor- tance, perhaps, to the class to which he belonged than to any other in the community, because the system, in effect, called upon them to do that «hich no other interest ia the country was required to do. (Hear, hear). One of the speakers had illustrated the policy of preparing these statistics, by reference to the registration of births and deaths. But there was no analogy between the cases. The difference was great, and to make and publish returns of births and deaths bore no parallel to inquiriDg into a man's private affairs. V.'ith the views expressed by Mr. Williams he generally concurred; and on the 22nd of December last he had the pleasure of intro- dudng the question at the Croydon Farmers' Club, when he took almost precisely the same line of argument as Mr. Wil- liams had adopted to-night. The evidence given befrre the Committee of the House of Lords on agricultural statistics was such that, speakiLg with all due' respect, he was sure their lordships must have had some ditnculty in coming to a con- clusion upon it, a!;d Ire could not help repeating the renmrk which was made by one of the newspapers, that their lordships seemed to have jumped at a conclusion that was directly against the evidence. (Hear, hear). The country looked to the subject with great interest. It anticipated that something would be done ia regard to agricultural statistics; and for his (Mr. Steuning's) part, he had no objection, for he thought it was only right the country should know what were its capabilities of production. One who was now no more, whose services to the agricultural interest, especially iu connection with the Rotjal AgricttUural Society's Journal, were universally acknowledged and appreciated, he meant the late !Mr. Posey — (Hear, hear)— remarked, when the subject of agricultural statistics was first brought under the put. lie notice, that it was mo-t important that we should be kept thoroughly acquainted with the improvetcents that were taking place from year to year ia the agricultural world ; and, in that proposition he (Mr. Sten- ning) quite agreed, but he could not assent to the principle that the farmer should state in the early part of the year what were his future prospects (Hear, hear). For he held that there would be no possibility of testing the accuracy of any report uutil after the harvest had been got in and thrashed (Hear, hear.) They knew from their experience of last season that m.ar:y of them anticipated at times a fine crop ; aud that at other times they altered their opinions, and found in the end that they varied perhaps two or three sacks an acre. Presum- i:'g that the jl.in were adopted of making a return of the acreage, and that competent persons — he meant practical valuers— were, after the acreage was placed in their hands, sent through every district to make their estimates, it was well known that men of that class were used to making I\Iidsum- raer valuations ; and what did they find in these valuations ? Why, that if they arrived within a sack of the actual produce of whestt npr noro, tboy t1>'">U'-'-t \\ Cwt. 4| ^ 4i- Price. 8. d. 11 4 J 8 4 1-5 8 6 £ 3. 2 11 1 17 1 18 d. 2i 6 9-10 3 Tons cwt. 20 4i 19 16 Ton. s. 10 Acre. £ s. d. 10 2 3 9 18 0 9 9 li £ 8. d. 7 11 0| Phosphate of lime 8 3 5 1-10 Bone-dust 18 18i — 7 10 lOi From the time the turnips brairded until the end of August the different lots could scarcely be distinguished from each other. About that period the whole began to sufifer from want of rain, and became much mildewed ; however, those grown with guano suffered less than the others, and from that time until the end of October distinctly marked themselves by a greener and fresher appearance, which, although to a less ex- tent, continued until they were hfted. The turnip tops have been all left on the ground to be ploughed in, and it is intended to sow the field with wheat, and next season ascertain the result of the wheat crop. The following is an analysis of the manures employed, as furnished by Professor Anderson, Chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland :— Guano. Water 14.22 Organic matter and am- mouiacal salts 50.63 Phosphates 26.54 Alkaline salts 7.38 Sulphate of lime — Sulphuric acid — Carbonate of lime .... — Sand 1.23 100.00 Ammonia 16.15 Phosphoric acid iu alka- line salts, equal to 5.11 phosphate of lime 2.34 — Journal of Agriculture, Phosphate Bone-dust. of lime. 8.10 8.48 38.70 3.95 41 e:n / SOlublc **-^" I insoluble 11.54 16.69 — 2.42 — 41.62 — 8.86 714 — 1.56 6.44 100.00 100.00 4.96 1.21 THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR UPON THE COMMERCE OF THE COUNTRY. The unhappy gentlemen who, for this last year or so, have continued to prostrate themselves for peace, have still the worst of the argument. Honour, character, and national repute might easily be sacrificed if we but lost our business in the endea- vour to maintain them. Our cause must be a bad one for this reason ; our fate on the strength of the same premises was argued as equally unfortu- nate. We were a commercial people, and we were simply destroying our trade and commerce by going to war. We were denied the opportunity of supplying our best customers, and so with increased ta.\es and decreased returns, we were committing a political suicide in obstinately persisting to defy the dictates of justice, humanity, and common sense. All this is as true in any one of these particulars as it is in any other — that is to say, it is a piece of special pleading, utterly false from beginning to end. We knew our cause to be a just one from the moment we took it up, and the further we proceed, the more strengthened are we in believing that it will be successful. So far then, and we may continue satisfied with what we have done. But this is not all. The worthy man who would barter name and reputation to drive a good trade, has been a little premature in his fears and assump- tions. The war has not destroj'ed our commerce. We have been engaged with a country which has been quite powerless in effecting anything of the kind. Here, at the close of our second year in the contest, the official returns just published show us to be doing as good an export trade as when we first commenced the struggle. There never could be a better argument for the position England is entitled to hold than these returns offer. We pay for war of course. We naturally suffer something in men and means ; but we are no hand-tied people who have nothing else but war to talk and think about. Each one of us may pursue his own busi- ness as profitably as ever. The croaker who thinks he cannot, will be heard with as much respect and 276 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. attention as when he preached up peace at any cost and sacrifice. From the returns published the chief falling- ofF will be found in our imports, especially in articles of consumption; and for this there may be many reasons almost altogether in- dependent of the requirements for war — the indifferent harvest, for instance, in America, 1854, and in France and other parts of the con- tinent last season. In a very able digest of these returns in the Economist, a somewhat different cause is assigned. As peculiarly in place here, we give the passage entire, altogether demurring as we must to our own harvest of last year being re- corded as a large one : — " We are now at the end of the second year of war; and, though we are not furnished with any estimate of the value of our imports in 1855 to compare with the value in 1854, the quantities of those articles most affected by the war have suffered no great diminution, or some cor-)ensation for the diminution has been found. Foremost amongst the articles which have declined, and the most im- portant of all our imports, is corn, of which the following figures will tell the history during the last three } ears : — Imported. Total Flour Wheat. Toial Grain. Wheat Flour. & Meal. qrs. qrs. cwts. cwts. 1853.... 4,91.5,480 .. S,847,fi08 .. 4,6-21,508 .. 4,fi88,0i0 18.54 .. 8,43:, -Ja? .. 6,850,500 .. 8,64fi,5n5 .. S.T^.-i.ieO 18-55.... «,6b7,7u2 .. 5,7:i9,,i41 .. 1,90),y24 .. 1,922,318 There has been, therefore, in 1855 a great falhng off in the imports of wheat, as compared to 1854 of one-fourth, and as compared to IS 53 of almost one-half; and of flour, as compared to 1854, of almost one-half, and as compared to 1853 of much more than one-half. Now, it must be recollected that our own harvest in 1853 was small, and the harvests of 1854 and 1855 were large, and that the deficiency of the foreign imports in the two years is in great part due to the abundance of our own crops. There can be no doubt that the war has now begun to operate seriously agaitsst our supply of food ; and were it to continue, and should Pro- vidence aflSict us with a had harvest, we might be somewhat straitened; but our difficulties, what- ever they might be, would be shared by the whole trading world. At present the price of food in the United States, affected in this respect by the war only indirectly through our demands, is very nearly or quite as high as in England." This puts what may or might yet follow certainly in the least favourable light, but even then we should be no worse off than other countries. The only possible deduction to be drawn is, that as large consumers of breadstuffs, we must be made to depend more and more upon our own resources. Could Great Britain, now, but grow sufficient corn for her people, how unprecedentedly strong would be her position ! And yet there are men who still complacently refer to all they have done and ad- vised, who told us but a very few years since that it would be quite as well for us if we did not our- selves produce a bushel of corn ! A decline in the importation of stock is also observable, but by no means in the same ratio. An increase, indeed, in some descriptions of animals justly compensates for the less numbers of others. Cows, calves, sheep, and lambs, as our table shows, have fallen off during the last year; while o.xen and swine e.xceed those landed in 1854. The article we have already quoted from makes out another run-and-read summary equally interesting to the agriculturist : — " From the tables we learn that the quantity of hops charged with duty in 1855 was 83,221,004 lbs., against 9,877,126 lbs. in 1854, and 31,757,693 lbs. in 1853. Such a comparison, showing the revenue yielded in one year nearly nine times as great as in another, combined with the fact that hops, though an article of general consumption, grow in very limited districts, suggests the conclusion that they are one of the articles which should be relieved from excise duties. The quantity of malt charged seems progressively to decrease, and was in 1853, 42,039,693 bushels; in 1854, 36,819,554 bushels; and in 1855, 33,884,609 bushels ; a decline of more than a fifth in three years." The Malt Tax is generally characterised as a war tax, while its effect continues to assure us it is one of those imposts that cannot he too soon modified, if not altogether removed. With wine promising day by day to be dearer, the repeal of the Malt Tax will become more and more a consumer's question. The last returns say nothing in its favour. Even with an outward trade alone in malt liquors that might be made more and more of, " the quantity of malt progressively decreases." In England, too, beer is anything but that attaifiable luxury it should be. At such a momentous crisis, we repeat, it is a matter of peculiar satisfaction to find the com- mercial prosperity of the country so intact. Our very wants can hardly be chargeable to the struggle in which we are engaged ; while the knowledge of what we have hei'e before us should incite our representatives to maintain to the full the honour of the country — seeing at how small a detriment this may be to the people. CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. Sow cats and barley on dry lands in favourable weather; also vetches, peas, beans, and flax-seed. Sow lucerne on wcll-i)repared ground, trenched or very deeply jdoughed, and ricldy dungfd. Sow carrots and parsnips, beet on warm sandy loams in good condition from previous usage, without the present application of fresh manure. Steep the seeds in 13'es of urine, and dry them with lime. Sow sainfoin, and dress the young plants with gyp- sum. Apply artificial manures as top-dressings on young wheats, barleys, and clovers— soot and salt, raalt-coombs, rape-dust, nitrate of soda, pigeons THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 377 dung, and gypsum. Sow cabbage-seeds for sum- mer plants, and lay composts on grass lands. Plant hops, and make the hills six feet distant each way; use thoroughly rotted dung, and put four sets in each hill, one in each corner, and cover them lightly with earth, leaving the upper end of the set just in the light of day. Continue the planting of forest-trees and of young hedges, but cease if dry weather sets in. The cutting of underwoods will now be finished. Watered meadows may now be slocked \^dth light animals. Set traps for vermin, and spread mole-hills. Cross-plough fallows for green crops, and also clay lands for wheat fallows, if the weather be dry. Shut up the fields of young grasses that are in- tended for hay, and finish the preparation of mea- dov/ grounds by bush-harrowing and rolling. In wet weather, thrash grain, and carry dung from the yards to the heaps in the fields. In most situations, this month will be the busiest with the ewes dropping lamb : feed amply with juicy food, as beet, cabbages, and turnips; provide shelter, that is equally necessary as the food. The shelter sheds must be Uttered to be dry, best with chaff and very short straw ; remove the ewes and lambs to the pasture fields from the lambing pad- dock regularly, as the lambs get strong. Keep the poultry houses dry and warm, and set all kinds of eggs for hatching— feed well, and pro- vide clear spring-water. Finish the killing of hogs for bacon, and keep all young pigs for summer stores, and for early-feeding ne.Yt winter. The latest fattening bullocks will now be sold, or pushed forward by superior feeding. The longer days will now require a greater supply of food, as day-light always induces animals to «at more. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR FEBRUARY. Although numerous alternations have been expe- rienced in it, the weather during the greater portion of this month has been fine, though, perhaps, rather too mild for the young wheat plant. Apart from the state of the weather, we have had a grow- ing interest, both on the part of producers and con- sumers, respecting the future range in the value of wheat. Although the late panic in the trade — arising from peace prospects— had subsided, and although a slight advance has taken place in the quotations, the demand for all descriptions has been by no means active. Millers generally have purcViased for immediate wants only, and bakers have acted upon the same cautious system, both these classes being apparently under the impression that we shall have prices considerably lower. We, however, are really at a loss to understand the prin- ciple upon which calculations for a much lower range in the currencies has been made. Is it assumed that we shall have overwhelming impor- tations ? or that the stocks of home produce now in the hands of our growers are in excess of the ordinary run of years ? But we are told that the restoration of peace will bring us immense supplies of wheat and other articles from Russia, and those, too, purchased at a very low price. Now, assum- ing that we receive 1,030,000 quarters of wheaf from that country by the end of next September, will that quantity compensate for the falling off in the yield of English grain last year ? We say deci= dedly not. Then, again, it is supposed that ths United States have very large quantities of food to spare for us, over and above the ordinary consump- tion of that country. No doubt America has yet to forward a good supply of wheat and flour ; but when we bear in mind that about one half of the entire shipments from the States goes to France and other parts of the continent, and that Europe still requires an immense supply of foreign food, the fair inference to be drawn is that we shall im- port no more than we actually require; conse- quentl]', to dispose of stocks under the influence of a panic, is simply a departure from the true prin- ciples of commerce. We all know that Russia is a very large corn-producing country — that in former seasons, during periods of peace, she has shipped extensively ; yet we must bear in mind that during the last two years she has been engaged in a severe conflict ; that nearly 800,000 men have been with- drawn from the soil ; that large breadths of land have gone out of cultivation ; and that the crops in the southern portions of the empire have proved a failure. Under these circumstances, we are much inclined to doubt the ability of Russia to ship largely this year ; and we feel confident that the total importations of food into England will not be more than adequate to our wants. We have to report a considerable decline in the value of all spring corn, especially in oats, beans, and peas. Malt, too, from the uncertainty which prevails on the subject of the duties, has been ex- cessively heavy and drooping. According to the 27S THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. last act, the additional duties are to cease on the 5th of July, immediately after the conclusion of peace ; consequently, if we have peace before that period, the new duties will be repealed. Much has been said of late respecting the avail- able stocks of wheat in the hands of the growers : some parties have intimated that fully one-half of last j'ear's crop has already been disposed of. Such may be, and no doubt is, the case in some districts ; but we question much whether the remark can be applied to the whole country. There is no doubt whatever but that very great inroads have been made upon it; and there is no question in our minds but that large quantities of dry foreign will be required for mixing. The potato crop is still proving immense. Not only the metropolitan, but likewise the country markets are most abundantly supplied with potatoes, some of which have sold as low as 40s. per ton, the highest value for York regents being 95s. The quantities on hand are, we learn, still very large. The cattle trade has been by no means so active as could be desired. Although, towards the close of the month, there was an improvement in the de- mand, prices, taken collectively, have ruled much easier than for a considerable period. We have to notice a considerable improvement in the demand for all kinds of English wool, the stocks of which appear to be reduced to a very narrow compass, and prices have advanced fully id. per lb. The public sales of colonial wool now in progress, and at which about 40,000 bales will be brought forward, are going off well, at an ad- vance in the quotations of from 2d. to fully 3d. per lb. The supplies of each kind of hay continue limited, and prices are still very high. The failure in the growth m 1855 has been severely felt by all parties immediately interested in the trade. Straw has come forward freely, and sold at low prices, viz., 24s. to 29s. per load. In Ireland and Scotland the corn trade has been in a most inactive state, from causes to which we have alluded. In cattle a steady business has been done for the English markets, but the shipments of produce have not increased. REVIEW OF THE CAITLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. The comparative inactivity in the cattle trade during the greater portion of the past month has, we find, led many parties to conclude that the con. sumption of food has been materially curtailed, and that the value of live stock has not yet seen its lowest point; but a very few observations will, we imagine, tend to dispel any such illusion. True it is, that the importations of foreign stock into the United Kingdom have exhibited a great falling off, and that our various cattle markets have not been so extensively supplied as at some previous corre- sponding seasons ; but on the other hand, causes over which the graziers have had no control have operated against value. In the first place, the weather has been extremely changeable ; and in the next place, owing to the facihties now aflforded by the various railway companies for forwarding dead meat to London at a very low rate of carriage, enormous supplies of beef and mutton, drawn from distant parts of England as well as from Scotland, have been on sale in the dead markets. Ihen, again, in consequence of the limited supplies of winter turnips, and the high value of artificial food, numerous graziers have found it necessary to slaughter their stock and forward it to London, under the impression that a loss would result from keeping a surplus number. The fall in the value of tallow, and the decline in the price of rough fat, have, as a matter of course, had their accustomed influence upon the trade, which has returned to the graziers a smaller amount of profit than in any month since the beginning of 1855. Still, we look forward to n much better state of things ; in other words, we anticipate a considerable increase in the consumption of meat ; and unless we have an im- mense increase in the importations from the conti- nent, prices are therefore likely to rule very high during the whole of the present year, even though the available supply of stock in the United Kingdom may be large. Our reason for this supposition is based upon a strong impression that we shall shortly have peace with Russia — that it will give an immense impetus to trade and commerce, and, consequently, that it will be the means 'of giving great additional employment to our citizens and others. We may, too, look forward to the period when taxation will become lighter, and when we shall have a lower range in the value of money; all these features, highly valued as they must be, cannot fail to impart their usual influence upon the trade in cattle, and to give both the farmer and grazier a steady return for their outlay of capital. But we may be met with the assertion that our imports from abroad will be so overwhelming that prices will fall rather -than advance ; we, however, are no believers in such a doctrine, because if you create additional wants, means must be adopted to meet them ; and as far as fat stock is concerned, the position of the trade in it during the last two years fully warrants us in saying that the surplus produce of Holland is now, from the enormous demand likely to continue for it on French account, little calculated to have any serious influence upon the prices of home-fed animals. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 279 On the whole, the health of the stock in our leading districts continues good j but the scarcity of turnips and other food has been productive of much inconvenience. The following are the imports of foreign stock into London during the month : — Head. Beasts 2,230 Sheep 353 Calves 496 Pigs 8 Total 3,087 Corresponding month in 1855 2,839 „ 1854 10,683 „ 1853 12,433 „ 1852 9,123 „ 1851 11,828 The above have been chiefly derived from Hol- land ; but we have had two arrivals of beasts direct from Oporto. These animals have been in only middling condition, and we doubt much whether they are likely to prove a source of profit in future, notwithstanding the low prices at which they may be purchased in Portugal. The total supplies of stock from all quarters exhibited in the Great Metropolitan Market have been Head. Beasts 19,642 Cows 495 Sheep 99,950 Calves 673 Pigs 2,614 COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES. Feb., 1852. Feb., 1853. Feb.,1854. Feb., 1855. Beasts .. 18,797 19,308 20..091 17,436 Cows .. 433 470 520 385 Sheep .. 95,306 86,910 92,441 91,180 Calves .. 1,503 2,098 1,028 596 Pigs . . 2,439 2,420 2,279 2,705 Of the supplies of beasts shown last month, 10,200 Scots and short-horns were received from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire ; 2,800 of various breeds from other parts of England, 1,420 Scots from Scotland, and 484 beasts from Ireland, chiefly vid Liverpool. We may observe that the general quality of both beasts and sheep has exhibited a decided improvement over several previous months. About 3,000 sheep have appeared out of the wool : if graziers generally considered the great loss which they frequently sustain by sending clipped sheep to London during inclement weather, they would immediately stop a system which presents no advantages to any party. Full average supplies of meat have been on sale in Newgate and Leadenhall. Generally speaking, a steady demand has continued as follows: — Beef from 2s. 8d. to 48. 4d.; mutton, 23. 8d. to 4s. 4d; veal, 4s. to 5s. 4d. ; and pork, 3s. 2d. to 4s. lOd. per^Slbs. by the carcase. A few carcasses of lamb have sold at 5s. 6d. to 6s. 4d. per 8lbs. MID-KE NT. Since the last report, we have passed through what is usually the worst winter months; but somehow the present one differs widely from the last, in fact the only severe weather we have had was some sharp frost immediately before Christmas. Since then it has been very mild, and though not very wet, it has been sufficient to keep the fields and roads in an extremely moist soft state; the roads especially being very dirty and bad : even those which are generally good in winter have been very indifferent this season. It is to be hoped that the dry weather we expect to have in future will benefit them ; at the same time, we must not be too sanguine of having dry weather ; for, on the whole, the present winter has been a dry one since October, compared with the generality of seasons, so much so, that at the present time (the 19th of February) some of our small streams are low and wells anything but abundantly supplied. In respect to crops, the wheats look well, and the same may he said of autumn-sown tares ; but turnips have gone off sadly at the bottom, the best roots amongst the swedes being almost all decaying ; so that many growers are hurrying them off, in some cases, at a great sacrifice. This ia unfortunate, as there is every possibility of a late spring, and fodder is anything but plentiful, the hay crops of last year being light ; and though there was no deficiency of straw, still the quantity grown in this district is by no means equal to its wants, more especially as there has been a growing deri;aiid for it at the paper mills in the neighbourhood, where large quan- tities are used. And as the mouth of September was not a growing month for after-grass, there has been less feed in tlie meadows than usual in winter; added to this, thecp in a ge- neral way have done very badly; a disease difficult to explain has carried off large numbers, especia ly laoibs of last year. This is very unfortunate ; many farmers have lost quite one-half their flocks; different remedies have been tried without much success, bat it is hoped the evil is subsiding. Cattle have in some places been attacked with the hmg disease, but not to any serious extent, the mortality amoigst sheep being the most heavy loss. As usual, much difference of opii.ion exists in regard to the prospects of hops ; and as most of the growers still hold large quantities on hand, a considerable lati- tude of opiuiun exists in regard to the prices likely to be ob- tained next jear. As the most experienced growers predict an indifferent crop, many that are not necessitated to sell out hold on, expecting to realize quite as good pricts hereafier as those now offered. This spirit, more than any aid from the export trade, tends to keep up the prii^e of autumn for most descrip- tions of hops ; but it will likely fluctuate very much as the sta- son advances, and the varied prospects of the ensuing crop act on the market. Tiiere is no disposition to decrease the plantation, which is more extensive now than at any former period of the history of the hop; and the fact of fifty pi r cent, more hops being grown last year than in the most pro- lific one of the present century (18:^6), it necessarily becomes a matter of anxiety what future demand there may be for this production. It is, however, gratifying to record the general spirit of enterprise of most of our hop growers, especially those who have sold out ; for low as the price was, compared with the last two years, it was still a remunerating price, and the large growth made up for it. The winter certainly has not been favourable for getting on with many works connected with this time, so that the ensuing spring weeks will be busy ones ; and it is to be feared that the long, dull, moist season, succeeding the frost of December has nearly neutralized its ef- fects in fertilizing or rather pulverizing the soil. This will in a measure be guided by the weather that is to fullow; but those having a stiff obstinate soil to deal with, begin to look on it with alarm, as being likely to resemble the spring of 1853. Ibis is very unfortunate where there are large breadths of laid under spade cultivation, and it must neces-arily be equally bad ■for all growing crops. It might le added that the soft state of the ground has prevented the plough being used murh ths season yet, and our heavy land farmers hail with delight ti e prospects of fine weatner, which the last few dajs present; in other respects there is little to complain of, in the general aspect of things. — Feb. 19. 280 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. BE DALE FAIR,— We had a moderate show of all de- ecriptiona of cattle. Beef sold at prices a trifle higher thaa last market. Holding stock and incalving cows were a trifle below late rates. A thin supply of sheep had brisk demand, mutton being ^d. per lb. higher. Beef, 6s. 6d. to 7s. per stone —mutton, 6d. to 7d. per lb. BROUGH FAIR.— The weather was exceedingly wet, yet there was a large show of cattle, which was mostly sold, and at prices better than was expected; calvers from £12 to £17 ; good fresh geld were much looked after; and cattle of all descriptions met with a ready sale. CHARLBURY FAIR was more numerously and satisfac- toiily attended than in any former years, and trade in cattle was very good, especially for horses. DORCHESTER FAIR was more than usually large, the supply of stock being very estensive, and the attendance of buyers comparatively good. Useful cart-horses sold well at high prices. There were also a fev inferior hacks, which owing to their scarcity made tolerably good figures. Fat cattle and good barreners were scarce, and readily met with purchasers, the former making from lOs. to lis. per score, and the latter from £8 to £12 per head, the average price being £9 or £10. Inferior cattle, being plentiful, were a drug in the market, and changed hands at low prices, though many went away unsold. Anything of good quality, however, was readily bought up. This not being a sheep fair, there were only a few lots exhibited, which were quickly disposed of at about 7d. per lb. DUMFRIES HORSE MARKET.— On Wednesday there was a very large turn-out of draught horses, being nearly 800 of all kinds, but of these there were considerably more of a secondary description than on Tuesday, though there was no lack of superior animals. The day was, on the whole, favourable ; for, though dull and lowering, the weather was fair up to four o'clock. The demand was fully better than on Tuesday, but by no means animated. Good horses were quite as dear aa the previous day, but for animah of a secondary description the prices of four weeks back could not be ob- tained ; and for horses under £40 value prices may be quoted twelve to fifteen per cent, down, and, in the opinion of some, something more. Most of the first-class animals were in the dealers' hamis — fow being shewn by breeders or farmers — and in some cases where they were the same price could not be obtained for them that had been oflfered by dealers previous to the market. Mr. Teenan sold a number of horses from £50 to £60. Mr. J. Clarke, Glasgow, sold to Mr. Muir, Banks, near Kirkcudbright, a very superior bay more, six years old, at £67, and a four year old horse to Dr. Cowan of Dddawn, at £60. He purchased two grey mares, five and seven years old, at £110 — these animals were bought from him last Can- delmas Fair at £102. He sold a brown horse, fi*-e years old, to an agriculturist in this neighbourhood, at £63. The prices of his stud generally ranged from £45 to £55. Mr. Crawfurd, Beiili, sold a fine bay mare four years old, at £63, and a pair at £90. Mr. Giffeu had a superior lot : he sold two horses at £120, and a number above £50. Mr. Elliot, Hardgrave, sold a horse and a mare at £110. Mr. Bell, Gotterbie, refused on Tuesday 60 guineas for a powerful draught horse five years old. The animal found a purchaser on Wednesday, but at no bdrance on that price. Mr. Dunlop sold a two-year-old colt for £46. Of this description of stock there were a good number shown. For a pair dark greys — colt and iilly — from AnnanJale, 80 guiueas were asked. Prioes for two year olds ranged from £25 to £46 ; yearbngs from £15 to £25, There were very few good sadille or harness horses shown, and for those exposed the demnml was slack, and few sales reported. Good ponies were limited in number j prices for these ranjjed from £8 to £26. The prices of first-rate draught horses ranged from £50 to £65; good animals from £35 to £45 ; ami ordinary and inferior descriptions from £30 downwards. On Wednesday evening a good number of animals remained unsold, EXETER FAIR.— Although the attendance of farmers and dealers was rather large, there were not more than 800 bullocks, and amongst tliese were but a few of a very superior description. The best fat bullocks were sold at about 10s.; inferior sorts, 9^. per score. The number of sheep driven in was comparatively small, but the quality generally was good. Ewes fetched 5^d.; and wethers, 6d. to 6|d. per lb. There was not a butcher's calf offered for sale, but there was a plen- tiful supply of cows and calves, which sold at from £12 to £17, and in some instances £18. The show of barreners was large, and business in that class appeared to be brisk, at from 5s. 6d. to 63. 6d. per score. Working oxen were disposed of at £18 to £20; and steers, at £12 to £14 each. At a late hour a feiv horses were driven in, but the demand for them appeared small. KELSO FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— There was a large supply of fat cattle, principally of excellent quality. There was a good attendance of buyers, with a quick demand, and almost the whole were readily disposed of at from 6s. Sd. to 7s. per stone. There was a smaller supply of sheep than usual, for which the demand was dull, and only a portion sold at 6|d. per lb. A good show of cows, the better descriptions of which met with a good demand; Ayrshire from £9 to £13; short-horns from £14 to £18. LEOMINSTER FAIR.— Fat cows fetched from 6d. to to 6 Jd. ; store cattle sold well, also good barrens and cowa and calves. Other stock lower. "Fat sheep 6M., and few offered. A large show of cattle, and many dealers attended. The horse fair was well supplied, especially with waggon horses, which fetched very high prices. A two year old cart colt was bought before it reached the fair, at £40 ; £43 was LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET.— The show of fat beasts was only very limifeJ, and holders were, therefore, very cautious in their dealings in the early part of the market ; later in the morning, however, some business was done in the beef trade, though it was a dragging trade, at prices varying from 7s. to 7s. 6d. per st. There was a very fair show of sheep, and a somewhat brisk demand; ewe mutton realiziug 6d., and wether 7d. per lb. NORTHAMPTON FAIR.— The supply of fat sheep was rather limited for this fair, which caused rather a lively trade. Best fat wether mutton made from 43. 6d. to 4s. 8il., and fat ewes from 48. to 4s. 4d. per 81b. Fat beast were plentiful. The best made from 4s. to 4s. 4d. ; inferior sorts sold at less money, with a very flat trade. Store beasts were in short supply, and consisted principally of fine Hereforda, with a few lots of black South Welsh beasts. There were some good useful new milch cows with calves, and a fair show of useful barren cowa, with rather a flat trade. There were not many horses, and not much doing in them. SHREWSBURY FAIR.— Fat Beef realized from 6d. to 6Jd., fat calves 6^d., and wether sheep 7d. per lb. Store cattle in demand, and cows and calves. Fat pigs 6d. per lb.; stores selling very well. ST. COLUMB CATTLE MARKET.— There was an ex- cellent supply of fat cattle, and an average sale, at prices for fat cattle from SGs. to SSs. per cwt., and sheep 6d. and 6^d, per lb. AVINSLOW FAIR was well supplied with stock, and was numerously attended by agriculturists. The best description of stock realized high prices, but the inferior class was not saleable. YORK FORTNIGHT MARKET.— Fat beasts were in about equal «!upply and demand, at 6s. 9d. to 73. 3d. per st. Mutton sheep, ewes, and heavy weights sold at Bd. to 5Jd. ; but wethers, gimmers, and light weights brought 6d. to ti^d. per lb. Hogs and grazing sheep were in greater supply than demand, at nominally former rates. There was an average show of calving and dairy cows, which met a fair sale, at steady prices. Lean beasts, for grazing purposes, were in short supply, and sold readily, at rather higher rates. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF FEBRUARY. The month of January closed with a dull aspect as respects the corn trade, after a fall in wheat of fully 5s. per qr., the consequence of an expected peace. From this reduction many country mar- kets seemed on the eve of recovery, but on the first Monday of February the town trade fell into a state of still greater prostration than that occasioned by the first pacific tidings. On that day several far- mers who were impressed with the idea of the near approach of much lower prices, deemed it best to become their own factors ; and by their appearance in greater numbers than usual at such a time with their samples, when the stands were oppressed with those left over from the previous week, which, though many to the eye, were small as respects the real quantity, a most damaging effect was produced on prices, as well as the power to sell. Another five shillings fall was the consequence ; millers, as a matter of course, being as much on the reserve as they found their custom solicited. The eflfect of this panic told very diflferently on the country, the greater number of markets refusing to make a full response, among which was Liverpool ; but others, taking example from the metropolis, exceeded it in the reduction — Louth, for instance, quoting the dechne that week as great as 9s. ])er qr., though 5s. was about the average. The second Monday showed that with all the fears of the previous week the English supplies had been insignificant, 3,700 qrs. being the total sum, with only 4,300 from the continent. Confidence was consequently re- sumed, and prices became more fixed and firm. A reaction immediately ensued in those country markets which had been excessively depressed, and the decline was in many cases recovered ; but as opinions varied, and supplies were short or liberal, 80 prices ranged — Liverpool closing at Id. per 70lb8. improvement on American samples. On the third Monday a further upward progress was made, supplies continuing moderate,* all good samples obtaining an advance of Is. to 2s. per qr., though Kentish factors scarcely found so much improve- ment, and the country generally was slow in its response. The last Monday brought in but a heavy report, there being, with only an average supply, an inability to quit samples, unless at lower rates. To this Essex factors deeming it unneces- sary to accede, most of their parcels were unsold j and though at the Kentish stands there was a readiness to take is. to Sis. less, they also were iaot cleared. Fine foreign wheat has not undergone the same decline, the bad condition of the English making it in demand for mixing ; so that through the month the fall on such has scarcely exceeded 2s. This has served to keep up the price of town flour. As respects the London supplies, the foreign have nearly doubled those of January, the differ- ence being traceable to the greater quantities re- ceived from the United States and India; from the former about 17,000 qrs. being reported, with 37,000 brls. of flour, and from the latter 1 5,400 qrs. ; showing, that should the war with Russia long continue, the immense colonial resources of Great Britain would obtain such development, as greatly to relieve her from foreign dependence. On the other hand, the arrivals of native growth have been less, at the rate of about 1,500 qrs. per week, with a falling-ofFin country flour at a still greater ratio, the last week excepted. The average sales of the country have, however, shown only a small decrease, being kept up hitherto through both months of the present year at a weekly rate, in January, of 94,100, and in February of 92,000 qrs. Still, this very free consumption of a somewhat less than an average crop must have made a deep inroad into stocks ; and every foreign source, as the season progresses, is likely to be well drained. Let us hope that peace will be the issue of the present Conferences as regards Russia, and that the ruffled sea on the American shore will resume its tranquillity. But with all this political aid, we anticipate but little to spare by the time that our own fields whiten ; and the seeming ne- cessity of such a dependence on the future forbids the slightest waste in consumption. The exports for the month have been 1,395 qrs. wheat and 936 sacks of flour. Barley, with only a very scanty increase of foreign (the month's supply for London being only about 6,000 qrs.), exhibits a falHng off in the English supply of 15,000 qrs. The whole of February, as respects prices, has exhibited a course of decline. The first Monday found it involved in the fate of the wheat market, without one foreign arrival, and a fall of two shillings on all qualities was announced. The dearth of stout samples for malting has kept a market price for them all through ; but the se- condary kinds used for distillation have been ex- ceedingly diflRcult to quit, and wherever forced could 282 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. only realize a grinding value. Foreign inquiry has given but little relief to the trade, the exports for the month being only 437 qrs. The second Mon- day showed a deficiency in the English supply, which, with the aid of foreign, only reached a mo- derate amount; but while the wheat tiade was recovering, this grain underwent a further reduc- tion— say, Is. to 2s. per qr. — without any increased facilities of sale. Malt, with an equally slow de- mand, fell 2s. per qr., and has remained without further change. The third Monday's arrivals were short, and a slight reaction was perceptible, with an improved demand for picked parcels, there being occasionally a better price obtainable ; but business was far from being in an active state, notwithstand- ing the reduced rates. The last Monday showed a continuance of this improved tone, though nothing could be quoted dearer. Country markets have varied in their reports, but the average statements have been dull and declining, with, however, some indication of im- provement at the close. This grain must neces- sarily depend for its value on wheat, and in the absence of a demand for the purpose of human food, can hardly be expected to realize the extreme prices which were lately obtained, especially in the event of peace. This month's arrivals in London were, of English 22,790 qrs., of foreign 5,480, the mild weather having brought some Danish sup- plies. In January the arrivals of English were 37,1 IS, and of foreign 746. The oat supplies have continued moderate, the winter having reduced the arrivals from the Baltic, and the deficiency thence arising being only par- tially made up from Ireland ; the better condition of the agricultural interest in that country ena- bling growers to hold off in the expectation of more remunerative markets, in which, however, they have been disappointed. The panic of the 4th February produced its eflFect on this grain in an equal degree with all other descriptions, the rates for foreign, English, and Irish oats being at once reduced Is. Gd. per qr., without much making way. To this reduction there was a full response throughout the country, with very little cheerfulness in trade, but rather, on the contrary, a still further indication of decline. The second Monday came, therefore, without the shghtest rally, and another reduction of 6d. to Is. had to be submitted to, before sales could be eflTected, though business was effected with more readiness and on a larger scale, those dealers who were low in stock beginning to entertain the con- viction that prices had for a time, at least, reached their lowest point. The pressure of this day's market was more especially on the low qualities of Irish, which, being unsold the previous week, were coming on demurrage ; factors, therefore, had no alternative but landing on consignees' account, or quitting at the best prices of the day. These par- cels being thus cleared, fresh arrivals of a similar description, by the following Friday, had recovered their proportionate value, with a more steady sale. On the 18th there appeared a considerable fall- ing off in the arrivals of English and foreign while the easterly winds kept the Irish car- goes out at sea. On inferior sorts of the latter there was, therefore, an improvement of 6d. per qr., though the moderate show of samples in general did not enable sellers to obtain the least advance on other kinds. The last Monday brought the best supply of foreign, there then arriving from the Danish Isles and Holland nearly 22,000 qrs. From the open ness of the season, the English and Scotch were moderate ; say 4,600 qrs., and Irish were still kept out. A general stagnation, however still pre- vailed ; and those parcels of low Irish which had not been quitted, not bearing comparison with the fresh arrivals of foreign, were again neglected, and to quit them it was again necessary to abate 6d. per qr. The London supplies for February were — Enghsh and Scotch 25,000 qrs., Irish 16,000 qrs., foreign 40,500 qrs. ; against, in January, English and Scotch 30,000 qrs., Irish 26,000 qrs., foreign 57,000 qrs. The mildness of pait of the season has brought several cargoes from the Baltic which had not been expected; and this, together with the probabilities of peace, has kept the trade in a dragging state ; but we think the depression has been excessive, and that, with even a favourable issue of the present negociations, prices can scarcely go much lower. English beans have been plentiful enough for the requirements of the trade, though somewhat less than during the past month ; but there was a heavy arrival of Egyptian at the commencement, which has made the weekly average of foreign 2,000 qi"s. All through the month this pulse has been declining and neglected, being influenced by the low price of oats and the weather. The decline of the first week was Is. to 2s, per quarter, and of the second 2s. more ; since which, prices have remained without alteration. The extensive use, however, of Alexandrians for split- ting, and the low rates to which they have now come, placing them relatively below the country of growth, induces the opinion that as spring pro- gresses, ihe present prices will occasion a more liberal use, and prevent a further fall, if not en- hance the value of this pulse. As regards peas, the whole month has passed without a foreign contribution, excepting 6S qrs. ; and though the home supplies have only averaged THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 283 550 per week, including all kinds, there has been an almost stagnation in business ; every sort parti- cipating in a fall. On the first Monday, hog peas were reduced Is. to 2s.; and white, 2s. to 3s. On the second, white boilers were 2s. to 3s. cheaper; though maples, that were fit for seed, have since rallied. BoiltTS, on the contrary, have receded fully 2s. further, the general anticipation of high prices turning out fallacious, through the une.Ypected mildness of the season. Linseed was falling early in the month, but at the close has partially rallied, through an extensive demand for feeding purposes ; it is, however, fair to presume, as there has been no destruction of this seed by the Allies, that there must be large accumulations in almost every Russian port, both in the Black Sea and Baltic ; and in the event of a cessation of hostilities, that we shall see, after the lapse of sufficient time, a considerable fall in prices. The cloverseed trade has been greatly impeded, first by wet, and subsequently by cold weather. A good stock of Southern French red is here, but in firm hands. The almost total failure of the Eng- lish crop being so well ascertained, after prices had remained dormant till the close of the month, they became Is. to 2s. dearer, as the result of more in- quiry. Very little as yet has been doing in spring tares, of which we have had early arrivals from the Baltic, 7s. per bush, being the price demanded for good. Little change has passed in other seeds. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Shillings per Quarter Wheat, Eaaex and Kent, white, new . 63 to 73 extra — 77 Ditto, red, new . 62 73 Norfolk, Line, and Yorksh., red, new 60 70 Barley, malting, new. . 36 38 .... Chevalier Distilling.... 33 S5 Grinding MALT,Es8ex, Norfolk, and Suffolk 68 70 Kingston, Ware, and town made. . 68 70 Brown 60 63 Rye — — Oats, English feed. .23 24 Potato Scotch feed, new 25 27, old 29 30 . . Potato 28 Irish feed, white 20 22 fine Ditto, black 20 22 „ Beans, Mazagan 32 33 Ticks 32 Harrow 35 Pigeon 38 Peas, white boilers 44 47. . Maple 37 38 Grey 35 Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — — 65 Households, Town 61a. 633. Country — — Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship .... — — — FOREIGN GRAIN. ShllUng^9 per Quarter Wheat, Dantzic,mixed. . 81 to 84 high mixed — 84extra 89 Konigsberg 80 82 „ — 83 „ 84 Rostock, new 75 76 fine 78 „ 85 American, white 78 80 red 67 74 Pomera.,Meckbg.,andUckermk.,red 80 81 extra 81 84 Silesian „ 76 78white80 81 Danish and Holstein „ 67 70 „ 72 73 Odessa, St. Petersburg and Riga. . 68 70 fine 72 74 Rhine and Belgium „ — — old — — t> 74 »l "~ 73 38 40 29 31 extra 76 >» 76 50 24 54 29 29 24 23 35 36 40 42 36 67 54 50 Barley, grinding 29 34 Distilling. . 34 35 Oats, Dutch, brew.and Polands 268. to 28s, Feed . . 23 24 Danish & Swedish feed 23s. to 258. Stralsund 24 ^6 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 37 38 Konigiherg.. 37 38 Egyptian.. 33 34 Peas, feeding 35 36 fine boilers 47 48 Indian Corn, white 36 39 yellow 38 40 Flour, French, per sack — — Spanish 59 60 American, sour, per barrel 34 35 sweet 36 39 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the last Six Weeks. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans Peai. Week Ending: s. d. s. d. s, d. s. d. 8, d. s. d. Jan, 12, 1856., 76 2 38 3 25 11 53 6 46 5 45 7 Jan. 19, 1856.. 76 1 37 8 26 7 53 4 46 0 44 9 Jan. 26, 1856,. 76 11 38 4 25 8 54 8 45 3 43 4 Feb, 2, 1856.. 75 10 38 6 25 5 53 2 44 5 43 1 Feb. 9, 1856.. 73 8 37 5 24 6 51 4 43 4 42 2 Feb. 16, 1856,. 71 7 37 2 23 10 50 4 42 7 41 6 Aggregate average of last six weeks 75 1 37 11 25 4 52 9 44 8 43 5 Comparative avge. same time last year 71 4 32 9 26 6 44 0 44 7 42 0 Duties 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages from last Friday's Averages from the correspond- Gazette, Av. ing Gazette in 1854. Av Qrs, s. d. tirs, 8. d. Wheat.... 87,591 .. 71 7 Wheat.... 85,873 .. 70 3 Barley.... 94,879 .. 37 2 Barley 79,759 ..31 9 Oats .... 20,709 .. 23 10 Oats .... 19,328 .. 25 7 Rye 25 .. 50 4 Rye 108 .. 45 3 Beans.... 5,882 .. 42 7 Beans 5,401" .. 43 1 Peas .... 1,874 .. 41 6 Peas 1,739 ..41 0 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six WEEKS ENDING FEBRUARY 16,1856. Pricb. Jan, 12. Jan. 19. • • r 76s. lid. .* 76s, 2d, .. 1 768, Id, .. "- .mm^mmJ 75s. lOd, • • • • 73s. 8d. « • « • 71s. 7d. • • .. 26. ::| Feb. 2, Peb. 9. Feb. 16. — 1 RuBsiaa » French. . none PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Cloverseed, red, (per cwt.) 76s. to 86s. Ditto white SOs.tolOSs. Trefoil, (per cwt.) 36s. to 488. Tares, winter (per bushel) 78. 6d. to 8s. Od. Coriander (per cwt,) 20s. to 24a. Carraway (per cwt.), . . . new . . s. to 50s., old . . s. to . . s. Canary ^er qr.) 6O9. to 62a. Hempseed (none) OOs. to 00s. Linseed (p. qr.) sowing . . s. to 73s., crushing 688. to 7 Is. Linseed Cakes (per ton) £13 Os.to £13 10s. Rapeaeed (per qr.) new 88s. to 908, Ditto Cake (per ton) £7 Os. to £7 lOa. FOREIGN SEEDS, &c. Cloverseed, red, French 68s. to 76s. Ditto, white, Dutch 74s. to 959. Hempseed, small, (per qr.) .. s. 56s., Ditto Dutch, 583. Coriander (per cwt.) ISs. to 20s. Carraway 42s. to 463. Linseed (pr qr.) Baltic, 67s. to 69s.; Bombay, 7l8. to 753. linseed Cake (per ton) .'. . . £12 lOs. to £13 O3. Rapeseed, Dutch 888. to 90a. Rape Cake (per ton) £7 08. to £7 lOs. 284 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, Feb. 25. In the absence of any active demand, our market continues without any material alteration, and the busi- ness doing is limited to the immediate wants of con- sumers, at about the currency of this day week. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE. Monday, Feb. 25. During the past week the arrivals coastwise have been moderate, but a fair supply by rail. The trade still continues in the same languid state, and inferior samples are next to unsaleable. The following are this day's quotations : — 8. d. B. d. York Regents 70 0 to 95 0 Kent aad Essex do 65 0 75 0 East Lothian do. 75 0 80 0 Ditto, Reds 65 0 70 0 Perth, Forfar, and Fifeshire Regents 60 0 70 0 Ditto, Reds 45 0 55 0 Aberdeenshire and North Coun- try Reds 35 0 40 0 BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. Monday, Feb. 25. Since this day se'nnight only moderate supplies of potatoes have come to hand coastwise and by land- carriage. The demand is, however, from dealers gene- rally being well in stock, very inactive, as follows : — York Regents, 85s. to 95s. ; Kent and Essex do., 75s. to 85s. ; Scotch do., 65s. to 75^.; do. Cups, 50s. to 65s. ; middlings, 45s. ; Lincolns, 65s. to 75s. ; Blues, 55s. to 65s. per ton. COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— York, Feb 16. : We had a good supply of Potatoes of tnoderate quality ; they sold at 7d. per peck, and 23. per bushel. — Leeds, Feb. 19 : A moderate show of Potatoes sold at from 7d. to 8d. per 211b. wholesale, and from 8d. to 9d. retail. PRICES OF BUTTER, Butter, per C7vt, s. s. Friesland . . . . o » 122 to 128 Kiel 100 120 Dorset 110 120 Cnrlom 108 1!2 Waterford .... 98 102 Cork.new 100 112 Limerick 1)8 102 Sligo 94 108 Fresh, per dozAH.OA. 178. Od. CHEESE, HAMS, &c. Cheese, per cwt. s. s, Cheshire 70 /o 84 Chedder ,. 74 90 Doulfle Olouces... 60 72 Single do 60 70 nams,rork,old96 108,»j«i)90y2 Westrtioreland . ,, 94 104 Irish 80 90 Bacon,Wilt8., dried,. 70 72 Irish, green..,. 60 64 ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. February 25. We note a lively trade in Butter for all descriptions, except the lowest quality, which is neglected. Dorset, fine new milk 124*. to 126s. per cwt. Do. middling 110s. to 112*. Do. old 94s. to 96s. Fresh 12s. to 16s. per doz. lbs. BISHOPSTOKE MONTHLY CHEESE MARKET.— ^About 200 tons were offered; and, notwithstanding there was a good attendance of buyers, business was not brisk ; prices may be considered a trifle higher than at the last market, viz., Cheddar, 728. to 76s. ; yellow Somersets, 648. to 703. ; doubles, 58s. to 62s. ; half-coward, 528. to 568. ; skims, 848. to 429. per cwt. GLASGOW, (Wednesday last.)— Cheese, new 48s. to SOs., first-class 603., skim milk cheese 27s. to SOs. per cwt. GLOUCESTER CHEESE MARKET.— An uiiusually large supply for the season (about 100 tons), the condition uf which was rather inferior, owing to the damp weather. Trade was languid, but nearly all the cheese offered was cleared off at the following prices : Best doubles, G4s. to 68s., aiuglea 58a, to GOs., seconds 539. to C4s., skim 34s, to 36s, per cwt. BELFAST, (Friday la8t.)-rT-Butter : Shipping price, lOOs.to llOs. per cwt.; firkins and crocks, 1 Old. to lljd. per lb. Bacon, 563. to 628.; Hams, prime, 728. to 76i., second quality, 643. to 68s. per cwt. ; prime mess Pork, 90s. 6d. to 92s. 6d. per brl. ; Pork, 51s. to 548.; Beef, 105s. to HOs. per tierce; Irish Lard, in bladders, 74s. to 76a. ; kegs or firkins, 683, to 7O3, per cwt. Bacon, per CTVt. t. d. s. d. 38 0 44 0 36 0 60 0 54 0 60 0 56 0 60 0 66 0 60 0 I Butter. Feb. j per cwt. 22. s. d. a. d. 1852.. I 77 0 82 0 1853.. 86 0 93 0 1854.. i 95 0 102 0 1855..! 96 0 106 0 1856.. 98 0 no 0 Dried Bams, Mett Folk. per CTVt. per brl. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 54 0 60 0 60 0 62 0 70 0 74 0 87 6 90 0 70 0 76 0 87 a 90 0 70 0 74 0 92 6 95 0 72 0 76 0 90 6 92 e WOOL MARKETS. ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. Feb. 25. — The supply of all kinds of home grown Wools on sale is very moderate for the time of year ; and, from the fact that our manufacturers hold light stocks, and that the Colonial sales are still progressing favourably at fully the opening prices, the demand con- tinues steady, at full quotations. Since our last report, several parcels have changed hands for shipment to the Continent. Down tegs Doion ewes , Half-bred hogs , Half-bred wethers.. Kent fleeces Leicester fleeces , 1 Combing ski}i , . , , 0 Flannel wool 1 Blanket tvool 0 to d S 2 — 2 — 1 — 1 — 0 — 10 — 0 — 91- d. 4 3 3 2* 2 2 2 2i 1 LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKETS, Feb. 23. Scotch Wool. — There is still a fair enquiry for laid High- land, and with the very reduced stock, prices are fully sup- ported. White is in moderate demand. Good Cheviot and cro ised still command a ready sale at full rates. s. d. s. d. Laid BigMand Wool, per 24 lbs. .. 10 0 to 10 fl White Highland do 13 6 14 6 Laid Crossed do.. unwashed .... 12 6 13 6 Do. do., washed 14 0 15 0 Laid Cheviot do..tin7vashed .... 16 0 16 6 Do. do. .washed 17 9 21 0 White Cheviot do . do 26 6 SO 0 MANURES. PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO. Peruvian Guano per ton£ll 5 0 O) t> O ■t/2 a. 1. O 3 e 3 2 B - O c c .. B e = O o o S S & ceo 6 ^ S « c _ ;: £ 01 B = = o o ? & * * C fi o o •Q ^^ a> Q B E 3 r B o c o o > > > > CO • ■ -. 01 B e & * fe o^ ■3 « t. 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O o _■ - - o o « c .= — *i -x rt rt *J 33 — ■ 2 S 0; t»i a — — . 03 CT^ 03 O O JE ^ >.B3|>>>a3 ^ XJ X .0 X3 X 1=^ 3 3 O O £ . - o| .^ HH ^ r- ^ ' tDCQOO 1C*4 0 C0»i:?C0O c^'X'^^caox 'H'toco o cooait>-^:o'* cs-*- gS'2 ^rt^ ^ J .a X3 Xi xa O O h a 3 3 3. a a a • (31 -^ «3 03 03 03 >> j: .a j: c3 C O 03 .B >%03 ,> t- a oi £ J3 ^ XI .i c a O O 2 b ° o ^ o 2 -E C3 b. t- e€ t- JE 03 X3 X X X X 03 a a : : O O i*^ ^ a ; E a a : a fc: & fc e fc o >. p o p fc^ p X X X X ■ u a • E 3 • £« : "< o o. o % S .S O o 03 03 a ' a o t-, CO cj rt • -3 o O cs cs (^W2 , a o o « t3 t., c5^ ; a ; a •Q I a CO B cs B.U ^.^ 03 c a I. u ■ .i a o o c r ~ o B S ^ ^2 3 S fe rt « 02 72 7S CC M c-i Eh !^" •3 a * (fi % CQ a X 3 ^ o o c (-. ® a C -r. j= o 3^ a p 3 X X 1 t». : B - y 5 £i x: ■ 13 (= r. M j; '-^ ±: A 376 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE. The past week has ngain evinced fluctuation of opinion as regards grain prices, but the tendency has been almost universally down, the London market being most prominent in the decline. The high prices that have obtained in a time of war seem to have left the impression on some minds that they were solely traceable to it, and conse- quently that on its cessation, without regard to other circumstances, low rates must speedily be dominant. Many of our correspondents think otherwise, and we think so, on very good grounds; though till stocks, by the general falling-ofF of supplies, indicate an approach to exhaustion, there is still room for a temporary reduction. It is clear, however, that five months have to be provided for as respects our own country, France, Belgium, and other parts — that the weekly deliveries into London are falling off, as well as at many of the country markets — that Russia can send little before next harvest — that America, unless stimulated to greater efforts, is not likely to ship over 3,000,000 qrs. of wheat for all Europe ; and it even becomes doubt- ful whether her surplus is equal to this, should there be the temptation of (/ood prices j whereas the relati/e position of the markets would leave the inference that England was absolutely independent of foreign help, and though facts from all quarters show exactly the reverse ; while the spring, which at one time looked forward, has been marked by excessive cold. A genial change in the weather would, however, speedily advance the growth of the wheat plant, which in backward districts is very diminutive, though there is less complaint of the depredations of insects than were lately made. Our own decline has sensibly influenced France and the near continental markets, which is calculated to deceive the public as to gene- ral stocks, and ultimately place us in a position of difficulty, as America seems little inclined to answer the summons to reduce rates, excepting in the article of maize, which has this season met with unusual neglect, upon the supposed sufficiency of the wheat crop to meet every demand for export. Floating cargoes have been offering at greatly re- duced rates, several parcels of Egyptian wheat being sold for Ireland, for the purpose of distilla- tion, at 37s. to 38s. per qr., leaving an enormous loss upon the price free on board, and diverting a necessary of life from its legitimate purpose, as well as diminishing the nation's stores. We are persuaded, when peace is signed, sounder calcula- tions will be made, and the doubtful but important problem, "how much we are to have," will be nearer a true solution, and produce more equable markets. The deliveries last week were 77,410 qrs. wheat, at 67s. 5d., against 82,905 qrs. last season. The foreign imports for the week ending IQth March, into the principal ports of England, in wheat and flour, were 31,515 qrs. Monday's market commenced on a supply of 5,069 native and 7,788 qrs. foreign wheat, more than half of which was from India and New Orleans, in about equal proportions. The exports were 1,614 qrs. The morning's supply from Essex and Kent was good, but not large, most of the samples being in much improved condition. The languid tone of the close of the previous week was increased to a heavy decline, about equal to the advance of the former Monday, say 4s. to 5s. per qr. for all qualities, though early in the morning some sales were effected at the Kentish stands, at the reduc- tion of 3s. only. Millers at this price showed no eagerness to clear the market, and a fair portion was left for disposal next day. The trade in foreign was nearly or quite suspended ; and in the absence of business, without any disposition to press sales, prices continued nominally as before. On Wed- nesday the supply per coast was 1,620, that from abroad being 14,570 qrs. The wheat left over, as well as that fresh arrived, was held at the rates of the previous day, but sales were by no means brisk. By Friday the English supply was only increased 800 qrs., but on the foreign there was a further addition of 9,000 qrs. Though prices were generally well supported, business proceeded at a slow rate, and all through the week foreign was neglected, excepting picked parcels, where holders were inclined to sell on moderate terms. Country flour amounted on Monday to 11,761 sks; but the foreign consisted of 150 sks. and 10,563 brls. from New York and New Orleans. Exports, only 113 sacks. This trade partook of the dul- ness in wheat, but not to the same extent, quota- tions for Norfolks being reduced 2s., making the top price 48s. per sack; and there was an equal fall on American barrels : at these rates transac- tions passed heavily. On Wednesday the coast arrival of country flour was 2,080 sacks, the foreign consisting of 11, 1 60 sacks from Spain. This latter, however, having been long expected, did not much influence prices of foreign, though sales were difficult ; but Norfolks could not be sold unless Is. less was accepted. There was little ad- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 377 dilion coastwise on Friday, viz., about 400 sacks, with no more foreign, and the trade, though not active, showed more tone, holders of Norfolk not being inchned to sell under 48s. per sack. Monday's barley arrivals were insignificant, viz., 1,375 British, and 40 foreign. This limited supply, however, did not further excite the market, there having been of late a continuous rise, and buyers being provided for immediate wants, they were content to wait for another opportunity. The rates of all kinds, especially the finest malting, were well maintained. On Wednesday there ar- rived coastwise 2,360 qrs., with 9S0 from the con- tinent, without any change in the features of the trade, and on Friday it closed heavily on a total supply of 3,490 English, and nothing further from abroad. The malt trade showed further signs of anima- tion, but no quotable advance on any quahty in this state of demand. In the entire absence of Irish there was a fair sup- ply of foreign oats on Monday, say, 16,832 qrs., ^d of which were from Holland. The British addition was only 1,300 qrs., or less than the exports, which were 1,642 qrs. The features of this trade under- went no change. There being a quiet demand for all good qualities at former prices, which seem to have reached so low a point that consumers can hardly look for any further reduction excepting in occasional gluts. Wednesday brought 910 qrs. per coast, 4,110 qrs. Irish, and 12,110 qrs. foreign, when there was a fair business, without change of rates. On Friday the further additions were only 100 qrs. English, and 1,000 qrs. foreign. This short arrival, however, was suflficient for the business of the day, which was limited, at unaltered prices. Both beans and peas were unusually short ; the former amounting to only 460 qrs., and the latter to 292 qrs., both almost exclusively Enghsh. There was, however, no rally in the prices of either, and the seed-time being advanced, maple peas, which had been forced up by it, were less sought, and seem not likely to realize the late rates. Duns, on the contrary, seem at a price to make pig-feeding remunerative. White boilers, though so high early in the season, have remained neglected. Linseed, with only 2,882 qrs. as the supply, remains in favour for cattle-feed, and cakes con- tinue to fetch good prices, though no advance can be quoted in either case. There are now low oflfers at Riga and Petersburg for future delivery. The cloverseed trade being at its height, a fair business is effected at full prices, the near con- tinental markets being all dearer, and Hambro' keeping up the quotations of white seed. Trefoil also keeps dear, and in demand ; but tares have given way from the first quotations 10s. per qr., the supply having exceeded the inquiry. In hempseed, mustardseed, rapeseed, and other descriptions, little change can be noted. The country markets, though nearly all dull and cheaper, have not fully responded to the metro- politan decline. At Birmingham, on the last market day, a slight improvement was realized. At Boston and Manchester the former rates were fully re- alized; at Leeds, Devizes, and Stockton-on-Tees, they were only 2s. less; at Spalding, Uxbridge, Hitchin, Gainsborough, and Lynn, they were 2s. to 3s. cheaper; at Hull, Louth, St. Ives, Bury St. Edmunds, Braintree, Bishop's Stortford, Glou- cester, Bristol, Melton Mowbray, Newmarket, Market Rasen, and Sleaford, the fall was 3s. to 4s. per qr. Liverpool, on Tuesday, with liberal sup- plies, found a fair consumptive demand at a dechne of 2d. to 3d. per 70lbs., on the best quality wheat, and Id. more on inferior, with spring corn un- changed. On Friday there was a firmer market for wheat and everything else. Scarcely any ditference has been noted in the prices of spring corn, though the tendency has been down in some markets Is. for barley, as well as beans. The Scotch markets last held have been influenced by southern reports. Glasgow found a dull trade in wheat at Is. per qr. decline, and barley was 3d. to 6d. per 320]bs. down, with little doing in oats or meal. Edinburgh and Leith were in sympathy with these advices, and note a declension. Ireland, with small supphes in most of her markets, generally quotes easier rates for wheat ; Dubhn Is. to Is. 6(1. cheaper per barrel, barley 6d. to Is., good oats as dear, inferior 6d. lower. Limerick, Clonmel, and Belfast give similar reports. Last Friday's market at Paris was exceedingly dull in flour; the four marks being without oS'er or in- quiry, nominal price 87 to 88 f. per 139 kilos (55s. 6d. English per sack). Next Wednesday, sales are to take place of 4,200 sacks of country flour, with 2,420 sacks of foreign and American wheat, and 500 sacks of small beans. The country markets generally note a decline in wheat, varying from 10 cents to 1 f. 50 c. per hec. (3d. to 3s. 4d. per qr.), the greatest reduction being at Lille. Bourdeaux notes no change, but a sale was announced there of 6,500 hecs. wheat and 3,890 brls. American flour, for the 2nd of April. At Havre, on the same day, there was also to be one of 10,000 brls. first quahty flour, and 1,200 brls. on account of average. Trade was excessively dull, there being no demand whatever, but every disposition on the part of holders to realize. The former sales realized low rates, say fine quality 35 f. per 120 kilos. It was equally dull at Marseilles, business being limited to 378 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a few orders for delivery of African wheat during the month at 43 f. to 43 f. 50 c. per 160 litres. Fine weather, dry and cold, has been experienced at Antwerp, where grain prices have undergone no change : 32 f. 65 c. per 80 kilos, have been paid for fine quality native wheat. A parcel of Galatz rye has brought 20 f. 65 c, American 21 f. 80 c, home-grown 19 f. 95 f. per 70 kilos. At Liege there has been a rise of 1 f. 25 c. upon wheat, prices being 39 f. to 40f. per 103 kilos. Rye, on the contrarj', has declined 25 c, being quoted 27 f. 25 c. to 23f. 25c.-per 94 kilos. Ninove also reports an enhancement on a small supply of wheat, latest quotations being 30 f. 80 c. to3lf. 50 c. per hect. (71s. 6d. per qr.) Last Tuesday very little change was experienced at Cologne, Berlin, and Neuss, business being quiet at these several places. Some of the Dutch mar- kets quote an advance, viz., Maestricht, to the ex- tent of 8 c. to 17 c. per hect. on wheat, with some improvement on all other grain. Very little business has been doing at Konigs- berg or Danzig ; Rye, however, at the latter place is firm, at 25 f. to 25 f. 25 c. per hect. of 72^ kilos. A consumptive demand has been experiened at Bremen at about former rates, Stettin is lower for wheat, a few transactions having taken place for spring dehvery at 29 f. 25 c. to 29 f. to 26 c. per hect. (66s. 7d. per qr.); rye, 18 f. 75 c. to 20 f. 50 c., according to time of delivery ; barley finds few buyers at l6frs. (36s. 4d.). Very little has been doing in grain or flour at Riga. A few sales of rye have been made of Esthonia at 128 s. r., and 1 20 s. r. for Russian quality. Wheat and barley are ex- hausted : at the end of February there were only 3,500 hects. wheat, and 720 hects. barley, and of rye only 21,800 hects. Wheat is in favour at St. Petersburg, extra fine quality Cubanka bring- ing 20 f. 90c. per hect. (47s. 6d. per qr.); good ordinary sorts 19 f. 75c. (45s. per qr.); white 17 f- 50 c. to 18 f. 60 c. per hect. (42s. 4d. per qr.); rye also was more in request at 12 f. 80 c.; linseed much sought at 16 f. 50 c. to 18 f. per hect. (37s. 6d. per qr.), both on the ppot and for dehvery in August. With small arrivals at Algiers little is passing : wheat on the spot 31 f. 50 c, to 32 c. per 100 kilos. Tunis quotes lower rates, viz., 27 f. 50 c. Hamburgh has experienced some fluctua- tions before Easter, there being a lively demand for grain at full price ; but since then business has ceased, with sellers anxious. Wheat 59 to 60 lbs. is nominally worth 7ls. 6d. to 728. per qr. ; from outports 59^ to 60 lbs. wheat is offered at 68s. free on board. Barley and oats are firm and in de- mand. Clovereeed is in favour at former prices. The Venetian wheat market is dull, but prices are not lower, 24 f. 25 c. to 26 c. per hect. (59s. 2d. per qr.) being the last quotations. Some want of maize in the interior begins to be felt, which is much welcomed, business having been exceedingly quiet. Oats also have been sold for Lombardy at 9 f. 75 c. per hect. (22s. per qr.). Rice was falling. New York prices have receded 25 cents on the lower grades of flour, but on fine qualities there is scarcely any reduction. Wheat also, from the limited stock of fine, maintains its prices, though the dulness of accounts from Eng- land makes more disposition to sell, and on the opening of canal 'navigation large supplies are expected. Common to good stale flour 6 d. 75 c. to 7_d^ IMPERIAL AVERAGES. FOK THE LAST Six Weeks. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans Peas Week Ending: 8. d. 8. d. 8. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d* Feb. 16, 1856., 71 7 37 2 23 10 50 4 42 7 41 6 Feb. 23, 1856,. 69 2 35 8 23 6 45 4 41 7 39 6 March 1,1856.. 69 7 35 6 23 9 47 2 41 5 39 5 March 8,1856.. 69 11 35 11 24 1 46 6 40 10 40 3 March 15, 1856.. 67 11 36 3 23 2 43 2 41 0 10 3 March 22, 1856.. 67 5 37 2 23 2 43 5 40 7 39 6 Aggregate average of last six weeks 69 3 36 3 23 7 46 0 41 4 40 1 Comparative avge. same time last year 68 2 30 9 25 3 40 10 41 7 39 6 Duties 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages from last Gazette. Qrs. Wheat.. .. Barley, . Oats ,, Rye, , , . Beaus.. 77,410, 67,730 , 20,364 , 186 . 5,513 . 1,011 , Friday's Av. s, d. ■ 67 , 37 23 43 , 40 , 39 Averages from the correspond- ing Gazette in 1854. Av. Wheat, . Barley.. Oats . . Rye Beans , . , Peas . . Qrs. 82,905 60.943 28,404 419 5,201 1,339 s. 66 29 25 39 40 38 d. 6 9 0 1 0 9 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the SIX WEEKS ENDING MaRCH 22,1856. Price. Feb. 16. Feb. 23. March I.March 8. « • •• Mar. 1.5. Mar. 22- 71s. 7d. • * « • • • 6!>s. lid. .. 1 • • .. r-.— 1-., • • • • 6rts. 7d. .. t .-11 .. 1 «• • • 69s. 2d. .. ^ • * •• 1 ♦ • • • 679. lid. a , • • .. t- ~1. • • 6?s. Id. • • • • • • PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Cloverseed, red, (per cwt.) 77s. to 928. Ditto white SOs.tollOs. Trefoil, (per cwt.) 36s. to SOs. Tares, winter (per bushel) 78. 6d. to 8s. Od. Coriander (per cwt.) 208. to 24s. Carraway (per cwt.). . . , new . . s. to 50s., old , . 8. to , . 8. Canary (per qr.) 6O3. to 628. Hempseed (uone) OOs. to OOs. Linseed (p. qr.) sowing . . s. to 73s., crushing 66s. to 67*. Linseed Cakes (per ton) £13 Os.to £13 lOs. Rapeseed (per qr.) new 889. to 90s. Ditto Cake (per ton) £7 Oa. to £7 1 Oa. Printed by Kogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London. I :- THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. MAY, -1856, PLATE I. THREE IMPROVED LEICESTER SHEARLING WETHERS, BRED BY AND THE PROPERTY OF ROBERT LEE BRADSHAW, ESQ., OP BURLEY-ON-THE-HILt, NEAR OAKHAM, For which the first prize, and Gold and Silver Medals, were awarded at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, December, 1855. These Wethers were bred and fed by Mr. R. L. Bradshaw,and obtained the first prize of £10, in class 15, at the Rutland Agricultural Society's Christmas Show, held at Oakham, December 5th, 1855; and at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, 1855, the first prize of £20, Silver Medal to the breeder, and the Gold Medal to the exhibitor of the best pen of long-woolled sheep in any of the classes. They were considered by many practical men, who have been regular attendants at the Rutland Agricultural Show, to be the best pen of sheep that have ever been exhibited there; and it is only just to remark that Mr. Bradshaw obtained at the Rutland Show this last year, six first prizes for long-woolled sheep, a feat which has never been accomplished by any other exhibitor. PLATE II. Mc CORMICK'S REAPER (For description see page 459 J THE GROWTH OF GRASS. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. One of the chief arguments in support of a system of agricultural statistics is based upon the supposed increase of knov/ledge which it will impart to the farmer. If this is found by experience to be a coiTect conclusion, if such returns shall fairly show, amongst other facts, that the growth of grass — the produce of hay has been, in the year when the return is made, good, bad, or indifferent, such knowledge can hardly fail of being useful both to the producer and the consumer. But then the knowledge will be ex post facto — it will chiefly convey returns of the past season : it will in but a small degree relate to the growing crop, or afford us in this respect any information as to the pros- OLD SERIES.] pects of the farmer. As, however, such additions to our information are most desirable, let us inquire if there are any other sources from whence a general conclusion as to the present state of any particular standard crop can be obtained ; let us test it by the grass crop, and let us examine if at this great season of its growth the rain-gauge and the thermometer aid us in the enquiry — if the records of the meteor- ologist usefully point to the origin of good and deficient harvests. ^ Now we find from these too-much-neglected sources of information that there is a close connection between the phenomena of our climate and the production of grass. Mr. B, Simpson D D [VOL. XLIV.— No. 5. 380 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. (Jour. R. A. S., vol. xi., p. 649), v/hen speaking of the growth of the ordinary grasses, has noted some of the results obtained by these kind of observa- tions— that the grasses vegetate when the air is at any temperature above the freezing point of water, and when that of the soil ranges from 36° to 40'', but that any temperature below this entirely prevents their growth. On the other hand, unless the air be very moist, grass will scarcely vegetate with a degree of heat greater than 66°, unless the ground be moistened naturally or artificially. It vegetates best when the air is at the point of saturation with aqueous vapour; whilst on a dry porous subsoil, and in a dry atmosphere, the pastures are during the summer months burnt up by the drought. From many careful observations made in our own country as to the quantity of stock kept, and the length of the grass in different seasons, as well as by the data furnished by Hum- boldt and others, Mr. Simpson arrived at these general conclusions with respect to the influence of chmate on the growth of grass: — 1st. That the growth of grass is always proportionate to the heat of the air, if a sufficiency of moisture be present in the atmosphere. 2ndly. That in our climate the moisture present is rarely sufficient to allow the temperature to have full effect, when that tem- perature exceeds 56'' ; but that if moisture be artificially supplied, as by irrigation, to catch-water meadows, that then vegetation wWi still proceed in proportion to the heat. 3rdly. That when the temperature of the air is between 36'= and 41'', the grasses will only vegetate with a fifth part of the force that it will when the temperature is 56'=. Thus the land that will keep ten sheep per acre in the latter case, will only keep two in the former. That from 41'= to 46° its growth is two-fifths, or double that of its grov.'th when the temperature is under 41"=, and it will then keep four sheep instead of two. Again, from 46'= of temperature to 50"= its growth will rise to seven-tenths, or it will keep on the same ground from five to seven sheep ; and from 50« to 56«' it generally, unless assisted by an artificial addition of moisture, arrives at its maxi- mum ; but if the month of June be very moist it will continue to grow with an increase of force up to 60". In the last two years, we have experienced seasons remarkable for deficient hay-crops : cold and dry springmonths have prevented therapid growth of the grass, till the time of hay-making had arrived. The observation of the rain-gauge and the ther- mometer, during the spring months of these seasons, warned us of the deficient nature of the coming harvest. The following little table gives in inches the fall of rain in Surrey, in March, April, and Ma)', in 1S54 and 1855, and the average depth for each month, from wliicli it will be seen that in March and April of those two years the fall was far below the average : — March. April. . May.. Average. 1854. 1855. 1.35 1.80 1.81 0.14 0.17 3.34 1.13 0.10 2.32 1856. 0.30 1.92 It will be remarked by the reader that during these years, the rainfalls of March and April have been as far below the average amount, as that of May has been above it ; and moreover, as regards the month of April, the rainfall of the present year has been already (to April 28) very considerably in advance of that of the corresponding month of the two preceding seasons. This increase of moisture has also been, up to the period when I am writing, attended with a higher temperature than in the seasons of 1854 and 1855. In the following table will be found an abridged copy of a register of a thermom.eter, hanging on the north side of a house at Croydon, 5 feet from the ground, and six inches from the wall, taken at I past 9 o'clock, a.m. : — 1S56. March 1 32'' 35° i 35° 38 37 35 40 38 35 45 45 42 44 41 54 1) April. May 5> }> » » 5 10 15 20 25 30 ... 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 ... 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 1854. 1855. 32° 35° i 37 38 1 45 29 ' 43 33 35 41 40 32 47 35 45 34 45 37 46 43 46 52 53 43 37 37 43 38 47 41 47 37 43 50 51 40 49 54 52 64 1 50 39 From the higher temperature of 1856 shown by this table, taken in connection with the increased rainfall of the present April, we may draw the con- clusion that, as these phenomena arc common at least to the south of England, the same greater bulk of grass which we now see around us, than in the corresponding periods in the years 1854-55, will lead to a far better produce of hay than we have gathered in for the last two seasons. The close connection indeed which exists between the moisture and mean temperature of different years, and the growth of both the ordinary and cereal grasses, might surely be more closely and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 581 more profitably noted by the agriculturist ; but be can hardly safely base his calculations on the result of such observations without the rain-gauge and the thermometer — both instruments easily provided at the cost of a few shillings. Let my readers only remember how much the cultivation of different districts is influenced by the climate in which they are placed, and he will the more readily feel induced to conclude that the field of such observations may yet be profitably extended. How necessary it is for moisture and warmth to be combined for the growth of the grasses, is shown amongst other evidence by the not always well understood result of draining pastures. Mr. Parkes showed, some time since, by his experiments on a boggy soil, that by draining it its temperature was raised by from 2*" to 9° (ib., vol. v., p. 142.) Here we have the case of too much moisture — great evaporation — an injurious amount of cold — a deficient supply of air in the soil. The drainage of such soils makes the grasses, which tenant them, grow more luxuriantly, since, whilst these lands thus lose their superfluous moisture, their temperature is increased. It is not always, however, that the grazier attends with suf- ficient care to the time eflfect which is commonly produced by the improved drainage of inferior grass lands. Mr. Robert Smith some time since dwelt upon these short- comings, in his prize essay on the management of grass-land (ib., vol. ix., p. 13) : he spoke from close observation when he remarked that " in low swampy situations, a few really deep drains, laid round or across the fields according to situation, have frequently the eflfect of not only laying the particular field dry, but many of the surrounding ponds ; in fact, the worse the land the deeper the drains should be. Yet the remark that land has been over-drained is familiar in many dis- tricts ; hence it is inferred that the pastures have been spoiled. Now this inference is inapplicable to the draining, the soil being changed for the better ! The food of the aquatic grasses having been removed, they become dry and inactive : it is true the existing grasses become more like stubble than grass. But having so far changed the soil, it is equally necessary to change the herbage, by other agents — such as suitable top-dressings to sweeten and increase the herbage, that the truly important branch of close feeding may ba effected. The pasture then becomes gradually improved, and nature supplies her indigenous grasses, suitable to the then improved character of the soil, as the aquatic or other spurious grasses in the absence of their food decline." Nature indeed ever gives us the truest sugges- tions : it is by our too commonly neglecting to profit by them that we do not gather-in better harvests. We already see much that the thermometer andtherain-gaugecan onlymeasureexactly; butthen by our unaided observations we often arrive at con- clusions which they in far less time might have determined. The traveller who crosses our island from east to west, in his way beholds, by the different systems of cultivation, an illustration of these practical and meteorological observations. Mr. N. "Whitley, in his valuable prize essay on the connection which exists between the climate and the agriculture of different localities (ih., p. 42), has noted the larger growth of green food in the warm and moist chmate of the western side of our island in connection with its lighter and more porous soils. He remarks very truly, that whilst the dry atmosphere and generally heavy soils of the eastern plains of England are well adapted for the perfec- tion of wheat, the cool summers and humid air of the western coast and of Scotland are better fitted for the production of roots and fodder. The struc- ture of the soil is also open and porous, and, except in some few clayey districts, the large quantity of rain is readily absorbed. Ireland has the most humid chmate, but it has also the most friable soil. If the clay of the lias or of the Weald of Kent were largely developed in Ireland, it would present a scene of cold sterility. I have thus briefly glanced at a few of the useful results of attending to the effects of climate upon agriculture ; the field of profitable observation is, however, evidently not nearly exhausted ; and I venture to commend the study to my readers, with much confidence of useful results, and in any case they will be certain not only to receive instruction, but are sure to participate in that pleasure which ever attends the search after knowledge. THE CULTIVATION OF CLAY SOILS. Manifold are the miseries to which the sous of clay are heirs ; but it is only in these modern days that the remark has been extended to those who farm or dwell on clay soils. Tiiese complaiuuags have during the last quarter of a century certainly been materially in- creased. A deeper sense of the discomforts of a clay soil is everywhere entertained ; and even the suburban cockneys find out certain disagreeable pro- perties belonging to their "London basin clay." The foundations of their houses built upon it are mse- cure; the "nasty damp" from it will ascend into their houses ; the soil around the cesspools wont let D D 2 382 THE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE. the sewage soak away; nothing, indeed, except strawberries and roses seem to enjoy themselves on it, in daaip weather. And then the clay farmer, ainid his wheat and beaus, sighs over the reports from Smithfield, thinks enviously of the Norfolk barley soils — those sunny lands where the plough team can work in any season ; of those happy stock farms, and their valuable flocks of Southdowns, that can be kept on the turnips in all weathers— crops that have not yet been depreciated in value, and probably that never will. We have been reminded of these small miseries during the past few days, when examining the farming of a stiff clay district, and by two ex- cellent lectures on the difficulties of clay farming — the first by Mr. Voelcker, before the members of the Bath and West of England Society ; and the last by Mr. C, W. Hoskyns, before the members of the Society of Arts. Both these able lecturers dwelt long on the difficulties of clay farming ; and both of them alluded to various plans for the amelioration of these soils. Tlie discussion is the more useful, -since it has occurred at a season of the year when March winds usually allow the farmer's teams to again have access to the " stiff" lands. This long winter exclusion from the soil Mr. Hos- kyns touched upon with the feeling of a farmer who had acutely felt the adhesive clay sticking to his boots, and impeding his onward progress. In such a plight, his hopes of mechanical aid evidently are directed to the steam plough. It is in vain, he thinks (as far as a clay farmer is concerned), that, in autumn, fallowings with powerful modern scarifiers are suggested. " The farmer of the clays," lie tells us, "may listen with admiiiug envy to the virtues of an instrument whose wholesale power of extirpa- ting the annual weed crop bids fair to reduce the bare fallow to its narrowest necessary limits, but in the majority of seasons he dare not use it. The utmost exertions of liis team are required to get his ploughing done, and his wheat sown, in the few weeks after harvest when his land is in a proper condition for tillage. Had he but an implement that would work niglit and day during those six critical weeks of September and October, when his grain is harvested, and before the November fogs and rain set in, he would indeed be a debtor to mechanical skill ; but the want of this often leaves him over- taken by the approach of winter, with many a task unfinished, that comes with redoubled pressure upon the hurried days of springtime. Unless the mighty power of steam will befriend us here, I see no loop- hole of escape from tlie unequal struggle which has been going on, and is every day widening the dis- tance in the race, between the light soils and the heavy." Leaving for a time the great iini)leracnt-makers of Englaml to their earnest cffoits to produce a stcaui cultivator, a machine which shall aid the clay farmers to render their holdings somewhat more capable of becoming stock farms — leaving these scientific engi- neers to the most difficult problem they will one day resolve — we may, perhaps, usefully glance at another mode of proceeding. Whilst they are striving to find a new machine for these stubborn soils, let us re- member what we deem the too partial, and yet prac- tically successful, efforts to adapt the clay soils to the implements already in our possession — to con- vert, in fact, the heavy clays into root-producing lands. It is now nearly a century since Mr. Coke, of Holkham, came into possession of a soil that, like the clays, was nearly barren, from contain- ing too large a proportion of one earth. He de- spaired of finding a machine that would compress sufficiently his drifting sands ; but then he thought of the clays — the adhesive marls — and he added these to his worthless sands, till wheat crops were grown, and flocks were fed, on lands where rabbits had starved. If the reader will refer to the accounts of Norfolk husbandry, he will find that 200 cubic yards of clay per acre — and even far more than this — has not been an unusual quan- tity thus profitably applied by the farmers whom Coke bred {Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. v., pp. 312, 316; vol. iii., p. 233). Now, although we all know that sand is not com- monly so accessible to the clay farmer as clay or marl is obtainable by the holders of sandy soils, yet is there not a ready substitute for sand to be found in clay-burning ? And has this practice been ever yet attempted on a scale in any way equal to its profitable limits ? Is not clay to be burnt in many places as chcajily as the elayings or mailings of the light-land farmers ? We are aware of what has been done in this way ; for instance, we know that the farmers of the Essex Boothings burn and spread over their ad- hesive clays 150 cubic yards of the soil per acre — that they repeat this everj few years, at an expense of £3 or £4 per acre {ibid, vol. iv., p. 267) ; and hence we perceive that at an expense of, say £12 or £11 per acre, the entire soil, say six inches deep, might be converted into a light turnip laud, work- able in all weathers. We do not contend that such an expensive operation would be remunerative in all situations ; but we are convinced that many a cold clay farm might be thus permanently warmed up, the amount of moisture in its soils reduced, and that of their atmospheric gases increased to au extent that M'ould, perhaps, keep pace with an an- nually increasing demand for stock farms— Farms that will ever be coveted, not only as the most plea- sant, but as the most uniformly profitable of all lioldiugs. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 383 THE BREEDING OF HACKS AND HUNTERS BY FARMERS. There is now, we believe, little doubt but that the horse-show at Chelmsford will be as complete in all its classes as either of the two excellent dis- plays of this kind of stock at Lincoln and Carlisle. Although not yet officially announced, the necessary funds, we are assured, will be supplied by the local Committee, and the Hunter and Roadster premiums forthwith drawn out. This is as it should be. In fact, after the success which has lately attended these sections, it would have been worse tlian impolitic not to have persevered with them. There are many reasons why such breeds should have the best attention of an agricultural society. The country requires and would make a more extended use of them. Either in peace or war, hacks and hunters will always have their price. The farmer, so far, would scarcely appear sufficiently alive to this. It is, in short, just one of those points on which he still wants a little more pressing. Even beyond this, such entries add materially to the attractions of the show and the fame of the Society, There are few agriculturists but who in some way or other have the feeling of a sportsman, and none who could turn away with indiiSference from a well- bred good-looking horse. He is still one of England's chief pets and boasts. Still the first consideration for the Council must very properly be as to how far the Society is warranted in encouraging the sort of horse which will be thus brought together. There are some of us yet who can only look at a thorough-bred one as a race-horse, or, in other words, with a becoming mixture of tremor and dismay. He appears on this scene, however, in no such character. The judges who selected Ravenshill or the British Yeoman did so with no regard to their performances as race-horses. Their very pedigrees, even, have little or no weight. They become commended solely as the best stamp of stallion for stock, the farmer or grazier may turn to a good account. And we hope to find them not commended in vain. The days of inattention and indifference to breeding are nearly passed away. On the other hand, something like a general care is now evinced in the selection of proper animals. We send hundreds of miles and bid up to hundreds of pounds for a good bull, or even a pure-bred ram. A litter of pigs is almost equally a matter of fore- thought and judgment ; while at last even cocks and hens are valued for their kinds and crosses. The cause of this is a very simple one : it has been found to pay. The best sorts will always command the best prices ; while with a little care it is almost as easy to have the good as the bad. If this will apply to any animal, it surely will to the horse. There is scarcely a man, who farms to any extent, who does not, year after year, breed a light sort of colt or two. And commonly how does he do this ? Rarely with as much thought as he does a pig or a Cochin China. Any sort of mare is put to any horse that may be handy; and then, when, at the end of two or three years, the pro- duce is sold at a low figure, it is discovered that this business does not pay. It would be very odd if it did. Beef and mutton, of however inferior a quality, will always bring something from the butcher. But the hack or hunter colt is above all the animal on the breeding of v/hich some little attention and outlay must be expended. The re- turn for it will come ten and twenty-fold. Further, be it remembered, that, once dropped, it costs as much to rear, break, and make the haphazard weed, as it will a nag that shall fetch as much as a Shorthorn bull, or a Southdown tup — of the very best sorts, of course. An established authority on all relating to the horse has just brought out another of his amusing and useful little volumes, in which this is well put, " How to Make Money by Horses" is the agree- able title of the work, and Harry Hieover the well- known nom-de-plume under which the author proclaims his secret. The farmer is naturally amongst the first of those with whom he commu- nicates— in this wise : " I never did know or hear of a common kind of mare put to a common kind of horse producing anything much better than themselves. It will thus be seen there can be no profit in breeding a direct sort of very middling animal, under any circumstances ; and the slightest ill luck must entail inevitable loss. Farmers seem to forget that a little additional hay and oats, a httle more expenditure in the first cost of the mare, five sovereigns for a sire quite good enough to get hunters or fine harness horses — instead of one sovereign to some wretch of a sire who will beget stock good for nothing — and a little addi- tional care and attention, will just make the differ- ence of possessing an animal, at four years old, worth from seventy to a hundred, instead of one whose value, at the same age, will range from , twenty-five to forty pounds. . . . On no land breed inferior common horses. If such would live and thrive on provender in quantity and quahty on a par with their own scantiness 384 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of merit, they might, and probably would, pay ; but it will be found they will not. They will about require just so much as they never will pay for." The Royal Agricultural Society of England has the opportunity of doing much to correct the very common mistake here adverted to. Of our three national societies this is the only one which has hitherto commanded anything like a generally good show of all varieties of the English horse ; while we have no doubt that this may, with a little more promptness, still be considerably improved on. It is a feature, too, that our neighbours might take up with advantage. The French people — the masses, says Monsieur Lavergne, have scarcely yet learnt to appreciate the exhibitions of agriculture. It is with difficulty they can be induced to attend. We know of nothing that would go so far to attract them as the addition of horse classes. To the Parisian, especially, it would be, as we take it, an irresistible bait ; and we trust by another year to see the Yorkshire, Suffolk, Cleveland, and Nor- folks, up even to the best-descended and shaped thorough-bred horses, as duly honoured in the list of what we can supply, as Shorthorns orHerefords, Leicesters or Southdowns. In a national point of view, no country can but benefit by attention to the best breeds of horses — an opinion in which, if we know anything of his tastes, the Emperor him- self would very readily concur. THE WORK AND HOW TO DO IT. The third lecture, of which I possess but a shght outhue, I had thought of throwing into a connected form. But I have not meddled with it ; so, frag- mentary as it is, you have it good reader as it now lies before me. F. R. S. "I dou't kuow how far a certain prejudice has got possession of your minds, but I know that it does weigh with some labourers against savings'-bauks — I will mention it. •' Some men think that when a man is known to save, he is liable to have his wages reduced by his master or else to be frequently refused work, on the plea that he can rest idle with less iucouveuience than others. At first sight there seems some truth in this way of thinking; but the more one dwells upon it, the more one sees through it as a piece of shal- low nonsense. Depend upon it, masters are gene- rally too mucli alive to their own interests to dislike a man that saves. They look, I know, with a marked respect on a man who has put by a pound or two. A fellow that can give change for a sovereign or lialf-a- sovereign on pay-night stands a notch higher, I assure you, in his employer's estimation. This is because the habit of saving implies in the possessor of it the possession of other good habits — he must be steady and respectable. With regard to myself, friends, a receipt from a savlngs'-bank would be the best re- commendation you could bring n;e. I should say — * I will strain a point to give that nian work : he must be thrifty, industrious, sober ; a friend to liim- self and his family, he is more likely to prove a friend to me.' " And you may depend upon it, there is a great change come over the ])ublic mind with respect to labourers. I wish, too, to prepare you for the better state of things implied by this change. The expe- rience is going forth that there is a worth and quality in the work of a respectable thinking man, that more than compensates any extra expense. In the coun- try, masters are just awakening to this truth; em- ployers in the manufacturing districts have been long awake to it. A great deal of property is entrusted to your hands : if you are in the h-abit of taking care of your own property, you necessarily have greater thought for the property of other people. A man cannot estimate the value of property who does not feel the difliculty of acquiring it, and of course such a person is not fit to be trusted. A savings'-bauk does much to form this habit, and is the very thuig we require then. "Imight be misunderstood in some quarters, were I to say that I desire to elevate labourers into capi- talists, but I certainly do mean it ; for in the sense I use the word capital, it is necessary to the equali- zation and improvement of yom* condition as la- bourers. Wealth has been the subject of many bitter attacks, but there are two sides to this ques- tion : it is the abundance of this world's goods that tcndeth to vice, and vanity, and discontent ; such is your position that with all your strife to accumulate will you, I think, friends, remain on the better side of the question ; your gains will come under the head ' little riches,' and this, the proverb says, ' is a good thing.' " Think of the blessing this little fund is to the sick and what a stimulus it is to him when he is man, well ; what a just pride, too, does he derive from it ! And doing well in this way suggests and leads to doing well in other ways. Think how such a fund may be made to stay up the life of a declining i)a- reut ; how it may educate tlie family, and enable the owner to open his liand to distress, and taste the sweets of generosity ! And tiicre is an immediate benefit derivable from saving: it jirovcs a preservative THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 383 from many extravagances and vices. Temptations present themselves, the mind's eye travels to the little hoard at the bank, and "they are resisted : in- deed, and I speak to you honestly, when the habit of saving is formed, a great revolution takes place in the character ; irregularities and improper self-indul- gences disappear, and steadiness, sobriety, and self- restriction take their place. " Hanging on the wall is a table, formed to show what a certain weekly contribution paid at the Windsor and Eton Saviugs'-bank would amount in a certain term of years, interest being at £3 8s. 6d. per cent. It is a highly instructive table : — 00oo'tncn>(^it.0JC0Wl-0tOK>i-'i-'i-i !(.►- woow^o^;^oc5loco*.o^^wo•i^)*^-f>-OOtNS-^I>t^W'-'H-ii-i'f^W03tObO OWUiCCtOUiyDW^Ji-'OOtnOtFitO I—' I-* It _. C5 to OO W "g 09 *v3 U) W CO to rf^ OJ M tn Oi 1-3 10 tA to lO Ol U) to tfik O 50 oi-'oo(-'H-aitoooc»toc"ioif>.ooiwt— do Q.^ i*>.wtOh-ooo'V)''0'^'0^j^'Ooa)Wwciii^oi W O *.. 4i. CnW^al— OtOCO'^-iaiOi*. H-OOlff^WlOl— l-'H-l--lO womQotoGo*(i."vr^irf^C5 CO W to >— I itoi V I—" "—^ oa £ ui o i-" 00 • ' WtOOOQOOOT*.WtOi-itk,S- cowooii-'cnoH^toi-'O • •3 h-i K- H-i I-' CO " W|Mli|l-lvlH UJl-l4|M ijlH Ivl-' o>w — oco- w " • •a b^ ^^ ^^ |v^ ^ lOUiOCvrf^tOOOOOiw"'' iv|h> a|M »;- "Before we part tliis evening, I wish to point out to you one of the great enemies with which the la- bouring man has to contend, one of the greatest enemies to savings'-bauks — the Poor Laws, I mean. I wish to in-^pire you with a horror of pauperism, Pauperism will rob you as it has robbed thousands, unless you have a care, of energy, self-respect, inde- pendence, in a word all that is worth having and worth living for. Beware of pauperism ! " I overheard a conversation, not long since, be- tween a mother and her daughter. The daughter was just going to housekeeping, and the good mother was giving her some sound advice about thriftiness, and saving a part of the gudeman's weekly earnings. 'But mother,' said the girl, 'we get but little, and the parish will relieve us when we want it.' " The girl was right ; the parish will relieve you, but it fixes a sort of moral brand upon all whom it relieves. Yes, it will relieve, but not withou.t degrading you. The more you get such relief, the more you want it ; like any other vice, it grows upon you. When you find that other people will maintain you, you turn idle and say, 'Well then, they may;' but an utterable and melancholy change must come over the character be- fore this decay of good feeling can take place. The glare of a great inexhaustible public fund for the re- lief of the needy and idle is enough, I grant, to tempt many from the paths of industry and independence ; but bitter is the bread it supplies to the clamorous mouths. It is a bread that has a subtle poison mixed up with it — a poison that begins its work of corrup- tion on the inner life, eats the vital principle out of the man, and leaves the husk to give forth but an offensive odour, polluting the air of society. " The poor-laws were designed to help the poor ; but those who made them distrusted the virtues of the English labouring poor, and so got sadly wrong. It turns out that the poor are the principal sufferers by the poor-laws. Every other class has its com- pensation. The expense the manufacturer and far- mer incurs to support pauperism is paid back to him in the shape of a reduction in the wages of his work- men ; and to the landowner it is repaid by a reduc- tion in the price of all manufactured articles. It is only himself that is really to be impoverished. Yes, that is the correct word. He appears to be pen- sioned, but lie is really impoverished, for pauperisin acts towards the reduction of wages. " Por these reasons, shun this enemy — one of the most formidable you have to fear, in this neighbour- hood particularly, where it seems to have taken such deep hold. A man leaning on the poor-laws has no inducement to economise, and loses all relish for the social virtues, the domestic delights, the manly cheer- fulness, that make home happy, and life a pleasure. " It would be a joy to me to see springing up over this land, an erect, sturdy, well paid, and well prin- cipled peasantry. Every advantage that you win by your own industry and sobriety is matter of heartfelt gratitude to me. My hope is to see the two classes, now parted by much jealousy and foolish iscnorance of each other, niasters and workmen. '386 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. brought nearer to each other in the bonds of a better understanding. To bring in this ' good time coming,' let me request your practical encouragement of our effort to serve you. Sj^eed the Bank !" Some years ago a Parliamentary Committee sat upon the combination laws. Upon referring to the minutes of that committee, I find that a Mr, Oldfield and Mr. Eli Chadwick were called upon to produce evidence. Mr. Oldfield was asked " Whether he could suggest any means to prevent the inconvenience of combination?" He replied that it could only be done " by the Govern- ment preventing accumulation in the hands of the poor." Mr. Chadwick made the same reply to the same question. Both replies evince an amount of ignorance, prejudice, and careless indifference as to the causes of combination quite lamentable in educated and sensible men. What a palpable closing of the eyes is this ! It reminds one of the great Hume, who justifies the policy of Henry I. as more befits the man of the world than a philosopher, an historian, or a statesman. " When violence and usurpations are once begun," says he, " necessity olliges a prince to continue in the same course, and engages him in measures, which his better judgment and sounder principles would otherwise have induced him to reject with warmth and indignation." And there is an analo- gous passage in one of the orations of Demosthenes, who, notwithstanding his wisdom, sometimes gave un- wise counsel. It runs thus : — " It would be just to restore the democratical government in Rhodes ; but even were it not just, still, observing what other states do, I think it would be advisable for its expediency. If all, indeed, would be just, then it would be shameful for the Athenians to be otherwise. But when all others provide themselves with means to injure, for us alone to abide by justice, and scruple to use advantages offered, I consider not as uprightness but weakness 3 and, in fact, I see all states regulating their rights, not by the equity of an act, but by their power of accomplishing." The advice given by Messrs. Oldfield and Chadwick before the Parliamentary Committee is similarly short- sighted. The act of funding, for the habit of accumulation will never lead the working classes to combine ; but the lack of providential habits amongst the poor will always tend to discontent and its concomitants. To forbid the fund- ing of wages amongst the labouring classes, is to confine them ever within the bonds of servitude, so that they shall have no hope of rising and obtaining a stake in the country. And where the great mass of the people are in this degraded state, with no encouragement to strive to better their condition, they grow reckless, and the strongest despotic government that can be forged, pro- tected though it be by sword, bayonet, and terror, can withstand only for a time the upraising of a people's manhood thus insulted and brutalized. So fell Greece ! And those who have read carefully the history of Rome will trace its decadence to the same element of reckless discontent amongst the lower orders — orders that com- prised the majority of its population. Far be it from me to seem in uny way to favour th absurd doctrine of universal equality ; but I do see a want of security, a sign of decay, to that state where great gaps exist between the classes, for then am I assured that mutuality of interest (so truly essential to the strength, progress, and stability of a nation) is more or less absent ; and if absent, there exists in place of it an element of popular disaffection, to the force of which many of the empires of the old world have succumbed. We know something of this lurking foe to England's future : many of us can put our finger here and there precisely over against where it is working ! Be it ours to check, not ignorantly or wilfully to develope, this danger to the commonwealth. Those who give the matter any thought will have no difficulty in perceiving that such an organization of society as gives us gradations amongst the labouring classes, must very much tend to the nation's well-being and security. The more, indeed, we can develope this mutuality of interest amongst all grades, the better. Bat I have rather struck away from my direct line of remark, although what I have said bears heavily upon it. I was intending to say that my friend Mr. S. had to defend himself to many of his neighbours, who had heard reports of his lectures On Savings' Banks. It was stated that his remarks tended to favour combina- tions, and that the people were intending to make use of the advantages offered them for depositing their surplus, for the purpose of extorting a better wage from the farmers. He told me thus much, and slily adds : — " I had not much trouble to protect my position. I drew out one or two lines to secure my rear, and gave a fair front, in order that when I had exhausted the patience of my antagonists in attack, I might myself run forward, without let or hindrance, to follow my ad- vantage." This is at most a foolish prejudice ; but at all events the jealousy of the capitalist is nothing more or less than a practical admission that, with provident banks, there is a capability amongst the poor of becoming rich enough to be wholly independent of the supplies of the parish. We will get this much of good out of it. But we need not trouble ourselves much about this phase of the question, for capital will ever hold its own against labourers. Still it is right that the poor shall have a claim to a say as to the amount of their remuneration ; and if their sobriety and providence and intelligence gain for them this right, it should be fully accorded to them — and with a welcome. I would rather have about me a sturdy and well-principled set of men, who knew their work, and had the honesty to do it according to their knowledge — ay, even though they could strike once and away — than I would be pestered with a rabble of unprin- cipled fellows who neither knew nor cared for the value of their own or other people's property, all on the brink of starvation, and degraded by pauperism. Such are what the French writers allude to, when they use the words" classes dangereux." To lessen and iiradicate this menacing element, the habits of providence, self- reliance, and sobriety must be inculcated ; and then we »re met with the accusation that to foster such habits is THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 387 to call up a power antagonistic to the masters. Well, if it be right for the people to be considered as serfs, and therefore having no right of property in their labour, then must we plead guilty. But those who may take this view of the case — not many let it be supposed — must bear in mind that there cannot be any virtue be- longing to slaves ; and if we admit that the great mass of our people, the foundation of the great national fabric, is without virtue, we imagine ourselves in the position of that man who bestrides a staved barrel of gunpowder, with a lighted torch in his hand. But combinations come not of a people schooled to virtue ; for virtue is a self-renunciation — a love of law and country — a preference of public and private interests, both arduous and painful. Such combination of work- people as we have to fear cannot be born of such sort : they have a quite different parentage. Their ancestry is Ignorance, Oppression, Starvation, Profligacy, Pau- perism ; and the distinctive features of the race they carry down from generation to generation, the mis- thriven crew. May not the habit of accumulation, which produces a more reflective, sober, and rational peasantry, implying, as it surely does, prudence, forethought, and sobriety, prove the best guarantee against the immoral abuse of the little hoarded capital — a security, in fact, against combinations? This, I think, is the most rational con- clusion to arrive at. The habits formed during a long- sustained effort to save will assuredly preserve a work- man from throwing himself carelessly into any hasty and adventurous struggle with employers : his eye would be upon the small treasure, v.hicli he would be loath to waste. You and I, good reader, know full well that enough has beAi done to deaden the self-respect of the labouring classes. Will it not be better for us to stem this down- ward current ? Cannot we do something to foster a little healthy ambition in these " hewers of wood and drawers of water" ? Ambition is a fine tonic. If by sobriety the work-people of this country rise to the power of becoming in a certain sense the regulators of trade, employers have this satisfaction — that the higher wages they may be called to give are well-laid out, and so ex- pended as to save them (the masters) many heavy ex- penses that they would have to meet, in the case of their dealing with vicious and idle men, over and above simple payment of wages. The larger the ambition of labourers, the less they multiply themselves ; and I met with a re- flection in a work of Dr. Chalmers that excels anything that I could say under this head : "In proportion as the man becomes more relieetive and virtuous, he seeks something higher than the gratification of mere animal tastes. There is to be observed a growing de- maud for certain objects of taste and decency, for greater leisure, a widely diffused education, a better style of accommo- dation than his father's. And it is just by raeaus of a more elevated standard than before, that marriages become later and less frequent. This we deem to be the precise ligament that binds together an improvement in the character with an im- provement in the comfort of our peasantry, and makes a taste for certain conveniences the very stepping-stone by which a people do arrive at them. If these conveniences are regarded as essential ingredients to maintenance, then will a sense of their importance operate as a counteractive to the temptations of precipitate or imprudent matrimony." The conclusiorf therefore is, that the man who does not happen to deem as essential those decencies, &c., that can only be obtained through habits of superior economy — who deems rags, potatoes, and a hovel the suflScient accessories of domestic bliss — will rush improvidently into the married state. The higher the scale of enjoyment in any society, the later the average of marriage. This remark follows naturally enough out of the above reflection. In the absence of a prospective economy, which of itself will push forward the date of marriage, there rests no ability with other classes to help the working community out of their degradation, " into which nothing can plunge them but their own recklessness and folly." But I forget. I have a small extract yet to give from a communication just received from Mr. S. He says, in relation to what during one year has actually been accomplished by the savings' bank established in the village of : " This bank embraces a population of 1,200 ; and from its commencement December, 1S54, to December, 1855, the whole sum deposited was £235 129. 3d. During the taelve- motith sixty families of this small district have opened their accoirats w ith the bank, and received an impulse from it on the side of economy and foresight. I hope I may have as good tidings to give you when I next write." But enough has been said on this subject, I think, to in- duce my readers to encourage the habits of funding amongst the poor to the utmost extent of their ability. It is past experience that guides us in the present ; and if we desire to learn a lesson with respect to the proved benefits of savings' banks, the evidences we seek are thickly strewn on every hand. F. R. S, MR. WREN HOSKYNS ON MODERN AGRICULTURE. It Las become the fashion to rank agriculture as a science. Our dull, plodding, clod-compelling forefathers, wlio carried on their farm operations with as little variety as the movements of a horse in a mill, are now regarded as " things before the Flood.", We are, as it were, standing upon an eminence, from which we faintly may discern Practice toiling on in the distance in one monotonous round, \n\h. its legs sticking in miry clay, warning off all intruders in the shape of improved implements and book infor- mation, progressing with its long fallows and straw- fed animals, and grumbling, as it goes on, that the wea- ther did not suit the occasion, or the crops yield adequately to the pains taken for their production. Again in another direction, the eye discovers beauti- ful, but vaguely and undefined, Science teaching its 388 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. anxious listeners the truths obtained from chemistry, mechanics, geology, and many other masters, which, like the glass of Bauquo, show as many more. The exemplification of this matter has fallen into hands well qualified by acquirement and intellectual endowment to render subjects in themselves dry and uninteresting, delightful and attractive. Mr. Wren Hoskyns deals in the poetry of agriculture, and un- der his touch the rude ore suddenly becomes trans- muted into richly-refined metal. Dealing with de- tails, in themselves uncouth and forbidding, all their inequalities appear smooth, whilst the musical mea- sure of his rhythm tickles the ear and engages the attention. Many realities, like "cloud-capp'd towers," melt into thin air, whilst airy nothings " obtain a local habitation and a name." So far we feel inclined to yield the laurel of classic worth and poetic attainment, to one whose lecture, recently delivered before the Society of Arts, exhibits the trae poetry of farming. Ere this the pursuit acknowledged men of practice and science only ; but now we can add one who clothes the rudest subject with the most imaginative and attractive language ; and to ears only that nature has not made musical does he attune his lyre in vain. But, unhappily, the feelings of the audience, that became inspired and revelled in his music, do not reach the souls of those who by thousands read the verse unaccompanied by the me- lody. Wit second-hand is no longer wit. The epi- gram loses its point when squeezed into shape : like the jelly-bag it is said to represent, it collapses into a form that art refuses to recognize. Argil again be- comes clay, silica becomes sand and gravel, ammonia nitrogen, carbon and phosphates resolve themselves into farmyard manure. The cessation of war may bring with peace low prices for agricultural pro- duce, and then if " the mountain will not come to the Prophet"— as it will fail to do with wheat reduced to forty shillings per quarter — then, in plain language, " the Prophet must go to the mountain." And, the cost of the production must be brought down suf- ficiently low, or else the quantity be increased to meet the difi'erence in ratio, equivalent to remedy the deficiency. Interesting and amusing as the lecture of Mr. Wren Hoskyns is confessed to be, yet strip it of its appendages of language and style, it contains little more than the practical have experienced perhaps without knowing why, or the scientific have recom- mended without describing how. The results have still been attained ; and, after all, he has only shown that the main obstacle to farming advancement is deficiency of capital, and the great obstruction to its development, the absence of security to skill and in- vestment. In one particular, at least, Mr. Hoskyns has fallen into what may l)e said to bo a universal error. He treats of land as a mere machine by which corn ricks and beef and mutton can be manufactured ad libitum. " If you only keep up /ii//k pressure," lie says, "by manuring, and also keep the land clean from weeds, the idea of exhmcstion by cropping is a chimera." But who is there, that, combining practice with his science, after having cultivated highly and manured in the best manner, has not often at last reaped a blighted and deficient crop ; whilst his neighbour who has trusted to good cultivation and natural resources of the soil, has shown an abundant one ? Such are the contingencies of farming, that it will fail equally from either extreme ; and what- ever the success of Mr, Wren Hoskyns upon the Clay Earm that he has so graphically chronicled, some other " coppery lights" certainly have not shone out to the end with increase of light but have faded away, and at last gone out, without a trace of their former glory remaining. The truth is, that farming is attended with hazard and uncertainty — from the effect of seasons, blights, and mildew, as well as by sudden fluctuations in prices, so great as to render it what it'had always been considered, and what it always must be — a pursuit dependent upon external causes, over which the far- mer has no control whatever, and of which he is, at the same time, so conscious that beyond any other, he of necessity looks up to Providence for a blessing upon his endeavours. "He sows the seed, and tnists the rest to Heaven." Still in many particulars we concur with the views of this able writer, especially when he treats, of land as a machine which ought not to be shackled by un- necessary restrictions in its use. In this he only sup- ports the views of the farmers of this kingdom, as represented by the members of the London Club, in the resolution arrived at, in th"; very same week, " that the agreement or lease that vi'ill give the farmer' security of tenure during the occupation, with com- pensation for unexhausted improvements at the end of term, will be the best to give a stimulus to agri- culture." Mr. Wren Hoskyns likens the farm to a mill, in which if the best machinery is not put, the balance of profit is lost in useless labour and expense. If then the tenant of the mill should not be allowed sufficient time by his lease to induce him to place in the best description of maehincrj^ as well as liberty of action allowed him to work it with advantage, how fur could he be expected to look forward to a profit- able result in his undertaking ? With too many writers, the main object of farming is kept out of view : — the profit ; and it is from the neglect of persons strong in capital, as regards this jjarticular, that they ultimately fail of maintaining their position for any length of time together as actual farmers. The best implements and the largest rapital will not be found sufficient aloue to produce THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 389 a return sufficient to ensure beneficial results. Sound practical experience must be also added, and close personal attendance combined; for not only must every act of husbandry be done well and in the right manner, but to obtain success it must also be done at the right time. It is by attending to minutise that profits are made, and especially as affects the appli- cation of manual labour. A concentration of it upon the several objects, and a due superintendence of it in accordance, is one great secret in the matter; and it is from these particulars not receiving due attention that persons who carry out their business by agents do not succeed so well as those who are deeply and personally interested, in attending in detail to these points. If we associate with this immediate super- vision— sufficient capital and machinery to economise and facilitate the labour ; sufficient horse and manual power to carry it out ; sufficient guano or other sub- stitutes to produce the principal portion of the green and root crops, and to raise the corn crops to a fair standard of perfection without hazarding the opposite extreme — we give in our estimation tbe most certain mode for insuring success. The production of a large proportion of fatted cattle and sheep, upon any farm, by oilcake and ex- ternal aid, must always be attended with hazard as regards the j)ro{it. A return from such sources can never be depended upon, in any given year ; and it is only upon an average of years that such estimates may be based. Poor indeed would the lot of the grazier frequently be, who looked to his oxen and sheep for a direct return of profit. Combined, however, with the cultivation of a proportionate quantity of arable land, repayment would accrue in another direction, and probably when it niight be most needed ; for, at all events, the crops in amount would generally be in proportion to the quantity of beef and mutton produced, and thus the two judiciously combined would in the end produce the most desirable result. The keeping clay lands of a tenacious description clean from couch and weeds for any long time toge- ther, without considerable fallowing during the sum- mer months, we hold to be impossible. "We do not say it cannot be effected. Would the cost bestowed be paid by the difference of mode of cultivation? With dry autumnal months much can be accom- plished with the means at hand, upon strong clay lands ; but with late harvests and wet autumns, every one acquainted with farming must have felt the difficulty of cleaning them. With light friable soils it is, however, exactly the reverse ; a great deal at all times can be effected, as from their nature, couch and weeds may be pulled out and eradicated by ma- chines calculated for that purpose, and, on being re- moved from the soil, the land may be maintained in a state sufficiently clean to admit of grain crops yearly to be taken in succession. Happy as we are in yielding to Mr. Wren Hos- kyus a due word of praise for the very pleasing manner in which he has elucidated his subject, still we confess we are not disposed to follow him by commending such portions of it as we think are of al'topian character, and totally beyond the province of a tenant farmer to launch into. The occasion, t';.e prices, the realities in farming matters, give a stimulus to its pursuit, unheard of since the termi- nation of last war ; and so long as good crops and remunerative prices are obtained, so long will that feeling prevail. But whatever advantages are held out by the application of science, they will all become more or less inoperative, to effect any great advance in a pursuit whensoever prices will not com- pensate producers for the outlay demanded. THE SAI.E OF CORN— BY LAW OR CUSTOM? The key-stone of commerce is credit. In this j country more especially it is the very life-blood of j all trading; as without it the spirit of business ; would at once droop and die. We trust, more- ' over, not merely to a man's means, but equally to ' his word. The same confidence which induces us to rely on the one prompts us to be as satisfied with the other. Many of the heaviest transactions i are carried through, with nothing more to show or depend on than the mutual good faith of the ! contracting parties. It is a word and a blow — | "Your hand to it;" and the bargain is struck, [ Perhaps in the practice of no calling is this kind of dealing more general than in that of agriculture. The farmer buys and sells alike by it. It would puzzle most of us to find anything beyond an oc- casional letter or so, as the contract for either the purchase or sale of corn and stock. All is done by word of mouth. We pick our store beasts from the drjve, and return them fat to market — pitch our corn, or show the sample, asking and receiving nothing more than the good faith of a man's word to settle the business between us. It is seldom, either, that more is required. When, however, such a guarantee does fail, it behoves us to ascer- tain how far law or custom sanctions a system, that 'has generally been proved to work so conveniently, and so well, A case involving such considerations, and of peculiar interest to both tbe buyers and sellers of 390 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. corn, has just been heard and decided. It came before the Brentwood County Court only last week ; Mr. Eve, a gentleman farming extensively at North Ockendon, being the plaintiff, and Mr. Woodfine, a miller at Brentwood, the defendant. According to the report in a local paper, it appears that on the thirtieth of last January Mr. Eve received from his bailiff three samples of wheat, representing a bulk of eighty quarters. These he took with him to the following Romford market, where he sold thirty quarters to Mr. Nokes, thirty to Mr. James ; and the remaining twenty to Mr. Woodfine, at the market price of seventy-six shil- lings a quarter. The wheat was in due course delivered to the three purchasers named, when Mr. Woodfine alone refused to take it; his reason for doing so being that it was not equal to sample. Mr. Eve, on the other hand, contended that it was ; but having the bulk thrown on his hands he was compelled to transfer it to Chelmsford, where he resold it at a loss of six shillings a quarter. For this difference, with the additional expense of car- riage, he brought Mr. Woodfine into the County Court. At the first glance, and to a non-legal ob- server, the point at issue here would seem to be a very simple one. Was the delivery equal to the sample or not? If it was not, Mr. Wood- fine was manifestly justified in refusing to abide by his contract. If, on the contrary, the bulk was as good as what he bought by, he was in equity as clearly called upon to stand to his word. Mr. Eve came to prove it was, while we must remember that we have the collateral evidence of two other buyers who were satisfied with what they had received. The dispute, however, in a court of law would admit of no such line of argument. The statement for the plaintiff was at once met by the defendant's solicitor with the laconic reply: — *' Under the statute of Frauds there is no case at all." Upon this the following important conver- sation ensued between the judge and the repre- sentatives of the parties of the suit : — His Honour : There is no acceptance in writing. Mr. Preston (for the defendant) : None at all. Mr. Rawlings : I know that : we rely upon the sample. His Honour : Mr. Preston will meet you by relying upon the statute of Frauds. Mr. llawliiigs : We have nothing else to rely upon. If I show the bulk equal to the sample, I ask you to give a verdict. His Honour : How do you get ovtr the statute of Frauds ? There is nothing iu writing to bind the parties. Mr. Kawliiigs : There is not. We rely on the custom of the market. His Honour : Yes, but the sample does not form part of the bulk delivered — it dors not go towards making up the quantity. Can you show that tlierc is an express bargain that the sample should form part of the bulk? Mr. R.iwliiigs : No. His Honour: Then it wouhl be impossible for you to show a custom, unless the farmers and merchants came fonvard to say that that is the custom. If you can prove such to be the mode of dealing in this neighbourhood that is another thing— I am only speaking of ordinary expenses, Mr, Rawlings : I take it that Mr, Woodfine would have had a right of action against Mr. Eve if he had not delivered it. His Honour : It is not a contract. If you never get beyond a mere parole contract for goods over £10, and don't put that in writing, the law says, that shall not be enforced. Up to £10 you can go, but not beyond, Mr, Rawlings : Then it comes to this— if 2,000 or 3,000 qrs, of wheat are boujjht by a party and the market falls the next day, he could refuse it. His Honour : The statute of Frauds binds me. Mr. Preston : I should like to have the case tried upon the merits. His Honour : Oh! no. if you rely upon the statute of Frauds do so. Let us not spend (our or five hours in hearing the evidence, and then be no forwarder by your again putting in the statute of Frauds, Mr, Preston: Yes; but Mr. Rawlings says it is in conse- quence of a fall iu the markets that the corn was refused. His Honour : Well, Mr. Eve will now understand that Mr. Woodfine buys by the statute of Frauds. The verdict went, of course, for the defendant, with expenses. The judge, in fact, could scarcely rule otherwise than he did ; for Mr. Woodfine's own advocate, notwithstanding his subsequent re- mark as to trying the case on its merits, cited at the very outset the statute of Frauds as the point in his favour. Against this Mr. Eve had only to offer the custom of the market; and this we really think, if only persevered with, might have gained him his cause, or at least the opportunity of having it fairly tested, instead of being at once put out of court by a law which was here simply not justice. " Can you prove such to be the mode of dealing in this neighbourhood ?" distinctly asks the judge- That is, can you prove it is the custom to buy by sample to be delivered in bulk, without an ac- ceptance in writing, or the sample itself forming part of what is to be sent in ? Could Mr. Eve have proved this — and surely there could have been nothing more easy — his case must have pro- ceeded on its merits, and Mr. Woodfine have had to ground his refusal not on any statute of frauds, but the absolute fact that the corn was not as good as that he bought it for. Mos pro lege is a phrase well known enough to our best lawyers ; and we be- lieve this custom is sufficiently recognised and acted on to give it all the force of law. The judge, indeed, clearly intimated his readiness to admit as much, on any proof being given of its existence. The question, we repeat, is one of some impor- tance. Do our corn merchants buy under the shelter of the statute of Frauds ; or, on the other hand, as admitting the custom of the market ? There is no mistake in the actual law of the matter. The Legislature, in fact, systematicallyrefuses to sanction any merely verbal contracts of this kind. For any- thing above ten pounds, to be binding in the eye of the law there must be either a written agreement; an earnest in part payment ; or an actual accept- ance and rcceij)! of part. The very " hand sales" of the north of England and parts of Wales, where THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the seller always has your hand on a bargain being struck for a borse or a beast, have no force over this ten pounds limit but that of custom. The l7th section of the statute of Frauds, upon which the Romford case went, is, as far as law can go, quite as decisive against the present system of buying and selUng corn : — " And be it enacted that no contract for the sale of any goods, wares, or mercbandizes, for the price of £10 or upwards, shall be allowed to be good, except the buyer shall accept part of the goods so sold, and actually receive the same, or give something iu earnest to bind the bargain, or in part payment, or that some note or memoraudum in writing of the said bargain be made and signed by the party to be charged by such contract, or their agents thereunto lawfully authorized." We are well aware of the practice on Mark-lane of a buyer deferring to the following market-day the completion of his purchase. But this, as we take it, is— or ought to be, if not abused— entirely a question of sample. If the bulk be as good as what he bought by, we imagine the custom of the market would compel him to abide by his bargain ; whereas the statute of Frauds would as certainly not. It is this custom, — but another word for jus- tice— that we should like to see a little more clearly established ; and it is with this view that we have directed attention to Mr. Eve's case. Had the custom here received that recognition it should have done, we might have looked to a far more searching inquiry and satisfactory adjustment. THE PROSPECTS OF LAND-DRAINAGE. While our political cotemporaries are discussing the prospects of our political parties, we will endeavour to draw attention to the prospects and principles of parties iu the land-draining world. In England party enters into the consideration of questions which might be deemed the most remote from its influence, and the draining of land is not exempt from party warfare. There is the party of. the deep di-ainers par excellence — those who contend that on all soils depth will compen- sate for ■^^idth of interval. It should, rather be said there was such a party, for we believe it is now all but extinct, though not till considerable sums had been expended on the strength of the afsumption, and not always with the most successful results. Then, again, there is the party of those who lay their drains at regu- lar intervals of eight or of ten yards, according to the nature of tlie soil, but insist, whatever the soil and sub- suil, on a minimum depth of four feet. There are others who ridicule the system of equi-distant drains, which they have nicknamed the gridiron system ; and who, while they insist on the above minimum depth, lay their drains at unequal intervals. They reject the principles of the Keythoi'pe drainers, who regxxlate both depth and distance by means of tiial-lioles. By these they ascertain the depth at which water enters the hole, the height to which it rises in the hole, and the relative height of the water in the different holes. In this way they determine the depth of their drains ; and they regulate the distance by the distances at which a drain will clear a trial-hole of water. Such a jog-trot, common-place, and practical mode of pro- ceeding may be all very well for mere land-drainers ; but it is beneath the dignity of draining engineers. While they reject so simple and practical a mode of deter- mining the proper width of interval and depth of drain, they have not told us, we repeat, by what principle they themselves are guided in laying their drains at iiTegular intervals. Is it that, as has been said of poor Smith of Deanston, they have not got hold of one ? or is it a secret of draining-craft which they will not disclose ? To free the land of water after making it percolate three feet of soil will not satisfy these emi- nent men. They compare this to getting rid of water by surface grips ; and getting rid of it too quickly. By so doing we lose, they tell us, the collateral advan- tages ; that is to say, we lose the benefit to be derived from the percolation of v^ater through the extra foot of soil. Now, if the Keythorpe drainers are to be believed, they save from 30 to 50 per cent, in the cost of draining a given area, estimated in jierches of drain and number of pipes to the acre, which may be valued at whatever may be the local prices. As those di'aining engineers who insist on the extra foot of depth for the sjke of the collateral advantages do not profess to drain for less than £5 per acre for labour and materials, it follows that they expend from 30s. to 50s. per acre for the sake of the benefit to be obtained by the percolation of water through the extra foot of soil. It may be worth while, therefore, to inquire what is the money-value of the collateral advantages conferred by filtering the rain through that extra foot. The paper of Professor Way, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultm-al Society, will furnish data for the calculation which we commend to the consideration of our cfraining engineers. Let us not, however, be mis- understood ; we are not arguing against drains deeper than three feet, where you find by trial-holes that the water does not enter the hole freely till a gi-eater depth than three feet is obtained. All we contend for is, that if a soil is obtained of the depth of three feet, the ad- vocates of deeper drains must be prepared to j^rove that the benefits derived from the extra depth have a money value equivalent to the difference in the expense of draining incurred by it. Neither can we admit the argument in favom- of deep drains founded on the fact of the deep drains of Mr. Mechi having run with liquid manure, as stated by that gentle- man at the Society of Arts. That argument has the fault of proving too much. It proves that the manure was I'unning to waste ; and is, therefore, an argument either against deep drains or liquid manure, or the two in combination, or the execution of the di'ains in that 39-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. particular case. As little can we admit an argument in favour of deep drains founded on the discharge of water from Mr. Mechi's celebrated drain. We forget how many gallons a-day it yields; nor does it much matter, for it is very evident that it is much gTeater than the annual I'ainfall on his farm. He must, there- fore, either be draining his neighbours' land for them, prompted by his well-known public spirit, or he is making free with theu' water supply. It is very clear that Mr. Mechi's must be a case of spring draining. We hear much about land di'aining and spring drain- ing, but we doubt whether those who use the terms have a very clear perception of their difference. They are certainly two distinct things, but they gi"aduate into one another so imperceptibly that it is not always very easy to draw the line of demarcation between them. Again, we reject the argument in favour of deep drains, that is, in favour of drains of more than a minimum depth of three feet, founded on the depth to which roots of wheat have been traced. They will run any depth in a crack, just as the roots of wurzel will run gi-eat distances when they get into a cb-ain. No one, however, contended — at least, no one ever proved that the wheat or the wurzel was the better for this anomalous development of roots, any more than that a goose is the better for having an enlargement of the liver induced by a cruel process in order that it may be made into a Perigord pie. In laying down general principles for the improve- ment of the soil, we cannot do better than take for our guide those soils which are naturally the most fertile. Looking at the question from this point of view, we find that a homogeneous soil, permeable freely by water to the depth of three feet, provided it contains such a proportion of aluminous earth as to be suffi- ciently retentive of moisture, with a sufficiency of cal- careous matter and the other mineral constituents of plants, which soils contain in minute quantities, such a soil ranks as one of extraordinary fertility. If only two feet deep, it constitutes land much coveted by the far- mer; and if only one foot deep, is by no means despised. Another favourite argument for excessively deep drains is, that they are thereby placed beyond the reach of obstz'uction by roots of trees. This advantage, however, is neutralised in a great degi-ee by another argument brought forward in iavour of deep draining, to the effect that the deeper you cU'ain the deeper will roots extend. In this way we maj' go on, till we di'ain down to the antipodes. To such length had the rage for under-draining gone at one time, that we have seen it gravely recommended by a draining engineer to under-di'ain with pijjes a large tract of land intended to be planted with timber. Tliis reminds us of the two morning guns in the " Critic," and Bangle's remark thereon, about some people always spoiling a good thing. In the present day our most rational and ex- pexienced land- drainers would rather lea.ve land un- drained than run the risk of throwing money away by placing drains in the vicinity of trees. In conclusion, we again call upon some of oui- gi-eat draining engineers to fm-nish the public with a calcu- lation of the money-value per acre of the collateral advantages to be gained by drains having a minimum depth of four feet, over those having a maximum depth of three feet. Vague statements will not do ; it is cal- culations of profit and loss which are wanted. ON THE BARKS, &c.. Chap. I. Although much has been already done to utilize the barks of trees, and to turn them to account for the ser- vice of man in various ways, it is only of late years that chemical science and close analytical investigation are bringing out the comparative properties and more im- portant uses of the inner and outer barks of trees. A long and extensive acquaintance with their properties is however necessary, in most instances, to test the asserted value and alleged benefits of many. The collections which have been made, within the last few years for exhibition at the different local and Euro- pean industrial shows, have brought many more promi- nently into notice for the use of the dyer. The pharmaceutical chemist has also obtained several new barks for the service of medicine ; but a discussion on the properties and uses of these would be more fitted to a medical and pharmaceutical journal than to one de- voted to agriculture and rural economy. I shall confine myself chiefly, therefore, to the value of barks suited to the purposes of the tanner ; and the USED IN TANNING. subject naturally divides itself into, first, the indige- nous barks ; and secondly, the foreign barksaudothertan- ning substances, with some details as to the extraneous sources of supply. A few preliminary facts and obser- vations on the extent of the leather trade may not, how- ever, be out of place. The importance of the leather trade may be estimated from the following figures. Exclusive of the hides and skins tanned, tawed, curried, &c., we imported in 185-1 the following undressed skins — Goat skins 585,143 Sealskins 661,552 Larab skius 1,924,9J3 Sheep skins 779,373 llidea 601,199 Total No 4,552,215 Besides these, there were imported 4,500,000 lbs. of leather, 578,136 pairs of boot-fronts, and 231,000 pairs of men's and women's shoes. But to reduce the above to leather (althougli some pro- bably are destined for other purposes), we will take the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 393 Tons. Total imports of skios at 30,000 The common estimate is that one-fourth of our live stock are slaughtered annually ; this will furnish us with, for the United Kingdom, 4,000,000 ox and cow hides, at 281b3 50,000 500,000 calf skins, at 4'.b 900 8,000,000 sheep and lambs' skins, at lib 3,570 100,000 horse hides, at 141bs 625 100,000 goat skins, at lib 45 Total leather produced 85,140 A portion, however, of these hides and skins are ex- ported to the extent of abouS 5,000 tons. Now there are about 500 tanneries in the United Kingdom, employing from 350,000 to 400,000 persons, directly or indirectly; and if the foregoing estimate be any way near the mark, about 80,000 tons of leather would be worth, at 2s. per lb,, £'17,920,000; but probably i£'30,000,000 would be nearer the manufactured value. The greater portion of this manufacture is used at home, the declared value of the exports of this branch of trade being only about £1,.300,000. The home consumption of leather necessarily keeps pace with the increasing prosperity of the industrial classes. Recently, the de- mands for various purposes of the war have led to an enormous consumption of leather. The uses of leather are so numerous that it is some- what difficult, without any official data to fall back upon, to form any correct estimate of the extent of consump- tion. If we allow half the population of the United Kingdom (say 14,500,000 persons) to use two pair of shoes each per annum, and calculate them at but 5s. per pair, we get at a money value paid for this single article of ±"7,125,000. But there are numberless other uses of leather — for harness, fire-buckets and hose, portmanteaus, bufF-leather, shamoy, gloves, parchment, book-binding, horse-hides, hog-skins for saddles, seal- skins, &c. Coming, now, to the substances containing the princi- ple essential to the conversion of skin into leather, we find these to be very numerous, and scattered over every quarter of the globe. Proximity of supply, and cheap- ness, necessarily guide the tanner in his choice of mate- rial in different localities. If we take a recent year's imports of tanning sub- stances at the current prices of the day, and add thereto the indigenous barks by estimate, we shall arrive at some approximate idea of this important branch of trade. The imports, then, were, in 1854 — £ Barks of all kinds, 420,641 cwt., at an average of£7perton 147,224 SuiTach, 230,480, cwt., at 16s. per cwt 178,984 Valonia, 397,720 cwt., at £16 per ton 318,176 Terra japonica, 90,940 cwt,, at £20 per ton .... 90,940 Cutch, 38,500 cwt., at £30 per ton 57,450 Divi divi, rayrobolams, &c., 4,000 tons, at £12 per ton 48,000 The indigenous oak bark used may be taken at fully 200,000 tons, worth £6 per ton 1,200,000 Larch used in Scotland, probably 50,000 tons, at £4perton 200,000 The value of the leather made, about 16,000,000 The imports of bark proper for tanners' and dyers' use, are mixed up in the Parliamentary returns, so that it is impossible to ascertain precisely the proportions of each ; but the quarters whence they are received afford some idea. In 1854 the aggregate quantity of these barks imported amounted to 21,032 tons. The following table shows the quantity, not only of the barks, but of other tanning materials imported in the last six years, in hundred- weights. Some of the substances, however, are applied to other purposes, but only in small proportions. £18,240,774 Year. Bark for tanning & (Eyeing. Sumach. Valonia. Terra Japonica. Cutch. 1849.. ,. 1850.... 1851.... 1852.... 1853.... 1854.... cwts. 368582 380674 460895 403930 41S892 420641 cwts. 251800 258580 240500 195160 216720 230480 cwts. 333420 250520 212780 277400 S43580 397720 cwts. 125660 91700 95660 64880 78080 90940 cwts. 43460 23440 48720 44720 9700 38300 Total,cwt3 2447614 1393240 1815420 546920 208340 Average , . 407935 232206 302570 91153 34723 The imports of valonia now neai-ly equal the amount of bark imported ; and from the great quantity of tan- nin it furnishes, valonia fetches twice the price of oak bark : the value of these acorn cups received in 1854 was upwards of £270,000. In aggregate value, sumach ranks next, and the various barks third in rotation. The following were the sources of our supplies of foreign barks, for tanning and dyeing, in the years 1851 and 1853 :— 1851. cwts. Sweden 641 ., Norway 7,830 Denmark 1,187 Prussia 6,050 ., Hanover 202 Hanseatic Towns 25,418 Holland 83,926 Belgium 192,503 France 782 Portugal 64 Tuscany 10,164 Morocco 29,072 British Africa 5 Australia 40,649 West Indies 72 United States 61,823 New Granada 492 Peru 14 Two Sicilies Other parts — — , , 1853. cwts. 3,353 3,107 14,904 99,564 197,749 18,679 16,002 4,776 50,693 S,926 139 Total cwt? 460,895 412,892 In 1816 the imports of oak bark were under 5,000 tons, but in 1823 they had risen to 46,674 tons— a large quantity of corktree-bark was then included in the re- turns. The consumption of indigenous oak bark in Great Britain is now fully 150,000 to 200,000 tons— many- large brokers estimate the quantity at 300,000 tons — and we import, on the average of years, 53,500 tons of various tanning substances. Last year it amounted to 304 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 59,000 tons, the value of wLich was fully three-quaiters of a million; whilst that of our own oak and ether barks used could scarcely be less than one million and a- half sterling. Besides barks, various other substances — fruits, seeds, extracts, &c. — are imported for the use of the tanner, of which the chief are : valonia, camata and camatina; the acorn cup of a species of oak growing in the Levant J divi-divi, the wrinkled pods of Casalpinia coriaria, from South America and Central America ; myrobolams, the dried fruit of various species of Ter- minalia, from the East Indies, &c. By chemical process, the tanning principle is now ex- tracted from barks and woods ; and thus reduced to a small compass, the concentrated extracts are easily im- ported from distant quarters, saving the freight on bulky articles. In this form we receive gambler, terra japonica, cutch or catechu, and a variety of kinos. OAK-BARK being the usual substance employed by the trade for tanning, the value and commercial utility of other barks and tanning principles are necessarily de- termined by comparison with it. Oak-bark is the main stay of the tanneries of the United Kingdom, both in London and the provinces, although larch-bark is now used to a considerable extent in Scotland. Before foreign commerce had increased so rapidly, and science had made those surprising discoveries which have greatly benefited the arts and manufactures, it was anticipated by old leather manufacturers that, if the trade and con- sumption increased at the ratio it was doing, a notorious deficiency of indigenous barks would become manifest, and the price would hence, at some day, reach i£'80 the load. This fear, however, has proved groundless ; for although, during the last war, it advanced at one time to about half that price, yet in the past fourteen years it has only once reached £22 the load, and of late years has not varied to any considerable extent in price, £10 to j£l5 being about the marginal rates. From 2,000 to 5,000 tons per annum of foreign oak-bark have come in, to aid our supplies, Flemish fetching ^,"5 10s, to ;£6 10s., and German Dutch £4 10s. to £5 10s. per ton. P. L. S. AGRICULTURE IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND. The SiKdator has an article on the nnprovements in agricultural operations and implements which are deserving of particular attention. The comparison between the pro- duce of England and France tends greatly to the honour of the English farmers. Great exhibitions like those of 1851 and 1055 comprise an agricultural show ui)on an inter- national jilan ; and the advantages are on a scale proportion- ate to the dificrence between a separate state and a conti- nent. The agricultural sJiow used to be a mirror for a county; it was then a mirror for a kingdom; we were enabled to measure in some degree our progress, and we know how useful the comparison has been—first, in teaching the utility of particular diets as means of fatten- ing ; and sccoiuUy, in cnrrectiug the tendency to produce mere fat in beasts for the table. But by means of inter- national exhibitions, we not only compare ourselves with ourselves, but with our neighbours ; we gather lessons from them ; we teach lessons in turn ; and by the com- parison of different methods a terlium (juid is struck out— - a third idea which never occurred to either. The comparison between the two countries is highly favourable to our own, not only with reference to the immediate articles ex- hibited, but with reference to the general course of agri- culture. " France," says an eminent French writer cpioted by J\Ir. Dennison, " has devoted herself too exclusivolj'' to the production of corn crops ; England has aimed at corn through the production of green crops, the rearing of cattle, and the consequent supply of manure bj' which the land is renewed." It is curious that this " grand circle" has been the subject of much enthusiastic writing by theoretical philosophers in France ; while our more intelligent agri- cultural reformers were carrying out the course, quite unconscious of the pious practical poetry that they were performing. The gross results were remarkable. With an available surface equal to about half the extent of France, the British I.slands produce more food for animals. If we take England alone, the disproportion is much larger. France produces about G hectolitres of wheat per hectare ; England, 25 hectolitres. In the British Islands the vege- tables produced form about two-thirds of the whole agri- cultural produce, and the animal products equal the vef;etable. The number of sheep in France and the United Kingdom is about equal — about 35,000,000 in each ; but in proportion to the land occupied the French sheep ought to be 60,000,000. Taking England alone, the proportion is still higher; England feeds 30,000,000 sheep on 15,000,000 hectares of land ; France 35,000,000 on 53,000,000 hectares. Y'et even this does not give, the practical proportion : the weight of an English sheep is twice the weight of a French slieep ; so that a given quantity of French land yields mutton in the proportion of 1 to 6 on English land. Two different principles appear to actuate the English and the French farmer — the English thinks of producing, the French of saving. Still it is onlj' of late j-ears that we are beginning to understand the extent to which capital may be invested in land — the amount of feeding that the land will take, particularly^ in the application of artificial manures. It is evident that the Exhibition in Paris has given a great stimulus to enquiry and comparison, by which the materials for this branch of agriculture can be brought into a collected view and their profits ascertained. In this country, we have carried out with great advantage the plan of public loans for the improvement of land, and the increased consumption of Peruvian guano and other ma- nures shows how much encouragement the assistance has given. A wide comparison is peculiarh- nccessar}' to as- certain the results. If, as is probable from Mr. Lawes' in- quiries, the greatest profit in fattening and feeding cattle is attained by a just balance in the different constituents of food rather than the predominance of any one, we may in- fer that, independently of varieties in the qualities of land which have to be corrected, collective variety in the ma- nure used upon any one place will be positively advanta- geous. How important is it to include in the area of land which furnishes the ground for this survey, France as well as England, and other countiies besides ! The progress oi agricultural machinery is cheering, but encouraging for the future rather than a source of pride for the past. The use of steam in the rustic field has advanced very slowly in- deed, notwithstanding its manifest advantage ; but certainly we shall have no retrograde movement, and the Exhibition furnishes one of the best guarantees for that conclusion. " No farmer who has ever had a steam engine on his farm will ever again be without one ; no farmer Avho has ever thrashed his corn with steam-power could bear again to see his horses toiling in the wearisome circle, now jerking onwards when the whip sounds, now brought almost to a stand-still when the machine is clogged bj' a careless feeder. The regular stroke of the untiring steam-engine gives excellence to the work, keeps everybody in liis place, and introduces among men, even the most careless, some- thing of its own exactness and precision." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 395 STIERNSVARD'S SWEDISH CENTRIFUGAL CHURN. Let the result be as it may, whether we " make a spoon or spoil a Lorn," an experiment is always interesting, and the process of churning before the council of the Royal Agricultural Society at its weekly meeting on the I2th curt, was no exception from the common rule. " Practice with Science" is the golden standard of the Society, and on the present occasion it had to thank Count Ambjorn Sparre and theMessrs. Burgess and Key, of Newgate-street, for the practical treat they with so much disinterestedness exhibited. Last year a varied amount of theoretical disquisition took place on dairying, let us this season have an equal amount of experimenting, and see which will be the most productive of good. There is certainly no branch of agriculture where Practice lags farther behind in the march of improvement, none which holds out to the pioneering genius of Progress a greater reward for successful results, than the dairy. The Swedish churn, if inferior in its present imperfect state to its more successful rival, which has now for several years been meritoriously carrying everything before it, has at least the merit of introducing novelty in more senses of the word than one, so that it were difficult to say what results eventually may be. As the Vice- president justly observed, the American, when first introduced into this country, was by no means so suc- cessful as it now is ; while the experiment performed on the 12th by Count Sparre did not appear to be so suc- cessful as those performed at Grignon, Paris, and other places in France, judging from authenticated credentials shown us ; so that conclusions of a sweeping character must at least be postponed, leaving fair play and an open field for merit to receive her just reward. To those who have not seen the Swedish churn, we may observe that it consists of a vertical cylinder, ana- logous to an old " plunge-churn," with vertical "dashers," on a hollow axis, at the lower end of which is a hollow horizontal centrifugal wheel. The centre of this wheel, from being also the centre of the axis, works on a pivot ; and at the top of the axis is a small pinion, which gears in a large driving wheel, worked by a winch ; the driving wheel and winch being fixed in a large frame, tb<3 churn and dashers being only so when at work, they being easily removed when filling and cleaning. The dashers are perforated, and extend the whole length of the churn, but only half way across it, there being fixed perforated dashers on its interior. The object of the centrifugal wheel, and hollow axis commuaicating with it, is to throw air into the milk ; consequently its velocity must be such as to overcome the pressure of the milk or cream, which otherwise would rise up in the interior of the axis to the level of the milk in the churn. This is effectetl by the large driving wheel and small pinion already mentioned. But such a velocity would prove injurious to the quality of the butter — hence the reason of the fixed dashers, and moveable ones only extending halfway from the axis to the interior circumference ; for were the latter equal in length to the radius the agitation of the milk or cream would be more than doubled. Again, even with this provision, the velocity of the dashers is too great — a result which was proved by the butter having lost its natural colour ; while the velocity of the centrifugal wheel is, we fear, the reverse. Both these objections, however, are easily obviated, being only against the details of mechanism and not the principles on which the churn is constructed. For ex- ample : the hollow axis of the centrifugal wheel can easily be made to work in the hollow axis of the dashers, so that the two move at different velocities. The driving wheels may be concentric, and fixed on the end of the winch shaft, so that the two pinions gear in the upper part of them, the interior one, having the greatest velocity, being driven by the exterior driving wheel, and the exterior pinion at less velocity by the interior driving one. Alterations of this kind are simple ; the only difficulty, if there is one, being to obtain the results which they would produce. But imperfect as the couatruction of the churn obviously is at present, the results which it produces merit the most deliberate investigation. In the first place, for instance, five quarts of new milk yielded in five minutes and obc second churning, 7i oz. of butter, the butter-milk being either fit for boihng or cooking in any way, or for cheesemaking. The butter was abo\it an average as to quantity, but inferior as to quality, while the butter-milk was much superior to skimmed milk for labourers or cheese-making. Anthony's American churn, again, only yielded from six quarts of the same sample of new milk, in six minutes, 74 cz. of butter, the butter rather better coloured ; the butter-milk the reverse, but containing of course more butter, and equally adapted for culinary or cheese-making purposes. Oa the other baud, from the same sample of cream results were entirely in favour of the American churn, five quarts yielding 05 lbs. of excellent butter in 14 minutes and 54 seconds, while its Swedish rival in 12 minutes and 7 seconds produced butter, but in such an imperfect state that the milk could not be separated from it. It was white in colour, having all the appearance 01 being injured by too quick driving, and too high a temperature, a result with which every dairyman is familiar ; but the butter-milk was richer in colour and superior to that of its transatlantic opponent. It must here, however, be stated, in fairness to the principle on which the Swedish churn is coustructed, that the butter did not receive proper treatment, there being no means of gathering it with the dashers. Every dairyman is familiar with the pro- fessional handicraft required to work the dashers after the butter is coming, and what a mess he would make of it, were he forced at this time to turn the whole into a tub, and com- mence " dashing" with " cold hands" in water, especially if the churn had been " over driven," and the butter " bursted" as it is technically termed in some provinces, " over-done" in others, &c. Into the many chemical questions involved, our space will E B 396 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, not permit U3 to enter at preseut, but we can hardly pass over one thing — the difference in the colour of the butter and butter-milk — without au obaervation. How is it, for instance, accounted for ? How is it that the butter-milk is rich iu colour and flavour when the churu is over-driven, and the butter white and badly flavoured ? and vice versa ? Does the white butter contain a larger per-ceutage of margarine and less oleine than the richly coloured and flavoured sample? We know that it is whiter in winter than in summer, and that in the former season it contains greatly less butter- oil, especially in cases where no artificial heat is used to sour the cream or milk before churning. Is it the butter-oil therefore that gives the colour ? and does the rapid driving separate it from the margariue, leaving it iu the butter-milk ? We have often heard this question answered in the affirma- tive, but have never seen its truth tested by experiment in the laboratory. It has been ascertained, however, that the marga- riue of butter liquefies at a temperature of 118 deg. Fahrenheit, but the oleine at 32 deg. (Johnston), while at from 61 deg. to 66 deg. its fluidity is such as to separate readily from the margarine (Thomson). We have here, therefore, somethiug like presumptive evidence that when milk or cream is over- churned at this latter temperature, a separation of the oleiue from the margarine may be effected by the action of the dashers ; that the former may be mixed with the milk ; and that the latter, after this has taken place, may cohere loosely together iu the manner witnessed on such occasions, the white colour of the margarine and iexceas of casein being thus easily accounted for, while the oleiue gives a richer colour and flavour to the butter-milk. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. Sir, — We should feel obliged by your inserting in the MarJfc Lane Express the enclosed Report, with which, as judges at the Carlisle Meeting, we furnished the R. E. A. Society. We are not aware why ours was the only report which did not appear in the present number of the Journal ; but we consider it due to our- selves to make it public, lest it should be supposed that we neglected to perform the duties the Society demanded of us ; and we also think the implement makers should be aware' of the grounds ou which we made the awards in a very useful and meritorious class of implements. We are, Sir, your very obedient servants, T. W. Granger, March 27, 1856. Clare Sewell Read, [We have much pleasure in publishing the following report as requested ; while we may add that we heard Mr. Wren Hoskyns explain, at a recent Weekly Council Meeting, that the omission arose solely from this copy having been accidentally mislaid.— Edit. M. L. E.] OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE JUDGES OF DRILLS, ETC., AT THE ROYAL AGRICUL- TURAL SOCIETY'S CARLISLE MEETING IN JULY, 1855, Drills.— In this department we experienced consi- derable difficulty in awarding the prize, from the close competition between the drills of Messrs. Hornsby and Garrett. The Messrs. Garrett have applied Chambers' distributor to their manure drills, by which means as little as three bushels per acre of concentrated manure can be deposited. This produced in that particular a decided superiority in their general purpose drill, and in that for drilling turnips on the flat, and those prizes were accordingly awarded to them. Tlie excellency of the workmanship and materials employed by the Messrs. Hornsby secured for them the prizes for their corn and seed and small occupation corn drills. TIrere was a particularly close contest between Messrs. Hornsby and Garretts' ridge drills, and also between Messrs. Garrett and Holmes' small occupation manure drills. After considerable investigation we awarded the prizes to the drills of Messrs. Hornsby and Holmes, and felt per- fectly justified in highly commending the Messrs. Gar- retts' very excellent machines. The only liquid manure drills shown were those of Mr. Chandler, at the stand of Messrs. R. and J. Reeves. Two were selected for trial ; the old one with buckets, and the "new implement," having only holes at the bottom of the liquid cistern, which are kept clear by stirrers. Both equally well delivered water mixed with superphosphate ; but on being filled with the thick drainage from a dung heap and the short manure from a pigsty, the buckets showed their superiority by regu- larly delivering all the liquid from the cistern. We therefore awarded the prize to the old drill ; but think that for light manure the new one may be very useful, and of course it is more simple in its construction, and can be made at less expense. The only two broadcast manure distributors at the show, Chambers' and Holmes', were tried together. Both worked well. First they were required to sow four bushels per acre of dry ashes, and then the same quantity of fine salt ; afterwards a like amount of very wet manure, and then as much as 100 bushels per acre of lime, salt, and ashes. We awarded the prize to Mr. Chambers' distributor, and commended Messrs. Holmes', as a cheap and useful machine. The only objection that can be urged against Mr. Chambers' distributor is its great price (£21) ; could it be pro- duced at a less cost, we feel sure that it would be much more generally used. Horse Hoes on Flat. — It was impossible to find a proper field for the trial of these hoes, as no turnips are drilled on the flat in the vicinity of Carlisle. A field of broadcast rape was all that could be procured, and from such a trial we gave the prize to Messrs. Garretts' well- known hoe, and commended that of Mr. Smith. Itevolving Horse Hoes were first tried on a field of very large turnip plants, and choked. Then, again, on a field of younger plants, but irregular drills. The single hoe (Iluckvale's) acted capitally, though the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 397 other (Martin's), from the irregularity of the ridges, could not work so well. The Haymakers were tried ou a heavy swathe of fresh- movi'n grass. The morning was very wet, and the ground most unlevel ; but these machines worked ad- mirably. Messrs. Smith and Ashby's was the most perfect, especially in the back action or turning motion. As there were no prizes for haymakers on the list, and no essential improvement, we highly commended Messrs. Smith and Ashby's, and commended Mr. Nicholson's. The Horse Rakes were severely tried on a very heavy wet crop of fresh grass after the haymakers had thrown it out. Considering the state of the grass the work was well performed, and we highly commended Messrs. Howard's rake, and commended that of Mr, Williams. Mr. Busby's rake worked very well. The prize list contained no premiums for Ridge Horse Hoes ; but several were tried: and we highly commended Messrs. Howard's hoe, on account of its good work and steadiness of draught ; and commended Mr. Busby's hoe, as being an excellent and cheap implement, the cost, without the harrow, being only £2. We likewise commended Mr. Sewell's Drill Grubber, as a useful implement on heavy soils. The two Drill-presses, described as new implements, made by Messrs. Howard and Mr. Ball, both worked well. We think the wheels of Mr. Ball's presser require to be of a greater diameter. After the quantity of wheat on light lands which suffered from loss of plant last winter, we think these implements, which make a firm seed bed, and at the same time deposit and cover the corn, will become more appreciated. Although there is no striking novelty which requires any further observation from us, we cannot conclude our report without expressing our satisfaction at the general usefulness, simplicity of construction, and good workmanship of those implements which came under our immediate observation. T. W. Granger. Auff., 1855. Clare Sewell Read. To W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq., Senior Steward of Implements, &c., &c. THE APPROACHING AGRICULTURAL SHOW IN PARIS. "Breeding and fattening of animals for the butcher have made great progress in France within a few years. It is not without eiFort that this pro- gress has been accomplished — it has been necessary to struggle against routine, to dethrone old pre- judices, with the foreign aid of new practical and irrefutable demonstrations. Rendering to each the justice that is its due, it is to the example of Eng- land that we owe the greater part of the magniticent results obtained by our breeders. It is from the introduction into France of the Shorthorns that we date the new era that has resolutely commenced in our industrial agriculture." So says a home writer in a recent number of La Presse. He speaks, too, not merely for himself, but his country generally. France is affording ample acknowledgment, at this moment, of what she feels is here due to us. She is not content, however, with mere thanks only — not reflecting more on what has been accomplished by England's aid and example, than on what may be yet further achieved by the same means. Thus far the " industrial agriculture" of our neighbours has but begun to develop itself. It remains almost equally with us to say how much this shall be extended. Happily, the Exhibition of Agricultural Stock and Implements as held in Paris last spring is not suffered to die away in that general display with which it was associated. The Agricultural Show is to be an annual one ; in which the chief feature will, at least for the present, be not so much what the French can themselves produce, as what they can attract from other countries. "With this object they naturally enough turn first of all to England. " It is to the example of England that we owe the greater part of the magnificent results obtained by our breeders." It is to us still they look for yet greater results, and it will be our own fault alone if this expectation be not realized. With the pre- sent facilities and inducements, as well as with all the prospective advantages to be attained, we believe the English exhibitor of either cattle or machinery owes no greater duty to himself than the bespeak of a place at the forthcoming Show in Paris. Let us see what these facilities and advantages may be. To begin with, we are allowed to do as we please. With excellent discretion, the French Government have entrusted the arrangements to a committee, consisting for the chief part of eminent English agriculturists, to whose home experience is added what they saw in Paris last year. These are Mr. Amos and Mr. Denison, who on that occa- sion were the English Implement Jurors; Mr. Miles, who went over as President of the Royal Agricultural Society, and whose repute as a breeder of stock, and labours as a steward of implements, will qualify him for either branch of the duties on which he may be engaged; Mr, Tisher Hobbs and ]\rr. Milward, who were last year the English jurors for breeding stock, and whose official training at home gives them all those general recommendations we have just referred to; Professor Wilson, to whom E E 2 398 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. was entrusted the arrangement of the agricultural produce, as well as a place on the English jurors of implements — and last, though certainly not least, in this judicious selection, we have Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, who in 1855 had the arrange- ment of the implements, and whose very valuable services will no doubt be made as " generally use- ful" at the National Agricultural Exhibition of France, as they long have been in that of England. Let us add to these well-known names that of M. Gaillard de Ferry, Consul-General of France ; and with his that of M. Eugene Tisserand, the com- missioner appointed by " the Minister of Agricul- ture and Commerce," and the committee is com- jilete. In the appointment of this committee, the ex- pressed desire of the Imperial Government was to encourage an exhibition of breeding stock, poultry, and implements, on a far more extended scale than on the previous occasion. The consequence is, there is not a class of animal or invention ever found to be of service in the practice of English agriculture, but that has its due place in the prize sheet of the Paris show: — Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, Sussex Alderney, Ayrshire, Polled Angus, Galloway, West Highland, and Kerry cattle, with room for all analogous breeds from England, Ireland, and Scotland. Southdown, Leicester, Cotswold, Kent, Cheviot, and black-faced sheep ; and Dorking, Cochin-China, and other kinds of poultry. Part of what we have inserted here comes in a supple- mentary prize-sheet, chiefly due to the exertions of the Highland Society and its secretary, Mr. Hall ISIaxwell, who had only to ask and obtain this dis- tinct recognition of the Scotch breeds of cattle and sheep, previously classed too generally with other varieties. The Government, acting on this sug- gestion, has even volunteered to go further, and has resolved to open separate classes for all or any other breeds not yet enumerated, provided there be not less than four or five animals entered in each class. The prizes for implements will be on an equally liberal scale. We must assume, however, that we have no maker of any celebrity amongst us but has already determined on what he will "go for" in Paris. We may remind this important body of exhibitors that they will not on this occasion have to contend against that limited space which last year unavoidably caused so much disappointment. We may gay, yet further, that the more they re- spond to the invitation to supply what in France is so much wanted, if not quite as yet appreciated, the greater inducement will there be for the Go- vernment to reduce the duty on the importation of their inventions. \Yith a little more acquaintance, the value of machinery will come to be recognized as readily as that of Shorthorn cattle or South- down sheep ; while no such " introduction" was ever yet to be obtained for a new connection. We may add here that, in addition to the prizes stated in the French Decree, there is now an offer of £20 and a medal for the best fixed steam engine for farm purposes. The committee in England, not unmindful of the heavy expenses with which the transit of entries must be attended, have addressed themselves to the different railway companies, and we are assured there is every reason to believe the reductions they ask will he hberally entertained. Once landed on the other side of the channel, and the transit from the frontiers to Paris is free. We shall hereafter give the Programme of the meeting so soon as we can have it perfect. In the mean time we have thought it better to make our readers thoroughly informed of the opportunity which awaits sucli of them as have anything of ex- cellence on their homestead, or in their work- rooms. The French do far more than drily recog- nize our superiority. They do all in their power, not merely to honour, but to reward us. We question very much whether, if only duly culti- vated, the English breeder of agricultural stock had, or will ever have, such a market for his pro- duce as is now opening and extending itself over the whole of France. Beyond this, it is said, agents will attend the forthcoming meeting, instructed to purchase largely for otlier continental Powers. The implement maker, if he only cure for it, will as surely have his turn. A nation which has already learnt to appreciate the thorough-bred horse and the pure Shorthorn, will not be long without want- ing a proportionate sujiply of cora- crushers, chaff- cutters, and so gradually onward to " the fixed engine for farm purposes." The Third Najwleon is what is termed " a for- tunate man." Fortunate amongst other things in admirable forethought and sound judgment. His long experience of this country has taught him to feel where we excel. He ojjenly asks our aid to advance an important art amongst his own people; and he shows it may be worth our while to give it. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. \.J- 399 RESUME OF THE OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [from the report of the secretary, count herve de kergolay, in the journal d agriculture PRATiaUE.] Continental France has obtained 69 medals of the first class, 135 of the second class, and 94 honourable men- tions. Besides these, she claims for Algeria 1 great medal of honour, 21 medals of the first class, 33 of the second, and 28 honourable mentions ; and, for her other colonies, 1 medal of honour of the second class, and 1 honourable mention. She has gained, in all, 383 rewards out of the 82G adjudged to the different countries ex- hibiting. Austria has obtained 3 medals of honour, 41 medals of the first class, 36 of the second, 21 honourable mentions: in all, 101 rewards. Great Britain has ob- tained for herself 6 medals of honour, 10 medals of the first class, 12 of the second, and 8 honourable mentions ; and, for her colonies, 16 medals of the first class, 17 of the second, and 3 honourable mentions : in all, 72 rewards. The following table will show the number of prizes won by the remaining countries which exhibited. Grand Duchy Baden 1 Belgium — Prussia — Denmark — Sweden andNorway — Greece — Tuscany — Spain 1 The Low Countries — "United States .... 1 Piedmont — Wirtemburg — Turkey — Saxony — The Roman States .. — Grand Duchy of Hesse — Switzerland — Mexico '— The Dominican Re- public — Paraguay — Tunis — Guatamala — Costa Rica — Medals Meds., of lat Honour. Class. of 7 13 8 8 7 5 4 3 3 2 4 2 Meds., 2ud Class. 4 14 7 2 10 15 3 13 5 2 3 5 4 1 Hon. Total Men- Re- tions. wards. 4 1 1 2 4 1 12 1 1 1 6 12 31 16 11 19 24 8 29 9 5 8 3 12 5 2 Portugal has obtained 2 medals of the first class, 4 of the second, and 4 honoiirable mentions ; in all 10 re- wards. It is true that it figures on the list of medals of honour, as having obtained one for the whole of its agri- cultural products — wheat, maize, &c.; but this is ah error in the drawing up of the report. It will be seen that in this distribution of rewards the part allotted to France has been large and illustrious. The progressive movement of its agriculture, the developement of which I traced since the commencement of the nineteenth century, in my report on the Universal Exposition of 1851, becomes more energetic year by year. It struggles against the inclemency of the seasons, which has diminished the products of the three last har- vests ; it is not stopped by the sacrifices of men and treasures, which a war, already so memorable, has ex- acted for these two years past. Every one who has examined with attention the various products which constitute the exposition of French agriculture, and compared them with those of other countries, will see clearly that henceforth they will have no reason to dread any competition. Since 1849 France has been able to supply England with more wheat than Russia or the United States, seeing that the latter have only furnished her with 1,789,679 hectolitres, Russia with 1,741,029 hectolitres, and France with 2,151,866 hectolitres. In 1850 tlie exportation of wheat from France surpassed the sum of 60,000, OOOf., and attained to ?0,000,000f. in 1851 ; whilst our exports of agricul- tural food products of all kinds amounted in 1851 to the value of 258,205,352f., and in 1852 to that of 285,960,083f. If this movement has considerably slackened in these three latter years, the reason of it is the rise in the prices of all kinds of provisions, caused by the failure of the crops ; but the experience of pre- ceding years is sufficient to show that the agricultural products of France are sought for, and take their place proudly in the greatest markets of the world. The great encouragement which French agriculture has gained this day will tend to favour and develope this movement. It is also the most powerful resource for us to fall back on, in those years when the crops are damaged by the intemperature of the seasons. France has raised in good years 97,000,000 hectolitres of wheat, which represents the sustenance of 32,000,000 of individuals ; and there are, unfoi tunately, more than 4,000,000 of our com- patriots who are not in the habit of eating bread. Now that it has arrived at the termination of its labours, the jui-y claims to say a few words for itself. It was composed of 19 members, of whom the majority were French. Its labours have been pursued with a zeal and assiduity which never slackened throughout the whole of their task ; and the most cordial agreement has never ceased to reign among its members. Always impartial, sometimes generous, it has never been under the influence of a narrow spirit, nor jealous of selfish nationality. In the same spirit it has met the widely different difficulties which presented themselves during 400 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the examination of products or processes submitted to its judgment. Presided over in turns by its president, Count Gasparin, and its vice-president, Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., it has found in them the same loyalty, the same care, and the same zeal to defend the interests which have been confided to them, and to make their decisions respected. The feelings of esteem and con- fidence contracted in the course of their connection as fellow-labourers will leave precious recollections in the hearts of all the members of the jury. THE AGRICULTURE OF BELGIUM. [translated FBOM the FRENCH JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.] By Baron Peers. In the month of October last, the Superior Council of Agriculture of Belgium, convoked in virtue of the royal organic resolution of the 30th of August, 1850, by the Minister of the Interior, has had to declare itself on a question of vital importance to the agriculture of the country, so eminently agricultural, and which has at all times known how to impress upon the most noble of all industrial pursuits the indications of progress. For the better understanding of these important debates, let us analyze previous events. The Minister of the 12th of August, 1848, perceiving, upon his accession, the opportunity for instituting a host of measures favourable to rural interests, proceeded at once to decree a series of useful establishments, de- manded in vain before his entry to power. In less than two months he had organized exhibitions and an agricultural congress. Professional instruction in agriculture, and in all those branches of knowledge directly attached to that immense trunk, had equally formed the object of his solicitude ; and he had found means to impart a powerful impulse to the principle. Everything was regularly constituted. The Government had sought out, in order to reward them for their labours and achievements, those humble men who consecrate their lives to the well-being of all ; they had raised agricul- tural labour to a par with all other industrial employ- ments ; re-established the husbandman in his own esti- mation, and in that of a society distracted by innumerable interests ; in one word, what had never till then been attempted in Belgium, was at once carried into effect with an unlooked-for success. At the present time the men of the 12th of August have fallen ; we will no longer have them personally, but we incriminate their acts, and condemn, or rather look upon them, as fruitless attempts. We wish to overturn and annihilate the least vestiges of their administration ; the Representative Chamber itself, would see with a degree of satisfaction the uprooting of that immortal edifice, constructed with so much care. But the present ministry, better instructed than the coalition, the spirit of which has seized upon a great part of the members of the Legislative Corps, and more solicitous for the public interests than for the strifes of the national proxies, has had recourse to a measure before which the most firmly-established arguments ought to remain silent : it has united all the men most eminent in this line, representing and faithfully devoted to, the interests of agriculture, and submitted to them the following question : — " Is it not desirable that the Government continue to interfere officially with the agricultural interests ?" This problem, big with tlie future for a people whose principal wealth is derived from the land, has naturally occasioned numerous discussions in the journals and other periodical publications. All impartial men, the true friends of their country, and desirous of placing it upon a par in progress with other nations of the globe, have solved it in the affirmative. Placed in the order of the day amongst the discus- sions which the Superior Council of Agriculture had to decide upon, this question has met with no serious opposition, which is proved by the fact that after many sittings of sustained interest, in which the liberty of the tribune has allowed the discussion of the question under all its phases — after many lances indirectly broken against the opinion of the majority, twenty-three mem- bers present have unanimously given in their official adherence to Governmental interference, two only having dissented therefrom. One member alone has thought it his duty to give some explanation of his adverse opinion. Without completely annihilating the principle of such intervention, he has nevertheless severely criticised all the offices which constitute the allocation relative to rural industry. Thus, he declares himself opposed to the stud, to the professional instruction of the veterinary college, to the indemnity for cattle attacked and struck down by contagious diseases, &c. This honourable adversary has denounced the existence of the I'oyal stud, because, according to him, it has not produced satis- factory results at all in proportion to the enormous expense for which it figures in the budget. The sums allowed for its support he denominates fantastical ex- pences ; declares himself a very weak partizan of certain schools, because the Government cannot enable the generality of the inhabitants to participate in their benevolent operation ; he pronounces the indemnity granted for cattle struck down and infected with epizootic disease, unpopular, because it opens the door to much injustice and abuse. Veterinary instruction still serves as a text to the adversary to fire red hot balls at official intervention, which he alleges costs too dear. According to him, it would be far better to send the young people intended for the practice of the veterinary art to study abroad ; and so on. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 401 None of these argixments have had any success, since the Council have unanimously voted the maintenance of the existing order of things. And how could it do other- vyise ? Who, better than the Government, can make itself acquainted with the general requirements ? Have we not seen, in every country on the globe, power, in its own interest, exercise even a direct interference in the affairs of agriculture ? We have before us a still recent example of such pressing interference, which in some years has been powerful enough to metamorphose a whole country. England, whilst insuring by its im- mense capital a continually increasing prosperity to rural industry, could not meet the consequences of Sir Robert Peel's bill without demanding of the Legislature the resources necessary to a direct intervention in the ame- lioration of the soil. The House of Commons voted unanimously several millions sterling, in the shape of a loan. The sum total has been absorbed ; it has received its destination ; and at this moment three-fourths of the wet lands of the United Kingdom are drained. With- out this official co-operation of the Government, the drainage would have remained in embryo. Belgium has felt that it was necessary to enter upon a wider scale, in order to ensure to science and practical agriculture a new career, and to emancipate it from its ancient routine. It has purchased of foreigners the best agricultural implements, and imported the best breeds of domestic animals, in order to improve the native ones. None will deny the eloquence of figures, to which we shall have recourse in concluding this notice. Fifteen years ago the Government and province of West Flanders expended 200,000 fr. in the purchase of Durham bulls and cows. Amongst the 165,000 head of cattle existing in that province, there are not more than one-tenth which have not exhibited the beneficial effects of the crossing, independent of the 74 bulls and 93 cows and heifers of pure blood, which still remain the pro- perty of the Government. This expense, so eminently useful to the province, has increased the value of the animals thus crossed to the extent of at least 10 fr. per head, which amounts, for the 143,000 animals improved, to an increased value of 1,430,000 fr., gained at an expense of 200,000 fr., in- tegrally represented by 167 animals. These facts are patent, and prove how much, in this single branch of rural economy, so subject to a multi- plicity of adverse influences — how much, we say, the intelligent protection and adhesion of Government can effect. If we were not fearful of departing from the rule of impartial chroniclers, as inaccessible to indif- ference as to infatuation, we should allow ourselves to engage in pleading this cause, had not the adhesive vote of the Superior Council of Agriculture given it an official sanction. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. OBSERVATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. Their Necessity. — That the first agricultural country in the world, both in practice and science, should be without a satisfactory statistical account of the state and progress of its agriculture, is very im- politic and detrimental to its present welfare and future prospects. That the greatest commercial country in the world should be from year to year without any accurate knowledge relative to the amount of food raised to supply its people's wants, is highly injudicious, and leads to very hazardous speculations, which have fre- quently resulted in most ruinous commercial panics. That the absence of all reliable information relative to the annual produce of the country is alike injurious to the producer and consumer, the one having no idea as to the right time to effect sales, or the other to make purchases. That this uncertainty as to the prospects of the year often leads to severe loss and privation on the part of the needy producer, and no corresponding benefit to the consumer. The early, forced sales of the needy farmer being made in ignorance of facts, immediately subse- quent to harvest, a low price is mostly received ; whereas if the real facts were known, a corresponding price would be realized proportioned to the character and truthful- ness of the information. That it has the effect of misleading all other nations looking to this country as the great market for their surplus produce, limiting their operations in culture, and causing delay and doubt in the transmission of sup- plies ; besides, it gives those countries furnished with sucli statistics a manifest advantage, enabling them either to retain, transmit, or purchase their stores ac- cording to their requirements. That it is the duty of the Government to obtain the most correct account of the annual produce of the coun- try, with the view of providing for the wants of the com- munity committed to their charge, upon the safest and most equitable terms. That this knowledge so obtained should be diffused abroad as soon as possible, in order that all parties may have the benefit thereof, so that each individual may be enabled to shape his course of business according to his own position and circumstances. Objections. — Because of its inquisitorial character, prying into every man's private business, which in a free country is so soon resented, and exposing affairs amongst parishioners and neighbours, which is often in- jurious to a man's credit and position. Because of its tendency to expose a tenant's affairs (o .a crafty and covetous landlord, who will take advantage of his prosperity to demand additional reiit. Because it will give reliable data upon which a needy Government might engraft a new system of taxation. 402 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Because it interferes with a man's indf^pendence, and is arbitrary in its character, inasmuch as it compels him to expose his affairs, or submit to the forcible entry of another to pry into them. Because of the invidious comparisons which will be drawn from the knowledge of the energy, skill, and capital displayed in individual instances, and in selected districts, against others which do not manifest the like progress. Because more is required in the returns than is abso- lutely necessary, and of the complication in its details, and the inability and indifference of occupiers to make out such returns correctly. Because of the great difficulty and expense in the col- lection, and the selection of the proper machinery for such a purpose. Suggestions. — It is absolutely necessary to secure the ready co-operation of the farmers, that all returns shall be kept secret from all other than the officials, who shall be under strict surveillance in this respect, and that the aggregate return of the whole country, county, or district shall alone be made public. Officials divulg- ing any particulars of any return shall be heavily fined and discharged. It will be very injudicious to entrust the superintend- ence of the collection of these returns to the boards of guardians, or to their officers; they are far too localised, and their supervision would lead to great opposition, and prevent the full success of the measure. It would be equally injudicious to entrust such super- intendence to the magistrate in petty sessions. The prejudices of farmers would be still more excited. Ma- gistrates and their friends being generally influential Lmdowners, farmers would have an insuperable objec- tion to their affairs passing through their hands. It is far better to have a central board in connection with the Board of Trade, in London, and to appoint district officers of good agricuUural standing, afcer the plan of tax surveyors or assessors. The board of guardians should transmit to this officer the addresses, and particulars of occupation, of every occupier in their respective unions. It shall be his duty to send schedules addressed to each occupier, to the overseers of the dif- ferent parishes, who shall see to the proper delivery of each schedule, and also to their proper collection, and to return them to the district officer, giving him, at the same time, notice of any omission or error he may have made. He shall collate the whole, and transmit the result with a proper report, and all such other requisite information as he may deem valuable, to the central board, &c., &c. Overseers have not any very onerous duties to perform in these days, and might fulfil this. It is desirable that, in filling up all the details for carrying out this new experiment, everything likely to cause complaint unnecessarily should be avoided, and the schedule be simplified as much as possible. It is desirable to confine the inquiry for the present to the main facts, such as the number of acres of grain sown, distinguishing them ; and potatoes planted (made in June) ; the average produce likely to be realized (made immediately after harvest) ; and the quantity or number of cattle, sheep, and pigs fatted, and fleeces of wodl shorn. This return would pretty nearly give the supplies for the food of the people, and the minor kinds of produce might remain for some future trial. It is quite»requisite that compulsory methods be resorted to, too btain returns ; the best is a moderate fine on the first refusal, to be increased as occasion may require. It is of course the imperative duty of the Board of Trade to publish the aggregate returns as early as pos- sible after each succeeding harvest. FUMIGATING WHEAT: SALAVILLE'S "GRAIN-AERATOR." M. Salaville, whose fumigator and "grain-aerator" has for some weeks past been under the notice of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, has revived the old story of fumigating wheat and other corn for the purpose of bleaching and destroying fungi and insects. The process also involves the ventilation of corn in granary, stackyard, &c., without the labour of turning. To the readers of the Mark Lane Express these are topics of more than ordinary interest. Let us therefore dwell upon them for a little. From time immemorial farmers and corn-merchants have been familiar with the practice of bleaching corn by means of the fumes of burning sulphur— more es- pecially oats. Wool and straw for plaiting are also bleached to an almost perfect whiteness by the same process. These fumes consist of a combination of sulphur and ox'ygen, known to chemists by the name of sulphurous gas. The compound is destructive to both animal and vegetable life, and hence has been used for killing insects and fungi ; but, from its deleterious cha- racter, it cannot be applied to living plants without injury. Mildew, however, may be cured by dusting them with sulphur, or applying it in a sublimated state — both practices being common in horticulture. The common plan of bleaching corn is on the kiln. Oats are put upon the kiln-floor as if to be dried for grinding. If fresh, or containing a sufficiency of mois- ture, the fumes of sulphur will act; but if old, dry, and musty, a little water may be necessary. After the oats are spread equally over the area of the kiln, burniiig sulphur is applied below, when the ascending fumes rising through the grain perform the operation of bleaching. If tlie kiln ventilates well, the process is simple, and soon over; but if otherwise, more diffi- culty is experienced in getting the grain equally operated upon. Hitherto the work has principally been done for the sake of colour. In a commercial sense this is of consi- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 403 dcrable value— samples frequently finding a ready sale in market, when badly coloured ones are passed by with indifference. Hence the amount of doctoring Irish and Russian oats grown in moist and late climates receive. To those not acquainted with the change which a pennyworth of sulphur will effect upon a quantity of grain, the difference is scarcely credible — dark, musty, and dull-looking samples becoming silvery bright, as if the produce of another climate. The greatest effect is, perhaps, produced upon oats ; but barley, wheat, and rye are also brightened in colour ; and not only the corn, but the flour and meal also. To millers and keepers of livery-stables, and the like, these are differ- ences of no ordinary importance. The change of colour, however, is not all — quality, it is said, being also improved, both for keeping and im- mediate use, without any deterioration of quantity. la- deed, in cases of dry mouldy corn, when water has been added, quantity is increased. With regard to keeping, experience has long ago shown that bleached oats keep better than unbleached, both in granary and for shipping, when the work is pro- perly performed. This, no doubt, arises partly from the fungus or mould with which the grain is infested being killed, thus checking its growth ; partly from the vitality of the corn being destroyed ; and partly from its being less liable to heating or fermentation when fumi- gated, the sulphurous acid being an antiseptic. M. Salaville, on the other hand, concludes that the fungus of wheat is poisonous, and when taken into the system, in however small a quantity, sows the seeds of disease and untimely death ; but that fumigation renders it innocuous, and consequently the wheat more nourishing and healthy. This is certainly a most interesting view of the subject, one which we hope experience will realize to be true ; for lo a country like England — depending upon so much imported corn, generally less or more affected with fungus, and where so much bread is used by the labouring population — it must prove a soui'ce of harm, the magnitude of which may be more easily imagined than described, if the seeds of death are thus in reality so widely sown. But clinging with so much tenacity to past habits, as Englishmen generally do, it will take a very accurate and lengthened course of experiments to convince them that there is such a difference between the dead and living spores of the fungus of either wheat or bread, i. e., that the living spores of v,fheat-fungus are absorbed into the system, taking root there as if the tissue of the human body was their natural matrix, or that bleaching neutralizes the virus of wheat-fungus, supposing it to be poisonous. But although our convictions may not be so easily reached as they should be, in this, as on many other points in dietetics, we are nevertheless better prepared, from the progress lately made in sanitary reform, to adopt the familiar old maxim, " Prevention is better than cure," than we have been; and this is obviously the found view of the subject. In oLher words, ought we to fumigate our wheat in order to prevent fermentation and the growth of fungus ? Or will doctoring of this kind only give rise to a more poisonous species of fungus than non-fumigated wheat produces ? Again, the fact that the vitality of wheat is destroyed and the quality of the flour enhanced, at least to ap- pearance if not in reality, proves that a change has been effected worthy of more investigation in the laboratory of our agricultural chemists and sanitary commissioners than has yet been effected. This, we hope, is all that is necessary, to draw attention to the benefits which ac- curate chemical and microscopical examination would confer upon the public at large. Farther, in treating the subject as an individual ques- tion, the baker is hardly less interested than the farmer, corn-merchant, and miller — the effects of fumigation on the panary fermentation and baking of bread requiring also to be experimentally investigated with more accu- racy than has yet been done. Several bakers whom we have conversed with, on the subject, state that they believe they have used flour from bleached wheat. Our own baker, for instance, had twenty loads. Its colour was superior, indicating the finest quality; but it did not ferment properly in the setting of the sponge, kneading, and baking, the process having more resemblance to that of oat or barley meal than wheaten flour. It made, however, excellent ship and other biscuit. He had it analyzed by one of the first chemists in the capital, who affirmed that it contained no foreign substance ; but that he suspected it had either been fumigated or kiln- dried. The second question raised by M. Salaville— viz., the aeration of grain — is also an old one in a new mechanical form. The same apparatus (a description of which was given in the Royal Agricultural Society's Report of the 18th ult.) serves both for fumigating and ventilating, and is intended to be used in late bad harvests, to arrest fermentation and the growth of fungus, drying the grain at the same time. In early, dry seasons, again, insects may be destroyed. For our Australian colonies, and other warm climates, where so much harm is sustained from insects, the project may become invaluable both for home and export use. The process will also arrest fermentation and mould in root crops. In making these observations, we do so rather for the purpose of inviting inquiry and discussion than arriving at practical conclusions. If fermentation and the growth of fungus and insects can be arrested, and a superior quality of flour obtained for making biscuits, for confectionery and cooking purposes, a great result will be realized. There cannot be a doubt that the im- mense quantities of flour manufactured from damaged wheat is injurious to public health, and that the losses sustained by farmers, corn-merchants, and millers would do more than cover the expense of fumigating and aerating corn harvested in bad order. 404 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. KENNINGTON AGRICULTURAL AND CHEMICAL COLLEGE. LECTURES ON THE GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE EARTH, HAVING REFERENCE TO THE PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ORGANIC LIFE. BY CHARLES JOHNSON, ESQ, PROFESSOR OF EOTANV, GUY's HOSPITAIi Lecture VII. In addition to the varied and complicated phenomena already described, the productiveness of the earth is influenced by climate, as well as by local causes that act in opposition to the latter in particular regions. The differences of climate are, on a broad scale, due to the oblique position of the axis of our globe with respect to the sun, and the consequent unequal dis- tribution of his light and heat throughout the year upon the countries that extead towards the poles ; which are alternately exposed to those changes of temperature, alteration in the com- parative length of day and night, and other vicissitudes, that have occasioned the familiar distinction of the seasons, more especially of summer and winter. From this inclination of its axis, amounting to about 23| deg., to the plane of its orbit or annual path round the sun, originated the ancient division of the earth's surface into five zones, limited by the imaginary circles drawn at that distance from either pole, and called the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, and those drawn at a similar dis- tance north and south of the equator, named the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Between the two latter lies the torrid or heated zone, over some part of which the sun is always ver- tical or immediately over-head at noonday. Between the tropics and the polar circles extend the two temperate zones ; and within the latter the two frigid zones ; over all of which the sun shines more or less obliquely, according to the distance at which the several countries included by them lie north or south of the torrid zone. Within the torrid zone, more frequently denominated the tropical or equatorial regions, vegetation and animal life are much more abundant and diversified than they are elsewhere. Thus vegetables, in addition to the ordinary forms met with in tem- perate and colder climates, mingle among the trees of a tropi- cal forest, the palms ; among herbs, the bananas and plantains, and the bamboo and other gigantic grasses. The size of the leaves, their bright and constantly renewed verdure; the splendour and sweet odours of the flowers ; the lusciousnessof the fruits, are never equalled elsewhere. As' we travel northward or southward from this glowing climate, the scene changes ; the tropical forms are left behind, or gradually vanish from the colder and darker landscape. In the South of Europe, many of the trees and shrubs — as the oaks, the olive, and the myrtle — are evergreen; but theae disappear beyond the Alps and Pyrenees, and are succeeded in the central parts of the conti- nent by others that are deciduous, or that lose their leaves on the approach of winter. Farther still, the broader-foliaged trees are no longer met with ; but the forests consist of birrhes, fir, and pine, gradually diminishing in size and height towards the shores of tlie Frozen Ocean. Among animals, the elephant, the giraffe, the beasts of prey, the crocodile, and the l)r careless habits more practically or thoroughly corrected than they were by the aid of scientific research and observation on this occasion. The Professor, however, has a worthy associate in all science does for practice under the auspices of the EngUsh Society. If, in fact, we were to name any one as the first to strip "the Professor" of all the pedantry and technicality of his art, it would be Professor Way. While none have gone deeper in their researches, none have been so simple in their statements. Few who have heard him as a man of science address a company of agriculturists, but must have felt it was indeed the right man in his right place. Mr. Nesbit holds a somewhat similar position with the Central and local clubs to that Professor Way does with the Royal Agricultural Society. So well, too, do his friends here think of all he has done for them, that it has been determined to pre- sent him with some testimonial of their esteem for his services. There is the greater warrant for this, as it must be remembered that all lectures at the London Club are entirely gratuitous. Farmers, to be sure, maty be expected to enlighten each other ; but still the professional man receives nothing beyond his well earned vote of thanks. We have reason to know that such services have been in- variably given with the greatest readiness ; only, perhaps, a better reason for the acknowledgment which is now about to be made for them. Though emanating from the club, the originators of this movement will be only too glad to find it responded to by all who have profited by Mr. Nesbit's labours on their behalf — And is there a district in England in which he is not known ? One word, yet, on what has been, so far, a very grateful theme. We could wish to have a little more general demonstration of the esteem in which these lectures are really held by the agri- culturist. The discussion at the Farmers' Club was certainly well attended, the room being quite full. The lecture, on the contrary, at the Society, hardly assembled as many members as usually make up a Weekly Council meeting. This ought not to be, although it but too often is so. It has struck us the hour may be an inconvenient one — just in the middle of the day, when most men " either from town or country" have some other business to en- gage them. If we recollect rightly, the most fully- attended lecture of the Society we ever were present at was one dehver.ed some years since by Professor Way, in the evening. It is well known that in the first week of every month the summons of two or three societies calls a number of agriculturists to London ; and the evening of the Monthly Council Meeting might draw, we think, much better than the Wednesday morning of next week. At any rate, it is very certain that the agricultural evenings of both the Farmers' Club and the Society of Arts have brought far more agriculturists together than 416 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the mid-day announcements of the Agricultural Society. Were this suggestion carried out, there could, of course, be no necessity for confining the lecture to the one hour now so strictly, and often so awkwardly insisted on. Let it be remembered that we have the best men at our service ; and that it is a duty not merely to ourselves, but to those who place us in authority, to make the best use of them. THE LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. THE RELATIVE VALUES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES, AND THEIR COMPARATIVE ADAPTATION TO DIFFERENT CROPS. The April Monthly Meeting took place on Monday, April 7, at the Club Rooms, Blackfriars; Mr. J. Wood, of Ockley, in the chair, supported by a very full at- tendance of members. The subject for discussion, to.be introduced by Mr. J. C. Nesbit, of the Chemical and Agricultural College, Kennington, London, was stated in the following terms: "The relative values of Artificial Manures, and their comparative adaptation to different Crops." Tabular diagrams were suspended on the walls, and a great variety of specimens of manuring substances placed on the table for the pur- pose of illustration and reference. After a few introductory remarks from the Chairman, Mr. Nesbit said : Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen, the subject which I have the honour to bring be- fore you this evening, namely, " The relative values of Artificial Manures, and their comparative adaptation to different Crops," is, in my opinion, one of very con- siderable importance. We all know that within recent times the use of artificial manures has assumed propor- tions which no one at the commencement of the year 1840 thought it could assume ; and few can doubt that in years to come it will assume proj)ortions still more vast. I propose, in the first place, to spend a few minutes in tracing the history of this system, and after- wards to follow out strictly the heading of my subject. The first thing which it is of importance to know is what are manures. If we examine authors of the ear- liest periods in history, we shall find them constantly speaking about artificial manure. I might quote Theo- phrastus, Cato, Columella, and many other ancients in support of this statement. But, although a great variety of manures are spoken of by these and other authors, if we enter into their chemical history we shall find it very easy to show that manures in general must contain all the substances which are found in plants. Now there are two kinds of manures. First there are those which can be made on the farm by the farmer himself. These are made up of the debris of vegetable and animal matters, mixed with earth and other substances, on the farm. Of these I may remark that they cannot supply the continued waste of materials on the land, or, in other words, the loss occasioned by Uie pioduction of crops and of beef and mutton con- tinually exported. The second class of manures are ar- tificial manures, which may be defined to be whatever the farmer imports on the land from extraneous sources, consisting of materials which have been found in prac- tice or indicated by theory to be beneficial to the land. It is to this portion of the subject of manuring that I shall direct your attention this evening. Now, if you refer to the introduction of extraneous substances upon the land, you will find that the history of artificial ma- nures extends a considerable way into antiquity, I might here recal to your notice a passage in the 14th chapter of St, Luke, We are there told that if the salt has lost its savour, it is not good either for the land or for the dunghill. This language clearly shows that even at that period salt was used for the land and also for the dunghill ; for it is stated in effect that when the saline materials are washed away, salt is of no value in agriculture; it is not " good" either for the land or for the dunghill. I might cite a great abundance of other testimony to the early use of extraneous manures. I will, however, content myself with referring to a work published by an Englishman (H. Piatt, Esq.) in 1601, 255 years ago. With your permission, gentlemen, I will quote a few passages from this singular book. It is styled, " The New and Admirable Arte of setting of Corue." The author of this little book — published, as I have stated, 255 years ago — brought forward facts of the utmost importance, and the aid of science was alone wanting to cause artificial manuring to become general at that period. He speaks, Mr. Mechi, of the use of all kinds of liquid manuring (laughter). He also men- tions butts on wheels, with spigots in them, and a great many other things which have recently been put forth as new. A Member enquired by whom this book was pub" lished. Mr. Nesbit : It is published by " Peter Short, dwelling at the signe of the Starre on Bredstreet Hill." Among other remarks the author says — " Sea Kilps and Sea Tangle, and other Sea weeds are founde by experience to enrich both Arable aud Pasture ifroiinds ex- cecdiUKlie. Shreds of Woollen cloth strewed vpon Pasture grouiide will bring foorth grasse abiindsntlie. " The dregs of Beere and Ale applyed to the rentes of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 417 Trees, and other smaller Plantes, will make them flourish and prosper mightily, Seeds steeped in brine, proportioned accord- ing to Sea water, which cousiateth of one part salt, and eigteene or twenty parts water, wil in diners grounds procure a good increase. " The Soote of Chimnies, both iiigendred by Sea-coale, as also by Wood and Charcoale in a very small quantity, worketh great effects this way. " There is a salte which the Petermen vpon the refining of their Peter, doe separate from the Peter, this salte (if I bee not deceiued) is the Salte purrhased from the Ashes, vpon which the Petermen powre their foggy liquors to cleere them ; one worke (vnlesse it be a great one) doth not yeeld much aboue a bushel thereof weekly : this salt I take to be a true vegetable salt, and therefore exceeding profitable, either to be strewed vpon grounds to be mixed amongat the seed Come, or for imbibition. " Shauings of home, vpon mine owne experience, I must of necessity comraende, by the meanes whereof, I obtayned a most flourishing garden at Bishops hal, in a most barren and vnfruitfuU plot of grounde, which none of my Predecessors could euer grace or beautifie either with knots or flowers. " I haue had the like experience with singular good snccesse by strewing the waste sope ashes vppon a border of Sommer Barley." Now, gentlemen, this man had certainly got into the region of artificial manures. He tried experiments on' everything that came in his vyay ; and if he had only had a philosophic idea on which to string his facts — if he had only known what were the ingredients of the manures of which he speaks, there might have been a perfect system of artificial manuring 250 years ago. He speaks of — • " The watering of Grounde presently after it is sowne, with an artificial Brine, consisting of an eyghteentli or twentieth part of salt : this is performed by a hogshead or some other such like vessel drawn upon a sled, hauiiig one of the heads boared full of small hoales like a watering pot." He then says— " Malte dust may heere also challenge his place : for foure or fiue quarters thereof, are sufiicient for an acre of ground." And after speaking of the burning of ironstone ore as enriching the land, he says — " Sal Armoniake being a volatile salt, first incorporated and rotted in Common earth, is thought to bee a rich mould to plant or set in." So that we have got here our ammonia. In another place he says — " Dogges and Caftes, and other beasts, and generally all Carrion buried viider the rootes of Trees, m a due time will make them flourish and bring forth fruit in great abundance." That one of our own nation should, 255 years ago, have collected a series of facts like these, and put them together in the manner that he did, shows that even at that time, if there had only been some little connecting link between philosophy and art as regards cultivation, there would have been th^ most tremendous revolution in agriculture that up to that period had ever taken place. I thought you would like to hear that the utility of ammonia and bones, and dogs and cats, was discovered even then. Now, with respect to the modern applica- tion of science to agriculture, I think that, notwith- standing all the labours of Sir Humphrey Davy, and cf those who succeeded him up to 1839, real philosophy must be attributed chiefliy in the first instance to the British Association for the Advancement of Science. It was, if I recollect right, in the year 1839, that Liebig was deputed by that Association to draw up an account of the then condition of agriculture ; and this resulted in his making a report, which in the same year appeared in the form of a book. This report of Liebig, though it may not have been an exact philosophic exposition of the art of agriculture, was that which first placed agriculture on the basis of a science. When Dr. Dalton published his celebrated atomic theory, chemistry was an art, being merely a simple collection of facts, without any leading idea upon which they could be strung together. After he had put forth that theory, all the combining propor- tions of each of the elements, of which every one was previously ignorant, begun to be perceived ; and che- mistry, becoming a science, soon made the most rapid strides. In like manner, in 1840, Liebig applied the same philosophic idea to agriculture; and whether his hypotheses were right or wrong, he succeeded in pro- ducing a theory, by means of which all the facts of the art were collected together, and the consequence was that a thousand things were shown to be connected which before appeared to be completely isolated. Agriculture thus became a science. Philosophy consists in seizing and collecting, as it were, into one idea all the leading facts which various men have pointed out ; and this, I affirm, Liebig succeeded in doing in the present ca?e. Now I shall not be doing wrong, I think, in placing be- fore you Liebig's great idea, and pointing out to you where he was wrong and where he was right. For this purpose I must refer to the difference between the mineral and the organic theories. Liebig, looking at the vast field of nature, and perceiving that everywhere nature clothed the various species of rock, earth, and so on, whatever might be their nature, with plants adapted to their natural position, laid it down that if the soil contains a suflficient amount of mineral matter, the plants which grow there are able to derive the whole of their sus- tenance from the air. Now, so far as nature goes, he was correct in this view. If you take the case of a common rock, where there exists no organic matter, you will find Nature clothing it with lichens, which obtain all their car^ bon and nitrogen from the air. When the vegetable fungi have begun to be formed, and there is a sufficient amount of organic matter accumulated upon the rock, Nature provides another plant which is adapted to take a certain amount of materials from the air, and a cer- tain amount from the soil. So that, taking into ac- count only broad first principles, you will find Liebig right in his theory, so far as the general operations of Nature are concerned. His error consisted in this : he endeavoured to apply that which takes place in the wide field of nature to an artificial operation termed farming. In the great works of Nature, we have nothing to do with rent and taxes and prices ; and the consequence is, that Nature clothes her fields with plants precisely adapted to grow therein to the greatest natural advan- tage. Liebig unfortunately forgot that, in the artificial process of farming, there are other elements which it is 418 THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE. necessary to consider. Under natural conditions, only a certain number of quarters of wheat per acre, and a certain quantity of turnips per acre, could be obtained from the soil. The farmer bad to come in with his art, and to supply certain materials, to enable him to produce more than the normal condition of the soil would allow him to do ; and thus originated the art of farming. Liebig overlooked this. With this exception, a more beautiful theory than his was never propounded. You will observe, then, that it is essential that farmers should introduce into the soil the materials which plants have the power of obtaining, to a certain extent, from the air, though not to an extent which will permit the payment of rent, or ensure profits. There is a necessity for constantly adding organic matter to the soil ; and this Liebig omitted to take sufficiently into account. Now, if we refer to all that has been written in the course of the dispute about the mineral theory and the organic theory, we must at last come to this conclusion— that plants require, in their growth, every material which is found in them ; that some of the ingredients are found naturally in abundance in the soil, and do not require to be placed there ; that others, though found naturally in the soil, are more easily exhausted, and do require to be placed there ; but that there is no condition in which plants can be found, in which, at one period or another, manuring v.'ith one element or another may not become most important. Take the case of the effect of gypsum, when it was first introduced. It is not a hundred years ago since gypsum was first imported into this country from America ; and its importation led to the production of enormous crops of a certain kind. If you read the accounts of what took place in former days in consequence of the application of this substance, you cannot fail to be struck with the enormous change which it made as regards the cultivation of clover, sain- foin, and grasses. Gypsum does not produce the same effect in these days, simply because for a long period we have been supplying the soil with it indirectly, in the shape of superphosphates and other manures, our grasses being, in consequence, much more abundant than they were formerly. Being thus constantly sup- plied in another form, its separate and distinct applica- tion is not required ; and if it were applied, it would not produce the same effect that it did formerly. Any single constituent of a plant or soil may, in certain cases, become the element of the greatest manuring value. I recollect, for example, that in a field on Exmoor, pared and burnt, and manured with guano and superphosphate of lime, lime having been applied by my advice, there was about an acre and a half to which the lime did not extend. To an inch where the lime had been placed there was a splendid crop of turnips ; in the remaining part of the field not a single turnij) grew. Here was an instance in which lime was the manure which was really wanted, and guano and superphosphates would not have been of any value without it. So that the true theory of manuring is, that you must have in the soil for the purposes of the crop, either naturally or artificially, the very things that the plants require to take out of the soil, as well as those which are required for the amelioration of the soil. But when you come to apply this in practice, it is not in the laboratory that you can tell what is the best thing for the crop : I defy any one to arrive at this merely by taking a plant, and analyzing it for the purpose of ascertaining what proportions of carbon and nitrogen are contained in it. It is necessary to ascer- tain the habits of the plant, and its mode of growth ; whether its roots strike deep or spread laterally, how the leaves grow up, and in what way the plant acts by its roots upon the earth, and by its leaves upon the air. It is impossible for any man, however great may be his scientific attainments, to form correct conclu- sions, without taking into account all these circum- stances. The fact is, the mere application of the chemistry of the laboratory, without a knowledge of the physiology of plants, is of no use in such cases. Now from the results of the experiments which have been tried, up to this period, it turns out that the great ma- nuring principles are nitrogen in any of its forms, and phosphates ; but that alkaline salts of soda, potash, &c., have not yet proved to be of much agricultural importance. Taking the vast extent of the surface of England, and having regard to the experiments which have been made on thousands of farms by thousands of persons, and culling the facts which have been collected by those who have recorded the results of all these ex- periments, you will find that nitrogen and phosphates are the substances upon which agriculture at present depends. Whether this will continue to be the case for a lengthened series of years is another question, and one with which farmers who are engaged in providing for present wants have nothing whatever to do. What is required now, I apprehend, is that the farmer should be supplied at the cheapest rate with the manure which will secure the largest crop. If the conditions under which this applies at the present moment be changed, the system of manuring will also be changed ; but at present, having regard to monsy considerations, it is well to keep to those facts which are patent to all who have been engaged in experiments connected with this subject. This being the case, we will confine our attention, if you please, chiefly to the various forms in which phosphates and nitrogen can be applied to the soil. In the first place we will take bones. Now bones are the first artificial manure that was applied in England after the use of gypsum. Being at first ap- plied in large quantities in an unground state, the bones produced little or no effect. Three or four years elapsed, and they were again applied, but in a powdered state, and then they produced marvellous effects, particularly in the cheese counties of Cheshire and Shropshire, whence the elements of bones had been constantly ex- ported for centuries in the shape of cheese. Now, one of the most important things for which we are indebted to Liebig is this. Assuming it as an undoubted fact that bones produced a good effect, he suggested the use THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 419 of a well-known chemical substance called super- phosphate of lime, in order that bones might be rendered more soluble when they were put in the land. This may be considered as the leading idea which has led to the modern system of artificial manuring. Before that time we had nothing else but simple mixtures of animal and vegetable matter, ashes, and other things of that kind, which were mixed promiscuously together, and were supposed to be manure because they had been found to do better than nothing. There was, in fact, no definite mode of proceeding, and very liltle was known on the subject. However, this suggestion of Liebig was adopted first in Scotland, and afterwards in England. The thing was very soon found to answer exceedingly well, especially for turnips ; and from that time there commenced a race to supply the farmer with this valuable material. Well, then, just about the same time, curiously enough, commenced the importation of Peru- vian guano into this country. It was first imported at £24 a ton ; and though there were of course very few customers for it at that price, the effects which it pro- duced, so far as it was applied, were very striking. Then came the discovery of the island of Ichaboe, which led to a considerable reduction of price, so that the use of guano soon spread all over the country. This discovery gave the greatest impulse to the home manure trade which it had ever received. Superphosphate of lime, which is now so exten- sively used, appeared to me to demand a special re- ference. About the same time, or within a few years afterwards, there came the discovery by Professor Hens- low of little nodules which are found to exist in various counties. He discovered on the coast of Suffolk nodules which on analysis were found (o contain phosphate of lime to the extent of from 50 to 55 per cent., and these were subsequently traced over a large district. Now, observe that without the leading idea which Liebig had previously given out— that sulphuric acid would render phosphate of lime soluble so as to cause it to act power- fully on the soil — the discovery of these fossil remains would have been of little value ; but, coming immediately after Liebig's idea that soluble phosphates were exceedingly good for various crops this discovery became of the very greatest importance. Remains of this kind have since been discovered in other places. The first discovery of the presence of phos- phoric acid in the Farnham marls was made by me in the year 1847 ; but no notice was taken of this fact in the paper which subsequently appeared on this subject in the 9th volume of the " Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society," although the writers received the original information directly from myself. Subsequently, in Hampshire, Dorsetshire, Cambridgeshire, and other counties, there were discovered, through the researches of myself and other geologists, nodules containing from 40 to 64 per cent, of phosphate of lime. There has also been discovered in America a substance called "apatite," containing as much as 80 per cent, of the same ingredient, and found in various primary rocks, in veins two or three feet thick. A similar discovery has been made since in Norway, where large quantities of this substance have been exported to this country. Moreover, we have calcined bones brought to us from South America. These are the bones of the bullocks which furnish the hides and tallow which are sent here. We also derive from the same source a manure called " flesh ma- nure," containing both bone and dried flesh, which is pre- pared under a patent, and imported into this country by Messrs. Dixon & Cardus, of Southampton. The result of all this is a great extension of the trade supplying manures ; and the farmer can now buy superphosphates cheaper and better than he can make them himself, simply because the parties who deal in such substances commercially obtain what they require on a larger scale than he can, and from a greater variety of sources. Let me now remark that superphosphate of lime is essen- tially a mixture of phosphate of lime with sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid seizes a portion of the phos- phate of lime, and liberates the other in a soluble state. The sulphuric acid and the lime, together with a portion of the water used in the operation, combine together to form gypsum, which is always found with superphos- phate of lime. It is this mixture of gypsum and soluble and insoluble phosphate, which is known commer- cially as phosphate of lime. Now, I want to point out to you that a considerable difference must ex- ist between superphosphates of lime made in dif- ferent modes. Perhaps of all the forms of phos- phates of lime, apatite is the most insoluble. From all the experiments which I have made in connexion with this subject, it appears that in the making of super- phosphate of lime it is necessary to take care not to dis- solve all the phosphates. I will tell you what first drew my attention to this point. About 1845 or'46, being on a visit in Hampshire, I rode over a farm in the neighbour- hood of Alton. In passing through a large 20-acre field of turnips, I came suddenly to a place where the horse's feet immediately smashed the turnips. All the turnips in that portion of the field were perfectly rotten ; the others were firm and solid. The difference could be seen to a drill. I at once set about ascertaining the cause of this difference. It turned out that one part of the field had been manured with superphosphate of lime, and the other with common farm-yard dung and bones. On hearing this, it at once struck me that the cause of this must be, that the superphosphate of lime had been made wholly with an insoluble phosphate, like coprolite or apatite, and that when the soluble part had been taken up for the purposes of the plants, the vascu- lar structure of the turnip becoming greatly enlarged, did not subsequently find any material for its further growth, in consequence of the other phosphates being insoluble ; and thus the whole system of the turnip being weakened, it fell a prey to the frost which prevailed at that period. Since that time a great many persons have been engaged in making superphosphate of lime, and the use of this article has become widely extended. I may here observe that there has of late been a great 420 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. loss of turnips, and though I cannot attribute it at all to the use of artificial manures, yet I must say that it is in a great degree attributable to the practice of giving a certain amount of phosphates only soluble, and the re- mainder insoluble. I dwell upon this the more because an idea is being diffused by some chemists in favour of making phosphates wholly soluble- Many chemists of the present day have, in fact, recommended that the whole of the phosphates in manure should be made soluble ; and I believe that the more this recommenda- tion is adopted, the more will turnips be found to rot. I therefore feel it to be a public duty to caution you gentlemen against what I believe to be a mistaken view. I know from my own experience that too much soluble phosphate is very injurious. There should be a certain proportion to get the plant past the fly, but an excessive amount of soluble phosphate cannot fail to do mischief. My statement on this subject will perhaps be contra- dicted, but I am perfectly prepared to prove by facts the position which I have assumed. To give you an idea of a superphosphate, let me take any one of these substances (referring to specimens of apatite, coprolite, &c., on the table). If you were to dissolve these substances by means of acid, and let the insoluble matter consist of calcined bones, or animal charcoal, or better still, of fine bone, in short of such substances as are most easily acted upon in the soil, you would in that way produce superphosphate which would answer best under any given conditions. All superphosphates ought, also in my opinion, to contain a certain amount of ammonia. It is not found practically that a very large proportion of ammonia is essential to a superphosphate, but I have found by experiments in the field that 2 or 3 per cent, of ammonia, or some form of nitrogen, is decidedly beneficial to the turnip : it causes the turnip to grow quicker, and, other conditions being equal, always ensures a larger crop. But the use of nitro- gen is perhaps still more valuable in other kinds of crops. INlanures may be divided into the phosphatic kind and the nitrogenous kind, and between the two there are various substances combining the properties of both — among them is the flesh manure imported from South America. The phosphatic kind includes bones and all kinds of phosphates. The true nitrogenous manures are guaao (which also contains phosphates) and nitrates of potash and soda, together with flesh, blood, wool, hair, and other similar animal substances. When guano is exposed to the action of a large quantity of water, the nitrogenous matter is washed away, and the phosphatic left ; and the result of this washing is the production of guano similar to that of Saldanha Bay, which is rich in phosphates and poor in nitrogen. All these guanos may be considered as acting in the same manner as bones, and as being adapted to the crops for which bones are especially adapted. The nitrogenous manures, however, are adapted to all crops — in fact, to the grass tribe generally, whether cereals or ordinary grasses. But there is a very considerable diff'erence to be observed in the application of them. In the case of grasses you may apply them very abundantly ; in the case of cereals you must apply them with caution, for the simple reason that if applied too freely they stimu- late the straw to an abnormal extent, and thus prevent the ear from ripening. Now, of the nitrogeous manures guano stands at the head, because it not only corxtains a large amount of ammonia, but also phosphates to the extent of 25 or 30 per cent. Kuhlmann, a learned French professor of chemistry, at Lisle, tried some ex- periments on grass land, which showed that the produce was almost in exact proportion to the quantity of nitro- gen employed, whether in the form of ammonia, nitrate of soda, or any other substance. This is a fact which ought not, I think, to be forgotten, because the use of these kinds of manure on grass is attended with no difficulty, all that is requisite being to spread them broadcast over the land, and the very first shower will wash them in. The case is rather different with corn crops. As regards wheat and other cereals, if you put too much you throw the crop down, and therefore in this case more caution is required in the application. As regards the use of nitrogenous matters for various crops, let me point out an important adjunct, namely, salt. By using salt with either nitrate of soda or guano, you arrest the abnormal growth of the straw, and the nitrogen is reserved for the growth of the ear. It has long been a problem. What is the real use of salt ? Some time ago we had over here Mons. Dumas, the great French chemist, and a "deputation from France, for the purpose of travelling all over England to ascertain what is the real use of salt ; and these gentlemen found such a variety of practice, and so many discordant ideas prevailing in reference to that subject, that they went back at last no wiser than they came. The simple truth is, that salt acts as a corrective of excessive fertility, and that is all that can be said on the subject. Superphosphate of lime acts in a similar manner ; but its dearness prevents it from being used. Salt produces the same efi'ect on cereals as superphosphate of lime, at one-seventh of the cost. With 2 cwt. of guano and 4 cwt. of salt there is very little chance of the crop ever being thrown down. As to the effect of nitrogenous manures on the wheat- crop, allow me to quote two passages from a letter of Mr. Caird to the Times. The first passage is as follows : — " The use of guano has been with me, as with many others, for the last ten years, a matter of system, and I have fre- quently satisfied myself by experiment of the profit attending iis application. To apply it to tlie wheat-crop is ilie rule : not to apply it, the exception. List autumn, in sowing a large field, exactly 100 acres, I directed the person wlio was laying on the guano to pass over an acre iu tfie centre of the field, all tfie rest of which received two cwt. per acre, at the tirue the wheat was sown. The produce of this and the ad- j lining acres were cut, and kept separate from each other, and Irom the rest of the field, and were thrashed last week, yielding as follows: — Bush. Cwt. One acre, with two cwt. of guano 44 and straw 40 One acre, without guano 35 „ 30 Increase of wheat 9 and straw 10 "The cost of the guano (Peruvian) on the field was lOs. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 421 per cwt., or £1 an acre ; so that I have nine busheh of wheat for £1. The acre selected for the experiment was aa average of the field ; and I have no reason to Houbt that, for an expen- diture of £100 on guano on that fieli last autumn, I have uow reaped an increased produce of 900 bushels of wheat. This tallies very closely with the experience of Mr. Lawes, m Hertfordshire, where two cwt. of guano gives an increase of eight bushels of wheat." Again Mr. Caird says— " In the centre of a fifty-acre field, one acre was left without manure, all the rest of the field receiving two cwt. of Peruvian guano per acre in autumn, at the time the seed was sown. The produce of the acre undressed has been tested against that of the adjoining acre, which received Peruvian guano ; and this is the result ; £ s. d. One acre, with guano, 32 bushels, 631b. weight per bushel, at 6s. 6d. per 60 lb 10 18 4 One acre, without manure, 251 bushels, 601b. weight per bushel, at 6s, 6d. per 60 lb. . Cost of two cwt. of guano in 1853. 8 5 9 £2 12 1 0 7 0 Profit per acre, besides one-fourth more straw £1 12 7 " The inferiority in the quality of the unmanured wheat, as shown by the weight per bushel, is worthy of notice, aa well as the fact that the unmanured wheat was a week later in ripening than the other." Now, gentlemen, with facts of that kind staring us in the face, with the knowledge that nitrogenous matters, whether guano or nitrate of soda, flesh manure, or any- thing else of the same kind, will give a profit of £1 12s. per acre, it seems to me, I must say, very singular that, with these results before us, corroborated as Mr. Caird is by Mr. Lawes and by hundreds of other experimenters, and by my own experience, these things should ever be neg- lected, and that farmers who are cultivating their two or three hundred acres of wheat should be at all backward in pocketing the £l 12s. Well, now, as regards the manures which are best adapted to different kinds of crops, experience, so far as it extends, seems to prove very clearly that phosphates generally are most applic- able to the root crops, and nitrogenous manures to the grasses, whether cereal or otherwise. But there are some which lie between these. Superphosphates seem to be, in most parts of the country, better adapted for turnips than most other manures ; but, as I mentioned before, there ought always to be a certain amount of am- monia present. I have found that one of the best modes of securing a good crop of turnips is to broadcast 2 cwt. of guano per acre, and drill 2 cwt. of superphosphate, mixed with ashes, with the seed, I will tell you why I recommend that that plan should be adopted. Several times in going through a field of turnips I have pulled up a turnip by the neck, and where the drill alone had been used I have found the root stronger in the direction of the drill than in any other. As it is well known that the turnip sends its lateral roots in every direction, the only reason which can be assigned why they are stronger in the direction of the drills than between the drills must be, the presence of the manure there. Now that we have such a command of manure, the drill system is not so necessary as it was formerly ; and it is evidently desirable that every rootlet of a plant, whatever may be its direction, should have its proper share of improve- ment. I therefore always advocate the broadcasting of — say two-thirds of the manure, and the use of the drill only to facilitate the early germination of the seed. About five or six years ago, I happened to mention this matter in the course of a lecture which I delivered at Blandford. One gentleman who was present, a practical farmer, at once saw the reasonableness of what I said. As it is customary in Dorsetshire to give prizes for the best crops of swedes, he determined at once to act upon my suggestion ; and the result was, that he obtained the prize for the best 40 acres of swedes in the county. Under the plan which I recommended, not a single rootlet in a crop of turnips will fail to obtain its proper modicum of manure. Now I think that this plant, whose rootlets run like network through the whole sur- face of the soil, ought to be more attended to than it has been. Most of us recollect that the original drill system arose from nothing but a wish to concentrate manure, when manure was scarcely to be had, and to bring it into immediate contact with the seed, in order that the seed might derive the utmost amount of benefit which could be obtained from the use of it. But considering that, under the present state of things, you are compelled to seek the largest amount of pro- duce from the land which it is capable of yielding, I think you will be obliged to adopt the plan of having a general supply of manure throughout the whole extent of the soil, and that the drill will in future be used simply to put in that amount which is necessary for the early and primary growth of the plant. Let me now speak of mangel wurzel. In this case you want, in addition to the phosphates, an increase of nitro- genous materials. If Mr. Hutley were here, he could tell you a good deal about this matter. I recollect being down at his farm on one occasion, and perceiving that my friend Hutley without science completely thrashed my friend Mechi with science. (Laughter.) Mr. Hutley, if I recollect right, first applied 15 or 20 loads per acre of farm-yard dung in the autumn, and ploughed the land five or six times. In the spring, before sowing the mangel, he applied something like 3 cwt. of guano, 4 cwt. of salt, and some rapecake, and I believe he drilled the mangel with a little superphosphate. The result was, that I saw what I computed to be 40 tons per acre produced on Mr. Hutley's farm that year, whereas Mr. Mechi averaged, I think, only about 13 tons (laughter). There has however, I believe, been a con- siderable improvement on Mr. Mechi's farm since that period (renewed laughter). I never in my life saw finer mangel wurzel than Mr. Hutley's. Of course there was no manure required for the next wheat crop. The ma- nuring was not, therefore, you will observe, at all exces- sive. With 40 tons of mangel wurzel per acre,.and with the thorough preparation of the land for wheat, I consider that Mr. Hutley adopted a very economical mode of arriving at the desired result. Having tried experi- ' ments myself with mangel wurzel, I have found that the 422 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. addition of a little nitrate of soda, or guano and salt, to the superphosphate, is a great benefit to this root crop. With respect to the wheat crop, I think I men- tioned very specifically what I considered the best for that, and the same rule is applicable in the case of oats and barley. Many gentlemen who occupy " down land" appear to have no idea of the increased number of sheep which they might keep if they were to use nitro- genous manure upon it. I h^ive preached on that subject for a considerable time, and am not yet tired of my preaching, though I could wish that some Hampshire and Dorsetshire farmers had been more benefited by it. I am convinced that a great many persons occupying down lands, might, by attending to this simple sugges- tion, double the number of sheep which they could keep on those lands. Of course I am aware that in consequence of the cheap carriage of artificial manures a great deal of down land is now being broken up. This change will probably go on ; but wherever the land is not broken up, I recommend the use of nitrogen in some form or other. A Gentleman inquired whether Mr. Nesbit meant that the manure should be sown broadcast ; and, if so, at what period it should be used. Mr. Nesbit : Simply broadcast ; the best period being from February to April, according to circum- stances. Now, gentlemen, this is a very extensive subject; but, as I do not wish to take up any more of your time than I can help (cheers), I wish now to proceed to the other part of the subject, namely, that which has respect to the valuation of these manures. I have nothing further to say with respect to the general use of artificial manures. I have indicated what is most important, and I will now simply observe, by way of recapitulation, and before I advance to the question of value, that carrots and mangel wurzel gene- rally require more nitrogenous manure than the turnip ; that the turnip generally does very well with phosphate, but that there ought to be a certain amount of nitrogen and carbonaceous matter ; that grasses and cereals need a large quantity of nitrogen ; that, in the case of cereals, salt ought to be used, in order to prevent the crop from falling down, but that it is not so neces- sary in the case of grasses ; and that there are very few grass lands which, even in the case of chalky downs, will not bear to be "well chalked. On this last point I may add that in some of the upper parts of chalky downs scarcely a trace of lime can be detected, in con- sequence of the continual washing of the lime down- wards. Well, then, as to the best mode of calculating the relative values of manures : in consequence of the variation in the composition of manure, and the con- stant adulterations practised by unprincipled dealers, it is a matter of considerable importance to the farmer to be able in an easy manner to obtain an approximative value of any manure he may have had subjected to ana- lysis ; and I subjoin a mode of valuation, the use of which will at least save him from the gross imposition to which he is at present subjected. The substances which ana- lysis and practice have proved to be most efficient as manuring principles are phosphates, and nitrogen in any of its forms. A few isolated experiments prove potash to be of some value in one or two crops ; but, as this substance can readily be bought in a state of tolerable purity as sulphate or muriate of potash, and as it is not generally found in compounded manures, I shall not give this any agricultural value, further than as com- prised under the term of alkaline salts. Silica, under any of its forms, has not yet been proved to have any agricultural value; and carbonate of lime (chalk) is in most instances a serious detriment to a manure, though useful on the large scale, when used per acre by tons at a time. From a careful comparison of numerous ana- lyses of manure with the value of the substances therein contained, I have been led to adopt the following prices as giving the nearest approximative value of the several manuring matters : — Multipliers of Value. Nitrogen £74 per ton. Ammonia. Phosphate of lime Phosphate of lime made soluble . Organic matter Alkaline salts Sulphate of Ume (gypsum) Silica 60 8 „ 24 „ 1 ,. 1 ., 1 .. No va'.ue. Carbonate of lime No value. The following mode of calculation has been adopted by me for many years, and is exceedingly simple, as we only require the analysis of the sample to enable us to arrive at its worth in a very few figures : — Rule for Calculating the Value of Manures. Consider the analysis to lepreseut the components of one hundred tons. Multiply the respective amounts of each in- gredient by its price per ton in the preceding table, add up the several products, and the sum will represent the value of one hundred tons. Divide this amount by one hundred, and the quotient will be the price per ton. The decimals in the analysis below 0.5 may be disregarded, and those above that amount reckoned as an additional unit. Thus, iu the secoud example, the organic matter, instead of 21 68, may be read 22; and the phosphate of lime, instead of 44.35, may be called 44. Examples. I. valuation op an average sample op PERUVIAN guano. Value per ton. Total. Moisture 1510 Organic matter 51-27 x £1= £51 Silica 2 20 Phosphate of Ume 22-13 x 8 = 17C Phosphoric acid 323 = Phosphate of lime (made solu- ble) 7-00 X 24 = 168 Alkaline salts, &c 607 x 1= 6 10000 Nitrogen Ceqtial to) 13*54 per cent. Ammonia 16-42 x 60 960 1,00) £13,61 20 Value £13 123. per tou. 1220 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 433 II. VALUATION OF SAMPLE OP BOLIVIAN GUANO. Value per ton. Total. Moisture 13-85 Organic matter 21-68 x £1 = £22 Silica 270 Phosphate of lime 44-35 x 8 = 352 Phosphoric acid 330 =Neutral phosphate (made solu- ble) 715 X 24 = 168 Alkaline Salts 14-12 x 1= 14 100-00 Ammonia 402 x 60= 240 1,00 ) £7,96 20 Value £7 19s. per ton. 19.20 III. VALUATION OF A GOOD SAMPLE OF SUPEHPHOS- PHATE OF LIME. Value per ton. Total. Moisture 1982 Organic matter 2072 x £1 = £21 Silica c 2-80 Soluble phosphate 10 25 =Neutral phosphate (made solu- ble) 1600 ^24= 384 Insoluble phosphate 1660 ^ 8 = 136 Hydtated sulphate of lime 29 81 x 1 = 30 10000 Ammonia 2 00 x 60 = 120 1,00 ) £6,91 20 Value £6 18s. per tou. 18.20 IV. VALUATION OF A BAD SAMPLE OF SUPERPHOSPHATE OF HME. Value per ton. Total- Moisture 17-90 Organic matter 1400 x £1 = £14 Silica 29-10 Oxide of iron, &c 862 Soluble phosphate 3-24 = Neutral phosphate (made solu- ble) 505 X 24 = 120 Insoluble phosphate 3'85 x 8 = 32 Hydriited sulphate of lime 23 29 x l = 23 100-00 Ammonia 050 x 60 = 30 1,00 ) £2,19 20 Value £1 4s. per ton. 380 V. VALUATION OP ADULTER.ATED GUANO.* Value per Ton. Total. Moisture 540 Organic matter, &c 20-55 x £1 = £21 Sand 49-30 Oxide of iron and alumina 5 46 Phosphate of lime 16-25 x 8 = 123 Carbonate of lime, &c 3-04 10000 Nitrogen (equal to) 4-65 Ammonia 5-64 x 60 = 360 Value £5 per ton. £509 * Often sold as Peruvian Guano, a pound or so under the market price, to farmers who are in want of— A bargain. VI. VALUATION OP A SUBSTANCE LATELY INTRODUCED INTO COMMERCE, CALLED " MEXICAN GUANO." Villus per Ton., Total. Moisture 3-24 Organic matter, &c 13'56 x £1 = £14 Silica 060 Phosphate of lime 2560 x 8 = 208 Carbonate of lime 4614 Sulphate of lime, c&c 10-86 x 1= 11 10000 Nitrogen (equal to) 021 Ammonia - 0'26 60 = 15 1,00 ) £2,48 20 Value £2 93. per ton.* 9 60 The foregoing examples show how very closely the rule brings out all the actual value of the various samples. It is necessary, however, to remember that circum- stances might possibly arise in the course of time, which would render some alteration requisite in the amounts of our multipliers of value. At the present period, however, they are sufficiently true for every practical purpose. In conclusion, I am very much obliged to you, gentlemen, for the kind manner in which you have received my imperfect remarks, and I shall be happy to answer any questions which you may put to me, or to give you any further information which it is in my power to afford (cheers). Mr. R. Baker (of Writtle) said, every gentleman pre- sent must feel highly gratified at the very lucid manner in which Mr. Nesbit had treated this subject — a subject with which he was well acquainted, and on which he conveyed his opinions with far more felicity of expression than ordinarily characterised the addresses of chemists (Hear, hear). He would not enter into the constituent pro- perties of manures, which had been clearly explained by Mr. Nesbit ; but, having used artificial manures exten- sively himself, he asserted that whatever might be the quality of manure, it would be of no use unless it were properly applied. During the late drying winds more than half the guano applied to the land had, he believed, been actually lost. If there were not sufficient moisture in the soil to create an affinity with the manure, and cause it to be taken up at once, a large portion of what was applied went into the atmosphere. His own expe- rience shewed that in the case of mangel wurzel espe- cially, the ploughing should immediately precede the ap- plication ofartificial manure. Immediately after the land had been turned up for the ridges, the manure should be sown broadcast ; another ploughing should directly fol- lov,', and the manure should then be covered in and rolled down as soon as possible. By such an application the gaseous qualities of the manure, which would otherwise fly off, would be secured. It was often easy for persons who were travelling to discover from a distance of half a mile that a field had been manured that day with guano. • This value is, however, practically lessened by the large quantity of carbonate of lime contained in the sample. Yet this substance has actually been bought by farmers as guano, at from £8 to £9 per ton. 424 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. In such cases the moisture in the soil had not been suffi- bient to fix the manure ; and thus what was sown in one field rose into the atmosphere, and perhaps falls combined with rain into some field a hundred miles off (laughter). In applying guano for turnips or mangel wurzel, he never waited till the time of sowing, but availed himself of the first convenient opportunity before that time arrived. A short time ago, in going over a farm the occupier of which grew much heavier crops of mangel wurzel than any other person in the neighbourhood, he was led to the conclusion that he did not himself use sufficient means to ensure large crops. The occupier of the farm having asked him how much mangel wurzel he produced, he replied : " From twenty-five to thirty tons per acre." " Oh," said the farmer, naively, " you might just as well have thirty-five or forty tons ; I used to have only 30 ; now I get 40, and the increase is caused by my using 2 cwt. of guano per acre more than I used to do." He (Mr. Baker) at once deter- mined to foUowthe examplewhich was thus set. Hewould now state how he now prepared his land for mangel wurzel. During the frost he first applied about 15 tons of well-decomposed farm-yard manure, which he ploughed in. He then applied the following dressing : — 3 cwt. of guano, 4 cwt. of fishery salt. He afterwards drilled in 1 cwt. of super-phosphate of lime with the seed, which he found to stimulate the growth of the plants more than anything else ; and the result was, an increase of from 10 to 15 tons per acre. In another part of his farm he applied the following dressing : — 4 cwt. of fishery salt, 3 cwt. of blood-manure, and 3 cwt. of guano. Comparing his own experience with the remarks of Mr. I\'esbit, it appeared to him that the course which he was now pursuing, with respect to mangel wurzel, was that which was most likely to lead to satisfactory results. He thought he might say, without exposing himself to the charge of egotism, that he now produced as good mangel wurzel as was grown in his district. There was, in fact, no room in this case for egotism : mangel wurzel was now simply an article of commerce, and you might produce almost any quantity per acre you pleased, provided you applied properly the most suitable kinds of manure in sufficient quantity to effect the object. Mr. J. J. Mechi (of Tiptree) defended Baron Liebig's mineral theory, referring to his lately pubhshed reply upon Mr. Lavves's experiments, which (he said) was crushingly conclusive as to the necessity of soluble inorganics for the vegetable and animal structures. With respect to mangel-wurzel, he concurred with Mr. Nesbit that it required to be deeply aud most abundantly manured. Hi^ largest crop, 43 J tous per acre, had been grown by manuring the surface, then double trenching, and again manur- ing the deep furrows before the ridges were levelled down. Such treatment not only paid in the growing crop, but greatly in- creased the after-crops. Twenty to thirty loads of farra-yard manure, five cwt. of rapccake, and three cwt. of g\iano, with a cwt. or two of salt, was a proper dressing for the mangel crop. Experience had taught him that a very large portion of our manures were washed away through the soil and the drains by heavy rains ; but that rendered heavy manuring still more necessary. It frequently occurred, that whilst irrigating his fields with solid and liquid excrements mixed with water, every drain in the field discharged abundantly coloured water, or rather manure ; for you might both see it and smell it, and it tainted the water for nearly a mile. This was in very stiff tile earth, drained five feet deep, at intervals of from thirty to fifty feet, with one-inch pipes. He found that heavy soils passed water more abundantly than light soils, the latter re- taining more by their superior capillarity. As regarded super- phosphate of lime, it produced no beneficial effect on the stiff clays, although he knew it was very advantageous on light or mixed soils. Mr. CuTHBERT Johnson (of Croydon) was fully sensible of the excellent manner in which Mr. Nesbit had introduced this important subject, though there were one or two minor points on which he differed from him. For instance, he did not agree with him that in the application of superphosphate of lime for turnips there might be too much soluble phosphate. Super- phosphate was too valuable an article in commerce to be sold in the condition which Mr. Nesbit supposed, and he feared there was little danger of farmers meeting with a sample of that description. The question which Mr. Nesbit had introduced was, in fact, much too large to be exhausted that evening, or for all the points em- braced in it to be touched upon. The simple question, What is a manure.'' was one which would puzzle ninety- nine men out of a hundred. It had been remarked that a weed was a plant growing out of its place, and manure might be defined as something in its right place, and of which the soil was naturally deficient. But, then, in this were involved a great many minor considerations. A farmer in Essex, for example, would tell them that chalk was a most valuable manure, and one which he carted at a considerable expense; whereas a farmer whose land was situated on a cretaceous formation would tell them that chalk was the last thing he would ever think of applying ; the truth being, that there was, in his case, an abundance of chalk already. They had been told, that evening, that by the application of nitrogenous manures, to the extent of two, three, or four cwt. per acre, farmers might secure large crops of turnips. The question, however, had been raised, whether ammonia might not some- times be applied in excess, and whether a large portion of it might not, as Mr. Baker had intimated, eva- porate. There had been some researches of late, with the view of ascertaining whether, even if the manure were applied at the right time, and properly spread on the land, errors might not be committed, and loss sus- tained. The labours of the chemist had shown that drainage-water — the rain, he meant, which descended into the soil, and thence into the drains — carried off a considerable proportion of those ammoniacal salts which were of sUch great value in guano. Some years since the present Professor of Chemistry in the Univer- sity of Edinburgh, Professor Wilson, made some most valuable researches on that question. In the case of a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4-35 field which had been manured with guano, he analyzed some water taken from the drains before the guano was applied, and then analyzed some taken from them after the application of guano. The result was that if a certain quantity of the drainage-water contained 3.4 grains of organic matter before the soil was dressed with guano, the same quantity of the water held 7.8 grains after it was thus manured. Then came certain experiments of Professor Way, on the combi- nation supposed to take place between the ammonia spread on the soil and the alumina which the soil contained. He showed that there was such a combination, and that the alumina stored up the ammonia; but some later researches, with which they would soon be favoured, had also led him to examine the im- portant question, whether a portion of the ammonia thus added to the soil did not escape in the drainage water. He (Mr. Johnson) would have added a little more upon the subject, bat that they would themselves be shortly furnished with the details, through the ordinary channels. With his love of practical application, what he now wished to direct their atten- tion^ to wjs this : As there was no doubt that a considerable portion of the guano applied to the land (after being dissolved by the rain, and thus converted into liquid manure) did share the fate of the fluid manure, to which Mr. Mechi had alluded, and which escaped with the drainage water, to the loss of the cu'tivator, and the soil itself, a serious practical question arose, whether they should not try the experiment of applying these ammoniacal manures in distinct and separate portions, taking advantage, if they could, of moist weather for the purpose, rather than spread them all at once, and in such quantities that the p'ant could not immediately assimilate them to itself (Hear, hear). Dr. Ellis (of Sudbrook Park, Richmond) said : The lucid and interesting statements of the lecturer, on the subject of the relative value of artificial manures, have been listened to with great interest and pleasure by me, There is one bear- ing of the subject, en which it appears to me it would be very ittsresting and important for further information to be elicited: it is the adaptation of the different manures to the various soils which are under cultivation. I am an oc- cupier of different soils, such as light sand, sharp gravel, loam, and mixed, Plants have an affinity for peculiar soils. Dressings with suitable manures shoidd, if possible, be adapted to meet the different wants of the various plants which are embraced in general agriculture. All plants can- not require the self-same nutriment, nor are the different kinds cf soil destitute of all the kinds of nutrition plants require. Farmers want to grow roots, herbage cereals, or corn, on all sorts of land, and all wish to obtain as large a crop as possible. There is an approval msnifestly rendered to farm- yard manure, and artificial manures are demonstrated to be productive of remunerative crops. As to the query, "What is manure?" I fancy the question to be easy of solution. This solution may be erroneous; but it ap- pears to me that manure is that proper food for the plant which its habits require. The physiology of plants resembles in some degree that of animals : both are sustained, de- veloped, and perfected by nutrition. Doubtless all nutrition must be rendered soluble before it caa be taken up by the vessels, and formed into tissues, and fill the cells so as to constitute perfect development. Soils which are deficient of the essential principles of nutriment will require all those elements to be introduced into thera, lliose which are desti- tute of a portion of such elements only, will have to be sup- plied with the deficient elements. Chalk cannot require the same elements as pure sandy soils. Nor will vegetable earth require the same addition as loam and clay. The quantity of manures must be adapted also to the quality of the soil, and the nature of the crops to be raised ; and it may be said truly that he who sows sparingly will reap sparingly and vice versa. With respect to the condition in which manure should be administered to the plants, that of the fluid form carries much reason iu its favour. It has been stated that fluid manure runs through the land, and is to some considerable extent wasted on bard clay soils. This sounds odd. Farmers are, as a body, reckoned very credulous, and an opinion prevails that they are easily taken in; indeed, they are considered fair prey. But surely they cannot believe that liquid manure will run through clay soil so fast as to furnish large quantities at the outlet of the uuder- drains five feet deep. Some of the fluid manure, if pumped on to such land iu dry seasons very fast, may run off the soil and get along icto the openings of the ends of the drains which lie low. In recent drainage, where the openings through the solid clay have been recently cut and filled up with pulveiized material, the fluid may rush down and find a readier way to escape than if it passed through the unbroken bed. But we ought to believe that the fluid leaves most of its virtue behind, and is less and less a useful material as it descends in the earth. The astounding affinity of all soils for the properties contained in decomposed materials is scarcely appreciated. The effect of the most offensive animal and vegetable matter may, when it becomes a nuisance, be cheaply and instantly superceded, if it be but remembered that the soil will so gree- dily absorb its gaseous and other properties. I may assert, that it is only needful to throw a slight covering of any kiud of earth over all sorts of decayed matter, and its offensive nature is at once neutralised. I feel persuaded that the state- ments made at this meeting on the subject under discussion may be fully expected to lead the agricultural question of dressings for crops forward another stage, and that the desi- rable result will be accelerated of raising larger crops of better quality for the sustenance of our fellow-creaturea. Mr. Mechi, in explanation, showed that there was no mis- take whatever as to the running through of the liquid. He was in the habit of irrigating a hundred days in the course of the year, and there was not a man or boy on the farm but knew that the drains always ran with coloured water when irrigating with manure. Heavy land would not retain the water like light land, but acted as a filter. Dr. Ellis said, the extent of affinity which common earth had for ammonia was not fully appreciated. If they happened to have a uuiaance iu their neighbourhood, arising from dead animal or other matter, the quickest possible method of getting rid of it was to throw over it a sUght covering of earth. (Hear, near.) Mr. Bkadshaw (of Knole, Guildford), for the purpose of allaying any apprehensions that might have been created by the observations made with regard to the disposal of manures on being applied to the land, thought he could not do better than relate some of the results of his own practice in the use of artifi- cial manures. (Hear, hear.) And, first, he would state the results of an application which he made in 1854, on 18 acres of oats. In that instance he used 3 cwt. of damsged guano, at 9s. 6d. a cwt , which gave £1 Ss. 6d. The land was undrained, very 426 THE FAUMER'S MAGAZINE. wet, and altogether in a wretched condition. The results were twofold. Upon the guauo-mauured land he grew 40 bushels of oats an acre, whilst upon the unmanured land he grew but 20 bushels an acre. Having superintended the carting oflf and thrashing himself, he was satisfied there was no mistske in the matter. The fact was, he got 20 bushels of oats extra, and three of Crosskill's harvest carts, in addition, of straw. That extra quantity of straw he valued at £1, and the 20 bushels ot oats at £3 ISs., or SOs. a bushel, making together £4 ISs., and deducting the £1 83. 6d. for guano, a clear profit was left him of £3 4s. 6d. (Hear, hear.) A Member: You have no drains to carry away the ma- nure? (A laugh.) Mr. Brad SHAW had no drains; further, he had followed Mr. Nesbit's plan of manuring for mangel. In November, 18.54, he ploughed once ten inches deep. In the spring, three weeks before sowing the mangel, he applied 3 cwt. of guano broadcast, and next scarified the land and drilled in 2 cwt. of superphosphate. Then, previous to horse-hoeing, he sowed broadcast, at twice, 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda and 3 cwt. of salt ; and the result was that he grew 30 tons of clean root, not in- cluding tops, of long red mangel, without the application of a single load of farm-yard manure. By the same method he also grew 25 tons of orange globe, and 30 tons of long red. A Member: What was the succeeding crop ? Mr. Bradshaw : Wheat. A Member : And what was the soil? Mr. Bradshaw: Loamy; there was no clay upon it. With regard to Swede turnips, he had applied 3 cwt. of super- phosphate, with about 8 or 10 loads of farm-yard manure, and grew 20 tons to the acre last year. In 1854 he tried several experiments with swedes, and they were not upon a small scale, for he tried them on patches of land three and four acres in extent. On two occasions he made use of bones on a field of 14 acres. On one portion of the field he used 3 quar- ters of half-inch bones, and 4 bushels of bones dissolved in sulphuric acid. On another portion of the field, about 4 acres, he sowed 2 quarters of half-inch bones, 4 bushels of bones dissolved in acid, and 2 cwt. of guano per acre broadcast. The results were, that whilst there was little difference in the size of the swedes, those grown with guano were more porous — that was to say, spongy — and not of so good quality as those which were grown without. (Hear, hear.) Mr. J. A. Williams (of Boydon, Wilts): When Mr. Nesbit proposed to sow the guano broadcast, of course he intended that il should be done on a moist day. He (Mr, W.) had once ap- plied guano broadcast, and had made up his mind that it should be the last time he would ever do so, for he believed he lost three fourths of the effecta of it. The application was made on a dry day, and the greater portion was carriedoff by the winds to his neighbours' farms, for aught he knew, miles off. And that he feared would be too generally the case, if guano were applied on the broadcast system. The question had been asked to-night, " What was manure." He (Mr. W.) agreed with Dr. Ellis that it was, in fact, the food of the plant ; and if they applied manure to the soil which was not suitable for it, they would ill effect as much throw it away as if they gave hay to a pig, or the animal food upon which mankind subsisted to a horse. With regard to what Mr. Mcehi liad stated respecting his drainage, he gave that gentleman credit for a \a3t amount of experience, derived from pxptrinicniiil farming; but tlio\ight that, after observing the flfects of his drainage, and the prac- tical means by which he irrigated his land, he would do still further service to agriculture if he analyzed the coloured water which ran off through the drains, and ascertained whether that water liad not, in truth, left its valuable properties behind. There was one thing with respect to which, if Mr. Nesbit could enlighten them, he would be making his admirable lec- ture complete; that was, that he should tell them what manures were best adapted to certain descriptions of soils. Upon very strong lands he (Mr. W.) found that the bones themselves were of far greater importance than superphosphate of lime. Wherever he had tried the latter on a light soil, he invariably found there was nothing equal to it ; but on strong clays he grew better turnips where he used ground half-inch bones alone, than where he had put superphosphate. Mr. W. Bennett (of Cambridge), whilst admitting that he had rarely listened to a more useful or interesting lecture in that room, said there was one point which had not been touched upon, and with respect to which he should have been glad to be en- lightened : he meant as to which artificial manures were the most likely to produce premature decay in the root crops. It was one of the drawbacks to the extensive use of these manures that roots — turnips for instance — were more liable to decay, where artificial manures were used, than where they were not : that, he heitated not to state, was the result of his own expe- rience. It had been his practice for many years to manure partly with farmyard dung, and partly with such artificials as he thought best adapted to the particular crop. But this year, finding the farmyard manure holding out better than he ex- pected, he applied it to eight acres of Swedish turnips without artificial manures ; and the result was that his turnips stood a vast deal better there, and with less rot among them, than where the artificial manure had been used. Mr. Meciii : The frost affected them, I suppose? Mr. Bennett : Not exactly the frost ; because turnips, this year, began to decay at the root. Mr. Mechi : Not until after the frost, I apprehend ? Mr. Bennett: Oh, yes : in many instances before there was any frost at all ; but the frost undoubtedly facilitates the progress of disease. The fact was, that turnips had begun to decay, especially in Bedfordshire, even before the month of November had expired ; and he was not quite sure whether artificial manures did not encourage the progress of decay. A Member : Your remarks apply to swedes ? Mr. Bennett : Yes. He recollected that, some few years ago, prizes were offered for the best crops of turnips in Bed- fordshire, by the County Society, both at Leighton Buzzard and Luton, and being put upon his " mettle," he dressed heavily for turnips, and used rapecake in addition to farmyard manure. One of the most splendid crops of swedes he ever saw was the result ; but several ot the roots had begun to ex- hibit signs of decay as early as the first week in November, and he was disqualified by the judges on the ground that the turnips were not all sound. He should be glad, therefore, if Mr. Nesbit would give them some idea as to which artificial manure was likely to cause decay at an earlier period than another. With regard to what Mr. Mechi had stated respect- ing his liquid manure being carried through the drains 300 yards otT as black as treacle, the statement was very staggering. Of course, he did not deny that it was true ; but he was in- clined to think that by this time the land would have extracted pretty nearly all that was valuable in the manure, provided there was anything valuable in it in the first place (Hear, bear, and a laugh). Colour was a most mistaken test of value. Mr. Miicin : It was the solid and liquid droppings from the bullocks, sheep, and pigs ; nothing else. Mr. J'.iiKNETT : Will, that ought to be good; tut he should suppose that by the time the liquid had percolated THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 427 llirou^li the soil it would have left behiud it all the properties that were valuab'e in it (Hear). As to irrigations of this de- scription, he would rather his friend Mr. Mechi should have recourse to them than himself, for he had derived so little benefit from irrigation by liquid manures in the long run, that he believed he might put iu his eye and see none the worse for it all the good it had ever effected (Hear, and laughter). He would infinitely prefer using his liquid manure, mixed in compost heaps, to carrying it in its liquid state on the land (Hear, hear). Mr. Owen Wallis (of Overstone) said that Mr. Bennett's remedy would lead him to suppose that decay in the turnip arose in some degree from the use of artificial manures, and as on his (Mr. Wallis's) farm he had used bones in considerable quanti- ties for several years past, and his turnips had suffered much from rot this year, he had himself entertained a similar notion. Having made inquiries amongst hia neighbours, however, he discovered many instances in which rot had been equally pre- valent on land where no artificial manures had been applied within any man's recollection. It occurred to him that it was highly probable that decay in turnips might be something like decay in the clover plant; that it might be occasiouei by the exhaustion of some quality in the soil that was necessary to its proper growth; and if practical agricultural chemists would turn their attention to that point, he believed they would render greater service than ever to the cause of improve- ment in agriculture. He (Mr. Wallis) would readily contri- bute his £5 or £10 towards a good prize for the discovery of a remedy for this evil (Hear, hear). As Mr. Nesbit had in- vited inquiries with regard to matters iu respect of which the club might be desirous of receiving information, he should be glad if he would inform the meeting, first, what was the best mode of dissolving bones. He (Mr. Wallis) was prompted to ask this question by the circumstance that he had dissolved bones in acid on his own farm, and that the manure had more the appearance of brown rappee snuff than anything else ; whilst the superphosphates he had purchased from the most respectable makers were exactly like white chalk ? The other question he would ask was this : He had been in the habit of using a great quantity of artificial manures and consuming a large amount of cake, and as he had suffered much from his barley and oats falling, he was anxious to know if salt would not be as useful for them as for wheat ? The Chairjian (having been called upon) entirely con- curred in the observations of Mr. Nesbit, whom he would take that opportunity of thanking for the lecture with which he had favoured them, and also for the information contained in a series of lectures which he had been good enough to present to several members of the club (Hear). To the non-scientific men these lectures were very valuable. They were remarka- bly free from " words which darkened knowledge." They were popular in the best sense, and " he who ran might read them" (Hear, hear). Mr. Nesbit, in reply, alluded to the question of soluble phosphates, and said that there had been a tendency amongst professional chemists. Professors Anderson, Way, and others, to recommend the manure-makers to make all phosphates soluble. He (Mr. Nesbit) could not say, however, that he would advise anything of the sort at present. He believed if they bad not a sufficient amount of insoluble phosphates for the latter growth of the turnip, there was a chance of its growing too rapidly at the beginning, and being checked and stunted afterwards, and so rendered liable to disease ; and he had observed that where there was too large an amount of soluble phosphates, the turnips bad shown a tendency to early decay. As to the running away of manure through the drains. of which Mr, Mechi had spoken, they must be aware that a loss of manure was always going on upon every description of soil : only where the land was undrained it went off the surface, and the loss was much greater than where the land was drained. Experiments on the water which was carried off by the drains were in his opinion superfluous. No doubt there was some loss. There was loss from evaporation up- wards, and from percolation downwards ; but the beat mode he could suggest for balancing that loss, was to put more manure on the land (Hear, hear). With respect to guanos being valuable only for the nitrogen they contained, that was altogether a wrong conclusion. The fact was, they contained both soluble and insoluble phosphate, and their value must be measured, not only by the amount of the ammonia, but also by the phosphate they contained ; that in Peruvian guano being nearly 30 per cent. (Hear). As to the mode of applying guano, he preferred mixing it a fortnight or three weeks before using with eight or ten times its own weight of earth or ashes, so that on dry windy days it should not be blown away. Mr. Mechi sowed his with salt. Mr. Nesbit : Salt was a very good thing; but he preferred the plan he had mentioned. A Member : Would you recommend burnt clay ? Mr. Nesbit: Anything of that kind, burnt or unburnt, would do well. In the use of guano or superphosphate for turnips, he had witnessed exceedingly good results from send- ing before the horse-hoe a lad to strew a few handfuls between the drills. That was after the general manuring. The con- sequence was that the handfuls thus distributed got worked in by means of the horse-hoe, and the little fibres being cut off by the action of the hoe, on their shooting out again they found a good deal of nutritious matter, which enabled the roots to grow healthy and sound. With reference to the various kinds of soils, a more scientific nomenclature of soils was wanted ; but as a general rule he should say that super- phosphates seemed to suit light land better than heavy, and guano to suit heavy land better than light. In answer to Mr. Wallis's question, Mr. Nesbit said there were something like twenty different substances which the manure makers had to select from, in making their superphosphate. They might, therefore, have a superphosphate almost of auy colour. For instance, if it were made of calcined bone, which was white, it must be white ; if of charcoal, black ; and if of the two, grey. Salt was certainly useful for strengthening the straw in all cereal crops, and would be found advantageous in almost every district, applied with any dressing that was given to these crops. It would enable them to stand a much larger dressing of ammoniacal and nitrogenous substances than if it were not used ; though it was not so beneficial where land was well drained. It was then moved by Mr. Owen, seconded by Mr. Mechi, and carried unanimously, "That the thanks of the Club be given to Mr. Nesbit for his valuable lecture, so ably and fully explaining his subject ; while the meeting recommend to the best attention of agriculturists the extended use of arti- ficial manures." A vote of thanks to Mr. Wood, the chairman, terminated the proceedings. PROPOSED TESTIMONIAL TO MR. J. C. NESBIT.— On the conclusion of the above discussion many of the members expressed their desire of offering some suitable testimonial to Mr. Nesbit for the valuable services he had rendered the agri- cultural community by his numerous lectures on chemistry ; the use, application and adulteration of manures ; and on other subjects of interest to the farmer. A list was accordingly opened, which was immediately signed by all then present ; Mr, James Wood, of Ockley, the Chairman for the year, consenting to act as treasurer, and Mr. H. Corbet as honorary secretary. It i^ not, however, intended to confine this to members of the Club, but to extend to every other agriculturist in the king- dom the opportunity of expressing his approval of Mr. Nesbit's labours. Subscriptions can be forwarded accordingly to Mr. H. Corbet, Farmers' Club House, New Bridge-street, Black- friars. G G 428 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SEA-SAND AS A MANURE. It will be seen by the report of the recent meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, that attention has been drawn to the immense quantities of sea-sand which are carried into the interior of the counties of Devon and Cornwall for manure, and that investi- gations are to be undertaken by Professor Way re- specting the chemical composition of this sand. The subject is important ; and we are glad to sec it taken up by the Society, but it is by no means liew. It was brought into notice some years back, by Sir Henry De la Beche, in his report on the Geology of Devon and Cornwall, published in the Journal of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and reprinted in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. Sir H. De la Beche referred to the writings of Dr. Borlase, if we remember rightly, for a state- ment ofthe extent oflhc traffic in this sand in his time. The writer of the paper in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, on the agricultural relations of the Hampshire Tertiary District, used this trafBo as an argument, in favour of the hitherto neglected resources which our railways afford for the improve- ment of land, by the transfer of mineral manure from one district to another — of clay, for instance, to silieious soils ; and of chalk, in the unburut state, to districts of clay. "The vast quantities of sea-sand," said the writer, "transported into the interior of the county of Cornwall from the sea-coast, furnish an example of the magnitude to which the traffic in mineral manures may extend, when once the use of them becomes an established practice. The subject is well worthy the serious consideration of railway companies, particu- larly those — of which there are so many— not over- burthened with traffic of other kinds ; as well as of landowners having poor lands lying contiguous to lines of railway which pass through counties con- taining mineral manures. In ISll, it was estimated that Cornwall paid £30,000 a year for the carriage of this sea-sand. It forms the chief article of commerce on the Bude and Launceston Canal. It is also carried abundantly by carts to supply the adjoining pastures of Devonshire and Cornwall. Roads and tramroads have been constructed expressly for its conveyance into the interior. 100,000 tons per annum were estimated in 183G as the produce of l^adstow Harbour alone, a great portion of which was transported into the interior from Wade Eridirc by the Bodmin Railway; and the total quantity of sea- sand, which consisls chie/li/ uf Ji/ieljf-coviminuted shells and iOi-oh, spread over the surface of the two coun- ties, for tin; i)iiprovcment of I he soil, was estimated by Sir Henry De la Beche, at from four to five times the yield of Padstow Harbour." These facts were adduced, as an example of the use which might be made of our network of railways for the transfer of mineral manures from one district to another. He showed the great distance to which raw chalk is carried for the improvement of the land in parts of Norfolk. In many districts of that county, it is carted two or three miles to the land from the pit at which it is raised. In others, it is carted that distance, after being burthened with the cost of an expensive inland navigation. It was fur- ther shown that heavy manures of this kind may be carried on a railway 30 miles for the same expense that they can be carted 5 miles in the ordinary way. We have heard it objected to these views, as to the advantages of thetransferring from one district to ano- ther of bulky manures containing a large per-centage of clay, that the calcareous matter in the Cornish sea-sand is the valuable ingredient, and by the appli- cation of quick-lime, it is said, in which form the weight to be carried is reduced about one-half, a great expense may be saved, since suiEcient argillaceous matter exists in most soils. There is no doubt that in agricultural questions much ambiguity arises from the vagueness of the terms sand and clay, as applied both to soils and mineral manures, and one of the fer- tilizing ingredients in the Cornish sand is without doubt the small proportion of salt and of organic matter which it derives from the sea. This is evident, from the fact mentioned, if we forget not, by Sir H. De la Beche, that the farmers have found sand fresh from the seashore to be much more beneficial than that from the heaps of sand which have been carried into the interior by the wind, and from which the saline and organic matters have been washed by the rain. The argument, however, adduced from these facts against the transport to a distance of mineral manures cou- takiing a considerable portion of clay, is no argument against their transport by railway 30 miles, to dis- tricts of blowing sand, where a slight admixture of clay and lime would change the character of the soil, particularly if accompanied by the growth of such forage crops as were best adapted to the soil, and ^^'ould furnish a supply of organic manure. And then with regard to the transfer of mineral manures from a distance, wlieu a little geologic re- search properly conducted would point them out in much more accessible situations, we may again refer to Norfolk. There arc few estates on which a sys- tematic investigation of its geological resources would not bring to light some undeveloped mineral THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4-29 substances for agricultural or other economic pur- poses, which would soon repay many times over the trifling cost of the most minute geological examina- tions conducted by competent persons. Suppose, for instance, some such mineral manure to be discovered, and to be worth a royalty of 3d. the cubic yard for transfer to estates which are deficient in that sub- stance, this would yield £60 the acre for every yard of depth, and would dress 3^3 acres at the rate of 20 cubic yards to the acre. We have been informed that a prospectus was pub- lished a few years back, for a geological survey of estates, with special reference to their agricidtural capabilities. Such survey was to include two maps. One was to show the mineral variation of the sub- strata which constitute the assumed surface of ordinary geological maps, but showing their mineral variations in greater detail than is possible on the scale of the best public geological maps we have, namely those of the Government Geological Survey. The other map was to exhibit the variations of soil and subsoil dependent on the superficial deposits, which are supposed in our present geological maps to be removed, in order to exhibit as the actual sur- face the rock nearest to the surface. These maps were to be accompanied by a report describing the undeveloped economical resources of the estate of all kinds, and the means of improvement. Some few maps, we beheve, were made on this plan, and have been pronounced by competent judges to contain a vast amount of valuable information, and to form the proper basis for the valuation of land, either its local value, according to the mode of cultivation pursued upon it, or its true value, according to better modes of cultivation practised in other districts on the same kinds of soil and under the same climate. We have even heard it asserted that ten years hence every valuer of land will be required to give in such a map, when valuing an estate, showing the data upon which his calculations of value are founded. If, at present, this advanced move iu the application of geology to agriculture has met with but little en- couragement, its author may console himself with the reflection that a similar fate has often attended other movements in advance of the times. Smith himself, the laud- surveyor of Oxfordshire who ranks as the " Father of English Geology," was long known in derision by the nickname of " Strata Smith," which has now become his title of honour'. The cultivators of a more advanced agricultural geology than that which Smith originated may con- sole themselves with the reflection that if their la- bours were not appreciated in their lifetime, some will a few years hence make fortunes by that at which they toiled in vain ; that the same fate has be- fallen others before them ; and that " Nations slowly wise, and meanly just. To buried merit raise the tardy bust." DISCUSSION ON DRAINAGE AND LIQUI D-M ANU RING. The discussion which took place Wednesday, April 16, at 12, Hanover-square, on draining and liquid-manu- ring, reported in another page, proves how much may yet be said on either subject without exhausting it. In re- viewing both, our observations must necessarily be very brief, owing to the limited space at our disposal, and their controversial, and on that account somewhat latitudi- narian, character. This is to be regretted, as our re- marks will have to assume the form of criticism rather than such an exposition as the two important topics themselves would otherwise require at our hands. We must, therefore, crave from our readers in this place taat indulgence which cur position under these circum- stances demands, promising at no distant date to inves- tigate separately each of them in detiil, should the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society not do so. First, as to draining. This question, it will be seen from the report already referred to, was introduced by Mr. Brown, who, in expressing his disapprobation at the manner it had lately been discussed before the Society of Arts, wished that it might be otherwise treated before this Society. In both these cases Mr, Brown is perfectly correct, the subject having been very superficially handled before the former Society, while the experimental investigation of it by the latter is very much wanted in order to re* concile with fact the many discordant opinions to be met with in every province of the kingdom, because such opinions are checking the progress and proper execution of a work justly acknowledged to be the foundation of all agricultural improvement. On the present occasion little was done in the way of progress, the question having at once assumed the old hackneyed form of " Deep versus Shallow Draining," and being there left amidst the jarring elements of opinion, ycleped " experience," in as unsettled a state «s ever, not a single expression of noveUy having even been advanced, beyond an unsuccessful attempt to lay down a general rule for draining to the depth of four feet. Nothing can be more hopeless than anything of this kind, or more certain to experience disappointment, especially in a country so diversified in soil, climate, and management as Britain. The proof of a proposition so comprehensive as this would require an amount of detail, to do it justice, far beyond our limits, as already stated ; so that we are left only one alternative — of referring to a series of articles, written by us, in the " Quarterly Journal of Agriculture," on this subject, for details, pointing out in the meantime the single fact that the Society's Report furnishes an G G 2 430 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. example in proof, Mr. Scott having fallen into error, firsihj, by admitting that he himself is draining to a greater depth, in order to tap some springs (?). Of course, the principle here involved embraces the Key thorpe system of drainage, as well as the removal of all stagnant or bottom spring-water. Now, what is the area of land requiring to be drained on the principle of tapping a spring ? Is it not greater than that requiring to be drained to the uniform depth of four feet ? These are two plain statistical questions, which none of our drain- ing engineers dare yet attempt to answer; and there- fore, before they are justified in laying down any general rule for draining, they ought to be able to do so, as every one acquainted with the experimental philosophy of modern times must be aware. Secondly, by admit- ting that drains at 2\ to 3 feet depth do not last so long as those at 4 feet. Those of our readers who subscribe to the latter depth, will admit the principal reason of this, we presume, to be a more perfect state of filtration. Now admitting such, different qualities of soils will require drains at different depths, and also difterent depths of culture on individual soils. Again : clay lands, with a southern inclination, will require drains at a greater depth than lands with a northern, owing to the difTerence of solar influence ; and lands of a southern latitude than those of a northern. In a word, the more we investigate this dogmatic rule of uniform depth, the more absurd it becomes. The liquid-manure proposition was introduced by Mr- Chadfvick, who gave a very graphic account of the Rugby experiment, as will be seen from the report. Hitherto we have never been able to subscribe to much of Mr. C.'s hydro-farming; but the proposition of daily applying to the land the sewage of towns in a fresh or uudecomposed state is obviously sound practice, as results will be found to corroborate, wherever it can be thus used, while the application only involves a little more engineering. For example : — Let the metropolis be mapped out into small districts, each capable of keeping a small engine and force-pump working, in aeuding its whole sewage twenty miles into the country daily. Let street sewers be so constructed that during storms of rain the sewage could be tumed past at pleasure ; and let the whole house sewage of each district be conveyed to a small tank at its engine, in glazed pipes, and let these be well flooded twice every day, or as often as necessary, to keep them clean and free from decomposing matter; and let there be a telegraphic wire communication between the engine and the country. Further into details we need not go, what we liave just said being sufficient to show the outline of a workable scheme. Now, with such machinery, our readers will readily perceive both sanitary progress and fertilizing progress. At present and so long as the sewage of our large towns flows in open sewera for miles, it is and will be comparatively worthless as a manure, the decomposing matter in the sewers inducing the rapid fermentation of all fresh supply forced iuto them"; so that, before it proceeds far, the more volatile and valuable constituents escape into the atmosphere, polluting it. But keep the glazed pipes clean between tlie houses and the en- gines, and tlicn force the sewage through glazed metal pipes, at the rate of a mile per minute, before rapid decomposition commences, and the result will be very ditferent in both cases; for ill the one the atmosphere of towns would be pure, and in the other almost the whole fertilizing elements of the sewage would be applied to the soil, as in the case of Rugby ; the liquid manure-drill aud guano-water applied with hose and jet, as in Ayrshire. No doubt some very grave objections were brought against the whole system, but these are easily refuted. First, for example, it was said that it could not be profitably applied to cereals, or even green crops, after they had attained a certain stage ; but without having recourse to Mr. Chadwick's plan, not yet sufticiently tested at the bar of Practice to meet with general approbation, two or three applications may in ordinary seasons he applied to young wheat, &c., before it attains that stage likely to suffer harm ; putting on during those occasions a suflSciency to meet the future wants of the crop, so that if the watery portion of it is evaporated, and the cereals begin to demand a supply of moisture, the sound practice is to give cleao water, which can be applied at any time without doing harm. Moreover, with an extra quantity applied to grass and green crops, it will be found that cereals will not stand much liquid manure on the best description of soils. Secondly. It cannot be applied in frosty weather, was the next objection raised to the daily system of Rugby. But this may be obviated by any of the following plans : — (1). A spare, close tank for storing up on such occasions. (2). Prepare one field for liquid-manuring on the bottom system, first filtrating the liquid through some partial deodorispr, to avoid sediment. (3). "Work up the whole in making composts. Aud (4). Manufacture into a solid form. Thirdly. The last objection, that " it could not compete with concentrated manures," was, we fear, somewhat hastily advanced, and to us appeared levelled not against the Rugby experiment, but the other failures we ourselves have often condemned — examples where the sewage had become nearly worthless from decomposition in open sewers or tanks ; for at Rugby there cannot be a doubt that it is found cheaper than guano, or it would not continue to be used. We may notice here a common error into which both liquid-manure and concentrated-manure advocates fall, viz., the exclusive advocacy of either practice, when the country ob- viously requires both. Mr. Chadwick, for example, admits that the sewage of the capital would only manure but a very small area of the metropolitan counties ; while Mr. Sidney appeared to overlook the fact, that the most profitable plan of applying concentrated manures was, in principle, that prac- tised at Rugby, in Ayrshire by Mr. Telfer, aud in all cases with the liquid-manure drill ; and while both appeared to for- get that during the scorching mouths of summer, and not un- frequently spring, all the portable and fixed engines in the kingdom ought to be employed in applying pure water from our river?, streams, and ponds, in the shape of artificial rain, to our parched fields and crops. Such is our review. Imperfect as have been our rerasrks, yet we presume they have been sufticient to show the importance of the two propositions of inquiry made by Mr. Brown and Mr. Slaney, M.P., the one relative to our draining practice, and the other l!(iuid manuring; so that it is hoped neither will be allowed to drop until it is experimentally investigated and discussed, in a manner becoming the Weekly Council of the Royal Agricultural Society. The questions at issue are — (1). How many difTorent kinds of soil are there, in a draining sense? What are their diflerciit areas? Aud at what depth can each he most profitably drained? They are doubtless great ones — the greatest perhaps in statistical science — each of tliem far beyond the ability of the most talented to solve —yet ctrlainly not beyond the reach of the Society, if tlie THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 431 work is properly subdivided among its members, and distri- buted over that duratioa of time which the circumstances of the case demand. They ate, it will be seen, questions which cannot be solved ia a day, nor likely in the lifetime of the youngest member ; but that is no reason why the work should not be begun and persevered in as become all national works of the kind. (2). Ought not the sewage of towns to be applied to land in an undecomposed or fresh state ? Can it be so with proSt ? Seein£ that " the clouds drop fatness," ought not farmers, in times of drought, to apply pure water in the shaps of artificial rain ? Would not our pasture, meadow, and grass lands on such occasions, and our stubble lands, immediately after harvesting crops, profitably consume the whole or greater part of our town sesvage ? And will not steam culture enhance the importance of the liquid manure system, as the carting of manure would thereby be obviated ? The principal questions into which the two topics thus divide themselves are therefore plain. ON DAIRY MANAGEMENT. Sir, — The Mark Lane Express of April 31st reached me on the day previous to my leaving Yorkshire. Having noticed " W. B." 's communication on Dairy Management, I made the paper my travelling companion, with the view of giving this subject more attention. As your correspondent discovers acquaintance with the sub- ject, I am disposed to court an interchange of ideas with him, and propose to notice his statements seriatim. No. 1. That a cow when fat gives the richest milk almlts of qualification. I should expect from her in moderate condi- tion, when gaining flesh, richer milk than when fat aad losing flesh. If we take into account the disposition of the cow to apply her food to the enrichment of her milk rather than to hev own maintenance, we may, I think, safely infer that the milk of a cow gaining flesh and fat is replete with casein and butter to the extent she is enabled by her organism to supply these from the food she consumes. I am disposed, in a great measure, to attribute the regularity in the quality of my dairy produce during the winter season to my success in preventing or arresting the loss of condition in cows giving a large yield of milk. I differ with " W. B." iu thinkiug that a lean cow, skin and bone, fills the milk pail better than a well-fed one. I hold it to be undoubted that with impoverishment of condi- tion you weaken the cow's ability to yield a like quantity and quality of milk. I am moreover inclined to think that a well- conditioned cow gives a larger yield, independent of quality. It is a common observation that condition in a milch cow is of as great (I hold it of greater) value than for the butcher. If I purchase a near-calver in low condition, and keep her till she calves agaiu, I improve her condition, and consequently her value, very sensibly. With this improvement, I find, after her next calving, an increase in her yield of milk of four to six quarts per day. If you could see the same cow in each state, high and low condition, you would observe in the former state a greater development of milking properties, more distended Teins and udder; to use a common expression, she would look more like milk. Practice also bears out my views. The pur- chasers for London and other great towns have their agents and correspondents in each of our agricultural districts, who are instructed to buy cows denoting properties of being great milkers. These agents attach great importance to good con- dition, and do not purchase for these large towns, where quan- tity rather than quality is a desideratum, low-conditioned animals. No. 2. I agree with " W". B." in regarding the cooking of food for cattle as of great importance. I use as flavouring sub- stances, bean straw, bran, and malt-combs, together with oat straw, rapecake, &c. The effect of steaming is to volatilise the essential oils, in which the flavour resides, and to diffuse it over the whole mesa. On entering my cooking place, you per- ceive an agreeable odour, not unlike that from the process of malting, which imparts a relish to the mess, and induces the cattle to eat it with avidity ; but iu addition to this, I am disposed to think that it renders the food more easy of di- gestion or assimilation. One objection to cooking I saw stated in the discussion on feeding at the Central Farmers' Club— that it drives off some portion of the fattening oils. I hold it to be futile, as it requires far greater heat — speaking from memory, three-fold — to affect the fattening, in compa- rison with what is required to affect the essential oils. No. 3. The temperature of my dairy ranges at 52° to 60". During the time the cows are being milktd the dairymaid is engaged in washing the bowls with hot water, the effect of which is to take off the chill, but not to warm them, as on being touched by the hand they still impart a cold sensation. The miik fresh from the cows is passed through a sieve into the bowls, its temperature being about 90o. When these are all placed on the shallow cistern, the hot-water tap being turned, a thermometer with the bulb immersed in the hot water de- notes a temperature of about 100°. I have, however, on no occasion found this application to heighten the temperature of the milk; the bowls are of thick earthenware, a slow con- ductor of heat. With vessels of tin or other n;eta], the appli- cation of water of like temperature would, I am satisfied, sensibly affect that of the milk. The hot water is applied at each meal-time to the milk, when new. A second application, after the milk has cooled, is carefully avoided. Though the temperature of the milk is not increased when the hot water is applied, still the cooling is thereby retarded. I find the thermometer, with the bulb immersed in the milk, after four hours, still denotes a temperature of 60°. When the dairy, without application of artificial heat, ranges at 52° to 60°, the same result is observed. No. 4. To the advocacy of food rich in albumen as of espe- cial value for milch cows, I may claim particular attention. By an addition of bean meal in proportion to the extra yield of milk, I may say that hitherto, without exception, I have been enabled to avoid the loss of flesh in cows giving 16 to 18 quarts per day ; which, estimating the proportion of casein from Haidien's analysis, will contain, of dry casein, 14 to 13 lbs. per week, equal to 65 or 70 lbs. of flesh of beef, which has 77 per cent, of moisture ; whilst the utmost you can induce a cow to lay oa in feeding will be 10 to 12 lbs. of flesh, exclusive of fat. I may here remark on the great waste of albuminous food evidenced in the practice of those who submitted their treatment, when the feeding of cattle was under discussion at the Central Farmers' Club, many of whom use this food in larger quantities for beef-makiug than I find necessary to enable my cows, without loss of condition, to give off five times the amount in casein they can induce their animals to lay on in fibrine or flesh. No. 5. I have as yet no means of estimating the compara- tive per-centage of my butter in oleiu and margerine fats. One simple test I have occasionally tried — that of placing a 432 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. small quantity of my butter near a fire, iu juxtaposition with that of my next neighbour, who uses common treatment ; the effect of which was that my butter melted with far greater rapidity ; as the olein oil is more easily affected by heat than the margerine, it would seem to denote a greater proportion of the former in my butter. Other cousiderations affecting the chemistry of food on dairy produce have arisen, from observa- tion of the results of my dairy treatment, to which I may seek occasion to call attention. Haviug noticed seriatim the statements of " W. B.," I may answer inquiries which have reached me from different quarters, as to the improved value of the animals consequent on my treatment. The price of milch cows depends, in some degree, on their nearness to calving ; this, in proportion to a live weight, being higher close at calving time than at any other, not excepting when fatted. During the process of milking, my cows increase ia condition; so that in about a year, when their yield is reduced to about five or six quarts a day, they are ready for the butcher, and usually fetch £3 to £4 more than when purchased as near calvera ; whilst I an buying, from others, calvers of equal capability at a much reduced piice. I have been recently selling ray fatted milch cows at £18 to £21 each, and purchasing others in a dry state, of equal capability (and to make which fat will require a time of six months) at £11 to £14 each. Thomas Uorsfall. Ralieny, near Dublin, April 5, 1856. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 26th of March : present, Mr. Raymond Barker, V.P., iu the chair ; Count Sparre, Mr. Burness, Dr. Calvert, Mr. Delves, Mr. Gadesden, Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Rev. James Linton, Mr. Thomas Scott, and Professor Way. The names of 19 additional candidates for election at the next Monthly Council were read. Sardinian Agriculture. — His Majesty the King of Sardinia having resolved to develope the agricultural resources of his dominions by the application of the best agricultural machinery of England, Sign. Ambron, of Florence, and Sign. Pinto, of Rome, presented them- selves before the Council on this occasion, for the pur- pose of announcing such intention on the part of the King of Sardinia, and of submitting to the members the royal charter, bearing his Majesty's sign manual, granting those commissioners full power and authority to effect the important object of their mission to this country. CoTTON-SEED Cake. — Professor Waylaid before the Council the following letter from Mr, Barber, of Poulton Hall, Cheshire: — "March 4, 1856. " I observe in the report of the proceedings of the Royal Agricultural Society's meeting of the 25th ult., that you ex- pressed so;ue doubt whether the husks and short fibres of Cotton which adhered to the seeds fom which the Cotton- seed oil-cake was produced might not prove iiidisfestible and cause obstructions in the animals which might be fed upon it. This statement has already been commented upon by con- sumers ; and as it may iu some degree deter agriculturists from using the cake, I think you will excuse me in bringing to your notice a fact of which I believe you cannot have been aware, and which hns material reference to the question of the fibrous portions of Cotton adhering to the seed, viz., that cattle are extremely fond of Cotton itself, and eat it in preference almost to any fodder, and that no evil consequences arise from it, but quite the reverse. In fact. Cotton planters, when their Cotton fields no longer yitld a sufliciency to remunerate them for picking, invariably turn ia their cattle to eat up what is left. With regard to the husks, I am not jet prepared to give a very positive opinion ; but I have many years ago ob- served the avidity with whifh cows cat the seed, and in which they were never restricterl, so that I inferred no evil conse- quences arose from it. I have now some seed here, and am trying two beasts upon it exclusively. I have also had about 2 tons of it crushed, and have made cake of it without any effort at decorticating. The cattle eat it quite as well as that I have imported, the seed for which has been deroiticated as well as the aimple machinery will admit, and is the same you •nalvMd for Sir Thomas Parkyus. The analysis of this ia quite satisfactory, and is as follows : 100 grs. at 212 deg. lost 12.1 grs. water ; thus dried and powdered, 100 grs. gave, on combustion, 83.33 organic matter, 6.67 ash ; 100 grs. yielded 6.60 nitrogen, equivalent to 7.99 ammonia ; 100 grs. exhausted by ether gave 12.5 of oily matter. The ash, on analysis, gave — carbonic acid, 3.5 ; sulphuric ditto, 3.6 ; phosphoric ditto, 4.8 per cent. You are quite welcome to a sample of it, if it will be of any service to you ; and I hope on the next oppor- tunity you will correct any misapprehension you may have been under as to the effect of Cctton-seed oil-cake as a food for cattle. Iu reference to the statement of another speaker at your meeting, respecting the disagreeable flavour imparted to the meat of animals fed upon it, I have only to say that I have now in the house as sweet a piece of cold beef as ever was eaten, entirely fed upon the Cotton cake, and have eaten others before of equally sweet flavour. The butter is also equally sweet. " (Signed) Wm. Barber." The flavour of the meat referred to by Mr. Holland, M.P., at a former meeting of the Council, resulted not from the animals having been fed upon Cotton-seed cake from which the greater part of the oil had been ex- pressed, but from the Cotton-seeds themselves contain- ing their full proportion of oil. — Mr. Gadesden remarked, that in his experiments on feeding sheep with Cotton- seed cake, he bad found the mutton after cooking to be particularly hard, a result not to have been expected under ordinary circumstances, as the animals were at their full maturity. — Mr. Fisher Ilobbs stated that he bad remarked the same effect produced by feeding on Lentils. Arachide-nut Cake. — Mr. Spooner, of Eling, near Southampton, transmitted a sample of Araoliide- nut cake, along with the following communication : — " Observing that the attention of the Society at its weekly meetings has been di.'-ected to the subject of Feeding Stuffs, and particularly to Cotton-cake, I beg leave to forward a sa'u- ple of Aranhide Nut-cako, with an analysis of the same by Professor Way. The cake appears to be palatable to both sheep and cattle, and as its albuminous constituents are consi- derable, the subji'ct miy possibly be interesting to some of tl'.e members of the Society, to whom I shall be happy to commu- nicate any additional particulars that may be required. Anahjsis. — Moisture 9.81 Oil 12.34 Albuminous matter 35.30 Woody fibre, starch, gum, &c 38.26 Mineral matter 4.29 100.00 Containing nitrogen 5.50 (Signed) J. Thomas Way. (Signed) W. C, Spooner." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 433 The Secretary was directed to apply to Mr. Spooner for the favour of a communication of the particulars to which he referred. In the meantime, the following in- formation respecting the Arachide, translated from the French of MM. Girardin and Breuii, may perhaps be acceptable : " The Arachide, orPistachioEarth-nut, is the aracJtis hypogaa of Linnasus, and belongs to the leijurainous family of plants. Imported into Europe by the Spaniards from South America, it has been especially cultivated in Spaiu. It is also to be met with in some localities in the south of France, particularly in the department of Landes. The seeds yield about 34 per cent. of a mild salad-oil, which is, liowever, much iaferior in flavour to OUve-oil. It is particularly employed for the purposes of soap making and the supply of lamps. The oilcake is very rich in fertilising properties. These seeds, besides producing oil, are used for feediug purposes. In Spain they are eaten either in their raw state, or slightly roaateil, or mixed with cocoa into a sort of chocolate. MM. Payen and Henri have analyzed Arachide-nuts grown in the south of France. 1,950 parts by weight gave 1,495 of kernel aud 455 of woody integument. In the keruel was found oil and casein (constituting the greater pro- portion), gum, crystallisable sugar, colouring matter, starch, essential oil, woody matter, raalate of lime aud free nitric acid, and mineral substances (such as phosphate of lime, muriate of potash, and sulphur). They obtained 47 per cent, of od. M. Bridli, of Novaro, states that in Italy 50 per cent, is obtained; while in Spain it is asserted that the re.'centage amounts to 60. Nuts from the coast of Africa were found by M. Moride, of Nautes, to give 31|^ per cent, of woody integuraenl, and 68^ per cent, of kernel. lu the kernel he found 2^ per cent, of water, 35j per cent, of oil, 59| per cent, of organic matter, and 2 per cent, of mineral substances. From the Arachide- uut-cake supplied to the market from the oil-works at Rouen, MM. Soubeiran and Girardin obtained the following results : AVater 12 on 12 Organic matter 71 Mineral substances 5 100 In the organic matter there were about 6 p?r cent, of nitrogen, and in the mineral substances about ^ per cent, of soluble salts, and 1^ per cent, of phosphates. If, therefore, the Arachide is tolerably rich in nitrogen, it is, on the contrary, one of the poorest substances in the phosphates; accordingly, its cake, when employed as a mauure, ought always to be associated with substances rich ia phosphates, su.;h as bones and ivory black. The Arachide plant can only be cultivated with success m the south of France, Algeria, or other similarly situated countrie.'," Dr. Doebereiner, in his " Cameral-Chemie," gives the following notice of the oil : " Earth-nut oil, from the root-tubercles of the arachis liypogcea, which yield about 50 per cent, of an oil almost (ree from colour or odour. This oil becomes solid at a temperature between 37° and 39^ F., and is used for the purposes of cook- ing, as well as for the manufacture of a white dry soap." Cultivation of Grasses. — Dr. Calvert, of 3, Park Place, Regent's Park, read to the council a report on his 20 years' experience in the cultivation of Grasses on his estate in Yorkshire. The length of this state- ment, which occupied nearly three hours in its delivery, will allow us on the present occasion to give only the series of heads under which Dr. Calvert treated the subject. I. — An examination into the difficulties experienced by agriculturists of being able to lay down their tillage land to the greatest advantage into permanent pastures and meadows, arising from the want of a sufficient botanical knowledge. II. — The difficulties to be overcome in consequence of the foulness of the ground from slovenly habits, in allowing weeds to grow up and shed their seed from year to year, apparently sanctioned by all classes of British agriculturists, whereby the greater half of the land is occupied "by them, the produce of the desired crops reduced below one-half, and the quahty greatly deteriorated. Ill —The further impediment arising from the ravages made upon the seed crop by a species of gmb or caterpillar, called by Curtis the Noctua cub.cularis. IV. — The difficulties arising from apathy and indifference intho5e who have the means, and ought by example and pre- cept, to encourage the superior culture of our meadows aud pasture lands, so as to prod\ice at least double the amount of nutriment for their stock, which the land is capable of doing if kept free from weeds and laid down with properly selected clean grass seed only. V. — The difficulties attendant on ascertaining which are the kinds of grasses best adapted for permanent pastures and meadows in ordinary situations and soils, and vthich ought to be rejected as unprofitable or detrimental, either from their tendency to impoverish and exhaust the land, inducing foul- ness by their creeping roots, or by occupying the spaces where better Grasses might have grown. VI.— The difficulty of obtaining seed of the last species and varieties of Grasses for permanent pastures and meadows, without admixture of weed, and inferior Grass seeds. VII. — A summary of the preceding articles, with comments and suggestions, particularly in regard to the state of Isnd laid doTvn and the treatment of the growing seeds, so as to secure complete success. Dr. Calvert stated that he had adopted the plan of sowing his selected Grass seeds (of which he had still by him more than he required for his own use, a sufficient quantity to sow from 10 to 20 acres), at the rate of 241bs. to the acre, on well-prepared ground ; and that he preferred thin sowing, independently of economical considerations in reference to the seed. He exhibited to the members a great variety of specimens of the best, as well as of inferior Grasses, for the purposes of com- parison.— Mr. Scott stated that he had himself been engaged for four years in researches of this kind. He called attention to the experiments of Lawson and Drummond on the effect of depth on the growth of Grasses ; to the " Botany of Grasses" by Dr. Parnell ; and to the confidence which, from his own experience, cultivators miglit repose in all seedsmen of established reputation. They were nsponsible men, whose cha- racters would be involved by the supply of inferior seeds Portuguese Agriculture. — M. Felix Nogucira transmitted from Lisbon, through the Portuguese Em- bassy, a copy of his " Almanak do Cultivador" for 1856, with a letter stating that he offered it " as a token of his high consideration of the Royal Agricultural So- ciety of England, and as furnishing in its pages obvious proofs of the estimation iu which he held the agricul- tural literature of England." The council ordered their thanks for the favour of this present and communication. Field Dynamometer. — Mr. Amos, one of the Con- sultiui,' Engineers of the Society, announced to the Council the success of his efforts to produce a Dyna- mometer adapted for the puriiose of testing the draught of implements in the field. This communication Wiis referred to the Implement Committee. Communications from the Rev. S. N. Kingdon and Mr. Gubbin, on Sea-sand as Manure, were referred to Professor Way; and further papers on Agricultural Meteorology, from Mr. Fulbrook, to the Journal Com- mittee. The Council adjourned to their monthly meeting on he 2nd April. 434 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. A Monthly Council was held on Wednesday, the 2nd of April. The following Members of Council and Governors of the Society were present : — Colonel Challoner, Trustee, in the chair ; Lord Berners, Lord Feversham, Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; Mr. Dyke Acland, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Barnett, Mr. Barthropp, Mr. Bramston, M.P., Mr. Bullock, Mr. Cavendish, Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., Mr. Druce, Mr, Gadesden, Mr. Garrett, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Wren Hoskyns, Mr. Milward, Mr. Paine, Mr. Sillifant, Prof. Simonds, Mr. Simpson, Col. Towneley, Mr. Jonas Webb, and Mr. Western. The following new members were elected : — Bates, Thomas, jun.. Barton, Silsoe, Bedfordshire. Bousor, J., Barnoldby-le-Beck, Lincolnshire. Brickwell, Charles John, Overthorpe Lodge, Banbury, Osoa. Brooke, William, jun., Norgate House, Huddersfield. Brown, William, Devizes, Wiltshire. Chalk, Thomas, Lintou, Cambridgeshire. Chapman, John, Stowmarket, Suffolk. Doncaster, Charles Richard Thompson, Middlethorpe, Newark. Freeman, Rev. Frederick William, Stowmarket, Suffolk. Fisher, George, Cardiff, Glamorganshire. Gibbs, Moses, Highfield Farm, Wickabson, Gloucestershire. Grimwade, William S., Stonhara-Aspal, Suffolk. Guisford, Thomas, Baystone, Wickwar, Gloucestershire. Hutt, J., Water Eaton, Oxfordshire. Kenrick, George, Thurgarton Hall, Southwell, Notts. Lockwood, Joshua, Hawley House, Blackwater, Hants. Loyd, Edward, jim., Prestwich Lodge, Manchester. Mancheatcr, Duke of, Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire. Matthews, William, The Leasomes, Birmingham. May, Charles Neale, Devizes, Wiltshire. Mumford, William Henry, Bramford, Ipswich, Suffolk. Mumford, Maurice, Creting, Stowmarket, Suffolk. Nicholson, John, Pyrton Manor House, Lydney, Gloucestersh. Pickin, W. C, Fledborough, Newark, Notts. Postlethwaite, Thomas, Offley Holes, Hitchin, Herts. Reynolds, Edward, Norwich. Robinson, Thomas, Hutt Hill, Hedon, Yorkshire. Scarbrough, John L., Stafford House, Colyford, Devon. Shaw, Rev. Morton, Rougham Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds. Slater, George, Little- Walden, Essex. Smart, Mortimer Knight, 48, Bernard-street, Russell-square. Sturgeon, Charles, South Ockendon Hall, Romford, Essex. Thomas, Rees, Dol-llan, Llandyssil, Cardiganshire. Upward, A., 36, Duncan-terrace, Islington. Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, chairman of the Finance Committee, presented the report on the accounts of the Society ; from which it appears that the current cash-balance in the hands of the bankers was 3,399/. (including 1,200Z. as the Chelmsford subscription). Prize Essays and Library. — Mr. Dyke Acland, Vice-Chairman of the Journal Committee, reported the arrangements made for adjudicating on the essays sent in by the 1st of March last, to compete for the prizes offered by the Society ; and the further recommendation of the Journal Committee in reference to the preparation of a complete catalogue of the Society's library. Chemical Analysis.— Mr. Wren lloskyns. Chair- man of the Chemical Committee, reported that a revision of the charges to be made by Prof. Way, Consulting Chemist to the Society, for analyses placed in his hands by members, was at that time under the consideration of the Committee, who intended to report their recom- mendation of a new schedule of such chargts to the Council at their next monthly meeting.— Mr. Fisher Hobbs expressed his intention of representing to tlie Council on that occasion the great additional advan- tages the farmers of the country would derive from Prof. Way's scientific acquirements, if, consistently with other arrangements, a condition could be introduced into the Society's re -engagement with him, that he should in the course of each year make certain tours through the farming districts, and acquire personally from the dif- ferent members throughout the country a more practical knowledge of the means by which he might be able, not only to improve his own acquaintance with the appli- cation of science to agriculture, but to advance their own interests, and that of practical agriculture gene- rally, by such more extended survey of the ordinary operations of farming. Chelmsford Meeting.— Mr. Barnett, Vice-Chair- man of the Country Meeting Committee, reported their recommendations that a show-yard should at once be constructed of the same size as the one at Carlisle last year ; and that Mr. Manning, the Society's contractor of works, should prepare and submit to the Committee the plan and estimate of a pavilion capable of accom- modating 1,000 guests at dinner on the Thursday of the Chelmsford Meeting show-week in the middle of July next. Certificate Entries. — Members were reminded that all entries of implements for the Chelmsford Meet- ing (as far as regarded the space required and the num- ber of implements to be sent) were to be made to the secretary by the 1st May ; and all entries of live stock by the 1st June. Meritorious Labourers. — Mr. Fisher Hobbs hoped that some opportunity would be afforded at the Chelmsford Meeting to recognise in accordance with one of the chartered objects of the Society, such ser- vices of meritorious agricultural labourers as might be brought under its notice by the several local associations of the county of Essex. Field-Dynamometer. — Colonel Challoner having reported, as Chairman of the Implement Committee, the commvinication made by Mr. Amos, one of the Consulting Engineers of the Society, of his successful efforts in devising a Dynamometer for ascertaining the tractive force required to work field implements, the Council authorised the Committee to direct the con- struction of such an instrument for employment at the Chelmsford Meeting ; also to give final instructions for the completion of the conditions of the Implement Prize-sheet for that occasion. Country Meeting of 1857. — Notice was given that at the next Monthly Council on the 7th May at noon, memorials and deputations would be received in reference to the Society's Country Meeting to be held in 1857 at some city or town in the district comprised of the counties of Dorset, Hants, Somerset, or Wilts. Paris Show. — Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, as a member of the Committee appointed by the French Government for carrying out the arrangements in London for the Paris Show ne.\t month, expressed his willingness to receive and forward any entries the members of the Society might wish to make for that occasion. English Jurors. — On the motion of Mr. Hrandreth THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 435 Gibbs, a special committee was appointed to carry out any application the French Government might make to the Council for the recommendation of English Jurors for the ensuing Paris Show. Mr. Nesbit, Principal of the Agricultural and Chemical College at Kennington, presented a copy of the new edition of his work on Agricultural Chemistry, and the Nature and Properties of Guano. — Signor F. Lotterie, of Bergamo, presented a copy of his work on the Cultivation of the Mulberry Tree, and the Manu- facture of Silk and Paper from its Bark. — The Central Society of Agriculture at Brussels, the Royal Agricul- tural Society of Bavaria, the Horticultural Society of Berlin, and the editor of the Moniteicr des Cornices et des Culiivateurs, at Paris, presented copies of their re- spective transactions. — Mr. Eddison, of Leeds, pre- sented a copy of the Leeds and Yorkshire Flax Society, with suggestions for prizes to be offered by the Royal Agricultural Society of England in that department. — These several communications were received with the thanks of the Council. The Council adjourned to Wednesday next, at twelve o'clock, when Professor Simonds would deliver before the members of the Society his lecture on the Skin- Diseases of Domesticated Animals. A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 9th of April : present, Colonel Challoner, Trustee, in the Chair ; Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Mr. Asplin, jun., Mr. Astbury, Mr. Fuller Baines, Mr. Bosanquet, Mr. Burness, Mr. Corbet, Mr. Edward David, Mr. Devas, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Jonathan Gray, Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Paine, Mr. Pocock, Mr. Thomas Scott, and Mr. Vyner. Skin Diseases of Domesticated Animals. — Professor Simonds, the Veterinary Inspector of the Society, delivered before the members the first part of his lecture on the injuries arising to domesticated ani- mals from parasitic insects infesting their skin. The Professor commenced his lecture by remarking, that however little apparent interest this subject presented to the scientific physiologist, it was a most important one to the practical farmer and flock-master. All do- mesticated animals were, to a greater or less extent, affected by peculiar parasitical insects. These might be divided into three great classes : — 1. Insects attacking the external parts of the body, on which they pass through the whole period of their existence, as in the cases of acari producing scab, mange, &c. 2. Insects which pass their larval condition only on the skin, as a temporary nidus, from which they escape as flies on assuming their winged condition. 3. Insects most de- structive to animal life, lodged in the internal organs and cavities of the body, as grubs, worms, &c. Pro- fessor Simonds added, that veterinary science was still very inferior to medical science in its nomenclature, having in many instances very imperfect terms to ex- press the peculiar forms of disease ; and it was still tfie habit to retain different names, in the case of lower animals, to diseases identical in their character ; the mange and scab in the horse and sneep being analogous to the itch or scabies in the human subject. It would lead to greater simplicity and precision if the mange, scab, and similar diseases were classed under the general term of "scabies." 'Jhe scab among sheep led to great losses among flock-masters, in consequence of the dete- rioration of the wool and general condition of the ani- mal. Its cause for many years was not known ; and tlie merit of our present satisfactory information on the subject was due to a German physiologist, who clearly proved the wide distribution of acari or mites, in dirt or filth, sugar, cheese, flour, and almost every other form of vegetable matter; there being scarcely a substance not affected with them. He found that the male and female acarus of the horse and of the sheep possessed well-defined characters in the case of each of those animals, the former being the cause of the mange, and the latter of the scab. The study of their natural history would, in Prof. Simonds's opinion, be the best clue to the means of their destruction. These mites were endowed with the capability of travelling from one animal to another; and the scab-disease of sheep was known to extend to a whole flock, leading to fatal chronic disease. Since 1848 Prof. Simonds had insti- tuted numerous experiments for the purpose of ascer- taining whether the mites belonging to one class of animals had the power of engendering the same disease on animals of another class ; in other words, whether the mite which produced scab on sheep was capable of producing mange on the horse or the dog, and the con- trary. He tried these experiments again and again, with every variation of circumstance, but entirely failed to produce such results. It had, however, been alleged that in Germany success had attended similar efforts. The acari, or mites, varied much in shape. Pediculi, or lice, existed in the greatest variety. They could only live, however, in that particular part of the animal's body to which they were adapted. He then referred to the period which elapsed between the deposition of the acari on the skin of sheep and the development of the scab disease, as a question affecting the purchasing of sheep and the liability attached to that transaction. First a slight redness came on the Skin, albuminous fluid was exuded, which matted together the adjoining wool. In a few days definite pain was felt by the ani- mal, which violently attempted to scratch itself by rub- bing the part against any resisting object. The irrita- tion extended to 10 or 12 inches. The disease advanced with rapid progress. Acari had travelled over other parts of the body. In 16 days, 50 or 60 eggs of the acarus were found at the base of the wool. Large thickened crusts of a white appearance were formed. The health of the animal and its skin became generally affected. Large scales or scabs ensued, which, on being raised, a great number of acari could be detected. In- flammation had ensued on the skin. The itch in the human subject arose from the same cause ; the acarus burrowed beneath the scale of the epidermis, or outer skin. This affection was known to be more communi- cable when the person was warm in bed than under other circumstances, the acari then coming out and ex- 436 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tending their operations. The itch-mite insinuated it- self within the skin, while the mites of the horse and the sheep made their attacks upon the skin. He de- scribed in detail the peculiarities in the adaptations of these creatures for the accomplishment of their parti- cular purposes ; their suctorial discs for extracting the juices of the skin, their hooklets for holding themselves by the wool or hair so as not to be shaken off while continuing their operations, and the trumpet-shapeh appendages which enabled them to hold themselves securely by valves to flat surfaces ; the relative size of the male and female mites, the female being the larger insect, and adapted for propagation, while the male was smaller, and adapted for sucking the skin ; the disease, however, not being extended by males only : their changing th ir place in quest of new sources of nourishment, and the consequent exten- sion of inflammation in the skin of the animals they infested. He referred to the question of these scab- mites being capable of living a certain period when removed from their natural sphere on the skin of the sheep. He had instituted experiments to ascertain this point ; and the result was that he had found the mites alive and vigorous 14 days after they had been removed from the backs of sheep. He exhibited specimens placed for microscopical investigation in castor-oil between a pair of glasses. He remarked that oil of every kind was exceedingly destructive to insect life. This eff'ect was owing to the spiracles on the general surface of the body of insects becoming blocked up by such glutinous fluid. The acari, or mites, formed no exception to this peculiarity of structure ; they lived, however, as he had found, no less than ten days in castor-oil, between glasses hermetically sealed up by varnish, and during that period they were seen freely moving their limbs in the oil. He therefore thought it only fair to infer that they would have lived longer under other less fatal circumstances in the wool of the sheep ; and that for at least a fortnight there would be great risk to any fresh healthy flock occupying the ground from which infected sheep had been removed. The disease of scab occasioned great loss in the condi- tion of the sheep, and in the quality and amount of the wool. The hairy parts of the animal, however, appeared to suffer less than the decidedly woolly portion.s — as about the head, and below the knee, and on the hock. The remark of the late Mr. Youatt may be here added : " The old and unhealthy sheep are first attacked, and the long-woolled sheep in preference to the short : a healthy shortwoolled sheep will Inug bid defiance to the contagion, or possibly escape it altogether. The scab may be called into existence by the derangements which our neglect, or unavoidable accident, or disease, may have made in the skin of thi- sheep."— Prof. Simonds then proceeded to the consideration of the cure of scab. This, he remarked, was to be effected by the removal of the ciuse, namely, by the destruction not only of the acari or living mites, but also by the destruction of their eggs, which were ready a few days nftrr being dei)ositcd to turn out a fresh swarm of insects to extend tiie dis- ease. Many of the remedies proposed would destroy the insects themselves, but not their egg?. In the pro- cess of sheep-dipping agents most destructive to insect life were often used, but these frequently tailed to eradi- cate the source of disease, in consequence of the esgs being left uninjured, and ready to hatch. The rubbing- in of unguents had often succeeded; the deleterious matter was absorbed and diffused, and was present to destroy the young mites as soon as they came out of their eggs. The ordinary mercurial ointment had often been recommended. By itself, however, it was too strong for the purpose. The late Mr. Youatt had re- commended it to be mixed with three or four times its weight of lard. The following are his directions :— " A safer and more effectual method than washes — destroy- ing the insect and bcnefitiiig the wool — is the application of a mercurial ointment. It had long been iu frequent use among the sheep-masters, as a cure for the scab, but had got into some disrepute from its haviug been made too stiong, and applied in too large quintities, thus salivating some of the lambs and the pregnant ewes. The ointraeut should be made of two strengths. That for bad cases should consist of common mercurial, or trooper's oiatraeat, rubbed down with three times iis weight of lard. The other, for ordinary purposes, should contain five parts of lard to one of the mercurial ointment. The operator should begin with the head of the sheep, and rub a little of the ointment well into it. A shred or furrow should then be made from the head to the tail, aud iu such a manner that the skin is exposed. A little of the oiutment should then be applied with the tiuger to the skin along the whole of the exposed surface. Aiiorher furrow should then be drawn on either aide ; aud in this way over the whole sheep, the furrows not beiug more than four inches apart. When any of the scabs are easily moved they should be talten away ; and, last of all, the whole of the ointment that has been thus applied to the furrows must be well and thoroughly rubbed in. The quantity of oiutment applied to each sheep may vary from a few drachms to two ounces, one- third of the quantity being used for a lamb. The sheep that has been thua dressed may be considered at least as iucapable of infecting Rny of the others ; the itching will soon subside ; the acari will either be destroyed by the mercury as soon as they appear on the skin, or it will penetrate to their deepest recesses, and poison them there ; or if, at the expiration of 10 days, there should continue to be much uneasiness or itching, another but a lighter dressing may take place. This ointment will have a kindly effect on the roots of the wool, encouraging their growth aud that of the natural yolk, and forming a comfortable and most useful defence against the cold of the ensuing winter." Professor Simonds remarked that arsenical applica- tions were more potent, but they required great care. The best mode was that of sprinkling a solution of arsenic, again and again, over the diseased parts. The preferable form of such solution was tliat of arseniate of pot- ash, blended with vegetable infusions, such as those of Foxglove, Stavcsacre, Henbane, Dock-routs, &c. He recommended two ounces of common arsenic and two ounces of carbonate of potash to be boiled together in a quart of water until they were dissolved, when a further quantity of water was to be added to make up a gallon of solution. To this gallon of solution, a gallon of vegetable infusion was to be. added, made by jiouring a gallon of boiling wafer over four ounces of Foxglove leaves, and allowing the infusion to remain till cold, when it was poured off. These two gallons of liquid constituted a safe agent, and one of the most potent remedies for scab. Half a pint of it, at intervals of a few days, was to be sprinkled (from a bottle, through a quill in the ce parasitical complaints among animals. As a lover himself of dogs, and having taken great pains with a particular variety of breed of pointers, he had experienced the great advantages to be derived from careful cleanliness of their skin, and the application of a valuable old remedy he had constantly and successfully employed to keep up its healthy action. They were dressed with it regularly every spring, and having oc- casionally left a single dog out by way of testing the value of the remedy, he had found in that dog the greatest possible difference from the others. He had fully proved the effect : he now knew the reason. These fleas it appears never leave the dog, and can only be kept away in the first instance by a constantly recurring de- tergence. Such information as the Professor had given 438 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. would be highly useful to masters of hounds. He hitn- eelf offered Prof. Simoads his own personal thanks for his lecture. — On the motion of IMr. Fisher Hobbs the thanks of the meeting were voted to Colonel Cballoner for his kindness in presiding on that occasion. On the motion of Mr. Lawrence it was decided that it be recommended to the next Monthly Council that the concluding part of Prof. Simonds's lecture, " On Parasites Affecting Domesticated Animals," should be delivered before the members at 12 o'clock on Wednes- day, the 25th of June next. The Council then adjourned to their Weekly Meeting on Wednesday the 16th of April. A W^EEKLY Council was held on Wednesday, the 16th of April : present, Mr. Raymond Barker, V.P., in the Chair, Earl Grey, Baron George de Cotta, Mr. Beale Browne, Mr. Burness, Mr. Cavendish, Mr. Chadwick, Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., Mr. Devas, Mr. Foley, M.P., Mr. Gadesden, Mr. Garrett, Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Holland, M.P., Mr. Mechi, Mr. Pocock, Mr. Thomas Scott, Mr. Sidney, Professor Simonds, Mr. Slaney, Mr. Spencer Stanhope, Mr. Thompson, and Mr. Wrench. Liquid Manure Irrigation. — Mr. Chadwick made the following communication to the Council : Mr. Chadwick said : May I ask the favour to be per- mitted to submit some suggestions to persons who have adopted the principles of liquefied manure cultivation, now, I am glad to state, so far extending as to preclude individual communications, even to those with whom I am personally acquainted, and who have acted upon my recommendations ? The suggestions relate to the frequency of the applications of the manures. In recent times the " lasting" manures have enjoyed extensive popularity. A dressing which serves two years, and much better if it serves three, is deemed sound agricultural economy. Thus manuring with solid bones was once preferred ; but this practice has been broken in upon by breaking the bones, and still more by pulverizing them ; and by the experience of immediate and more heavy crops as against the lighter though more lasting production. With the farm baihffs of the older habits, who are accustomed to deem only that as manure which is to be moved by the spade or the fork, it is a great upturniiig of the ideas and of practice to treat, as I have presumed to do, that only as economical and proper manure which is only to be moved by the spoon or by the scoop. But eminent agriculturists have agreed with me, and have now moved many of their farm bailiflFs, who had been educated to give one dressing for two years, or one dressing for a season, to give four, eight, and even ten dressings of liquefied and diluted manures. The grumblings at this " everlasting work of dressing" " which would be sure never to answer," have been generally silenced by successive aug- mentations of crops. But even with yields of 45 bushels of wheat, where 22 and at the utmost 30 liad been got before, even with 10 dressings instead of one, with double, treble, and even quadruple crops, I have still to present myself with an aspect of dissatisfaction, and make remonstrances against remaining sins of waste, and talk even of the best of this prac- tice as backward. I have visited the farms of forward and suc- cessful a;,'rii ti 3 1 o en p GO OXI (DOO ^OCOCSM — CO OCCCO ►H CT fOO S-'ci ooocxia.cooo .1— iJ.-liJi>.i ,.1.1-1 Ot Cfl tn ? i' £ a -o cc en — *^ j^ t.*^ CO >1 -^ -t^ *i -1 CO ^1 fi 1 -• Length in Feet 00 GOOD OOO O3O5M05SJ*C)'Oi

•r; C J^ 2 ^ « Q Q 5 > F a; c «.^.= = 43 QJ ^'^ o to t'^ O •« 1 02 1 1 CI CO C-l 1 fL, *- ./i" O £ . ^ -H C-J IN f* IN c> St CI -N ^ '•. ^.5 s w a « CO o J= d CO CO o IN CO e 50 O !0 T1 ■" ca o ■— S3 3 4^ ■* lO in ei ■I' 1(3 ■O US roved by a new steerage patented in 1854. Chambers' patent manure distributor is a new instru- ment, the invention of a practical Norfolk farmer: it will sow from 1 to 1 (JO bushels of artificial manure per acre, delivering it with great regularity, and is excellent for the simplicity of its construction. Drills f(irli(|uid manure are still imdcrgoing improvement. If found useful ill this country, how much more valuable are they likely to prove in the dry and sun-burnt plains of Southern J'^urope ! Messrs. Hornsby consider the improvements in thrnshin'r machines to be e'jual to a new creation of the implement. Their business has increased tiireefold since 1851. Messrs. Howard find the demand for improved implements to come now maiidy from the tenant farmers: fiirmcrly it was in a great degree confined to amateurs and large pro prietors. The business of all the leading machine-makers has doubled since 1851. Messrs. Ransome concur as to the improvement in thrash- ing machines, and as to increased demand for machinery. Much has been done, but much remains to be done still. Messrs. Smith and Ashby date the wide diffusion of good implements from the Exhibition of 1851. The Paris Exhibition has opened to them several new sources of trade, in France, Algeria, and Germany, and has led to the appointment of an agency in Berlin for the introduction of improved machines into Germany, at the instance of a spirited merchant of that citJ^ Messrs. Bentall have found the demand for improved machinery increase largely since 1851. Such has been the uniform tenor of the replies from all the leading machine-makers from whom communications have been received. There is a host of local makers, equally alive to the importance of improvement, and adding largely in their respective spheres to the stock of good im- plements. AGRICITLTUR.4L CHEMISTRY. In speaking of the progress of agricultural chemistry, the name of Mr. Lawes must be placed by English farmers in the first place of honour. Without entering on the high controversy between Baron Liebig and Mr. Lawes, lately revived with increased animation, the English farmers have wisely accepted the teaching of Mr. Lawes, based on ex- periments, in the care and accuracy of which full reliance may be placed, and the results of which are open to the view of all. They have learnt that the approved artificial manures are not mere stimulants, but agents of fertility which, when properly applied, may be depended upon with certainty to produce a crop. The principles on which the growth of corn depends are better understood. The repeti- tion of corn crops on the same soil can no longer be con- sidered as necessarily faulty in principle, and to be un- conditionally condemned. It is rather a question of expediejicy, to be decided by the costs of manure and of produce. These lessons the English farmers have learnt from Mr. Lawes. They have accepted them with becoming gratitude. They are practising them with increasing confidence, day bj' day, to their great and proved advantage. Mr. Wa_y, to whom also the farming world is under the greatest obligations, has snatched a few moments from his professional pursuits to furnish me with the following sketch of the general progress of agricultural chemistr)-. This department of applied science is now attracting to itself the attention of able chemists in all countries; and the contributions to knowledge resulting from the various investigations have, during the last few years, been very considerable. To attempt anything like an account of these results in this place is obviously out of the question, and we content ourselves with little more than an enumera- tion of the principal and most interesting investigations. In this cottntry, Mr. Lawes has continued his experi- ments on the laws concerned in the feeding and fattening of animals, taking, for the objects of trial, pigs and sheep. The number of animals experimented upon, the intelligence and care brought to bear upon every detail of the experi- ments, and the very considerable expenditure which has evidentl}- accompanied them, place these investigations far in advance of any of a similar kind that have been imder- taken elsewhere. Although the results arc of a practical character, the experiments of Mr. Lawes must not be classed with the very numerous trials on the feeding of animals that are to be found dispersed through agricultural publications, and which are jiicre/i/ practical, being imder- taken without reference to general principles. The results of Mr. Lawes' inquiries are too numerous to be stated here ; but they seem to point out that a just balance of the dif- ferent constituents of food is of more importance in the feeding and fattening of cattle than a predominance of any one ; that neither the albmninous nor fuinaceous elements of food have an exclusive value for the purposes to which they are applied ;and that the daises of vegetableswhich iire peculiar in containing a liigh proportion of nitrogenous matter are not necessarily, from that circumstance, the most adapted in practice to produce that part of the animal THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 467 body (imiscle) wliicli most reseiubles tliem in composition. According to Mr. Lawes, therefore, the valuation of foods in rohition to their contents in nitrogen is attended with much fallacy. Amongst other papers, Dr. Vcelcker, of Cirencester College, has published an account of experiments mndo with a view of ascertaining the cause of the fertility pro- duced b}' burnt clay when used as manure. He has arrived at the opinion that the effects are partly mechanical, but principally due to the liberation of potash from silicates of that alkali existing in the soil, but only slowly available until released by torrefaction. Mr. Way has published two further papers on the im- portant subject of the absorption of manure bj'' soils, in continuation of his first research on this subject, which was published in liloO. Mr. Way attributes the power pos- sessed by soils to remove various alkaline bodies (as potash, ammonia, &c.), from solution in water, to the existence of a class of double silicates of alumina and another base, which is gcnerallj' lime or soda. JMr. Way has succeeded, for the first time, in producing this class of salts ; and he argues, from the effects observed in soils, that these latter contain the silicates in question in small quantity, and hence their power to preserve soluble manure sfrom loss by rain and drainage. His second paper on tliis subject refers to the action of lime on soils ; and he endeavours to show, from tlie large quantity of ammonia existing in almost all soils, which, according to his experiments, very far exceeds the doses of tliis alkali usually applied in manure, that lime a-ts much in the same vvay as ammoniacal manures them- selves, by furnishing indirectlj'- a supply of nitrogen to plants. The effects of over-liming are accounted for in the s;mie way. Mr. Way has also given an account of his examination of certain beds lying immediately below the chalk forma- tion, which contain large quantities of what is known to chemists as " soluble silica.'''' This form of silica has not hitherto been met with naturally, except in the case of some strata in the Department des Ardennes, in France, which were examined four or five years ago by M. Sauvage. From their peculiar nature they are supposed to be available with advantage for many purposes in the arts, and as a source of soluble silica for agricultural use. The subject in the chemistry of agriculture, which has lately, however, attracted the greatest share of attention, bothMn this country and abroad, is that of the source from wiiich plants derive their nitrogen. It has been satisfac- torily proved that plants growing in the ordinary way often contain more of the element nitrogen than they can obtain from the soil in which their roots are placed ; and it is ol>vious that in some wajr or other this accumulation is derived from the atmosphere. Now, the air surrounding the globe is composed of a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the proportion of about four parts of the former to one part of the latter ; it also contains small quantities of other gases, such as carbonic acid, nitric acid, and ammonia. Tlie question at issue is, as to whether plants can, under any circumstances, make use of the great bulk of the nitrogen of the air in building up their tissues, or whether they de- rive the observed excess from the ammonia and nitric acid in the air. This question, the interest of which, both in a purely scientific and agricultural point of view, can hardlj' be overrated, has enlisted the energies of chemists on both sides, and has given rise to some admirable reseaches. It has also involved the extended examination of air and rain- w-ater, in order to ascertain how much ammonia and nitric acid are usually contained in the one, and brought down by the other. Tlie principals in this discussicn in France are MM. Boussingault and Ville •, both of these chemists have made extended series of experiments on plants grown in glass-cases ; their conclusions are, however, diametrically opposite : M. Boussingault contending that plants cannot make use of the atmospheric nitrogen, but must be indebted to the nitric acid and ammonia in the air for their supply in excess over that furnished by the soil ; M. Ville main- taining that in the absence of both of these, an increase of nitrogen in plants still takes place. A Commission of the French Academy of Sciences, recently' appointed to look into thii! matter, leans rather in its report to the side of M. Ville, but the question is still far from being set at rest. M. Barral has determined the quantity of ammonia and nitric acid brought down by rain in Paris. M. Boussingault has repeated these experiments as rerards ammonia in Alsace, and finds the quantity very much smaller than in the rain of the city, a circumstance which we should' be prepared to expect. M. Boussingault has also examined, with the same object, the water of fogs and dew, and of rivers and streams. INI. Ville has carefully determined the ammonia existing in the air both in the interior and suburbs of Paris, Mr. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert have published the results of an inquiry into the quantity ot ammonia and nitric acid in rain falling at Rothamstead, in Hertfordshire. The methods of determining small quantities of nitric acid are at present so imperfect, that Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have not thought it well to publish their results as to this substance, but they are led to believe that in quantity it exceeds that of ammonia in rain. Besides the names we have mentioned in connection with these researches, other continental and English chemists might be referred to, if circumstances admitted of greater amplification. It is, however, obvious, that in this hurried sketch we have omitted all notice of many investigations on this and other subjects of agricultural chemistrj' which might well claim attention in a more extended review. Finally, r.-e must not omit to mention that the trade in artificial manures, which is rapidly rising into such national importance, especially in England, is receiving the most important aid at the hands of chemical science. Not only are the various waste substances of manufactures and of daily life worked up into available form, but the manures produced by chemical means, more especially the superjihos- phate of lime, are daily improving in character, mainly through the suggestions of chemists who have specially de- voted themselves to this branch of science. Fresh sources of guano have also been discovered, and new supplies of substances useful to the farmer have in several places been obtained. It is, therefore, not without reason that we congratulate ourselves on the progress wliich has within the last five years been made by that department of agriculture which is based upon chemical science. Field Practice. The greatest improvements in cultivation and manage- ment have taken place in the strong lands. Draining is the foundation of all these improvements. Draining, now better understood and generally well executed at a sufficient depth, has clianged the cliaracter of whole districts, turning unmanageable and unprofitable soils into easy-working and productive land. It would be interesting to ascertain the extent of land drained each year ; but no sufficient data exist for a relia- ble estimate. Draining operations are carried on by means of the public loan, the capital of private companies, and of individual proprietors. Of the public loan of £4,000,000, the sums issued for works in each of the last three years have been : — 1852 £410,478 1853 318,f;37 1854 322,728 £1,051,843 What proportion do the lands drained by the public loan bear to the lands drained by private capital ? If the example of this district should be a clue to the whole area of the coiTutry, the lands drained bj' the public loan would not be more than one-fourth of those drained by private capital. In such case, the total sum expended in draininn- for the last three years woidd amount to £5,257,615^ and allowing £5 for the expense of an acre, the extent of land 'drained would exceed 1,000,000 acres. This sum, or what- ever sum may have been expended in draining, will have been capital supplied mainly by the proprietors of land. A sum equal to the above in amount has been expended, mainly by the tenant farmers of the three kingdoms, in the fut- 458 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. chase of a single article of manure ; and this is not a vague estimate, but an ascertained certainty. The sales of Peruvian guano by Messrs. Gibbs for the last three years have been : — Tons. 1852 118,000 1853 135,000 1854 177,000 430,000 Allowing £12 per ton for cost and carriage, the sum ex- pended amounts to £5,160,000. To this must be added the large outlay on linseed cake, on bones, rags, on minerals containing fertilising principles, on lime, plaster, &c. With these combined efforts on the part of the owners and occupiers of the soil, there can be no danger in asserting that the productive powers of these islands have largely increased, and are continually gaining new force. I have said that the most marked improvement has taken place on the strong lands. Draining and autumn cultiva- tion, materially assisted by good implements, have enabled the occupier of strong land to add Swede turnips to his course of cropping. The importance of this addition is beginning only to make itself felt. This root, which, with its different varieties, created the value of the light lands, is now performing a service almost as great to the strong lands — not, as on light lands, for feeding sheep, but for feeding cattle. The quality of the turnips grown on strong- lands is greatly superior. The land will bear the whole crop to be carted off to feed cattle in yards. Cattle supplj' manure, manure gives corn. It is difficult to estimate the addition, in meat and in grain, which this alternating pro- cess will surely afford. It may be thought by some that too much stress has been laid on the value of improved implements. It may be worth while to examine the point more closely. What saving might be effected on a farm oif 200 acres of arable land (the rental, say 25s. per acre), drained and laid into fields of a suitable size, by the use of good implements? All land is ploughed at least twice a year. The difference in labour between ploughing drained or undrained land is Aery great. It would be an estimate much below tlie mark to put it at Is. per acre for each ploughing. For the year, 2s. per acre. The next process would be sowing the seed. On the old system, 2.^ bushels of seed wheat would be sown broadcast per acre. On the new system, with an improved drill, 1.1 bushel would be sown, with better results. There would be a saving, therefore, of one bushel per acre on the 50 acres sown with wheat, which, at 7s. per bushel, amounts to £17 iOs., or per acre, over the whole area, Is. .9d. On 50 acres of barley there would likewise be a saving of one bushel of seed per acre, which, at 4s. per bushel, would give a saving per acre of Is. Next comes the preparation of the grain for market. There are to be thrashed the produce of 50 acres of wheat, at a yield of four quarters only per acre, 200 quarters ; of barley, 50 acres, at a yield of five quarters per acre, 250 quarters. The cost of thrashing wheat by the flail and dressing is 4s. per quarter ; by an improved steam machine, Is. 6 J. Saving on 200 (juarters of wheat, £25, or per acre 2b. 6d. The cost of thrashing barley by the flail is 3s. per qr. ; by steam machine, 2s. Saving on 250 quarters, £12 IOs., or per acre Is. 3d. Total saving by the use of drill and thrashing machine, 6d. per acre, or one-third of the rent, 25s. 83, Besides the economy and direct gain to the farmer, the saving of one bn.shol jx'r acre of the grain employed in re- production is an important aid to ihc cousumcr, and when multiplied over the total area of land still cultivated under the old system would form no insignificant addition to the annual resources of the country. The rapid spread of useful information and of approved practice must belaid to the account in no small degree of the Journal and of t!ie meeting.; of the Royal English Agricultural Society. The meetings of the Society, held in each year in different districts, enforce precept by exam- ple, and communicate every variety of useful information in the most attractive form. Such are some of the proofs of the onward march of agriculture, and of the progress which it has made since the Exhibition, and, in many points, by virtue of the Exhibition of 1851. Still we feel ourselves to be only on the threshold, and much remains to be done. We ask of science to pene- trate yet deeper into the secrets of Nature's laws. We ask of mechanical art to bring to our aid in the field the mighty agency of steam. We call upon the farmers to continue and increase their efforts ; so alone will thej^ be able to keep pace with the de- mands made upon them by a population ever increasing in numbers and in wants, and to maintain the place in the front rank which they now honourably hold. The verdicts of the Paris jury will be a v.-arrant that no jealous or narrow spirit ruled its deliberations. It is a pleasing duty, in closing this report, to be per- mitted publicly to acknowledge, not only the personal cour- tesy, but the spirit of fairness and candour, which charac- terized the entire conduct of.my colleagues of all nations. It was my fortune, in the Council of Presidents and Vice- Presidents, and as one of tlie Committee of seven for the final revision of the awards, to assist in the proceedings of the Commission to their close. The same honourable spirit animated this high council, under the immediate guidance of the illustrious Prince its President, who himself afforded an example to all, of fearless impartiality and even-handed justice. •■ I have the honour to be, &c. J. Evelyn Denison. TO THE FLOCKM ASTERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. Gentlemen, — Having perused with the greatest interest and pleasure the lecture delivered by Professor Simouds (Veterinary Inspector to the Royal Agricultural Society of England), on the subject of parasitical insects in general, but more especially those producing the scab in sheep, and fully concurring with that gentleman as to the cause of, and also the treatment of that disease, which I consider most judicious and effective ; I feel much satisfaction in making known to you at the earliest possible period, that the remedies I am now offering to the flockmasters are closely identical with those re- commended by the learned professor. I need not say that to be supported by so high an authority, cannot but be highly flattering and gratifying to me : in su.pport of which, I beg to refer you to an important testimonial (in another column) kindly furnished Uie by the farm-bailiff to the Marquis of Salisbury, of whose flock one Ihousand sheep were infected with scab, and which were perfectly cured by the use of my specif c. Permit me also to draw your attention to the importance of first dipping the sheep in ray Composition, to destroy the travelling scab-mites ia the fleece ; and then, after an interval of a day or two, coiue down upon the scales or scabs nith a dressing of my specific or ointment. The latter, in course, being of an unctuous nature, is sometimes preferred; although, I believe, both are equalhj effectual. The luminous aud graphic description given by Professor Simonds has so thoroughly established the theory which I have ever maintained, and shewn to you, as representing the real characier aud nature of this loathsome aud ruinous dis- order and its treatment, thnt I am more than ever encouraged to urge such of you as are so unfortunate as to have it in your flocks to adopt, for your own sakes, the remedies that I offer you. Leicester House, Btlievc me to remnin. Great Dover-street, Dorovrjh, Yours truly, London. April 15. Thomas Bigg. *^,* See Advertisement in another column. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 459 PLATE II. Mc CORMICK'S REAPER, As IMPROVED BY MeSSRS. BuRGESS AND KeY, AND TO AA'HICH THE FiRST PrIZE OF THE Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land WAS AWARDED IN 1S55. McCormick's Reaper was introduced to the English farmer by Messrs, Burgess and Key in 1851. Practical experience has proved that the sickle-edge knife is the only one which will cut our crops without clogging, and stand to its edge any length of time. This machine is as wide as Bell's, and considerably wider than Hussey's, yet the power required to work it is one-third at least less than either of them. Previous to last harvest it required two men to work it — one to drive and one to rake the cut crop off. "Where the crops were light it answered well ; but where the crops were heavy it was very hard work for the man to rake oiF, and it was therefore considered desirable that the machine should be self-acting and deliver the corn in swathe ; and the Royal Agricultural Society, believing that by combining McCormick's knife with Bell's delivery a good machine would be produced, in 1853 gave the prize to Bell's Reaper, recommending such combinations to be made. It was attempted, but found to a great ex- tent impracticable, on account of the arrangements of the parts in Bell's Reaper not admitting a knife of the same angle as in McCormick's own Reaper, so that in fact it had the disadvantage of clogging, without decreasing to any great extent the enor- mous draught to the horses, which was one of the chief points aimed at. It was also a serious objection that the man who steered walked behind both horses and machine ; it was not only hard work, but he was in the worst position to see where it was going. The web delivery apparatus was also found to be so ex- tremely complicated and liable to derangement that its operation could not be depended on with any degree of certainty ; and the great power it required was another serious item. With a knowledge of these facts, and the result of practical experiments made by themselves during the last four years, on farms in almost every county in England, Messrs. Burgess and Key were enabled last year to introduce Mc Cormick's Reaper with their Patent screw platform to the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England, and also to place machines in the hands of good practical farmers, so as to have their invention thoroughly tested during the harvest. The result is the award of the Royal Agricultural Society's prize of £30, and testimonials from every one who has used them. It will be seen, on reference to our drawing of the Reaper, that the platform on which the cut crop falls has three Archimedian screws, the back one being longer than the first or second. As the machine moves forward the screws revolve, and the cut crop is screwed off and delivered in swathe, at right angles with the machine ; and it is found that it takes no more power to work than it did to draw the man who before raked off. The following is an extract from the report of the judges made after the adjourned trial of the Reapers at Leigh Court : — "McCormick's ilewper, improved and exhibited by Burgess and Key. — This machine cut a clear track of 5 feet 6 inches ; and in every operation in which it was tested exhibited a decided superiority. It cut with great precision both wheat and barley, standing and partially lodged; and in cutting through weeds and grass, showed no tendency to choke; the delivery is peculiar to this machine, and is the principal and most important improve- ment effected since last year; the corn, on being cut, falls on a series of rollers, fitted with Archi- median screws, by which it is delivered in a con- tinuous and well-formed swathe at the side of the machine. This delivery being effected by the machine dispenses with the attendant necessary in Dray's and Palmer's machines ; and it was proved to be capable of cutting wheat and barley with no other attendance than a boy strong enough to drive a pair of horses. The draught also was much lighter than any other machine; and the horses were not required to travel faster, or to exert greater power, than would be necessary in ploughing in land of medium strength. "The superiority in cutting in this machine appeared to be the result of a larger stroke in the knife, equal to Sj inches ; and tlie reduction in draught and speed the consequence of a more cor- rect calculation and distribution of power. "The Judges had no hesitation in awarding to this machine the Society's first prize of £30; and they feel assured that all who witnessed the trials will concur in that decision." SCAB IN SHEEP.— We are requested to insert the following important testimonial to the good effects of Mr. Thomas Bigg's Specific for Scab in Sheep : — "Hatfield, Herts, 31st March, 1856.— Dear Sir, You are at liberty to state that I have used your Specific for the Scab on one thousand sheep this year, and find them to be perfectly cured, and free from disease. — (Signed) John Gardner, Bailiff to the Marquis of Salisbury. — To Mr. Thomas Bigg, Leicester House, Great Dover-street, Borough, London." MALT.— During the year from tlie 10th of October, 1854, to the 30th of September, 1855, 4,513,718 qrs. of malt were pade, and 3,813,931 qrs, used by brewers and retail dealers ia beer. Of this quantity, 3,464,160 qrs. were used by brewers and victuallers, aud 379,771 qrs. by retail brewers. 3,557,074 qrs. of malt were used in England, 114,839 qrs. in Scotland, and 172,018 qrs. in Ireland. I I 460 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. The RMOMETER. Wind. Atmosphere. Weat'r. 1856. 8 a.m. iOp.m. Min. Max. 10p.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. cloudy 2 p.m. 10 p.m. Mar.22 in. cts. 30.06 hi. Cti. 30.12 36 46 42 N. West gentle fine cloudy dry 23 30.12 .30.] 7 31 52 40 N. West airy cloudy fine cloudy dry 24 30.03 29.99 36 48 38 E.N.E. fresh cloudy fine cloudy dry 25 29.91 29.81 36 43 37 East fresh cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 2G 29.81 29.81 35 43 34 East strong cloudy fine fine dry 27 29.81 29.85 31 52 35 East hvely fine sun fine dry 28 29.90 29.95 27 46 37 East lively fine fine fine dry 2 30.10 30.20 30 48 32 East brisk fine sun clear dry 30 30.25 30.21 24 51 32 E. by S. gentle fine sun clear dry 31 30.18 30.03 25 61 39 E. by S. airy fine sun clear dry April 1 29.93 29.85 39 67 52 S.W. & S.E. gentle fine sun clear dry 2 29.74 29.78 46 64 50 Southerly brisk fine cloudy cloudy rain 3 2984 29.72 44 54 48 S. by W. strong fine cloudy cloudy wet 4 29.67 29.77 45 55 44 S.by W. var. [fine sun fine dry 5 29.60 29.36 37 55 42 South gentle (fine sun fine dry 6 29.27 29.27 40 55 43 S. by E. & W. gentle fine sun fine showery 7 29.40 29.46 27 55 44 Westerly airy fine sun fine showery 8 29.27 29.22 43 52 45 I V/esterly fresh cloudy cloudy cloudy showery 9 29.27 29.27 37 52 47 \ West by S. fresh fine sun cloudy i showery 10 29.15 29.45 44 54 504 W. by N. fresh cloudy fine fine ! showery 11 29.65 29.60 49 54 5U S.W., S. gentle ifine cloudy cloudy showery 12 29.49 29.55 49 69 47 w.s.w. fresh 1 [cloudy sun fine dry 13 29.6.^ 29.70 44 63 50 s.s.w. gentle [fine sun fine dry 14 29.73 29.72 42 54 50 N. East brisk 1 haze cloudy cloudy showery 15 29.81 30.07 42 53 42 N. East brisk ihaze fine cloudy Idry 16 30.11 30.11 38 — 33 N. East l)risk cloudy sun fine dry 17 30.14 30.14 36 50 414 E., N.E. brisk cloudy sun cloudy dry 18 30.14 30.09 40 55 46 E. by S. airy cloudy sun cloudy dry 19 30.13 30.27 42 52 42 East gentle cloudy fine fine showery 20 30.27 30.30 33 52 42 East gentle 'cloudy sun clear dry 21 30.27 30,17 32 56 42 East brisk ifine sun fine !dry Estimated Averages of April. Barometer. Highest. 30.54 Lowest. 29.200 Thermometer. High. 74 Low. 29 Mean. 49.9 Real Average Temperature of the Period. Highest. 53.566 Lowest. 37.6 Mean. 37.95 Weather and Phenomena. March 22. Smoky clouds ; perpetual change, — 23. Fine sun at 2 p.m. only. — 24. Overcast, chilly. — 25, 26. Fierce cutting wind ; lull at sunset. — 27. Very fine. — 28. Not clear; cold night.— 29, 30, 31. Fine ; the month ends with splendour, and a peerless blue sky. Lunation. — Last quarter, 29th, 2h. 31m. p.m. April 1. Superb; hot sun; heavy dark clouds. — 2. Still fine; more clouds form. — 3. Wet. — 4, 5. Fine days. — 6 to 11. \ showery period ; total rain-fall here 1.17 inch. — 12 and 13. Two fine days. — 14. Night shower, yielding 0.275 rain. — 15 to 21. Keen, steady, easterly winds; fine weather; very drying. Lunations. — New moon, 5th, 5h. 53m, morn. ; first quarter, r2th, 4h. 52m. morn.; full moon, 20th, 9h. 14m, morn. Remarks connected avith Agriculture. The general character of March was aridity, with rather low temperature, and much splendour of sun at its close. April came in fine, but clouds soon formed, and a showery period came on, which furnished a welcome supply of rain. This was succeeded by drying east wind, and at a low tem- perature. Works of husbandry have proceeded favourably, and everything is beautiful and of high promise. Mangel wurzel still holds out in the stores, but we observe no turnips. Hay grasses are quite green, and pastures are well rolled. With more heat and a lenewal of showers growth would be ra])id, Croydon, April 21. John Towers. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 461 CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. The work of the farm is now very pressing, and requires from the farmer every exertion and dili- gence. The planting of potatoes and beet-root must be finished, and the sowing of grass seeds and the hoeing of drilled crops must have constant attention. Sow Swedish turnips in the latter half of the month — purple and yellow top varieties, and continue with Aberdeen yellow bullocks as a later sowing. Plant cabbages, kohl rabi, savoys, and winter bro- coli ; these plants require a large supply of farm- yard dung. Sow rape to be eaten on the ground preparatory for wheat, and sow early white turnips for use in autumn. Pare and burn lands constantly during this month, and prepare turnip "and clay fallows for wheat. All dung heaps must be turned over for ten days before being used, that a fermentation may take place; all lumps and large pieces must be carefully broken and shaken out. Watered mea- dows may now be shut up for hay — gates and fences must be thoroughly repaired for summer use. Cattle of all ages m^ay now be sent to the grass fields ; the milch cows in a well watered and fenced field ; the store cattle arranged in the pasture fields according to age. A proper arrangement conduces much to the well-being and thriving of the animals. The calves of the year must be similarly arranged, the oldest in a grass paddock provided with water and a shelter shed, and have one suckling daily, with clovers and vetches in racks. The young calves in the pens should have green food given them, in order to induce the eating of such food previous to being turned out. The ewes giving milk must have oats and oilcake in troughs till the early vetches and rye be ready» Part of the green food may be consumed on the ground, or cut and placed in racks, or carried to the yards for soiling horses, cows, and swine; litter amply. As the land is cleared, plough it for a turnip fallovv'. Hop-grounds are dug this month, and the bines tied to the poles - young hedges weeded, oak trees felled, bark stripped and dried. Wash sheep by hand in a running stream a week or two before shearing commences : to prevent the maggot-fly depositing their eggs on the animals, sprinkle them from head to tail from a dredging box with a mixture of hellebore root powder and black brimstone, J lb, to 4 lb. No month in the year brings more business to the farmer than the present, and if the work loses ground now it will rarely be recovered during the season. The preparation of the turnip and clay fallows is in the critical season; the first crops must be planted, and the rest prepared for with the utmost attention and dispatch. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR APRIL. The long continuance of cold easterly winds has had the effect of keeping vegetation in check in all parts of the country ; and the want of the usual supply of moisture at this period of the year, has been productive of some inconvenience to our graziers, whose pastures are unusually bare of grass. Nevertheless, our accounts of the general appearance of the wheat plant are very favourable, notwithstanding that it has made comparatively little progress. Barleys, too, though not much above ground, have required moisture ; whilst oats, beans, and peas have been greatly in want of rain. The backward state of the spring has compelled most of the leading stockmasters to purchase large quantities of hay — which is daily becoming very scarce — at a heavy outlay of capital ; indeed, in some quarters nearly, or quite, the whole of the winter's supply of turnips, &c., is now exhausted. Both beasts and sheep, however, have been re- markably healthy, and scarcely any losses have re- sulted from disease. We find, however, that the lambing season has not turned out so favourable as in some previous years — numerous losses hav- ing been sustained in the northern districts. The close of warlike operations has had its ac- customed influence upon the corn trade. Buyers, under the impression that " peace signifies plenty," and with the growing conviction that we shall re- ceive immense quantities of food from the Baltic and Black Seas, as well as the Sea of Azoff, have operated with great caution ; and not a few of our farmers have e-v'mced much anxiety to become sellers even av reduced rates. The trade has, there- fore, been in an inactive state, and prices have had I I 2 462 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a downward tendency. Now, to us, it is a matter of great doubt whether we shall receive anything like the quantity of corn from Russia this year that many parties seem to anticipate; and this opinion if, in a great measure, confirmed by numerous ad- vices from merchants long resident in the northern and southern ports. They intimate that the quan- tity of grain, &c., at the various seaports ready for shipment, is unusually small; and they contend that, owing to the unusually severe sacrifice of life during the last two years, and to the immense numbers of people drawn from the land for mili- tary purposes, it will be impossible to bring down from the interior very large supplies of grain dur- ing the next three or four months. But assuming that we shall receive 1,000,000 qrs. of wheat from all Russian ports this year, the practical man must at once see that that amount of supply — when our wants are fairly considered — cannot have a very depressing influence upon value. We are not arguing in favour of any permanent advance in the quotations, because we consider such an event most unlikely ; but, at the same time, our im- pression is that we shall not import more corn than can be conveniently consumed. In con- firmation of our views in reference to the export of food from Russia, we may quote the following from St. Petersburg :—" We are informed that the conclusion of the war was followed in London by a rapid fall in the price of Russian commodities, partly provoked by the notion that Russia has ac- cumulated quantities of merchandise of all sorts during the war, and that it must now dispose of them at a low figure. In calculating thus, the English merchants forget that throughout the war Russian exports have continued by way of land, and that thus we shall not be compelled to sell the old stocks cheaply. The supposition of a great quantity of Russian merchandise prepared in anti- cipation is equally erroneous. Russia cannot at this moment export any other grain than that already found in our sea-ports, or in their neigh- "bourhood, since there would not be time to bring anything from the interior for the navigation of this year. The corn in store in the southern ports will have probably been already purchased on the account of French merchants. It is only, then, between the autumn and next spring that Great Britain can hope to find corn cheaper in Russia than in America." We must, as a matter of course, receive the above with some reserve ; but, at the same time, it is evident tliat from the crippled state of the resources of Russia, a very large outflow of grain cannot be expected ; hence, it follows that a low range in the value of English produce is an event not likely to happen this year. A p;rpat scarcity of ICnglish barley continues to be felc. That article has therefore sold briskly, on higher terms. The whole of the imports from abroad have been readily disposed of, on favourable terms. Much discussion has been carried on in reference to the stocks of wheat now in the hands of our farmers ; and upon this important question appears principally to hinge future prices. That great inroads have been made upon last year's crop, must be evident to all engaged in the cultivation of the soil ; still, when we bear in mind that many of our small farmers have wheat on hand — and at a time of the year, too, when their rick-yards are frequently "cleared out" — that the various local markets are steadily supplied, and that there has been scarcely any demand at the large outports to meet inland consumption, we are convinced that the actual quantity has been much under-estimated. The stocks of spring corn, however, are now re- duced to a very low point. The enormous produce of the potato crop in ail parts of the United Kingdom last year, and the fine condition in which it was secured for winter use, are now more and more apparent. Even up to the present time, immense quantities are coming forward perfectly sound and fit for use. This im- portant feature has no doubt greatly interfered with the consumption of the better kinds of food, and assisted to keep prices in check. The present prices in the London market vary from 35s. to 95s. per ton. In Ireland and Scotland agricultural operations are very forward ; indeed, they have experienced no interruption during the whole of the month. Shipments of grain to England have been small, and prices almost generally have been drooping. The wool trade continues unusually healthy. In the manufacturing districts it is readily purchased at high prices, although nearly 50,000 bales of colo- nial will be ofl^ered at public sale in May, The rapid expansion of our commercial industry will no doubt ensure our farmers large returns for their wool, for a considerable period. THE REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. During nearly the whole of the month, the various markets have exhibited very moderate sup- plies of both beasts and sheep, whilst those of other kinds of stock have been small for the time of year. The demand having been active, the trade generally has ruled brisk, and prices have steadily improved. It must be a matter of no ordinary imjwrtarice to our graziers to ascertain the causes which have led to so much activity in the demand; and the leading fcauucs in the trade at this moment are of a cha- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4G3 racter calculated to have great influence upon value for a long period. It will be recollected that for a considerable time we have contended that the im- ports of foreign stock would of necessity fall off, from the fact that France had become a great rival buyer both in Holland, Belgium, and Spain. When we consider that France imported last year more than double the supplies of stock received into England, it must be patent to the most casual ob- server that prices must be dear in the great pro- ducing countries on the continent; and when we bear in mind that the consumption of food in the United Kingdom has rapidly increased, it becomes apparent that prices must keep pace with the demand— regulated by the extent of supply. We have been accused of taking a very different view of late, of this important trade, than we did some two or three years since; but be it understood we have to deal with facts, not theories; and we have to avail ourselves of the best sources of inform.ation to clear up every mystery by which the trade may have been surrounded. Now, in 1852, 1853, and 1854, we imported more foreign stock than we actually required : we had little or no demand on French account, to check the enormous outflow from Holland to this country; whilst we drew average supplies of beasts and sheep from Spain, Holstein, Germany, &c. Within the last few months, however, the very reverse has been the case. Taken as a whole, our imports have been insignificant; the English grazier has had scarcely any competition to meet, and our labourers and artizans have been well and fully employed, con- sequently have been good customers to the butchers. Thus stands the question at this moment : and when we consider its future effects upon prices, we are fully convinced that live stock will be very dear throughout the year. France is still buying largely in the Netherlands ; the war with Russia is over ; capital is becoming more and more abundant ; and France is exhibiting the same spectacle as England, viz., great commercial prosperity. Price, we need scarcely observe, will always be regulated by supply and demand. Supply, then, is limited; and the demand will, no doubt, continue active. Who, then, we ask, seeing these important changes in operation, would be disposed to contend that we have argued upon false assumptions, or that we have ever intentionally sought to mislead the grazier ? As shipments of linseed are being made from Russian ports at low prices, that article has been exceedingly heavy and drooping in price. Evi- dently the supply this year — because we must bear in mind that immense quantities will be received- from India for several months — will be unusually large. The cake market has suffered in an equal ratio. The winter supply of food in our large grazing districts is now almost wholly exhausted, and consequently the graziers have been compelled to use large additional supplies of dry fodder, fre- quently purchased at very high prices. It must be satisfactory to learn that the health of the stock, both beasts and sheep, has been good. The lamb- ing season has passed off well, though we hear of numerous losses, owing to the severity of the weather. The imports of foreign stock into London have been as follows : — Head. Beasts 613 Sheep 849 Calves 462 Total 1,924 In the corresponding month in 1855 we received 4,253; in 1854, 4,760; in 1853, 14,787; in 1852, 5,444; in 1851, 10,289; in 1850,4,667; and in 1849, 3,810 head. These figures will prove the soundness of our conclusions respecting price. The annexed supplies have been exhibited in the great metropolitan market; — Head. Beasts 18,427 Sheep 482 Cows =... 102,030 Calves 789 Pigs 2,375 The numbers of beasts are about the same as last year, but those of sheep exhibit a decline of 9,000 head. In April, 1854, there were shown in Smithfield 20,813 beasts, and 107,840 sheep. The arrivals of beasts in the month just concluded have been 9,800 from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire, 1,800 from other parts of Eng- land, 1,720 from Holland, and 446 from Ireland, chiefly via Liverpool. Beef has sold at from 3s. 2d. to 4s. lOd. ; mutton, in the wool, 3s. 6d. to 5s. Sd. ; lamb, 6s. to 7s. 4d= ; veal, 4s. to 5s. 8d.; pork, 3s. 6d. to 4s 8d. per Slbs. to sink the offal. COMPARISON OF PRICES. A pril, 1855. April, 1854. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef .. 3 2 to 5 0 2 10 to 4 6 Mutton 3 2 5 0 3 2 5 0 Lamb . . 5 4 7 0 5 4 7 4 Veal .. 3 8 5 0 3 10 5 8 Pork .. 3 4 4 4 3 6 4 8 Newgate and Leadenhall have been steady at very full prices. Beef, from 2s. 8d. to4s. 4d.; mutton, 3s. 2d. to 4s. 8d. ; lamb, 5s. 2d. to 6s. 4d. ; veal, 3s. lOd. to 5s. ; pork, 3s. 2d. to 4s. 8d. per Slbs. by the carcase. ESSEX. The old adage, " that March comes in like a lion, and goes out like a lamb," was this year verified to Uie letter. Again, " A pound of March dust is worth a kii^g's ransom," would, if calculated at the rate mentioned, delray our national 464 THE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE. debt, but eetimated comparatively was to undrained England at the time it came iiito use as ststcJ — the comparative esti- mate of a forthcoming crop with a dry March and April, or its opposite a wet one, would iu the event of the former be double; aud therefore prevails also to a certain extent at the present time. Upon tenacious clay land it is more in itself than all other favourable circumstances put together, and never in our remem- brance, we may say, has the land under wheat crop up to this time been more favourably situated ; still there are drawbacks, as there must always be : the severity of the frost has operated severely \ipou the young wheat, both early and late in the season, and the plants are now generally found to be too scanty. Much speculation has consequently arisen upon this subject, the loss of plant beiug attributed to the injury sustained by the larvae of insects, but upon which in our last report we gave an opi- nion to the contrary, and that the grubs found infesting the plants were aa effect rather than a cause of the injury ; and iu that opinion upon closer examination we are more and more confirmed. All entomologists know that the larvEe of insects feed upon decaying vegetable matter in preference to that which is in a growing and healthy state ; aud the presumption is that the plants infested by them have been injured pre- viously, either by frost or some other cause, and when in a dying state became attacked by them, which the unusually mild weather of January and February facilitated. Iu this opinion we are to some eslent confirmed, from having diiiled upon a portion of clover ley previously mown several varieties of wheat — all prepared and drilled on the same da}', in a similar manner ; upon four acres nine varieties were put in, which came up in succession, as the earlier or later character of the kind indicated, the whole being put in late in November, and consequently had not appeared above the surface when the severe frosts of December took place. Upon first coming up, however, no deficiency was noticed in the plant ; but at the present momeiit a very great deficiency in some portions is found to exist — so much so, that twice the number of plants upon a square foot upon one kind is found over that of auo;her kind on either side ; aud upon about oue acre ploughed some time previously, the plant is far superior to that of any Other. Upon observing the rooks very assiduous upon the portion of the field referred to (the remainder having been in potatoes the previous year) a close examination was made, and small grubs in considerable numbers were found, and which it was apparent the rooks were seeking. Two specimens of rough chaff wheat — the white and red — are a full plant; the Talavera and golden-drop the most deficient ; indicating the hardy character of the former over the latter. Iu other in- stances the injury is traceable to the severity of the frost, which overtook the wheat grains whiht under the prccess of vegeta- tion : those fairly established went on uninjured ; but those not established, in porous sods, became so far injured as not to come up healthy, and ultimately died ; facilitated, no doubt, by the attack of the grubs, by which they became infested. Whenever tnrnips, potatoes, cabbages, or indeed any descrip- tion of vegetable is decomposing, myriisds of grubs will he found attached to the roots ; in fact it is one of the modes Nature has devised for freeing the earth of the decaying vege- table and animal matter upon its surface. In this operation all the beetle tribe are especially prominent, and whenever warmth and moisture prevail in the atmosphere, it is carried on more extensively than at any other period. But to return to our subject : taken as a whole, the prospect of a crop of wheat at the ensuing harvest is favourable ; whilst that of all descriptions of spring-sown corn is more especially so, and the agreeable change of weather is now bringing everything into active life and vegetation. The pi evading cold weathe'r of the past month has diminished all descriptions of winter food, and but little beyond mangold wurzel of any description can be found. The quantity of hay is unusually short, and it is advai.cirg in price. Taking the* past into consideration, we are of opniiou that, as the severity of the winter set iu earlier than usual, and the ice in the North Sea broke up soon afterwards, and the cold eo prevalent in April from N.E. winds also took place earlier this year, we may predicate an earlier spring than usual ; he whoever that stakes his reputation aa a prophet upon the weather, it is said, holds it upon a precarious tenure; but with this knowledge we notwithstanding are inclined to the opinion as before stated. The preparation of the laud for root crops has ne>tr bceu more fully carried out or better effected, and upon the whole we may fay that the cultivation of land In genei al has never been so high for several years past. Prices, however, are retrograding; almost every description of produce is 50 per cent, lower than in November last — wool and hay excepted : the former is now mostly out of the hands of the growers : the sudden start induced them to sell, and the downward teudeucy of every other production at the same time was a still further inducement. The grazing of oxen has, at late prices, beeu attended with numerous losses ; and well might it be expected, when feeding upon oil cake at a price equivalent in value to meat at 69. 6d. per stone, and with bpans licseed, and every other article in equal ratio. The store beasts v.ere purchased also at a price equal to 3s. per stoue in their lean state ; yet with all these causes operating at the same time, many ef our graziers purchased oxen at from 15?. to 19^ each, which they have been selling out at prices not exceed- ing 21. advance, and iu many instances far lower. Sheep have lalcly advanced considerably ; but when it is recollected that a shecp-skia and offal realizes lOa. to 12s., it is equal to about 12d. per strne upon their dead weight, giving the butchers in their slang a "good pull" to start with. Hoggets, however, maintain their value ; but ewes and lambs have been selling at low prices : pigs under four months old are also sell ng extravagantly high. The dry weather that now prevails is rather diacour.igicg to tlse growers of mangold wurzel, as ti'e soil is too dry to cau.=e vegetation of the seed. It is, how- ever, still in excellent season for depositing the seed, which under the prevailing ttate of the weather ought on no account to be previously steeped in water : sown dry it will take no harm ; but, if sown iu a moistened state, without rain sufficient to bring it forward immediately, mould is likely to ensue, and to destroy vegetation altogether: provided rain falls by the end of the mouth, or even a week later, it will be siifRciently early to produce a crop. Many farmers, however, iu this district have sown for this crop a fortnight ago : the plant will be most likely to succeed, aa fine showers have fallen since ; but erly sowing produces a tendency to run to seed, which be- comes a considerable deterioration to the crop. We have been very particular in dwelling upon this subject, in describing how a crop may be best secured : by the assistance of this valu- alle root those farmers who still ore fortunate in having it are not suffering from a scarcity of food for their oxen and sheep : those, on the contrary, who are without it are purchasing from their more fortunate neighbours at £1 per ton ; and such indeed is the facility of growing it that no oue need be with- out— unless from sheer inattention and carelessness. Prices of wheat have twice fallen, and on the succeeding mar- ket-days have again rallied. Stocks of flour are short ; the quantity of wheat in the millers' bauds is small, yet, notwith- standing, prices continue gradually to recede : no speculation whatever is on foot fi^r English whea?, and when it is con- sidered that it continues to sell at above its natural price, the probability is of a continuous decline in prices taking place up to the ensuing harvesit. Putatocs everywhere are abun- dant, and selling at Ss. per cvvt. : large breadths ha e also been put in under very favourable circumstances. The late frosts have checked the growth of grass aud clover ; the latter consequently will again be a deficient crop. — April 25. NORTH NORTHUMBERLAND. The late month (March) begun and ended the driest and coldest that has beeu remembered for many years past. Wind varying from N.E. to S.S.E., with a continuous withcriNg blight on vegetation; trees and hedge-rows siiowing unmis- takeable proof of the ample supply of "March du:t." Field- labour was little interrupted, with the exception of a few moruings, when frost was too severe to admit the free working of seed -harrows; all other work progressing to the satisfaction of the farmer. At the same time, the entire abeyance of all vegetation on green herbage was making such undue con- sumptive demand on the turnip store, to supply the cravings of Nature for ueat cattle aud sheep, tliat by the cud of t!ie month supplies became generally very limited. April came in with milder atmosphere. On the (Jth some refreshing rain fell ; and again on the 9th and 12th we had distant thunder, with copious showers, which fell most oppcrluue for those who had land to plough up for spring-sowiug. To tiie 19th the weather was cold and ungenial, but for the hut intervening days a milder atmosphere, wiud S.S.W. ; and the face of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 465 Nature ^eems a'.l that cau be wished for at this critical period of the season. A greea foliage is breaking out on the trees, and fields assume a Utile of richer colour. Stoie flocks of sheep, which have had bare picking for a sustenance, wiU. have chance in a few such days of enjoying a full bite. Taking the lambing season generally, there is reason for thankfulness : casualties, which are always reported, will certainly not exceed former seasons with a full produce ol lambs. Fat for the market will be short for some weeks hence, owing to the scarcity of nourishing feed. The same remark will apply to cattle, the home-stalls being very generally emptied earlier than usual ; and, without supplies come liberally from the north, our markets will not be overstocked with large bullocks nest month. On the upland districts the Cheviot flocks are about this time dropping their lambs, and a finer season, so far as gone, has not been experic-nced — only the early winter reduced both condition of the breeding ewe and the pasture; consequsntly, we cannot expect the milk abundant for the tender nursling. In our progressive preparation for supplies of the staff of life, wheat always classes first; and we must report the breadth sown autumn about or nearly medium, and sprhuj the largest breadth sown for many yesrs : the latter has brairded slowly, but seems tolerably plauied. Winter and autumn-sown are much complained of; thin, and in many places evidently faulty. Rolling and harrowing has been liberally applied, and, with continuance of the present fine weather, the tillering of the plant will in all probability fill up what would other- wise be quite blank. Spring-sowing is all but finished, and generally well put in ; oats and barley receiving a dry bed, and making good braird. The breadth seeded with oats may be set down about medium, barley considerably less than usual. Beans and peas also show good braird, all having been got planted with land in a good state of preparation. Potato- planting on many farms has been completed ; seed plentiful. It is now fully twenty years since we had a supply of the peris7iahle esculent in such abundauce in the market. Hundreds of tons will be consumed by cattle, pigs, and horse?. On the other hand, the turnip-store seems nearly exhausted ; and, as a community, we cannot feel too grateful to Divine Providence for the prospect of early green iced, hay being scarce, and selling at a high figure. Straw plentiful, very little having been required for litter in February or March. Tiia bulk of stacks to thrash will not exceed ordinary seasons, and believe less thau usual of the wheat crop is held by the producer; the rule having been to market from the thrashing™ floor, and will likely be brought out very sparingly as the supply of straw becomes less wanted. Our spring sales, as they come off, show no lack of purchasers ; and the nuraeroua " lets" of grass-parks recently on " both sides of the Tweed" have been knocked down at rentals 5 to 20 per cent, advance for pasturage. Labour in all departments of rural economy at full prices. — April 25. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. ALCESTER FAIR was a flat and unprofitable one. Mut- ton brought from 6d. to 6Jd.; beef, 6d. per lb. Some store pigs brought liberal prices. BRAMPTON FAIR waa well supplied, including a choice assortment of Galloways, some half-bredi, and a sprinkling of shorthorns, the majority of the animals being well forward in conrtitiou, and in au excellent state for grazing. There was a good attendance of buyers, mostly from the south, and business was carried on with much spirit from an early hour in the morning until mid-day ; aft^r that time, the Yorkshire drovers, having completed their selectiotis, a languor prevailed, and the remaiiiiog lots were not so advantageously disposed of. Prices ranged within a wide compass from £3 to £14 according to age, breed, ami (juality. Anything that « as young, fresh, and likely to improve rapidly, was eaj;erly secured at terms some- what iafcrior to those obtained last spring, leaving but little mojey for the trouble and expense cf wintering. Of sheep there was an average display, but few lots changed owners, the greater portion of the flocks being sadly deficient in size and quality. In the pig department, a large number of young grunters weie exhibited, very many of which met with a quick demand, at prices running from £1 to £1 6s. each. CHESTER FAIR. — The attendance of buyers was larger than usual at this period of the year, and the number of horses shown was considerable. Everything desirable was quickly secured, but prices ran high. Good hunters brcur;bt as high as 90 guineas, and cart-horses ranged from 40 to 50. Saddle- horses were quoted irom £30 to £40 each. As regards the stock market, there was a good show of milking beasts, all of which sol 1 high ; very little fat beef was exhibited, what there was S-ld from BJd. to 7d. per lb. Sheep very dear. A small she V cf pigs, s'ore pnimals fetthins: lOd, per ib. CLEOBURY MORTIMER FAIR.— The attendance of farmers and dealers was large. The show of caitle was not so great as up,ju former occasions, but the quality was never sur- passed here. The following are the prices : Beef, 6->rd. ; muttm, 7d. per lb. ; store pigs, short supply, from SOs. to 60s. each ; store bullocks and barren cows in great request, and realized high prices. COLCHESTER FAIR.— The number of sheep and lambs penned was about 10,000, comprising some capital half-bred Leicesters, Norfo'ks, and Downs ; they were principally hog- gets, the supply of couples beiog comparatively small, but the lambs were in good condition. The prices a?ked being higher, the business in this departmcLt was rather slack, but towards the close of the day several lots changed hands; but buyers generally stood aloof, expecting the sums demanded for all kinds of stock to be reduced. Hoggets fetched from 253. to 50s. ; two years old exes, 40s. to 458.; couples, 403. to SOs. ; store lambs, 12s. to 22s. ; fat wethers, 53. 4d. per stone. There was also a good show of fat beef, comprising some excellent Herefords and sborthorcs, which found ready purchasers at prices varying from 14Z. to 211., or about 4s. 4d. per stone. Cows were few in number, yet tolerably good in quality, but the demand was slo.v. DEVIZES FAIR.— There was fully au average supply of stock, and trade was good, prices rather in advance of late fairs havinof been given. Good tegs sold at from 28s. to 32s. a head. Heifers and calves met a quick sale at from 17^ to 24Z. and 251. Beef was scarce, andjsold at lis. to 123. a score. Good horses, as usual, in demand, and fetching high prices. GLOUCESTER MONTHLY MARKET.— This market was held on Monday last. There was a very limited supply both of beef and mutton, indeed scarcely sufficient to meet the requiremeuts of one-half of the butchers who were in attend- ance, and an advance in prices consequently took place. Beef fetched from 6|d. to 7d., and mutton from 7d. to 7id. per lb. HORSHAM MONTHLY MARKET. — The largest and most active market we have had since it was established. There was a full supply of everything, and a numerous attend- ance of buyers. Of beasts there were 150 in prime condition, sheep 600, and pigs 180, with a plentiful supply ot calve?. The trade with sheep was unusually active, and a very high price was made of the best quality. Beef, 4s. to 43. 8d. ; mutton, 5s. 2d. to 5s. 9d. ; veal, 5s. to 53. 6d. LINCOLN FAIR. — Monday: a large number of valuable horses has changed bands. As is usual on the Monday, the f lir was principally confined to the sale of horses of a superior class, which being of a somewhat limited number, sales were T.'ry brisk at prices most satisfactory to holders. Saddle-horses of all description, both for army and other purposes, met with a ready sale, and realized high prices, almost as soon as they marie their appearance. Tuesday : As on Monday, the hest class of hunters, carriage-horses, and saddle horses realized high prices, and met with ready sale, while the commoner breeds of horses were entirely neglected, doubtless untd the fag end of the fair. Vv^edneaday : There was a great demand for good cart-horses, of which there was a large supply, and some of the best of this class realized as much as 50/. each. A grey two-year-old was bought for 50?., a brown two-year-old for 43/., another fetched 47/ , and so on. Thursday : The sheep fair was much smaller than last year, and it was calcu- lated that not quite 30,000 were penned. The trade was early very brisk, and most of the pens of boggs were disposed of to 4G6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tbe speculators at prices varyiug from 3(J3., 40s., 45a., 473., and up to 543. per head. A considerable number of the pens changed hands two or three times io the course of the morn- iog, but later in the day trade was duller, and prices were slightly drooping. All were, however, sold. MUIR OF ORD MARKET.— On Wednesday the sheep were sold. About 5,000 were exposed, chiefly half-bred and Cheviot hoggj. Nearly one-half of the stock was half-bred, but not ot the best quality. The best cf the lots had been in many instances sold already ; and those exposed were only seconds. The best lots were bought eagerly. One lot of pure-bred Leicester wether hoggs was pur- chased as sooa as they appeared at 283. ; within a couple of hours they were sold again at an advance of 23,, and again shortly afterwards at 32s. Another lot of ewe hoggs was sold at 143., and very shortly afterwards aS 16s. The highest price given for Cheviot wether hogga was 21s. 6d.; the lot sold at this figure was a very superior one. The greater part of the sales were at from IGs. to 19s. A large number of sheep, and especially half-breds, were unsold. Probably, since there has been a market at the Muir of Ord, there has been no such turn out of cattle at any time on that stance as there was on Thursday. In number and quality the exhibition was without precedent. Some of the twc-year-old crosses excited general admiration, and, indeed, the bad lots were outnumbered by the good; the only thing that was wanting was good prices, and these, unhappily, were not to be had at all. Tiie decrease in price was not Icjs than £2 lOs. to £3 a-head on beasts which last year would have fetched £12 to £15. It was £2 a-head on animals of less value, and about the same — making, of course, a hij;her pcr-ceutage— on the least valuable kind of crosses. Several farmers familidr with the market calculated the depreciation at 20 per cent. Highland stock was almost at a stand-still. PAIGNTON MONTHLY MARKET.— There was a very good supply of fat bullocks, which sold readily at from 58s. to 603. per cwt. Sheep scarce, and sold 7|d. per lb. ; cows and calves from £15 to £20 ; store bullocks from 40s. to 45s. per cwt. PENRITH FAIR.— The supply was not so large as last year, or other years previous ; but the market was brisk, and prices ran very high. We heard of one lot of half-bred hoggs which were sold at the amazing price of 51s. 6d., but about 383. and 39s. was the average price for the best lots. Cheviot hoggs brought from IBs. to 243. It was an excellent selling market. 1 he cattle fair was a very large show : the Messrs. Young alone would have about a thousand head of grazing cattle, or upwards. Gelt cattle were in very brisk request, and good to sell. Prices would run from £10 to £14, and some very superior beasts were sold as far as £15 to £16. Calving cowa were also very good to sell, and brought high prices, as far as from £15 to £18 each. There was a very large show of bulls — the largest ever known at this fair. The show of fat cattle was very small, and not of the most prime quality ; the best trade was done in gelt cattle aud sheep. The show of horses took place, as usual, in Burrowgate; there was a large show of very fine animals, but the best sho'V was for agricultural purposes. A few good blood horses were also shown. SHIPSTON-ON-STOUR FAIR.— There was a numerous attendance of dealers, and a good supply of all kinds of cattle. The prices varied from £40 to £65. Mr. George Holtom, of Cherington, sold one in the rough, which had been turned out all the winter, for £75. Mr. Thomas Garrett, of Compton Scorpion, had four pure Hereford yearling bulls, which for symmetry and size were much adniired ; they were sold by auction, and three of them realized 22 gs. each. There was an excellent supply of fat sheep ; those most remarkable fcr size belonged to Mr. Baker, Brailes ; Mr. Harris, Brailes- buildings; Mr. Harris, Sutton; and Mr. Thomas Halford, of Newbold. Some of them out of the wool were sold at £3 each. Beef 6d. to 7d., mutton 6d. to 6r^d. per lb. TENBURY FAIR was scantily supplied with every de- scription of stock ; and prices ruled very high, beiug in ad- vance over those of Cleobury and other fairs. TIVERTON GREAT MARKET.— The show of stock was small ; and this, coupled with the fact that the fine weather we have been favoured with lately holds out an inducement to the farmers to purchase more largely than they did in the winter, enabled exhibitors to dispose cf their cattle at higher rates than were obtained at the great market in February last. Fat bullocks of prime quality were quoted at lis. per score, cows and calves £13 to £14 each, good barreners 6s. to 63. 6d. per score. The show of sheep was hardly an average one. Fat hog?, with their wool on, sold at from 7d. to 8d. ; fat ewe", unshorn, 6d. to G^^d. per lb. ; store hogs, 303. to 358. each ; butchcra' calves, 4d. to 5|d. per lb. ; rearing calves, 253. to SOs. each. WAREH AM FAIR was very fully attended ; and a good supply of stock was exhibited, mostly of a rough character. Those of a better description met with a ready sale, and realized prices far beyond the expectation of sellers. WELSHPOOL FAIi; was well attended both by dealers and stock. Barren cows and heifers were sold very high. Fresh bullocks were also in great demand. Of fat beef there was but a small show, which met with a ready sale at 6d. to C|d. per lb. There was only a small number of horses, which were soon disposed of. Good cart-horses were eagerly bought up, at high prices, several being sold for £50 each. WINSLOW FAIR.— A short supply o' stock. The cow kind were generally in low condition ; and, as high prices were asked, but few sales took place. The supply of sheep was plentiful, and a good trade was done in them. WORCESTER FAIR.— There was a good supply of cows, and cows and calves, and a ready sale. In horses a good business done. A plentiful supply of pig', and fat ones sold at IO3. 6d. per score. Beef 6Jd. to 7d. per lb., Mutton 7d. to 8d. Ewes aud lambs sold well. Several sales were made, and the following prices obtained : For fat sheep, out of the wool, 58s. a head ; ewes and lambs, 543. per couple; fat cows, £24 each ; fat oxen £25 ; Ayrshire heifers, £12 lOs. ; shorn- horn yearling bulls, 18| guineas. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE. DURING THE MONTH OF APRIL. As the month of March was a period of great fluctuation, in which a decline in price pre- ponderated 4s, to 5s. per qr. on wheat, so the past month has been comparatively calm, with a continued downward tendency till near its close, which must be principally traced to the establish- ment of peace. The full persuasion that a lower ranf^e of prices must ensue after next harvest has evidently disposed farmers more readily to part with their stocks j and the circumstance that 46,448 qrs, more have been returned in the weekly sales during the first four months of this year than were returned in 1855, with the acknowledged plen- teousness of the crop of the previous season, may be deemed conclusive of the general an.\iety to sell. Stocks must, however, have proportionately dimi- nished ; and we begin to find complaints of this already in some quarters ; and with the certainty that fully four months must elapse before the ne.\t in-gathering, there is every probability that we may THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 467 yet run short on the eve of plenty, and consequently see higher rates. The fear of a large and imme- diate influx of wheat from the Baltic is evidently groundless ; the war and a had crop in the interior of Russia leaving hut little on the sea-board there, while the devastations of the Allies in the Sea of Azoffand Euxine, as well as the diminution of the facilities for shipment from the same causes, have both reduced the quantity in store, and placed the remainder at a greater distance from our shores. Italy has indeed relaxed in her prohibitory system, and the fear of lower rates on the part of specu- lators in foreign ports will doubtless contribute largely to our necessities, as well as to those of France and Belgium ; but America, the source to which all eyes are turned, has disappointed expecta- tions in her supplies hitherto, as well as in the rates maintained, which are higher relatively than our own. Her shipments to all parts of Europe and other places, from 1st September to 4th March last, were something under 1,500,000 qrs. of wheat and flour ; while this kingdom had only then received 440,000 qrs. of wheat and 682,500 brls. of flour. Our total foreign imports for the first quarter of this year have been 454,250 qrs. wheat, and 220,837 cwts. (equal to 88,335 sacks) flour. At this rate of supply our foreign arrivals would be only half the usual amount, with a crop below an average ; and with an increasing population this is likely to be felt, even supposing there were no future drain upon us from the near continental ports ; and the circumstance of a 5s. rise on wheat, during the last week, in Paris, makes this highly probable. Maize, however, is plentiful; and this, with the low quality wheat expected, must be inade to suffice. There is doubtless yet enough in the country to force markets down, and the absence of all speculation may temporarily depress overdone markets till once the impression of scarcity prevails. The first Monday of the month opened with dulness, without large arrivals. Fine white wheat alone was eagerly sought, and obtained a full price; in good red the trade was quiet; while infe- rior was neglected. Little was doing in granaried foreign, and the bulk of the arrivals being then in- ferior, it was placed in store. Increased dulness prevailed through the week, and on the second Monday a reduction of 3s. per qr. ensued. The foreign supplies, with much of low quality, reach- ing to over 25,000 qrs., with a show of samples of home-growth better than usual, from the circum- stance that many were left over from the previous week, the course of this week, as it respects trade, had features precisely similar to the preceding, having finished excessively dull, and with a general expectation that lower quotations would obtain on the following Monday. This, however, was not the case ; many of the last country markets, having showed symptoms of improvement ; still, as with only moderate supphes business was dull, it was evident lower prices would have ruled on a plen- tiful market. With the last Monday, however, came a change rather in favour of sellers, the supply being only moderate from Kent and Essex. White wheat of fine quality was sought, and realized Is. more; while all good red found a steady trade. In foreign more trade was passing, espe- cially in the inferior kinds, for consumption in the country. Fine qualities are still held with some reserve. The country markets have followed the town reports ; those held last showing more im- provement, say Is. to 2s. per qr. Liverpool closed with a firmer tone. Nearly all through the month foreign markets were similarly affected with our own, through the tidings of peace, and many forced sales, by orders of the French Government, have been made both in Paris, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Havre, and other places, with tlte evident design of keeping prices down, and giving the appearance of plenty for political ends. It has also been announced that the calculated deficiency in the crops was supplied within about 800,000 qrs. ; but, in spite of all these eflforts, the country markets are getting bare, and giving evidence of greatly reduced stocks. Flour during the last week, in Paris, rose 8 francs per sack, and wheat 3 francs per Ih hectolitre, say 58. per qr. ; while the Belgian markets are on the move, and the Baltic has little to send. American supplies keep scanty on their seaboard, and Flour during the month has only yielded 2f. per brl.; while the light stocks of wheat have kept prices up. The month's supplies in London have been much on the same scale as in March, con- sisting of 23,589 qrs. English, and 56,817' foreign, half of which has been of low description from India, Egypt, and the Mediterranean, and nothing of first quality. The exports for the month were 1,711 qrs. Business has become so changed by the railways, that the arrivals of flour for some time past have doubled those of English wheat, and to this may be traced the occasional greater depression of the London market. The weekly supplies from the country have exceeded those of March, and with an increased temperature, sales have been diflScult at lower rates. The month has witnessed a decline of 3s. per sack on Norfolks, the periods when it took place being on the 2nd Monday, when it fell 2s., and on the 3rd, when a further reduction of Is. was submitted to. The fourth Monday, on good supplies, found a better sale for both country and foreign samples. Norfolks closing at 47s. to 58s., Spanish being held at 55s., and fine American 4Q8 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. at 40s, per brl. The month's supply has been 56,947 sacks country, 1,965 sacks foreign, and 19,821 brls. American. Forced sales on the part of the French Government produced such low rates at Havre that orders for American were sent there in preference to the place of growth, from the advantage of lower prices, and 1,800 brls. have arrived from this French port during the last week. Barley has continued in short supjjly and active enquiry, especially all qualities fit for malting, which are scarce. The first and second Monday each successively obtained Is. advance, and the following was firm, with a good business. Dis- tillers finding English arrivals short, were glad to become importers of Danish, which arrived to the extent of 3,200 qrs., without appearing on the market, going direct to the distilleries. The last market closed with a steady trade, at fully the previous rates. The total arrivals for the month have been only 11,958 qrs. Enghsh, and 5,736 foreign, nearly all Danish, The prices of oats during the month have gra- dually declined, without heavy supplies. The first Monday was dull, with only moderate arrivals, good corn selling with difficulty at former rates; while inferior required an abatement to force them off, the market continuing heavy through the week. Another moderate arrival on the second Monday was unable to preserve them from a decline ; the re- duction, however, v/as only 6d. per qr. ; but on the following Monday, with a heavy supply of foreign, viz., 29,000 qrs., 7,000 Irish, and the average quantity of English, the rates further gave way for even the best sweet sorts fully Is, per qr. ; while cargoes out of condition could only be cleared by a still greater sacrifice. Buyers, however, whose stocks were getting low, evidently took this day for a favourable opportunity, and accordingly a large business was effected at the reduced rates. The fourth Monday showed only moderate arrivals, and business in all kinds was steady, with former prices well sustained, and a somewhat upward look. The continual decline in price of this grain, with less than the usual supply of Irish, seems un- accountable, the late importation of foreign gene- rally leaving a serious loss. More Dutch corn has, however, arrived than anticijiated ; and the early departure of the frost from the Baltic has kept the market so regularly provided, that dealers have been indifferent purchasers, unless at tempt- ing rates. The present prices, however, seem likely to increase the demand, and can hardly be expected further to recede, except in occasional gluts. During the month, 5,250 qrs. English, 21,077 qrs. Irish, and 50,527 qrs. foreign have been received. These have consisted princi])ally of Danish, Swedish, and Dutch. Beans have been at the point of stagnation, from the continued arrivals from Alexandria, though less than in the previous month, the total quantity being 7,164 qrs., with 1,385 qrs. English. Very little difference has to be noted in the quotations, which have, nevertheless, been downward, no ex- tensive sales being possible without acceding to lower prices to the extent of fully Is. per qr. The closing of the Mahmoudieh Canal, for cleaning, in Egypt, may ultimately relieve tVie present pressure on the market, by giving time for the consumption of accumulated slocks. Peas, though they have come to hand on the most limited scale — the month's supply being only 566 qrs. — have been influenced by the liberal arrivals of beans and lentils, which latter, being highly nutritious, have found an extensive demand for sheep-feeding. No change has been made in the quotations. Linseed has fallen considerably, the stocks hav- ing everywhere accumulated in Russian ports, whence large supplies must be expected. The de- clension for the month has been about 5s. to 7s. per qr. Cakes have not proportionately given way, the scarcity of keep placing them in continual demand. Some little reaction in favour of linseed ensued last Monday. The seed season may be considered closed. The dem?.nd for cloverseed has been belov/ the average of years. Prices, therefore, are reduced and nominal, though stocks are low, and considerable shipments have been made to Germany, for this season's sowing. Canaryseed and hempseed have sold slowlj^, as well as mustardaeed, crushers having generally supplied themselves according to their prospective wants. Rapeseed, carrav/ay, and coriander have shown little variation. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Sbillinffs per Uuartrr Wheat, Essex aud Kent, white, new . 61 to 71 extra — 74 Ditto, red, new . 59 Co „ — 71 Norfolk, Liuc, anil Yorksh., red, new 69 64 „ — 69 Barley, uialtijig, new. . 41 42 .... Chevalier.. 42 44 Uistilliijg 06 40 Grinding.. 33 35 Malt, Essex, N.-.rfolk, ftudSuffolk.. .. 73 75 extra 81 K.in;j;st()n, Ware, and town made. . 73 75 ,, 81 Brown (J5 68 „ — Rye — — — 48 Oats, English feed. .21 22 Tocato. . 22 26 Scotch feed, new 23 24, old 26 27 . . Potato 25 26 Irish feed, white 19 20 fiue 22 Ditto, black 18 19 „ 20 Beans, Mazngan 33 34 Ticks 32 35 Harrow 35 88 Pi-eon 37 41 Pkas, white boilers 40 44. . Maple 42 44 Grey 34 35 Flouk, per sk. of 280 lbs., Town, llouseiio'.da 6O3., fine 63 65 Country 478. 493 liouseholds , . . . 50 52 Norfolk and Suffolk, cx-ship ... . — — 47 48 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 469 FOREIGN GRAIN. ShilliDj^a per Quarter Wheat, Dantzic.mixed. . 80 to 82 higk mixed — 82extra 88 Kouigsberg 78 80 „ — 81 „ 83 Rostock, uew 72 73 fine 76 „ 84 American, white .... 72 74 red 60 66 Pomera.,Meckbg.,audUckermk.,reJ 78 79 extra 80 82 Silesian „ 74 76white78 79 Danish and HoUteiu „ 60 64 „ 60 68 Odessa, St. Petersburg and liiga. . 62 64 fine 66 68 Ehine and Belgium „ — — old — — Russian French. . none Barley, grinding 33 36 Distilling.. 37 39 Oats, Dutch, brew.andPolands 24a. to 263. Feed.. 20 22 Danish & Swedish feed 20s. to 23s. Stralsund 22 24 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 36 37 Koni^^herg.. 35 36 Egyptian.. 28 30 Peas, feeding 35 36 fine boilers 42 44 Indian Corn, white 32 S3 yellow 32 34 Flour, French, per sack — — Spanish 49 56 American, sour, per barrel (nominal) 33 35 sweet 35 39 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the last Six Weeks. Week Ending : March 15, 1SS6.. March 22, 1856. . March 29, 1856.. April 5, 1856.. April 12, 1856.. April 19, 18:6.. Aggregate average of last six weeks Comparative avge sametinie last year Duties Wheat. Barley. ,Oats. Rye. Beans s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 67 11 36 3 33 2 43 2 41 0 67 5 37 2 23 2 43 5 40 7 69 10 38 1 24 0 46 5 41 3 69 5 38 8 23 6 44 7 40 7 68 7 39 0 23 8 42 4 41 4 69 0 39 2 23 7 44 7 41 9 68 8 38 1 23 6 41 0 41 1 67 11 30 8 25 4 39 8 40 8 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Peas. !. d. 40 3 G9 6 40 1 39 7 37 10 37 4 59 1 38 3 1 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages Wheat. Barley. . Oats .. Rye. . . . Beans.. Peas . . from last Friday's Gazette. Av. Qrs. s. d. .114,384... 69 0 . 50,354 .. 39 2 . 12,281 .. 23 7 84 .. 44 7 . 5,968 .. 41 9 763 .. 37 4 Averages from the correspond ing Gazette in 1855. Av. ars. 93,446 36,163 20,127 117 4921 757 Wheat.. Barley.. Oats . . Rye.... Beans . . Peas . . s. 68 31 25 38 11 41 5 36 10 PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Cloverseed, red, (per cwt.) 65s to 80s. Ditto white 70s. to 90s. Trefoil, (per cwt.) 30s. to 403. Tares, winter (per bushel) 7s. 6d. to 8s. Od. Coriander (per cwt.) 20s. to 243. Carraway Qjcr cwt.). . . . new . . s. to 503., old . . s. to . . 8. Canary (per qr.) 60s. to 628. Hempseed (uoue) OOs . to OOa. Linseed (p. qr.) sowing,, s. to 633., crushing 54s. to 57a. Linseed Cakes (per ton) £12 10". to £13 Cs. Rapeseed (per qr.) uew SSs. to 903. Ditto Cake (per ton) £6 10s. to £7 Oi. FOREIGN SEEDS, &c. Cloverseed, red, French 60s. to 703. Ditto, white, Dutch 703. to 903. Tares, (per bushel) 53. Od. to 5s. 6d. Hempseed, small, (per qr.) ,, s. 56a., Ditto Dutch, 5Cs. Coriander (per csvt.) 15s. to 208. Carraway 423. to 468. Linseed (pr qr.) Baltic, 523. to 568. j Bombay, 52s. to 57s. Linseed Cake (per ton) £12 Os, to £12 10a. Rapeseed, Dutch 87s. to 883. All agricultural Seeds continue very dull in sale, and prices are rather drooping. Linseed is heavy, and large parcels are declared for public sale. Calcutta, 48s. to 50?.; Bombay, 52s. to 53s. per qr. A moderate demand for Cake?, at late quotations. HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, April 28. The scarcity of very fine and coloury samples of Hops has caused an advance of from 6s. to Ss. per cwt, for such qualities, and Uiiddling descriptions are somewhat more in demand, at fully the currency of last week. WORCESTER, (Saturday last.)— Abetter market for hops, and prices Lave advanced 2s. to 43.; choice quaUties scarce, and prices rauge from 75s. to 953. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE. Monday, April 28. Although the arrivals coastwise duriug the past week have not been large, the supply by rail has been liberal, which, with those lefc from former arrivals, have been fully equal to the limited demaud, at the follovving quotations : 8. York Regents 70 Kent and Essex do '.... 60 Perth, Forfar, and FifesJdre Regents 55 Do. Reds 40 Aberdeenshire and North Coun- try Reds 30 BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. Monday, April 28. We have recciv2d moderate supplies of Potatoes, coastwise and by railway, since our last report. The demand for all kinds is in a sluggish state, as follows :— York Regents, 80s. to 95s. ; Scotch ditto, 60s. to 75s. ; ditto Cups, 503. to 65s. ; niiddliugs, SOs, to 40s. ; Lincolas, 65s. to 8O3.; Blues, 60s. to 70s. per toa. COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— York, April 19: We had a good supply of potatoes, of excelleut quality. They sold at from 4d. to 5d. per peck, and Is. 6d. per bushel. Leeds, April 22 : A fair supply of potatoes, sold at from 6d. to 6id. per 211b. wholesale, and 7J. retail. Malton, April 19: A good supply of potatoes sold at from Is. 6d. to Is. 9d. per bushel. Sheffield, April 22. — A fair supply of potatoes, sold at from 5s. to 6s. per 18 ston s. Richmoxd, April 19 : Potatoes, 23. per busliel. Manchester, April 21 : Potatoes, 5s. to 83. 61I. per i!52ib3. PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. d. s. d. 0 to 85 0 0 75 0 0 65 0 0 45 0 0 40 0 Butter, per cwt, Frleslaudl . . Kiel lU Doriet no Carlom ........ !08 Waterford .... — Cork, nov 110 Limerick ...... S;8 Sligo — — Fresh, per doz. 13a.0i. ISs.ftd. s. t. \0Sto\12 116 11.J 112 116 ire Cheese, per cwt. 3. s. Chiihire 70 7 6 70 0 1853.. to 0 102 0 56 0 58 0 70 0 76 0 87 0 bO 0 1854.. 05 0 102 0 64 0 60 0 68 0 72 0 87 0 90 0 1855.. 96 0 !0o 0 58 i; eo 0 70 0 74 0 92 6 95 0 1856.. 110 0 130 0 C2 0 (0 0 70 0 80 0 94 0 95 0 470 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CHESTER CHEESE FAIR.— Business was very brisk. Shortly after the opening of the market every Cheese was sold, and many rartiea had to return home without a purchase. There was a considerable advance in rates, the prices ranging from 653. to 723. per cwt., and in some instances these were exceeded. About 50 tons were pitched, and the improvement in prices over those of four years ago was full 30 per cent. GLASGOW, (Wednesday last.)— There were 2 carts, and there passed through the weigh-house 14 tons of Cheese. Sales dull. First-class Cheese, 61s. per cwt. GLOUCESTER CHEESE FAIR.— Only a small quantity was pitched, which met a ready sale at high rates. The attend- ance was very good, considering the lateness of the season. Prices may be quoted as follows : Best, 58s. to 653. ; seconds, 503. to 56s., skims 32s. to 363. No doubles offered. COVENT GARDEN MARKET. Saturday, April 26. During the past week there has been a fair supply of most things, and prices have altered but little from former quotations. French Carrots are arriving in good condition. There is a lar?e supply of Peas from the Continent. New Grapes are now tole- rably aliundant, as are also Strawberries, the latter at from Is. to Is. 6d. per ounce. Peafs have become scarce, and English Apples are nearly over for this season. Most kinds of Nuts are plentiful. Oranges fetch fjom Is. to Is. 6d per dozen, or from 8s. to 10s. per hundred; Seville Oranges from Is. to 3s. per dozen, or from 7s. to Hs. per hundred. The Potato trade is still heavy ; the very best samples only realize 90s. a ton. New Lisbon Potatoes fetch 4s. per dozen lbs. Asparagus from Cornwall con- tinues to make its appear.ince. French salading is still supplied regularly three times a week. Cut flowers consist of Heliotropes, Euphorbias, Camellias, Azaleas, Mignonette, Chinese Primroses, Cyclamens, Heaths, and Roses. FJturr. s. d. s. d. Pineapples, p. lb. Grapes, per lb.. . Straivb'ricf,p.oz. Apples, p. hj. sve. 8 0@12 0 5 0 20 0 0 g 1 6 0 0 3 0 Pears, per doz .. Oranges, per 100. Lemons,]}, doz... Cobs, 2). doz. lbs. Cabbages, p. doz. Cauiifloicers.p do. Broccoli, per bun. F. beans, per 100 Peas, }ier quart . Potatoes, Iter Ion 60 Bo., per cwt. i Do., 2>^>' busJi. Do. , frame, 2}.lb. Carrots, p. bunch Turni]>s, ditto . . Spinacli. 2} -sieve. Cucunibcrs, each Jiect,2)er doz..,. Jlhuharb,]) bund. Asparagus, p. 100 Seahalc ,2) .2'unnet VEGETABLES d. s. d. 6 1 4 1 3 15 90 6 4 2 0 0 2 o 2 0 8 Celery, per bund. Onions, 2'- fivsli, Do.grcen 2ir bun. Leehs, 2)er bunch Artichokes, each. Shallots, 2}er lb.. Garlic, per do., . Endive, pi r dozen Lettuce, Cab., do. Radish, 2) doz bun. SlmallSal.2).2J'un. 0 Sorserad.,p.bnd . Mushr'ins,2>.}>ot . Parsley ,2). bunch Mint,grcen,ditto . Marjoram, ditto. Savory, do «. d. S. d. 3 0 6 0 6 0 le 0 0 6 1 6 0 0 15 0 s. d. s. d. 0 9 1 6 2 6 4 0 0 3 0 4 0 2 0 3 0 6 0 8 0 8 1 0 0 6 0 8 2 0 4 0 0 G 1 0 0 6 1 0 0 2 0 3 2 0 4 0 1 0 9 6 0 4 0 6 0 G 0 9 0 2 0 a 0 2 0 3 CHICORY. LONDON, Saturday, April 26. About 40 tons of Chicory have arrived from the Continent thii week The supply of English is good, and the demand is very inactive, as follows : — Foreign Root fin £ bond)narlingen] 1 English Iloot(frce) Guernsey 9 York 0 Per Ton, s. £ s. £ s. 0 11 10 Roasted S! ground English 14 0 0 9 10 Foreign 80 0 lU 10 0 Guernsey 26 0 £ s. 20 0 86 0 2« 10 MeadotcHay Clover ., Straw HAY MARKETS. Saturday, April 20. A t 2^er load oJ'AG trusses . SniithfieUl . Cu)nbcrland. 7r,s. 9.'«. Si7<. 1I7«. 13-'«. SU. 7S«. 96i. 27«. iJOs. nos. 32(. Whitecha2)cl. 7^s. lie*. t)8«. IS-.M. 26«. 3U. FLAX, HEMP, COIR, &c. We continue to have a slow sale for Flax, yet there are very few fellers on lower terms. The demand fur Hiiliin Hemp is steady; but Manilla parcels are neEleclcd. Clean St. PetersburRh is quoted at £31 10s. to £3i lOs. ; outshot, £JJ to £30; lialf- c'ciin, £-27 to £-28 jier ton. Coir goods and Jute lulo about stationary. TIMBER. LONDON, SATURU4Y, April 26. The wood market is quiet. Business is chiefly limitei to public sale for the purpose of working otf the stock of 1855, in prepara- tion for this year's importation. Some interest is felt in the open- ing ratfs for deals in the ports of Ptussia, and the prices first named are deemed above the proportion of other countries, though in all the countries of production opinion prevails that England, and now Prance, can take unlimited supplies, the results of the trade in wood shuw that it is only when prices are low our consumption increases. A fleet of s-liips from Norway has arrived with deals, battens, balks, and firewood, and the sale thereof has commenced at the previous rates. Four or five fresh Baltic cargoes have not yet indicated the strength of the quota- tions given for the old stock. 1855. 1856. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ g. Quebec, red pine ,pcr load 0 0 0 0 .. S 15 5 0 yellotv2nne 3 15 4 0 .. 3 0 3 10 St. John's, N.B., red 00 00.. 00 00 yel 50 CO.. 00 00 Quebec, Oat, loldte 7 0 7 10 .. 6 10 7 10 Birch 60 00.. 5 10 50 E'm 6 10 70.. 50 60 Dantzic, Oak 70 80.. 40 4 10 Memel, Fir 3 10 4 10 .. 4 0 5 10 Riga 0 0 0 0 .. 4 5 4 10 Swedish 2 15 3 0 .. 8 10 3 15 Masts, Quebec, red pine 6 0 9 0 .. 12 0 12 10 yelorvpine 5 0 8 0 .. 8 10 10 10 Lathwood, Dantzic fm U 0 12 0 .. 9 0 9 10 Memel 10 0 11 0 .. 9 0 9 10 St. Pelersburgh ,, ., 0 0 0 0 .. 13 0 14 0 Quebec 5 0 6 0 .. 5 10 CIO Deals, per C. 12 feet by 9 inches, Quebec, while. '2)ruce 18 0 22 0 .. 16 0 19 0 redpine 17 0 21 0 .. 17 0 20 0 St. JoJin, white spruce 17 0 19 0 .. 15 0 18 0 Yellow pine, 2^er reduced C. Canada, ] St quality 17 10 20 0 .. 16 0 18 0 2nd ditto 12 0 18 0 .. 10 10 12 0 Archangel, yellow 0 0 0 0 .. 20 0 21 0 SI. Pelersburgh, yellow 00 00.. 00 00 Me7iiel 15 10 19 0 .. 15 0 19 0 Geft-e, yellow, U ft 21 0 25 0 .. 27 0 28 0 Gothenburg, yellow 12 0 15 0 .. 23 0 £7 0 white ..10 0 12 0 .. 20 0 23 0 Chrisliania, 23. C. \2ft.by3in. yellow 20 0 30 0.. 21 0 SO 0 white 22 0 26 0 . . 20 0 25 0 DeckP!ank,Dant.,p.iOft.byZin 10 1 10 .. 1 5 1 10 Staves, 2>er standard M Quebec, pipe 80 0 90 0 .. 60 0 80 0 2mncheon 20 0 25 0 .. 18 0 20 0 Baltic, crown pipe 135 0 140 0..I20 0 IGO 0 OIL MARKET. £ S. d. £ s. d. Olive, Florcncehalf-chests ....u 1 1 d to 0 0 0 Lucca 7 10 0 8 0 0 Gallipoli (252 gallons) 52 0 0 52 10 0 Spanish c 53 0 0 63 10 0 Linseed (civt.) 19 0 19 3 Rape, Pale .-,,2 96 2 10 0 Brown 2 7 0 2 7 6 Cod{tun) 44 0 0 0 0 0 SeaUPale... 54 0 0 55 0 0 Ditto, Broicn, Yellow, SiC. 45 00 48 0 0 Sperm ,. ...,„ 122 0 0 123 0 0 UcadMatter 128 0 0 0 0 0 Southern ...44 0 0 48 0 0 Cocoa Nut (cwt.) 1 18 6 1 19 6 Palm ,. ,. 1 17 0 2 0 0 WHALEBONE, Greenland, full iize (per ton) 300 0 0 0 0 o South Sea 250 0 0 0 0 0 PITCH. British (per cwt.) 0 6 9. 0 7 0 Archangel 0 10 6 000 Stockholm 0 12 0 0 0 0 TURPENTINE. Spirits (per cwt.) 1 13 0 1 13 6 In Puncheons.. 1 12 0 1 12 6 Rough 0 9 0 0 9 6 TAR. American (British) 110 0 0 0 Archangel 1 18 0 0 0 0 Stockholm 0 18 0 0 0 0 RESIN. Yellow (per cwt.) .... 0 7 0 0 10 0 Transparent ., 0 6 0 0 15 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 471 BARK, &c. £ s. d. £ s. d Eiiglish,per Id.of i5 dvt.fdel. in Lo7idon. IS 10 0 15 10 0 Coj}pice 14 0 0 16 0 0 DulcJi,])erton 5 0 0 5 5 0 Hambro' 4 10 0 5 5 0 Antwerp— Tree 5 0 0 6 0 0 ,, Copince 6 0 0 6 10 0 French 4 0 0 6 5 0 Mimosa 12 0 0 14 0 0 ,, Ground 0 0 0 0 0 0 CorhTree—Bmbary 7 0 0 7 10 0 ,, Leghorn 6 0 0 7 0 0 Valonia,S?)iyrna,pcr ton 15 0 0 16 0 0 „ Camata 15 0 0 16 0 0 Morea 11 0 0 13 10 0 Terra. ...\Oambier 17 0 0 17 10 0 Japonica. ] Cutch 82 0 0 35 0 0 DiviDivi 12 0 0 13 0 0 Myrabolams 7 10 0 HOC Sumach, Sicily, per cmt. 0 13 6 0 14 0 MANURES. PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO. Peruvian Guano per ton£l\ 5 OtofJl 10 0 „ D. first class (dainagcd).. „ 10 5 0 10 10 0 Bolivian Quano (jiowe) ,, 0 0 0 0 0 0 ARTIFICIAL MANURES, OIL CAKES, ^'c. NitrateSoda ' „ 19 10 0 21 0 0 Nitrate Potash or Saltpetre....,, ,, 2S 0 0 30 0 0 Sulphate Ammonia 16 0 0 17 0 0 Muriate ditto ,, 22 0 0 23 0 0 Superphosphate of Lime ,, (> 0 0 0 0 0 Soda Ash or Alkali ,, 0 0 0 8 0 0 Gi/psum ,, 2 0 0 2 10 0 Coprolite „ 4 5 0 4 10 0 Sulphate of Copper, or Roman Vitrioljor Wheat sleeping..., „ 42 0 0 43 0 0 Salt ,,.150 200 Bones, Dust per qr. \ 5 0 16 0 „ i inch „ 14 0 15 0 Gil Vitriol, concentrated per lb 0 0 1 0 0 0 Brown „ 0 0 Of 0 0 0 Rape Cakes per ton ' 0 0 7 10 0 Linseed Cakes— Thi7i American in brls. oi bags ,, 12 10 0 13 0 0 Thick ditto round „ 11 0 0 11 10 0 Marseilles ,, 10 0 0 10 10 0 English , 12 0 0 0 0 0 PiCKFORD aud Keen, 33, Leadenhall-atrcel. Williams and Co., 24, Mark Lane, Azotic JE6 10 0 Manufactured hy Hodgson and Si7npson, Wak^'eld, and Matthc7vs and Co., Drijpeld, Ammonia-Phosphate and Nitro-Phosiyhate, per ton £S 0 0 Superphosphate of Lime .... ,. 7 0 0 Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarlcet, Suffolk. Prentice's Cereu I Mnnure for Corn Cro])e, 2Jer ton j6-i 10 0 Prentice's Turnip Mumtre ,, £7 0 0 Prentice's Superphosphate of Lime ,, £6 10 0 Lancashire Manure Company. Widnes, iicar Warrington, J. Knight and Co.'s Nitrogeniztd Bone Manures per ton £d 15 0 .Manure /forks, GrovehUl, Beverley. Tigar and Co.'s CelebratedTurnip Manures, per ton £7 10 0 HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS. Saturday, Apkil ?6. s. d. 3. d^ Market nides,a6 toSil be 0 3| 0 Operlb. Do. 64 72lbs 0 sa 0 4 „ Do. 72 SOlbs 0 4 0 4i „ Do. 80 88!&J 0 4J 0 4^ „ Do. 88 96lbs 0 4i 0 4a Horse Hideseach 6 0 0 0 each. Calf Skins, light 2 0 3 0,, Da. full 0 0 6 6 „ Kents 8 0 9 0 „ Half-brcds 8 0 9 0 „ Downs 6 0 8 0 „ Lambs 2 4 3 4 „ Shearlings 0 11 1 0 „ BIRMINGHAM HIDE, SKIN, FAT MARKET. Saturday, April 26, 1856. AND HIDES. 8. 951bs. and upwards.. 0 851bs. to 941bs 0 7.ilbs. to 841bs 0 651b9. to 741bs 0 66lbs. to 641bs 0 5olbs. and under.... 0 Cows 0 Horse (each) 0 Bulls 0 Flawed^and irregular 0 p erlb. d. s. d. 0 to 0 5 0 0 0 0 .. 0 .. 0 .. 0 .. 0 3S 0 0 .. 0 .. 0 3i 3i 0 .. 6 6 0 .. n 2'f 0 .. 0 3 CALF. s. ITlbs. and upwards., 0 121bs. to leibs 0 91bs. to Ulbs 0 Lij>lit 0 Flawed and irregular 0 Per lb. d. 8. WOOL SKINS, 63. 3d. to 8s. 5d. „ 10s. 4d. to I2s. 5d. PELTS lOd. to Is. 2.W. FAT— Beef SJd. .. 6d. LEADENHALL LEATHER MARKET. Our market continues to be fairly supplied with Leather, and the demand is steady, as follows : — CROP HIDES ENGLISB . lbs. 1 bs. d. d. 2fto35 13 toHi 36 40 .... 13 15" 40 45 .... 14 16 46 50 .... 14i \6\ 50 55 .... \h \-i\ 55 60 16 l9 BUTTS. 8 NGLIsn . d Ibs.l bs. 14 16 17 21 26 29 33 20 24 28 32 36 17 Hi 19 20 21 22 d. l?i 20 22 23 24 25 HORSE HIDES. lbs. lbs. d. d. English IftolS..,. 8 to 10 Do.\vithoutbutti9 14.... 8 10 Spanishsalted , without butts, s.d.s.d. perhide 6 8 .... 7 0 9 6 Do. do. do. 9 11 .... 9 6 12 0 Do. do. do. inferior 4 6 7 0 Do . dry do. 6 8 .... 6 0 9 0 Do. do. do. 9 1 1 .... 8 0 110 Do. do. do. inferior 49 6 0 CALF SKINS At. weight Unrounded, Roucdid lbs. lbs. d. d. d. d. 20to28 12 tol5 Ifi to 22 14 16 .... 16 18 17 20 .... 17 18J 21 24 .... 17 20 25 28 .... 19 21 29 32 .... 20 22 33 36 .... 20 22 36 45 .... — — 45 55 .... — — OFFAL. d. d ENOLisHShouldert 13 to 15 Do Clieeksand Facer B 9 Do. Bellies PJ 10, Do. Middles do lOJ 12 FoTiEiGN Shoulders 10 12 Do. Neclts 9 10 Do. Bellies , 8 9.1 Do . Middleedo lOi 12 Dressin^HideShoulderslO 12 Do. '" do. Bellies .. 7.J 9 KjpShoulderB 5 8 Do.Belliet 4 6 DRESSING HIDES. lbs lbs . d . d. Common 2('to24 .. ISJioK Do. 25 28 .. I2I 14 Do 30 34 .. 12i Do 35 40 .. 13J Saddlers 30 35 .. 14 Do 36 50 ,. 14 30 35 13J 35 40 14 40 45 14 45 50 14J 50 55 15 55 60 .. 15 60 70 15 70 8} 15 80 91 14 90 100 14 ,00 120, ,....13 17 , 18 , 18 18 , 19 . 20 , 19 . 18 . 17 . 16 . 15 . .16 .16 .16 .17 .17 .17 .17 .16 .16 .15 .14 22 23 24 24 24 24 23 22 22 21 20 KIPS. lb bs. 'tn7.... 1 f to 18 15 14 14 15 9... 14 14 Pulls 11 Shaved 14 16 .. 16J Do 17 19 .. 16 Do ;..20 23 ,. 15 Do 24 28 .. 14J Scotchdo 16 24 .. 15 Coach. perHide 24s. toSSs HORSE BUTTS. Shared d. d. d. d English 10 to 11.. 12 to 14 Spanish 10 11. .12 13' Petersbnrph Do 7 9, Do 9 10 Do 11 13 E.India,drTsli I ."i 7. Do. do . 7 Do. seconds..,. Do. thirds ....11 Do inferior 8 SUNDRIES. B. s. Hog SVins. best each 1 0 to 18 Do. seconds.... ,, 8 10 Sealskins, split. ..peidoz 42 56 Do.forbinding* , 43 C alf? kins, Sumach- tanned ,, 30 Do: white ,, 20 HorseHides, white. ..each 6 Sheep Skins — Basils, unstrained. per lb 7 Do . 3 train e d , , 9 Do. facing... .pcrdoz. 6 Tan Sheep & Lambs , , 10 WhiteShef|i....peil20 BO Do . Lambs .. ,, 60 Do -Sheep&Lambs , •strained per doz 7 18 Sumach Roans.. ,, 20 ?8 Do. Skivers ,, 10 16 Bark Skivers .. ,, 12 16 HideSplits perlb 7d.togd. 18 17 17 I8i If' 16 12 10 60 45 33 12 14 14 18 22 no 90 WOOL MARKETS. ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. April 28. — Since Monday last the transactions in our market have been very moderate, but holders generally, owing to the favourable advices from the manufacturine districts, aud the high currencies paid by the combers, are firm at very full prices. For export, no transactions worthy of notice have taken place, yet we learn that the supply of wool in France ia very limited. Nearly 50,000 bales of Colonial wool are ex- pected to be offered at the public sales to commence on the 8th proximo. Down tegs 1 3 to Do. ewes Half-bred hoggets ...... Half-bred wethers Kent fleeces, mixed hog and ewes Combing skins Flannel wools Blanket wools ..< 0 10 — B» d 3 2 2 1 3 0 0 0 10 d. 5 3^ 3 2 3^ 3 3 1 472 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. LEEDS WOOL MARKET, April 25.— There has been a moderate amount of sales this week, and last week's prices are firmly maintained, with an upward tendency. BRADFORD WOOL JMARKET, April 24.— The transac- tions in combing wools are not extensive ; the prices sought are so thoroughly beyond the reach of the consumers, that they only buy to assort their stocks. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, April 26. Scotch Wool. — There ia a goo.l demand for laid Highland, and late advance fully maintained. White Highland is still rare and wanted. Clieviot and cros?e !, of good quality and condition, are still in fair reqne«t, and the Scotch manufacturfrs being in short supply for immediate wants. Lave been supply- ing themselves from this market. ». d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 'iUbs. .. 13 0 to 14 0 White Highland do 15 0 16 0 Laid. Crossed do..univashcd .... 14 6 1.5 6 Po. do. .washed 15 0 16 6 Laid Che dot do., unleashed .... 16 0 18 0 Vo. do.. washed 18 6 21 6 White Clieviot do do 30 0 32 0 Foreign Wool. — There has been a scries of public sales goina; on this week : they coincaenccd on the 22nd and finished this day, at which were ofTered about 6,700 bales East India, about 2,000 ballots Peruvian, and 1,000 other kinds. The attendance was numerous. The East India sold with great spirit ; good fine white, also middle fine yellows, about id. per lb. above our last sale here in January. The other classes much about the same, except rubbish, which were lower. Peruvian were withdrawn. LIVERPOOL WOOL SALES. LIVERPOOL, April 26. — The public sales of wool, which have been in progress since the 22nd instant, brought together a very large attendance of buyers. The total quantity an- nounced was 12,060 bales, of which 7,807 bales were East India, which alone call for any particular comment. The sales of this description opened with very great spirit, and, in con- sequence of the unusually long interval since previous sales, stocks being completely reduced, the trade evinced some eager uess at the commencement,which, however, was not fully main- tained throughout; still, we arc ajle to report that the general result is satisfactory, prices on the average being somewhat higher than at the previous sales. The greatest advance was on good middling to superior light yellow qualities, which we quote decidedly higher ; aU well-bred descriptions are also dearer, but for grays and fawns, excepting of superior qualities, prices have ruled in favour of buyers, while burry and other unmarket- able kinds have sold at a considerable decline. The quotations are as follows : — White sold from 8\i. to 13|d., one lot very prime ditto 14id., yellow and tinged white 7id. to IS^d., ditto inferior C^ 1. to 8f 1 , gray and fawn 45d. to 9|d., low black 4^A. to 5d., low gray 3-|d. to 4id., Burry and refuse l;^d. to 2^d. per lb. 1,763 ballots of Peruvian were offered, for which there was a fair inquiry ; but, being limited above their market value, they were nearly all withdrawn. Portugal R (" gummy ") brought 15d. to 15i-d., and some rather better 17d. per lb. Cordovan 9d., inferior Smyrna fleece SJJ., and whi'c Crimea fleecf- 6|d. per pound. By private con- tract during the month the demand has been very ani- mated, particularly for Australian wools, which have been eagerly bought up at an advance of 2d. to 3d. per lb. on the prices of last London sales, and business to some extent has also been done in other descriptions not on the spot, by sample, at proportionate rates. The late arrivals of fine River Plate wools have faund eager buyers as soon aa landed, and of the whole receipts only a few bales remain undisposed of. Long Egyptian and Oporto are much sought after, in con- sequence of the advance in English combing wools, but are extremely scarce. English combing wools have been very firm, and there is every prospect of the op- proocliinsc clip opening with some excitement, the demaud being large, and consumers light in stock. Scotch wools have been in good demand ; but there beii;g little oil the sp'it, business has bren much restricted, and seme of the principal sale^ made having been to return to that quar- ter, there is little to expect for supplies, even if they had it to send, which seems doubtful under all circumstances. Sheep- skins have been a good deal in request, and have found ready sale by private coatract at full prices. The next public sales of colonial in London arc to commence on the 8th proximo, and the quantity so far aoi:oiii;ced is 33,000, but will probably reach 50,000 ba'ea. — Hughes and Ronald, Wool Brokers. FOREIGN WOOL MARKETS. CITY, Monday. — In most of the rontineiital wool markets there appears a deficiency in the supplies to meet the demands of the manufacturers. At Paris a scarcity of wools is expe- rienced, not only in the stocks on hand of indigenous wools, among the merchants and producers, but the arrivals of foreign wools are insignificant. The wool buyers, therefore, look with much impatience for the time when the market is replenished from the approaching sheep-shearing season. This scarcity has caused a further rise in prices, and it is likely to continue until the commencement of the season. Contracts had been closed at 1 f. 35 c. to 1 f. 40 c. per half kilogramme fcr wools in grease and merino qualities. More than one manufacturer has endea- voured to make sure of his supplies by the anticipated demands after shearing. From Breslau reports of the sales for the last week are stated to comprise about 800 quintals, with a rise in prices, both for home consumption and export. Contracts entered into for the ensuing clip of Silesian wools have been concluded at 95 to 110 thalers for fine, and 80 to 85 thalers for skin. LEEDS FOREIGN WOOL MARKET, April 25.— In the absence of any fresh arrivals, there is no new feature to report. The demand is steady, and prices are quite firm. Low wools suitable for combing purposes are in good demand, but the supply is small. BRESLAU WOOL REPORT, April 21.— Owing to the scarcity of provisions our trade during the last fortnight has been rather quiet, and transactions only amounting to 850 cwts., composed of almost all descriptions. There have been paid for fine Siles'an fleeces at from 100 to 110 thalers ; ditto Poseu ditto at from 90 to 100 thalers ; ditto Russian combing and clothing wool 65 to 75 thalers ; di'to scoured 95 to 105 thalers ; ditto Silesian skin wool in bundles 80 to 88 thalers ; ditto ditto slipes ditto 65 to 78 thalers per cwt. The chief purchasers were home and Saxon manufacturers and wholesale dealers, as well as many home Berlin and Austrian commis- sioners. Prices generally remained unaltered ; only skin wools have been paid comparatively very high, say 12 to 15 percent, above last year's quotations. Purchases on the future clippinjf have not been so extensive as hitherto. — Gunsborg, wool- broker. Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, Loadon. I ^ 3 ^ I ^" THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. JUNE, 1856. PLATE I. GLOUCESTER; A Prize Short-horn Bull. THE PROPERTY OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD FEVERSHAM, OF DUNCOMBE PARK, YORKSHIRE. Gloucester, a red and white bull, bred by the late Earl Ducie, and calved April 3rd, 1853, is by Duke of Gloucester (11382), dam (Beatrice) by Cramer (6907), g. d. (Bessy) by Helicon (2167), gr, g, d. (Beeswing) by Sir Thomas (2636), gr. gr. g. d. (Venilla) by Enchanter (244), gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Venus) by Major (397), gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Mr. Charge's Grey Bull (672), gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Favourite (252), gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. by the Studley White Bull (627). Gloucester, then a calf, was knocked down to Lord Feversham for 120 gs., at the great Tort- worth sale, on the decease of Earl Ducie in 1853. Performances : In 1854, Gloucester took the second prize of £5 for yearling bulls, at the Ripon Meet- ing of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society. In the same season he took the first prize of £5 at the Cleve- land Show. In 1855, Gloucester took the first prize as the best bull, and the Gold Medal, at the Paris Agricultural Exhibition ; the second prize of £ 1 5 at the Carlisle Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England; the second prize of £10 at the Malton Meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society ; and a prize at the Kirkby Moorside Show. The following is a description of this famous bull, written by one of our own correspondents on see- ing him at the Carlisle Meeting : — " Gloucester is only two years and two months old, but he possesses all the full outline of maturity ; his colour is a good red and white ; he has a fine head, neck, and horns, girth full, and chest all you can desire. A level broad back, ribs standing well out, broad loin, good hips, but rather prominent ; sides deep and full, rump and thighs good ; but flank, twist, and tuts rather light ; the general form and proportions cylindrical and true." PLATE II. R A V E N H I L L, A THOROUGH-BRED STALLION, TO WHICH THE PRIZE OF £40 WAS AWARDED AT THE CARLISLE MEETING OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, AUGUST, 1855, Ravenhill, Ravenshill, as he is sometimes written, or " Royal" Ravenhill, as they now call him in the North, was bred in Ireland, by Mr. J. More, in 1849, and is by The Ugly Buck, out of Sylph, by Filho da Puta, her dam Twatty by "Whalebone — Canopus. The Ugly Buck, bred by Mr. John Day in 1841, is by Venison, out of Monstrosity, by Plenipotentiary. His stock, which have been out since 1850, include many good horses. The Ugly Buck covered for some seasons in Ireland, but has now returned to England. Sylph, bred by Mr. R. Wilson in 1832, and put to the stud in 1839, has had a large family, though with nothing so far very distinguished. Ravenhill is a brown horse, standing hardly fifteen hands three inches high. lie has a really beauti- OLD SERIES.] K K [VOL. XLIV.— No. 6. 474 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, ful small bloodlike head, thin neck, and a good crest, firm and arched. He has some other catching points, but is rather small in the bone, and stands terribly over at knee. He has evidently filled out to advantage since put to the stud; and, what with his bloomipg coat and rounded form, certainly looked at Carlisle a perfect picture. Ravenhill was purchased in the autumn of 1853 by Mr. Ferguson, and at once taken to the North. At the local Carlisle Show, 1854, he was entered in the hunter-stallion class, and the first prize awarded to him. The next season he was shown at the same place against all England, and again successful. His opponents on this occasion were, A British Yeoman, St. Bennett, The Cure, Vulcan, Emerystone, The Era, Larristown, Cyclops, Turnus, Burndale, Colsterdale, and Witton. The point of preference was entirely between him and the Yeoman, the latter being highly and very deservedly commended. The stock of both showed to great advantage, and certainly tended to confirm that distinction awarded to their sires by the judges. Mr. Ferguson, the owner of Ravenhill, has been one of the principal breeders of horses in Cumberland for nearly forty years. He commenced with the Cleveland coaching-horses, of which Candidate was the best known. The first of his thorough-bred stallions was Grey Wiganthorpe, which he bought of Mr. Garforth, and so brought the Comus blood into his neighbourhood. The next was Phcenix, obtained from Mr. Kirby, and infusing the famous Cobweb strain. Galaor, from Mr. Vansittart, followed these, with the Muley blood ; and Ravenhill now represents the Venisons. THE MOISTURE OF SOILS. BY CUTIIBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. in this paper I propose to spend with my readers a few minutes in considering the moisture of soils and the sources of its supply. And as we are commencing our enquiry, in the midst of the turnip sowing season, it may be most useful if we regard chiefly that crop in the practical application of our observations. The origin of moisture in the soils with which v/e have to do, is either from rain or the insensible vapour of the atmosphere ; it is thus deposited on or in the soil, either visibly in rain, or insensibly as dew. It may be well, before we proceed to con- sider the best mode of securing for our crops the greatest amount of advantage from this mar- vellously arranged supply, if we pause to inquire into its extent. First then, as to the rain-fall, we find that during the five chief turnip-growing months, its average amount in inches at London, Chatsworth, and Glasgow is as follows : — London. May 1-63 June 173 July 2-44 August rso September r84 Here we find that upon an average (an inch of rain being equal to 100 tons per acre) in the neighbourhood of London about iCO tons of rain per acre falls in May, 1 70 in June, 244 in July, 180 in August, and 184 tons in September. The way in which this downfall is removed from the soil is another branch of the inquiry, to which Mr. Charles Charnock a little time since devoted considerable atswort li. Glasgow 2-11 1-64 2-28 1-34 3-00 2-30 2-43 2-74 2"28 1-61 IL III. 1-97 0-27 2-93 0-25 3-30 0-19 4-24 0-37 0-95 0-41 attention. He obtained results from his careful observations in 1845, on a magnesian limestone soil at Holmfield, near Ferrybridge, which will be found in the following table. Column I. gives the month and the rainfall in inches ; II., the evaporation from a drained soil ; HI., the amount of drainage from a drain-pipe placed in that soil, three feet from the surface {Jour, Ron. Ay. Soc, vol, s. p. 516). I. May 2-24 June 3" 18 July 3.49 August 4'0l September .„ . . . rsG The way in which these observations were evi- dently made, was by subtracting the amount of water discharged by the drain from that collected by the drain gauge, and assigning the diflfer- ence to evaporation ; but let us remember that these valuable observations were made upon soils imte- nanted with plants. Had a crop been growing on the ground, the amount of the evaporation from the same extent of land would then doubtless have been materially enlarged. This was long since, in fact, shown experimentally by Mr. Geo. Phillips {Jour. Ttny. A(j. Soc, vol. vii.,'p. 307). He employed in the month of March two metallic vessels of equal size, which were used as mould pots. They were so constructed, that no moisture could escape except at the surface. Each pot contained 22'09 square inches of surface at the level of the mould. One pot was filled with mould only, the other with mould containing a polyanthus, and, in another experi- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 475 ment^ three plants of the potato. In twelve days the mould evaporated 1,600 grains, or 6.06 grains daily per square inch, while the pot containing the polyanthus had evaporated 5,250 grains, which for the mould and one surface of the leaves is 4 "93 grains for every square inch. In the case of the potato plants, in nineteen days the mould evapor- ated 54,000 grains, the potato plants 3,000 grains. The daily evaporation from one surface of the po- tato was at the rate of 1.4 grain, and of the poly- anthus 2.1 grains, from one square inch. In the experiments of Dr. Hales on a sunflower, the daily mean evaporation was 15 grains for every square nch of the plant's surface. The loss of moisture by evaporation from a soil varies considerably in amount, according to its composition. Schubler (ibid, vol. i., p. 193) ex- posed equal surfaces and depths of various soils to the action of the air for four days. In the time when A calcareous sand lost 146 grains of water, A hght garden mould lost .. 143 „ A slaty marl 131 „ Two clay soils, each 123 „ We have hitherto only been contrasting the amount of the evaporation from the earth, and that emitted by the vegetable creation, with the fall of rain which God has provided for them ; but another source of supply presents itself — that from the aqueous vapour, which in all seasons abounds in the atmosphere ; a source of supply, though invisible to us, is provided for our use, and so essential to the growth of our plants, that the more we reflect upon its presence — the least in amount in the winter months, and most abounding in those of summer, when its presence is the most needed — the more we reflect, I say, upon these things, the more we must admire and reverence the arrangements of their divine Author. Mr. S. Parkes {ibid, vol. v., p. 13) when employed in tracing the causes of the deposition of dew upon and in a soil, thus briefly explained the phenome- non : — He observed "that if a soil be sufficiently permeable to air and not saturated with water, it is in a state to receive accessions of moisture from the atmosphere, which is a constant and inexhaus- tible vehicle of humidity. And if the temperature of a sufficiently porous subsoil be at or below the dew point, as will frequently be the case during some portion of the day in the summer season, the pro- cess of depositing dew will take place in ihe interior parts of the soil during the day, at the same time that the exterior or surface of the soil may be pro- jecting both heat and moisture into the atmosphere. Thus it is apparent that the acquisition of moisture in the form of dew is not limited to the period of the night only, nor to the surface of the earth ; and it has been shown that the precipitation of dew cannot take place without the communication of heat to the recipient substance; hence the import- ance of sufficient pulverization to permit access and change of air to the interior parts 'of a soil." The amount of the dew thus deposited is much larger than is generally believed. It has been calculated by Dr. Dalton that the annual deposit of dew in England (a deposition which is the greatest on the eastern side of the island) is equal to about five inches or five hundi'ed tons per acre. After thus glancing at the sources of the supply of the moisture of our soils, and at the way in which it escapes either downwards into the drains or rises upwards by evaporation, let us next briefly pause to ask ourselves if we may in any way em- ploy such facts for the more profitable production of our soils — to root crops for instance. It was when engaged in such an inquiry that a Northampton- shire farmer, Mr. Robert Vallentine, of Burcott. in his valuable prize essay, dwelt upon the importance of retaining the moisture in turnip land {ibid, vol. xvi., p. 347). "It has been," he observed, "our practice to clear all the foul light land in autumn, whenever the season would permit, for the particular reason that when the cleaning has to be done in summer the land actually becomes so dry in the course of working as to be unsuitable for getting a turnip braird without a heavy accidental fall of rain. When the season does not permit of autumn cleaning, the successful chance of growing a turnip crop on light land rests upon earl)/ working in spring. Dry tur- nip soils should be moved in March, or the begin- ning of April at the latest ; and cleaning, if neces- sary, should be done as early as the weather and the v/orking of the soil vv'ill permit. Clean turnip fallows require very little spring and summer labour, and therefore may remain untouched after their winter fallow till the end of April or beginning of May. One ploughing or two scarifyings should generally prove sufficient for dry clean turnip land ; but when the land is foul the case is reversed, and the excess of working necessary — ploughing, drag- ging, harrowing, &c. — turns the soil so frequently over to a hot sun, that there is no alternative but the moisture must evaporate in the same way as from wet green grass, which is often turned over to expel the water and convert the residue into hay. "The next point for consideration is, when clean- ing has been neglected in autumn, how to manage it in spring without an injurious loss of moisture. Some years ago the practice was general, and in 'some districts is still continued, of ploughing tur- nip fallows — even clean land — three or four times in spring and summer, for the purpose of pulveriz- ing the soil and making it work well. Such a prac- K K 2 476 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tice on light soils we do not hesitate to denounce as quite against the economy of labour, and the chance of securing a turnip crop by retaining moisture in the soil. We think that one ploughing in spring is amply sufficient for turnips on light soils. This ploughing should be given in xipril at the latest ; after this the plough should give place to the scarifier, which, if good of its kind, not only pulverizes the soil and brings up the weeds to the surface, but also exposes little or no fresh soil to the action of a drying sun. Scarifying certainly causes dry turnip soils to lose much less moisture than ploughing, and, wherever it is practicable to substitute the one for the other, it sliould be done. " The evaporation from the earth's surface is greatest usually in March and April, from the cir- cumstance of wind and sun together having a greater drying power than heat alone, which usually obtains in June and July. During the whole of the spring and summer, however, evaporation takes place with great rapidity, and it is important that dry turnip soils should be worked as httle as pos- sible during that period, or the chance of obtaining a crop is hazarded. "Autumn or winter dunging of stubbles has been recommended as tending to retain moisture in soils. We believe from experience that it has that effect ; but on light soils, through which rain so readily filters in winter, much of the value of the manure is lost, and other means should be resorted to. On clay and loamy soils, when clean, winter dunging is the best course to pursue in almost every case, taking care, however, not to cart upon the land when wet." On the importance of hoeing turnips in dry wea- ther, many of my readers will not entertain a doubt, and Mr. Vallentine is evidently of this opinion, when, towards the conclusion of his essay, he adds the following remarks, in most of which I heartily concur : — " If any hoeing is injurious in dry weather, I think it is horse-hoeing high ridges, when the hoe cuts down the sides of the ridges so much as to leave but a narrow strip of earth containing the plants exposed to the heat of the sun on all sides, with scarcely any chance of absorbing dew at night, from the smallness of the horizontal surface exposed, and the sides of the ridges imbibe little or no dew. I am confident, practically, that horse-hoeing high ridges in very hot weather zs injurious, as the soil in many cases gets quite dry, and the plants for want of moisture turn blue and sickly. With that exception, however, I never saw any injury caused by the use of either horse or hand-hoe in dry wea- ther. When once the high ridges are reduced to a comparatively level state by horse and hand hoeing, hoeing then does good in dry weather. It must, however, be remembered that there is much diflfer- ence between turning over a soil to the sun, and running a share or other cutting implement below the surface. In ploughing, the land is turned nearly upside-down, a fresh surface is exposed at every ploughing ; but in hoeing, the same soil, with but little change, remains on the surface. Most people know that the finer a soil is, the more dew does it attracts. Gardeners know this well, as they hoe very frequently when there are no weeds to kill. The best farmers know this also. In a word, then, I would say, hand-hoe without intermission in dry weather, to attract 7nore moisture by dews, but use the horse-hoe with discretion as long as the ridges remain high and the weather dry." The owners of stock farms will need no argu- ments to convince them of the importance of such practical inquiries. They will remember the natural advantage which the turnip growers of Scotland and other districts possess, and that this chiefly consists in a more copious supply of moisture than that of England. They will not forget to contrast the comparative produce of the root crops of moist and dry seasons. And when they are thus endea- vouring to appreciate the mode in which Provi- dence has " rained fatness" over their soils, they will gratefully accept any attempts, however imper- fect, to explain, not only the amount of and the mode in which the boon is conferred, but how they can best enhance the value of so marvellous a be- nefit. THE SWEDISH TURNIP CROP. The returning period for putting in the turnip-crop being at hand, recalls to our minds most forcibly the immense lossRS sustained in the past season by the premature decay of this crop, and as a necessary con- sequence it should lend us to make every enquiry as to the causes of that decay, and the best means to be used for preventing its recurrence, and the best practice should it unfortunately revisit us. That mildew was the primary cause of the decay of the turnip crop is an undoubted fact ; but the origin of the disease, and the nature of the disease itself, are as yet a mystery. Mildew in its many phases is well known to every cultivator, and by sad experience in the destruc- tion of his various crops. Every cultivator dreads the return of this mysterious scourge ; but no one has yet ascertained fully its origin, or the nature or mode of its THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 477 attacks. One thing is very certain — all know the final result, and have often to deplore the consequences. If it may be so expressed, the attacks of mildew are pro- voking and greatly disappointing ; for assuredly if the farmer has one field of grain or turnips or coleseed more prosperous and splendid-looking than another, that is the very field attacked, and that without remedy, for do what he will he cannot prevent it. What course then is to be pursued in order if possible to avoid the attacks of this so fatal and often unlooked-for enemy ? It is im- possible to suggest any course for universal adoption : every farmer must be his own judge as to the immediate causes on his own occupation, and he must use every precaution in his power to avoid its attacks. In the immediate locality from which we write every turnip- crop of luxuriant growth from early sowing was nearly destroyed, whilst every crop of tardy growth and late solving was preserved. The writer had two crops of Swedes : the-early sown one, intended for competition for a local prize, was wofuUy injured ; the late one nearly escaped. The early-sown had much [cultivation, man- agement, and artificial aids bestowed upon it, to make it all productive ; the late one but ordinary culture and but little artificial aid ; both, however, suffered severely in the winter from the dry frosts : but the losses compara- tively were trifling in the latter compared with the early crop. We would suggest that on all rich turnip soils early sowing — that is, before the first of June — should be avoided. The general appearance of this district points to the second and third weeks in June as the safest and best time to put in the Swedish turnip crop. Every- thing is done that can be devised to prepare the soil for the reception of this almost invaluable root-crop, and when the proper time comes, all the available power of the farm is brought into the most energetic requisition to put it in as quickly and satisfactorily as possible — no working by rule now ! On inferior soils the crop may be put in somewhat earlier ; but we doubt the pro- priety of sowing the Swedish crop on land not adapted for it : these soils must be got up to the mark by extra culture — they must be put in with a large deposit of our best artificial aids, and be sown with seed from some of the largest varieties of turnips we have to compensate, or they will not answer well ; in such case we demur as to very early sowing. Another suggestion we could again make (and here we fear we stand upon explosive ground), that is, not to hoe them out too thinly. Sup- pose the crop to be put in on ridges 25 to 27 inches apart, we say that to set out with a nine-inch hoe is in most cases sufficiently wide : if drilled on the flat at 12 inches, we say to set them out with a 12-inch hoe is wide enough ) and so on, in such proportion. All good turnip soils, or soils properly prepared for the turnip- crop, will yield large and satisfactory crops under such management. It is very requisite to pay attention to the variety of turnips sown — a large-topped variety should be discarded, except upon the poorest soils j the tops generally decay before consumption -except for early feed ; then the more top the better. The great object in turnip sowing is to get the greatest possible weight or bulk of turnips of good quality per acre. Can this be done best by cultivating the crop at wide intervals, or not ? Has it yet been fully ascertained what is the true prescribed limit for these intervals of an average crop of swedes? Mangel wurzel requires plenty of space ; its leaves contribute vastly to its sup- port and progress ; their very form and shape denote it. Turnips may be set out more closely ; their leaves do not so soon or so seriously intrude or interfere with each other ; and the process of bulbing will proceed notwith- standing such close proximity. Mr. Smith (Lois Wecdon) would say, drill them in at 5 feet intervals, and set out at 12 inches — swedes cannot be too large ! What depth of cultivation is required for this practice, and what space must be lost, to say nothing of injury to such roots by frost, &c. ! He has never been emi- nently successful even at this immense width. In this country we have so much to contend against, . that we must calculate accordingly. It is but seldom that our seasons will allow the Swedish turnip crop to be taken up and grazed with advantage ; could we en- sure this, we should not object to a large turnip ; but having most frequently to permit them to remain in the ground for consumption, we prefer them to be of medium size, and for this purpose much prefer a thicker plant : for swedes on ridges at 25 or 26 inch intervals ; for common turnips on the flat, at 12 inches. We try our best to produce a regular pavement of turnips on the flat, and a continuous row without intervals on the ridge, for which purpose we set them out as thickly as named above. We are satisfied we produce them of ex- cellent quality ; and as they grow to a rather large size if carefully set out and singled, we have a great weight. per acre ; besides, in the early consumption of the com- mon turnips, we have abundance of leaves of good food, and plenty of it, which is a decided benefit. We have said nothing about cultivation of the crop, having so frequently written upon it ; but we would remind our readers of the great advantage and economy attending the use of the liquid-manure drill, particularly in dry seasons, or to stimulate the growth of the plant in late sowing : the manure drilled in to aid the plant, being more easily and readily taken up in a liquid than a dry state, is more available as food for it, and conse- quently urges it " out of harm's way" speedily. We have at various times been called to account for pro- mulgating such a doubtful doctrine as that of thick tur- nip-planting. It has not beex done hastily, or without actual experiment, and carried on for a series of years, upon a fair turnip soil. The proof has been fully in favour of thickly set Jng out the crop, and that with great care, every plant being single, otherwise it would fail ; and we always sow a good-sized variety, never a small sort of any kind. We should much like to influence a considerable number of cultivators to try as an experiment seve- ral distances in their setting out the turnip crop, and note the result, giving us all the particulars, including the varieties of turnips experimented upon. If such a course could be adopted extensively, we should be most happy to put them into a tabular form upon the various 478 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. communications being sent to the office of the Mark Lane Express. Our object is to benefit our brethren of the soil, and we hope many will take the trouble to set out some portions of their crops, and report to the editor. We feel assured that in the mfljority of good turnip soils it will be found that turnips may with ad- vantage be set out much more thickly than is generally practised. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 23rd of April: present, Mr. Raymond Barker, V.P,, in the Chair; Mr. Aldam, M.P., Mr. Blount, Mr. Burness, Mr. James Chapman, Mr. Corbet, Dr. Dau- beny, Mr. Devas, Mr. Fuller, M.P., Mr. Gadesden, Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Thomas Lea, and Mr. Mainwaring Paine. The names of 11 candidates, received during the past week for election into the Society at the ensuing monthly Council, were read. Arachide-nut Cake.— Mr. Spooner favoured the Council with the following reply to inquiries made of him in reference to the Arachide-nut Cake : "Eling, near Southampton, March 31, 1836. " In reply to your communication lequesting me to furnish the Council with information respecting the price and the supply of Arachide-nut cake, a sample of which I had the honour of forwarding a short time since, I beg to state that my firm (Spooner and Bailey) have imported two cargoes from Rouen, in France, since October last, and that the pre- sent price is £9 per ton. It appears to be relished more by sheep than by cattle. I think there is likely to be a fair sup- ply of this cake, unless there should be a great depreciation in the value of feeding cakes as well as oil, so as to render the collection of the nuts not sufficiently remunerative. It is scarcely necessary to observe that, whilst Linseed-cake will probably always maintain its supremacy amongst the different feeding materials, yet it must surely be the interest of agri- cultHrists to encourage the introduction of other feeding cakes, such as Nut-cake, Poppy-cake, and Cotton cake, more particularly when such cakes are rich in their nitrogenous elements. Poppy cake is much relished by cattle as well as sheep, and appears to be very suitable for working oxen. It is rather dearer than Nut-cake. "W. C. Spoonek." Mr. Gadesden was surprised to hear that the Poppy- seed Cake was priced so high, as he obtained his own supplies at the rate of £9> per ton. Barn-Floors. — Mr. Greaves, of Matlock-Bath, Derbyshire, favoured the Council with the following information respecting barn-floors, in reference to an inquiry made by Colonel Chapman, "whether any cheaper and equally durable material had been met with, as a substitute for barn-floors, than the old- fashioned oak-flooring, for which an estimate had been sent in to him at £M .'" — " In reference to your ioquiries relative to the laying of barn-floors, I strongly recommend asphalte in preference to wood, for many reasons, a few of which may be mentioned — as (1 ), the imperviousness of asphalte to moisture ; (2), the exclu- sion it occasions to vermin ; and (3), the preservation of the grain in a sweet state from tlie dryness in which it is kept. I get the asphalte in blocks ; and having set up an old boiler near the pl»ce, I mix the gravel with it while hot, and run out the mixture on the surface required to tlie tluckuess of about two inches. In a few liours the asplialte-floor will bear any weight, and it will be found not only better but cheaper than wood." Mr. Devos remnrkcd that there wns great economy in this flooring, its cost being only £7 for an area which, laid down with oak^ would be £40. It would not only bear weight, as stated by Mr. Greaves, but was well adapted, from its strength and elasticity, to bear the ap- plication of the flail in the operation of thrashing. — Mr. Raymond Barker feared the objection to its use as a thrashing.floor might be the dust he understood it occa- sioned.—Mr, Devas had not heard of that objection. H.R.H. Prince Albert had adopted it as the material for the flooring of his sheds and piggeries ; and it had been found to answer those purposes extremely well. — Mr. Aldam, M.P., inquired respecting the particular kind of asphalte employed. — Mr. Devas stated that he believed it had been supplied by Mr. Prentice, of Stowmarket, who intended to exhibit specimens of asphalte at the Chelmsford Meeting in July next. Communications were read from Mr. Brown, late of Arniston, on the subject of shut-drains to exclude the entrance of fibrous matter in the neighbourhood of plantations; and from M. Bortier, of Bruges, on the subject of the limestone of Nieuport containing a small proportion of phosphate of lime, and which he thought might possibly be worth importing into England. Prof. Way (on account of temporary indisposition) was unable to attend for the purpose of delivering his lecture " On the progress of Chemical Science, both at Home and Abroad, in reference to Agriculture." Its delivery was accordingly postponed till the following Wednesday, April 30, at 12 o'clock. A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 30th of April: present, Mr. Miles, M.P., Vice- President, in the Chair ; Lord Berners, Lord Fever- sham, Baron George de Cotta, Sir John V. B. John- stone, Bart., M.P., Sir Archibald Keppel Macdonald, Bart., M. Tisserand, Mr. Amos, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. J. G. Blencowe, Mr. R. W. Blencowe, Mr. Bur- ness, Mr. Caird, Colonel Challoner, Mr. Corbet, Mr. Evelyn Denison, M P., Mr. Devas, Mr. Ffytchc, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Gadesden, Rev. L. Vernon Har- court, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Horsfall, JMr. Neill Malcolm, Mr. Paine, Mr. Parkins, Mr. Pococke, Mr. Scott, Prof. Simonds, Mr. R. Trench, and Mr. Wright- son, M.P. The names of 29 additional candidates for election at the next Monthly Council were received. Chemical Science. — Prof. Way, the consulting chemist of the Society, read his first report on the pro- gress of Chemical Science, both at home and a1)road, in reference to agriculture, which he was requested to re- vise for publication in the Jottrnal. On the motion of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 479 Lord Berners, seconded by Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., the thanks of the meeting were voted to Prof. Way, for the report he had then read to the Council. Mr. Denison added, that it had given him much satisfaction to listen to the reading of that report. As far as his own limited knowledge went, he fully concurred with what Mr. Way had stated, especially in reference to the con- troversy between Baron Liebigand Mr. Lawes. He was glad to find that we might possibly see ourselves within that term of the discussion at which those two eminent chemists might come into harmony on points respecting which they had hitherto held opposite opinions. He concurred with Mr. Way in his views on the impulse which mechanical progress in the cultivation of land might give to the development and application of che- mical science. — Mr. Miles, on putting the motion from the chair, remarked that the great utility of communica- tions such as the one they had then heard from Professor Way, consisted in their bringing at particular times be- fore the minds of the members detailed statements of such facts as had occurred or been communicated, at irregular intervals, during a long course of years. They supplied at once, in connected order, a vast amount of matter for careful consideration. The early attention of the genius of Liebig to the application of chemistry to agriculture, the great experimental research of Mr. Lawes, and the perfect unanimity which appeared likely to take place eventually between them, to the benefit of agriculture, were all of them circumstances of an im- portant and gratifying character. The Council adjourned to their Monthly Meeting on Wednesday, the 7th of May. A Monthly Council was held on Wednesday, the 7th of May. The following members of Council and Governors of the Society were present : Mr. Miles, M.P., Vice-President, in the Chair ; Lord Berners ; Lord Southampton ; Lord Bridport ; Sir John Villiers Shelley, Bart., M.P. ; Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; Sir Archibald Keppel Macdonold, Bart. ; Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart., M.P, ; Mr. Dyke Acland; Mr. Alcock, M.P. ; Mr. Raymond Barker; Mr. Barnett ; Mr. Bartliropp ; Mr. Bosanquet ; Mr. Bramston, M.P.; Mr. Brand reth ; Mr. Bullock; Mr. Cavendish; Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P. ; Mr. Druce; Mr. Foley, M.P.; Mr. Gadesden ; Mr. Garrett; Mr. Brandreth Gibbs ; Mr. Hamond ; Mr. Fisher Hobbs ; Mr. Wren Hoskyns ; Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre ; Mr. S. Jonas ; Mr. Kinder ; Mr. Lawes ; Mr. Laurence ; Mr. Sillifant ; Prof. Simonds ; Mr. Thompson ; INIr. Turner, of Barton ; Prof. Way ; Mr. Jonas Webb ; Mr. Western ; Mr. Wilson, of Stowlangtoft ; and Mr. Woodward. The following new members were elected :— Adams, S., Great Waltham, Chelmsford Allen, Edward Ellis, 376, Strand, London Allen, Stephen, Eastwood Bury, Rochford Baillie, Rev. Evan, Lawshall Rectory, near Bury St. Edmunds Barnes, J. S., Colchester Blencowe, Robert A., Chorley, Sussex Board, John, Westerham Vicarage, Kent Boby, Charles, Stutton, near Ipswich Bromley, J. R , Banafield Hall Burlingham, J., Old Buckenham Butcher, John, Bardwell, Ixworth Carter, George, Tyndales, Woodham Mortimer, Chelmsford Cheadle, Rev. T., Dunham, Newark, Notts. Cooke, Joseph, Mayor of Colchester Cooper, William, Barnham, Thetford Edwards, James Latchford, Rochester, Kent Farrow, Charles, Ipswich Fison, Joseph, Ipswich Frost, Edward, IVest Wrattiug Hall, Linton, Cambridge Griffiths, J. Evans, Aberystwith House, Widdington, Bishop's Stortford Grove, James, Great Braddow, Chelmsford Hall, Frederick, Denham, Bury St. Edmunds Hay, J., Bishopsthorpe, near Great Grimsby Haward, R., Spexball Road, Halesworth Hilton, C, Dansbury, Chelmsford Hitchcock, Henry, Chittane Al!-Saints, near Heytfsbury Hobson, James, Kilkea Castle. Dermot, County Kildare Kersey, Clement, Whitton, Ipswich Kersey, Thomas, Fakenham Hall Keyworth, Henry Joseph, Cottesford Place, Lincoln Keyworth, John Robert Haldeaby, Cottesford Place, Lincoln King, George, Gazeley, near Newmarket King, William, Barton, Bury St. Edmunds King, Edward, Gazeley, near Newmarket Locker, William, Tillington, Stafford Massey, Sampson, Harkstone, near Derby Mo=3, Henry, Bentley Mill, near Brentwood Munro, Samuel, East Stanley-street, Bronghton Road, Salford Nunn, George, Eldo House, Bury St. Edmunds Owen, Robert, Oldport, near Oswestry Partridge, Julius, Birmingham Pawsey, Frederick, Lidgate, Bury St. Edmunds Fryke, John, Wickhambrook, Newmarket Pye, George, Ipswich Schreiber, T. W., Round Wood, Ipswich Shaw, Alexander Neshitt, Newhall, Fortrose, Ross- shire Smith, Charles Edward, 84, Eccleston Square Townsend, T. C. Gretton, Berwick Place, Chelmsford Tye, Edmund, Dallinghoo, Woodbridge Verelst, Charles, Claughton, near Birkenhead Waldy, Edward, Barmpton, Darlington Wallace, Robert Agnew, Lochryan House, Caurn, near Stranraer Warwick, W. A., Colchester Woodward, Henry, Stanway, Colchester Webb, Henry, jun., Wilson, Chas. R., Hipsburn, near Alnwick. Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance Committee, submitted the monthly report on the accounts of the Society ; from which it appeared that the current cash-balance in the hands of the So- ciety's bankers was ^£"3,657. He also laid on the table the several quarterly statements of account in reference to the different branches of income and expenditure. Journal. — Mr. Thompson, Chairman of the Journal Committee, reported recommendations in reference to the preparation of a complete analytical Index to the Journal of the Society; and to an alteration of the terms in which the grant is at present made to the Royal Veterinary College. He also expressed, on the part of the Journal Committee, a request that the mem- bers of the Council would favour them by suggesting, before the 1st of June, subjects for the essay-prizes to be ofiered for 1857. Chemical Analysis. — Mr. Wren Hoskyns, Chair- man of the Chemical Committee, reported the progress made by the committee, in conference with Professor Way, in preparing the new schedule of reduced charges to be made by the consulting chemist of the Society to its members for chemical analyses, with or without a professional opinion as the applicant may desire. 480 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Guano-Substitute. — Mr. Raymond Barker re- ported communications from the Guano- Substitute Committee, and the Council gave instructions in re- ference to them. Chelmsford Meeting. — Mr. Barnett, Vice- chairman of the Chelmsford Committee, reported the suggestions of that committee, which were adopted. The construction of a dining pavilion to accommodate one thousand guests on Thursday, the 17th of July, the principal day of the show, was finally ordered. Dynamometer. — Colonel Challoner transmitted to the Council the engagement entered into by the Imple- ment Committee with Messrs. Easton and Amos, to complete for use at the Chelmsford meeting the requi- site dynamometers for the trial of field-implements on that occasion. Foreign Prize Sheet. — Mr. Miles, MP., reported the steps he had taken, in conjunction with Lord Feversham, to carry out the intentions of the Council in reference to the conditions under which foreign cattle were to be shown in competition for prizes at the Chelmsford meeting. Trustee. — On the nomination of Mr. Milward, se- conded by Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., was unanimously elected one of the Trustees of the Society, in the place of the late Mr. Neeld, M.P. Thorough-breu Horses. — Mr. Fisher Hobbs pre- sented from the Chelmsford Local Committee a memo- rial, requesting the Council to accept the following prizes for competition, under the general regulations of the Society, at the ensuing country meeting : — For the best thorough-bred Stallion . . . £30 For the best weight-carryino; Kuiitcr Stallion . . 30 For the l)e3t Coaching Stallion . . . .25 For tlie best Hackney Stallioii . . . .25 For the best weight-carrying Hunter Mare . . 20 For the best Hackney Mare 20 For the best Gelding of any age for Hunting pnrposes 15 For the best Gelding under 4 years old . . .10 For the best Hackney Gelding of any age . .15 For the best Hackney Gelding under 4 years old . 10 £200 No Horse being allowed to compete in two Classes. HoNORARV Member. — On the motion of Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., M. Leonce de Lavergne, author of the excellent work on the Rural Economy of Great Britain and Ireland, was unanimously elected an Honorary Member of the Society. Poultry Steward. — On the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Joseph Cooke, mayor of Colchester, was appointed Steward of the Poultry department for the Chelmsford Meeting. Implement Stewaud-Elect. — On the motion of Mr. Cavendish, Mr. Burnett, of Stratton Park, was appointed Steward-Elect of Implements for the Chelms- ford Meeting. Country Meeting of 1857.— Invitations were re- ceived from the authorities of Bath, Dorchester, Salis- bury, Taunton, and Winchester, requesting the Council to select the place of the country meeting for next year from one of their respective localities. The various memorials, plans, and other documents thus received, were referred to an inspection committee, with a request that the members of it would personally visit the pro- posed localities, and report upon them to the Council on the 4th of June. House List. — The balloting list of Council to be recommended for adoption by the general meeting on the 22nd inst. was prepared agreeably with the terms of the bye-Iaws. Lecture, — On the motion of Mr. Lawrence, Pro- fessor Simonds's second lecture " On Parasites afifecting Domesticated Animals," was arranged to be delivered as proposed on the 25th of June, at twelve o'clock. Foreign Cattle Entries. — On the motion of Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, the period for receiving entries from abroad of foreign cattle intended to compete at the Chelmsford meeting was extended from the 1st to the I2th of June, in order that entries might be effected during the Paris Exhibition, intended to take place in the first week of June. A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 14th of May: present, Mr. Raymond Barker, V.P., in the Chair, Sir Edward Ilulse, Bart., Mr. Buller (Dilhorne), Mr. Burness, Mr. Cooke (\fayor of Colchester), Mr. Corbet, Mr. Cotes, Mr. Devas, Mr. Ffytche, Mr. Gadesden, Mr. Glegg, Mr. Gray, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Rev. C. T, James, Mr. Jlajeudie, Mr. Milward, Mr. Orlebar, Mr. Paine, Mr. Parkins, Mr. Spencer Stanhope, ]\Ir. Purser, Mr. Burch Wes- tern, Mr. Sutton Western, and Mr. Wilton (Stow- langtoft). Prof. Way delivered a lecture on the Composition of Drainage Water, for which, on the motion of Mr. Ray- mond Barker, seconded by Mr. Fishher Hobbs, e re- ceived the best thanks of the meeting. Lord Portman made the following communication : — " The manure mentioned in the Journal of the Bath and West of England Agricultural Society, published in 1856, p. 314, under the name of the Loudon Manure Company's Su- perphosphate for Turnips, was bought by Mr. E. Pestei, my bailiff, of Mr. J. U. Phillips, of Dorsetshire, and was called and labelled by Mr. Pester, ' The I-ondon Manure Company's Manure,' It appears on investigation to-day that the manure delivered by Mr. Pester was sent iu bags marked with the name of another company, and that Mr. Phillips is not the agent of the London Manure Company of Mr. Edward Purser. " All the remarks of Professor Voelcker are therefore wholly inapplicable to the manure sold by the London Manure Company. " I therefore certify that having been misled by my bailiff, I have most unwillingly and quite unconsciously permitted the publication in the Journal of the analysis o! manure under a wrong name, as it was not purchased from the London Manure Company or their agents. " I authorize Mr. Purser to publish this statement iu any way he thinks fit. " BryanatoD, May 8. (Signed) " Portman." The Half- Yearly Audit of Accounts was held on the IGth of May : present, Mr. Raymond Barker, chairman, and Mr. Henry Wilson, member of the Finance Committee; Mr. Tiiomas Knight, Mr. George Raymond Barker, and Mr. George Dyer, auditors on the part of the Society. The accounts were examined, audited, and certified, by the signatures of the parties present, as correct. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 481 A Special Council was held on the same day, for taking into consideration the report to be made by the Council to the ensuing general meeting : present, Mr. Raymond Barker, Vice-President in the chair; Earl of Powis, Mr. Milward, and Mr. Wilson of Stowlangtoft. A Weekly Council was held on the 21st of May : present, Mr. Miles, M.P., Vice-President, in the chair ; Lord Berners, Lord Bridport, Mr. Barnett, Mr. Hodgson Barron, M.P., Mr. Blencowe, Mr. Bullock, Mr. Burness, Mr. Bramslon, M.P., Mr. Evelyn Deni- son, M.P., Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Jennings, Mr. Paine, Mr. Parkins, Mr. Chandos Pole, Mr. Slaney, Mr. Edward Tull, Professor Way, Mr. Burch Western, Mr. Suttou Western, and Mr. Wilson of Stowlangtoft. Veterinary College. — The following report was received from the Governors of the Royal Veterinary College : — Royal Veterinary College, April, 1856. The Governors of the Royal Veterinary College, iu present- ing their annual report to the Council of the Royal Agricul- tural Society, have again the pleasure of congratulating them on the undisturbed liarmouy which haa continued to exist be- tween the two institutions. Iu a union such as this the Go- vernors find an assurance that Veterinary Science cannot fail in her continuous efforts of investigation into the nature and causes af the diseases affecting the floclis and herds of the agriculturist, and thereby, while contributing to the support of one of the fundamental principles of the Royal Agricultural Society, to lend her not altogether unimportant aid iu the conservation of an essential portion of the natioual wealth. The means which the Governors have given effect to, during the past year, have differed iu no important particular from those originally laid down for their guidance and approved of by the Society. Lecture?. — Under this head they would observe that an average number of four a week were delivered by the Professor of Cattle Pathology during the session commencing in October, 1854, and ending iu May, 1855 ; and that a similar course of lectures is now being delivered, which will be brought to a close at the usual period. These lectures have for their exclu- sive object the inculcation of the principles of pathology, founded upon a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the ox, sheep, and pig, and they therefore embrace the nature and causes, as well as the preventive and curative treatment of the several affections of these animals. These lectures have been regularly attended by all the pupils of the college. The Governors have also called the special attention of the class to their code of laws, which provide that the students, before presenting themselves for examination for the diploma of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, shall pass a preliminary examination to the satisfaction of the Professor of each department of their studies. Provision is thus made, as the Council will perceive, for the more perfect education of the pupils in the several divisions of their studies, and from this much general good must result; for the Governors would remark that very valuable assistance to the advancement of cattle pathology is given by the other Professors of the Col- lege, whose instructions are extended to the anatomy, phy- siology, and pathology of the horse — to chemistry, materia niedica, and pharmacy. Since the last annual report to the Council, fifty students have entered at the College ; and as' the time of their pupilage extends over two sessional years, an average number of eighty has been in daily attendance. Practice of the College. — Many interesting and in- stinctive cases of disease have heen admitted, and each of these has been made available to the general information of the pupils. The governors, however, would be glad to see a more uniform occupancy of the sheds and boxes which they originally erected at considerable expense for the reception of cattle and sheep when the subjects of disease; and they had hoped that after the pointed mauuer iu which they drew the attention of the agricultural body to this subject in their last report, they should now have been enabled to congratulate the Couucil on the large increase of patients of this class which had taken place. Every member of the Society being entitled to all the p-.ivilei'.es of a subscriber to the College, in as far as the admission of cattle, sheep, and pigs is concerned, removes all ground of objection on the score of expense : and the Governors believe that the sole cause of the fewness in number of the patients depends rather on the forgetfulness of the members of these privileges than anything else. Consultations AND Communications. — If the ad- mission of diseased cattle to the infirmary has not materially differed from former years, the consultations by letter and otherwise have, on the contrary, greatly increased. From all parts of the country communications have been forwarded to the College, detailing the particulars of special cases, and asking advice as to the treatment of the affected animals. Much of the Professor's time has been occupied in replying to these letters, and he has often had the satisfaction of learning that great good had resulted from the instructions which were given relative to the hygienic as well as the medical treatment of the animals in question. Veterinary Inspection. — During the past year, and probably arising in part from the increased number of commu- nications, the members of the Society have not asked for the personal inspection by Professor Simonds of the animals suffer- inw from disease on their respective farms so frequently as on former occasions. The Governors desire to see this bond of connexion between the two institutions extended and streugihened by a more frequent use; and they would suggest to the Council whether a modification of its rules relating to these inspections might not be advantageously adopted. Next to the admission of patients, these inspections afford the surest means of practically advancing cattle pathology. At the annual meeting of the Society at Carlisle, the general in- spection of the animals was made as heretofore, and with much benefit to the interests of the Society, as several cases of illness and accident also occurred during the days of the meeting. Besides these circumstances, some of the animals had to be disquahfied, from wrong entries with regard to their a^-e, and others from the existence of hereditary diseases and defects. Epizootics. — The chief of these maladies have been pleuro pneumonia and eczema, both of which have prevailed in several parts of the country, the first-named with its usual se- verity. As stated in a former report, pleuro-pneumonia be- longs to a class of diseases which can be far more easily prevented than cured ; and the Governors would remark that the measures they recommended for adoption as prophylactics have stood the test of further experience, and been of essential service in numerous instances of outbreaks of the malady. In- oculation as a preventive has had but few advocates, nor can the Governors believe that those who have refrained from adopting it are acting otherwise than on right principles of science; and, consequently, they have not suffered greater losses than those persons who have not had recourse to the operation. The diminution in the number of cases which in a few isolated instances have seemingly accompanied the intro- duction of inoculation, have been but singular coincidences, 482 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and are altogether due to the ordinary causes which regulate the outbreak, extension, and departure of this class of diseases. Pakasitic Affections.— These maladies, which are more or less the cause of heavy losses to the agriculturist, have been remarkably rife, and during the last summer many hundreds of Iambs have fallen victims to the presence of worms in the re- spiratory organs. These losses have also been continued up to this time, but in somewhat diminished numbers. In too many instances nothing was done by the flock-masters to arrest the progress of the disease ; nor, indeed, was its true cause often ascertained by them. The most marked symptoms of the affection are a cough (which becomes increased by exertion, and also by changes of temperature), hurried breathing, fas- tidious appetite, and a falling away in condition, the animals being in very many instances ultimately carried off by diarrhcea, which supervenes upon the other symptoms. In some cases death takes place mote suddenly, arising from active congestion of the lungs. The exhibition of a few doses of oil of turpen- tine and linseed oil as an anthelmintic, followed up by chalybeate tonics, and the occasioual inhalation of diluted chlorine gas, were found to be very effective remedies. To these were added, and with much advantage, the supplying the ani- mals with a generous and varied diet, and protection against the more common changes of the weather by folding them witli hurdles stuffed with straw. The Governors have to thank a member of your Council, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, for sending to the infirmary some lambs the subjects of this disease, which enabled the Professor of Cattle Pathology to direct the atten- tion of the pupils to the malady in a far more practical way than he could otherwise have done. Besides lambs, young cattle have likewise suffered to a great extent from the same cause ; and the like principles of treatment, but somewhat modified to suit the altered state of things, were found equally efficient with them. The worms which inhabit this part of the organism belong to the class Filaria. They exhaust the strength of the animal they attack by drawing largely upon the secretions furnished by the mucous membrane of the res- piratory organs, in which also they soon produce diseased action. Besides this, they cause a mechanical impediment to the free entrance of air into the lungs, and thus frequently destroy the animal from asphyxia, or in less numbers interfere with necessary changes of the blood in its passage through these organs. They are both oviparous and viviparous, as many of the youug are hatched within the body of the parent worm, while others are only brought to perfection after the ejection of the ova. Further investigations of their develop- ment, and the changes which their ova may undergo when expel'ed from the windpipe by the coughing of the affected animal, may probably lead hereafter to the adoption of means to prevent the frequency of their attack. Calcareous Concretions. — So many instances of the loss of rams in particular have occurred from calcareous deposits in the urinary organs as to deserve a separate notice in this report. Experience has shown that when sheep are kept too much on a nitrogenised diet, and allowed but a limited range, a perverted state of the digestive and assimila- tive functions ensues, which leads to the deposit of ecrthy salts in the urinary system. These deposits take place in all sheep without reference to sex, but they are of more consequence in the male animal, arising from the fact that the urethral canal, much diminished in size, passes through the vermiform ap- pendage of the iiitromittant generative organ, and the deposit accumulating therein blocks up the passage and lends to in- flammation and often rupture of the bladder from a retention of the urine. Preventive means are the most to be advocated, and theie should conBiat in the adoption of a less forcing sys- tem to bring the animals into condition in so short a space of time ; the repeated exhibition of some mild aperient medicine, and also the use of mineral acids in a diluted form, chemistry having demonstrated that these urinary deposits in herbivorous animals are mostly composed of the earthy carbonates with some traces of the phosphates. Concluding Kejiarks. — In bringing this report to a close, the Governors would express a hope that agriculturists as a body are beginning to find that through the efforts which have been put forth by the College iu common with the Council of the Society, many young men, whose scientific education is based upon the fundamental principles of ana- tomy and physiology of cattle, are being located in their several districts ; and that in carrying out these principles they are no less practical in their every-day proceedings than those individuals who profess to possess hereditary knowledge, and who put forth this figment as a claim for their being con- sulted in cases of disease affecting our flocks and herds in par- ticular. Such the College labours to attain, and such it hopes it has in a great measure succeeded in accomplishing. (Signed) Thomas Cator, Chairman. Lord Berners remarked, that in all cases of disease among the farmer's live stock, means of prevention would be found better than subsequent attempts at cure. He referred to several districts where disease prevailed to a great extent. In his own neighbourhood the reme- dies prescribed by Prof. Simonds, and received from the Veterinary College, had been attended with almost uniform success. — Mr. Slaney objected to the growing tendency among professional men to use tech- nical words in describing symptoms and remedies. He thought that in addressing farmers plain English should at least be given as well as words heierogeneously com- pounded from the Greek and Latin. — Mr. Miles re- marked that his own flock of lambs, as well as that of his brother, had suffered loss to the amount of 20 per cent, from a sort of« consumption. It commenced about the latter end of September, by the animal's sneezing and wasting away ; but invariably disappeared, even in the worst cases, as soon as the warm weather came. The heads of the sheep were found, after death, to contain two grubs in the upper part of the nostrils. — Lord Berners had lost some of Lis best lambs by worms. The Council adjourned over the Derby-day to their monthly meeting on the 4th of June. The Half- Yearly General Meeting of the Society was held on the 22nd of May : present, Lord Port- man, President, in the chair. Lord Feversham, Lord Denman, Sir Robert Price, Bart., M.P., Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Bramston, M.P., Mr. Bullock, Rev. Thomas Cator, Mr. Devas, Mr. Flytche, Mr. Girtwood, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Rev. C. T. James, Mr. Jennings, Mr. Fuller Maitland, Mr. Pickin, Mr. Thomas Scott, Mr. Strafford, Mr. Hurch Western, Mr. Sutton Western, Mr. Wilson, of Stowlangtoft. The Chairman having informed the meeting that its first duty was to elect a President, Mr. R. Barker moved that Mr. J. E. Denison, M.P., should be president for the ensuing year, dwell- ing on his devotion to the cause of agriculture, anj THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 483 referring to his exertions during the past year at Paris as entitling him to the confidence and support of the members. Mr. Bramstont, M.P., in seconding the motion, ex- pressed his concurrence in what had fallen from Mr. Barker with regard to the services rendered by Mr. Denison at the Paris Exhibition. The motion having been adopted unanimously, The Chairman said, now that the motion had been agreed to, he must say he should be exceedingly happy to hand over the chair to so old a friend of his own as Mr. Denison. He believed they were born in the same year — they had certainly passed nearly the whole of their lives together ; and he ventured to say there was no individual who felt greater interest in that Society than Mr. Denison. He thoroughly deserved the com- pliment which had just been paid him. On the motion of Mr. W. J. Pickin, seconded by Mr. H. Wilson, the trustees were re-elected. On the motion of the Rev. C. James, seconded by Lord Feversham, the vice-presidents were also re- elected. The meeting then proceeded to the election of the members of the Council. After the lapse of a few minutes, it was announced by the scrutineers that the house list had been adopted unanimously. The Secretary, Mr. Hudson, then read the following REPORT. The Society consists at the present time of — 85 Life -Governors, 139 Annual Governors, 839 Life-Members, 8,896 Annual Members, and 20 Honorary Members : forming a total of 4,979 Members, or 97 more names on the list than at the previous anniversary. Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., has been appointed a Trustee of the Society, in the place of the late Mr. Neeld, M.P. His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the French having been graciously pleased to permit his name to be placed on the list of Honorary Members of the Society, in compliance with a request made on the part of the Council, His Imperial Majesty has been unanimously elected accordingly, in grateful recognition of the deep interest which His Imperial Majesty has so effectively taken in the promotion of inter-national agriculture. The Council have also elected M. Leonce de Lavergne an Honorary Member of the Society, in testimony of the high estimation in which they hold his remarkable work on the Rural Economy of this country. The Finances of the Society have on no former oc- casion been in so favourable a condition. The funded property consists of ,£9,264 in the New Three per Cents. Stock, and the current cash-balance in the hands of the bankers is £3,657. A complete analytical index to the volumes of the Journal already published is in the press, and a new cata- logue of the Library is in preparation. Prof. Way, the Consulting- Chemist of the Society, has read before the Members a report on the progress of Chemical Science both at home and abroad in reference to agriculture, and has cjeliveied a lecture on the com- position of Drainage-water. He has also devised a mode by which the amount of nitric acid and ammonia in the atmosphere may be ascertained with approximate exact- ness. This discovery will at once give interest and im- portance to the prosecution of agricultural meteoro- logy, a branch of inquiry which has hitherto either entirely lain dormant, or been pursued only with results of an indefinite character. The chemical investigation of water flowing over the surface of cultivated land, or through its substance into drains, will eventually prove of grea' importance, as showing the excess of manuring matter which may have been in any case applied ; at present, however, the results obtained by Prof. Way are confined to a limited body of facts occurring under certain given conditions ; but these are sufiicient to in- dicate the great loss which is probably sustained by an injudicious manuring of particular soils. The con» troversial publications of Baron Liebig and Mr. Lawes have had the effect of calling the attention of scientific men to the chemical principles of agriculture, and of practical men to the application of those principles in a farming and economical point of view. The great ques- tions however involved in this controversy have still to be dispassionately considered, when the controversial spirit shall have passed away, and the facts be made subservient only to the progress of philosophic inquiry. The Council strongly advise the members of the Society to take advantage of their privileges relating to the an- alysis of artificial manures, as they can thus only obtain security against fraud from adulteration. The Council have decided that at the end of the current year the offer of the £1,000 Prize for a substitute for Peruvian guano shall be withdrawn. Prof. Simonds, the Veterinary Inspector of the Society, has delivered before the Mem- bers a lecture on the Skin Diseases of Domestic Ani • mals, and the Royal Veterinary College have transmitted to the Council their annual report. One of the original objects for which the Society was founded, the last in the order of enumeration, thouo-li by no means the least in importance, is that which pro- poses " to promote the comfort and welfare of labourers, and to encourage the improved management of their cottages and gardens." This great and humane object has been constantly the subject of consideration, both officially by the Council and individually by the mem- bers of the Society. Various ameliorating measures have been proposed, which as far as they have gone have been useful, but they fall far short of that extended sys- tem which the importance of the subject demands. Tiie Society has distributed at less than prime cost upwards of 30,000 copies of cottage tracts, containing practical suggestions for the management of labourers' gardens, and for cottage economy and cookery ; it has also published in its Journal Sir George Nichols's Prize Essay on the best means for improving the condition of the agricultural labourer, as well as Mr. Goddard's and Mr. Macvicar's Prize Essays on the construction of cottages. Last year the Prize for the best essay on labourers' cottages was renewed, and several essays on that subject are at the present moment under the con. 484 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sideration of the judges. The Council, however, regard all these efforts as too limited and temporary in their charaeter. The intelligent mind of the labourer, who performs the operations on the farm, and the high moral principle within him, which is the surest guarantee to his employer, are best sustained and cultivated by making every effort to render the labourer happy and com- fortable. The Chelmsford Meeting, to be held in the middle of July, promises to be equal, in every respect, to the most successful of former Country Meetings of the Society in other parts of the kingdom. The entry of agricultural implements and machinery is large beyond precedent ; and as a great number of these, instead of lying inactive, as hitherto, in the yard, will be at ordinary work during certain hours of the Show, they will present a new and instructive feature in the exhibition. The Council have been induced, on the representation of a very large pro- portion of the Implement Manufacturers who exhibited last year at Carlisle, to apportion the Society's prizes and trials in the implement department over three years, in- stead of including them all in single successive years. The implements for prizes and trials have, accordingly, been divided into classes for this three-years' rotation under the following heads : (1) Implements and machinery for the tillage and drainage of land. (2.) Implements and machinery for the cultivation and harvesting of crops. (3.) Implements and machinery for the prepa- ration of crops for market and cattle-food. Those under the first of these heads will form the Prize and Trial Implements for the Chelmsford Meeting, in addition to the Special Prizes of ;£'500 for the best Steam-Culti- vator, first and second Prizes for Reaping Machines, and Prizes for new and miscellaneous implements. The Con- sulting Engineer of the Society has constructed for the Chelmsford Meeting new Dynamometers, as the measures of forces required to overcome the resistance offered by the soil to the different classes of field-implements. This amount of resistance, compared with the work actually done, will enable the judges more accurately to estimate the relative economic value of competing implements intended for the cultivation of the soil. The Live Stock portion of the exhibition will include foreign cattle and sheep belonging to foreigners and bred abroad. For the purpose of making entries for foreign animals during the approaching Great International Show at Paris, in the first week of June, the Council have extended the date of entry, in their case, from the 1st to the 12th of that month. The Local Chelmsford Committee have liberally placed at the disposal of the Council the sum of £200 to be awarded as extra prizes for thorough- bred, hunting, and roadster horses. These prizes will, no doubt, at- tract a large amount of competition, and greatly increase the interest of the show. Agreeably with a request from the French Govern- ment, the Council have appointed Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., Chairman of the International Implement Jury at the ensuing Paris Meeting, and ten English Jurors to represent this country in the different departments of live stock and implements on that occasion. The Council, in conclusion, have agaiu the satisfac- tion of congratulating the members on the gradual ful- filment of the objects for which the Society was originally established. If practice is slow in its development, the application of science for its improvement requires the greatest caution. In reviewing the active exertions of the Society from its commencement, it could hardly have been expected that so much real advantage, both indirectly as well as directly, could have been obtained in so brief a period. By means of scientific aid a clue is gradually being gained to the operations of the natural influences on the so'l, and to the processes by which ve- getable life is modified and maintained. The ordinary operations of farming will no doubt eventually derive full benefit from the discoveries of science, and become more economical in their accomplishment, and more certain in their results. By order of the Council, James Hudson, Secretary. Mr. R. Barker, as Chairman of the Finance Com- mittee, read the balance-sheet, to which was appended the report of the auditors, testifying to its accuracy. It appeared that the receipts of the half-year ending December 31, 1855, amounted to £6,847 28. lid. ; and that the balance at the bank at the end of the year was £884 3s. lOd., besides £43 9s. 9d. in the hands of the secretary. Mr. Barker said he was gratified at being enabled to repeat the statement in the report that the finances of the Society were now in a very satisfactory condition. The members did not now take amiss the being reminded thut their subscriptions were due, and in numerous in- stances they not only paid what was due, but also trans- mitted the subscription for the ensuing year. If the nominal list of members was not so large as formerly, the paying list was in a more satisfactory state, and the members generally manifested increased interest in the proceedings of the Society. (Hear, hear.) The Rev. T. Cator proposed a vote of thanks to the auditors. Mr. T. Scott seconded the motion. It might, he observed, be supposed that as so much confidence was reposed in the Finance Committee, the auditors gave themselves very little trouble. Last year, however, hap- pening to attend a meeting of the Society for the first time, he made a point of investigating the accounts for himself ; and he must say that, though accustomed to such matters, he never saw accounts which entered more into detail, or with regard to which there had been a more careful and business-like audit. (Hear, hear.) The services thus rendered were, it must be recollected, gratuitous. The motion having been adopted, Mr. R, Barker said, in the absence of the auditors, he had to thank the meeting, on their behalf, for this recognition of their services ; and he must add, that he had never met with gentlemen who were more con- scientious in the discharge of their duties. As Chairman of the Finance Committee, he felt much obliged to Mr. Scott for the testimony which he had borne to the accu- racy of the accounts. The committee challenged inves- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 485 tigation, and would be happy to show their books to any one who might be disposed to examine them. The Chairman said it now became his duty to en- quire whether any gentleman had any suggestion to oflfer which might be referred to the committee for their consideration. IMr. GiRDWooD could not help expressing his grati- fication at the readiness with which members were stated to have recently paid their subscriptions. Six or eight years ago he suggested to the Secretary, Mr. Hudson, that members should be reminded when their subscriptions were due, in order that they might be prevented from getting into arrear, and gave him the printed form of the Highland Agricultural Society, of which he was a member, to show what was the course which it pursued in reference to that subject. He was glad that the suggestion had at length been acted upon, and that the result was so beneficial to the Society. It was of vital importance to the Society that the subscriptions should be collected early, and he trusted that this ap- peal of the Council would always be responded to as it had been during the past year. The Chairman said Mr. Hudson had informed him that amongst 1,600 persons who M'ere applied to for their subscriptions, there was only one gentleman who took the application amiss (Hear, hear). The members had now acquired the habit of paying in the early part of the year, so as to be rather in advance than in arrear. The Rev. C. James said he wished to give notice of his intention to move at a future week a resolution to the effect that if priz3s were given for horses, they should always be given by the Society itself, and not by local committees ; the present arrangement being, in bis opinion, derogatory to the character of so great an institution. He was of opinion, too, that the prizes should include thorough-bred animals, and not be con- fined, as they were at present, to agricultural horses. The Chairman thought it would be more convenient if, instead of giving a notice on the subject, the reverend gentleman were to leave it to the Council to consider what he desired to have done. The Rev. C. James intimated his concurrence in this view; and the subject dropped, with the understanding that it would be taken into consideration by the Council. Mr. H. Wilson hoped what he was about to preface would not be regarded as a mere formal matter. It was, that the thanks of the meeting should be given to their noble President (cheers). Whether they consi- dered the share which his Lordship took in the formation of the Society, or whether they considered his conduct subsequently, including his manner of filling the presi- dential chair, they must all feel that the services ren- dered to the Society by Lord Portman entitled him to their warmest gratitude ; and it was therefore with very great pleasure that he proposed that a vote of thanks should be given to him on that occasion. Mr. T. Scott, in seconding the resolution, said there was one point on which he wished to make a suggestion to the Council ; it related to the practice of giving pre- miums for draining. At present, as they were wel aware, almost every local agricultural society in the kingdom was in the habit of giving prizes for draining, the premiums being awarded sometimes on account of the manner in which the work was executed, and some- times on account of the soundness of the principles which were adopted. Now he was quite sure that all present would admit that, while on the one hand the greatest expenditure which agriculturists had to look forward to was connected with drainage, on the other hand there was no question which was left so completely unsettled as the question what were the true principles of drainage in reference to land generally ; and it struck him that if that Society were to take up the matter, and adopt some principle which could be referred to here- after, it would do a good deal towards settling this question, and enabling agriculturists generally to spend their money on drainage in the most advantageous man- ner. He was quite aware that the Chairman had exe- cuted drainage in different modes ; that he had drained 30 inches, 3 feet, 4 feet, with the plough, by hand, and in a variety of ways. Whether these were feelers, by means of which his Lordship was trying to ascertain which system was most economical, or whether he pur- posely adopted different methods in different localities, his Lordship had never informed the public. The meet- ing was aware, too, that Lord Berners promulgated a theorv on this subject, which was the result of experi- ments made on his own estate, and that in many cases he had been met in anything but an encouraging manner. Under these circumstances he would suggest, for the consideration of the Council, whether it would not be practicable for them to adopt some means of ascertain- ing what were the soundest principles of draining, irre- spective altogether of names ; and he thought that if they did so, the result would be to direct expenditure for drainage into the best channel. It had long been a maxim that green crops were the foundation of hus- bandry. He thought it might with equal truth be said, that drainage was the foundation of it. (Hear, hear.) In conclusion, he thought it might be well for the Council to take into consideration the expediency of giving a series of premiums for the execution of drain- age on the best principles in different parts of England. Mr. GiRDWOOD said he felt great pleasure in second- ing the motion of thanks to the Chairman. There were few persons connected with agriculture who were not aware of the great services which his Lordship had ren- dered to agriculture in every department. As regarded the subject introduced by the last speaker — namely, drainage — they all knew that his Lordship had devoted a great deal of attention to that question, and had made many experiments, and they would all rejoice if he would favour the public with the results of his experience. (Hear, hear.) Mr. R. Barker, in putting the motion, said, that al- though unavoidable circumstances had prevented his Lordship, during the past year, from attending the meet- ,iugs of the Council as frequently as he desired, he had always shown himself desirous of assisting the Council with his valuable advice, and of co-operating with them in all their efforts for the improvement of agriculture. 486 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. (Cheers.) He was sure the meeting must feel that his Lordship was entitled to their most cordial thanks. The motion having been carried by acclamation, The Chairman, in replying, said he felt deeply in- debted to the meeting for the kindness it had manifested towards him. He had all along felt it to be a great honour to have been elected a second time the President of that Society. When he formerly filled the office, he was enabled to devote himself entirely to the service of the Society, and he believed there was scarcely a single meeting of the Council during the whole year that he did not attend. Unhappily, circumstances of anxiety at home had rendered it impossible for him to attend during the past year as frequently as he could have wished to do ; but, though absent in body, he had taken care to make himself acquainted with all that was going on, and he could truly declare that he had been anxious to make himself useful as far as possible (cheers). He might venture to call himself the original member of the Society (laughter), for while many other persons took an active part in the formation of the Society, he was the fiist person who paid a life subscription (Hear, hear). The great work to be attended to, by the Council, during the remainder of his presidency, was that of preparing for the Chelmsford Meeting. He looked forward to that meeting with great delight — anxiety on the subject he had none — and had no doubt that the exhibition would be worthy of British agricul- turists, and of the Society. He hoped that all present would take pains to induce their friends to attend the meeting, and certain he was that the Council would endeavour to make such arrangements as would be most conducive to the convenience of all parties. With regard to the subject of drainage in connection with farming operations, which was introduced by Mr. Scott, he must observe that he held that there was no uniform system of drainage, and he did not believe there could be one. He thought every man must adopt the system which was best suited to his locality. The quality of the soil and the nature of the water were such important elements in draining operations, that until these had been ascertained by experiments in each case, it was im- possible to tell what system would answer best in any particular instance. Last year, being a member of the committee of the House of Lords which investigated this subject, he asked an enclosure commissioner whether he would pass turf-drainage. The commissioner replied that he would not pass turf-drainage anywhere. On his asking him what drainage he would pass, he replied that he would pass tile-drainage; and when he (the Chairman) told him that he could show him a case in which tile- drainage had lasted for only three or four years, and turf-drainage for forty years, he still ad- hered to his previous declaration. In reference to that opinion, he must say that be would warn the heirs of entailed estates to do their utmost to prevent commis- sioners from spending their money uselessly (Hear, hear). As to a system which was applicable universally, he must repeat his conviction that no such system had yet been discovered, but that different systems had been found to answer exceedingly well in different localities. None of them, he feared, would live long enough to see the diffi- culties of this question entirely removed. All that any of them could do was to obtain the best information they could, and apply it to the best of their ability in their sev- eral localities. As regarded the duty of members of that Society in relation to the discussion of agricultural topics, he had always felt that it was no disgrace for a man to acknowledge that he had been wrong ; indeed, one of the great objects of the Council of that Society was to induce farmers to state where they had failed, as well as where they had succeeded. He had not been slow to set an example in that respect. In an original paper which he published in the Society's Journal, upon his experiments in breaking up rough land, he showed how ill-advised he had been as regarded some of those expe- riments, and how useless was much of the expenditure which he had incurred ; and he had reason to believe that that paper had proved a very useful guide to some of his neighbours. With respect to the analyses and testing of some manures which came under his notice, he had to express his regret that in one instance he gave a wrong name to those who supplied a particular ma- nure, which was included in the investigation ; but, as to general results, be believed the declarations of the chemist had been supported by the experience of the farmer, to an extent which was not usually admitted to be the case. He trusted that what he alluded to had convinced many farmers that analyses were of great practical utility in reference to the cultivation of the soil. (Hear, hear.) In all matters connected with the improvement of agriculture, they must look for good results through the medium of slow processes, and not jump to conclusions before they had had sufficient ex- perience. He remembered having observed to Lord Althorp, at the commencement of the Society's career, that nothing was more important than that landowners should endeavour to find out whether particular woik would pay before they recommended farmers to execute it ; and that landowners might render great service to the cause of agriculture by making experiments with the view of assisting tenants who could not afford to waste any of their capital in ascertaining whether or not certain processes of cultivation would prove remu- nerative. He was still of opinion that that was a mode of proceeding by which landowners might confer great benefit on agriculture. In conclusion, he must again thank the meeting for the manner in which they had ac- knowledged his services. The meeting then separated. THE FAlliMER'S MAGAZINE, 487 THE EDUCATION OF FARMERS' SONS. Amonj^ the questions of slow progress to which we have often referred as requiring at least half a century for their development, we enumerated on a recent occasion the question of education in general, and that of agricultural education in particular. In the general education of the labouring classes some attempt at progress has again been made, but with not much suc- cess. It is to be wished that churchuieu and dissenters would lay aside their differences on this subject, and not condemn another generation to grow up in brutal and heathen ignorance, from the fear that the one may kid- nap the children of the other, for the purpose of making converts by means of education. The only solution of the question appears to lie in the separation of the secular and religious education ; the former to be given in common, the latter to be communicated separately by the spiritual pastors of each denomination into which the Christian world is so unhappily divided — the State merely insisting that those who attend the school for secular, shall attend also some school for religious instruction. In the education of the middle classes, again, if much has not been done, the necessity for progress has at any rate been proved by the recent examinatioTis of candidates for appointments in the civil service. We are not among those who expect the new system will have the effect of causing merit to supersede influence, pai'liamentary, aristocratic, or bureaucratical. It will, however, direct influence into better channels, and en- force a larger amount of knowledge among those who ai'e candidates for such appointments. Again, in the matter of special education, designed to qualify men for particular employments, there are symptoms of a movement; but we cannot help thinking that in this matter serious mistakes are being com- mitted, and that much money is likely to be wasted from the idea that each of our principal industrial em- ployments requires a peculiar school. These reflections have been suggested by the failure of the attempt to found a college of civil engineers, and by the scheme now in progress for founding a mining school for the coal district of Newcastle, which has been so warmly espoused and so liberally patronized by the Duke of Northumberland. The district in which it is proposed to establish this school is mining, agricultural, and mari- time. Why then should the school be exclusively a mining school ? Up to a certain point the education which the engineer^ civil or mechanical, the superin- tendent of mines and collieries, the master of a vessel, and the farmer require, is such as they might receive in common. It is a mistake to suppose that an agricultural school or college need have land attached to it, and that the practice of farming is to be taught at school. Lord Ebrington has well put the case in a paper read at the Council of the Bath and West of England Society, when he drew a distinction between general education as dis- tinguished from business training ; and, in offering a prize to be competed for by farmers' sons, for the present limited the qualifications to a knowledge of the English language, the history and geography of the British Emijire, and practical mathematics — some acquaint- ance with all of which, he very justly remarks, is required of every Englishman of the middle class, who can be considered educated up to the standard of his position. There is no reason why a more extended course of education than that proposed by his Lordship — a course including chemistry, botany, geology, and mechanics— should not be learned by the son of the farmer, side by side with the youth who is to super- intend the underground operations of the colliery or the mine, or to navigate a rich argosy across the Atlantic, or even a steamer from the Tyne to the Thames. Why have separate educational establish- ments for them, when one will suffice ? Nor is this mistake confined to Northumberland. We have lately heard that it is in contemplation to establish an agri- cultm-al school in another coal district, where a more general or polytechnic school would be far better. One ground on which we advocate, and have long advocated, the education of the sons of farmers in the same school with the rest of our middle-class youth, is that such an education as the above would extend the field of profitable employment for them. Farmers are, at any rate, as prolific a race as the rest of the com- munity; and the present state of our agricultural and social relations is to diminish the number of farms, and to increase the number of competitors for them. If all the sons of farmers are to be farmers, it is very clear that they must seek their farms elsewhere than in the British Isles — either in our own colonies, or in the United States. That kind of education which we are advocating for farmers' sous would open new fields of employment for them at home, and render them not quite so dependent on the land as their only resource. As an example, we may cite the case of a young man of our acquaintance, the son of a farmer, who paid £100 for instruction in the laboratory, in- tending to apply the knowledge gained tliere on the farm of his father; " and I found it," he added, " the best money I ever laid out; for it led me to take up chemistry as a profession, from which I derive a better income than I should ever have obtained by cultivating the land." In various other occupations in which there is an opening and a demand for applied science, similar - cases will be constantly occurring. Such a course of education as we propose might very easily be finished by the time the farmer's son had reached his eighteenth or twentieth year ; tliere would be yet some years before the time when it would be practicable or desirable for him to enter on a farm of his own. The interval might be employed in the practice of farming, 488 THE FARMER'S MAGAZIME. either with his fathtr, or, better .still, on some other farm in our best-cultivated districts. We would, therefore, urge upon the agricultural interest the great benefit which they would derive from the establishment of schools, in which our middle-class youth may, without going far from home, receive such a sound education as will qualify them for the after- business of life; and we would point to the remodel- ling of well-endowed grammar-schools as afFordin;^, in many localities a suitable nucleus for such institution-. It is absurd to talk of founders' wills as an obstacle. They have been departed from without Act of Pai'lia- ment to make public schools for the aristocracy — why not, by Act of Parliament, to make public schools for the middle class ? DRAINING WOODLANDS. The letter on " shut drains" to the Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society by Mr, Brown, forester, alluded to in the Society's report of last week, merits special notice ; for, generally speaking, there is not a field upon a landlord's estate the drainage of which gives him more concern than that oi' his woods. This arises from a threefold cause ; firstly, as to the in- trinsic and commercial values of the timber itself; se- condly, as to the dry bed and cover which it affords to game ; and thirdly, as to the shelter and ornament it gives to his property. We shall, therefore, wait with extreme interest the result of Mr. Brown's experiments ; meantime let us briefly draw attention to their import- ance. Stagnant water in the soil is ruinous to oak, and all our more valuable forest trees. We have met with numberless examples of this kind, one of which will better illustrate our subject than any amount of ratiocination which could be given. The demesne of a noble duke whom we served for many years contained some large speci- mens of oak, partly rather thickly but openly growing in the park, and partly in the game preserves and plea- sure grounds, among underwood and young timber. The former, in front of the castle, were highly orna- mental, thougli their tops were beginning to decay rather seriously, the tap-root in most of them being rotten from stagnant water. Many of the latter were equally old, others of various ages, and all suffering from the same cause — growing in wet, undrained land. Some twelve acres of young wood, only planted about six or seven years, were stubbed up, and the ground drained, trenched, and planted. In carrying out this work, we had an opportunity of examining the roots of the young trees, and recording the j damage they had sustained, which, to those not acquainted with the like, was incredible. As the roots decay they hold water like a sponge : open spaces too, being eventually formed, and of such a size when the taproot of the large trees are once fairly rotten, as to be capable of containing large quantities of water, as the operation of draining proved ; for, in order to remove this water, we opened a drain directly up to every large tree as close to it as possible, and when the open spaces were fairly tapped a flood of water, black, like that of a tan-pit, flowed forth, sufficiently large in some cases to fill a water-cart ! The injury sustained under these circumstances will readily be conceived, as also the benefits which would have been gained, had the land been properly drained before it was planted. The proper drainage of such a soil, however, is a very comprehensive question ; more especially for oak, whose roots sink to a great depth. The demesne furnished numerous examples in proof of this ; several fine trees growing on the edge of open ditches from 3 to 8 feet in depth, being as much decayed as those at a distance from them. This arose from the nature of the soil — a sour shale clay — incumbent on shale and grawacke, accompanied with the influence of the moist climate of Ireland, and a superfluity of bottom water. In some places the rock rose to the surface, forming gentle emi- nences, while in hollows it lay many feet below it, often forming natural basins, holding in the soil pools of stagnant water, out of which it could not be drained without cutting the rock forming the edges of these natural cups. Here it would have been as inefiective to drain 4 feet as 2^ feet, for the surface soil required parallel drains, not more than 12 feet asunder, where the clay was very tenacious, to remove surface water, while the subsoil had to be drained as far as possible to the rock or gravel beds where such intervened, as they did in several places, to remove bottom water. But, unfortunately, the rock in some of the hollows could not be reached, while on higher ground the expense of cutting to it proved an equally insurmountable barrier. It will thus be seen that draining in such a case re- quires the exercise of judgment of the highest order. We are obliged, for the want of space, to omit many details necessary to be known ; but what we have said is enough to give a general idea of the example. We re- commended the whole to be drained, draining the hollow basins with the main drains where practicable, and the surface soil with the parallel ones, then to be trenched, and those grounds only planted with oak and ornamental timber which were both bottom and surface drained, leaving the lands not bottom drained for permanent pas- ture. How far we were right we must leave our readers to judge ; but we at once came to the conclusion that spring water, as well as rain water, must be removed before any hopes can be entertained of healthy perma- nent ornamental trees in a nobleman's park. We now, in the last place, have to notice the perma- nency of the drains put into such a soil: these were made of broken stones, principally gathered from the trenched land. That they (the drains) are by this time affected by roots cannot be doubted, and that they will eventually be choked up, so as neither to remove surface nor bottom water, is equally plain. This was a state of things which we contemplated, and accordingly the drains were laid off in a direction that they could be crossed by others, to relieve them from stagnant water occasioned by roots. Now, if Mr. Ikown's pipes let in water and keep out roots, the sooner they are placed in these cross drains the better : hence, we repeat, the value of the question at issue. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 48& VARIATIONS IN THE COMPOSITION OF MILK. There are many points connected with the composition of milk and the circumstances whei'cby its quahty is modified, which are highly important in a practical point of view, and peculiarly deserve the attention of those interested in dairy farming. That it does vary, and that very materially, at dif- ferent times, is a fact forced by daily experience on the attention of the most careless and superficial observer, and it is easy to see that in the majority of instances these differences are traceable to the breed of the cow, the nature of its food, the season of the year, the distance from the time of calving, or some other equally obvious circumstance. But there are other and far less conspicuous causes, which produce variations in. its composition not merely from week to week or from day to day, but even from hour to hour, which have practical bear- ings as important as those which present themselves more immediately to our notice. In illustration of this position we propose to direct attention to two series of experiments, one of which has just been published, and the other though several years old, is still comparatively unknown to practical men. It is a fact, originally, we believe, made known by Parmentier and Deyeux, in their Traite snr le Lait, that during the first part of the milking the milk is inferior to that drawn at the end, and their statement, which by some persons was looked upon with considerable distrust, has been so far substan- tiated by Peligot in his analyses of ass's milk, three specimens of which, taken at the beginning, middle, and end of the milking, he found composed as follows : — Beginning. Middle. End. Butter 0.96 1.02 1.52 Milk sugar 6.50 6.48 6.45 Curd .... 1.76 1.95 2.95 Water 90.78 90.55 89.08 100.00 100.00 100.00 Indicating a very material increase in the quantity of both butter and curd. These results were therefore confirmatory of the statement, but they were far from being sufficient to show the extent of this difference at different periods, and an elaborate series of experiments was undertaken for this pur- pose by Reiset,'"" which have brought out some very remarkable and rather unexpected facts. His experiments were made upon two cows which were * Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 3rd series, vol. XXV., p. 82. at grass during the day, and in the house at night, when they did not receive any food. Milk was collected at the beginning and end of each milking, and the dry residue yielded by the evaporation carefully determined. His results are contained in the following table — White Cow (No. 1) : — Date. Hour of Milkinsf. 1843. Oct. 16 » 27 „ 31 „ 29 „ 31 » 28 „ 26 h. 6 7 7 6 6 6 6 Time elapsed since last milkina- 2512 Nov. Oct. Nov. Oct. Nov. 1844. Sept. 20 Do. Do, Do. 27 1 30 1 30 1 12 12 4 4 6 6 m. Omorn. 0 .. 0 .. 30 even. 30 .. 30 .. 30 .. Onoon 0 .. 0 .. 0 even. 0 .. 30 .. 30 .. 15 .. 30 .. 0 .. 0 .. h. m. 12 0 12 0 12 0 11 30 11 30 6 0 Solids in 100 parts of milk a t the , ^ ^ besc. oreud of milking; milking 2 30 2 30 1 15 1 15 1 30 1 30 9.33 9.90 9.90 10.41 9.62 13.30 12.80 11.49 12.00 13.60 17.19 15.28 14.60 12.84 13.65 11.65 10.96 10.88 16.04 15.85 17.85 21.30 19.07 16.30 16.06 17.70 21.20 18.50 16.93 14.73 13.33 13.08 13.89 11.89 13.33 1843. Nov. Red Cow (No. 2). 7 12 6 1 Omorn. 12 30 11.02 17.63 30 even. 6 30 13.15 17.29 Onoon. 5 0 14.37 18.93 30 even. 5 0 13.20 17.50 30 do. 1 30 18.34 16.33 Mean. 12.68 12.87 13.86 15.85 14.34 14.80 14.43 14.60 16.60 16.05 17.06 15.00 13.86 12.86 1377 11.77 12.10 14.32 15.22 16.65 15.35 17.33 The experiments, therefore, leave no doubt as to the fact that the milk is richest in solid matters at the end of the milking, but it is to be observed that this difference occurs only when it has remained for some hours in the udder, and is most conspic- uous when a long period has elapsed since the last miking. By extending his experiments Reiset has shown that the difference in the per-centage of solid matters is entirely due to variations in the quantity of butter, all the other constituents remaining sen- sibly the same, and the following table gives the results of his experiments on the quantity of butter indifferent specimens, the dry residues being those contained in the jirevious table ; — L L 400 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Dry residue in 100 parts of milk. Butter. Dry residue in 100 parts of milk. Butter. 9.90 1.8 13.20 4.40 15.85 6.6 17.50 9.10 9.90 0.8 13.15 4.30 17.82 9.6 17.29 8.80 10.41 1.07 14.60 7.20 21.30 13.20 13.33 7.10 12.00 3.30 15.28 4.90 21.20 13.10 14.73 5.10 13.60 5.23 12.34 4.90 18.50 10.70 13.08 4.30 17.19 9.70 9.62 1.22 16.93 8.60 19.07 11.20 11.01 • 2.20 14.37 5.90 17.63 9.70 18.93 10.50 A moment's inspection of this table suffices to show that if in each case we subtract the quantity of butter from the total solids, the residual milk sugar and curd are almost perfectly constant. This fact would seem to indicate that, by remaining in the uddei", a separation of the cream had taken place, exactly as it does in the milk pan in the dairy; for we see that the longer the period that has elapsed since the last milking, the larger is the proportion of butter contained in the last collected portion of milk, which we may fairly consider to have been that at the highest part of the udder, and greatest distance from the teats. But it is very questionable whether this can be accepted as the true explanation of the phenomenon, for the same thing is found to occur in human milk, where the relative position of the breast and nipple is incompatible with the idea that the milk contained in its upper portion should be the last drawn. Whatever be the true cause of the phenomenon, it can scarcely be doubted that it may be turned to good account in practice, for it is obvious that if the latter part of every milking were collected apart, and used for churning, a smaller quantity of milk would be required to produce a given quantity of butter than if the whole were used indiscriminately. The importance of this point has not escaped Reiset, and he has made some further experiments which bear very forcibly on it. He found that v.'henthe whole milk of the white cow was collected and churned together, it gave 4.5 per cent, of butter. From the 27th September to the 3rd October 79,025 grammes of milk were yielded by the same cow, and the last part of each of the milkings being collected apart, weighed 18,765 grammes, and yielded 6.63 per cent, of butter. From the 4th to the 7th October, 42,835 grammes of milk were obtained, of which 8565 grammes of the last portion of each milking giive 7.53 per cent, of butler; and from the Slh to the 15th October, 85,850 grammes being obtained, and only 12,495 of the very last portions being churned, gave 8.4 per cent, of butter. It appears, therefore, that the last seventh of each milking gives nearly twice as much butter as the whole milk over- head, and is obvious that in a dairy farm consider- able economy would result if in every case the last portions of the milking were reserved for the churn ; for in this way a smaller quantity of milk would be required, and a larger proportion of the whole produce might be sold. Objections may be taken to the trouble and inconvenience which would be occasioned by the necessity for keeping apart the first and last portions of each milking ; but it is not even necessary to do this, for Struckmann* has ascertained that the evening milk is richer in butter than that collected in the morning, and consequently by keeping them separate, the same advantage would be gained. The cows on which his experiments were made were fed twice a day. The first feeding is from six to ten o'clock a.m., the food being given during that period in small successive portions until the animals are perfectly satisfied. They are then left till five o'clock, when the second feeding begins, but continues only till eight o'clock, as the animals are sooner satisfied. Each cow gets, on the average, a quantity of food equivalent to 35 lbs. of hay, and as the live weight is from 900 to 1000 lbs., the quantity of food amounts to from 3 to 3i lbs. of hay to every 100 lbs. of live weight. The daily food and its equivalent in hay were — f 8 lbs. 10 „ 30 „ U » 1 » 2 „ Meadow hay Oat straw Turnips Oilcake Beanmeal Clover 8 lbs. Hay. 9 „ 10 „ 3 „ Together equivalent to 35 lbs. hay. The cows thrive remarkably well on this food, and give from seven to eight quarts of milk per day. They are milked three times a day — early in the morning before being fed, at mid-da}', and between six and seven in the evening. The first milk examined was from a young East Friesian cow which had calved fourteen days before. The morning and mid-day milk only were analyzed, and the means of two experiments with each gave — * Journal fiir Landwirthschaft fiir den Konig- reich Hanover, 1855, p. 417. t Exception may be taken to the accuracy of the ecpiivalents assumed by Struckmann, but we have thought right to give them as indicating the views of German agriculturists uu this point. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 491 Morning milk. Mid-day milk. Solid matters .. 10.25 11. 7S Water .. 89.75 88.22 Butter 2.43- 3.64 Milk sugar 4.10 4.41 Salts .. 0.75 0.81 Albumen 0.44 0.62 Caseine 2.53 2.30 100.00 100.00 These analyses having shown so decided a differ- ence in the quantity of butter, were repeated on the milk of another cow of the same breed, which had also calved fourteen days before, and were extended to that obtained in the evening. The milk in this case did not reach the author immediately, and the weather at the time being warm, the morning and mid-day portions had become slightly sour. Morning. Mid-day. Evening Solid matters . . 10.03 10.80 13.40 Water . 89.97 89.20 86.60 Butter 2.17 2.63 5.42 Milk sugar 4.30 4.72 4.19 Free lactic acid . 0.05 0.05 0.00 Salts 0.83 0.72 0.78 Albumen 0.44 0.32 0.31 Caseine 2.24 2.36 2.70 100.00 100.00 100.00 The difference between the morning and evening milk brought out by these analyses is highly remarkable and important, for they show that the latter is nearly two and a-half times richer in butter than the former, and it is obvious that the use of the latter for the manufacture of butter ought to be adopted by farmers. We should not, however, advise this being done without further experiments, which any one might make for himself, as it is pos- sible that the somewhat peculiar mode of feeding may have some influence on the result. At the same time, it is worthy of notice that Reiset's experiments point in the same direction, for on inspection of his first table, it will be found that the milk collected in the evening was generally, though not always, richer in butter than that of the morning milking. It seems also that the milk is richest when the interval between the milkings is not too long : and it is deserving of inquiry whether more frequent milking might not give a superior milk. ON THE GROWTH OF RED C L OV E R. BY MR. WALKER, OF KILPUNT. CRead at a recent meeting of the Western District Midlothian Acjricidtural Association.) It will be seen from the designation of this sub- ject that I have to speak of the best method of reviving and increasing in our soils the growth of the above named plant. Few subjects in the present day have been more discussed among practical men than this — the seeming capricious habits of the clover plant, whereby it often grows well or ill, with- out any explainable reason. Its likings and its hatings, so to speak, are very difficult to under- stand ; thus the jarring opinions of scientific as "well as practical investigators into the causes of its growth and failure, have thrown but little light on the obscurity in which this subject is enveloped. The main reason of this seems to be that, frequently against all the rules of good husbandry, accidental heavy crops of clover are obtained ; while after the best farming, its growth is often very unsuccessful. I am of opinion, however, that although appear- ances look a little contrary, there are general rules to be observed in farming different kinds of land, whereby a crop of red clover may be made tolerably certain. In setting out, I shall, as well as I can, state shortly what are the characteristics of the plant in question ; what the kinds of soil where it thrives, which may be styled clover soils ; and lastly, and principally, what the character of those soils are in which this most useful forage plant re- fuses to grow — endeavouring to trace the causes of failure, and to try and point out how this failure may be partly, would I could say wholly, remedied. 1st. As to its characteristics. The species of red clover which we cultivate (Trefoil pratense) is, strictly speaking, an exotic; it is biennial, but under certain methods of cultivation, may be par- tially made perennial. In the warmer climate of Southern England, especially on fertile argillaceous soils, we may almost pronounce the plant as indi- genous ; while with us in Scotland, even in the most favoured districts as to soil and climate, we must surely class it as an exotic. Our native variety is perennial, and grov^^s wild on moorish as well as fertile soils, and may be seen in great abundance by the way and hedge sides. Its most distinctive feature, compared with that which forms the subject of present remark, may be observed by the most casual observer in having narrower and darker-coloured leaflets, a more fibrous stem, and having, when chewed, a bitter acrid taste. The cultivated red clover is, when green, soft, succulent, and sweet ; the wild indige- L L 2 492 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nous variety is hard, fibrous, and bitter. And, again, comparing red clover with all other varieties of forage plants now in cultivation, it has beyond thera all, Italian ryegrass excepted, exuberance of growth, rich nutritive qualities, and its presence or absence, whether for pasture or hay, makes the crop luxuriant or light, while for the purposes of soiling, it is invaluable, and is for this reckoned superior even to Italian ryegrass. '2d. The kinds of soil in which this plant thrives are of a class distinguished by several qualities, all of which conduce to the preservation, development, and growth of the clover plant. Red clover, as we all know, belongs to the family of lime plants ; hence those soils that are calcareous, and contain lime in abundance, are suitable in part. But while all suitable clover soils exhibit the presence of both lime and potash, as also other chemical ingredients of lesser note, it is not less necessary that they should possess a large i)roportion of claj)-, the particular use of which I shall by-and-bye describe. Speaking of leading constituents to make a perfect clover soil, we must have lime, clay, and humus ; these again, for the sake of brevity, may be condensed, and those soils having these as their leading characteristics, may simply be designated argillaceous soils — and such we know are very dif- ferent from those soils styled loamy or silicious. These argillaceous lands are interspersed through- out the kingdom, but occur chiefly in genuine richness in the carses of this country. On the banks of rivers, and in the low-lying valleys, there are likewise light-coloured tenacious clays, of less value for agricultural purposes, upon which clover grows and thrives ; but these seem to depend greatly upon a course of bare fallowing or heavy manuring, for the necessary fertility in which clo- ver likes to luxuriate. 3rd. I shall now advert to the character of those lands upon which this most useful forage plant refuses to grow. Most plants grow and thrive on very different kinds of soil; the cereals, ryegrass, leguminous and bulbous plants generally ; and although certainly there are lands in which all don't thrive alike, yet in few instances in the record of good farming does it happen that any of the above-named plants have been sown on lands farmed according to the rules of good husbandry and refused to vegetate, or after having vegetated for a while, have sickened and died ; thus these appear, although belonging to different and distinct families, to find enough of nutriment in all ordinary fertile soils as serve for the purposes of developing their growth, and bring- ing thera to maturity. Far different is the case with red clover ; on all light soils, as a rule, its growth is uncertain; and this appears to prove that this plant adheres to certain kinds of soils, as before described, these having certain constituent parts in their composition, as likewise before men- tioned. As the ashes of clover contain lime, potash, and silica, so, according to ordinary reasoning, we infer that these substances require to be present in a clover-growing soil. As 1 said before, clay and humus (or decayed animal and vegetable remains) are likewise necessary, and many are the soils that seem not to possess these in sufficient quantity. Those lands, therefore, that have not sufficiency of the above-named substances, or, in other words, are easily exhausted of them, are moorish, chalky, silicious sand or gravel, and often light and deep loams ; and such require auxiliary applications of vegetable or mineral manures, to make them capable of growing this plant. But while the cause of failure may be attributed to the want of a proper constitution of soil, or rather to the land having become exhausted of the food required for the clover plant, yet other causes are at work which render the successful culture of this uncertain plant even more uncertain. The sowing out of grasses along with a white crop has, no doubt, a tendency to militate against a luxuriant forage crop ; and when liberal applications of guano or top-dressings are applied to the white crop, along with which the grasses are sown, a rankness of growth is induced so as to exclude light and air from the germinating grasses, and it is im- possible in nature but that the clover plants must be wholly or partially choked, or at the least so sickly that the succeeding winter's frost kills the delicate shoot. But while I say that it appears many soils do not possess sufficiency of mineral ingredients for the nourishment of the clover plant, yet I am of opinion that failure often happens even in soils when most, if not all, of the necessary mineral substances are pre- sent. Our system of improved farming is greatly a causeof this : first, draining has the effect of rendering the soil less compact, its cohesive nature is much lessened ; as a consequence, air gains admission more freely, and makes the land lighter and more open, so that its texture is considerably changed ; and many of us have proved that openness of the soil is inimical to the preservation of clover. How frequently have we seen a capital braird, strong healthy plants at the cutting of the white crop, and when March and April came round, the goodly appearance had vanished, the red clover es))ecially having died out during the winter and spring months ! Now, we may be apt to blame the constitution of the soil for this ; while the truth is, the young jilants have been destroyed by the frosts. And as a proof THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 493 of this, how often do we find that ill-planted grass lands usually succeed frosty winters ! If we take the severity of last winter and spring as an instance fresh in our remembrance, and note how barren the land was last summer of clover plants on all moderately light soils, I think we must come to the conclusion that the action of frost, especially if it happens late in spring, has a very disastrous effect in killing young clover, and on very shaly soils it kills ryegrass too. The kinds of crops we cultivate in our rotation, which have the effect of loosening the soil, exercise great influence in hurting red clo- ver. The growth of beans, especially, seems antag- onistic to its successful culture when sown imme- diately after them ; and this antagonism seems to arise from this deep-rooted plant rendering the land open, and easily penetrable by frost, and likewise because the bean takes lime largely from the soil, thus using up the most essential mineral manure for the growth of clover. Its frequency as a crop in our rotation is perhaps the most universal of all the causes that I have attempted to enumerate for rendering land clover- sick. Many practise the5-shift course, sowing red clover, grow or not grow, once every four or five years; while it should be sown only once every second shift, that is, once in ten years, provided it cannot be made to grow oftener. The most impor- tant part of this subject is now reached — viz, how may clover failure be partly or wholly remedied ? Hitherto, my task has been comparatively easy with the facts before us in our every-day practice, that clover grows well on soils of a certain texture, while on other soils it grows rarely, or not at all. It is therefore easy to say what are the characteris- tics of good clover soils, and what are bad ; and at first sight we may be led to say that it may be pos- sible to take a good clover-growing soil as our specimen, and make a non-growing-clover soil like it, but that is no easy matter. The constituent parts of soilsbeing multiform and various, it would be impossible to make one the same as the other; the substances required may be difficult and expensive to obtain, and after application their effect might be neutralized by coming into contact with other salts and substances. Such, it appears, has been the difficulty with which chemists have had to con- tend, in endeavouring to point out a remedy for clover-sick land. In corroboration of which, Dr. Shier, says : — "The great difficulty attendant on the whole question of the organic matters of soils is, that we can never be sure that the substances separated existed as such in the soils." And he asks, " Who shall surmount this difficulty, much less annihilate it ?" But while it is difficult to get at a specific remedy, it is possible by remarking general and known characteristics of clover-growing lands, and by practical trials, to acquire a pretty good idea what application may be necessary for the several cases with which we are or may be connected. At a former part of this subject I said that those lands which appeared not to have sufficiency of lime, clay, and humus, were light moorish, chalky, silicious sand and gravel, and often light and deep loams ; these may therefore be reckoned non-growing-clover soils, and the proper way will be to glance at each, and note from practical experience what applications are most successful in restoring the growth of this plant. In moorish soils, whether peat, clay, or bog, the application of lime has been found most bene- ficial as a fertilizer ; and although on moorish soils of high altitude red clover is rare, yet, of all known mineral manures, there is none that causes the land to produce such an abundance of sweet herbage, and, if broken up, so improves its capability for growing cereals, as well as root crops. Such soils, however, are incapable of keeping succulent vege- tation alive during a severe winter, and are there- fore especially unsuited for the growth of the plant in question. Much better to sow white clover alone with the natural grasses, than to force the growth of a plant which the soil and often the climate for- bids. Regarding chalky soils, what I have seen did not grow red clover ; well, unlike large straths of this district, it cannot be for want of lime ; and I would not have introduced this description of land into this discussion at all, had it not been that very many entertain the opinion that the application of hme is a specific remedy for clover sickness in lands of every texture. Now, on many of the chalky soils of England, red clover will not grow, and of course chalk is the carbonate of lime ; I am told, however, that claying such lands has had the best eflfects. Of sandy and gravelly soils, there is considerable diversity ; and although especially suited for turnip husbandry, they have in the usual course of farm- ing proved very precarious in the growth of red clover. Of restoratives applied to this description of soils, I have seen lime do well, when applied as composts. But as the application of composts is more costly than many farmers think, I am of opinion that the better way is to apply a moderate quantity of caustic lime before the turnips are sown, and to consume one-third or a half of the turnip crop on the ground with sheep, and this manage- ment of light soils will, next to certainty, restore the growth of the clover plant. I have seen this treatment when the turnips were grown upon court- yard manure, on a soil of nearly pure sand, send up a most luxuriant crop of red clover. I need scarcely remark that on such soils, whether sand or gravelly, eating on turnips has the best possible eflfect, in not only enriching, but consolidating th? 494 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. land J and, indeed, it appears to me from observa- tion that this course on such soils is the most remunerative that can be followed, even in an economical point of view. Such lands might profitably be laid to grass one year in the rotation, and the six-shift practised instead of the four or five. On very light gravelly soil I have witnessed the process of claying. This was performed by the late Mr. Drew, farmer, Car- myle, near Glasgow, in a most extensive way. The effect was very satisfactory, and although the cost was heavy, yet imlike other applications, it will not need to be repeated, the result being permanent. The following communication is from the present occupant, the late Mr. Drew's son : — " Carmyle, ToUcross, Nov. 3, 1855. "Dear Sir, — In reply to your note of the 29th ult., regarding the application of clay upon a light or gravelly soil; " 1st, I have found the texture of the soil altered quite perceptibly. " 2nd. A very marked increase of all succeeding crops, and none more so than grass and clover seeds. I think it very beneficial for the growth of clover, both red and white. "3rd. The cost per Scotch acre would be from £12 to £15 J but it depends on the quantity applied. We gave a much greater quantity than you mention, I think about 500 carts per acre, and the last field that was done got even more. I am not sure as to the exact cost per acre, as the landlord employed the men to fill the carts, and we did all the horse work and spread it. In my opinion, however, it can only be done when clay is got in or quite near the field intended to be done, as a long cartage would cost too much money, and to do it to any extent would require a good winter's frost, or do it in summer. I am, dear Sir, yours sincerely, " Peter Drew." "James Walker, Esq., Kilpmt." Now, v.'e naturally ask, in what way did this clay operate upon the light soil so as to produce the effect mentioned in this letter ? Mr. Drew most intelli- gently says, " I found the texture of the land altered quite perceptibly;" and without going into the chemical combinations of clay and gravel, I will just remark that the incorporation of strong clay with the light soil made the land of a stronger tex- ture, capable of retaining in store, and not losing by evaporation from heat or filtration from rain, the food of plants which was put into it in the appli- cation of manures, and likewise, by this stronger texture, being made better able to resist the severity of frosts, and the sudden alternations of heat and cold, which are so prejudicial to the winter life of the clover plant. This, in my humble opinion, is the part that clay performed here ; and how pleasing is it to witness from the hapi^y combination of two extremes (strong adhesive clay and light porous gravel) such a satisfactory result ! A much less quantity per acre might have good effect. Indeed, for a tenant far- mer alone, such applications as that given at Carmyle would be out of the question. I should say 150 to 200 cubic yards per acre would be a good dressing. I have now reached the last description of land that frequently, sometimes altogether, refuses to grow clover. Of all the foregoing this is the most eminently fertile, and in all cases of clover-sick loamy land, treatment of this is best repaid. On my own farm I have a considerable breadth of this description, which, I am told, grew red clover well 20 years ago ; long since it has continuously failed, and it is only of late years that I have been toler- ably successful in restoring this plant, by applying courtyard manure to the white crop along with which the clover is sown. And in my experience, both from practice and observation, I have found, where lime was very expensive and difficult to obtain, or where the lease was wearing to a close, when the expense of liming could not be expected to be repaid, that this m.ethod has proved satisfac- tory. But while I have proved to my own satisfac- tion that the application of courtyard manure in the way just stated is a tolerably sure method of re- storing the growth of red clover, I have also proved that consolidation of soils of this description is also highly necessary. Last autumn I had a field in young grass ; the clover seeds were sown along with a crop of barley, after turnips ; in this case I gave guano to the barley, not courtyard manure. When it was removed, I had a fair appearance of clover throughout the field. Having occasion to cart home grain from a distant part of my farm, I used as most convenient for a road one of the ridges of this field; this ridge so used was beaten and trod in consequence ; and when winter had passed away, and along with it almost the whole of the clo- ver plants of my field, I remarked that this roaded ridge, lying in the middle of the park, retained its original thickness both of clover and ryegrass ; and more, v/hen the growth of spring came, this solitary ridge shot away, and the ryegrass, as well as clover, was far enough advanced to afford a bite for stock ten days before the rest of the field ; and this is nothing new, for how invariably are the tramped and kneaded head-ridges of our fields the best planted with red clover! going to prove where such occurs that the land needs consolidation as much as re-invigorating treatment. I shall now conclude these observations, by men- tioning a few general rules which I think may be tried in the management of land that refuses to grow red clover; and first, that on all non-growing clover lands try the six-shift, instead of the five^ and let courtyard manure be applied to the white THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49-3 crop alon^ with which the clover seeds are sown. If by this apphcation the clover comes up thick enough, but dies out during the winter, then I would say, press or roll the land in autumn, after the removal of the white crops ; or, better, if the climate is early enough, sow spring wheat after turnips, instead of barley, giving courtyard manure ; of course selecting a damp enough tid in early spring to cause the land to knead together, by which consolidation both the wheat and clover crops will be greatly benefited. The most successful crop of red clover that I ever had was in this way, viz., ma- nure applied to spring wheat after turnips, and sown with grasses. If the application of manure fails to revive its growth, I would, on moorish and loamy soils, apply lime ; while on sand and graelv it would be right to apply clay. Nevertheless, I again state that the judicious application of court- yard manure, along with proper consolidation of soil and the recurrence of the clover crop less fre- quently in our rotation, will have a satisfactory effect. I need not trespass longer upon your patience by going into the more minute details of clover management, such as the proper selection of healthy seed, the quantity to be allowed per acre, and this sov/n upon a firm smooth surface, to be slightly harrowed in, and well rolled afterv/ards — all these are important ; but to the practical audience which I now address, they are well known ; I therefore with pleasure leave the farther discussion of the subject to those of you who may be kind enough to give us your opinions and experience. ON THE USES OF GORSE. On Saturday, the members of the Newcastle Farmers' club met in their room, at the Literary and Philosophical Society of this town, G. H. Ram- say, Esq., presiding, when the following subject was brought forward by Nicholas Burnett, Esq. — " On the uses of gorse." Mr. Burnett, in opening the subject, observed that it had often been to him a matter of great surprise that a plant like the gorse, which was one of the most useful, should be so neglected by agriculturists generally. About 40 years ago, he was led to ride from Black Hedley to Mr. Thomas White, of Woodlands, who, he was informed, used gorse for food for his stock ; and soon afterwards, on a visit to that gentleman, he saw the whole pro- cess of cutting and grinding whins to prepare them for food for the cattle, &c. Mr. White also detailed to him the advantages to be obtained from the use of this plant ; but, notwithstanding, he left Wood- lands under the same impression as most of his neighbours, that Mr. W. was an enthusiast; and, for a long time afterwards, he (Mr. B.) thought no more about the matter. Some years elapsed, when his attention was again drawn to the subject by reading an excellent article on the Crushing and Value of Whins, in " British Agriculture," Vol. i., and he was induced to make some experiments. He first requested a servant to cut him a quantity of last year's shoots, and put them into the thrash- ing machine, but in this he was not successful. He next tried them through a powerful straw cutter, but he found the process so slow, that it would not do ; and then, afterwards, he attempted to boil theip, but he found that the thorny part was so strong as to make them uneatable. After these failures, he still persevered, and, as an experiment, he sent two sacksful to Newcastle to a friend who had a pair of edge stones ; but the motion was so slow that he abandoned this method also. In the year 184/, he found another article on gorse in " British Agricul- ture," and after carefully perusing the article, he took one of his men, with a pair of garden shears, into the lanes on the highway, and set him to cut some of the last year's shoots. From the time the man was employed, he (Mr. B.) found that if he could get the plant manufactured as he wanted it, the expense would be trifling ; and having a bone mill on his premises, which was worked by a small steam engine, he procured two horizontal fluted rollers, and introduced them into the mill ; but, after working a short time, the rollers were clogged up. He then sent the rollers to Newcastle, and had them fluted perpendicular to the axis instead of horizontally ; and he also contrived to make one roller revolve twice as quick as the other. On try- ing this experiment, he found that it answered remarkably weU, and the following is the result of his labours : — In the first year, viz., 1847, he used eight tons, which were given to the horses and cows for food. In 1843 he increased the quantity to 21 tons, and fed the sheep with it, in addition to the horses and cows. In 1849 he used 30 tons, and in the v/inter of 1850, forty tons, and with the latter supply he fed 283 ewes with gorse from the beginning of November to the latter end of Februaiy, besides his horses and cows. During the time he used the gorse he never had a single complaint regarding his stock, and they never were more healthy. They ate it greedily, and throve well; and he was firmly persuaded that gorse thus sup- plied to cattle was equal in value to the best hay that could be given ; besides, he calculated that the 4D(5 THE FARxVIER'S MAGAZINE. plant did not cost him more than 2d. per stone, 14lbs, to the stone, after cutting, carting and grind- ing. He, however, found that the gorse, after being ground, soon lost its freshness, and fermented and turned sour; therefore, the sooner it was given to the cattle the better ; and it would be as well to grind it every daj'. In some instances, after being ground, and it had lain some time, he turned it over, and applied hot water to it, which revived it, and made it fit for use. The gorse generally v/as fit for food from November to the first of May. After the plant flowered the cattle did not relish it. At the Royal Agricultural Society's Show held at York some years ago, a premium was offered for the best mill for crushing gorse ; but after examining it minutely, he thought it so deficient, that he would not have had it as a gift, as he felt convinced that nothing was equal to the stone and edge system. As an example, Mr. Moody, of Mill- shield, near Minsteracres, has a stone for crushing gorse, which is worked by the water-v/heel, and it has been used with success for several years, and any party paying a visit to the farm may see and judge for themselves. In addition to this mill, there are five others at work in the vicinity of Black Hedley. With respect to his friend Mr. "White, whom he once considered an enthusiast, he had completely changed his opinion of him, and thought that gentleman had displayed great ingenuity by aflfixing his stones for crushing gorse to a wheel of his horse thrashing machine. After the experience he had had, he considered gorse was one of the most valuable plants the farmer could use, if it was cultivated as it ought to be. Nature presented the plant to view almost at every place, and it only required a little of man's skill to make it a most excellent and profitable means of food for his stock of all kinds. It was remarkable, but it seemed only one of those wise provisions which Nature always makes, that the thorny part of the i)lant cannot be used in summer, and it was thus permitted to grow until winter, when it became serviceable at the time other kinds of food were becoming scarce. It also appeared indigenous to this country ; for wherever he had travelled he had seen it growing, and especially on poor land. Its limits were extensive, as it grew even from the sea to the height of a thousand feet beyond its level ; and its latitude reached from the far north even into Spain. He knew that at different times the attention of agriculturists had been drawn to the fiorin and tussac grasses for food ; but was it not a sur- prising thing, when Nature presented the far- mer daily with such a valuable plant as gorse, that it should be comparatively neglected ? He did not wish that they should receive what he said without searching into the matter for themselves ; and in order to enable them to do so, and get some valua- ble information, he referred them to the following authorities, where they would find some excellent papers on the subject. The first was the Annual Register for 17G2, where an account was given of cattle being prevented starving by the use of gorse; also in the same register, they would find articles written in 1763, 1771, and in 1787. In vol. v. of the Highland Society's Transactions of 1820, and in vol. XV. of 1841 there were two excellent papers. There was also another paper in the Quarterly Journalof Agriculture of 1831, and in vol. viii. of the same work, they would find another paper. In the Royal Agricultural Society's Proceedings of 1840, there was also a very excellent paper. Mr, Burnett then concluded by stating that it was his belief that on poor land, if each farmer had five acres of it devoted to gorse, it would be found in reality the most valuable part of his land, as it would yield him the most profit. Mr. Weeks thought they ought to feel much obhged to Mr. Burnett for bringing the present subject forward. It was of considerable impor- tance ; and he had always had an idea that gorse was a valuable thing for cattle ; but, what was a great difficulty, was the crushing of the plant, as many farmers had not stones to do it. If a suitable machine could be constructed, it would be of great service to the profession. Mr. BELLtestified to the experiment of Mr. Bur- nett, and stated that the plan had succeeded well. The Chairman said that, as usual, they always got something of value from Mr. Burnett. He must confess that he never thought that gorse could be applied to the extent it had, until he heard the statements of Mr. Burnett, and that too at only 2d. per stone. With respect to Mr. White, he could bear out all that was said as to that gentleman feed- ing his cattle on gorse and as to their thriving on it. For himself he could not doubt the nutritive quali- ties of the gorse, but he doubted the practicability of crushing it, as it would not do to crush great quantities at once. The subject certainly had not made much progress ; but, on the face of it, there appeared something worthy of the attention of the farmer, as a time might come when the ordinary supplies of food might become remarkably scarce, and when gorse could be resorted to in the emer- gency. It was necessary at present that the farmer should look into every thing with great care, as every thing touching pounds, shillings, and pence was of the greatest importance to him, seeing that, notwithstanding all his exertions, he had much difficulty to get on. Mr. Glover, the secretary, thought there could be no question of the nutritious qualities of the gorse, and as a proof, instanced how the late Gen. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 497 Napier contrived to feed his cavalry horses, when other food was scarce. In the Roj^al Agricultural Society's proceedings there was a prize given to Mr. Roberts, of Bangor, for a paper showing how gorse could be grown as a regular crop, and with great profit. If that were so, he did not see why it could not be produced either in Northumberland or Durham, Mr. Stephenson said that, although he had no experience in the matter, yet he thought the subject worthy of consideration ; and as Mr. Burnett had brought it forward, he moved that a vote of thanks be given to him. The motion having been seconded, it was put and carried. The Chairman, after requesting the secretary to retire for a few moments, called attention to a matter which had been recently mooted regarding I the propriety of presenting Mr. Glover with a suit- ; able testimonial, for his long and valuable services to that society ever since its estabhshment. The subject had been named to Sir M. W. Ridley, the president, and he not only spoke highly of Mr. Glover's services, but, as a proof that he appreciated them, he consented to head the subscription with the sum of £20. (Applause.) He therefore sug- gested that a committee be appointed to receive the subscriptions of the members, and to carry the object fully out. After some conversation, a circular was agreed to be sent to the members on the subject, and the committee of the club authorised to receive subscrip- tions in aid of the testimonial, which would be presented at the annual dinner in January next. The meeting then broke up. — Newcastle Courant. ON THE USE OF A SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF LIME AS A STEEP FOR WHEAT. BY DR. STEELE, OF DUBLIN. The stimulus which British agriculture, from various causes, has of late years received, and the marked improvement that has taken place in its I^ractice, render apologies, I trust, unnecessary in urging upon the consideration of our farmers any subject calculated to promote the success of their art, and to render their returns more certain. Although the diligence of our practical agricultu- rists is in general a subject of well-deserved praise, yet it is, for the most part, unaccompanied by a knowledge of those principles upon which its suc- cessful prosecution depends. Many, even at the present day, believe incessant toil, which knowledge can neither materially diminish nor affect, to be the lot of the husbandman, and regard all scientific inquiries relating to the fattening of cattle, the theory of manures and fertilizers, the natural history and growth of plants, as problems with which they have nothing to do ; persuaded that questions such as those are either unworthy their regard or above their comprehension. That such opinions are ill founded a little reflec- tion on the vast services that science has rendered in advancing the social condition of man will serve to show ; and upon the fact that from the closets and laboratories of abstract science have emanated many of those inventions which have contribvited to raise the manufacturing industry of England to its present eminence. When it is remembered that to investigations purely scientific the discovery of the electric telegra4)h is to be traced ; that to abstract enquiries into the expansive force of steam, too, we owe the steam engine ; that the illumination of our streets with gas ; the various improvements in the art of dyeing ; the comparatively recent application of the discovery of the deposition of metals from their solutions, of so much importance to the arts and manufactures — inventions which are the off- spring of abstract science, and now almost essential to our social existence; the agriculturist should be encouraged to look to similar means for advancing his pursuit, which, while they would tend to elevate his mind and improve his understanding, would, at the same time, have the effect of improving the practice of his art, and the consequent enlargement of his profits. The subject of the present communication may be adduced as an example of the value which in- quiries of an abstract nature may be to the practical farmer. Few of those to whom the subject must necessarily be of the highest interest will be found really to know anything whatever about the matter ; and if even enlightened and otherwise well educated agriculturists are asked the causes of the various kinds of blight which attack their corn crops, their origin, or how they may be prevented, answers are returned of so vague, unsatisfactory, and impossible a nature, as to show the complete ignorance which prevails amongst them on a subject, the importance of which none of them undervalue; and yet, when once the natures of these blights are known, every difficulty as to the mitigation or prevention of some 498 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, of the most destructive of these pests vanishes, and we are enabled to apply rational remedies for the cure cr mitigation of the disease. Among the numerous diseases to which flesh is heir, there are some of so extraordinary a character as to induce us to doubt in their existence, were it not that their frequent occurence has made the fact familiar. I allude to the production and develop- ment of one class of living animals within the bodies and organs of others, which are, on this account^, named entozoa. Thus, we meet with, not only the various species of worms, as they are called, in the intestinal canal, but less commonly the Echino- coccus in the liver and spleen, the coenurus cere- bralis in the brain of sheep, the distoma in the gall bladder of the sheep, nistoma in the gills of fish, the trichiera spiralis in the substance of the muscles, the filarifE in the blood of some animals, and the cysticucus in the human eye. Have we any anal- ogous to this wonderful fact in the vegetable kingdom ? Do we ever find the internal parts of jilants infested with other minute plants — Ento- pleyta — produced, growing, and propagating their kind within their living habitation ? The inves- tigations of abstract science enable us to answer this in the affirmative, and teach us that, like animalsj plants are subject to be attacked with diseases, which, when investigated, are found to be caused by the presence of other plants which had established themselves in their interiors. As these disease-plants, for the most part, all belong to the tribe of fungi or mushrooms, it will be necessary to say a few v/ords respecting their peculiar habits. Most of the members of the vegetable kingdom derive their nutriment from the inorganic kingdom, having the power of assimilating the elements with which they are surrounded so as to form the substance of which they consist. Fungi, on the other hand, require a supjily of organic matter for their nutriment : hence it is that wherever animal or vegetable substances are undergoing decom- position, there we find these plants growing in luxuriance ; and frequently anticipating death, they fasten upon individuals weakened or prostrated by disease, and by their presence hasten final dis- solution. The tribe of mushrooms or fungi has been arranged by botanists in five classes, formed upon characters derived from the nature of the coverings that invest the fine seed-dust or sporules. These appear but as a vapoury cloud under a microscope magnifying 1 ,000 diameters ; and floating in myriads through the air, are ever ready, when an ajipropriate soil oilers, to start into life and fulfil their important destiny. It is not necessary here to describe botanically the classes into wliich mushrooms or fungi are divided. I must premise, however, that the fungus-plant or mushroom is not that which we com.monly understand as such ; the common mush- room which is so extensively used as an article of food being the seed-bearing receptacle which at certain periods of the year rises into the air, bearing upon its gills the microscopically minute spores, or cases, containing the fine dust before mentioned, called the sporules, the plant itself consisting of that v/hich horticulturists call the spawn, or botan- ists the mycelium. The blights which infest our corn crops are known to farmers by the names of bunt, smut-balls, pepper-brand, dust-brand, rust, red-gum, mildew, and others. These various kinds of blights have long been known to botanists to be caused by the presence of certain fungi of a definite size, figure, and organization, possessing characters which serve to distinguish them from each other or from many of their class to which they may be nearly allied. One important circumstance respect- ing them, however, is, while some exclusively attack the leaves, the straw, and the chaflf, others as exclu- sively prey upon the grain. To the latter the present communication must be limited. Two distinct species only are found which prey upon the grain or seed of the various kind of corn; to these botanists have given scientific names; they both, however, belong to the same genus— uredo, the species of which are characterized as growing within another plant, consisting of an extremely delicate mycelum, to which a dense number of little balls or s])ores are attached, each spore consisting of a single undivided cell, and not having any ])erce}itible stalk by which it is attached to the spawn. As I said before, two species of fungi confine their attacks to the grain of our corn crops. One of these is found to prey exclusively upon the grain of the wheat; is called uredo caries, known to far- mers as bunt, pepper-brand, and smut balls ; the other rarely attacks the wheat, but is extremely destructive to the barley, here, and oat crop. This has been named uredo segetum, and is called by farmers smut, dust-brand, chimney sweeper. We shall first describe the uredo caries, one of those forms of fungus which is found only within the grain of the wheat. To the unassisted senses this blight is easily recognised. On breaking a smut ball in the fun- gus, it is found to consist wholly of a dark brown powder, having a most disgusting odour, almost undistinguishable from stinking fish. If a little of this dust be examined with a microscope, we shall find it to consist of a number of minute balls, having a mottled appearance ; an attentive observer may likewise detect the slender threads of the spawn or mycelium, to fragments of which a few of the spores may be seen to be still attached. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 499 Tl)is fungus may be detected in the young grain many days before the appearance of the ear. At this early period the spores are v/hite, and the mycelium may be seen branching in the semi-fluid contents of the young grain. It is not, however, until the ear has fully grown that the diseased grains and their contents assume the appearance first described. The grains attacked by this fungus are seldom shed, and rarely burst spontaneously; they are even capable of resisting a considerable amount of pressure, and consequently may escape being rup- tured in the operation of thrashing, and along with the sound grains be sent to the mill, a very few of which, if ground with the latter, v.'ould be sufficient to injure the flour, by imparting to it its disgusting smell, and injuring its colour, so as to render it unsaleable. The affected grains being lighter than the sounds may, however, be easily separated from the latter by immersing the sample in water, to the surface of which the former will immediately rise ; not so> however, should tlie grains be broken. In this case, the liberated spores, being heavier than water, sink with the sound grains to the bottom of the vessel. The other species of blight which preys upon our cereal grains, viz., the uredo segetum, may be easily distinguished from that which I have just described. Instead of being, like the uredo caries, confined within the grain or ear, its work of destruction is completed, and the spores dissipated, long before the ripening of the crop, previously reducing tlie ear to the sooty condition quite characteristic of its presence. Its j)resence, therefore, need be appre- hended as aflecting, not the quality of the flour, but the amount of the produce, which it often most seriously reduces. Nor is it in external characters alone that this fungus may be distinguished from the uredo caries. It is not only devoid of the disagreeable odour of the former ; but when examined with the microscope the spores are found to be not half the diameter of those of the uredo caries — to exhibit no mottling- appearance presented by the spores of that fungus. By a careful examination, we may be able to detect the spawn or mycelium of this fungus also. The spores are hkewise of a very oily nature, and much lighter than water, and if kept moist for a few days, under favourable circumstances, may be found to emit germinating shoots. It is important to observe that I did not succeed in causing the spores of this fungus to germinate unless they were obtained from recent specimens. Such being the chief characteristics of these two forms of blight, I shall proceed to consider the pre- cautions that may be adopted for averting their attacks. Before doing so, however, it will be necessary to notice the means by which these blights are pro- pagated. No circumstance in their history is so well established as the fact that if healthy seed be sown, which had been mixed with the spores of either bunt or smut, the ears of the future ]ilants will be found to be affected with these blights respectively, and also that if (what we may call) infected seed be either carefully cleaned from the adhering spores of the blight, or steeped in soTiie chemical solution which will kill the spores, but not the seed, the plants will in due time bear healthy ears. The lat- ter of these processes is what farmers call pickling or dressing the seed, and the solution emploj^ed is generally known by the name of the wheat-steep. As the uredo segetum, or dust-brand (that which is most prevalent in oats, barley, and here) is, for the most part, dispersed before the crop ripens, steeps are for the most part useless. The uredo caries, or bunt, on the other hand, remains in the ear, and will, if it exists in the field and be thrashed with the general crop, most surely contaminate the grain. It is, therefore, for the purpose of preventing this form of the blight that these steeps are most gener- ally employed. I before mentioned that some of the grains may escape being broken in the operation of thrashing. These may readily be removed by simply steeping the seed in water, when the affected grains will be found to rise to the surface. Many of the blighted grains must have been broken and their contents mixed with the seed. It then becomes necessary to destroy their vitality. This has been done by various means. In Kent, the practice has prevailed of immersing the seed for a short time in very hot water, a method found to answer the purpose admi- rably in the hands of an experienced person. Lime, blue-stone, or corrosive subhmate dissolved in water, stale urine, and white arsenic, have been all used, to which may be added sulphate of soda and quick-lime — a dressing highly recommended by a French commission which inquired and reported on the subject. Whatever may be the efficacy of the other dress- ings enumerated, there ought to be but one o'pinion as to the inadvisability of employing for this purpose so active a poison as arsenic. The French com- mission to which I before alluded found it to be by no means so efficacious as other substances of a more inrocent nature ; while it has been ascertained that the flesh of birds destroyed by picking the grain_ out of the ground has been rendered poisonous, and if eaten would certainly produce serious effects. In the course of my examination, some years since, of this subject, it occui'red to me to apply a solution of chloride of lime to the spores of the bunt fungus, 500 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and v/atch the effect produced. The offensive smell, so characteristic of the fungus, was immedi- ately destroyed, and after a few hours the spores were ruptured and disorganised. These facts encouraged me to try the effect of the chloride of lime solution, when applied as a wheat- steep, and at the same time to compare it with that which had been so much praised by the French commission before alluded to— namely, sulphate of soda and quick-lime. I instituted with the consent of the council of this Society,* at their Botanic Garden, the experiment which I shall now describe. I procured 4 lbs. of the finest and cleanest wheat seed, 1 lb. of which I set apart without any prepar- ation : the remaining three parts I mi.x:ed equally with a large quantity of the spores of the bunt fun- gus, until the whole was rendered a uniform brown colour. 1 lb. of this infected seed I then steeped for two hours in a solution of chloride of lime (made by mi.Ying for two hours 1 lb. of the chloride to one gallon of water), and dried it by sifting fine sand over it. Another pound of the infected seed I steeped for two hours in a saturated solution of Glauber's salts, when it was removed from the solution and dried by sifting over it a little fresh- slaked quick-lime. The fourth pound of seed (which was infected by the bunt) was not subjected to any treatment. These four parcels of seed were then sown in four separate, but contiguous, plots of ground. No difference was observable in the period of sprouting or germination of the seed, but the lesult of the experiment, which was most striking while the crop was standing, may be thus stated : — Plot 1. Sown wifli one pound of clean undressed seed. Plot 2. Sown with one pound of same seed infected with bunt fun- dus, and steep- ed in saturated solution of chlo- ride of lime. Plot 3. Sown with one pound of sa'.iie seed infected with lunt, and steeped in satu- rated solution of sulphate of soda, and dried with quicklime sprinkled over it. Plot 4. Sown with one pound of same seed infected with hunt and undressed. The number of ears contained in the produce of each plot were counted, and the number of sound and smutted ears ascertained. In the same manner the number of straws deprived of the ears in 1 lb. weight was ascertained. The following was the result : — ■ Plot. Total No. of Ears in 1 lb. weight. Number of sound Kais in 1 11). weight. 830 302 3.^2] 300 Number of smutted Ears in 1 lb. wei.^lit. Number of Straws in 1 lb. weight. 1 2 3 4 330 3nt (132 700 None, 2 320 340 231 268 278 330 * The above paper was read before the sectional meeting of the Royal Dublin Society, on the evening of the aoth of November last. The result of this experiment warrants us in drawing the following conclusions : — 1. That wheat seed infected with bunt fungus, and sown, produces plants the grain of which is filled with a similar fungus. 2. That the presence of the fungus is injurious to the straw as well as destructive to the grain. 3. That the steeping seed infected with the bunt fungus in certain chemical solutions more or less prevents the production of the fungus in the seed of the future plants. 4. That steeping the infected seed in a saturated solution of Glauber's salts, and afterwards drying it with quicklime, has but little effect in preventing the production of the fungus in the future plants. 5. That steeping the infected seed in a solution of chloride of hme is nearly a specific in preventing the production of the bunt fungus in the future plants, and very much more effectual for this pur- pose than the solution of Glauber's salts and drying with quick-lime. Since the date of this experiment, the chloride of lime solution has been used as a wheat steep by several agriculturists in different parts of the coun- try, with the same satisfactory results ; and in confirmation of this statement, I take the present opportunity of reading to the meeting a few com- munications I have received upon the subject. The method of using the chloride of lime as a wheat steep is as follows : — 'Make a solution by mixing one pound of fresh chloride of lime in one gallon of water, frequently stirring them with a stick in a wooden vessel for two hours. Throw the seed intended to be steeped in a large quantity of water, frequently stirring it, and removing all the swimming grains, Shere off the water, and then pour over the seed a suflScient quantity of the chloride of lime solution to cover it, allowing it to remain for two hours. Then pour off the solution, which may be again used, and dry the seed with fine dry sand, peat mould, lime, or any drying powdery substance ; it is then fit for sowing. With regard to the prevention of the true smut, the uredo segetum, unfortunately we know of no method so efficacious as those used for the preven- tion of the bunt fungus. This arises from its early dispersion, and the consequent contamination of the ground. In cases where there is reason to suspect that the soil is infected by the spores of the smut, the only practical method of proceeding is to treat it largely with stale urine or quick-lime, and to avoid cropping the land with grain for two or three years, as I have observed that the spores lose their power of germinating if long kept. As some of this fungus may be found in a perfectly ripe croj) of corn, especially of barley, it is desirable that the seed should be steeped similarly to that of the wheat. This will undoubtedly destroy any of the spores that may adhere to the seed. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 501 TILLAGE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. It was enacted by Parliament in 1426, and again in 1457, that every man tilling with a plough of eight oxen should every year sow at least a firlot of wheat, half a firlot of peas, and forty of beans. The culture of these grains could not have been very general previously. Even so late as 1727 the culture of wheat was so very limited in the Lothi- ans, that a gentleman relates in 1795, that when he cultivated it to the extent of eight bolls, sowing on a farm of about 90 acres of arable land, within a mile of Edinburgh, it was esteemed to be so extra- ordinary an exertion as to attract the attention of the whole neighbourhood. SHORT BRIDLING. It is difficult to imagine, in a country where the management and breeding of the horse are better understood than anywhere else in Europe, what could have given rise to, and continued so long, a practice so cruel, unnecessary, and ignorant, as that of bridling so short the head of the horse. It is well known that the strength of this animal cannot be exerted to its utmost without he has the free motion of the head and neck ; for in calling the muscular powers into full action, the head acts as a kind of balance to the body, and enables him, par- ticularly in traversing rough roads, over ice, or on making a stumble, to recover himself. What, then, can be less scientific, or more cruel, than to see this animal struggling to his utmost in dragging a waggon up a steep acclivity ? Observe his head bound back like a fixture, with the inten- tion apparently of neutralizing the most willing efforts of the dumb animal, while the only assist- ance he receives from the ignorant biped, his driver, is a merciless allowance of the whip. It should be remembered that although England sur- passes all the world for certain breeds of horses, viz., the London dray-horse, the coach-horse, and the race-horse; yet it is more to the crossing of the breed, and to the grooming, to which we are in- del)ted for their superiority, than to the race or the climate. In proof of this, it was a common prac- tice, in the time of Henry VIII., to import horses from France to this country, for the improvement of the breed, and tlrere is still a large proportion of horses in England of a very inferior breed — we allude more particularly to the common farm- horse, and the country waggon-horse. They are defective in form, consequently slower in action, and deficient in power. Indeed, it is observed by Mr. Lawrence that this race of horses is formed on the very worst anatomical principles, either for strength, beauty, or activity, and that they are be- hind the Flemish, French, Scotch, or Canadian horses. PHENOMENA OP NATURE. Among all the phenomena of nature few are more curiously interesting than those of the vege- table world. Whilst the embryo of the pea is en- closed within a most dehcate folding, protected as it were by a thatch formed around it, and enabled, by a kind of mechanical power given to the blossom that contains it, to turn its back to the wind, we see the black thorn in the hedge revelling in the northern blast, and finding life and vigour in the blighting mists of an easterly wind, but nipped in the bud by the genial warmth of a mild spring. From hence is the term "black-thorn v/inter" given to a cold and backward season. The black thorn is a native of the northern countries ; but, though superior for agricultural purposes as a fence against cattle, is not so generally cultivated as the white thorn, being more uncertain of growth, no doubt in consequence of feeling the effect of the season. EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. The erudite Dr. Watson, Bishop of Llandaff", in a letter to Sir John Sinclair, relative to the ])lan set on foot in 1799, for estabhshing, by a company of subscribers, experimental farms in the different counties, says, " Most of the great improvements that have taken place in British agriculture within the last fifty years have been introdnced by the nobility, gentry, and clergy of the country, under their superintendence and that of their immediate agents. I am of opinion that such men as the Duke of Bedford, Lord Egremont, and others of similar dispositions and abilities, if such can be found, in the different counties, will do more to- wards perfecting the agriculture of the kingdom, by trying experiments on their own estates, than by any experimental farmers, however numerous, under the direction of any society, however en- lightened." In the sequel of the same letter the Doctor justly and practically remarks, "that there are many problems respecting the cultivation of land which cannot admit a solution, because the success or the failure of the experiment which should be made in order to solve the problem de- pends more on the nature of the weather, which cannot be foreseen, than upon the quality of the soil or mode of management." Thus, from on3 experiment it may appear that drilling of wheat is the most profitable mode of culture; from another, 502 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that dibbling it is preferable ; and from a third, that sowing it broadcast is the best, according as the season happens to be hot or cold, wet or dry. THE ORIGINAL STANDARDS OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Every farmer perhaps may not know that the grains of wheat and barley were the original stand- ards to adjust the weights and measures of the kingdom. Though it was ordained in Magna Chartathat there should be but one weight and one measure, yet we do not find how or from whence the standard was to be made or adjusted till the thirty-first year of the reign of Edward I., when it was ordained ''that three grains of barley, dry and round, do make an inch, twelve inches make a foot, three feet make a yard, five yards and a-half make a perch, and forty perches in length, and four in breadth, make an acre." Again, by consent of the whole realm of England, the King's measure was made, viz., "That an English penny, which is called the sterling, round without chpping, shall weigh two-and-thirty grains of wheat, dry in the midst of the ear; and twenty pence make an ounce, and twelve ounces make a pound, Troy weight ; and eight pounds make a gallon of wine ; and eight gallons of wine make a bushel of London, which is the eighth part of a quarter." How is it that we now use only twenty-four grains for a penny- weight ? PARKS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. The vast number of parks in the kingdom in Elizabeth's reign was much complained of. "There are not less," says a writer of that age, " than one hundred in Essex alone, where almost nothing is kept but a sorte of wilde and savage beasts, cherished for pleasure and delight," And, pur- suing the same subject, he says, "that if the world last a while after this rate, wheat and rie will be no graine for poore men to feed on." PAROCHIAL TITHES, Parochial tithes were not established for the clergy in England till about the end of the eighth or middle of the ninth century. The reason as- signed by an old author for this, is " because the division of England into parishes was not made before the time of Honorius, Archbishop of Can- terbury, 636." In the answer to the petitions which were exhibited to Parliament and to Crom- well for the taking away of tithes, in 1652, it is said, "There are in England and Wales 9725 parishes, and though one half of these rectories were not appropriated as to the number, yet cer- tainly as to the yearly values, the ministers at this day have not one-half of the profits of the tithes of eorn and grain." EXHAUSTING PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLES. The power of vegetables to exhaust the soil of the principles necessary to their growth is remark- ably exemplified in certain fungi. Mushrooms ar- said never to rise in two successive seasons on the same spot ; and the production of the phenomena called "fairy rings" has been ascribed by Dr. Wol- laston to the powei of the peculiar fungus which forms it to exhaust the soil of the nutriment ne- cessary for the growth of the species. The conse- quence is, that the ring annually extends, for no seeds will grow where their parents grew before them, and the interior part of the circle has been exhausted by preceding crops ; but where the fungus has died, nourishment is supplied for grass, which usually rises within the circle, coarse in quality, and of a dark-green colour. WEIGHT OF SHEEP. The following example of a slaughtered sheep, weighing 116 lbs., gives the proportions of the parts, viz. ; — Flesh and tallow 54 lbs. Fat taken from the intestines. ... 74 „ Liver and lungs 5 „ Blood 3 „ Head, stomach, and intestines . . 42^ „ Waste 112 lbs. 116 lbs. ON THE BARKS, &c., USED IN TANNING. Chap. IL Having touched in the former chapter on the statistics of the leather trade, the annual consumption of tanning materials, and the value of oak-bark, we now come to speak of the other barks and extraneous foreign sub- stances used by the tanner. Another product of the oak, very rich in tannin, and of great use in the tannery, is the acorn-cup of the Ba- Ionia oak (the Quercus agilops) and its varieties, known in commerce as Valonia, Our supplies are derived chiefly from the IMorea and the Levant ; and the con- sumption is yearly increasing, while the supply is stated to be unlimited. It is much more portable and con- centrated in its tanning properties than bark ; and is, therefore, equal in price to the best coppice-bark. The two varieties, Morea and Smyrna, stand respectively, at present, at £10 lOs. to X^13 per ton for the former, and jf 13 to i,"16 10s. for the latter. Camata — a younger THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 50? variety of valonia — being more valuable in some pro- cesses of tanning, fetches rather a higher price. The proportion of tannin in similar barks will be found to vary considerably with the age and size of the tree, and the season when it has been barked. Tannin most abounds in the spring, when the buds are opening ; and least in the winter. 4801b. of the white cortical layers of oak-bark will yield 721b. of tannin, or in the proportion of about one-sixth to one-seventh of the weight. The same quantity of coppice-oak would yield about 321b. of tannin ; of middle-sized oak, cut in spring, 29Ib. ; and if cut in autumn, 211b. Hence we find, in the London market, coppice bark will fetch ^1 per load more than the bark of larger trees. Next to the oak, among our indigenous English trees, the bark of the Bedford and Leicester willow, when of a good size, yields the greatest proportion of tannin — nearly one-half that furnished by oak -bark. The common variety of the willow will be found, however, to contain but a very small quantity of tannin. In Scotland, larch-bark comes into very general use for some purposes of the tanner, not only from its abundance and cheapness, but also from its valuable pro- perties, competing well with oak-bark, although not so rich in the tannin principle. The bark is obtain- able during the greater part of the year, and is stripped with very little trouble. It was first brought into use by Mr. T. L. White, of Durham, who received a gold medal from the London Society of Arts for its intro- duction as a tanning substance. It is difficult to obtain any reliable estimate of the quantity used, which, how- ever, has greatly increased of late years. The barks of the spruce and Scotch fir and Wey- mouth pine will tan ; but they act very slowly on the hide. The Scotch fir only affords half the quantity of bark, is more troublesome in planting, and is much less effective as a tanning agent than larch-bark. The barks of the willow and the birch were formerly considered very valuable for the tanners, the latter bark in the close of the last century bearing a price nearly equal to that of oak-bark in Ireland. The Rev. Mr. Swayne, many years ago, made some experiments as to the value of the leaves of the oak-tree for tanning, naturally presuming that, like the bark, the acorn, the twigs, and other parts of the tree, the leaves must contain considerable portions of tannin. The difficulty of drying them, and the bulk, were serious objections to their use. He found, on analysis, that they contained much astringent matter, and suggested that it might prove useful to make a concentrated ex- tract from them. The present abundance of oak-bark and other tanning materials, however, renders this la- bour unnecessary. Until 1807, tanners were restricted by act of Par- liament, particularly the act of 1 James I., and subsequent confirmatory acts, to the use of oak-bark for tanning, probably to encourage the planting and rearing of those valuable timber-trees. In that year, however, on the report of a Parliamentary com- mittee, these obnoxious clauses were repealed ; and the tanner, being thus at liberty to select the most effi- cient tanning substances, home or foreign, began to use valonia, elm, alder, birch, chestnut, and larch- barks. But even for some years subsequently, the trade was shackled with fiscal and other restrictions. For instance, the Excise prohibited curriers from using sumach for any other purpose than for colouring leather. In ] 798 a parliamentary report was issued on the use of that bark in tanning leather, and the committee which then sat reported that good, durable, and firm leather might be made from elm-bark alone. A ton of elm- bark would produce nearly the same amount of leather as a ton of oak-bark. In that year the consumption of oak-bark was about 70,000 or 80,000 tons ; and in the early part of the present century, Mr. George Biggin and Sir Humphrey Davy experimentalised on the astringent qualities of the barks of various trees, and their efficiency as tanning substances. The results of these investigations were given to the world in the Transactions of the Royal Society ; but are scarcely sufficiently practical or important to be quoted in the present day. Professor Fehling estimates the relative value of the several tanning substances as follows, and these data will indicate with tolerable accuracy their comparative commercial importance, as respects the proportion of tannin : — Pine bark contains from 5 to 7 percent, of tanniu. Old oak bark „ 9 „ Beat oak bark „ 19 to 21 „ Gall nuts „ 30 to 33 „ Aleppo galls „ 60 to 66 „ Chinese galls „ 70 „ Galls come into commerce to a considerable extent ; but are much too high in price to be used as a tanning agent. Different tanning substances have difi'erent effects in their extractive or colouring principle, and hence the tanner who wishes to produce a peculiar kind of leather selects that material which answers his purpose best. Ground oak-bark produces a lightish brown or fawn- coloured leather, valonia a grey colour, fine-galls would produce a very pale colour, and catechu gives it a reddish tinge. The proportionate value of the tanning materials is shown by the quantities required to produce a ton of leather. These would be either 7 tons of oak bark, 3 tons of sumach or valonia, one ton of terra japonica or gambler, and ^ a ton of cutch. Other authorities state that 4 or 5 pounds of oak-bark are required to prepare a pound of leather : half a pound of catechu would answer the same purpose. The bark and leaves of the alder were formerly employed for tanning purposes, the whole tree being very astringent, and fishermen dyed their nets with it ; it is found that the tannin principle serves to strengthen cordage, as well as to preserve it when immersed in water. For the use of tanners, dyers, and leather dressers, these petty supplies of indigenous barks have been almost entirely superseded by more plentiful and ' efficient foreign substitutes, which commerce and science have brought into notice. The bark of the ash is still used occasionally for tanning calf-skins, and for dyeing. It contains hardly 504 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. one-fifth of tbe proportion of tannin that oak-bark yields ; but the fisherman finds it useful to tan his nets, and dry his herrings with, in some localities. The silvery bark of the beech and of the birch contain but little tannin. In Russia the empyreumatic oil of the birch-bark is said to give that peculiar odour to Russian leather, and this bark also gives a yellow tinge to wool. The bark of the Spanish chestnut contains as much tannin as oak-bark cut in autumn ; but the horse chest- nut furnishes scarcely any tannin worth mentioning. The barks of the elm, the hazel, the blackthorn, and the Lombardy poplar contain small quantities of tannin ; but not in sufficient quantity to render them of any commercial importance. Of the poplars, the black and the Lombardy species contain most tannin. The old cork y bark of the black poplar also furnishes floats for fishermen's nets. Hemlock Baric. — In North America, owing to the natural supply of barks suitable for tanning being abundant, foreign substitutes are little employed. The bark of the hemlock spruce [Abies Canadensis) is that chiefly used in Canada, in New Brunswick, and in the North-eastern States, a small proportion of ash-bark being employed to finish off and colour the goods. Holf the epidermis is shaved off before it is thrown into the mill for grinding. Hemlock-bark is inferior to oak-bark ; but American tanners say, that both united are better than either alone. Small consignments of hemlock bark have been made to London, but the tanners here have not been induced to adopt it. As the oak flourishes in the South-Western States, its hark is chiefly used for tanning sole leather, and this from its quality always commands a higher price at Bal- timore and Philadelphia than the leather made in the Northern States. The bark of the yellow birch {Betula lutea) is some- times employed in America for tanning, but only for what the curriers call " fair leather." The inner bark of the black birch {B. lenta) is also full of tannin, but its useful properties in this respect have been much neglected. In Ohio, the bark of the white beech {Fagus sylves- tris) is used for tanning, and the leather made with it is white and serviceable, and inferior only to that pre- pared with oak bark. The roots of the Palmetta palm are stated to be valu- able for the purposes of the tanner, as containing a large proportion of tannin. It abounds in the Southern States of America, and in the Bahamas. The bark and leaves of the mangrove, which contains nearly as much tannin as the oak, are used in the East and West Indies for tanning, and serve to complete the operation in one-third the time required with the oak bark ; the sole leather so tanned is also said to be much more durable. The Chinese use mangrove bark, and also collect and ship it. In the Madras Presidency, the bark of Cassia rniri- culata, known as Turwan bark in some parts of India, is one of the best of the indigenous astringents for the purposes of the tanner, who can obtain a large quantity of the bark at a low rate, and with it a soft and durable leather can be made. The Cathocarpus, or Cassia fistula, is an equally com- mon shrub, but is not in general repute with the cur- riers, the proportion of astringent extract being smaller, and it is said to thicken the leather. It would, however, be well suited to the tanning of hides and belts. Other species of cassia may be found suitable to the purposes of the tanner, but the two last named are the most astringent and most abundant. The bark of the Casnarina equisitifolia resembles larch, and contains tannin. A brown dye has also lately been extracted from it. BABOOL BARK, from the Acacia arahica, is exten- sively used in India as a tanning material. It makes a good leather, under proper management; but in native hands the leather is porous, brittle, and of a bad colour. The tree is found throughout almost every district of India and Africa, and in parts of Australia. It is useful for its gum and its timber. Its seeds are also a fa- vourite food for sheep, and being of rapid growth, and requiring no water, it flourishes in the most arid plains, la India the bark is considered a powerful tonic. The various species of acacia are known in Australia and Van Diemcn's Land as MIMOSA or wattle bark. Acacia decurrens is a very powerful tanning agent, and the bark of A. dealbata also furnishes a very large per-centage of tannin. Professor Brandt found that, compared with young English oak bark, mimosa bark contained in the proportion of 57 to 39 of tannin. Mimosa bark has recently come forward in very limited supplies from Australia, which, in the present circum- stances of the colony, is not to be wondered at, although it could be obtained in any quantity. In 1854 we re- ceived but 18 tons — against 258 tons in 1853 ; 1,720 in 1852; and 1,480 tons in 1851. Last year there was a reaction, the imports in London having reached 616 tons, which sent down the price 50s. per ton. Logwood BarJc is astringent in a considerable de- gree. The American bark quercitron, imported for dyers' use, contains but as 3 to 5 of the tannin prin- ciple compared with English oak bark. Par/da biglobosa, a large tree, a native of Africa, has an astringent bark, from which a watery extract has been prepared, the value of which for tanning purposes has yet to be determined. Imports are occasionally made of CORK-TREE BARK, for tanning purposes, from Rabat and Lamcha, poits of Fez, in Barbary ; and it has fetched from £6 to £7 10s. perton. That from Leghorn is not considered so good, being less astringent than oak-bark. The inner bark of the cork-tree has long been used by the tanners of Marseilles, being imported from Corsica and other parts of the Mediterranean. A cargo of cork-tree bark was recently imported from Sardinia, which ex- cited some attention ; for although the price asked was nearly double that for ordinary oak bark, yet as it was nearly all tan, and free from waste, it might not be found, upon use, to be dearer than English bark. Cork-bark for tanning is chitfiy uscJ in Ireland, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 505 cargoes go direct fiom the Mediterranean to Cork. The outer bark is often stripped, to improve the texture of the commercial cork, and this bark would prove a useful tanning material. The French province of Algeria abounds in barks suited for the purposes of the tanner — oaks, pines, chestnuts, willows, elms, alders, pomegranate, &c., many of which were sliown at the Paris Universal Exhibition ; but as the export is prohibited to any other quarter than France, it is useless touching upon them. Chap. Ill, TANNING MATERIALS USED IN THE COLONIES, &c. In Ceylon the tanning substances in use are the bark of the Cassia fistula, which is used generally throughout India for tanning, the bark of an undescribed tree im- ported at Colombo from Trincomalie, the bark of Cassia auriculata, the milky juice of Calotropis gi- yaiitea, and the fruit of Termindlia chebula (Myrabo- lams), which are very rich in tannin. A variety of kino, indigenous to Ceylon, which exudes during hot weather from natural fissures and wounds in the bark of the Buteafrimdosa, is known in commerce by the name of Bengal kino, or Gum butea, being closely allied to the kino of Pterocarpus in its chemical properties. It yields about 74 per cent, of tannin. Although used by the natives, it is considered objectionable by the European tanners, because it im- parts a red colour to the leather. In Demerara the courida bark (Avicetma nilida, Linn.), the bark of the hog plum tree {Spondius lutea, Linn.), and the bark of the red mora {Blora excelsa, Benth.), which are very plentiful, are used as tanning substances. The following barks are also employed — the crabwood {Carapa guianensis, Aubl.), the mangrove, the kakaralli, the white silver balli, the wallabi (Eperna falcata, Aubl.), and several others, which, from the local names only being given, it is impossible to iden- tify. The bark of the sea-side grape is excessively astrin- gent, and a decoction from the leaves, wood, and bark, by evaporation, forms Jamaica kino. The wild cashew bark, called locally ubidi {Anacardium occidentale), is also successfully used for tanning. Tanning substances abound in Jamaica, and during a residence of several years there, I found much tannin in the mahoe bark, the black olive, the button tree, the white bully tree, the red and black mangrove, the dogwood, and the divi-divi. The seeds of the avocado pear yield a large quantity of tannin. Mr. Nethersole of Kingston, Jamaica, sent some very fine specimens of leather to the Paris Exhibition, tanned solely, or partly with mangrove, divi-divi, and American oak- bark. New Zealand is rich in tanning barks as well as in dyes. The principal used for tanning leather in the colony are —the Tanahaka (Phrjllodalus trichomanoides, Don), the Hiuau (Dicora dentata, Forsier), the Fohutu kawa (Metrosideros tomentosa, Richard), the Towai (Wienmannia racemosa, Decand.), and the Rimu or red pine (Dacrydium cupressinum, Solander). Their com- parative values may be judged by the following propor- tions of extractive matter and tannin in one pound :— Towai 104 grains. Rimu 85 „ Tanahaka .... 63 „ Pohutu kawa . 60 „ Sumach. — The ground wood and leaves are used for tanning in Spain and Portugal, Russia, the Danubian Provinces, and Turkey. We receive supplies from Sicily, Trieste, and the ports of the Ottoman empire, the im- ports being 12,000 to 13,000 tons per annum. Bivi-Divi. — Twelve or fourteen years ago, attention was prominently drawn to the curved or wrinkled pods of the CcBsalpinia coriaria, which was then termed American sumach. These have since been imported to some extent for tanners' use, under the commercial name of divi-divi. It compares as follows with other tanning substances, according to the analysis of Mr. Samuel Rootsey, of Bristol : — Per centao;e of Soluble or Extractive Matter. of Tannin. Divi-divi 76.25 59.16 51.16 Galh., . 35.45 Sumach. 40.00 0.95 Kioo. . . 40.41 — Catechu 67.08 30,00 ^^ British oak-bark .... 13.41 My friend, Dr. Hamilton, of Plymouth, also found by analysis that it contained fully 50 per cent, of tannin, whilst nutgalls only yielded 30 to 40 per cent. According to practical trials, one pound of divi-divi appears to be equal to 41bs. of oak bark, and it tans the leather in two-thirds the time. The average produce of a full-grown tree being 80 to 100 pounds of pods, and these containing 50 per cent, of tannin, it appears to be superior to any other material for the tannery. Leather tanned throughout with it closely resembles that prepared with oak bark. The main question for consideration is that of price and supply. Divi-divi fetches about the same price per ton as oak bark does per load of 2J tons. The average im- ports lately have been about 3,000 tons per annum. It comes to us chiefly from New Granada and Venezuela, although some reaches us indirectly through other chan- nels. In Jamaica, divi-divi has long been employed most successfully by the currier. It would yield there a far better profit to the planter than any other staple in the colony. The late Doctors Arnold and Bancroft, of Kingston, Jamaica, wrote on the qualities of this tree, and urged its cultivation as a most important and pro- fitable acquisition to the staple products of the island. During a residence of several years there, and subse- quently, I have endeavoured to draw attention to the product. Being the most concentrated in tannin of any vegetable, the extended cultivation of the plant, at the J) resent price and demand for it in the tannery, would be found highly lucrative to small landhoLlers in Jamaica. A few hundred tons of the seed-pods and bark of the Prosopis pallida were imported into Liverpool from M M 506 THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE. Chili in 1849, as a substitute for divi-divi. The pods bear the local name of Algaroba, although a different species of tree to the carob of the south of Europe (Ceratonia siliqua). The pods of the Prosopis might be useful for tanners, if brought in cheap ; but, in pro- portion to the tannin contained, they are one-fifth less valuable than oak-bark. The Myrobolams of commerce (sometimes locally called gall-nuts) are the dried fruit of several species of Termiualia (as T.chehula, belerica, and C'iirina). They are of a dingy yellow, oval, and about the size of an olive. Although commonly used for tanning purposes in India from time immemorial, it is only within the last eight or ten years that they have come extensively into use in this country. The imports fluctuate, and as many as 2,000 tons have been received in some years. In 1853 a sudden demand arose for them to ship from Madras, and large profits were made by the persons who collected them in the jungles ; as much as 700 tons being exported during the season from that quarter alone, being four times the quantity shipped in the two previous years. The price ranges from £8 to £12 the ton. In the early part of the century concentrated extracts of tan began to be tried, but were slow to come into use ; not only from the limited supply, but from a pre- judice which existed against all novel innovations. The Society of Arts stimulated inquiry in this field of in- vestigation by liberal premiums, and in 1804 Dr. James Howison received the Society's gold medal for his pre- paration of tan from the bark of the mangrove in the East Indies. He also made a similar extract from myrobolams, which was found to be useful both for tan- ning and dyeing. A few years after, Sir Joseph Banks drew attention to terra japonica, as containing 7 or 8 times as much of the tannin principle as any of the existing barks. In 1815 extracts of barks first began to bs imported commercially — 78 cwt. being received in that year. In 1824, Messrs. Pitchey and Wood were awarded the gold Ceres medal of the Society of Arts, for 15 hogsheads of extract of mimosa bark, shipped to England. It was readily purchased by the tanners at £50 per ton. The extract was of the consistency of tar — one ton of bark furnishing four cwt. of extract. Two astringent extracts come into commerce now to some extent, although not used solely by the tanner. These are GAM BIER and CUTCH, often mis-named Terra japonica, although the misnomer is usually given to the former. These extracts form a good leather of a red or orange colour, and are said to hasten the process, although at the expense of the leather ; for Dr. Ure well observes, "that the saturated infusions of astringent barks contain much less extractive matter, in proportion to their tannin, than the weak infusions; and when skin is quickly tanned, common experience shows that it produces leather less durable than leather slowly formed." The watery extract, Kut or Cutcli, from Acacia catechu, \s largely manufactured in tho East, by boiling the heart of the wood for a few hours, when it assumes the consistency of tar— hardening when cool. It is chiefly imported from Bombay, the Burmese territories, and a large province on the Malabar coast, called the " Concan." The Pegu cutch is considered the best ; the disturbances in Burmah, however, lessened the sup- ply lately from that quarter, and the price is now nearly treble what it was some years ago, being about ^25 to £21 per ton. In 1853 it stood as high as i;55 to £h& per ton. The imports in 1855 reached nearly 3000 tons. The Bombay cutch is of a uniform appearance and dark red colour. That of the Concan and other parts of India, of a more chocolate tine, and marked inside with red streaks. It is not unlike aloes, except that it is of a darker hue. The analysis of Sir Humphrey Davy gave the following per-ceutage : — Bombay. Concan. Taunin 54.5 48 5 Extractive 34.0 36.5 Mucilage 6.5 8.0 Insoluble matter 5.0 7.0 An astringent extract is also made from the nuts of the areca palm, of a better quality, called " Coony ;" but this does not come into commerce. Catechu has been found a good substitute for madder in calico printing. GAMBIER, or terra japonica, is the inspissated ex- tract of the juice from the leaves and branches of the Nauclea Gambir of Hunter, the Unicaria Gambir of Roxburgh. We derive all our supplies from Singapore, where the production is largely carried on by the Chinese. Owing to a fall in the price, which rendered the culti- vation unprofitable, the imports from Singapore declined a few years ago, from about 9,000 tons in 1849 to half that quantity in 1852 ; but an advance in price since has again brought in large imports, the quantity received last year being nearly 5000 tons. Small quantities of other astringent extracts called "Kinos" are occasionally received. Australian kino is obtained from the iron bark tree, a species of Eucalyptus, and Eait Indian kino, from several varieties of Pterocarpus. The other commercial purposes of bark are vaiied, but not at present of very great importance. With many aboriginal tribes, stripping the bark for canoes was an easy mode of obtaining a navigable vessel ; and even in the present day the birch bark canoes of the British A.nierican provinces, and the " wood-skins' of British Guiana, form useful boats, from their lightness ; which enables them to be easily carried over theporlaffcs which interrupt river navigation. The various uses of cork bark are well known, and the import considerable. Several barks are useful for their fibres, for cordage and for mats. The cascarilla, the cassia, the canella alba, and the cinnamon, furnish well-known spices. The medicinal and febrifugal barks now come largely into commerce: the cinchona for quinine, the green-heart for beberine, the villow for salacine, the bitter wood {quassia amara), &c. Many barks are very valuable for the colouring substances they yield to tlie dyer, such as the quercitron ; and a large field for experimental research still remains open in this wide branch of investigation. The exhausted bark from tan-pits comes also into use for manure, although a substance too much neglected, since it would be found beneficial either as a top- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 607 dressing for gross lands or as a compost with animal and farm-yard manure. Tan bark, to be of value as a manure, requires decomposition, when it has the same effect as any other vegetable matter. Like fine chips from the wood-yard, its influence at first can be only mechanical. But as decay commences, its value as a manure is felt ; and as the decomposition is gradual, its beneficial effects will remain for years. There is usually more or less acid in the bark or wood of trees ; and the addition of lime would doubtless be beneficial, though the quantity to be used, if thoroughly mixed with the bark, need not be great. Ashes would answer as well as lime, or indeed any other alkaline substance. The best way of using the lime would be to make a compost, or place the bark and lime in layers, which, when stirred, would effectually incorporate both. As a litter for the hog-pen, cattle-yard, or stables, bark would be valuable ; acting as an absorbent of fluids and salts that might otherwise be lost, and having its decomposi- tion hastened, and its properties corrected at the same time. On the Continent tan- cakes are used to a considerable extent as fuel, after the manner of peat. The following are the various export duties charged on barks and tanning substances in the countries named: Algeria — tauner's bark prohibited, except to France. Corsica — export of oak bark prohibited. Denmark — duty of 9d, the centner. Belgium — ll^d. the ton ; but if the barks are powdered, 4s. 9d. the ton. Bremen — free, except powdered. Holland — merely uomiDal duty. Austria — 2 3-5d. the centner of 1235lba. avoirdupois. France — barks ^d., and acorn cups l^d. the 100 kilo- grammes, equal to 2201b3. Greece— 6 per cent, ad valorem. Hanover — 45d. the centner. Norway— 6|d. per 3201b. Portugal — cork bark 5s. 5d. the lOOlba. Prussia — 3d. the pound. Russia — prohibited. Sardinia— 3 l-5d. the 100 kilogrammes. Sweden — free. Switzerland — barks 9^d. the centner, tan of oak 1 3-5d. do. Turkey — valonia 5d. the quintal and 9 per cent, ad valorem. Tijscany — Id. for ten cautari, equal to TSOlbs. avoirdupois. ZoUverein — 3d. the pound. P. L. S. 5, Barge Yard, City, Feb. 20th, 1856. ON PERUVIAN GUANO: ITS HISTORY, COMPOSITION, AND FERTILIZING QUALITIES; WITH THE BEST MODE OF ITS APPLICATION TO THE SOIL. By J. C. Nesbit, F.G.S,, F.C.S., &c. PRINCIPAL 0? THE CHEMICAl AND AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, KENNINGTON, LOKDON; CORRESPONDING MEMBEK OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF TRANCE, &C., &C. In reviewing the history and condition of agriculture for the last twenty years, it is impossible to avoid being struck by the remarkable progress, scientilic and practical, which the latter half of that period has witnessed. The genius of our mechanics has been shown by the inven- tion of a wonderful variety of new and interesting instruments adapted for au improved culture of the soil. The steam- engine also, hitherto almost exclusively used by the manufac- turer, now lends its powerful aid to the farmer. The art of the drainer has brought into successful cultivation thousands of acres of wet and almost worthless soil ; and a vast breadth of land, previously only partially drained, has been perma- nently and effectually ameUorated. But perhaps the moat remarkable feature of the whole is, the introduction of the so-called " Artificial Manures," and the vast advantage derived by agriculture therefrom. Previous to 1840, with the exception of local manufacturing refuse, the only artificial manures were bones, salt, and gypsum. The introduction of bones, many years back, was of great importance to the farmer, and enabled him to grow, with comparative ease, that mamstay of the four-course shift— the turnip. To the impoverished soils of Cheshire, and other cheese- exporting counties, bones were also an immense boon, and were duly appreciated. The publication of the first eJition of " Liebig's Agricul- tural Chemistry," in 1840, forms an important era in agricul- ture. Smce that period, the chemist has more generally directed his experiments to the investigation of the true prin- ciples of fertility, the merchant has sought for foreign sources of valuable manure, and the farmer has reaped the benefits of the labours of them both. That an increase of solubility in bones and other phosphates would be attended by an increased productive power in the crop, was the idea of Liebig. This great chemist, in 1840, recommended, in lieu of bones, the use of the substance long well-known to chemists as the acid or superphosphate of lime, which is producible from bones and other phosphates by the action of sulphuric acid. Practice has since shown the great advantage of Liebig's suggestion. The introduction of the dung of birds and other animals, under the name of " Guano," and the discovery, in Suffolk and other counties, of immense quantities of fossil bones and other animal remains, known as " Coprolites," have followed quickly upon each other ; and there can be no doubt that, by their means, an entire revolution wdl be made in the practice of agriculture. The concentrated character of most of the genuine artificial manures particularly adapts them for use in the mountainous and hiUy districts of our country, where the carriage of ordi- nary manure is both difficult and expensive. One waggon may now easily carry enough manure for fifteen or twenty acres of l^uruips. Formerly, fifteen or twenty loads were requhed for a single acre. Of all the artificial manures, Peruvian Guano is perhaps not only the most concentrated, but is, from its composition, adapted to the greatest variety of crops. The chief mineral M M 2 508 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. constituents of plants— lime, magnesia, potash, soda, chlorine, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid (the latter the most im- portant)—are found in Guano. Nitrogen, the most valuable constituent of manures, is found in Peruvian Guano in great abundance, and in a condition adapted for vegetation. The use of this manure in Peru is of very ancient date ; and for its preservation, and that of the birds by which it was deposited, the most stringent precautions were made use of by the native Incas and their Spanish successors. At one period the punishment of death was inflicted upon any one disturbing the birds in the breeding season. The Chincha Islands, which contain the great Guauo de- posits, are situated in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of Peru, at the distance of about twelve miles. They lie between lat. 13 deg. and 14 deg. S. — a zone within which no rain falls, where the air is dry, and the sun shines with vehement power. The waters of the surrouniling ocean contain innumerable shoals of fish ; and myriads of birds, after daily satisfying their voracious appetites upon the finny tenants of the deep, have for ages made the islands their nightly abode, and the receptacle of their fajcal offerings From the arid nature of the climate, the excess of humidity has speedily evaporated from their ordure, decomposition has been arrested; and, by gradual accumulation from time im- memorial, these extraordinary deposits have attained the depth, in many parts, of one hundred feet. The Guano, as found on the is'ands, is subject to slight variations in composition. Towards the S.W., the deposits are more exposed to the action of the spray of the sea, brought by the prevailing winds. Some of these Guanos have lost by this means a large amount of ammonia, and are not brought to this country : in others, the deterioration is trifling ; and many are simply discoloured, without having suffered any other change, and are equal in value to paler samples.* Tbat the cxcrementitious matter of birds, fed upon an un- limited supply of animal food, would of itself have powerful ferlilizing properties, might almost have been taken for granted, without either calling for the opinion of the chemist, or the experimental proofs of the farmer. But both chemist and farmer alike bear testimony to the high position assumed by Guauo in the catalogue of manures — the former, by com- paring its composition with that of other known fertilizing bodies ; the latter, by actual trial in the field. It has long been a growing opinion with chemists, that ammonia and phosphate of lime are the two most important and valuable elements of plants, and, consequently, of any manure which is to aid in the development of vegetable life. This opinion has been founded, in the first place, upon nume. roHS analyses of various manures ; and, secondly, upon practical experiment. It has been proved, for example, that, in two samples of farm-yard dung, the one which gives the best crop in practice contains, on analysis, the largest amount of ammonia and bone-earth. It is a well-known fact that the seeds of a vegetable contain more nitrogen (ammonia) and phosphate of lime than any other portion of the plant ; and it is also well known that the dung of animals fed upon seeds is more valuable than ihat of others fed only upon hay, straw, or roots. Hence the practice of feeding animals upon oilcake (crushed linseed), to obtain a better quality of dung. That ammonia and bone-dust are the most valuable of manuring principles, may also be inferred from the fact that the arti- ficial manures most used by the farmer are those which con- • Messrs. Ant. Gibbs and Sons, as agents in this country of Ihc PiTiivian Government, are tlio sole th.innel through which the Pcruviiin Guano finds its way into connnorce, tain the greatest quantities of these elements, and that these manures are precisely those which fetch the highest price in the market. A comparison, therefore, of the composition of various ex- crements of animals, and of farm-yard dung, with that of an average sample of guano, will afford a very fair means of ascer- taining their relative fertilizing powers. The following table contains analyses of various manures, made by Boussingault and other well-known chemists, and also the analysis of an ordinary sample of Peruvian guano. ANALYSES OF FARM-YARD DUNG, &c. d and sment * e* Farm- yard Dung. Horse Cow PiK U"§ .2 o > c Dung. Dung. Dung. xed li id Ej of M 3 tS ti S as Moisture .« •.... 79.30 76.17 86 44 82.00 94.24 18..35 Organic matter 14.03 19,70 1120 14 29 4.72 51.25 Inorganic matter .... 6.67 4.13 100.00 2.36 3.71 1.04 30.40 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 lOO.OO Nitrogen (equal to) . . 0.41 O.fiS 0.36 0.61 094 13.88 Ammonia 0.49 0.7H 0.43 0.74 1.14 16.85 * These analyses were made in the laboratories of the College. Boussingault, Payen, and many others of our first practical agricultural chemists, have come to the conclusion that the value of different manures varies nearly in proportion to the amount of nitrogen they contain. There may be cases to which this rule is not exactly applicable ; but in many natural manures, an increase of nitrogen is accompanied by an increase in the phosphate of lime, and every other valuable manuring element. In the above table, for instance, the 13. 8S of nitro- gen in the guano is accompanied by 30.40 parts of inorganic matter, of which 23.60 parts (or more than two-thirds) are phosphate of lime. If we take the per-ceutage of nitrogen, then, as a correct indication of manuring value, we shall find that one ton of ordinary Peruvian guano is equal to — 33^ tons of farm-yard dung, 21 tons of horse dung, 385 tons of cow dung, 22^ tons of pig dung, and 14^ tons of mixed human excrements. Let those who farm in hilly countries, and other places where carriage is expensive, ponder well the above facts. Though a good farmer will produce as much manure as he conveniently can, yet even farm-yard dung may be bought too dear ; and it is certain that on numbers of farms the cart- age of dung is so expensive an item of management, that the introduction of guano, for those parts at the greatest distance from the homestead, would be productive of the same fertility, at a considerable saviug of expense. A question now arises whether the fertilizing properties of guano will be expended in the first year of its application, or whether its operations will be discernible in after-periods. If we examine the chemical constitution of guano, we shall find it to occupy the medium position between those manures, which, being altogether soluble, are somewhat transient in their effects ; and that other class, which, like bones, are only slowly decomposed in the land, and yield their manuring principles with a certain degree of difliculty. Guano, in fact, possesses every advantage of both. From analyses which have been made, it is found that about one-half of the fertilizing properties of guano are soluble in water, and there- fore adapted for the instant nourishment of plants. The other half continues long in the soil, eliminating nourishment THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 509 for vegetables by slow decomposition. The soluble phosphoric acid, which it has been found necessary to produce artificially from bones by sulphuric acid, exists naturally in guano. If a guano contain in the whole, say 12 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 17 per cent, of ammonia, we shall find that water will dissolve about 6 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equal to about 13 per cent, of phosphate of lime in a soluble state, and at least 8 per cent, of the ammonia. Guano is thus adapted, by its insoluble matter, for the lighter soils, where infiltration might too rapidly carry away the soluble matter ; and by its soluble constituents it is fitted for heavier lands, where decom- position being slower, a supply of soluble manure is required at once. The fact of so considerable a portion of soluble phosphates existing in guano is of great importance, as we have in a natural form that which we are obliged to produce artificially in other manures, by the action of acids upon bones and other insoluble phosphates. In fact, good guano partakes of the nature of super- phosphate of lime, as it contains both soluble and insoluble phosphates. These together generally amount to the average quantity found in commercial superphosphate of lime. At the present price of Peruvian guano, it is more than questionable whether the ordinary plan of increasing the available manure on a farm by the importation of oilcake and the feeding of stock is at all economical. If the oilcake owes its fertilising properties to the nitrogen and phosphate of lime it contains, it is certain, from the analysis of various chemists, that Peruvian guano is a much cheaper source of these sub- stances. In a lecture delivered by the author before the farmers of Dorchester, this subject was alluded to as follows : — " It may here be necessary to notice another question of great importance, viz . : Is the use of artificial food (such as oilcake) for stock the cheapest mode of introducing bone-earth and ammonia into the land ? Many farmers are content if their fat stock produce as much money as will pay for the oil- cake used, together witb the price of the lean animals bought ; thus sinking altogether the turnips, mangold, and hay, like- wise consumed by 'the stock. It appears to be clear that, un- less the oilcake affords a profit by the beef or mutton, a more expensive system of manuring could not well be pursued. The following table, comparing the manuring values of oil and rape-cake with guano, may be of some service in determining the practice of the intelligent farmer : — Table of the Manuring Values of Oilcake and Ea2}ecake, comjiared toitli Peruvian Guano, from Analyses made in the Laboratory of the Agricultural and Chemical College, Kennington. Oilcake from Liverpool. Oilcake from London. Oilcake from Marseilles. Rapecake. Peruvian Guano. Moisture •.... lbs. 268.8 1739.6 109.1 130.6 122.5 47.1 29.1 lbs. 300.7 1699.3 118.5 143.8 121.5 30.9 19.1 lbs. 274.4 1718.3 118.2 143.4 129.1 39.4 23.7 140.0 43.7 27.1 lbs. 195.8 1654.2 115.4 274.6 lbs. 268.8 Organic matter 892.2 Nitrogen 295.0 Ammonia , 358.4 Inorganic matter 784.0 Containing — Phosphoric acid , 224.0 Potash , 67.2 2240.0 2240.0 2240.0 2240.0 2240.0 " From the foregoing table, it appears that one ton, or 2,240 lbs. of Peruvian guano, containing 16 per cent, of ammonia, would introduce into the farm six times the phos- phate of lime, two-and-a-quarter times the potash, and more than two-and-a-half times the ammonia that would be fur- nished by one ton of the best oil or rape-cake. To pass oil- cake through the bodies of animals, without some attendant benefit, is both expensive and wasteful ; and unless you can find your profit in the increase of the beef and mutton, it is an improper expenditure of money." These observations are amply supported by the opinion of the members of one of the most inteliigent farmers' clubs in England. The Botley Farmers' Club have unanimously re- solved, "That where there is not sufficient dung for the wheat crop, it is more profitable to apply concentrated manures than to purchase dung ; and that an equal amount of money expended in the purchase of concentrated manures will raise more wheat than the same amount expended in the purchase of oUcake or corn, and converted into dung by feeding cattle." And the Rev, L. Vernon Harcourt, speaking of this decision of the club, says, " All my experiments tend to corroborate the view taken by the Botley Club on this sub- ject." Leaving these facts and opinions to the consideration of those farmers who seek to combine good farming with economy of manuring, we shall now offer some suggestions as to the best mode, and the proper time, of applying guano to different Taacieties of crops. ON THE MODE OF APPLYING GUANO TO THE SOIL, It requires but a short consideration of this subject to per- ceive that before any useful practical rules can be obtained for the application of guano, we must carefully compare the pro- perties of the soil with those of the manure to be applied. Reference must also be made to the different conditions of the atmosphere at different seasons, particularly as respects mois- ture, dew, or rain. The nature of the crop will also materially influence the quantity of guano to be used, and the time of its application. Practical men have long been aware of the great difference existing in soils, as regards their retentive power for manure. On certain lands, the result of the application of a given quantity of farm-yard dung maybe seen for a number of years. On others, the effect of the same quantity ceases to be visible in a very much shorter period. The former class includes the loams, clays, and in general the heavier descriptions of land ; the latter comprises the sands, gravels, chalks, and other lighter qualities, not inaptly termed by the farmer " hungry soils." These varieties of soil differ both in chemical composition and mechanical properties. The heavier in general contain more alumina and oxide of iron than the lighter ones. They are also less porous, even when drained ; their particles are finer, and their absorptive power is greater. The want of great porosity prevents the too rapid action of the atmosphere on the 510 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. manures they may contain, and their absorptive power enables them to retain, to a considerable extent, the liquid and volatile elements of the manure, and at the same time to obtain a cer- tain quantity at the expense of the atmosphere. The case is, however, different with gravels, sands, and the lighter soils ; upon which, in consequence of their greater porosity, the atmosphere acts freely, and to a considerable depth. When manure is applied to them it is rapidly decomposed, and unless there be a fjrowing crop ready to absorb the fer- tilizing particles as they become soluble, they will be washed away ; or, if they become volatile, will, to some extent, be ab- sorbed by the atmosphere. These soils, therefore, require diflfereut treatment. We may apply to heavier lands a strong dressing of manure at once, and little loss will ensue, for some time at least, from any other source than the action of the growing crops. On the lighter soils, we must use, even of farm-yard dung, a less amount at a time, but it must be applied more frequently. We thus see that light lauds have the ad- vantage of more rapidly decomposing the dung, and conse- quently of preparing it more quickly for the use of the plant. For this reason, among others, light soils are preferred by the market gardeners, who, by their repeated mauurings and re- peated croppings, practically show how these soils may be most efSciently managed. It may not be uninteresting here to introduce some experi- ments made at Kenuington, with the view of obtaining a fur- ther insight into the properties of guano, and the action of light soils upon it. Experiment I. — A small quantity of Peruvian guano was placed in a saucer, and the whole covered with a bell glass con- taining a slip of red litmus paper, moistened with distilled water. la the course of an hour or two the slip became distiuctly blue.* This proves the escape of a small amount of ammouia from the guano simply by exposure to air. Experiment II. — A quantity of guano was mixed with four or five times its weight of ordinary light garden mould, and slightly moistened. It was covered, as before, with a bell glass. The strip of litmus paper became blue in two or three hours. This experiment proves that a small amount of light soil mixed with guano will not prevent the escape of ammonia. Experiment III. — Two grains of guano were intimately mixed with two thousand grains of light soil, and covered with a bell glass as before. The mixture was slightly damp, but not wet. After the lapse of twenty-four hours, the litmus was very faintly tinged with blue. A little pure distilled water was now added to the mixture. After the lapse of another day, the tinge became much deeper. From this it is apparent that even a large excess of soil will not prevent the escape of a cer- tain amount of ammonia. From another experiment, it was evident that even the soil itself exhaled a minute trace of am- monia. Experiments IV., V,, anu VI. — These were made upon a piece of meadow attached to the College at Keunington. Two portions of land about two months before had been dressed with guano, at the rate of two and a-half cwt. and five cwt. per acre, respectively. Another portion received no dressing at all. A bell glass, with moistened red litmus, was deposited care- fully, mouth downwards, upon each of the three portions of meadow. Afther the lapse of a couple of days, it was found that the colour of the litmus had perceptibly changed in each of the bell glasses, but most on the guanoed portions of the laud. At the time of making these experiments the wind was • Red litmus paper Is rendered blue by the action of ammouia and other alkalies. The red colour is restored by acids. N.E., and the temperature very low. The grass exhibited little or no signs of growth. We infer from these experiments that there is generally a slight escape of ammouia into the air from grass laud, manured or unmanured, in those seasons of the year when there is no great activity in vegetable life.* Experiment VII. — A portion of the mixture of soil and guano in the third experiment was placed in a filter paper, and a quantity of pure distilled water was added. The liquid which filtered through was neutral to litmus paper. On being tested, however, in the usual way with hydrate of lime, every precau- tion being taken, the litmus paper was readily turned blue. From this experiment it is apparent that from a mixture of light soil and guano, in the proportion of 1,000 to 1, water is able to dissolve and remove a portion of the ammouia of the guano. The difference of soils is not the only consideration ; the climate of different localities in the British Islands is exceed- ingly various. la Ireland, in Scotland, and in the western districts of England, from Cornwall to Cumberland, the quan- tity of raiu which falls in the year is probably nearly double that which descends in Suffolk, Norfolk, and on the east coast generally. The air also is constantly more humid, and for this reason those parts of our Isles are well adapted for the growth of root and green crops, and are not so well adapted for wheat. Guano may, consequently, at any time of the year, be there used in larger quantities, without the same danger of burning the crop which would occur in our Eastern Counties. In these latter districts, the guano should never be applied as a top-dressing in dry weather, but during a wet or showery day. Where wheat is grown in humid climates, it is liable to lodge before harvest ; and therefore guauo, if used, should be applied with caution to this crop. Two or three cwt. per acre, mixed with four cwt. of salt, is quite sufficient, one-half at sowing, aud the other in the spring. From these and various other ascertained facts, we may deduce the following general rules for regulating the application of guano : — General Kules for using Guano.— 1st. That guano is best applied in damp or showery weather. 2nd. That guano should not generally be put on grass land in the spring later than April. 3rd. That when guano is applied to arable land^ it should immediately be mixed with the soil, either by harrow- ing or otherwise. 4th. That when wheat is sown very early in the autumn, a less than usual amount of guano must at that time be applied, and the rest in the spring. The wheat, other, wise, might become too hixuriant, and be injured by subse- quent frosts. 5th. That guano, and artificial manures in general, should be put on the land only in quantities sufficient for the particular crop intended to be grown, and not with the intention of assisting the succeeding one. Each crop should be separately manured. 6th. That guano, before application, should be mixed with at least from five to six times its weight of ashes, charcoal, saK-, or fine soil. 7th. That guano should on no account be allowed to come in direct contact with the seed. The preceding rules, if duly attended to, will prevent the re- corrence of most of those vexatious losses of time aud capital^ which many, even of our best farmers, have experienced from want of a due acquaintance with the properties of concentrated manures. In order still further to guard against disappointment arising from the misapplication of guano, we shall now describe the best practical modes of its application to the principal crops which are grown in this country. • Tlicse experiments require to be repeated on various soils, to enable us to draw from tliem more general truths. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 511 MODE OP APPLYING GUANO TO VARIOUS CROPS. Preparation of Guano for Sowing or Drilling. — For drilling, it must first be mixed with four to six times its weight of the ashes* of wood, turf, or coal, or with the game quantity of well-sifted mould or salt. Charcoal, in powder, either from peat or wood, is also a most excellent ar- ticle to be mixed with the guano, in the proportions indicated. Its great porosity allows it to retain the volatile ammonia, and in dry weather to absorb considerable moisture from the air. This is of material benefit to plants in their early growth. Be- fore mixing, the guano must be finely pulverised, Vv'hich may easily be done with a common garden roller, upon the floor of a barn or shed, or even by blows from a common shovel. A layer of the ashes, &c. is then spread evenly upon the floor, and a quantity of the fine guano sifted over it. This is fol- lowed by another !aj er of mould or ashes, and another of guano, until the requisite quantity of both is used. The whole must then be repeatedly turned with the shovel until thoroughly mixed. If time will permit, it is now preferable to leave the mixture for eight or ten days. It must then be again sifted, when it will be ready for use. In using guano with the drill, care must be taken that the mixture falls below the seed, and that an inch or so of soil intervenes between them, otherwise the strength of the guano will kill the seed. Garrett's, Hornsby's, and other modern drills, are well adapted for depo- siting guano and other concentrated manures. The above mixture is generally sufiiciently damp to fall exactly where the hand directs it. When this is not the case, a small quantity of water must be added ; the field must be sown with the mix- ture in the ordinary manner, and the manure harrowed in ; the seed is then drilled as usual. Perhaps the preferable mode would be to broadcast two-thirds of the guano applied, and to drill one-third with the seed. The young plants would then have enough manure under the drills to serve the early stages of growth, while the guano sown broadcast would supply the wants of the plants in a more mature state, when the roots would have spread in every ditection in the soil. WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, AND OTHER CEREALS. —The researches of modern chemistry have in no respect proved of greater benefit to practical agriculture than in the analysis and estimation of the components of diS'erent manures, and in the careful examination of the effects of these components on different crops when applied either alone or combined. This is, in fact, the only philosophical mode of arriving at a true knowledge of the manuring substances best adapted for the development of various forms of vegetable life. From the analysis of thousands of samples of manure in the laboratories of the College, and from a knowledge of the effects produced by these manures on a variety of crops, the conclusion has been irresistible that nitrogen is the cheapest substance to apply to cereals. The same conclusion has been arrived at by nu- merous other chemists. The results also of the experience of farmers in all parts of the country for many years is, that ni- trogen, in any of its ordinary combinations, is the matter of all others best adapted for the growth of wheat and other cereals, and which for these crops will yield the greatest per- centage of profit. Not that corn requires no phosphates or other materials for its developement, but that the latter are generally supplied to the soil for other crops in the ordinary * Somo varieties of wood ashes, which contain a considerable amount of free alkali, are not suitable for mixing with guano, as they liberate the ammonia. This may easily be shown by mixing a sliovel-full of the ashes with the same quantity of guano. If a strong ammoniacal odour be iininediatily perceived, the ashes are not tit to be mixed with the guano. Tliemode of pi-eparation here described should be used, with slight variations, according to circuinstances, for all varieties of crops. — J. C. N, course of rotation, or, as in the case of guano, are found in the manure itself. The market value of nitrogen of course varies with the source of its supply, and with the rise and fall in price of its various combinations ; but at the present comparative price of guano, this substance appears to be nearly, if not alto- gether, the cheapest source of nitrogen, at least in any consi- derable quantity. There can be no doubt of the vastly in- creased production of corn, and consequently of profit to the farmer, which would accrue if guano were more extensively used. Our most intelligent agriculturists, among whom we may mention Mr. Caird and Mr. Lawes, agree that the appli- cation of two cwt, per acre will give an increase of between eight and nine bushels of grain, besides one-fourth more straw than usual. Mr. Cairdf has proved that without any increase of rent or taxes, an expenditure of twenty shillings per acre produces a net profit of thirty-two shillings and sixpence. If these facts were more generally known, it is impossible to be- lieve that farmers would not at once avail themselves of the opportunity of making a profit of more than one hundred and fifty per cent, upon the annual additional outlay. Many far- mers prefer using the whole of their guano for wheat in the autumn. A portion, at all events, should be sown broadcast at that period. This is more especially needful if no dressing of farm-yard dung be used. If guano be used for wheat in lieu of farm-yard dung, a greater quantity, often the whole, ought to be applied in the autumn. Care, however, must be taken not to stimulate the plant too much, otherwise it will be liable to suffer injury from frost. One cwt. or two cwt. per acre on light lands can be applied broadcast, and harrowed in during autumn, either before or after the drilling of the wheat. In the spring a further application of not more than one cwt. or two cwt. may be made, harrowed in with light harrows. If the wheat be drilled suflBciently apart to allow of horse-hoeing it will be found advantageous. Should wheat, manured with dung as usual, look unkindly in the spring, it will be greatly bene- fited by a dressing per acre of two cwt. of guano and four cwt. of salt. Salt has great effect in strengthening the straw of wheat and other cereals ; and where any of these crops are liable to lodge, or whenever guano is used, four cwt. or five cwt of salt should always be sown per acre. For barley and oats two cwt. of guano and four cwt. of salt may be sown broad- cast per acre, the seed drilled, and the whole harrowed in to- gether. TURNIPS. — For this crop guano may be applied, either broadcast or by drill, mixed as previously shown. The quan- tity of guano to be used per acre will vary with the condition of the farm. About two to three cwt. may be applied with advantage, and six cwt. have been used with safety on heavy soils. Two cwt. or three cwt. sown broadcast, aud one cwt. drilled with the seed, will probably give the best chance for a successfid result. Experiments have proved that, when a por- tion of guano is applied between the drills, and well horse-hoed in after the turnips are up, that large crops are obtained. It is questionable whether this is not one of the best means of applying guano, as on light soils there is less liability to loss in the guano, and the roots of the turnip are supplied with fresh manure at a vigorous period of their growth. Two cwt. or three cwt. broadcast before the turnips are sown, and one cwt. between the drills afterwards, will be found sufficient. A combination of superphosphate of lime with guano has been used with much success. For this purpose two or three cwt. of guano is sown broadcast, and the same quantity of super- phosphate of lime, mixed with ashes, drilled with the seed.f • See Mr. Caird's Letter, at the end of this Essay. t Tlie prize for the best forty aeres of swedes, in one of our most importaat agricultural counties, was taken by a gentleman who followed this |lan. 512 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. We may here suggest to some of out intelligent practical far- mers, to try the effect upon the turnip crop of a mixture of Peruvian guano and sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is un- doutedly a manure ^Jer se, and it seems to exert a specific effect on the turnip. A mixture might be made of four cwt. of guano and one cwt. of white acid, of sp. gr. 1.84. The guano must be laid in a heap, a hollow made in the centre, and the sul- phuric acid must be poured into it ; the whole should then be well worked together with a spade or other instrument. Con. siderable chemical action will take place, but in a short time the whole will become dry and ready for the drill. If the brown acid, ofsp.gr. 1.7, be employed instead of the white, one-fourth more must be used. The above quantity will be sufficient for two acres. We believe that a mixture of this kind will prove a most efficient manure. It is of some im- portance, in using guano for turnips and other roots, that the whole of the nitrogenous matter is not taken out by the crop, but that a portion is left for the subsequent corn crop. Large quantities of guano are used for heavy laud by many of our best Essex farmers on mangel as a good preparation for wheat, the mangel being wholly withdrawn from the field. MANGEL WURZEL.— Guano is an excellent manure for this crop. On heavy and loamy soils the land is ploughed, and ten or twenty tons of farm-yard dung are worked into the soil — before Christmas, if possible. Two or three weeks before drilling the seed, four cwt. of guano, with an equal weight of common salt, is sown broadcast over the field and well harrowed in. The seed is drilled in the usual way, and at thirty to forty inches apart. In thinning the plants afterwards, they should not be left too close together. Repeated horse-hoeiugs between the rows is of great importance, for air and nutriment are thus admitted to the roots of the plants. As in the case of the turnips, great advantage will be obtained by occasionally sprinkling a little guauo between the rows previously to the hoeing. This insures continued nutriment to the plants. When no farm-yard dung has been applied in winter, six cwt. of guano may be used instead of four cwt. On heavy land this may be put on either in the autumn or spring, and well worked into the soil, following this up by a small dressing afterwards between the drills at the time of hoeing. The land in either case will be left in good condition for wheat. On light chalky soils, a mixture of guano, nitrate of soda, and common salt, at the rate of two cwt. each per acre, has been found very effica- cious in the growth of maugel wurzel. GRASS.-— The experiments of Kuhlman, the French agri- cultural chemist, upon the action of ammonia on grass lands, at once point to guauo as one of the most important manures for increasing the productive power of our pasture and meadow land. This chemist applied ammonia in different forms alone, and combined with other simple manures, and he found that in all cases the amount cf grass or hay produced was in exact proportion to the amount of nitrogen contained in the manure. Guano containing a large amount of ammonia, and being also at present its cheapest source, must, therefore, prove of great benefit in the production of grass. For grass land, from two to four cwt. of guano, mixed with soil, may be used per acre. Wet or damp weather should be selected for sowing it. Pro- bably the end of March or beginning of April is the best time. Under certain circumstances, guano may be applied to grass land in the autumn, particularly where the under-soil is of a strong or loamy character. Thus applied, it will have the effect of bringing up the grass earlier in the spring. POTATOES. — From the comparison of numerous series of experiments, it would appear that guano succeeds best with this crop as a top-dressing, in conjunction with farm-yard dung. The ground is prepared iu the usual manner. The farm-yard dung is deposited in the bottoms of the drills, the sets of the seed potatoes laid upon the top of the manure, and the whole earthed up. Before the plants appear, the guano is to be sown on the top of the drills, covered over with the plough, and then rolled. If the potatoes be grown on the level, and not in drills, the guano may be sown over the field broadcast, two or three weeks after the potatoes have been planted. The quan- tity of guano to be used per acre is from three cwt. to six cwt. Many experiments have proved the great utility of sulphate of soda, or sulphate of magnesia, in conjunction with guano, upon this crop. As far as our experience goes, these salts have a decided effect in diminishing the liability of potatoes to disease. We should therefore recommend, in addition to guano, to put per acre, at the same time, one cwt. of sulphate of soda, and one cwt. of sulphate of magnesia. If farm-yard dung be not used for potatoes, broadcast and harrow iu three cwt. or four cwt. of guano, and set the potatoes as usual. Three or four weeks afterwards sow over them and lightly harrow in the quantity of guano and one cwt. each of the sulphates of soda and magnesia. The mixture of sulphuric acid and guano men- tioned under the head of "Turnips," would probably be found an excellent manure for this crop. Near the Humber, as much as ten cwt. annually is used lor potatoes, with extraordinary results. BEANS, PEAS, AND LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— For beans or peas, two cwt. or three cwt. per acre may be used, either broadcast before sowing or a portion afterwards between the drills at the time of horse-hoeing. The latter would pro- bably be the better plan. For vetches, lucerne, saintfoin, or clover, two cwt. or three cwt. per acre broadcast may be used. This should be sown in the beginning of April, on a dewy morning, or during wet weather. It is useless to sow if there be a probability of dry weather ensuing for any lengthened period. FLAX. — This crop, in olden time, had the renown of being one of the most exhausting crops which could be put into the land. We have now learned that white crops, and those in general which have the repute of " drawing the land," are those which require the largest amount of nitrogen for the formation of seed, and for which, consequently, ammouiacal manures are precisely adapted. With the aid of guano or other aramoniacal manures, flax can no longer be considered an exhauster of the soil. In using guano for this crop, from two cwt. to four cwt. per acre, mixed with ashes, may be sown broadcast, and har- rowed in a few days before the seed is drilled. CABBAGE, CARROTS, &c.— Guano has been found of material benefit for these crops, and may be employed advan- tageously at the rate of from two cwt. to four cwt. per acre. It must be remembered that carrots require deep cultivation, and that both crops will be benefited by the proper stirring of the soil between the rows, and the occasional addition of a little guano. HOPS. — To no crop does the addition of a proper amount of ammoniacal manure prove more advantageous than to the hop. The constant withdrawing of the hops, year by year, from the land necessitates the importation upon the soil of a considerable amount of both mineral and organic ingredients. Four cwt. of guano and three cwt. of salt per acre, applied at two separate times, and well worked in between the alleys, will be found a useful application. Or the manure may be put round each hill, and covered up with the soil. From several analyses of the hop plant, the following mixture was rccom- mended by the Author, some years ago, as a proper manure for the hop : — Manure for an acre of Hops. — Tliree cwt. of guano one cwt. common salt, one aud a-half cwt. saltpetre, or nitrate THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 513 of soda, one cwt. of gypsum. This manure has been used with considerable success iu various parts of Surrey Kent, and Susses. It will not be necessary to give any further details of parti- cular crops for which guano is suitable, or to describe more fully the mode of its employment. The intelligent farmer will soon learn to vary its application to suit the end he may have in view. Guano, however, is useful to others besides the farmer. To the horticulturist it is invaluable, and many specimens of the finest vegetables and fruits, and of the most beautiful flowers, have been indebted to the judicious use of guano for the ad- miration they have excited, and the prizes they have obtained. For further particulars respecting its horticultural use, we must refer the reader to the columns of the Gardeners' Chronicle. And in concluding this part of our subject, we cannot refrain from quoting the opinion of Dr. Lindley, the learned editor of that valuable journal, that " if the experience of the last few years has taught us one thing more certainly than another, it is the unfailing excellence of guano for every kind of crop ivhich requires manure." THE COMPOSITION OF GUANO. Our space will not permit us to describe all the varieties of proximate elements contained in different samples of guano- Nor is it, indeed, necessary for the practical man to be ac- quainted with them, as the co:amercial Falue of guanos is best determined by the amount of uitrogeu (ammonia) and phos- phate of lime they contain. For more minute information on this subject the reader is referred to Dr. Ure's paper on guano, iu vol, v. of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. In this inquiry we have devoted our observations more es- pecially to the Peruvian guano, as the quantity of this article at present brought into the market very far exceeds that of all the other kinds of guano put together. A word or two may not, however, be out of place respecting the other varieties, the principal of which are the Angamos, the Chilian, the Bolivian, the Saldauha Bay, and the Australian. The island of Ichaboe, on the African coast, furnished a few years back large supplies of a medium guano. It is now, we believe, wholly exhausted. The Angamos guano is from the western coasts of South America. It is the most recent deposit of the birds, collected by hand, with considerable danger and difficulty, from the bare surfaces of the precipitous rocks which they frequent. When pure, it is of first-rate quality, and having suffered no decom- position, frequently contains from 20 to 24 per cent, of am- monia. The smallaess of the quantity, however, that can be collected, renders it of little general importance to the farmer. The Saldauha Bay, and other varieties, having been depo- sited in rainy climates have suffered great deterioration. The valuable ammoniacal salts and soluble phosphates have been in great measure washed away, the nitrogenous animal matter has been decomposed, and little remains but the common phosphate of lime. The Chilian and Bolivian are often con- taminated with large quantities of sand, and the Shark's Bay (Australian) guano, is certainly not worth the carriage to this country. The farmer ought at no time to buy any of those descriptions of guano without an accurate analysis, as, owing to their varying impurities, it is otherwise possible that he may pay for them several pounds per ton above their real value. An idea of the great difference of composition which exists in samples of guauo from distinct localities, can only be formed by a compariaon of their respective analyses. To enable the agriculturist to form a correct judgment of the kinds now in the market, we give a table of the composition of six varieties— re n pr o B w 9. g to s 13 «■.■ 5" o < re i B 3 o cri! B re g-B '• ^ it » m S. » CO Bt-O - B <-•• > ,» t-i tt> re . . ?P : . . p % g Oj o a so '< w > It" n B s Kl S' B Od re m < n o re O so «-t- O c+ > ►^ a- S W * H- < ere B a> B re M l-i O 1— 1 OS 1-1 B aq a O P to >(»■ CO o *. ro H-1 ^ o s s B w CO 1-^ CO o OS 1-^ c5 CO CD Pi CO H-l s W re B B b' It'- CD en o O O It- 03 o a so £5 \-i ore B •«i B tat-- <^ I-" 05 1— 1 B ere SI n' so' p o B ^s 00 o 1-^ M c6 -a CO Cr< I-;* to to~i CO o tn so P PI to ere t o lO rfi o 05 OJ Os^-i en 5i s » o- -.» •Tj H o c-»- 1-1 cr? ft) 5' o O 51 H- ' 1— ' O to c 2 00 to 00 cjt o 00 ux o CD CO o -a CD 03 er-j CO CO §3. O p B > re < >— ' on; O W n n H •a o CO to )-i to B B- W re B B UI rfi. O *. CJl o -I 1-^ to CD O CO o^ en jL p i^ 3" CO ^i o o >e- o o o 05 re B re re re B ►—I o 03 l-i l-i -.t O r*- u to to o . o CO CO Oi p <■ A O th 1-^ O lli- to " 1-^ O B S. PS ►^ o "I 05 H-' O en CO o> 03 o p^ o CD S O re p M Od (X> s^ o g •-* B n 3 B o ooo en i-j i-i en CD to >t>. ^^ >< P, P ^ > o re ^ OS o ob kC- CO o CO 05 CO O o o o oo to C B- 9 '" o 03 o i-( o CO to t-" 1-1 ^^ re o o o c CO CO i<^-~i *■ "5 £? 2- *. M O OS en it- OD ji. S S" <' ^ lyi O -fi ^1 m ^i B "- re « P C3 C^ We may here caution the farmer not to put any trust in those analyses, often placed in his bands, which merely indi- cate that the sample analysed contains such and such a per- centage of animal organic matter, or of salts of ammonia. From these deceptive analyses, it is perfectly impossible even for the most experienced chemist to obtain the slightest notion of the value of a manure ; and we recommend the far- mer, under no circumstances to buy a guano, unless the precise amounts of ammonia and phosphate of lime are distinctly mentioned. Should the farmer wish to prepare a sample, for chemical analysis, half a pound should be taken from each of five or six bags containing the bulk. These should be mixed together on a sheet oi brown paper, until thoroughly incorporated and ho- mogeneous. Two or three ounces of the mixture is enough for analysis; and it can easily be sent per post from any part of the kingdom. To prevent evaporation from the sample, it can be wrapped up in tinfoil, or lead-leaf from a tea-chest, and afterwards iu paper. If the tinfoil cannot be procured, two thicknesses of strong paper should be used. In order to furnish a standard of comparison to the farmer who may think it desirable to ascertain the composition and value of the guano he purchases, we subjoin an analysis of an ordinary sample of Peruvian guano, recently imported : — 514 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ANALYSIS OF AN AVERAGE SAMPLE OP PERUVIAN GUANO. Moisture 1510 Organic matter, &c 5r27 Silica 2-20 Phosphate of lime 2213 Phosphoric acid {equal to) .. .. 3'23 Phosphate of lime 7*00 Alkaliue salts, &c 607 10000 Nitrogen 13 54 per cent. Ammonia 16 42 „ ON THE ADULTERATION OF GUANO. After the observations we have made on the utOity of guano to those engaged in agricultural pursuits, it would have been very gratifying to have coucluded our remarks. It is, however, our invidious duty to refer to a less pleasing, but not less important, part of the subject. The high manuring value of guano, and its extensive salej combined with the want of knowledge among farmers as to the genuineness of the article, and their manifest reluctance to be at the expense of a chemical analysis, have, together, induced many fraudulent dealers to adulterate this manure systemati- cally, to a great extent. The strong desire which unfortunately exists among a large class of farmers to purchase guano at the lowest terms per ton, without due reference to the quality or composition of the manure, has also operated most materially to their own disadvantage. If the honest dealer offers a genuine article in the market, upon which he puts a reasonable profit, and finds that his roguish neighbour can more readily sell an adulterated article, he has no alternative but to abandon the trade or to turn rogue himself, The man who likes clieap manures should be re- minded that to the buyer they are always dear, as he has to pay the whole expense of adulteration, as well as the twenty or thirty per cent, profit of the dishonest dealer. In fact, we should recommend the lovers of cheap manures to follow, in preference, the example of Quiu, who finding his milk more than half water, armed with two jugs, demanded of his milk- man " to give him them separate, he could WLix for himself." It is, indeed, scarcely possible to give persons at a distance an idea of the extent to which guano is adulterated in JjOndon and some other large towns. The demand of the farmer for cheap manure, acting upon the trade through the medium of the unscrupulous dealer, has given rise to a fraudiUent and hitherto successful business. A most extensive and profitable trade is at present carried on by parties who practise the compounding of specious- looking ARTICLES, to mix with guauo; these they supply to dea'ers in that manure. The materials used to sophisticate guano are numerous. Sand, marl, clay and chalk, limestone, bricks, tiles, gypsum — ground, when necessary, to a fine powder — constitute the materials for which the farmer is destined to pay £8 or £10 per ton. The marls of Stratford, Wanstead, and other places in Essex, and the yellow loams of Norwood, in Surrey, are in particular request. These, mixed in proportions to counter- feit the colour of guano, are sold to roguish dealers in town and country, who introduce a little genuine guano to give the necessary odour. Some recent actions brought against parties who have sold adulterated guano, in which heavy damages were obtained, and the failure of several of the largest of the manufacturers of the " article," liave contributed some little to arrest this nefarious traffic. The real remedy lies with the farmer, who ought to prosecute vigorously those who impose upon him. Though numerous unprincipled dealers exist in the manure trade, yet there are certainly many others, honest men, upon whose fair fame there has never yet been a breath of suspicion. We advise the farmer, therefore, to purchase his manures from men of established reputation, who have a character to lose, and who will not demand from him more than a fair and reasonable profit. It should be also remembered that £11 per ton is the lowest price at which Messrs. Ant. Gibbs and Sons sell Peruvian guauo ; and this only in wholesale quantities. The country dealer has, in addition, to pay wharfage, carriage, and other ex- penses, which must be added to the cost of the guano. He is also entitled to a reasonable interest for his money, if he gives long credit for that manure which he himself is compelled to pay for in cash. We leave it, therefore, to the common sense of the English farmer to judge whether a genuine guano can possibly be pur- chased at the prices at which guanos, purporting to he genuine) are constantly oDFered in the country markets. To assist still further in preventing the frauds to which the incautious buyer is constantly subject, we shall offer some simple observations on the methods of detecting adulterations in guano. METHODS OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATION OF GUANO. The chemical analysis of guano is, of course, the best means of ascertaining any fraudulent mixture which may have been made ; and it is a subject of regret that few farmers yet avail themselves of chemical aid, though the expense of the necessary information is quite insignificant compared with the importance of the object to be attained. It has long been a desideratum to obtain some method of as- certaining the purity of guano, sufficiently simple to be easily understood and put in practice by any person of ordinary in- telligence. With this object in view, we have tried in our la- boratory many long series of experiments. These have ultimately led us to propose a few simple tests, which will readily dis- cover the adulterations in any sample of sophisticated guano which has yet appeared in the market. As guano is generally adulterated with marls and sands, much heavier than itself, our attention was first directed to the specific gravity of guano as a means of detecting the admixture. In a lecture delivered some time since, before the London Farmers' Club, we had shown that an ounce of good guano, put into a cylindrical glass tube, occupied nearly twice the space of an equal weight of an adulterated samp'e. We sub- sequently tried many hundreds of experiments with various guanos, iu tubes of like dimensions ; but though the tube easily detected all the adulterated samples we procured, yet it was thought desirable to propose some more delicate test. Various other experiments were undertaken, and the follow- ing series gave us the necessary foundation for the method we ultimately selected. A stoppered bottle, capable of holding 3,000 grains of water, had four ounces avoirdupois of good guano placed iu it. Water was then adued, and the materials shaken until well mixed. A little more water was added, and the Lottie again agitated, and then allowed to rest for three or four minutes to permit the air-bubbles to arise. The bottle was now filled completely with water, the fioth ruuning over ; the stopper was then geutlj', but accuratcl}', fitted to its place, and the bottle wiped with a cloth. A counterpoise, previously made equal to the weight of the bottle alone, was thcu placed in one pan of a small pair of or- dinary scales, and the bottle, with the guano, iu the other. From a numerous scries of experiments, it was found that the bottle and guauo, on an average, weighed 604 grains more THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 515 than the bottle and water alone ; that is, the water in the bottle would weigh 3,000 grains, and the guauo and water 3,664 grains. Tbe followiug table contains the results of a long series of experiments made upon specimens of genuine guauo obtained from separate vessels, and also upon various sophisticated samples, and substances used for adulteration. WEIGHTS INDICATED BY GUANO TESTER. THE BOTTLE HOLDING 3,000 GKAINS OF ■WATEE. oz. 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 4 10 4 11 4 12 4 13 4 14 4 15 4 16 4 17 4 18 4 19 4 20 4 21 4 22 4 23 4 24 4 25 4 26 4 27 4 28 4 23 4 30 4 31 4 32 4 33 4 34 4 35 4 NAME OF VESSEL. Field Columbia Princess Victoria Digby Liskeard Duncan Ritchie Rosiua Mary Ann Albyn Johann George Rosamond Ann Daahwood Alfred Juno .' Brothers Richardson Hamilton Anna Midas Will WiUmott U acdouell . . , Cumberland Retriever Lacy , Vigilant Julius Csesar (damaged) Vicar of Bray (damaged) Field, adulterated 10 per cent Ditto 20 per cent Ditto 30 per cent Guano, £7 lOs. per ton (adulterated).. Guauo, £7 12s. 6d. per ton (ditto) . . Salt Sand Gypsum GRAINS. 3663 S662 3668 3665 3655 3669 3677 3668 3679 3661 3645 6-18 645 3659 3G65 3641 3679 3677 3659 3659 3653 3651 3677 3677 3669 3719 3703 3709 3757 3815 3867 3S94 3930 4095 4065 The per-centage of mineral matter or ash in different samples of guano was found also very uniform, varying, as the following table shows, only from 30 per cent, to 35 per cent. :— TABLE OF THE PER-CENTAGE OF MINERAL MATTER CON- TAINED IN PERUVIAN GUANO. NAME OF VESSEL. PER CENT. OF ASH. 1 2 Johann George Ann Dashwood Alfred •• 33-4 32-2 3 32-0 4 Juno 32-3 5 Brothers 33-2 6 Richardson 307 7 Hamilton 33-4 8 Anna 32-5 9 Midas , 330 10 Will Wilmot . . Macdonell . . . 340 11 331 12 Cumberland . Retriever 32-3 13 31-9 14 Jjucy .....> 31-8 15 16 Vigilant Rosamond • 33-5 350 17 18 19 20 Julius Cffisar (damaged) Success (damaged) Guano, £7 10s. per ton (adulterated). . Guano, £7 12s. per ton (adulterated). . 38-2 33-6 62-7 65-8 The following simple plan will easily detect all the ordinary adulterations of guano :— Procure from any druggist a common wide-mouthed bottle, v/ith solid glass stopper ; one known as a wide-mouthed six- ounce bottle will do very well. Let this bottle be filled with ordinary water, the stopper inserted, and the exterior well dried. The scales to be used ought to turn well with a couple of grains. In one pan of the scales place the bottle, and ex- actly counterpoise it in the other by shot, sand, or gravel. Remove the bottle from the scale, pour out two-thirds of the water, and put in four ounces avoirdupois of the guano to be tested. Agitate the bottle, adding now and then a little more water ; let it rest a couple of minutes, and fill with water, so that all the froth escapes from t'ne bottle ; insert the stopper carefully, wipe diy, and place the bottle in the same scale from which it was taken. Add now to the counterpoised scale one- and-a half ounce avoirdupois and a fourpenny piece, and if the bottle prove the heavier, the guano is in all probability adul- terated. Add, in addition, a threepenny piece to the counter- poise, and if the bottle and the guano prove the heavier, the guano may be considered as adulterated. By this simple ex- periment, the admixture of a very small amount of sand, marl, &c., is distinctly shown, We venture also to propose another method founded on the properties of the mineral constituents of guano. When guano is burnt to ashes at a red heat, the ash has a pearly-white appearance, which is owing to the absence of iron and other colouring metallic oxides. As iron is always found in marl, clay, &c., the ash of any sample of guauo contaminated with them will not only be coloured, but its weight will be increased. These facts give us the following method of detecting adul- teration : — A small pair of scales, a little platinum capsule, a pair of little tongs or pinchers, and a spirit lamp are all that are re- quired. Ten grains of the guano are placed in the platinum capsule, which is held by the tongs in the flame of the spirit lamp for several minutes, until the greater part of the organic matter is burnt away. It is allowed to cool for a short time, and a few drops of a strong solution of nitrate of ammonia added, to assist in consuming the carbon in the residue. The capsule is again gently heated (taking care to prevent its boil- ing over, or losing any of the ash) until the moisture is quite evaporated. A full red heat must then be given it, when, if the guano be pure, the ash will be pearly white, and will not exceed three and a-half grains in weight. If adulterated with sand, marl, &c., the ash will always be coloured, and will weigh more than three and a-half grains. Even the simple burning of a few grains of guano on a red- hot shovel will often indicate by the colour whether a fraud has been committed ; but we cannot particularly recommend this method, as the iron of the shovel will itself sometimes give a tinge to the ash. It will be perceived that the per-centage of ash will not al- ways detect damaged guano, nor are the tests generally in- tended to apply to wet or moist samples, which are palpably from damaged cargoes. Good Peruvian guano is perfectly dry to the touch. If the adulteration be made with light or flocculent matters, they may be detected easily as follows : — Dissolve in a quart of water as much common salt as it will take up, and strain the solution. Pour a quantity of it into a saucer or basin, and sprinkle on the surface the guano to be tested. Good guano sinks almost immediately, leaving only a very slight scnm. The adulterated leaves the light materials floating on the water. If chalk or ground limestone be used, it may be shown by 516 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pouring strong vinegar over a teaspoonful of the sample placed ill a wine glass. On stirring, effervescence shows its presence. Genuine guano, under the same circum stances, merely allows the escape of a few air bubbles. If farmers could be prevailed upon to spend a small portion of their time in trj ing the foregoing simple experiments on the samples of guano they use, the fraternity of rogues would cer- tainly have far less chance than they at present possess of pur- suing their calling with profit. Still these little operations are only offered as a means of detecting the grosser adulterations of guano. Minor ones may still be practised, and men of real intelligence and business habits will regularly call to their assistance the aid of the analytical chemist. Summing up the experimentSj the following facts would appear: — 1st. If four ounces of guano, weighed with bottle and water, as previously directed, take more than one and a half ounce and one fourpenny piece to recounterpoise it, its purity is doubtful. If an additional threepenny piece is required, the guano may be considered as adulterated, and the sample should be immediately analysed. 2nd. If the ash be coloured in any way, and not of a pearly white, the guano is bad. 3rd. If the ash of ten grains of the guano weigh more than three and a-half grains, or less than three grains, the genuineness of the sample is doubtful. If strong vinegar cause a considerable effervescence when mixed with the sample, the latter is adulterated. If the guano floats, when sprinkled on a strong solution of salt and water, it is not genuine. Note. — A complete set of the apparatus necessary for mak- ing the previous experiments can be obtained at a moderate cost from Messrs. Simpson, Maule, and Nicholson, Operative Chemists, 1 and 2, Kennington Koad, London. 4th 5th LIE BIG'S MINERAL THEORY. Sir, — I forward you the following communication for your invaluable journal, adopting a gaseous theory as well as the mineral one, as promulgated and so adhered to by Baron Liebig, the professing chemist at Giessen ; should you deem it worthy of an insertion, for the perusal of your numerous and scientific agricultural readers, you have it at your disposal. From an analysis of 2,0001b3. of the ash of the grain and slraiv of wheat, barley, oats, and beans, of the potato and turnip bulb, we have the following tabular result, as shown by the late and lamented Professor Johnston, in his " Elementary Treatise of Agriculture and Geology" — . Potatoes Potash Soda Lime Magnesia.... Oxide of iron Plios. acid... Sulph. acid.. Silica Chlorine] Wheat. Barley. Oals. Turnips. 862 228 453 419 93 84 97 51 95 111 141 136 159 125 138 53 20 25 22 13 531 421 464 76 61 11 138 136 665 049 511 79 11 6 35 86 557 19 20 53 5 126 136 42 42 Now we see, from the above table, that the inorganic con- stituents most essentially necessary for the fabrication or building-up of our most inestimable plant, the wheat crop, are silica, phosphoric acid, potash, and magnesia; and that of the turnip are potash, lime, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, aud silica. Hence, when the practical farmer knows the proportion of these substances required for any particular crop, he at once may foresee the consequence from a deficiency of any one of them from his soil, and especially if the crop which he intends to sow require that mineral in a larger proportion for its maintenance. Then it appears a matter of fact that if silica, phosphoric acid, aud potash — the chief ingredients of wheat — be largely deficient in any soil, it is impossible for that crop to acquire such vigour as when these minerals are sufliciently present ; so with turnips, if potash, lime, sulphuric acid, or any other sub- stance as mentioned in the table be sparingly included in a field or compost heap ; that an unsuccessful crop will surely ensue, let the season be almost as propitious as it may. For this reason, then, it is obvious that whatever kind of crop the farmer intends to rear, it is of the utmost importance that he should administer to his laud — in the form of a compost, and in a sufiicieucy too — all the minerals as given in the ash aualygia, However, undoubtedly it sometimes happens that land con- tains in abundant quantity all the minerals necessary for the structure of the plant, yet part of them in so large and un- available a state as incapable of being taken up from the soil as pabulum by the tender rootlets of the growing plant ; hence it is evident that a crop may vary in poiut of yield or straw from this cause. If we compare the produce of a crop of one year with that of another, we may find an extraordi- nary difference, which may arise — as Baron Liebig tells us in his " Principles," in comparing the pro- duce of 1844 with that of 1845 — from lack of rain. ' If in the year 1844 a certain amount of rain fell on the land, and thus a certain amount of mineral constituents was rendered available for the plants; and if in 1845 there fell at the favourable season one-half more rain, this obviously dis- solved one-half more of mineral constituents. Had these not been dissolved, they could not have entered the plant, and been there employed ; that is to say, without their aid the crop of 1845 could not have increased by one-half." Undoubtedly this is a truism ; for the plants, of course, will be enabled to take up a larger supply of minerals from the soil. We know from our ancestors, that when land became exhausted or incapable of producing a satisfactory crop, fallow- ing was adhered to, to gain or renew the fertility ; but this mode of practice is now fast dying away, in consequence of the many manures which are being manufactured at home and exported from exotic parts. Now it seems plain that, from the mode of fallowing the land, it undergoes a mechanical and chemical change whilst being in a state of rest : by the former, the minerals contained are reduced into a minuter state of division, due to summer culture, rains, and atmospheric action ; and the latter by attracting ammonia from the atmosphere, which is known to be always present in some degree. Astounding effects are also obtained from lime, which is generally known by the practical farmer. When limestones are put into a kiln, and burned in the usual way, they are made to undergo a chemical change ; the carbonic acid gas contained in them is evolved during the process of burning, in the form of vapour. When they are sufliciently burnt, lime shells are obtained ; these, when drawn from the kiln aud slaked with water, immediately begin to crackle aud fall into an impalpable powder, which then, from the chemical nomenclature, takes the name of caustic lime or hy- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 517 drate of lime. When applied to the land in this caustic and powdery state, and evenly mixed with the soil, it acta in a two- fold measure : In the first piace, owing to its causticity, the almost inert fibrous matter contained in the soil is assisted in its decompo- sition, and made more available for a future crop to be reared ; secondly, iu consequence of the lime being so minutely divided, the crop has the advantage of taking its full per-ceutage of that mineral which is so necessary for its structure : hence it is that we have good results from applications of lime. "VVe have, likewise, good effects from fresh soils, auch as stick-hill bottoms, edge-side cleanings, and " warped" or alluvial soils ; because within these, in some proportion or another, are the minerals and organic matter which has once been in the com- position of a growing tree or vegetable, and of course is again made available when applied to the soil. I have in the foregoing, like Liebig in his " Principles," endeavoured as much as possible to point out that land, with a supply of all the inorganic ingredients, as in the ash analysis, are necessary for the support and carrying on of a growing plant; however, at the same time, it is also of vast importance that we should add an artificial supply of available nitrogen to the soil, in the form of an azotised manure, and not depend upon the atmosphere for a supply, if we wish to gain a twofold produce. Yes, I say, of importance, because our senses tell us that the vegetable kingdom consists of a far greater pro- portion of an organic compound, formed of carbon, nitrogen, &c., than it does of the inorganic. By a simple experimeut, we can be shown the comparative proportions of the organic and inorganic parts which compose our crops. If we burn the produce of a given portion of land, we at once have the result ; the residue or ashes left behind are the materials forming the inorganic compound which has been withdrawn from the soil whilst growing, which appears in a very small quantity, and that must have been in a very minute form to have entered into the crop's composition ; hence we see the advantage of loose friable soils, so that the rootlets may have easy access to run everywhere, to gather the fine mineral particles most adapted for its structure. It may be questioned by some, theu, what has become of the rest of the materials which composed so large a bulk before consumma- tion ? Is it totally destroyed ? No ! in one sense it may be answered ; for there is no such thing in nature. The organic compound has been diiveu off into the atmosphere by the heat, in the same way as the vapour which arises from our steam apparatus ; and as the rain which is evaporated from our earth during a hot summer day. Last year I procured some guano, and in way of experimeut divided it into two equal portions — one part, with salt and lime, I disengaged the ammonia it contained ; the other part I left as procured. These portions I spread upon two equal- sized plots of wheat. The plot which had the ammonia nearly disengaged by the salt and lime was not to be equalled with the produce of the other plot with its ammoniacal guano* Hence we have it manifest that an ammoniacal or nitrogenous manure is of very great service in agriculture. Let Liebig give preference to his mineral theory, if he choose, and say that " the carbon and nitrogen the plants can assume from the air." I say an alliance ought to be made between ammo- niacal salts and the minerals, if we intend to bring our land into the highest pitch of agriculture. Yet, as the old in- telligent Norfolk farmer says, in the Mark-lane Express of the 24th ult., " That when the farmer has done everything that the wisest and most enlightened policy can suggest, a blast of the hurricane, a night of severe temperature, a breath of poisonous miasmata may neutralise his best efl'orts, and dash his hopes for the season to the ground." However, these are Nature's occurrences, which we cannot modify or stand against. B. M. Timber, 8th April, 1856. PROGRESS IN MANURING LAND. The lecture delivered before the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society, Wednesday, April 30, brings it under fresh obligations to Professor Way. There is, perhaps, no branch of agricultural chemistry more interesting than a review of its progress, especially in relation to the food of plants. From time immemorial, agri- culturists have been familiar with the fact that land under culture requires an artificial supply of manure ; but it is only within the last hundred years that any definite knowledge, chemically speaking, has existed as to the nourishment required by the vegetable king- dom ; for, prior to the days of Black, the discoverer of the chemical properties of quick-lime, Lavoisier, to whom is mainly due the modern theory of combustion, Priestley, who discovered the constituent elements of the atmosjihere, and Cavendish, the " Newton of che- mistry," all was hidden in the chaotic mysteries of alchemy ; and even up to the commencement of the present century, how little was done to disentangle this all-important science from the hypothetical speculations of the past ! The experimental researches and disco- veries of Sir Humphrey Davy, dating from 1801, com- menced a new era, in which public attention — more particularly that of the agricultural world — was drawn to their importance. It was not, however, until the works of Liebig were published in this country that English farmers, as a body, can be said earnestly to have em- braced chemistry as a useful science ; but since then, the rapid progress made is incredible, while the science itself, though once repudiated, is now universally ac- knowledged as second to none. This, perhaps, is in a great measure due to the successful labours and popular works of the late Professor Johnston, Messrs. Nesbit, Lawes, and others. Agricultural chemistry is thus, scientifically speaking, but of very recent origin — a science, too, whose history presents to the inquiring mind discoveries more than ordi- narily interesting. A very condensed review of these— forming, as they do, the successive links in the chain of progress — will suffice to prove this. First, for example, those made during the latter part of the last century threw a faint glimmering of light on the manurial nature or fertilizing influence of the atmosphere, with the action and use of organic manures. The labours of Sir Humphrey Davy and his coadjutors, home and foreign, again, daring the early part of the present century, advanced our knowledge of the elementary substances of the inorganic portion of the 518 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. soil. The mineral theory of the food of plants received a still farther advance from the talented pen of Liebig, whose eloquence and professional enthusiasm in the great cause at issue appear to have led him to attach a greater importance to mineral manures than v?as justly due, or even what he himself ever intended (judging from his more recent works in reply to Mr. Lawes), Since the translation of Liebig's works, a more exten- sive acquaintance with geology, mineralogy, and the physiology of plants, has been, and is now, pointing to the propriety of using both organic and inorganic ma- nures. Throughout the whole of our subject, conclusions ap- pear to hinge on two prominent points deserving of special notice : first, that hitherto experimental inquiry has , wi th few exceptions, taken the'precedence of scientific ; in other words, that Practice with Science, ore^joen'mewiaZ science, can only now be received, as we have frequently stated in the columns of the Mark Lane Express at late; and second, that for the future a better mechanical com- minution of the soil, under successful steam culture, pro- mises to be productive of the most important results in agriculturalchemistry — reconcilingjarringdifferencesnow existing, such as those which lately took place between Liebig and Lawes, and uniting farmers as a body to ma- nure in accordance with the common principles of che- mistry, so to speak, each responding to the demands of his own farm, crops, and climate. la both these cases how prominent a place does Practice occupy, and how subordinate a one Science ! No doubt, as principles are better understood, they will be more uniformly reduced to practice, as stated above ; but before implicit confidence can be placed in them, they must first be tested by experiment ; and such is the perseverance of those farmers in the field who un- derstand chemistry, that their labours have every ap- pearance of continuing, as they have hitherto done, to anticipate those of the chemist in the laboratory. In point of fact, the laboratory at present would be unable to comply with all the analytical demands of the field, were they made ; for how many analyses ought every farmer yearly to have, in order to enable him to know the chemical state of his soils and crops, and what changes are taking place ? An endless variety of examples may be adduced in support of these general conclusions, one or two of which will suffice for the present. During the last century, the minds of its more intelli- gent agriculturists, such as Platte, Ramsey, Evelyn, Moore, Bradley, Tull, and others, were grasping at the improvements of the present, and even superintending their reduction to practice in many cases, though in a rude manner. That they were ignorant of much that is now known, cannot be questioned ; but, although un- able to account satisfactorily for many chemical phe- nomena, they were nevertheless cognizant of their existence. Who, for example, has ever advocated more enthusiastically and more confidently drainage, deep culture, and the aeration of the soil and crops, as now practised at Lois Weedon, than Platte, Evelyn, and Tull ? Who has ever been, practically speaking, better acquainted with the fertilizing influence of the atmo- ephere and of thunder-showers ? or who ever understood in a higher degree the advantages arising from applying clay to sandy land, sand to clays, and such-like mix- tures of soil, involving the mineral-manure theory, than they ? With regard to manures individually, almost all the substances, organic and inorganic, now used, were then applied to the soil in some form or other. No doubt, Peruvian guano was not then introduced into England ; but Peru herself was discovered, and its successful application there witnessed and appreciated. Again, Moore was so sanguine of having solved the golden problem of steam-culture, that he sold his farm- horses ! la all these cases, it was the results of experi- ments which dictated further progress ; while the principles sought to be reduced to practice were identical with those of the present day, though less perfectly understood. Between the commencement of the present century and 1840, again, the agricultural chemist was as unable to overtake, in his laboratory, the intelligent farmer in the field, as before ; and between the latter period and the present day, how much more has been done 1 Last year, for example, we visited our native parish, after an absence of sixteen years. When we left, few farmers, except those who had been educated at some of our universities, knew anything scientifically of chemistry; now, the great bulk of them are familiar with the writings of Liebig, Johnston, Nesbit, and others, and also with the generality of the artificial manures : but, in prin- J ciple, agricultural practice is there essentially the same as when we left. At one time, irrigation was common on every farm having a command of water, but was given up about the commencement of the present cen- tury. In one or two cases, the liquid-manure system of Ayrshire is now being introduced ; covered home- steads are common ; while steam-culture, and its " golden sheaves," are as familiar in farmers' mouths as " household words." These are facts which speak for themselves, showing the relative positions of the labora- tory and the field in the great march of progress. But while Experiment demands its well-merited dues, the fact must not be overlooked, that the question ulti- mately resolves itself into the progress of chemical knowledge in the field versus the progress of chemical knowledge in the laboratory ; the mind which con- ducted the experiments at Rothamstead versus the mind which conducted the experiments at Giessen. Many of our practical farmers are now well versed in this branch of science. ludeed it may be safely atBrmed that they include amongst them some of our best agricultural chemists ; and that further progress will in no small degree depend upon their deductions in and suggestions from the field, whether we refer to improved cul- ture and fertilizatiou Irom the atmosphere, or to the manufac- ture of artificial manures, solid or hquid, and their applicatiou to the soil. Admitting thus much, however, ibe counter fact ought ever to be borne in mind — that the number of farmers who master chemistry are few when compared with those who do not ; that agricultural experiments are of little chemical value unless performejl under the superintendence of those possessing the ueccssary knowledge of chemistry to coutrol them, judgment THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 519 beiug always of more value thau mere length of experience ; and that every experiment in agriculiure is only applicable, general'y speaking, to its own individual case, owing to the diversity of soil, climate, and other circumstances. The Rothamstead experiments, for example, are only applicable in every point to Roth 'mstead ; the Lois Weedon ones to Lois Weedon ; Tiptree Hall to Tiptree Hall, and so on. No doubt general principles are elicited in each of the three cases quoted; but what is their value to me, unless I have judgment to de- termine whether my farm comes within such rules, or no? because the action of the atmosphere on the soil at Lois Weedon keeps a supply of available mineral food for plants, is no valid reason for concluding that the action of the atmos- phere on a different quality of soil, as a purely silicious sand, will do so ; for nothing could be more absurd than deductions of this kind, however frequently they may be drawn. The object of the proposed lectures or reports being annually to bring before the Society what progress has been made in agricultural chemistry during every past year, the above facts greatly enhance, so to speak, their value, especially to those not versed in chemistry, while they call upon the few who are masters of this science to co-operate with the lecturer in the laborious work over which he presides. The exertions of no individual, however Herculean and however persevering they may be, can overtake such a work, or even keep pace with the progress of things. Looking at the geological map on the wall, and contemplating the vast variety of soils which it exhibits, and how diversified these individually are, from accumulations of drift, with the equally- diversified character of our climate, mem- bers of the Society present must have felt the full force of what we have just said; and how broad, and comparatively unknown as yet, is the field to be explored, before the chemical resources of such a variety of soils can be known, and what part each is capable of performing, along with the agency of the atmosphere and a suflSciency of moisture, in supplying plants with organic and inorganic food. Butimion, with a systematic organisation of geological data, would enable Professor Way to bring an- nually before the Society invaluable reports — a union in which we hope landlords will act a conspicuous part, as they are more deeply interested in getting the soils on their estates analyzed. Such is a glance at the importance of the subject ; and when the first report, which it will be seen was reserved for the columns of the Journal, shall make its appearance, we shall of course review it. THE REAL VALUE OF SOME OF OUR MANURES. It was pithily remarked by one of the speakers on a late discussion at the Central Farmers' Club, that '' if a weed has been correctly defined to be a plant out of its place, we may perhaps define a manure to be the right thing in the right place." These defini- tions, in truth, are not so easily made as some per- sons believe. When the great bankers of London were asked to define a one-pound note, they were as sorely puzzled as the clear-headed Sidney Smith was, who, utterly unable to see his way, cut the knot by declaring, in one of his letters, that the man who began an oration about corn or currency ''ought to have an inkstand crammed into his mouth." The farmers of the Norfolk sands very truly believe that clay is a manure ; but those of the Wealden and the London basin clays would hardly regard the great staple of their soils to be a fertilizer ; and the difiiculty of assigning to any sub- stance the character of a manure is not confined to the earths, or the saline manures, or even to the most universal of them all, that of the farm-yard. The farmers of many Oriental countries use it for fuel, instead of applying it to their land ; the holders of some of the rich soils of the New World remove even their stables, rather than undertake the heavier task of carting away the heaps of dung which have accumulated around their out-buildings — their pro- lific fields need not to be thus enriched ; for the same reason the serfs who cultivate the black earth of Central Russia, pile up, on the banks of their rivers, the farm-yard dung with which they tell you it would be useless to dress their already exuberant soil. They, therefore, regard even farm-yard dung as anything but a manure. Some of these things forcibly occurred to us, when we were listening to the very interesting and opportune lecture at the Central Farmers' Club, "On the relative values of artificial manure, and their comparative adap- tation to different crops." In this address Mr. Nesbit, as might be expected from him, com- municated many valuable facts, which will be alike useful to our readers in the market-room, and in their fields, especially if they use that com- mon sense with which they are so well endowed, in first considering the real zcants of the soil ; and secondly, in as carefully avoiding all dealings with those impostors who offer, for little raonej'-, sub- stances which can neither supply what the soil re- quires, nor be made or imported for the price at which they are willing to sell them. We again, at the season when manures for root crops are now in such extensive demand, earnestly warn our readers to beware of these dealers, who are commonly not only unprincipled, but profoundly ignorant of the true and honest objects which must be steadily borne in mind by the preparers of the manure — take, for example, the instances adduced by Pro- fessor Anderson, in the present volume of the Transactions of the Highland Society, of two manures professing to be produced from sewage water. Only mai-k the result of his analyses, and their insignificant real value. He found in these — .520 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I. II. Water 18.04 .... 4.03 Organic matter 19.71 ....30.13 Phof phoric acid 2.03 .... 0.60 Peroxide of iron and alumina . . 6.93 .... 7,10 Sulphate of lime 27.05 .... 3.14 Carbonate of lime 6.43 3.70 Alkaline salts 3.00 . . . . — Sand 16.81 ....51.13 Ammonia . . . . 1.13 .... 0.64 Let Dr. Aiidersoa's remarks on the result of tliese analyses obtain the attention •which their importance demands. These substances, he observes, are of very trifling value. The first, which is the best of the two, and contains 2 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 1 of ammonia, when calculated according to the method used for determining the price of a specimen of guano, proves to be worth only about 16s. per ton; and the second does not exceed 7s. And yet these, and similar substances, are gravely declared to be equal in value to guano ! ! OBSERVATIONS BY THE WAY. The privilege enjoyed by those who are permitted to communicate their ideas and observations through the public press is one which ought to be highly prized, and never abused. To present a partial view of a subject which is of general interest, and corresponding import- ance to all classes of society, is a gross infraction of such privilege ; to present a hasty and immature opinion upon any subject in which the well-being of the com- munity is concerned is a great abuse of such prerogative. Writers on practical subjects ought of all men to be ex- tremely cautious in their observations, lest they mislead the public. Theorists may indulge in their speculations with impunity. The practical man must keep to fact : he should take the greatest care that all his remarks are the results of experience, or of well-weighed, cautious investigation ; that nothing is concealed, nothing ex- tenuated. With these principles in view, and in all honesty, 1 offer the following ''observations by the way :" — In the due course of business, we were led last week to take our usual railway rides. The country over which we travelled was very varied, comprising the beautiful and highly-ornamented county of Surrey ; thence by rail through Berkshire, Oxfordshire, War- wickshire, by Birmingham, Wolverhampton, into the very diversified and beautiful scenery of Shropshire ; thence through Staffordshire to Derby ; thence to Not- tingham, Grantham, Peterborough, and across the fens from Spalding via Peterborough to Wisbech, and from Peterborough to London — a route containing much to note of an agricultural character, although passing so rapidly through by railway. The most prominent and most important thing to notice was the state of the growing wheat-crop. On the heavy lands of Surrey the crop looks promising; but it is very backward, and will require a long succession of genial weather to bring it into that forward state usually found in June. The light lands look to have a thin and defective plant, and cannot produce a heavy crop. The stock of wheat on hand, judging by what can be " observed by the way," must be a very small one. The stacks are remarkably " few and far between," and those generally small round cobs. The grass and seed lands are looking fairly, and those near London have a good pasturage upon them. The spring-sown corn has been well got in, and is making its appearance favourably, since the late rains. The fallows are forward and cleanly. The lands bordering on the Great Western line of railway do not anywhere present a very promising appearance : occasionally we meet with a fair pasture and a fair-looking wheat plant ; but it is not until we reach the neighbourhood of Abingdon that we are gratified by a good herbage and an average wheat plant. Along the whole line, thus far, the absence of corn stacks is remarkable, and as we proceed it becomes still more so; indeed, as we approach the populous districts, a corn stack is scarcely to be seen ; and in some of the agricultural districts only one or two are to be seen whilst travelling over a space of from 10 to 15 miles. Along the line from Oxford to Banbury, a district very well farmed, and likely to exhibit a favourable plant of wheat, but with few exceptions all looked thin and backward. The spring- sowing was by no means completed. Here and there, along this part of our route, as also onward toward Leamington, the turnips were still under con- sumption by the flocks, some fields being thrown, very properly, into heaps for cutting, others standing and running fast into flower. We doubted if these farmers had experience in the exhaustion of soil by allowing turnips to run into seed in this way ; it is strikingly injurious. As we proceeded, we evidently came upon a stronger soil and a better country, the pastures and wheat plant looking much more thriving than any we had previously passed ; and the immediate neighbourhood of Leamington and Warwick mani- fested signs of a successful grazing season. Many lands along the line now appeared to be laid in for stocking, &^c. We continued to be struck with the paucity of corn stacks, and frequently exclaimed, as we approached, and on passing through these beautiful towns and the immense population contained in the country, beginning at Leamington, and ending at Wol- verhampton, How is the population to be fed .' Where shall we find food for this people .' We must have large importations, or it cannot be done. The country be- tween Warwick and Birmingham is fairly farmed ; a fair plant is observable occasionally ; but we expected to see much better things, and in a much more forward state — at all events, on the gravelly soils; but these cut a sorry figure, and all crops on the light soils liable to in- jury from frost and drought are decidedly bad. We could not but censure the'practice of ploughing with three, four» THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 5-21 and even five horses in length. It is unnecessary waste of horse- labour. We know farms of very heavy clays where ploughing is successfully executed with two horses abreast. Ransome's, and Howard's, and other similar ploughs, need no more power to work them. Why waste so much " horse-flesh"? Pray let the Oxfordshire men look to this. However, they do not stand alone : the practice prevails along the line. We arrive at Birmingham — that vast emporium of our hard ware— the nation'sworkshop for the innumerable iron fabrications of dire necessity ; without which our agricul- ture itself would prove a failure. We soon pass throughit- What a region of smoke and flame are we now flying through! smoke, flame, and furnace; furnace, flame, and smoke, mile after mile, mile after mile! — a region of black- ness and darkness, which John Bunyan himself would fail to describe: one vast gloomy valley, through which the eye in vain tries to penetrate : a very facsimile of Pande- monium itself. The peaceful arts of husbandry can have no abiding place here. Scarcely a vestige of cultivation is to be seen ; the bowels of the earth beneath being in- finitely more valuable, the products of iron and coal being immense; and the expenditure in working tie various mines, almost innumerable as they are, and in the subsequent smelting of the ore, is enormous. This deeply- interesting, but most uninviting, nay, forbidding district, is, however, quickly passed over, and we find ourselves at the vastly-increasing and wealthy town of Wolver- hampton, with its many tall chimneys and blazing fur- naces, closely rivalling its elder sister Birmingham, in its manufacturing industry, its skill and enterprize. We, however, speedily emerge from these emblematical regions into a very pleasant and undulating country, partaking of the unusual advantages resulting from its proximity to such a vast population, delightful villas and genteel homes showing themselves everywhere. The land itself also shows good tokens of the industry of the occupiers. Rents of course are high, contiguous to this large, un- cultivated mining tract ; but the advantages are fully commensurate, and garden culture to a considerable ex- tent prevails, to the great benefit of the cultivators. As we proceed, the country becomes bolder ; the hills, though not high, give a fine character to the country ; and the soil, which is chiefly on the red-sandstone, yields capital crops of turnips, barley, seeds, and wheat. The Wrekin soon shows his hoary head ; and the kindly feeling arises, as we repeat the well-worn toast, " To all friends around the Wrekin ;" the view from its summit being panoramic, and nearly boundless. The soil here is prolific ; and in the neighbourhood of ShiS'nal, much of it is well farmed. Here we alighted. The sheep now to be seen are Shropshire Downs, and they are in good truth a superior breed, having great size and substance, and much good wool of fine quality. We have no pre- dilection for down sheep ; but we could not do otherwise than confess to ourselves that the precise breed of sheep around Shiff'nal are equal to any we saw on our route down, and greatly superior to some we passed. Our next route lay through the same dense and fiery country back to Wednesbury; thence to Lichfield, Burton, Derby, Nottingham, and a line of country abounding with Leicester sheep and shorthorn cattle, the latter in some of the earlier districts making their appearance in the fields ; the comparatively bare pastures giving un- miatakeable evidence of the grazier's position with respect to keeping; the rick-yards also presenting the same unusually barren appearance, with only here and there a solitary corn stack ; the growing crops by no means satisfactory. From Nottingham our course lay to Grantham and Peterborough. On this line a marked improvement in every respect was ob- servable extending to Peterborough — more corn, more stock, and better crops, both on the strong lands and the warm gravels approaching that place : indeed we did not enumerate so many corn-stacks during our previous route, extending over a far greater surface, as in this short one. Across the fens the crops are fair, and promising to be very superior to last year, but the number of corn-stacks is much less than usual at this season. The winter food is all done, and much expense is incurred in artificial aids. From Peterborough to London the same general observations may be repeated. The wheat plant is thin and backward, grass late, and heavily stocked, keeping done, corn-stacks very scarce, spring-sowing nearly completed, fallows forward, and in good state. The conclusion to which we arrived on our return is simply this — that the crops or plants of wheat at this precise period are late, and un- satisfactory in their appearance ; that the spring-sowing is nearly completed, and has gone in tolerably well ; that the fallows are in a forward and cleanly state ; that a large breadth has been planted with potatoes, and that the stock of grain held by the farmers is very limited indeed — perhaps less than for many years past ; that the grass lauds where rested are in a satisfactory state, but others are too heavily stocked to make progress ; that keeping is scarce, aud very dear. We would further observe, that as we are progressing toward a system of agricultural statistics, we would ask, What course is to be taken to show the amount of grain and stock sold, and the quantity on hand, at given periods? The pre- sent average returns, which are exclusively for corn, are wholly insufficient for the purpose : for stock we have none. Granted that the returns of annual productions be correct, how are we to ascertain the progress of sales in the absence of such infor- mation ? We give the foregoing, and believe it to be, so far as our obser- vations went, substantially correct. We have no end to serve beyond a desire to diffuse correct knowledge as to the future, which is at all times our aim. To do good to our brother- farmers is certainly our principal object in all our writings; and in this instance we would not conclude this paper without expressing our decided belief that the stock of wheat on hand is very small, and unless large importations take place a consi- derable re-action in the corn trade must ensue, of which we wish our timid farmers to reap the advantage. RICHMOND'S PATENT LAWN MOWER.-This year further improvements in the construction of these machines have been made, and they can now be worked with equal facility and advantage on open unbroken lawns, and over narrow verges. They can be adjusted to cut any length, and will produce a more even and uniform surface than the most skilful mower. The grass may he cut when dry, and with this machine and the same amount of labour, more than double the quantity of work can be done than with a scythe. Any ordinary labourer can work it, and with care it is very durableand easily kept in order. N N r^^o. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. KENNINGTON AGRICULTURAL AND CHEMICAL COLLEGE. LECTURES ON THE GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE EARTH, HAVING REFERENCE TO THE PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ORGANIC LIFE. BY CHARLES JOHNSON, ESa, PROFESSOR 01^ BOTANY, GUY'S HOSPITAL, Lecture VIII. As a sequel to the general survey of the earth's surface, the external agencies employed in its modificaiion, and the influ- ences resulting from its varied condition, we will now take a cursory viev? of the circumstances that may possibly have led to the described phenomena, and through them to its existing state, as well as to the probability of subsequent changes no less importmt than those it has already undergone. Commencing with the condition of our world as a planet belonging to the solar system, and through that association connected with numberless other bodies distributed in space, it may become a subject of speculation whether much, and how much, of its present adaptation is due to that circumstance, and to the action of those general laws under which they mutually originated. Such inquiry necessarily leads us to reflect upon the real extent of our knowledge conceraing the visible creation called the universe. Irregularly disposed throughout the heavens, are countless self-luminous bodies, smaller or larger, nearer or more distant : the, larger and nearer various in colour and brilliancy, as their seemingly restless light reaches our eye ; the greater number 80 distant as to be visible to us only by the combined light of myriads forming a milk-white hnze upon the dark face of the sky. What are they ? Suns, like our own, dispensing light and heat to unknown and to us yet invisible worlds ? We may imagine this, but are wholly uninformed. Our sun we know to be an enormous globe, around which move eight large and many smaller spherical bodies— the planets, of which the earth is one. We have ascertained the relative sizes, weights, and distances of many of these ; and, among other circumstances we have learned that the sun is (employing round numbers) 882,000 miles in diameter, and that it con- tains 355,000 times more substance than our earth. The globular form of all the members of this solar system is in accordance with a certain law that we trace in constant operation around us, and which occasions the rounded outline of a drop of water or any other fluid. Matter, or substance, is now generally regarded, under whatever form it may exist, as consisting of inconceivably minute parts called "atoms;" a term compounded from the Greek, and signifying that they are incapable of being divided. We cannot positively prove that this is the case, but iu the present state of our knowledge it seems at least probable, and it is convenient to assume that it is reslly so ; indeed, the atomic theory, as it is called, con- Btitutes the foundation of modern physical science. The minuteness of these assumed atoms places them, individually, beyond the reach of our senses. Animalcules, such as the monads of stagnant waters, exist, so small, that it has been computed eight millions of them might occupy a space equal in extent to a grain of mustard-seed ; and yet these, them- selves composed of atoms, require still smaller bodies to subsist upon. Every atom is endowed with a certain power, acting in all directions around, and tending to draw other atoms towards it. We term this power " attraction," or " gravitation ;" and when two or more atoms are assembled by it, their attractive forces act iu unison upon others with a power proportioned to their number. Hence larger bodies seem to draw smaller ones around them, although the attraction is really mutual. It is to the action of this inexplicable power that the globular form of the sun and planets is due ; the atoms composing them arranging themselves originally in succession around those that first came together, which thus became the common centre of their masses. It is the same force that maintains the subordinate conditions of the latter, and of their satellites or moons. The mass of the sun, greater by far than those of all the planets of his system combined, retains the whole within his influence. The earth being seventy-five times the bulk of the moon, the latter obeys the mightier attractive power, and follows as it moves. Attraction is modified by distance, and other causes ; it is only the nearness of the moon to its primary that compels its attendance on our planet. Were the distance to become increased beyond a certain point, the attraction of the sun would overpower that of the earth for her satellite, and the moon would revolve around the centre of the system as a primary planet. The " attraction of gravitation" (or the influence exerted by one mass of matter on another, tending to draw them towards each other) — so called to distinguish it from that modification of the power by which the atoms of bodies already in contact are held together, called thence the " attraction of cohesion" — like all other natural agencies, acts according to invariable laws, and is found to diminish inversely to the square of the distance through which it operates. Thus, for example, suppose that at a distance of one mile the force of this gravi- tation were estimated as equal to one, at two miles it would be only one quarter, at four miles one-sixteenth, &c. So far as we are able to inquire, this law prevails throughout the universe, and upon our acquaintance with it rest many of the most important facts connected with the history of the earth and of the system to which it belongs. To explain the origin of this system, and connect it with the operation of the known laws and properties of matter, is of great interest in philo- sophical inquiry ; and the nearest approach that has hitherto been made to its consummation is found in what is generally termed the " nebular hypothesis:" the term "nebula" the Latin for mist or cloud — having been long since applied by astronomers to the Milky Way, and other bright spots in the heavens, that the eye distinguishes only as shining mists ; most of these are now known, through the use of the telescope, to consist of groups of stars too small or too distant to be perceived individually without such assistance. Some of these nebulw, however, are still supposed to consist of substance exceedingly diff'used, resembling that which may constitute the coma, or tail of a comet. The nebular hypothesis is founded on the supposition that all of the heavenly bodies have been formed by the force of attraction, which has gradually collected into masses the atoms of matter originally dillused throughout space in the iieba- I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 523 lou3 form. It surmises that our solar system has beea at first a vast nebula, in which a revolving movement was generated; that, while thus revolving, the middle portion was becoming successively more and more condensed by the force of attraction, eventually forming the central sun : that, owing to the known laws of matter and of motion acting upon such a mass, the still uncondensed external portions might be successively detached, or left in the condition of revolving rings or circles : that, in consequence of these rings continuing to condense after their separation from the general mass, they would be liable to break up into fragments : that, continuing to revolve on the same plane, the fragments of each successive ring, varying in size and density, might coalesce and form a planetary sphere rotating on its axis — the satellites of some of these spheres being the results of smaller rings, similarly detached during the farther condensation of their primaries. The numerous small planets, called"asteroids,"revolving in each other's vicinity between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, may, according to this view, be regarded as so many fragments of a primary ring, that have remained detached instead of coming together as in the case of the others ; a circumstance resulting from some unknown disturbing cause, the action of which the great obliquity of the orbits of Pallas, and some more recently discovered ones of the series, seems to indicate. The whole of this is mathematically possible, and therefore not altogether improbable. The rings of Saturn would thus be accounted for, as circles formed from nebulous matter con- solidated, or at least acquiring a permanent form, subsequently to those which produced its satellites, and previously to the planet's assumption of its present condition ; while the pecu- liarly bright ring extending within the orbit of the Earth, and called the "zodaical light," may be a portion of the original solar nebula yet unabsorbed into the Sun's atmosphere. The nebular hypothesis is quite consistent with the revolution of the planets in orbits occupying very nearly the same plane and in the same direction, and likewise with their rotation on their axes, not only being accordant with each other, but corresponding with that of the Sun itself. These and many other circumstances tend to indicate, that whatever differences may exist between them in bulk, density, and other conditions, their association in the same system, and their movements in connexion with it, originated under parallel causes and impulses. Supposing the globe of the Earth to have been thus formed by the influence of attraction and subsequent condensation, according with the known laws of matter, the heavier portions of its material would accumulate, or tend to accumulate, in the centre, and form a solid sphere ; around which, other cir- cumstances not interfering, the water would settle, and, exter- nally, the atmosphere. Its diurnal rotation would, it is likely, modify a disposition, the regularity of which would only be in- sured by or under a state of rest ; and hence originated the depression of its polar diameter, the change from the true sphere, as a necessary result of undisturbed gravitation, to the oblate spheroidal form induced by motion on its axis. Some such arrangement must have taken place to produce its present state. It is true that the face of our globe is exceedingly irregular; but still water has the predominance on the surface, and air surrounds the whole, and, under these conditions, it is the habitable Earth. A question naturally occurs here : Are the other planets at all similar to it ? We, of course, have no means of deciding this, unless by analogy. Mercury and Venus are too near the San for us to distinguish their discs plainly, so strongly are they enlightened ; but, from the occasional appearance of certain shadowy spots, that are not permanent, amidst this brightness, astronomers have concluded that those plauets may be enveloped in cloudy atmospheres, that serve to mitigate the intense heat and light to which they would otherwise be sub- jected, and that it is only the reflection of light from these dense atmospheres, and not from the planets themselves, that we observe. We must examine those occupying a wider range. Mars presents to the telescopic investigator much the same appearance that our Earth might have, viewed at a corres- ponding distance, namely, a surface varied as if consisting of ocean and land. But is there any water upon it ? This question seems to be decided by the brightest parts of the surface being those around its poles, and by their varying in extent as those poles are alternately directed towards the sun like our own; indeed, much iii the same manner as our polar snows — alternately melting ani again accumulating — would appear viewed through a telescope from Mars : it is likely therefore that water is present upon that planet, and, if water, an atmosphere likewise. Jupiter and Saturn are too distant from the Earth for us to distinguish and map out their discs, as astronomers have ventured to do that of Mars : but the changing belt-like appearances around their equatorial parts are supposed to indicate the presence of an atmosphere with clouds floating in it ; and they are, indeed, probably, appear- ances resulting to those planets, under the action of similar laws to those which operate over our own tropical regions. Our Moon, the nearest to us of all the heavenly bodies, pre- sents, very distinctly and unequivocally, irregularities of sur- face resembling those of the Earth, mountains — some of them Jar loftier than the highest peaks of the Andes — extensive levels, and hollows, but no appearance of water; which, in- deed, could scarcely exist, unless in the form of vapour, exposed to the action of the Sun's rays, without the pressure of an atmosphere. The presence of this latter medium, all observations hitherto made have tended to disprove ; stars especially disappearing at once behind the moon's disc as it passes them, without suffering the slightest previous diminu- tion of brilliancy, a circumstance that must occur, provided an atmosphere, of even the two-thousandth of the density of the earth's, existed around it. From the absence of air and water we may conclude that vegetable and animal life are likewise wanting there. Still the telescopic aspect of the moon is not so essentially different from that which our own lands would present under similar circumstances as to induce us to suppose its substance very different from that of the earth. In addition to all of these circumstances, the occasional fall of meteoric stones, which, from facts connected with their descent, can scarcely be considered other than bodies pre- viously existing in space beyond the earth's atmosphere, and which consist of metallic and other substances well known as belonging to the materials of our own globe, lends support to the opinion, that corresponding elements may compose all the bodies of the solar system, although certain fluid and gaseous compounds, as air and water, may he absent in some of them, as in the case of our moon, and probably of the satellites gene- rally. But it may be argued, what connection has the composition of the universe with the subject ostensibly before us ? Imme- diately it has little ; but, as bearing upon the origin of the earth itself, and as associated with the causes which have led to its productiveness, it has much. In the introductory lec- ture it has been observed, that at some past period, prior to 4;he creation of organic beings upon its surface, our globe might have been in a state of igneous fusion. Now, as when- ever matter or substance of any kind becomes condensed, or passes into smaller compass, heat is given out ; as a piece of N N 2 524 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. metal becomes hot by being hammered. It the nebular hypo- thesis be correct, it is possible that the earth might thus evolve a violent degree of heat during the process of condeusa- tion from its original form as a ring of vaporous matter, and its surface be afterwards gradually cooled into a solid crust. That it was once in such a heated condition is far from being improbable ; that it is so still in the interior seems likely, from a variety of circumstances. The widely extended phenomena of earthquakes, and the vast quantities of heated and even fused material ejected from volcanoes, can scarcely he satisfactorily accounted for, unless under such a supposition. Indeed, the deeper we descend in the excavation of mines, the warmer does the temperature become. This has been often proved by experiments with the thermometer in deep mines, in different parts of the world ; and the facts are quite independent of the differences of climate, because the increase of beat or cold at the surface is not experienced at a little more than a hundred feet below it, while the thermometer is found to rise uniformly as it is carried successively lower. One of the earliest and most striking experiments of the kind was made in a mine in Saxony, where at the following depths were the corresponding ranges of the thermometer^ At 236 feet 47 deg^rees, or one deg:ree higlier than at the surface. At 552 feet 55 degrees. At 880 feet 59 degrees. At 1246 feet 66 degi-ees. Compare these with the temperature observed in the mine of Dolcoath, in Cornwall, which at the depth of 1,440 feet was 82 degrees ; and this latter, with that of the silver mine of Guanaxato, in Mexico, which at the still greater depth of 1,730 feet, or nearly one-third of a mile, is 98 degrees ; and the gradual increase of heat in descending a distance so small into the crust of a globe eight thousand miles in diameter is so marked as to render the supposition, that the heat existing at the depth of a few miles may be intense, not at all improbable : indeed, if it increase in the same proportions, we must admit the possibility before alluded to — that we are dwelling upon the hardened, cooled surface of a planet, the interior of which may still retain a degree of heat sufficient to hold in fusion the most refractory rocks and metals that compose its sub- stance. There is much in the irregular character of this sur- face, and in the condition of some of its materials, that is accordant with such a belief. The disposition of the great chains of mountains, chiefly following directions transverse to each other, or from north to south, and from west to east, is that of crevices naturally formed by the fracture of a cooling and consequently contracting surface; while the materials constituting the interiors and peaks of the mountains indi- vidually, such as gran-te and other crystalline rocks thus up- lifted, are of the same texture and composition as those which seem to form the foundations of the more level parts of the earth's crust, and they present the corresponding appearance of having passed into their present state from one of fusion by intense heat. The elevation of mouutaiu chains by successive explosions through such cracks in the cooling crust of the earth is not an unreasonable supposition, when we consider the effects that have been produced from time to time by volcanic eruptions during the later periods of human history— raising mountains of seventeen hundred feet in height, and pouring firey streams of lava fifty miles in length, from twelve to fifteen miles broad, and from one hundred to six hundred feet in depth. The former took place during the eruption of JoruUo, on the high plains of Mexico, in 1759 ; the latter from llecla, in Iceland, in 1783. The causes of these and corresponding catastrophes may be attributed to the operation of the ordinary and well-known laws oi matter upon a highly incandescent central mass of mineral substance ; while the superficial irregularities thus produced are among the most important exemplifications of design traceable in the vast series of changes that have contributed to render this a habit- able world. If we inquire into the probable source of the action of volcanoes as they at present exist, we are led to compari- sons which seem to yield very powerful evidence that the elevation of mountain ranges and other irregularities of the surface of the earth and ocean basin, that took place during the earlier periods of our world's eventful history, were depen- dent upon similar causes, however different might have been the circumstances under which their action occurred. Phenomena of the kind are doubtless far less violent, and their results less extended, than they formerly were, and at the same time much less frequent ; but they are still sufficiently numerous and dis- tributed to warn us of the instability of our abode, and of the possible revolutions it may yet be destined to undergo, through an agency as correspondingly vast and inappreciable as that which has previously depressed the unfathomed depths of the Atlantic, and lifted up the majestic summits of the Andes and Himalayas. The scattered disposition of eruptive volcanic cones and craters over the world tends to prove the prevalence of subterranean disturbance to be very far from limited ; and though the fiery vents may be individually distant and isolated, the wide spread of the earthquake is a fearful reminder of the probable connexion, if not of the uniformity, of their origin. Active volcanoes are generally in the vicinity of the sea. Of nearly 200 that are now occasionally eruptive, or which have at least been so within the present and the last centuries, one- half are situated in islands ; and the continental ones are almost all of them either in peninsulas or in countries near the sea- border. Mountains, it is true — whose form, as well as the nature of the rocks composing the surface of the surrounding territory, proves them to have been volcanoes at some past period — are met with, even in the interior of the great conti- nents; but such are always so circumstanced as to show that, during the time of their activity, some portion of the land that now surrounds them was covered by the sea. On the other hand, earthquakes are seldom experienced to any great extent in the inland parts of continents, their most alarming and de- structive effects being almost exclusively confined to maritime districts : it is, indeed, in the immediate vicinity of the sea- coast that the greatest mischief has been done in all of those of which we have any accounts, and this although the space affected by the convulsions has in some instances been of vast extent. The earthquake that on the first of November, 1755, nearly destroyed the city of Lisbon, was felt over a surface of about four millions of square miles ; but it was chiefly about the coasts of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean — especially on the African shores, where the cities of Morocco and Algiers suffered almost equally with the Portuguese capital — that its consequences proved so destructive as to place it on record as the most devastating of natural catastrophes that has occurred in recent times. All of these facts are in favour of the suppo- sition that both of these fearful disturbances of the surface of our globe may arise from the influx of water upon its highly heated and melted interior, and its consequent conversion into steam, by the expansive force of which the lava is forced up- ward, and the solid crust caused to tremble and even undulate. The effect of an earthquake is such, occasionally, as to elevate permanently large tracts of land. This occurred in November, 1822, on a line of a hundred miles in length upon the coast of Chili ; while similar risings sometimes take place gradually, without any sensible shock, as in the southern part THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 525 of Sweden, where the slow elevation of the coast-line of Scania has been long a subject of observation. In a similar manner depreaaiou or subsidence may be produced, either suddenly during the disturbance by an earthquake, or slowly like the rise of the land in Sweden. Of the former, instances have been numerous ; of the latter a very striking one is in opera- tion on part of the western coast of Greenland, where, through a length of six hundred miles, the land is gradually subsiding beneath the sea; so that in one case, as observed by Dr- Pingel, " the Moravian settlers have been obliged more than once to move inland the poles upon which their large boats are set, and in some instances the old poles still remain be- neath the water as silent witnesses of the change." Direct evidence of the central heat is still wanting ; and many geologists and natural philosophers are disposed to question its existence, and especially its capability of main- taining that continuous internal fluidity by fusion, which the issue from time to time of melted mineral matter from volca- noes seems to indicate. Nay, there are chemical and electrical causes by which it has often been surmised that these won- derful phenomena might be occasioned, without resorting to their explanation by the hypothesis of a gradually cooling planet. But our limits forbid the discussion of opinions that are at present purely speculative ; and in adopting the more plausible (though not upon that account, perhaps, the more decided) view of the subject, it is not intended to insist that it has any further claim to notice than its plausibility ; neither is it necessary here that it should, unless it were possible to replace assumption by theory less liable to objection than are any of those hitherto proposed to account for the production of terrestrial heat. The inequalities of the earth's surface, however they may have been occasioned, are most important conditions for the support of life ; they have exposed the hard crystalline and vitrified rocks, the granite, and the cooled lava to the action of moving water, which, aided by other causes, has worn and broken them to fragments, so as to form successively through periods of incalculable duration a loose and changeable cover- ing above their solid masses, in which the plant was to strike its roots when the time arrived for its creation. The effect of this wearing action in the earlier geological eras is seen in the numerous layers of sand, and mud, and gravel, long since hardened into stone, that lie disposed over the shapeless rocks that were at first produced by that explosive force, of whatever nature it may have been, which raised the mountains and up- lifted the continents above the ocean ; and the sand, and mud, and gravel were then, as they are now, the preparation for that soil by means of which the previously barren face of the earth was to be rendered fertile. THE MANGEL WURZEL CROP. The mangel wurzel crop is beconaing annually of greater inoportance. Its value to the grazier during the past spring has been invaluable. The turnip crop was lost by premature decay throughout nearly the wholeking- dom, and the most available and reliable resort has been to the mangel v?urzel, which in the last season was very abundant, was well secured in the autumn, and kept well during winter. Many thousands of cattle and sheep have been thus preserved through this protracted season in good order and condition, and will in good time be fully fatted ; and thus by means of this crop the public will for this season be blessed, in having provision made for its customary supply of animal food. What would at this time have been the situation of the British pub- lic, had this crop failed to secure the approval of the farming body ? Its comparatively recent introduction into the kingdom has been of incalculable value, and the improvement the roots in their varieties have undergone through the attention of its cultivators has secured its very general adoption as a field crop ; and this season it has unquestionably been the salvation of thousands of flocks and herds, and will be the means whereby the pub- lic will (without feeling the inconvenience, further than a continued high price) be adequately supplied till the or- dinary and customary supplies find their way to market. In the immediate district from which we write, so great has been its value during the late cold spring, that pro- vision has been made to extend its growth very consi- derably, and the seed is now being deposited under favourable circumstances. The favourite variety is the long red-bugle mangel; but the long red, long yellow, yellow globe, and red globe, are all cultivated in the dis- trict and with great success. The long-reds in both varieties are preferred on the rich deep loams, and the globes on shallower soils. All are grown of good qua- lity, and in good seasons yield very large and heavy crops. The crops are put in on a clean fallow, well and deeply pulverized, chiefly on ridges, and either drilled in by the dry or liquid manure drill, with superphosphate of lime and ashes, or other artificial aids; or it is dibbled in, and the superphosphate of lime, as mixed, &c., economized by lads dropping the seeds and covering in the holes by the application of a handful of it in a damp state. The latter mode though tedious, is highly approved. The ridges are manured with good foldyard dung, at the rate offroml2to 16 two-horse cart-loads per acre. The seed is invariably steeped to encourage its early vegeta- tion. Hoeing commences as early as is practicable, and is continuous; it having now become an established truth that this root cannot be stirred too frequently. Our principal object in introducing the mangel crop now, is to call attention to the importance of attaining the greatest amount of nutritive value in the roots. Crops large and bulky may be grown, but of comparatively little real value. The quantity of water contained in mangel-wurzel roots is astonishing ; and although we do not depreciate a crop of vast weight, but deem it of great worth, inasmuch as a requisite quantity must be supplied to satisfy the cravings of the animal's stomach, yet if it is destitute of nutritive value the animal is soon affected by scouring or other ills, and but little good is the re- sult. What is absolutely required is nutritive value, and to obtain this it is necessary to supply the soil with those 626 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. manures and chemical ingredients which will not fail to secure such a desired acquisition, so that we have in fact and reality " quantity and quality combined in plenty." The following may be useful in causing many growers to adopt the best possible practice in the cultivation of this invaluable root. Composition of three vakietjes of Mangel Wur- ZEL in their natural STATE. Orange Long Red. Short Red. Globe. Water 85.18 84.68 86.52 Gum 0.67 0.50 0.13 Sugar 9.79 11.96 10.24 Casein 0.39 0.2G 0.33 Albumen 0.09 0.18 0.03 Pibre, pectin, aud pectin acid .... 3.08 3.31 2.45 99.20 100.89 99.70 Flesh-forming Principles. Wet state 1.60 2.12 1.94 Dry state 10.70 13.88 14.40 According to some authorities 1 ton of mangels re- move the following quantities of mineral matter from the soil : — Mean of 3 speci- Mean of 3 speci- mens of bulb. meus of leaf, lbs. lbs. Potash 4.99 7.86 Soda 3.02 2.52 Lime 0.41 3.31 Maguesia 0.43 3.27 Oxide of iron 0.12 0.52 Phosphoric acid 0.66 1.94 Sulphuric acid 0.65 2.20 Chloride of sodium .... 5.29 12.82 Silica 0.54 0.76 16.11 35.20 Inferences suggested :— Ist. That the culture of this crop on sandy poor soils, which generally contain mere traces of soluble alkaline salts, cannot be successfully practised ; but that a good dry loam, or a calcareous or sandy clay soil, will be best adapted for raising good crops of mangels, because these kinds of soils are richer in solu- ble salts of potash and soda than any other description of soils. 2nd. That the application of wood ashes, burnt clay, liquid manure, green manures, and other fertilizers rich insoluble potash, will improve the condition and raise the quantity of a crop of mangels ; because this crop does require potash in large quantities for the perfection of both leaves and bulbs. 3rd. That the addition of chloride of sodium or com- mon salt to the manure for mangels is likely to be at- tended with beneficial results. Mr. M'CuUoch's recorded experiments prove the re- lative value of mangels and swedes. He comes to the conclusion that 3 lbs. of mangels are equal to 4 lbs. of turnips. He states that 1 acre of 30 tons of mangels would yield 34^ stones of beef at 6s. 6d. = £11 4s. 3d. ; that 1 acre of 20 tons of swedes would yield but ITi" stones at 6s. 6d. = £5 13s. 9d.— difference £5 10s. 6d.: and it is a generally received opinion that 30 tons of mangels are as easily to be obtained from an acre as 20 tons of swedes. Mangels contain 11.766 of solid matter, Swedes 9.489. Mangels keep well if properly harvested ; Swedes are liable to great fermentation in grave. The Long Yellow is proved to contain the most nutritive matter, but does not produce a crop so bulky as the Long Reds. THE BELLE-ISLE NUISANCES. Sir,— I trust I shall be forgiven for addressing you on the subject of the pending proiecutions against the establishments for boiling blood, and other animal matter, at Belle-isle, connected as they are with the New Cattle Market, and so essential to the ))reservation of cleanliness, and freedom from putrescence which would otherwise accumulate in its area if some pecuni- ary stimulus did not exist to insure its instant removal. And my object is to show that, under proper regula- tions, such works are not only innocuous in themselves, but that the immediate collateral benefits derived from them far outweigh any inconvenience that may be felt individually by those residing in the neighbourhood. It is necessary for me to premise that I am not in the least connected, or even acquainted, with the proprietors of these establishments, or their conductors ; that I have never visited any of them ; and that I have no interest whatever in defending them, beyond the ellcitation of truth, and the prevention of a useful manufacture from being broken up by prejudice and caprice. And haviug myself been, some years ago, concerned in the working of a similar estublishment in another part of the king- dom, which was, after four years of prosecution, stopped by an adverse verdict, obtained by the grossest perjury, I can speak from experience, and, I trust, after so many years, dispassionately, on the subject, which is one of considerable importance to the public generally, and to the slaughterers and others connected with the market in particular. I shall now, therefore, proceed to show that such establishments are absolutely necessary ; that they must be placed in the vicinity of the supply of materials ; that under proper regulations they can be rendered not only perfectly healthful, but free from anything that consti- tutes a nuisance ; and that they are of importance, as creating both capital and labour out of materials other- wise a real nuisance wherever they exist. First, the necessity for such establishments will, I presume, be disputed by no one who considers the sub- ject in a proper light. The immense quantity of blood of animals slaughtered in the metropolis weekly must be disposed of in some way or other. At present it is col- lected in casks, and removed to these establishments, where it is boiled down in afresh state, which prevents putrescence or decay, and renders the slaughter-houses comparatively clean, and free from impurities. What would be the consequence if these establishments were set aside ? ^Vhy, that the blood would be turned into THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 527 the common sewers, to run into the Thames, where it would accumulate in coagulated masses on the shore, scattering poison in all directions by its putrescence, and thus becoming that real nuisance which it is now repre- sented to be. This, I assert, is the only resource the butchers would have, if the boiling establishments were done away with ; for as to its being removed other- wise, in that case it must be laid somewhere, and wherever that might be, it must become a nuisance of ^ an intolerable character, as well as a heavy expense in its removal. If, therefore, these establishments are necessary, the question is, where are tbe proper places for forming them ? Common sense will tell any one that a heavy raw material like blood will not pay for a removal to a distance ; and, in all respects, the nearer to the source of the supply of raw materials the manufacturer is placed, the better. If I understand the case of the Belle-isle plants, they were fixed there before the neighbourhoods now complaining so bitterly were built over ; in which case they have come to the nuisances, and not the nui- sances to them. I question whether in that case a jury would convict. One great advantage of having these near the slaughter-houses is, the facility of reducing the blood by boiling in the freshest possible state, and be- fore any change of a deleterious character can take place. No animal matter, in fact, so soon putrefies as blood; and in that state the gases emitted are really poisonous. But the boiling of blood in a fresh state is no more injurious than the operations of a cook's shop. I have known men who worked at these manu- factories who became more robust than before ; and their families, who resided within a few yards of the boilers, never knew what illness was, whilst they continued there. Let such establishments, however, be fixed where they may, it is better for them to be together than scattered ; as they would only, in the latter case, acquire the greater odium. For this reason, the tanners and curriers have fixed themselves, in a body, at Bermondsey ; the manufacturing chemists, too, generally lie near each other ; and why these also should not be con- sidered nuisances I cannot say. But there they have been, time out of mind, without molestation or com- plaint. I would engage to say that if a tanner or a currier were to plant himself in any new neighbourhood, he would at once be denounced as an intolerable nuisance by the sensitive persons, between whose nobility and the wind they should chance to come. I have already spoken of the innocuous character of a blood-boiling establishment. This, however, I admit, depends upon the care taken to boil the materials fresh, and to keep the casks and utensils, as well as the whole of the premises, scrupulously clean. If this only is at- tended to, I defy any medical man to prove that any deleterious gases can be emitted from it in suflScient quantity to produce illness. Nor is this challenge oflfered at random, having now before me the professional opinion of one of the most eminent chemists of the present day, drawn up expressly for the purpose of ex- onerating; a similar establishment from the absurd charges that were brought against it, and showing that, when conducted on proper principles, it is impossible that any evil consequences to public health can ensue, or any gases of a poisonous nature be evolved. The danger can only arise from the negligence of the workmen, in allowing the boiling material to burn at the bottom or sides of the boiler, by which carbonic acid gas is evolved ; or using putrid materials, which is opposed to the in- terests of the proprietor; the yield of solid product being in exact proportion to the freshness or otherwise of the blood, &c., under process. It is therefore the direct interest of the proprietor to see that this con- dition— so essential to the healthmess of the establish- ment— is carried out to the fullest extent. Such, however, is the improvement effected by science in these processes, that what is considered offensive in them, may not only be suppressed entirely, but rendered profitable to a large extent. By the use of condensing and evaporating pans, the various gases may be separated and condensed. The most abundant of these is am- monia, which may all be absorbed by placing pans of common salt within the pipes through which the gases pass from the boilers, &c. When supersaturated, the salt becomes a valuable article of commerce, as sal- ammoniac, or ammoniacal salts, the use of which, in agriculture, is so well known by scientific men. The inflammable gases also may, by a simple process, be separated and usefully employed in lighting the premises. In fact, every particle of the aeriform fluid evolved from these animal substances may be thus arrested and con- verted to some beneficial and profitable use ; and these establishments, which now create so much alarm, appre- hension, and hostility, will, in the end, be found to be not only perfectly harmless, but free from annoyance to any one, and doubly beneficial to the community. I am quite aware that my last proposition — the pecu- niary consideration — ought to have no weight, if it could be proved that the establishments themselves were injurious to the public welfare or health. But having, I trust, shown that such is not the case, I shall now proceed to show that in the creation of capital, the em- ployment of labour, and the consumption of materials of various kinds, these establishments are of no small im- portance to the community. And in order to illustrate this more forcibly, I shall give you a short sketch of the history of the one to which I have ah'eady referred, as having been suppressed by an adverse verdict, obtained by the grossest perjury it ever was my lot to hear in a Court of Justice. In the year , a house in London determined to form an establishment for drying blood in the town of . Previously, this material had been poured down in the sewers which emptied themselves into the river , where it always lay in a mass of putrid coagulum, and infected the quays at all times, with febrile disease, especially in hot weather, when the eiiiuvia were intoler- able. Not one shilling had ever been derived from this material, nor was it ever turned to any account. Our friend having contracted with the slaughterman, commenced his operations. His establishment con- sisted of a premises which had been shut up for years, 528 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and which stood in the middle of a f eld, two drays and horses, two draymen, two boiler-men, and one ware- houseman. To these he paid wages ranging from 10s. to 18s. per week, with overtime money for night-work. Besides these, he immediately called into requisition the services of the carpenter, bricklayer, ironfounder, cooper, wheelwright, and many other craftsmen, for some of whom constant, and others occasional, employ- ment was created. It is unnecessary to go into all the details of this concern ; and it will suffice to state that from .£800 to ±"1,000 per annum was paid in the purchase and manufacture of an article which never be- fore fetched a penny, but was a constant nuisance and injury to the health of the town ; that £"'90 per annum was paid for premises previously for a long period un- occupied, £250 for labour, £'130 to the steam-vessel companies, and considerable sums to every kind of tradesman and mechanic, whilst not one shilling of the profits of the concern were ever spent out of the town, of which all the employes were natives. With regard to the establishment itself, it stood in a field open to the south and west, and at the distance of from 60 to 100 yards from any houses to the north and east. The tvhole neighbourhood almost consisted, on these points, of every description of trade that might properly be termed "nuisances." Within a radius of 250 yards, not less than fifty or sixty of such establish- ments were to be found — tanners, curriers, skinners, knackers, catgut makers, glue, size, and parchment boilers, malt roasters, manufacturing chemists, rectifiers of acids, dyers, distillers, and a variety of others "too tedious here to mention." In fact, almost every other house in the vicinity was occupied by persons connected with one or other such trade ; and the neighbourhood ought to be considered as the " Bermondsey" of the town of It might reasonably have been hoped that this alone, setting aside the utility jjer se of the concern would have prevented any prosecution. But no ! be- fore ever a brick was laid of the new factory, a cry was raised by a doctor who happened to have a garden near the factory. It was instantly taken up by the residents, and the whole town was laid under contributions to commence a prosecution against what they even did not know the nature of ; and the proprietors of some of the most deleterious establishments joined in the hunt. To make a long story short, after four years of persecution, and having brought the parties up before the various courts fifteen times, they at last succeeded in obtaining a verdict against them, and the concern was stopped. This was principally through the evidence of a medical man ; the value of whose testimony will be estimated when I state that, wanting to show that it was of no use shutting the windows against the effluvium, he swore that he " saiv the steam rise from thepipe (about 2^ in.' in diameter), fly across the field, settle on a chimney, and disappear !" This horrible fact paralyzed the whole court, except the judges and counsel, the former of whom exhibited something like a smile at the unscientific absurdity of the evidence. The consequences, however, of the verdict were that the blood from the shambles again flows into the river, that the butcher-boys are without their pence on the Saturday night, that a large establishment is broken up, and that from one thousand to fifteen hundred pounds per annum are lost to the town of — •, which has once more returned to its original state of filth and foetor, the nursery of fever and every abomination.* Whatever, then, may be the clamour against the establishments in Belleisle, I trust the magistrates will pause before they hold the proprietors to bail to answer the charge at the sessions. Rather let them insist upon their doing all in their power to suppress the effluvia, so as to render the concern inoffensive as well as harmless. Let them carry out the improvements that I have sug- gested, and they will accomplish this without difficulty. As to the sickness said to be superinduced by it, I am quite aware that " imagination will kill aiid imagination will cure" ; and I ascribe the sickness to the outcry raised by the medical man, who, I have no doubt, will make a very good thing of his opposition. Repeating, then, that I know no parties on either side this contro- versy, and that 1 never conversed on the subject with a single individual, but have taken it up on general and public grounds, I beg to subscribe myself. Yours truly, London, Feb. 2nd, 1856. Fairplav. FARMING WITHOUT A DRILL. It were difficult to estimate the general loss sustained for the want of proper implements and machinery in connexion with agriculture ; and perhaps at no season of the year is this more severely felt than in seed-time. How many farms, for example, are there in the United Kingdom, upon which there is not a single seed and manure drill, a harrow worth the yoking, or roller that is not worse than useless ! and yet upon these very farms the tenants are the greatest grumblers about bad seed- times, and their consequences— increased expenses in hoeing, and deficient harvests. Drills are let out to hire at so much per ucre, one serving a whole " country round," having five or six times the land to go over which it can do in a season ; hence the majority of farms are too late, while some, to avoid this, have recourse to the opposite extreme. Politicians may advocate secrecy in collecting agricultural statistics ; but so far as implements are concerned, ought not the reverse to be the rule ! We lately met with an interesting example of this kind, in examining a farm of 300 acres, not 100 miles * Tills prosecution, too, was conducted under the instruc- tions of the Board of Health ! THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE. 5S9 from the British capital, for the purpose of renting it ; and what made it doubly more so, is the fact that it was and had been for some time in the natural possession of the proprietor — one who cannot plead the want of capital ! The arable land, consisting of about 200 acres on a four-course shift, was principally a dry, sandy soil, subject to suffer from drought during summer. That portion of it for oats and barley was ready for sowing, with the exception of one field under winter turnips, which had to be eaten off by sheep. We hinted several times gently that the land was in the best possible order for harrowing, drilling, and rolling, while the season was more than inviting ; but the bailiff grumbled as often, in reply, about the want of a drill, there being nothing of the kind upon the farm ! With a " dripping May," the land produced fine crops, he said; but if burnt up about this time or prior, only so and so, there not being very much corn, and still less straw. The fields were rather small, so that we soon got over one into another, where the topic of a fine seed-bed appeared before us as fresh as ever. Having gone over some three or four, we came to one under winter tares for eating off with sheep. The crop was luxuriant, and promising in the highest degree; proving in a very satisfactory manner the importance of having plenty of sap in such ground. At length we came to the lands which had been under turnips. One field was ploughed, and ready for sowing ; while a second was nearly so. The crops in both had been eaten off with sheep, so that our prac- tical readers will readily comprehend the state they were in, and the loss being sustained from lying exposed in this manner to the weather. Here every) ridge^ ought to have been harrowed, drilled with seed, and rolled as soon as ploughed, in order to keep in the sap ; but instead of this, ridge after ridge was left exposed to the rustling and drying winds of March, in that cloddy state peculiar to sheep- trodden lands during winter. By this time the want of a drill was as familiar in our mouths as household words ; so, accordingly, by way of consolation to the bailiff, we pointed to the clouds as promising rain at no very distant date, not knowing that some wet clay- land fields lay only a little before us, ploughed and ready for getting in the seed, in excellent condition. Mr. E had unquestionably his master's interest at heart ; he at this time giving unmistakeable evidence of it. His tongue — a very voluble one — pouring forth a torrent of figures, like the columns of a " Ready Reckoner," proving beyond a doubt that 300 acres of land could well afi'ord to keep a drill, and something more. Three long days and nights, however, had yet to expire before the promised time of a drill arrived, and even this depended upon the weather, and circum- stances over which the contractor had no control. What the sequel was, we did not wait to see ; but so far as gone forms part of the history of an English land- lord farming without a drill. But this is not all; for, on coming to the " conditions of lease," we were told by way of commendation that less than £ would cover the out-goings, including implements, tillages, &c. ! <• What next ?" was the first impulse which such a proposition as this left upon the mind ; but of course civility demanded a diflferent answer. Accordingly, we started the counter one of farming without a drill ! It was successful, the parties at once comprehending that we intended the farm as an experimental one for steam culture, involving a little more capital. The fact is, the farm would have been a bad bargain at no rent at all, had the tenant been bound to farm with the stock then upon it. This, too, is no premature conclusion ; for in going over a farm, it is always necessary to estimate results from the means used to effect them. In the case in question, for example, we had for results part of the wheat and barley crops of 1855 unthrashed ; also hay in the stack-yard, with some turnips, potatoes, and carrots not yet consumed. In the fields again there were the winter wheats, young seeds, tares, and grass on the meadows and pasture fields ; next, the quality of the soil of the respective fields on which the above pro- ducts were grown and growing, with the manure applied ; then the implements and machinery, with the live stock and household accommodation ; and, lastly, the number of servants employed on the farm. Now, between these we had to strike a balance ; and that balance showed that what the bailiff was paying in the shape of rent was too little for us as tenant's profit. Before we could have taken the farm under such circumstances, we would have required to have seen some prospects of deriving a little more for ourselves than the balance after paying expenses, leaving nothing for the landlord as rent; whereas, with a proper stock upon the farm, and a sufficiency of artificial manure applied, a fair rent could have been paid. Such is the difference between good and bad farming — between the requisite amount of improved implements, machinery, and manures, brought to bear upon the soil, and the reverse; between the flail of the last century, and the steam-engine and thrashing-machine of the present ; between hiring your neighbour's drill, and using your own ; in a word, between antiquated systems and modern ones. The details of such a picture we leave our readers to fill in. The flailmen in the barn, together with the old thatched buildings, would certainly form a rich subject for a modern Hogarth, such as would do justice to Marlborough House or the National Gallery. In the field, again, the horses' feet were doing more harm than the harrows were doing good. Once over the ground with a pair of Howard's would have been more effective than three times with such things. Even the hundred acres of meadows were so intersected, like a network, with open drains, as to render the use of a haymaking-machine next to im- possible. And what is not the least amusing part of the story, is the fact that the farm, after all, was among the best-managed ones in the district ! 530 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. THE APPLICATION OF GEOLOGY AND HYDRAULICS TO THE DRAINAGE OF LAND. The usual monthly meeting took place on Monday, May 5, at the Club-house, Blackfiiars ; Mr. J. Wood in the chair. The subject appointed for discussion, introduced by Mr. R. Baker, of Writtle, was "The Application of Geology and Hydraulics to the Drainage of Land." After a few introductory remarks from the Chairman, Mr. Robert Baker commenced his observations by stating that he hoped to be able to treat the ques- tion without reference to the particular practice of any one, feeling assured that the object he had in -view, of explaining the principles of draining, would be belter attained by dealing with the subject as a science, than by attacking or defending any particular systems adopted by others. He then proceeded to observe that the dia- grams and plans he had introduced had been prepared for explaining the principles of geology ; the larger one explained the geological arrangement of the strata of the earth, and was copied from Dr. Buckland's celebrated work ; the other he had prepared himself, to explain the subject then under notice, and of which be should treat as he was best able, begging the members to excuse his not having prepared a well-digested paper in place of the imperfect address he was about to ofier ; but al- though he was aware that no excuse should be allowed to persons who neglected the performance of any duty self-imposed, still, from the pressure of business, and other matters, he craved their indulgence. The science of geology treated of the formation and disposition of the various strata of the earth ; and, although the sub- ject under notice would not afford him any opportunity of bringing it before them beyond that of explaining the theory and disposition of the soils and subsoils affecting the operations of draining, still some of the phenomena attendant upon their distribution might not be out of place; and, commencing at the beginning, he would state that one of his diagrams explained the relative position of the primary and transition rocks — the, primary being those of the oldest cha- racter, ns granite, igneous in origin, and unstratified ; the secondary, or transition rocks, being those which had been produced from the primary by the ac- tion of the elements, and had become deposited by water and stratified ; the tertiary series consisted princi- pally of chalk, London and Wealden clay, together with every variety of clay which had been at a later period acted upon by currents of water or displaced by its power, and this series was denominated erratic, from the deposits of gravel, sand, loam, and other substances becoming irregulaily intermixed with large boulders beneath the surface, and upon the nature of which he should have occasion to dwell. Mr. Baker then pro- ceeded at some length to explain the various depositions of the earth's strata in their regular order and suc- cession, in relation to each other, and explained by the geological map the respective positions assigned them upon the surface of this kingdom, showing by proceed- ing from the north-east in a south-westerly direction, the diluvium of Norfolk, consisting of beds of sand and gravel, to the crag, clay, chalk, gravel, loam, and other deposits of Suffolk and Essex, passing over the London clay to the chalk clay, and thence to the chalk of Cam- bridgeshire, the green sand of Huntingdonshire, to the oolite of Somersetshire, &c. He then by the diagram explained that the deposition of the erratic strata was of an alternating character, a porous soil usually resting upon a tenacious or impervious soil beneath, the water percolating freely through the former until it reached the latter ; and there, meeting with resistance to its further descent, flowing underground until reaching some point where the obstruction was least, it flowed out and formed springs, generally at the lower edge of hills and mountain-ranges ; thereby, by a wise ordina- tion of Providence, plentifully supplying every district with pure spring-water. Were it not for the retentive character of the clay, by which the water was prevented sinking beyond our reach, it would not be available for our use, thus almost disproving the opinion advanced by a certain class of drainer, that water i)ercolates freely through compact homogeneous clay freely. Mr. Baker next proceeded to explain the nature of Artesian borings for water, showing that, as the water, from being confined within a channel at a very great depth beneath the surface, and its accumu- lation being greatest at a higher level, rose by its own force, and by means of the perforations made by these borings, from 100 to 300 feet and upwards, as the case might happen, and flowed over the surface constantly for many years together, thereby benefiting districts hitherto unhealthy, by affording them an abundant and continuous supply of spring water ; and no doubt that tl.e water so accumulated at length found a natural dis- charge by aid of the porous strata, throiigh which it flowed to the sea, as the rising and falling ol the tides affected the discharge of the bored springs, the co'umns of water from them rising and sinking every twelve hours, with the flow and ebb of the tide, at all points where they had been formed near the sea coast. The vast accumulations of water by which we obtained a continuous supply with apparent little diminution was, nevertheless, affected by long seasons of drought, exactly as large fresh-water reseryoirs were also affecte I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 531 above ground. Lake Erie, for example, containing up- wards of 10,000 acres, discharged itself by the fall of Niagara, yet sometimes the height of the water was several feet higher than at other times ; this arose from the supply becoming increased by sudden rain, the melt- ing of the ice and snow upon the mountain ranges, &c., influenced also by low temperature and lessened evapo- ration, which, being confined within the bounds of the lake, and escaping by one outlet, influenced the discharge at that point in the same way as an immense under- ground collection of water influenced the flow of ordi- nary springs at the surface. The ordinary springs he had referred to were produced by water escaping from extensive reservoirs beneath. Water compressed in any channel would seek the lowest level, and then, by its own elasticity, would invariably have a tendency to escape upwards. Whenever thus disposed in under- ground channels, the description of land lying above was called spring land, and it required a mode of drainage entirely different from another usual description, which obtained an overcharge from above, from which it could not be relieved except by evaporation, or by slowly percolating through the subjacent soil. Water by its own gravity would descend into a soil more or less porous, until, from becoming fully sur- charged, it would flow over the surface at the lowest point of inclinatiou ; or it proceeded laterally and hori- zontally to an adjacent drain, and thus, by gradually discharging itself through the soil, left it dry and fit for cultivation, and the production of agricultural crops of grain or roots. Upon the majority of strong clay soils the largest portion of the water that became absorbed efiected its passage therefrom into drains a little below the point where the cultivable soil united with the tena- cious subsoil below ; or, if the upper stratum happened to be porous, it sunk deeper, until at length it found its way into the drain ia tha niaaacr before described. By way of experiment this winter he had a trench cut exr.ctly one yard from a new pipe-drain, three-and-a- half feet deep, the drain being also of the same depth, and parallel thereto. The trench was filled with water, which during the first night was discharged to the depth of 18 inches ; but the remaining portion of the water remained in the trench, to the depth of about two feet, for several days afterwards ; proving that it could not escape throjgh iLe clay, or, if it did so, only by perco- lating very slowly. Water exerts a power in all direc- tions equally : the pressure downwards is always in relative proportion to the height of the column, and is equal upon each square inch of the base yielding it sup- port ; but it mast be recollected that a column of water is never found to exist in a subsoil of two feet in depth. Water sinks by its own gravity, and, if it meets but little resistance, exerts a pressure in accordance ; but, if a soil of close texture intervenes, it percolates only, and that slowly, and is partly upheld by it ; but, as the re- sistance is always least nearest the drain, the water escapes at once rather than by sinking in the soil down- wards, where a greater resistance exists than is found in the direction of the drain. The space of soil nearest the drain being the first that becomes discharged of water, the next portion of the soil also dis- charges itself, and so in succession to half the distance betwixt the nearest drains, and continues so to discharge itself until the whole of the upper soil becomes released of its superabundant supply ; but if the distance is too great betwixt drain and drain, the water does not escape freely from those points furthest distant therefrom. It will thence become apparent that in draining soils of a retentive character at the surface, the depth of drain is no longer an object that is abso- lutely necessary to carry off the water freely. It should be so deeply placed below the surface as not to be liable to derangement fay external interference, and for this a drain three feet in depth would be amply sufficient ; but if, on the other hand, the upper soil is kept in a wet state by the upward action of water from below, then the drains will need to be made deeper to enable them to carry it oS" sufficiently, and not to allow it to rise by the pressure produced from below, by its flowing from a higher level, also aided by the capillary action going on in the soil above. Mr. Baker then at some length explained how drains acted most efiiciently, whether by diagonally or straight up and down the greatest inclination of the surface. He stated that undoubtedly the line down the hill was the best, pro- vided it was not too sudden ; and explained that a drain of three feet in depth would drain a porous soil, even deeper than the drain itself, as water lying above a given point would be drained to a depth the difference of the fall from the point in question, in a direction up the level of the drain ; but that a drain diagonally would drain the soil lying above it parallel a further distance than the soil below ; also parallel by the difference of the fall, proportionate with the distance from the drain. Mr. Baker then adverted to the effects that had been pro- duced at a later geological period upon the surface soils of this kingdom, by water converting the clay subsoil into ridges, almost similar to the ridge and farrow sys- tem pursued above ; and afterwards by subsidence filling the interstices so excavated with porous soils, through which water percolates freely. Hence the system pursued upon the Keythorpe estate of Lord Berners, in Leicestershire, and which had been drained by taking advantage of this circumstance, by first dig- ging trial-holes at various distances from point to point, and afterwards by observing how far distant the drains operated upon them, cutting other drains to secure a perfect system. Mr. Baker said that this question had been gravely discussed, with little advantage ; the fact was, that every drainer set up a theory of his own, which he would not resign, however convincing any other theory might appear, or however much practice confuted it allogether. As much discussion had pro- bably taken place respecting pipes in clay as had taken place over pipes of clay, and probably with as little satisfactory result. He considered it essential that every one proceeding with the drainage of land 532 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. should beforehand perfectly understand the nature of the soil below that he might have to deal with ; this was essential to success, and indeed soils were designated below by appearances above. The plants that grew upon the surface also indicated the quality of the subsoil below. Thus the corn poppy, tine-tare. May-weed, corn marigold, white charlock, groundsel, fumitory, all indicated by their presence a light sandy or silicious soil. The wild oat, garlic, daisy, charlock, millilot, fescue varieties of grasses, cowslip, orchis, all indicated the presence of chalk, especially chalky clay soils; corn mint, arsmart, coltsfoot, &c., indicate wet spongy subsoils ; thus geology and botany go hand in hand so far as the constituent properties of soils and subsoils influence vegetation. The knowledge of these matters greatly influences successful draining. The mixing or combining the subsoils with the upper soil materially influenced production. Through the silicious districts of Norfolk cultivation was accelerated by dig- ging up marl clay from beneath, and spreading it on the surface. Throughout Essex and Suff"olk the carting of chalk clay acted more beneficially upon the first appli- cation than continuous applications of manure would effect. The clay of Lincolnshire was dug up and com- bined with the peat soil above, and the utmost produc- tiveness was attained. It was necessary that a farmer, upon hiring a farm, should know sufficient of geology beforehand to enable him to predicate what he would find below. It was a most important consideration upon many farms, and might be turned to as good ac- count as the application of either chalk or lime, found so beneficial for the production of grain crops through- out districts of vast extent in this kingdom. Mr. Baker concluded by stating that his object was to elicit truth, and not to set up any theory of his own (Hear). Mr. Bailey Denton (of Stevenage, Herts.), after some introductory remarks upon the general subject of the lecture, proceeded to comment upon the ob- servations of Mr. Baker with regard to drainage. That gentleman had stated that drains at four feet depth would not draw water, and that clay was im- pervious. He (Mr. Denton) begged to say that it was his intention shortly to publish the result of some most minute experiments which he had made, and which went to show the facility with which water would penetrate clays, that were the most homogeneous and impenetrable according to the shallow-draining theory, and the water running from the outlet would answer to the rain-fall. At Haiskworth, in Bedford- shire, the soil was proclaimed to be undrainable ; but it had been drained nevertheless, and that with such accu- racy that it responded most minutely to the rain-fall. That fact was an incontrovertible answer to all that might be said to the contrary. Again, Mr. Baker said that cross drains were not so good as upright drains, or drains which ran in the direction of the fall of the ground ; but was he not aware that the most prominent point about the Keythorpe system was that the drains crossed the fall ? He (Mr. Denton) had risen thus early in the discussion because he had been challenged to give an opinion with regard to the Keythorpe drainage, and had come prepared to do so to-night, and also to chal- lenge contradiction of what he said. When he opposed the Keythorpe system in 1854, he had not seen it ; he had only read the description of it in Mr. Trimmer's paper. And why had he opposed that paper ? Because it advocated a system of drainage where one-tenth part of the whole was drained 18 inches deep with straw and bushes. This might, perhaps, explain clearly enough why Mr. Baker sympathized with Lord Berners ; but he (Mr. Denton) would ask any reasonable man to say whether that was a system of drainage that ought to become a national system, a system for any other person to follow except tenant-farmers, and it might be very good practice for them. But, as a national system of drainage, was a depth of 18 inches a proper and reason- able depth ? and further, were such materials as straw and bushes the proper materials to be used for the pur- pose ? Besides, the drains crossed the fall of the ground, and Mr. Baker himself conceded that that was an error. These, then, were the grounds upon which he had ventured to disagree with the theory of Mr. Trimmer, not the practice of Lord Berners ; but he never denied that the drainage had been effective, and that the theory of Mr. Trimmer was there exemplified. Subsequently certain members of this club, Mr. Baker and Mr. Webster among them, visited the Keythorpe estate, and all proclaimed that the drainage was perfect. Mr. Webster : As far as they saw. Mr. Denton : In deference to such knowledge, of course he was obliged to admit it as proved. A year after that he was asked to read a paper to the Society of Arts. He did so, and again he did not deny the theory of Mr. Trimmer, ncr the effect of Lord Berners' drain- age ; but he spoke to the same points as he had done before. Again, it appeared that the cost of the drainage was 35s. an acre, and that for labour only ; consequently, in an economical point of view, it had little to recom- mend it. Since reading his paper before the Society of Arts, he had himself visited Keythorpe; and here he might be permitted to record his sincere appreciation of the great hospitality with which he had been received by its noble proprietor, and of the worthy example he had set to all landowners and men of his own rank in life. He would adopt for his motto on this occasion, non quo sed quo modo, and he was sure there was not a person then present but would echo the sentiment. Well, he had seen Lord Berners' work, and been challenged to express his opinion upon it ; he hoped, therefore, he should be excused of egotism if he answered to that challenge in his own language, in the first person sin- gular. He had examined the drainage at Keythorpe, and he at once proclaimed that it was most defective. The quality of the soil at Keythorpe was various. There were clays and there were sands, there were gravels and there was rock. The gravels and sand were drained perfectly in gome places ; but it appeared as if, where it THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 533 was perfectly drained, it was done by accident and not by system (laughter). This statement might be a start- ling one ; it was nevertheless true (renewed laughter). As to the clays, some portion of them was not drained at all, another portion was drained shallow, and again another portion was drained deep and drained well : but, upon the whole, there seemed to be a total want of any- thing like system or premeditation. Several fields were undoubtedly well drained, but the majority were defec- tive. Mr. Trimmer left the impression by his paper that the estate consisted of clays, whereas a large por- tion of it was gravel and sand. Mr. Webster : Resting upon clay. Mr. Denton would be excused if he said that he doubted whether the lias clay was on that portion of the estate which he was shown, at all. Mr. Trimmer, in his paper, spoke of the subsoil with a corrugated surface, and certainly the undulations looked very nicely upon Mr. Trimmer's paper ; but M. de la Trehonnais said that when he was at Keythorpe he asked Lord Berners to show him those corrugations, but the reply of his lordship was, " Let Mr. Trimmer answer for himself ; I cannot show them."* He (Mr. Denton) also pressed his lordship to show them to him ; but although he went down for that purpose, he was disappointed, and did not see them. What had Lord Berners done ? He had de- cidedly made use of the gravels to drain the clays, to a certain but very limited extent. He remembered an old rhyme which, speaking of the value of a dry season, ran thus : — " When the clays feed the sand. Then 'tis good for Old England; But when the sand feeds the clay. Then she cries, '0! lack a-day.'" Lord Berners had, no doubt, made use of those varia- tions in the soil to drain the clays, but he had not made use of them to empty the ridges and furrows described by Mr. Trimmer, and the effect was very small indeed. Now, he (Mr. Denton) would suggest that the Central Farmers' Club should appoint a com- mittee to go down and investigate the Keythorpe drainage. He would then put in contradistinction to the Keythorpe drainage two drains of his own, and ask the committee to decide between the three ; and beyond paying the expenses of the committee, whom he pro- * Mr. Bailey Denton has famished the following ex- planation of what he said on this point : — " What 1 said in referring to the regular corrugations ot subsoil pourtrayed by Mr. Trimmer in the Journul of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and transcribed by M. de la Trehonnais into the pages of the Journul dT Acjriculture Pratique of France, was that when at Keythorpe myself I asked Lord Berners to aiTord me an illustration, on the ground, of the undulating subterraneous surface shown by Mr. Trimmer to be so temptingly regular on paper ; and his Lordship's remark was, ' 1 will leave Mr. Trimmer to answer for himself.' I did not quote any words of M. de la Trehon- nais, but contentod myself by referring to the published drawing by whicli he liad exhibited in the French Journal the condition of the subsoil stated by iMr. Trimmer to be frequent in England, but wliich I believe will be found to be exceptional in the most limited degree, and to have no beneficial influence on the general practice of draining, either in this country or in France." posed to name himself and who he knew would be un- exceptionable, he had drawn a check for 20 guineas, which he now handed to the chairman, to dispose of in any way he might direct, in the event of Mr. Trimmer's theory proving to be the correct one. His great anxiety was to elicit truth, and the names of the gentlemen he would propose as a committee were M. de la Trehonnais, the chairman of this club, and Mr. J. C. Morton (Hear, hear, and laughter). Mr. Trimmer (of Dartford) was glad that Mr. Denton had made up his mind on the point whether the Keythorpe estate was effectually drained or not. He understood him to say that it was not, and also that the subterraneous furrows — the corrugated surface to the subsoil — which he (Mr. Trimmer) had described, did not exist. Mr. Denton : I failed to discover them. Mr. Trimmer : The Keythorpe drainage in fact de- pended very much upon the presence of those furrows, and Mr. Denton's appeal to M. de la Trehonnais was rather unfortunate he thought, inasmuch as that gentle- roan had a letter in the Mark-lane Express oi that very day, in which he spoke of those furrows, controverted the statement of Mr. H. Davies that they did not exist, asserted that they were at Keythorpe, and that the Keythorpe system depended upon them. With regard to the observation of Mr. Baker, as to the percolation of water down to a retentive bed of clay, there stopping, he was lately over an estate in Suffolk, on which he ex- pected to find these furrows and ridges, and to which he thought the Keythorpe system would be applicable ; but although there was the same boulder clay on which he relied for the applicability of the Keythorpe drainage, the surface was level, and not a drop of water came in, unless at the junction of the boulder clay with the brick- earth clay. Trial holes were sunk to a depth of 20 feet, and still no water came in. On the level surface which Mr. Baker had described, therefore, there was a porous soil resting on a stiff clay, yet not a drop of water came in except at the junction of the two clays ; and on that kind of soil and surface he certainly did not see what was to be gained by carrying the drains below the junction. Mr. B. Webster (of Neath) thanked Mr. Baker for the practical information he had communicated to the club. In the early days of drainage, Elkington began by cutting off the springs. He attempted the same system by deep drains on the strong clays of the country, and it was found not to succeed. Mr. Smith, of Deanston, then introduced a system of uniform drains, which answered well, and was adopted throughout the country. Later still, Parkes recommended a system of deep drains with small pipes at wide intervals in strong clays, and this had decidedly not answered. Mr. Denton would bear him out in saying, that, at any rate, wide intervals and small pipes had decidedly failed. And if they examined the drainage in any county in England they would find that deep drainage at wide intervals was not only objectionable on the ground 534 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of expense, but had likewise most completely failed. So that the question still remained to be decided, whether upon those strong retentive soils there was any advan- tage in going beyond the depth of three feet. Accord- ing to the report contained in the Highland Society's Journal, it appeared that Mr. Hope, of Fentonbarns, had proved that on his farm in East Lothian, the land, which was shallow-drained at moderate distances, pro- duced heavier and better crops than where it was drained deeper. The experiment was first tried in 1842, and this very day he (Mr. Webster) had received a letter from Mr. George Hope, in which that gentleman stated that he had been thoroughly convinced, from that time to this, that on the retentive soils there was no advan- tage in going deeper than three feet, and that the crops grown on land drained at that depth were decidedly superior to those grown where it was drained at a greater depth. Of course, then, if there were no advantages to be derived from carrying out deep drainage, it would be wise to save the expense of going beyond three feet. At a discussion in the Society of Arts a month or two ago, Mr. Glutton, a most experienced man, stated that where clay land was drained, the action of the air and water passing through it so altered the very nature of the strong yellow clays, that in a few months they would become a deep rich loam. Now that, he (Mr. Webster) took leave to say, appeared to be a perfect absurdity, because they might expose the strongest clays to the action of the sun and air for years, and yet they never altered as in tile and brick yards. And if Mr. Mechi's experiments in deep draining had not changed the character of his clays, he thought there was pretty strong proof that the air and water did not pro- duce the effect which was attributed to them. The only advantsge appeared to be that the temperature of the soils was changed and became warmer, but this was not yet proved. As to the system of drainage pursued at Keythorpe, he had been there, and was of opinion that the greater portion of the land was most efifectually drained. He believed that that system would prove most advantageous when carried out where it was ap- plicable. Mr. Sidney (of Peckham) said, notwithstanding what had fallen from Mr, Webster, he thought the agricultural community were greatly indebted to Mr. Josiah Parkes. Mr. Webster had spoken as if Mr. Parkes had based his whole system on a particalar depth, and on the use of small pipes. That this was not the fact would appear from the following extracts from works, of which Mr. Parkes was the author : — " There cannot, in my opinion, be a more crude or mistaken idea than that one rule of depth is applicable with equal efficiency to soils of all kinds : the same remark applies in regard to assigning any common rule of distance between drains, which may be greater or less according to the depth of the drains, and the texture of the particular soil. It must be self- evident that water will flow through a gravel, or a sand, or a loam, with less obstruction to its passage than through a clay, and easier through one clay than through another containing different proportions of silica and alumina." * * * " An inch-bore pipe is as good in its place as a 6 or a 12 inch ; and it is usual with me to employ all sizes between these extremes, and all with equal propriety ; but, practically, the size used is subject to great variation in different cases." These quotations were suflScient to show that there was nothing empirical in Mr. Parkes's views. Up to 1843 there was nothing like a system of drainage in this country. The whole thing was a secret on different farms. There was no communication between one farmer and another on the subject. Mr. Baker observed that Mr. Smith, of Deanston, laid down a system long before Mr. Parkes (Hear, hear). Mr. Sidney continued : Mr. Smith published a few lectures before 1843 ; but he did not take a complete and philosophical view of the question, as Mr. Parkes did at that period. Mr. Smith's experiments were > directed to the removal of surface water ; whereas every one knew now that the great object was to carry off the water beneath the soil. Mr. Smith's shallow system of drainage had proved a perfect failure on every great estate where it had been tried— (" No, no!") — while, on the other hand, Mv. Parkes had rendered most essen- tial service to agriculture by placing practical men in a condition, as it were, to argue the question, and to compare the results of their experience. Mr. Thomas (of Bletsoe) said, having had thirty years' experience as a farmer and twenty years' expe- rience as a drainer, he wished to say one or two words. As regarded stiff retentive clays, his present mode of proceeding was to drain them with parallel drains, generally at a depth of three feet ; and he thought that if they could get the water off by going that depth, it was folly to incur the expense of going any lower. In the case of other descriptions of land he had gone 6 or 7 feet deep ; but then he had made one drain suffice for 30 acres. He would defy any man to lay down any rule which could be applied universally; they must always be guided to a great extent by the peculiar cir- cumstances of the case. Mr. BiDWELL (of Ely) said, amid all this discussion as to the comparative merits of deep and shallow drainage, it seemed difficult to arrive at definite conclusions as to what should really be the maximum and what the mini- mum depth. Ke thought that for strong retentive clays a depth of 3 feet was quite sufficient ; but he was by no means satisfied that it was so in the cases of clays of a different character, and he would be glad if Mr. Webster v/ould let them hear his opinion on the. point. Mr. Webster said his opinion was, that when they had got to the water at a depth of three feet, and when there was an impervious clay below that depth, it was useless to go any lower. He would never put in a drain of less than from thirty to thirty-six inches deep. Mr. BiDWELL was glad to hear it now admitted by a gentleman who had been an advocate of the shallow sys- tem that about three feet was the minimum depth to which any one ought to go. The difference between THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 335 three feet and three feet six inches, or four feet, was not very material. Mr. C. Stokes (of Kingston, Kegworth) thought there were two essential ingredients in all drainage plans : one was a little common sense, the other a little expe- rience. In all cases draining must, in order to ensure success, be carefully adapted to the nature of the soil. The draining which he had observed to be most effectual was that in which pipes and collars were used. In such draining as that, however, great care should be taken to use only the very best materials : the cost of the work was so great, that the drains ought to be made as per- manent as possible. The drainage he referred to was that on the Kingston estate. After a few words in explanation from Mr. Trimmer and Mr. Denton, The Chairman said he thought that, as they had heard so many professional drainers, it was desirable that they should hear more practical farmers — persons who had no children of their own to sustain (laughter). Perhaps Mr. Tretbewy would favour them with his opinion on the question. Mr. Trethewy (of Silsoc, Beds.), in responding to this call, said, he must confess that he felt somewhat dis- appointed at the turn which the discussion had taken. Instead of having a discussion on the application of geo- logy and hydraulics to agriculture — a subject which, notwithstanding what had fallen from Mr. Denton, he thought Mr. Baker was perfectly justified in introducing (Hear, hear) — they had had one which turned chiefly on the question of the effectual or the non-effectual drainage of the Keythorpe estate. While on that subject, he must complain of a proceeding which appeared to him somewhat irregular, namely, the handing to the Chairman of a cheque for i^21 in confirmation of the views which the speaker entertained. Mr. Denton : No, not in confirmation of them. Mr. Trethewy continued : He believed that such a proceeding was in direct opposition to the rules of the club ; and if there were no rule against it, there cer- tainly ought to be one. He had had some experience with regard to draining in several counties of England, and had tried various systems. The great mistake of deep-drainers consisted in making the drains too far apart ; and this, in his opinion, had done more to bring deep drainage into disrepute than anything else. As re- garded direction, he held it to be a golden rule that the drain should be placed in the direction of the greatest fall. There was one question which had, he confessed, puzzled him a great deal : he referred to the draining of stiff retentive soils upon what was called " high-backed" ridges — a term well understood in some counties — and crooked fallows. He was convinced that if an attempt were made to carry out the parallel system of drainage on land of that description, it would prove a failure. It was, indeed, questionable whether it were expedient to drain such land at all. In his opinion the effect was scarcely worth the cost of the draining. The Chairman said, he thought the question was now pretty nearly exhausted. The leading principles of draining ought now to be patent to all. In the first place, they must know the nature of the soil to be drained, before they could tell what the depth should be : in the next place, they must cut the drains in such a direction that they would most effectually cut the strata of the soil diagonally, so as to carry off the water. He saw no objection himself to draining four feet deep, or even more, provided the drains were not put too far apart. A Member : What about the cost ? (Hear, hear.) The Chairman : Well, the cost would perhaps pre- vent him from going more than three feet (laughter). As regarded depth, he had himself adopted the middle course, acting on the maxim, " In medio tutissimus ibis." The draught of the water through the soil, as affected by the air admitted into the pipes, formed the great ground of debate between the deep and the shal- low drainers. As regarded stiff clays, having observed fissures in all directions towards the drains, he was himself strongly of opinion that water did penetrate into the subsoil to the depth of four feet (Hear, hear). Being one of the party who recently had the pleasure of visiting the Keythorpe estate, he must confess that he did not consider the system of drainage there perfect. He observed, in some cases, holes full of water, within two or three feet of the drain ; and he thought he was justified, therefore, in assuming that the land was not thoroughly drained. He thought the estate would have been more effectually drained by means of a few deep drains, constructed on the gridiron system, than by means of drains running through the land in various di- rections, without any regularity. Mr. Bakek, in reply, said his object in introducing botany was, to show that they might judge of the nature of the soil below, from the character of the plants on the surface. Though the discussion had not taken the turn which he anticipated, he still hoped that some useful information had been elicited. As regarded hydraulics, he must confess that, when he came to consider the matter, he felt himself unable to deal with that subject as he had contemplated doing. Mr. Baker concluded his reply with proposing the following resolution, which was carried : " That the principles of draining are so far dependent upon a Icuowledgo of geology and hydraulics, as to render information upon these subjects essential to its utmost development." The proceedings concluded with a vote of thanks to Mr. Baker, and a similar compliment to the Chairman. 536 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. DEEP CULTIVATION — AT HOME AND ABROAD. When tlie pi-ophet alluded to the divinely-given wis- dom which leads the ploughman to " open and break the clods of his ground," he characterised the operation of tillage in terms wliich the light of modern science and practice has enabled us more fully to understand. We " open " the ground not only to admit the seeds or to allow the free spreading of the roots of our crops, but to let in the atmosphere, the rains, and dews which impregnate the recesses of the subsoil with fertility. We " break the clods " not merely to favour the fine rootlets of young plants, but to expose an infinitely multiplied extent of superficies in the pulvei'ized mould to the chemical action of the gases we call "the air," And the teachings of Jethro Tull, of Deanston Smith, and of Lois-Weedon Smith; the practice of Flemish farmers and vineyard cultivators abroad, and of market-gardener;?, cottagers, and trench-ploughers at home, are all commentaries and illustrations develop- ing the significance of the Hebrew's descriptive phrases. And have we not a corroboration of tlie advantage of deep and minute tillage in the natural processes which are working around us ? Have not we all seen lie changed texture and productive quality of a weathered subsoil ; seen the sterile clay from the deep drain moulder into manageable and wholesome soil under the culture of a single wintering : reminding us of the saying of Dr. Clarke, that " the frost is God's plough, which he drives through every inch of gi'ound," pulverating and fructifying all ? But to come to particular examples. Mr. Hoskyns has described the practice of the vine-growers in Madeira, which forms a remarkable and striking lesson for us. Tlie vine is not a native of that island; and after growing well for a few years, the fruit begins to degenerate, and makes inferior wine. The expense of new stocks being very gi-eat, as they are usually brought from the hock-vineyards of Germany, every expedient has been tried in order to jiostpone the evil as long as jiossible ; but no manuring, or pruning, or attention, is of any avail ; and the only remedy is found in deep cultivation. " I once happened," he says, " to see the process. Nearly a score of labourers, hard at work, were standing in a long trench as deep as they were tall, stocking the earth from one side and throwing it up on the other. On inquiry, they told me they were trenching «« old vineyard for fresh planting — trenching nearly six feet deep ! Some months afterwards, a merchant, in taking me over his wine-stores, pointed out in some casks that wei'e being broken up a mineral incrustation about as thick as a half-crown and as brittle as glass, which he called tartrate of lime i adding, that it was commonly de- posited by the wine, especially when new. I after- wards ascertained that potash and soda existed in the (Icposit. Now these minerals are very deficient in the soil of the island. Hero, then, was good reason for I deep trenching. The vine, to supply its mineral wants, I robbed the soil so fast of what little alkali it contained, that nothing but the opening of a great depth to the action of the roots would keep up the supply for many years ; for the roots of delicate plants will not travel through earth that has never seen daylight." The vegetable gardens which supply Covent Gai'den, and the other markets of the metropolis, we all know, are not only profusely manured, but deeply tilled ; and in many cases tlie subsoil has been dug up, in the gradual course of time, no less than four or five feet deep, to supply the waste of mineral matter to the soil above. In certain parts of Flanders they have a peculiar mode of gradually deepening the staple by spade- trenching : trenches being dug between the lands when sown, and the subsoil thrown over the surface. They go about two inches deeper than the cultivator has hitherto reached ; and by shifting the trenches side- ways each year, at the end of a certain number of years two inches of the entire subsoil become mixed with the upper surface, and the soil is thus deepened by that amount. The same process is then repeated a couple of inches deeper still ; and after four or five courses of trenching, the land is brought to a depth of 18 or 20 inches of uniform quality. In Jersey they use a trench plough, which follows the common plough, and by means of a shelving mould-board raises the subsoil out of the furrow and throws it on to the top of the just turned furrow-slice. Tliis is done as a regular thing once at the commence- ment of every rotation — that is, at the breaking up in autumn for the next year's turnip fallow. Now let us observe in these instances that the sub- soil is not brought up in large masses to defy the disin- tegrating powers of weather and crushing implements ; nor is the whole of the cultivated staple buried under- neath a great thickness of the lifted subsoil, and so placed out of reach of the young plants above ; neither is the subsoil merely broken and stirred, and covered again immediately by the original staple, soon to coalesce again into its former impervious condition : nor is it simply mingled partially and imperfectly with the staple, as is the case in some descriptions of subsoil ploughing. But it is lifted bit by bit, a little at a time, and exposed in a granulated state openly iqjon the surface, so as to be subjected to the ameliorating agencies that are above ground. And it is by appealing to long-known and well- established practices like these, that we can readily confute the oljjections which have been brought against trench-ploughing, and explain the causes of failure in many cases of its trial. The secret of want of success in trenching clays and strong loams, wherever it has occurred, lies, we believe, in the want of judgment ex- ercised in performing the operation, and not in any THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 537 poverty or badness inherent in the subsoil. If a man will bury his fertile and highly-conditioned staple of four inches underneath half-a-foot thickness of raw un- mellowed clay-^thus providing for his crops a banquet of mineral food in abundance, but food uncooked and Incapable of being digested by those fastidious epicures, young plants— can he expect an adequate and quick return of profit from the expensive pi'ocess ? But on the self-same kuid of soil he knows there are cottage gardens in plenty, which are yielding richly and profit- ably to the deep-working spade and fork : and one of the main points in the matter has been that the deep- ening was gradual. Reason tells us that what the atmospheric influences, manurings, and the growth of vegetation have, in the course of time, made of four or five inches of a mass of clay, they can in the same manner make of several inches more; and this manner is by penetrating and permeating through the avenues opened by tillage. Of course, we ought not to be too wild in our expectations, or too extravagant in our de- scriptions of such a transformation ; so that when a practical man states that " where clay land is drained, the action of the air and water passing through it so alters the very nature of the strong yellow clays, that in a few months they will become a deep rich loam," we may challenge the accuracy and appropriateness of the terms employed. At the Farmers' Club, Mr. Webster took this course ; but in so doing he unfortu- nately went too far, and said that we might expose the strongest clays to the action of the sun and air for years " and yet they never altered." Quite true that after centuries of cultivation our tenacious clays have not been rendered into friable loams; but is not the thin staple which has been cultivated mellower and of freer texture than the untilled subsoil whicla it once resembled ? And where the tillage has been adapted to accomplisli the change talked of; where it has gradually deepened the upper soil and opened the subsoil by deep drainage, subsoiling, and trenching — there it is just as true that the land is made more workable, as well as richer and warmer. If any man's personal observation, or the instances wc have adduced, are not sufficient to convince him, let him go to Lois-Weedon, and thrust his walking-stick into Mr. Smith's fallow intervals, or witness the easy traction of his ploughs, while in the adjoining fields four horses are turning up a furrow four or five inches deep. THE WOOL TRADE. BY AN OLD NORFOLK FARMER. No. IV. The present century opened with the return of peace (1801), giving hopes of a free intercourse with the con- tinent of Europe. Simultaneously with this flattering prospect, improvements in the machinery used in manu- factures were introduced, of such a nature that thirty- four persons could do the work which employed sixteen hundred upon the old principle ; and a girl of sixteen was able to superintend a machine that superseded the labour of many men. These changes, so important in the history of our trade, alarmed the operative classes, who fancied they saw their future employment annihi- lated. A few years after, the recommencement of the war, and the promulgation and enforcement of the Berlin and Milan decrees by Napoleon Buonaparte, by which all British goods were shut out from the whole of Continental Europe, occasioned much distress in the manufacturing districts. Erroneously ascribing this to the use of machinery, an organized conspiracy was set on foot by the operatives, the object of which was the entire destruction of every kind of machinery. From the name of one of the conspirators, Ludd, they were called Luddites. In Yorkshire, especially the West Riding, the rioters demolished several mills, with all their machinery, before any adequate eflforts were made to arrest their progress. At Huddersfield they shot Mr. Horsfall, a respectable manufacturer, dead near his own house ; upon which, a reward of ^£"200 being offered for the detection of the murderers, one of the rioters turned approver, and seventeen persons implicated in the out- rage were tried and found guilty, and were all executed on the same day. By this terrible act of retributive justice — which, however, was quite of a piece with the practice of that period — twelve widows and fifty-seven orphans were left tr- struggle through a cold and unfeel- ing world. Several more of the conspirators were under indictment ; but the combination being dissolved, and the rioters dispersed, the Government on their part abandoned the rest of the prosecutions. The eflSciency and despatch to which the British manufactures of all kinds had attained, may be judged from the following circumstance, which occurred about the year 1818 or '20 : — At an agricultural meeting at Reading, a gentleman offered a wager that he would appear at a ball, to be given in the town the next day, in a coat made from zvool taken from the sheep the same day. This wager was accepted, and the gentleman Twhose name we forget) did actually appear at the ball in a blue coat, the wool of which it was made, having gone through the processes of shearing, washing, card- ing, combing, spinning, dyeing, weaving, dressing, cut- ting out, and making into the garment, all within the space of about eighteen hours ! At the close of the war, in 1815, on a proposal from the agricultural interest in Parliament to impose a heavy duty on foreign and colonial wool, a select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the wool trade. It was then found that the price of wool had increased from 20 to 50 per cent., and that the distress of which they complained was in no respect 0 0 538 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. attributable to the importation of foreign wool, or the low price of English wool, which then sold readily at 60s. per tod ; and the Committee therefore could not recommend the imposition of a duty. Another attempt, however, in 1819, was more successful. The embarrass- ments of the Chancellor of the Exchequer,led him to com- promise ths aflfair by offering, that if the landed interest would agree to a malt tax to the amount of ^1,400,000, he would impose a duty of sixpence per pound on all wools of foreign growth imported. At this period the export of British wool was illegal ; and had the agricul- turists petitioned for its free export, instead of a duty on imports, it would have been more in accordance with their own interests, as well as those of the country at large. The import of foreign wool amounted, in 1820, to only 16,000,000 pounds, whilst the export of woollen goods made from British wool, consumed 32,000,000 pounds ; so that we exported double the weight of im- ported wool. But the collateral effect was still more direct and palpable. One of the first results of the tax was a prohibition by the Government of Spain, of all British-manufactured goods being admitted into that kingdom ; and from that period, the Spaniards supplied themselves with the produce of their own looms, and a considerable portion of our trade was — for the time, at least — destroyed. But we must now notice the progress made in the cultivation of sheep in the foreign colonies of the king- dom, and especially those of the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, the importation of wool from which forms at the present time so large a portion of our annual sup- ply. The first sheep conveyed to Sydney were brought from India in the year 1783, and the following figures will give the reader an idea of the rapid progress of that trade in wool, which now constitutes so important an item in our imports : — Progress of Sheep Culture in Australia. 1788, imported from India 1793, increased to, , 1798, „ 1803, „ 1810, „ 1821, „ 1843. „ 1846, „ 29 526 3,902 10,157 25,888 290,158 4,804,846 6,859,031 Imports of Wool from Australia. 1816 13,611 pounds. 1821 175,433 1826 1,106,302 1831 2,541,205 1836 4,996,645 1841 12,399,062 1846 21,789,346 1851 41,810,117 1853 47,075,812 „ The climate of Australia appears to be peculiarly adapted to the breeding and rearing of sheep, as well as for preserving, if not improving, the staple of the finer descriptions of wool. The country consists of ▼ast plains in the interior, lightly wooded, avid covered with natural grasses and other kinds of herbage, afford- ing the best of pasturage for cuttle of all kinds. The temperature is genial, and precludes the necessity of urliftcial piolecHon for the flocks. The air is pure dry, and bracing. Drought at certain seasons of the year is complained of; but the wide range of country over which the flecks can be shifted affords at all times a sufficient sustenance for any number of sheep, which arrive at maturity earlier there than in Europe. Such was the country upon which Captain McArthur con- ferred the invaluable benefit of the introduction of the Spanish breed of sheep — the source of unbounded wealth to the colonists, as well as to the manufacturers of the mother country. The progress made in the breeding of sheep in South Africa has been much slower than in the Australian colonies, owing in a great measure to the wars with the Caffres, who are continually committing depredations upon the flocks. Great attention, however, has been paid to the breeds of sheep, and the colonists have at great expense imported the Saxon and Merino breeds from Germany, the produce of which is highly esteemed by the British manufacturers. Owing to the want of water for washing the sheep properly, the wool from thence is in a far inferior condition to that of Australia. The number of sheep in the whole of the districts is estimated at about four and a-half millions, and the export of wool has progressed according to the follow- ing table : — Exports of Wool from the Cape of Good Hope. 1816, 1821, 1826. 1831. 1836. 1841. 1846. 1851. 1853. 9,623 12,652 4,192 47,868 331,972 1,079,910 2,958,457 5,816,591 7,221,448* pounds. The above will show that the increase has been much greater, in proportion, the last ten or twelve years, than previously. In fact, it was not until the eminent success of the flockmasters of Australia became noto- rious that the attention of the colonists of South Africa was specially directed to the same pursuit. The culti- vation of the vine, and the manufacture of wine from its produce, was almost exclusively attended to, in some of the districts ; but latterly, the breeding and im- provement of the sheep have become an object of the first importance ; and it is probable that from this time, if the colonists can keep the Caffres quiet, increasing quantities of wool will be exported from thence. The tax imposed upon foreign wool il8'20 proved an great embarrassment to the manufacturers, and peti- tions were presented to Parliament for its repeal, and at the same time for allowing the exportation of British wool. Both these measures were granted in 1824, a nominal duty of one penny per pound being imposed upon both exportation and importation. In 1825, a bill for the consolidation of the customs having been proposed by Mr. Huskisson, this nominal duty upon the imported wool, was reduced to one halfpenny per pound. The annual importation of wool for the years * These figures and those above are token from the Board of Trade lieturus. THE FARMER'S iMAGAZIiNE. 5S9 1822, '23, and '24 averaged 18,361,218 pounds ; but after tlie duty was reduced, it rose in 1826, '27, and '28 to 29,658;980 pounds. This increase injured no one, whilst it benefited all by the accompanying liberty of exporting British wool. It was found that the foreign manufacturer was as much In want of the long wools of England, as ours were of the fine short wools of Saxony and other continental states ; so that bj' the measure a reciprocal market was at once opened for the inter- change, and the price of British wool suffered no dimi- nution. This healing measure, however, came too late to stop the effect of the duty. In France, Spain, Prussia, and Germany, the native manufactures were stimulated, and the low price of wool consequent upon our duty of 6d. per pound gave them a decided advantage. The Prussians, especially, improved their manufactures so much as to prove powerful competitors with ours. The following statement will show the effects both of the imposition of the duty of 6d. and of its repeal :— Under no Duty. Pieces of cloth, &c., exported from 1816 to 1819. . 2,753,596 Under Duty of 6d. From 1820 to 1823 2,018,429 Under Duty of Id. From 1825 to 1828 2,123,450 Export of Stuffs which, being made of English Wool, paid no Duty. From 1816 to 1819 2,800,541 From 1820 to 1823 3,645,232 From 1825 to 1828 4,764,546 The quantity of wool grown in the Uuited Kingdom in 1828 was estimated at 110,164,760 pounds. Imme- diately previous to the duty being imposed, the price of Southdown wool was 2s. per pound ; but in consequence of the decline of our manufactures, and the cessation for the demand for them on the continent, the price gradually fell to Is. 3d, per pound. On the other hand, the long wools — none of which were imported, and which consequently were not affected by the duty— • rose in price, the demand for it in the manufacture of stuffs for exportation, having nearly doubled in the eight years from 1819. In 1818 the estimated value of the woollen goods manufactured in England was ^£'28,000,000 sterling, of which £7,000,000 were exported ; and it is worthy of remark that after the duty was imposed the exports fell off, and never recovered until after the free trade measures of 1847, the average exportation of woollens for the years from 1840 to 1849 inclusive being £6,525,744 sterling ; but that from 1847 they began to increase, as the following statement shows : — Export of Woollens. 1848 £5,733,828 1849 7,342,723 1850 8,588,690 1851,..,. 8,377,183 1852 8,730,934 1853 10,171,263 Average £8,157,437 AVhether the rather retrograde progress of the wool- len manufactures for the export trade, arose wholly from the imposition of the duty in 1820, and the stimu- lus thereby forced upon the foreign manufacturer in self-defence, we will leave the reader to judge. Un- doubtedly, the long continuance of peace, and conse- quent necessity for the various Governments on the continent to find employment for their people, supplies a sufficient reason why th<^y should promote the growth of their own industrial pursuits. One thing, however, cannot be denied — that, with the utmost freedom of trade, and a boundless extension of commerce, the price of every article of agricultural produce, not ex- cluding wool, has suffered no diminution, but, on the contrary, has risen in value in proportion as the mutual interchange of commodities has created new wants amongst all nations and all classes of society. Nor has the enormous increase of our importations of foreign and colonial wool, in any respect lessened the demand for that of oui- own growth, which finds a ready mar- ket at a remunerative price at all times. No. V. We have stated that some of the Merino flock belong- ing to George III. were purchased by continental breeders ; but these by no means constituted the whole or the first experiments of the French and other Euro- pean flockmasters to introduce the Spanish sheep for the improvement of their respective staples. We believe, however, that the enterprise of our utilitarian monarch in this respect gave the impetus which urged them to follow his example. Several of the continental states, indeed, had long before this made successful efforts thus to improve their breeds of native sheep. So early as 1723 Mr. Alslroemer, a Swede, had imported a small flock of Merinoes into that country, where he succeeded in acclimatising them and propagating the breed ; and even in that high latitude they maintain their original cha- racter in respect to the closeness, fineness, and length of staple of the fleece. They also acquire greater size, and some of the rams have yielded 131bs. of wool at one clip. In 1786 Denmark and its dependencies, seeing the success vrith which the experiment had been attended in Sweden, procured a few sheep from that country ; and in 1797 the Danish Government purchased in Spain a flock of 300 sheep of the best breeds of that country. Saxony had imported the Spanish sheep in 1765 and 1778. In the former year the Elector of Saxony pro- cured from Spain 100 Merino rams and 200 ewes, se- lected from the best flocks belonging to the Spanish king; and so well did they succeed, that in 1778 the same number of rams and ewes were procured, which he caused to be sold at prime cost to the various flockmasters of the electorate. It is unnecessary to state that from that period Saxony has stood at the head of continental Europe as a fine wool-growing country, as well as for cloths produced from their own manufacturers. In 1786 Frederick II. imported into Prussia, direct from Spain, 100 rams and 200 ewes. Great attention 0 0 2 p uo THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. has been given to this breed, and there are at the present time in the Prussian states large flocks of sheep entirely composed of fine-woolled breeds. In 1775 the Empress of Austria, Maria Theresa, im- ported from Spain a flock of 300 Meriuoes, which were placed at the Imperial farm at Marcopail, in Hungary, where a school for farmers was instituted. Several other of the German states have followed the example of the larger states, and introduced the Merino sheep, which have uniformly succeeded. The first importation of Merino sheep into France took place in 1776, when a few only were purchased from different countries. But in 1786 a flock of 367 rams and ewes were selected from the breeds of highest repute in Spain, and sent into France under the direction of a mayoral and three Spanish shepherds. They were placed at Rambouillet ; whilst other flocks, the produce of the former purchases, were kept at Per- pignan, Pompadour, and Alfort. An official examina- tion of these several flocks was made in 1808, under the Imperial Government, when it was found that after 18 years from their first introduction the quality of the wool had not in any respect deteriorated with regard to fineness of staple, whilst the weight of the fleece ranged from 6 to 12 lbs. each. During the last war with France we were precluded from importing the produce of these fine-woolled sheep into the United Kingdom; but in 1815 we began to pur- chase wools in Germany, the importations of which went on increasing with great rapidity until the colonies of Australia and the Cape began to supply us with so great an abundance that the German wools became of less importance to our manufacturers. The following table, drawn up with intervals of five years, will exhibit both the increase and decrease of our continental wool trade : — , IMPORTS OF WOOL FEOII CONTINENTAL EUROPE; Other Date. Spain. Germany. coniitries of Totals. Europe. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1815.... 6,297,934 3,137,438 3,416,132 12,851,504 1820,... 3,538,229 5,113,442 913,420 9,563,091 1825 8,206,427 28,779,661 6,018,881 43,004,969 1830.... 1,641,773 26,073,882 2,551,823 30,2. 7,478 1835.... 1,602,752 23,798.186 8,816,230 34,217,168 1840.... 1,266,905 21,812,664 8,541,264 31,620,833 1845.... 1,074,540 18,484,736 17.606,515 37,105,791 1850.. .. 440,751 9,166,731 8,703,252 18,310,734 1853.... 154,146 11,584,800 26,861,166 38,600,112 The large increase in the last year of this schedule may be accounted for by the state of war and the un- certainty prevailing on the continent respecting the turn that political affairs might take, which led the holders of all kinds of commercial stock to send it to England as the only place of perfect security. On the other hand, all the continental nations during the long peace, had cultivated their own manufactures, and con- sequently consumed a large proportion of their native produce. This was particularly the case with Spain, which now consumes nearly all her own wool in her native manufactures. This was first suggested to her at the time the duty of 6d. per lb. was imposed upon im- ported wool. It was fortunate for this country that our colonies were able to supply us with such an abundance of fine wool, superior even to the Spanish in the length of staple and in that peculiar softness which constitutes their distinctive characteristic. The failure of the attempt to establish the Spanish breed of sheep into England, would probably have proved fatal to the manufacturers of fine broad-cloths had not this colonial resource sprung up, as it were, from the wilderness. Little, indeed, did either the worthy old king or Colonel M'Arthur — (the first as the seller and the other as the purchaser of a few Spanish sheep) — foresee that in 50 years the distant country to which they were taken would supply the mother country with 50,000,000 lbs. of wool per year, superior in quality to any that Europe could furnish. On such apparently trivial circumstances does the prosperity or welfare of nations and states turn ! The discovery of the gold fields of Australia has furnished her with a great influx of wealth, and drawn a vast multitude of emigrants thither to augment her population ; but we confess we view the amazing progress she has made in the growth of wool of far more importance in a moral and political point of light, as conducing more to the stability of the colony as an infant state, and to the real prosperity and moral happiness of the individuals who compose it. i The failure just referred to, however, did not arise from an actual defect in the whole soil or climate of the United Kingdom, aa wanting in adaptation to the nature and habits of the Spanish sheep. There are many districts where they could have been fed and propagated quite as successfully as on the continent, although on the more highly-cultivated land they were found to suffer deterioration in the quality of the wool. Neither was it entirely prejudice that banished them from our grazing lands, although those who were accnstomed to the beautiful symmetry of the native sheep of that period might well be excused for their dislike to the foreign intruders. The writer perfectly recollects the disgust and derision displayed by many of the Norfolk fiockmasters when the first exhibition of Spanish sheep took place at the HolkhamsheepshearingjUudertheauspicesof Sir JosephBanks as the representative of their royal owner — shapeless, high- shouldered, and bony, and with nothing to recommend them hut the fineness of their coats. When placed by the side of the improved and half-bred Leicester and the pure Southdown, with their broad chest, small deer-like head, slender legs, and barrel shaped carcase, the strangers went down at once to a heavy discount ; and although out of deference to their noble ho3t, some of the more wealthy farmers purchased the sherp, in order to give them a fair trial, it was quite evident that the experiment would not succeed. The result, however, has fully justified the choice made by the sheep-hreeders of that period. A heavy fleece, and a valuable carcase under it, has been the point aimed at ever since, in the first place; and in the second, by a careful selection of the breeding sheep, to lay the heaviest weight of meat on the most valuable part of the carcase. In both these points they have succeeded, with the important additional advantage of bringing them to maturity in less than half the time formerly required. Nor has the improvement of the staple of the native wools been unattended to, or cultivated with less success, than that of the carcase. The following state- ment in fractions of an inch will show that the pure Southdown THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 541 wool approaches far closer to the staple of Merino in fineness thaa many persons would suppose. COMPAEATIVE DIAMETER OF WOOLS. VARIOUS CLOTHING Spanish ewe . . Southdown . . Ryeland ram . . Wilts ewe .... Saxony Outward end. Middle. loner end. 1 1 1 12;j2 H33 1168 1 1 1 lOaB 1174 1 1 1 mi 750 1076 1 I 1 825 721 880 1 1 1 1222 1191 1194 Mean- ] 1370 1 IIIo^ 989 1 806 1 1202 It was the opinion of Lord Somerville that the climate of Great Britain from the most northern to the most southern point would grow wools of the finest quality ; and for that reason he deprecates the breeding of long-woolled sheep. The chief competition of his time was between breeders of the Merinos and those of the new Leiceaters and improved South- downs. His Lordship strongly advocated the first; but, as we have seen, they did not long stand the competition, and the abundant supplies we now receive both from our colonies and from the German States leave no reason for regret at tlie result. Experience proves that the softest wools are grown on an argillaceous or a silicious soil; whilst a calcareous soil, whether limestone or chalk, produces wool remarkable for its harshness to the touch. It is probable that this is more a mechanical than a chemical effect, although the different quality of the feed may have something to do with it. Everyone knows the effect that lime or chalk has upon the skin wherever it touches it, and the same is undoubtedly produced upon the skin and hair or wool of animals who lie upon a soil of that nature ; and we much question whether the insensible perspiration, to which the (vool in a great measure owes its softness, is not greatly impeded or deranged by a limestone or chalk soil. Not only is the quality of the wool in regard to its softness affected by the soil, but even its colour undergoes a change from the same cause. In Gloucestershire, for instance, it acquires a deep yellox. In Hertfordshire, Warwickshire, and other counties possessing a red soil, the wool partakes of the same hue, inclining to brown. In Lincolnshire and Cam- bridgeshire, the fenlands communicate a dark brownish tint. On a chalky soil, the wool is distinguished by its whiteness; and thus, in every district, the colour of the fleece evinces the action of the soil, either by insinuating its particles into the fleece and its fibres, or chemically uniting with its surface ; and it is remarkable that the colour thus obtained is indelibly fixed in the wool, so that no washing or other method can remove it, nor can its whiteness be quite restored by any artificial process hitherto discovered. The demand for English long-wools and yarns on the continent has been uniformly large since the removal of the prohibition of its export. In Ireland, too, a considerable pro- portion of the long-combing wool has been annually purchased by the continental wool-staplers* ; and thus a reciprocal trade in the raw material has sprung up, beneficial to all patties, in lieu of that selfish jealousy which caused us formeily to look upon any advance in the prosperity of the industrial pursuits of a neighbouring State as so much taken from our own. On the other hand, the enormous and increasing imports of colonial and foreign wool in the United Kingdom, has, of necessity, given rise to the system of periodical wool sales, by public auction, in London and Liverpool, which are resorted to by manufacturers and staplers from all parts of the continent of Europe, and even America, as well as those of the cloth districts at home. These public sales, which are conducted with great spirit, ensure to the owners the best price the market can afford. The growth of wool in the United King- dom is estimated at from 140 to 150 million pounds ; but Mr. Southey's estimate in 1846 makes the number of sheep 40 millions, and the number annually slaughtered at 15 millions, which, at an average of five pounds per fleece, gives an aggregate of 275 million pounds ; add to this, 77 millions of imported wool, and we have the enormous total of 352 million pounds of wool annually brought to sale in the United Kingdom. DAIRY MANAGEMENT. We hava much pleasure in responding to Mr. Horsfall's wishes, as expressed in the last number of the Mark Lane Express. There is no branch of husbandry so far behind, generally speaking, in the march of progress as dairying, and therefore none meriting priority of consideration or requiring to be in- vestigated with greater care. In dietetics milk and its products are estimated in point of value as second to no other articles of food ; hence their importance in the domestic economy of the nation. '' Far-fetched fowls have fine feathers, " it is said : and so we may talk of foreign dairying as examplary. But the immense quantity of abominable stuff" annually imported tells its own tale. The fact is, butter — home and foreign — is so notoriously bad, and has been so for such a length of time in all our large towns, that their inhabitants have all but learned to do without it — ^not morejthan a fraction of the quantity being consumed which otherwise would be so were the quality good. Inotherwords,many of our dairy- maids turn out to market butter so inferior in quality, that modern chemistry can produce a better sample. Indeed, such is the state of the English market that a Vice-president of the Royal Agricultural Society con- sidered it his duty to plead earnestly for a mixture of tar with grease imported for machinery to prevent engineers, stokers, and carmen using it to their bread, to the absolute ruin of the British farmer ! It would, doubtless, throw much light on the subject were the contents of the various compounds sold for butter in the British capital known to purchasers. Our own butter-merchant, for example, does not keep any tenpeuny-mixtures. A thrifty customer or two — good ones, however — wanted some ; accordingly a small purchase for their supply, consisting of four or * The following were the quantities of British and Irish Wool exported in four years, viz. :— 1849 11,200,472 lbs. 1850 12.002,773 „ 1851 8,517,500 „ 1852 . . It • • If < f t« «f • • 11>965,678 ;, 542 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. five samples, was made. Before delivery, he melted a pound of each, poured them into separate vials to allow them to cool, when to his amazement, no less than in- formation, they settled in different zones — the heaviest constituents falling to the bottom, and the lightest rising to the top ! On seeing the bottles in the window, sealed as if containing some new-fangled product of commerce, we had the curiosity to ask what they contained ; and received for answer — " Don't know, but I bought it ex Holland for butter." (?) The sequel is soon told— the spurious stuff being returned, thrifty customers express- ing a willingness to pay for a higher-priced article. Now, were the public sufficiently cognizant of nefarious butter of this kind, and how detrimental to health it is, there would be a difference of price between it and the opposite quality such as to open the eyes of dairymen to the £ s. d. value of Mr. Horsfall's practice, and the importance of its being generally carried out. From the amount of attention now being paid to the adulteration of food, it is manifest the period in question is fast approaching when bad butter will fetch but little in the British capital, while a first-rate article will realize more than its present value ; consequently, it is high time the improved practice in question was gene rally adopted throughout the length and breadth of the land. Before this can be done, however, more must be known of that practice than has yet been told ; while the objections brought against it must be tossed over- board, and every obstacle of this kind surmounted. If we understand rightly "No. 1" of Mr. Horsfall's last letter — which, by-the-by, is not so clear on several points as we could wish — results under his management of cows are different from those under the old practice. For example : As stated on a former occasion, cows, under certain constitutional circumstances, are naturally disposed to convert their food into fat ; so much so, that there is great difficulty in keeping some individuals in a breed- ing state, more especially improved shorthorns, Devons, and Herefords. Turn a cow of this description into rich grass, and she is soon useless for auy thing but the shambles. The quality of the milk she gives may be fine, but the quantity almost nothing. We have had a Devon, the property of a noble duke, which carried off the first prize in her class at one of the Royal Agri- cultural Society's meetings, not giving more than a quart at a milking ! On the other hand, there is another class of cows naturally disposed to turn all their food into the pail. Turn a cow of this kind into rich grass, along with the one above, and she will rather get poorer every day, if the milk is taken from her ; while her plump and sleek rival is gaining weight. The former will consume greatly more grass and water than the latter, rjeturning for it, in proportion, a still greater quantity of milk, but inferior in quality. In town dairies, when fed on sour grains, distillers' wash, &c., the quantity some- times yielded is almost incredible. When such is the case, however, life is generally short, especially if cows arc in a low state at calving. Hence the reason whv dairymen purchase near-calvers of this class, in good condition. The above two classes may be called extremes, be- tween which there is a mean — cows which, if turned into a rich field of grass along with the others, would keep themselves in good condition, and give a medium quantity of milk, the quality depending upon the rich- ness of the food. Calling these three classes — for the sake of brevity — Nos, 1, 2, and 3, we should like to know of Mr. Hors- fall to which of them his cows belong, and also to which he applies the following two sentences, quoted from his letter — viz. : " I should expect from a cow in mode- rate condition, when gaining flesh, richer milk than when fat and losing flesh. If we take into account the disposition of the cow to apply her food to the enrich- ment of her milk rather than h"er own maintenance, we may, I think, safely infer that the milk of a cow gaining flesh and fat is replete with casein and butter, to the extent she is enabled by her organism to supply these from the food she consumes." In these there is a good deal of obscurity, if not in- consistency; for as they are advanced by way of ob- jection or qualification to what we formerly said on cows fed under the old system on food not calculated to enrich milk, some explanation is obviously required. Most probably they apply to his own cows, food, and management, in which sense they are not applicable to what we said. Again the objection: "I differ with ' W. B.,' in thinking that a lean cow, skin and bone, fills the milk • pail better than a well-fed one," falls to the ground ; for the simple reason that we never thought anything of the kind. For what we said was, " That the skin- and-bone milker filled the pail better than her plump and sleek rival" — a very different statement: it being neither more nor less than that No. 2 gives more milk than No. 1, for the reasons above assigned. The former class being technically termed skin-and-bone milkers; and that Nos. 1, 2, and 3, give richer milk when fat than when lean, the cows being fed under the old system of receiving as much as they can eat, say three well- conditioned cows and three lean ones in the same field of grass ; but that the latter yield the largest quantity, for the simple reason that they consume greatly more grass and water. There is, no doubt, a degree of leanness in the cow beyond which an increase of quantity would not be obtained, as we formerly stated, and also a degree of fatness when quality would also be affected ; but these are extremes which cannot be taken as exceptions to any general rule. Were the lean cows to eat no more food than the fat ones, doubtless results would be otherwise, or were they to receive properly cooked food ; for then, as we formerly stated, sour or saccharine food would prevent No. I from laying on fat, while it would induce to an increase of milk, but of thinner quality ; on the otlier hand, fatty albu- miDOus food would have the counter effect ou No. 2. Agait;, properly flavoured and seasoned food may iuduce each of the three classes to consume more of it, and hcuce to give, Cu'lerin paribus, a larger yield of richer milk. Is this the case in Mr. Horsfall's practice? THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 543 We should also like to kuow a little more about the tem- perature of the dairy, milk, and hot water. Data of this kind require to be stated in the plainest terms, without regard to the tautological use of words. If the temperature of the atmosphere of the dairy, for instance, is 55 degrees when the milk is put into it, the temperature of the milk 90 degrees, and the temperature of the hot water JOO degrees, the hot water being allowed to cool, then the first effect produced would obviously be a slight increase in the temperature of the milk and atmosphere of the dairy. If the temperature of the hot water is kept up to 100 degrees, the increase of tempera- ture of the milk and atmosphere would be greater. Much, again, will depend upon the size of the dairy, the quantity of milk and quantity of water, with the manner they are exposed, as regards the depth of milk and water in the dishes. Farther, the kind of wall, whether of brick or stone ; the windows, whether single or double; the roof, whether slated, &c., &c. ; and the temperature of the atmosphere outside — are all questions which should be distinctly stated in detail, in giving experi- ments and results under the new practice, as they are required to be known before judgment can safely be pronounced as to its merits. Farther, the process of cooling, both of the water and milk, requires to be given in greater detail, as the rising of the cream may greatly depend upon this. For example, the temperature should be taken at every fifteen minutes or so, and noted down, as also the progress made in the rising of the cream. "What, for example, is the quantity, and what the quality, of the cream which rises during the first half-hour, compared with that of the other periods of equal length? Again, a range of 8 degrees of temperature for the dairy, or from 52 to 60 degrees, is too great; while the conclusion that results are the same, whether this temptrature is kept up by artificial or natural means, is impossible, and therefore is calculated to induce the opponents of the practice to say the experiments f.re carelessly performed, and unworthy of credence. The conclusions as to the increase of the weight of flesh or muscle imder " No. 4" are, we apprehend, subject to revisal ; the principal increase of weight in a full-grown cow taking place in the adipose tissue. At all events, if Mr. Horsfall can increase the weight of muscle lOlbs. per week by the use of his peculiarly-cooked food, it is high time the breeders of oiu: improved stock were turning their attention to his cattle- cookery and dietetics ; for, taking Shorthorns and Leicester sheep as examples, both are defective of muscle. The quantities of olien and margarine are of the highest importance to be known, as upon them the value of the practice during winter mainly depends, and therefore we hope an effort will be made by Mr. Horsfall to ascertain results under this head. Also the analysis of his skimmed-milk and butter-milk. With regard to the objections advanced against the practice last year by Mr. Scott, they rather belong to the Irish school, and require to be treated accordingly. 1. A " return of 25 ounces of butter from one quart of cream" " proves nothing." Does it not prove that Mr. Horsfall's cream is richer in butter than Mr. Scott's ? 2. Mr. Horsfall's cream yields 70 per cent, of butter, and of course 30 per cent, of butter-milk ; " whereas the usual residue is fully 50 per cent.," ordinary samples of cream yielding only 50 per cent, of butter : ergo, Mr. Horsfall's butter contains 20 p5r cent, of butter-milk. Consequently a sample ought to be produced. A sample is produced, which contains no butter- milk, but " air cells." l^rgo, such butter should be put through Mr. Scott's newly- invented "butter-pug-mill;" which turns out to be a failure. 3. " If his (Mr. Horsfall's) butter were extracted from or- dinary creams," " the result would overthrow the reliability of all the Society's reported trials in connection with com- peting churns during the last and previous years." But Mr. Horsfall's butter was extracted from his own cream ! Ergo the Society's trials are in no danger. If the awards of the Judges were honestly made, is it possible for them to be in danger ? And if so, what right has any one to make insinua- tions to the contrary ? It will thus be seen that the objections brought against Mr. Horsfall's dairy-practice amount to something like mere pre- judice. W. B. THE ART OF ADULTERATION.— DR. HASSALL'S SERVICES. The respectable tradesman who bade his man sand the sugar, water the rum, damp the tobacco, and come np to prayers, was, after all, a tolerably true tyjie of a class. The art of adulteration has been practised for ages, simply as a matter of business — and as a very line business, too. The only real crime con- nected with it was in being fomid out, A man could very easily satisfy his conscience when he felt that he was only doing that which nearly all the rest of the world did. It became, in fact, almost a duty to his family to make the most of his materials, especially if opposition and low prices ran him at all hard. And so the grocer sanded Ms sugar, the dealer " mixed" his teas, and the publican doctored his beer, and went to prayers with the utmost self-complacency and satis- faction. It would be wrong to assume that the public — the customer— has not long heard something of this. It was not, however, until very lately, that he knew how much or how systematically he was made the victim of these pious frauds. That he suffered in purse, or in other words, that he was being continually robbed by those with whom he dealt, might occasionally occur to him. The Legislature, indeed, now and then hinted as much, adopting at the same time the mildest of mea- sures to lessen the abuse. But there was even some- thing more than this. The master of the house awoke one morning to find that he and his family were de- liberately subjecting themselves to the effects of slow poison. He stirred it carefully up in his tea — he spread it out on his anchovy toast — he seasoned his soup with it — ate it with his bread, and drank it in his beer. The most subtle of his enemies could not have administered these small doses more carefully than did his tradesmen. The more inviting, in fact, to the eye or the palate, proportionately more pernicious were 544 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, these compounds in their consequences. High colours and fine sauces might give a relish to life, though they tended far more certainly to death. What should here have been the individual care of every one of us, became, as is too often the case, the duty of none. The Government did actually little or notliing in the matter. Its penalties were seldom en- forced, its seizm'es as rarely made. It remained for one or two strong bold men to do the work of all. Prompted by little or no encouragement to begin with, but braving the rather infinite danger from all sides, they went zealously into the Herculean labour they had volunteered to. Theirs was indeed the cleansing of an Augean stable. The corruption that had been growing for years, the malpractices handed down from father to son — the abominations, in a word, that had received all the sanction of use and custom, were to be attacked and removed. As a consumer's question, the trade of this country was too generally a system of extensive and dangerous adulteration. This was to be shown and proved, thoroughly and fearlessly. The gentlemen who undertook this dangerous duty were Mr. Wakley, the Editor and Proprietor of "The Lancet," and Dr. A. H. Hassall. It is only right to say that they have proved well worthy of each other. The former, to use a well-known phrase, "stood the brunt of the business," and stood it well, too. The investigations appeared from time to time in his paper. But it was not the general report alone of these inquiries which he inserted — that green tea was liberally seasoned with rank poison, or red pepper still more so, that bread was manufactured from plaster of Paris, or beer from treacle and all sorts of nastiness. That might be the case, no doubt, ■with some unprincipled people, but not with respect- able tradesmen like mine and yours. Is it not so ? "At least we will see," said Mr. Wakley; "You, Doctor Hassell, find out all about these respectable people, and I will take care to let the world know it." Either was as good as his word. The Doctor did find out all about them, and the Editor published it forthwith. If Smith sold poisoned tea, in went Smith's name and address, with full particulars as to what he did sell. If Brown made up " a delicate relish for invalids," calculated at least to keep them invalids. Brown and his recipe were recommended ac^ordingly. Jones' patent for converting potatoes into bread, Robinson's celebrated potted lead, and Thompson's as famous de- structive curry powder, all had their merits fairly dealt with. No matter whether they traded in Bond-ttreet or Wbitechapel, in the Strand or even Finsbury itself, you might always know where to find or to avoid them, as you felt the more inclined. Any-one in any way acquainted with that great enactment which has long been one of the glories of this country — we mean the law of libel — may form some tolerable notion of the risk Mr. Wakley incurred. His safety, however, was tlie selection he had made. Had Dr. Hassall proved himself in any degree unequal to the work lie liad assigned himsoir, his own ruin, and that of his associates, must have been the consequence. As it was, in the many thousand analyses he published he never made a mistake. The tradesmen he de- nounced knew he spoke the truth ; while they felt at the same time the more they counted on prolonged in- quiry, only the worse could it be for them. Of the many, then, whose wares were bought and tested, only one shop-keeper commenced his action, and that one did not proceed with it I The effect of this happy union of courage and ability can scarcely be sufliciently estimated. The interests of producer and consumer should be really identical, for after all there is no so damaging an advertisement as a bad article. Either is now put upon his guard. The Government has very properly identified itself with the movement, and it is very clear that investiga- tions like these will never again be allowed to remain without their use. The triumph, in fact, so far attained, will induce the researches of science into many a new field. Agriculture, as our own especial chemists and learned men are day by day coming moi'e to see, may benefit much by the services of such an ally. Th«^re is scarcely anything sent into market so little purposely adulterated or deteriorated as wheat and flour. The far- mer himself, we are sure, has little to fear from those he supplies, though it may be dificrent with some of those who supply him. At any rate this cannot be too widely known. If, as some people will say, our artificial manures are occasionally adulterated, or injurious chemicals prepared for sale, the murder will soon out. We shalllearn the fullest particulars of Smith's guano. Brown's compost, and Jones's coprolites. And truth be it remembered is no longer a libel, and Dr. Hassall but a becoming precedent for Professor Way or Mr. Nesbit. We have been led into these reflections fi'om having this week witnessed the presentation of the Hassall Testimonial. It was the occasion of a very pleasant dinner at the Freemasons' Tavern, where all went Avell from first to last. Tlie memorial, a most appropriate one, was the crowning honour to a man who justly de- served it, and whose success points a moral far beyond any merely personal consideration. The opportunity, moreover, served to entirely obliterate any little differences which may have existed between the Doctor and Mr. Wakley. The world cannot afford that two such thoroughly earnest and able men should be any longer apart. The result of what they liave done but tends to prove how desirable it is that they should continue to work together. Beyond the members of his own profession, the Hassall Testimonial is subscribed to by many men of dis- tinction and position connected with science, literature, and commerce. Mr. Mechi, who was present, not only answered for the last-named of these, but also appeared in his still more favourite character as tlie hero of modern agriculture. It is satisfactory to see this is seldom felt out of place. Under the countenance, how- ever, of a brother of so good a farmer as the Duke of Richmond, the art might fairly enough be discusjed ; while it would be as unfair to close this without an es- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 545 pecial word of thanks to this brother — Lord William Lennox — who, as the Times reporter justly records it, " made a most efficient chairman." THE HASSALL TESTIMONIAL DINNER. On Thursday, May 15, after some little delay fromiina-voidable circumstances, was finally fixed for the festival (held at the Freemason's Tavern) in especial honour of Dr. Hassall, whose services to the commuuity, as the detector of adulterations in almost every article of nutriment, whether solid or liquid, are already well known, and generally acknowledged with grati- tude. Dr. Hassall " has done the State some service," and it is gratifying to find the profession to which he belongs coming forward in a body to do him honour. The first practical re- sult of the learned Doctor's labours was the appointment of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Adulteration of food, and there is now every probability that their report will be followed up by some stringent legis- lative enactment. The chair was to have been occupied by Lord Ebrington, M.P. ; but, in his unavoidable absence from an attack of ophthalmia, it was filled, and most efficieutly, by Lord William Lennox. His Lordship was supported by Mr. Oliveira, M.P., Mr. Wakley, the Rev. Mr. Daniell (Hon. Secre- tary to the testimonial), Mr. Thwaites (the president of the Board of Works), Dr. Waller Lewis, Mr. Mechi, Sir Thomas Tancred, Admiral Duntze, Major Sibthorp, M.P., Dr. Farr. r.R.S., Mr. Tuxford, Mr. Harvey, Mr. Hancock, Dr. Beiinet, Dr. Waller Lewis, Dr. Barnes, Mr. Bass, M.P., Dr. Beaman, Dr. O'Connor, Dr. Bastick, Dr. Hogg, audmany other gentle- men of influence in their respective vocations. Owing to the Whitsuntide recess, several members of both Houses of Par- liament who would otherwise have been present were unavoid- ably kept away ; and among them were the Earl of Shaftes- bury, Viscount Goderich, M.P., the Hon. W. Cowper, M.P., Mr. Scholefield, the Chairman of the Adulteration Committee of the House of Commons, and Mr. Villiers, M.P. After the usual loyal and constitutional toasts, the noble chairman rose, and recorded the great merits of Dr. Hassall, dwelling upon the scientific originality of his labours, and the untiring zeal and energy with which he had prosecuted his investigations. The toast was druuk with the greatest enthusiasm. Dr. Hassall, in an eloquent and interesting speech, warmly acknowledged this gratifying recognition of his labours, gave a brief but lucid history of the subject of adulteration, and stated that he relied mainly for its suppression upon free pub- licity, citing at the same time some striking instances of the value of the microscope in the detection of adulteration. He took occasion to refer more especially to the obligations in- curred by the public to Mr. Wakley, from the indomitable courage evinced by that gentleman by running the risk attendant upon the publication of the names and ad- dresses of the merchants and tradesmen whose goods had been analyzed and " found wanting," both in quaUty, measure, and weight. Dr. Hassall concluded by gratefully accepting the testimonial presented to him by so distinguished a meeting. The testimonial itself is a beautiful work of art, designed from Milton's " Paradise Lost," by the Eev. G. M. Braune, M.A. It represents the angel Ithuriel, clad in armour, touch- ing with his spear Satan, who, having assumed the shape of a toad, sat close to the ear of Eve, tempting her. The testimo- nial stands about three feet six inches in height ; the figure is modelled by M. Freret, and executed by Messrs. Barnard and Sons. One of the panels of the pedestal is occupied with a basso relievo representing the microscope and the chemical apparatus employed in the discovery of adulteration, while another bears an appropriate inscription. The health of the noble chairman was proposed, in a flattering speech, by Mr. Oliveira, M.P., and aptly acknowledged. Dr. Hassall then proposed the " Health of Mr. Wakley," the originator of the Analytical Commission appointed by the proprietors of the Lancet. This toast was received with much applause ; aud Mr, Wakley, in returning thanks, jocosely intimated that this evening, for once, he had enjoyed " unadulterated" pleasure. The hon. gentleman at the same time took occasion to express his regret at a temporary estrangement from Dr. Hassall (" a mere lovers' quarrel"), declaring that he came to the festival for the express purpose of bearing his testioaony to Dr. Has- sall's inflexible integrity and brilliant abilities, and assuring his (Dr. Hassall's) "slanderers" that they should not assail him unjustly. Dr. W. Lewis afterwards proposed " The Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Adultera- tion of Food." Mr. Mechi gave "The Press," which was re- sponded to by Mr. Warren ; and special toasts were subse- quently druuk in honour of Mr. Thwaites, the chairman of the Metropolitan Board of Works, and Mr. Mechi, as an agricultural improver, to whose merits ample justice was ren- dered by Mr. Wakley. The festival was protracted to a very late hour of the evening. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Sir, — An article of mine on " Agricultural Statistics" appeared in the number of the " Farmer's Magazine" for November, 1849, and continued in the number of the same publication for the following month ; and how far such article may have been productive of the measure now be- fore Parliament for obtaining a yearly return of agricultural stock and produce throughout the United Kingdom, and which, perhaps, ere the publication of the following remarks may have become an Act of the Legislature, is not for me to claim credit, as such might have an appearance of egotism, which I would avoid ; but I may state, without un-, due presumption, that the article in question was one of the earliest notices drawing public attention to a measure of great importance, not alone to any particular class, but to the community of the nation in general. That agriculture Is the most important interest in every country — in being the great source, if not the only source, of a nation's wealth — in being that industrial vocation by which alone matter can be produced and re-produccd — and the truth of the re- mark, " that trade conduces to the production of provision only as it promotes agriculture — that the whole system of commerce, vast and various as it is, hath no other public importance than its subserviency to this end" — cannot ad- mit of a denial by any rational being who may reflect on the subject. And the same remark will hold true in respect to manufactures as a branch of commerce, in there being no new matter created thereby that did not previously exist; and that the wealth accumulated by individuals in such pursuits is no addition to the aggregate wealth of a nation, as the gain thereby to one is, from the nature of transac- 5iG THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tions in comniCTce and productions of manufacture?, ex- actly balanced bj^ equivalent loss to another. Had the country been in possession of correct statistics relating to agriculture, it may well be doubted whether free trade, particularlj' in agricultural productions, would hare been desired by the communit}'- of this country. An accurate knowledge of the productive power of the soil of this country, and the consumption of the same, might pro- bably have led the opinion that the free import of the pro- duce of the soil of foreign countries, especially of such arti- cles as the soil and climate of our o^vn country are well adapted for producing, with a heav\' national debt and a metallic currency, particularly with a gold standard, as inconsistent with national prosperity, to have been popular rather than the reverse. From the passing of the free trade measure to the com- mencement of the v/ar with Russia, the average annual im- portations of breadstuffs have risen in a four, five, and even six-fold proportion to that required previous to the first- mentioned period ; and in the four years immediately pre- ceding the latter-mentioned period we had two of the most bountiful harvests within the memory of man. These facts show that there is a change taking place in the agriculture of this country — either that we are producing less, or we are consuming more. Certainly, with the improvements that are daily taking place in the cultivation of the soil, the great extent of emigration that has for years been taking place, the necessitj' for such considerable imports — not of corn alone, but of almost every other agricultural produce — does not arise from any want of capability in the productive power of the soil of this country to meet the requirements of the population ; but rather the necessity of such importa- tion arises from the impossibility of raising agricultural produce — with heavy general and local taxation, high rate of wages (partly induced by the physical circumstances of the country, and partly by the more expensive habits of the labouring population), and other disadvantageous cir- cumstances of this country— at so low a price as to admit of the export of any surplus production to the markets of other countries in which physical and fiscal circumstances are more favourable for production at a lower price. And hence it is that, not being able to dispose of a surplus, necessitates a production incommensurate to the demand ; and from the extreme difficulty of adjusting the limit of imports to the exact requirements, an over-supply producing a lower price than the cost of production also tends to limit the breadth of land cultivated. In support of a contrary opinion to that just advanced, the iflct of farms in different parts of this country having been, since the introduction of free trade, let at advanced rents, has been advanced with much stress; but we shall find, on inquiry, that such farms as have advanced in annual value, of late years, have been those of a superior quality for production, or those possessing some superior local advantages, and that such a result is in consequence of land of inferior quality having been abandoned and planted, wliicli has caused a more extensive demand for land of superior quality ; and in many instances the farms so advanced in rent have been taken by Scotchmen con- tented with less return in profit fur their capital, and of tlic more economical habits of life than the English, which characterize the Scotch people. In the matter of much land of inferior quality having been planted, it is not a mere surmise, as I am acquainted with many whole town- ships, and even entire parishes, that have changed from agriculture to arboriculture ; and were an enquiry insti- tuted into the matter, it would be found that the acreage of plantations has greatly increased of late years. This is a subject for enquirj', of very great importance in the econoraj'' of this countrJ^ The amount paid for breadstuffs of foreign growth has of late years greatly exceeded the whole charge of the main- tenance of the paupers in the whole of the United King- dom, and has been a direct furnishing to foreign countries of that which alone has given to this country a pre-eminence in her commerce and manufactures over that of every other — capital. Notwithstanding the disadvantages, under her circimi- stances, of free trade to this country, I do not for a mo- ment believe that we shall ever revert to protection, in the way of import duties, to any branch of her industrial interests ; but that with the accumulated wealth, the energy of her population, and her vast resources in numerous and extensive colonies for her trade, the British empire will maintain her unrivalled superiority among the nations of the world ; j'et accurate information respecting her most important industrial interest, it is to be hoped, will pre- vent any legislative measures in future that maj' in any way be detrimental thereto. However important correct statistics relating to agricul- ture undoubtedly are to every class of the community, ob- taining the same with perfect accuracy is not so easily to be accomplished as many persons maj' imagine. The mea- sure is far from being viewed universally by the farmers without jealousy ; and if the returns from them be not checked by enumerators properlj^ qualified for the office, the statement will certainly not be of that value which in- formation of such importance demands. Under a properly- organized system of collection, by properly-qualified enumerators, and a complete centralization in some one of the Government boards — sa}^, that of Trade— correct statistics relating to agriculture are not impcssible to be obtained ; but enumerators should be appointed to districts of limited extent ; they should transmit the aggregate re- turn of their whole district direct to the Government board, for being prepared by such board for yearly publica- tion; and, in addition, the enumerators should be required to furnish to the Government a correct monthly agricultural report of their several districts ; and the officers employed in such duty should be fairly, but not extravagantly, paid out of the Consolidated Fund of the kingdom. In conclusion, I have to remark that the agricultural statistics of Scotland, as obtained through the Highland and Agricultural Society of that country, no doubt col- lected with every care as to accuracy, show a result of great discrepancj' to the assumptions of writers on the subject ; and no doubt, when the agricultural statistics of the whole of the United Kingdom have been accurately obtained, the facts may be, perhaps, as startling as they will be important, valuable, and interesting to the cora- nuuiity. John Ewart. Neivcasth-upon-Tyne, May 10. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 547 ON THE COMPOSITION OF RAIN AND DRAINAGE WATER. Professor Way's second lecture before the Council of tha Royal Agricultural Society, reserved, as the first, for the columns of the Society's forthcoming number of the Journal, will be found, perhaps, the leading topic of the session. We may proceed at once to notice some of the important topics embraced in it. The first in the order of merit is the washing and aeration of the soil ; the second, the quantity of manure added by rain-water ; third, the quantity of manure re- moved by drainage water ; fourth, meteorological and geological differences ; and fifth, improvements sug- gested for the manufacture and _application of manure, solid and liquid. The first effect produced by a drain is to remove any stagnant water in the soil; and the composition of that water determines the degree of purification effected. As heavy showers afcerwardsfall, they percolate through it, continuing the process of washing ; and the quality of the drainage water every time indicates the good done. Thus the process is as simple as it is beautifully interesting, when contemplated in detail ; blue, tena- cious, barren clays changing their colour, and becoming blackish-brown, friable, fertile loams. Again, every time the water is removed fiom the soil, fresh air takes its place, performing the important work of aeration. Into the details of this process we need not enter : suffice it to say that both the organic and inorganic matters of the soil are decomposed, that food is manufactured for plants, while all deleterious soluble matter not consumed as food is either neutralized or carried off by the operation of washing ; the two pro- cesses following each other alternately, without inter- mission. Now, viewing the vast variety of geological fields which our provinces present to notice, and the still greater diversity of soils composed of drifted materials, how important would it be to know the composition of the drainage water in each case, and the effect which this drainage, with its auxiliary aeration, was producing in purifying and fertilizing the innumerable soils in question ! The composition of rain-water, our next topic, and its fertilizing effects, have long been questions of controversy among farmers, some affirming that raiu in its descent brings large quantities of ammonia and nitric acid from the atmosphere to the soil ; others with equal zeal asserting that pure distilled water, applied in warm weather, would just do as much good, the nitrogen of plants being derived from the nitrogen of the atmo- sphere; while a third party have stood upon intermediate ground. But Professor Way's investigations in the laboratory very opportunely go far to set to rights this anomalous state of things, as will be found by cur readers when the first part of the Society's Journal for the current year makes its appearance. Hence their importance. On " the composition of drainage water" we shall say little, as it forms the main topic of his timely paper, reserved, as already stated. It will be enough at pre- sent to mention that the invaluable tables of analyses exhibited corroborate the accuracy of his former expe- riments as to the absorbent quality of soils, so far as the limited experiments in the tv/o cases extend ; the loss of the more valuable elements of manure, as am- monia, phosphoric acid, and potash, being compara- tively little from percolation, the absorbent power of the soil being greater than the force of gravitation, with one exception — nitric acid, the loss of which will be found great. The rainfall, again, we need not tell our readers, is diifereiit in different provinces ; being greater on the west coast and in the proximity of high hills, than on the east coast and in com- paratively level champaign districts ; while evaporation is greater in our southern provinces than our norlheiu. Now, as the quantity of manurial element iu rain and drainage- water will depend upon the rainfall and evaporation, how im- portant a question do the statistics of the taingauge and thermometer become. In point of fact, the day is not far distant when such instruments will be found iu every farmer's inventory, and their management part of the routine of every successfully-cultivated farm. As to geological differences, almost every farm furnishes its ovm individual example, the rain-water that falls in one field often percolaUng to the drains of another. He;;ce how some naturally-draiued soils become fertile to a gieat depth, where the subsoil is of a quality capable of absorbing manurial elements from rain-water in percolating through it; and hence the propriety of deepening all soils, and of mixing absorbing material with nou-absorbiug (as clay with sand) for this express purpose. Our last proposition, like the first, was hardly mooted by Professor Way, and therefore we may take a condensed review of it. The manufacture of artificial manure is now a very pro- minent and promising branch of industry, and the conclusions to be drawn from the tables of analyses at issue warrant us in sayiugtbat progress must also extend to the homestead of the farmer ; the old " midden" and dunghill giving place to more scientific systems of management. At present we grumble at clay clods baked in the sun as dry and hard as bricks. But why should not these be carted home and ground into powder in mills, and mixed with farmyard-manure iu our feeding boxes? IIow much ammonia would a ton of dryclay-dnsfc absorb ? Wuat increase of crop would such produce, if apidicd to a sandy or calcareous soil deficient of clay ? How ciany tilings else than clay, at the command of every farmer, miglit be dried, ground to powder, and mixed wiih farmyard- manure? And when we think of the chemical and geological character of soils, what different mixtures do they demand ? Again, liquid manure cannot be so successfully applied during winter as during summer, the quantity of draina^e- .water being greater in the former season than in the latter ; while nitric acid should only be applied in the susamer season, auJ that, too, in small quantities at a lime, no more being given than the soil can retain in its pores, analogous to gentle summer-thunder-showers, whose fertilising influence is familar 548 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to all. For a similar reason dry soluble manure ought not to be applied between September and March or April, according as the season is wet or dry, as during that period it is liable to be washed out by frequent drenchings of rain ; while in both cases our progress in soluble manures is demanding a deeper and finer comminution of the soil with the mixture of foreign substances, so as to increase its absorbency, than is at present practised. From these observations it will readily be perceived how important a series of chemical analyses Professor Way has commenced, and how imperative is the demand of his labora- tory upon the hearty co-operation of members resident in our different provinces in order to gain the necessary materials for investigation. And what greatly enhances the value of these analyses is the important discoveries he has made since they commenced, or rather before he could commence, of new pro- cesses and apparatus for ascertaining the quantities of ammo- nia and nitric acid in rain and drainage water, whereby the smallest differences can be determined with a degree of accu- racy hitherto unknown. The farther we progress in agricul- tural chemistry, and the more farmers become familiar with it, the greater will become their dependence upon the details of chemical investigation in every branch of husbandry. If " The Landed Interest" would only respond with that frank- ness due to the occasion, it would set every laboratory in the kingdom to work, and furnish agricultural science with data which they themselves would soon appreciate in the stimulus it would give to progress in improved culture and manuring, permanently increasing the value of estates and produce of farms. W, B. "THE BONDAGE SYSTEM" IN SCOTLAND. The history of Scotland's agi-iculture furnishes us with some anomalies of the most extraordinary and startling character. An advance that has long been held out as an example to the rest of the world has lately been found to be but imperfect and partial in its influence. In a word, the country generally lias not benefited as it should have done by this improvement. In a land proverbial for its clanship, and the cherished recognition of those ties which bind the highest to the lowest, the actual exercise of such a feeling would appear tohave been at times almostaltogether ignored. Scotland shames us with model landlords and model tenants. A union of interest— a union of ability, intelligence, and enterprise — have achieved wonders for the mutual advantiige of these two classes. They have progi'essed in every way— but one. They have better incomes, better laud, aud better stock. They have, in fact, bettered the condition of everything but the chief agent of their success — that of their fellow-man. Clanship •stops here. The man may fight for the Laird, or work for the tenant, serving either with all his heart and strength. He is, too, well known as a good soldier and a good workman. The boast, however, yet re- mains, and a more mistaken one never was made, " that he can live on his oatmeal porritch," without the white bread, bacon, and beer of the pampered Englishman. We have lately had to show that the Scotch labourer has cvei'ything in due accordance with this oatmeal diet. He is lodged as badly as he is fed. On more than one occasion we have had to comment on the monstrous evils of the "bothy" system — a prac- tice so directly baneful* and unprofitable in its effect, that the only wonder is how it could have continued so long undenounced. There, however, the bothies were, on the model farms of Scotland, with men and women worse housed and cared for than the beasts they tended. Still, but once attacked, the ill was one suf- ficiently great and apparent to work in some measure its own remedy. No owner or occupier could have any further pride in a place in which such hovels were yet allowed to remain. The agitation of this matter promises even something more than this, its first object. The further we pro- ceed, the more and more do we discover the labourer of the North to be behind his fellows elsewhere, and the less cognisant, in his own state, of that improvement going on round about him. He is not only badly fed and badly housed, but, in a business point of view, he is badly dealt with. There were but few of our readers until lately who knew what " the Bothy system" really meant : there are fewer still, we expect, who are ac- quainted with the working of " the bondage system." It is a phrase, though, but too well known in Scot- land ; and we can happily let the Scotch themselves explain to us what this " bondage" implies and en- forces. Following in the steps of the Reverend Harry Harry Stuart, there is now established in Edinburgh a committee of gentlemen whose aim is the improvement of the condition of the Highlanders. In furtherance of this object they have just issued a very able and elo- quent "Plea for our Highland and other Agricultural Labourers, or the Bothy and Bondage system in East Lothian and neighbouring Counties." Though here treated as in some degree associated evils, we may con-, fine ourselves to " the Bondage"— strange term to be used in a free country in the nineteenth century ! It is simply this : — " In very many districts of East Lothian, Berwickshire, Roxburghshire, and, it is believed, of some other counties, chiefly in those districts where there are no villages, and the population is forcibly kept down below its natural level, the hinds on a fai-m axe hound by the farmer to furnish each a stout, full-grown field- worker all the year round, or at least during the sum- mer season. This is popularly and appropriately called the hondafjc-system. When the hind has a son or a daughter of his own who can work the ' bondage work,' he may sometimes feel the arrangement to be an advantage ; but it often happens that his children dislike field-work, feel itto be a great drudgery, and prefer some other employment. Yet one or other of them is bound and obliged to turn out to a hated kind of work. It frequently happens that the hind. THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE. 549 wlio has no family, or whose children are all young, has to hire a stranger into his house as his hondager. This inmate, generally a person of but an inferior grade, is often felt to be a burden, a spy, or a moral plague in his small house and among his young fa- mily. And further, what he receives ft-om the farmer as the wages of his bondager, frequently does not pay the expenses to which he is put. He has often to give between £5 and £1 a half-year for such a sub- stitute, who only earns for him lOd. or Is. a-day, while, from wet weather and other causes, there is not a little hroTien tunc. Now, wlien to the wages he has to give to the bondager is added the expense of board, lodging, and washing, it is no wonder that the poor hind can often say, in bitterness of spirit, that besides all the annoyance to which he is put, he is a 2)ound or two in the half-year out of pocket." The effect of this, we are told, is that farm servants seldom remain long in one place ; that they universally hate this worse than Egyptian bondage, and are as gen- erally endeavouring to fly from it. " The tie between master and man is now easily broken" ; extensive emi- gration, amongst other things, being considered as one of its immediate results. Couple tlie fore with the after con- sequence— that is, a scarcity of proper house accommo- dation with an accomi)anying scarcity of labour — and we arrive at this awkward fact : " In many thriving agricul- tural districts, as in parts of East Lothian, there is a want of native hands to cultivate the soil ; there is a confessed scarcity of house accommodation ; and the farmers are compelled to resort to all manner of shifts, first to pro- cure labourers in sufHcient numbers, and then to fur- nish them with some sort of shelter. Some of the richest agricultural districts of the country are actually iinder-peoj>led ; and the glaring anomaly is seen of a land teeming with abundance inhabited by a scanty and diminishing population." In a more direct form we gather tliat " in East Lothian and in Berwickshire, where the large-farm system exists in perfection, the agricultural produce of these counties has for many years been greatly increasing in quantity and value ; while the population of both, during these past twenty •years, has been nearly stationary. In 1831 the popu- lation of East Lothian was 36,145, and in 1851 it was only 36,386; in 1831 the population of Berwickshire was 34,040, and in 1851 it was only 36,297. The agricultural statistics of these counties during that pe- riod would show an immense increase of produce ; but the population, in a moral point of view the most im- portant item of all, has been little more than stationary in amount, and, it is greatly to be feared, deteriorating in comfort and in character." In the first instance, one naturally turns to the em- ployer. How say you, tenant-farmers of Scotland, Guilty, or not guilty ? " The Plea" we quote from, thus answers for them : " The farmers, as a class, are not to be blamed for such a state of things. Some of them, of late, have offered to pay the landlord a per- centage on (he expense of building a few more houses for the accommodation of their labourers, and have in general met with a refusal. It is believed that they would gladly see themselves able to dispense with the bondage-system altogether. Both their best feelings and their true interests counsel its speedy and total extinction." And, again : " Farmers in general lament and con- demn the evils which it is the main purpose of this manifesto to expose. They desire nothing more than to get a sufficiency of labourers in a natural and proper way, and to see their labourers living in comfortable houses." We call attention to this subject with a double in- ducement. From any error in the conduct of our neighbour we may learn the better to regulate our own. In homely phrase, let us " look at home." There is no doubt that in certain districts here in England the ac- tion of the law of settlement has, or is conducing to the same result now so much, and that may be still more, deplored hereafter in Scotland. One of the first great facts in improved fai'ming is a suflEiciency of good manual labour. Machinery, instead of supplanting it, only, as is now well known, increases the demand, the chief consideration being that it should be of a higher character. In a word, to establish improvement you must improve the condition of the workman. Imbue him with a permanent interest in what he is about, and develop that increased intelligence you require of him by increased attention to the comforts, conveniencies, and common decencies of his domestic life. You will secure it and him in no other way; for the sooner he arrives at this necessary intelligence, the sooner will he feel the unjust and degraded position in which he is kept. The farmer may not be to blame, but he has a duty a little more vigorously to perform as the labom'er's advocate. He must demand of his landlord the neces- sary accommodation ; while landowners will ultimately discover that nothing can be more shortsighted or un- profitably selfish than to refuse such a prayer. The Edinburgh Committee do not hesitate to place the whole weight of the evil, as it is there experienced, on his shoulders : — " Whence is the remedy to come ? From the landed proprietors. If the gi-eat truth is admitted, that ' property has its duties as well as its rights,' it seems clear that the landlord is bound to provide decent house accommodation, at the very least, for all the labourers that are required to cultivate his estate. Land- lords of late have done much to improve the dwellings of the farm-servants, but they have done little or nothing to increase the number of these dwellings. They have in general forgotten to inquire if, while improved modes of culture call for more field-labourers, these labourers can be got by their tenants in a proper and natural way ; itM;hey are suitably and decently lodged ; and if any hardships are endured, both by tenants and their labourers, from want of sufficient house accommodation. Let it be conceded that the large-farm system in the richer agricultural districts is the most profitable and productive, and also that a sm-plus rural population ought always, if possible, to be advoided ; still it must be borne in mind that proprietors are very apt not to build houses enough on their large farms, and that the evils of under-population are neither few nor small." There is home-truth enough in this ibr us all ; for though Scotland be the first to complain of the evil, England cannot but take timely warning from her j example. 650 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. FRENCH COMMERCE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE. [by leonce ue lavergne, biember of the institute of the central society of agriculture.] The alimentary crisis through which we are passing has had, at least, one good effect, namely, that of causing us to adopt— definitively, we hope— both on the part of producers and consumers, freedom of internal trade and freedom of importation of cereals and cattle. In both respects we have seen that this double freedom is not attended with those inconveniences which were feared ; but that, on the con- trary, thcj possess important advantages. One point only remains still to be gained, in order to complete the system — freedom of exports. Whilst professing in the Man teur, the true principles in matters of trade, the Government has considered it necessary to maintain, and even to eulogize, the prohibition of exportation. It is possible that this may ba a necesary expedient in the actual state of ideas and prejudices. But whilst it is the duty of govern- ments to respect, in such cases, public opinion, there would be a real inconvenience in laying down, as a princi- ple, a mere concession — inevitable if you please, but bad in itself, and which must, in the sequel, disappear with the rest of a system condemned by experience. In the first place, there is an evident contradiction in prohibiting exportation whilst using every effort to promote importation ; were other nations to do the same— and they would be justified in doing so by our example — v.'e might open our ports, but nothing would enter them. What right, for example, have we to call upon the Neapolitan or Roman, or any other government, to repeal their prohibition of ex- port, when we maintain the same oui'selves.^ The reply is too ready ; and this reason alone ought to suffice, although it is far from being the only one. To prohibit exportation in a season of great dearness, like that of prohibiting importation in one of cheapness, is a useless precaution. Where would provisions exported by us at this period go to .' Prices are hardly anywhere higher than in France ; and where they are so, the expenses of transit will more than make up the difference. That there may, in one or two directions, be a chance of selling to foreigners a small quantity, is not absolutely impossible ; but what effect can that have upon the total amount of the national stock of provisions ? The exportation, if it were free, could be but insignificant : that is be3'ond a doubt. Again : exportation may facilitate importation to a certain extent in the following manner. It is the custom, in treat- ing on these questions, to comprehend everything in general terms, supposing a single category of interests and neces- sities. We confound all seasons, all commodities, all parts of national territories ; now, in practice all this is infinitely divided. The national territory is immense, and it may very possibly happen that at one point importation may be of advantage, and exportation upon another ; that it may be useful to export in one season, and to import in another ; or it may prove profitable to export one commodity in order to import another. I shall argue these hypotheses seriatim. Let us suy)pose that wheat is at 30f. at Marseilles and at 20f. at Nantes, but the distance between these ports being great, the expenses of transit are excessive ; if, for argu- ment's sake, we value them at lOf., there will be no actual difference in the price. Suppose, on the contrary, that Marseilles has nearer, but out of France— Genoa, for in- stance—a better market for buying wheat, and that Nantes, in her turn, has one nearer, say in England, for selling her wheat at a higher rate ; in that case, wheat will fall at Marseilles and rise at Nantes. And thus the consumer will gain in one case and the producer in the other, what would otherwise have been uselessly absorbed by expenses, with- out reckoning the loss of time, the anxiety, the averages, &c., inseparable accompaniments of a long voyage. I need not state that these are not mere suppositions, but facts ; being the habitual and normal position of Nantes and Mar- seilles. Letusnowsupposethat Algeria, Italy, or Spain harvest and thrash their wheat sooner than we, without having actually an excess of it, but which it may be advantageous to them, seeing the ravages of insects and other chances of destruc- tion, to sell to us a jiart at the moment in which we want it ourselves, with the view of purchasing it again of us at a later period when we shall have concluded our harvest and thrashing. Let us suppose again that the same circum- stance takes place in an inverse sense with the northern pro- vinces, which harvest later than we, and that we have an interest in exporting thither first, in order to import from thence afterwards. Again, it is easy to perceive that these suppositions have nothing gratuitous in them, being the pure and simple expression of facts. Lastly, let us suppose, for example, that Alsace has an abundant harvest of potatoes, but stands in need of grain ; whilst, on the other side of the Rhine, wheat may be more plentiful and potatoes more scarce : there would evidently be a profit in selling the one and buying the other, and what may happen in this district with potatoes, may happen elsewhere with other products. At this moment when the price of wheat is so high, we have in France cereals which are not consumed. The de- partments of the east and south-east produce abundance of maize, which is usually sold for exportation ; the Valley of the Saone sells to Switzerland ; those of the Garonne and Adour to England. At this time this exportation is prohibited, and the producers who have an excess of maize no longer know where to place it. We are undoubtedly wrong in not consuming it in Paris and at the north of France ; but we are not accustomed to it, and our habits are not changed in a daj'. In the meantime, the maize remains unsold, and the price, which is commonly two-thirds that of wheat, does not now even reach half. Besides the wrong we thus inflict on the producer, the consumer also suffers ; for, with the maize we should sell to the foreigner, we might purchase wheat, and this maize would go to fill a void in the consumption of neighbouring countries, and thus contribute to lower the price of wheat in the general market. Turkej-, again, offers us a still more striking example. Bread is dearer at Constantinople than in Paris -, not exactly because they want wheat, but because they have not mills sufficient to meet the consumption created by the presence of the allied armies. It would yield a profit to import wheat from thence and to export flour, but we cannot do it. The prohibition of exportation prevents wheat from being sent from Turkey to other countries- possibly France— to be converted into flour. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 551 Nothing can be more artificial than this claim of imposing on the department of the Nord and that of the Var, which are 250 leagues distant from each other, the ohligation of exclusively supplying each other with provisions, when they might buy and sell with more profit at their doors. We thus throw obstacles in the way of a multitude of commer- cial combinations, some of which I shall now state, and there are certainly many others. We reasonably desire to organize on a grand scale the trade in cereals and other alimentary products, for nothing gives so much life to com- merce as the liberty to import and export at v/ill, according to the variations in price. That which is true of internal commerce is not less of foreign ; what therefore the Moni- teur has said of the one, is equally applicable to the other. It is necessary again to revert to England, whose exam- ple at this moment, demonstrates perfectly how much im- portation and exportation mutually assist each other. This little island is becoming more and more the centre of trade in alimentary produce for the whole world. All goes there, because they know that if by chance prices were higher elsewhere, they will be free to reload for that destination. We cannot say that England now exports much ; but if prices are a little reduced with her, or raised on other points, she will export more. According to all appearances she will finish by selling wheat to us, and has already made a small beginning. This is to disturb the natural order of things. From this time forward the English journals may remark with proprietj', that England is, of all countries in Europe, that in which wheat has risen less, relatively with its usual price, and that scarcely any other country ap- proaches so near that desirable ideal, fixity in the price of grain. Let us tell the whole truth . French agriculture agrees without a murmur to the free importation of alimentary pro- duce, because a great national interest is involved ; it has certainly a right to demand in exchange fi'eedom of export- ation. These Custom-house regulations have happily only a very limited influence when they relate to so large a country as ours. If indeed they possessed the efficiency generally imputed to them, the condition to which they would reduce the agriculturists would be insupportable, since it would deprive them of all chance of a rise by raultiplj^ing on the contrary, as much as possible the chances of a fall in prices, " No favour, but no injustice." Even in the in- terests of the consumers, it would be very inconvenient that they should be able to exercise a violent action on prices. However this law may be the subject of regret, it is just that wheat should be dear when it is scarce ; for if it was not so, the producer vv^ould not find in the augmentation of price a compensation for the deficiency of the harvest, would receive no remuneration for his labour, and his niin would involve that of the consumer, because he would cease to produce. It is therefore of importance to leave things to their natural course : dearness brings its own remedy by encouraging production — such is the established order oi Providence. In spite of the high price of products, it does not appear that the profession of agriculture is very lucra- tive in France. Leases are not much in request, nor does the value of land advance to the rent it obtained before 1848. In ordinary times, nothing is more favourable to agricul- tural productions, and consequently to abundance, than the facility of exportation. England has been the first to com- prehend this, as she has also been to see the advantages attached to freedom of importation ; and she even went beyond the limit formerly, by encouraging exportation with a bounty. This economic extravagance — for such it was — was infinitely better than the contrary error which prevailed in France at the same time, the prohibition of exportation. Under the empire of these two opposite regimes, English agriculture has made a rapid progress, whilst French agri- culture remains " in the rut." Once more ; I do not say that these opinion could now be carried out. "A hungry belly has no ears." It is neces- sarj"- to respect the national sentiments, even when they are erroneous ; but, at the same time, it is necessary to spare no pains to rectify them. Belgium is now the most enlightened country of Continental Europe on these points, and the House of Representatives has just passed an act to prohibit exportation, but only after an animated discussion in which it has been generally acknowledged to be a bad law. The ministers themselves, who had introduced it, have declared that in their estimation it is injurious, but necessary. " Of two evils we must choose the least," said one of them. " I prefer contributing to raise the price of wheat by a false measure, rather than subject myself to seeing cart-loads of it pillaged by the people." 1 understand this argument, but I do not comprehend any other. THE MICROSCOPE AS AN AGRICULTURAL AGENT. Our agricultural readers, we trust, will give us credit for being the advocates of progTess in intellectual and scientific attainments, with the view of producing a more enlightened practical application of the principles of their profession. Certain it is, that within the last ten or fifteen years more advances have been made in knowledge, more light thi-own upon agricultural sub- jects, and gTeater inroads effected upon prejudice, than iu any previous period of thrice its duration. We are, however, still in a transition state in this respect ; and what has been already attained serves but to make our remaining deficiencies more palpable. As a body, however convinced the agriculturists may now be of the advantages of science in their profession, a large proportion of them are still content to take its revelations at second-hand, and to rely implicitly, and without inquiry, on the dicta of those they deem to be better informed than themselves. Noways discouraged, we are about to tax their attention with a subject which has hitherto been only incidentally adverted to, but which has now been more directly suggested to us by the exami- nation of a work recently published by Van Voorst — we refer to the use of the microscope ; the work in question being a " Micrographic Dictionary," edited by two of the most eminent men of science iu 552 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the kingdom ;* and which, we apprehend, will prove a standard book in the scientific literature of the coun- try. The subject itself is so important, that we feel in- clined to give a short account of the progress made in the imi^rovement of the microscope, and of the practical use to which it maybe applied in agriculture. There is no account, we believe, of the time when the microscope was first invented ; but it is generally believed to have been coeval with the discovery of the power of the lens. Like many other scientific in- ventions, it remained in an imperfect state of eifi- ciency until within a very few years ; and although the compound instrument had been constructed, it was not till the year 1824 that its powers wore fully developed, when Tulley constructed an achro- matic object-glass of 9-lOths of an inch focal length, composed of three lenses, which trans- mitted a pencil of 18 degrees. Several of the con- tinental savans had directed their attention to the same subject at this period, but Tulley 's was the first instrument of the kind made in England ; and the principle has never been improved upon by any subse- quent combination of three lenses. Herschel, Airy, Barlow, and Lister have discovered certain properties in achromatic combinations which had escaped the notice of Tulley ; and in 1829 Lister read a paper before the Royal Society, showing that by the applica- tion of this discovery he had obtained a combination of lenses, which transmitted a pencil of 50 degs., with a large field correct in every pai't. By this discovery, which was perfected afterwards by Powell and Ross (especially the latter), the defects of sphericity and dis- persion were destroyed or balanced. Sir D. Brewster and M. Dujardin have still further added to the effi- ciency of the achromatic powers of the microscope ; and these progressive advancements, which are now patent to all, have enabled our authors to produce the work in question, which forms a complete vocabulary of microscopic technicalities, a lucid explanation of the instrument in all its parts, and a splendid museum of graphic specimens of objects such as no other work in our language can exhibit. These graphic illustrations comprise 41 plates and 816 woodcuts of portions of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, executed in the first style of the art, and constituting altogether one of the most inter- esting and instructive collections on the subject ever published. A large proportion of these are sections of the bodies they represent, exhibiting their construction • " The Micrographic Dictionary ; a Guide to the examina- tion and investigation of the Structure and Nature of Microscopic Olijecls " Ry J. VV. Griffiths, M.D., F.L.S., ice, Member of tlie Roy.il College of Physicians, and Arthur Ilenfrey, F.R.S , F.L.S., &c.. Professor of Botany in King's College, London. Illustrated by 41 plates and 816 wood engravings. London : John Van Voorst, Paternoster-row. ill the most natural manner ; others are specimens of plants and animalculse invisible to the naked eye, but exhibiting, under the power of the instrument, their beautiful or gi-otesque forms, as the case may be. Nearly the whole are more or less magnified, ranging from 3 to 600 times, according to the requirements of the operator. It is impossible to give any analysis that can aiTord an adequate idea of the elaborate and scientific execution of the work, either in regard to the illustrations or their explanations in the typography. The introduction contains a complete description of the microscope in all its parts and uses, with tlirections where the best are to be obtained, and the various terms and instruments in use. It forms, in fact, a complete microscopic vade mecum, and by it any man of common understanding may readily attain to a knowledge of this branch of science. It may be asked, oi what use can a knowledgs of the microscope be to a farmer ? and how can its powers and properties be brought to bear upon agi'icul- ture 1 We reply, that in no profession can its use be made more practically beneficial than to that of the farmer, whose success is frequently marred by in- fluences of which he is in total ignorance, and which nothing but the microscope can divulge. We have re- cently had a case in i:)oint under investigation, which will illustrate the truth of this remark in a striking manner. In Lincolnshire, and other parts of the coun- try, the wheat plant has been attacked with some disease or other enemy which had escaped the detec- tion of the farmers ; and the case has undergone a microscopic investigation, in order to ascertain whether the mischief arises from animalcules or fungi, there being at the time a difference of opinion on the sub- ject. Both these were foimd to be concerned, some of them being too small to be discovered by the naked eye, but were instantly detected by the microscope. Possibly means may be found — by dressing the land with lime or some other caustic substance — to prevent this mischief another season. This is but one of a hundred cases of the like kind in which the microscope can be made useful to agi'icul- ture. Many such cases will at once strike the mind of the intelligent farmer, in which it would be desirable for him to ascertain the cause of the evil. There is not a plant he grows but is at times subject to disease arising from animalculai or fungi, both invisible in their organization to the naked eye, but not less effective in the destruction of the plant. We, therefore, strongly recommend our scientific readers to make a purchase of a good microscope, and, as an essential accompaniment to it, the " Micrographic Dictionary," by which he may speedily acquire a competent ac- quaintance with its application and uses. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 553 LAND DRAINAGE. The attention of our French neighbours is at the present moment strongly directed to the subject of land-drainage. The last number of the Journal d' Agriculttire Pratique contains a paper on this sub- ject, from the pen of M. De la Trehonnais — a French gentleman, who has been long resident in England, and is, we have been told, connected with some exten- sive agricultural operations in France, which are to be conducted on the English system. The writer commences with an observation as to the importance of land-drainage, as an essential condition of fertility, and a preliminary to improved cultivation. This being the case, the gi'eat object of inquiry is, he says, what are the most economical and efficacious modes of draining ? and in France, where capital is as yet so parsimoniously applied to agi-iculture, this is the all-important question. We are all agreed, he adds, upon the importance of draining : the only ques- tion is, how can the landowners support the expendi- ture of 250, 300, and even 400 francs the hectare — a sacrifice in most cases unappreciated by the farmer, who will thei'e, for a long time, be unwilling to paj the landlord the increased rent which the operation renders necessary, and the value of which he is at pre- sent unable to appreciate? M. De la Trehonnais then describes the aid which has been afforded in England by the Government, so unwilling generally to interfere in the private aifairs of individuals, by means of loans. He also adverts to the different drainage companies which have been formed in this country for providing the necessary funds, and, in some cases, undertaking the execution of the works. He then shows how, in some parts of England — as in Essex and Suffolk — a cheap method of draining land has been struck out, and long practised, which brings it within the reach of the tenant farmer. " Lastly," he observes, "a geologist (Mr. Trimmer) and an able practical agriculturist (Lord Berners) have discovered another method, as economical, and much moi'e durable — the one by means of scientific researches, the other by a long series of practical expe- riments ; and the two, as it appears, without any com- munication with one another, have arrived at the same conclusion. The theory of the one has been verified by the experience of the other. We have described," he continues, " in a former numbei*, how these two elements were brought together at a meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, where the geologist ex- plained his theory of the furrows belonging to the erratic tertiary deposits, and pointed out the benefits which might be derived from them in simplifying the operation of drainage. This utility the practical agil- culturist, who was accidentally present at the meeting, declared to be established by the testimony of an ex- perience of thirty years. On his Lordship's invita- tion, the geologist visited the scene of these successful operations, to witness the application of his theory ; and to this x'emarkable coincidence we owe the Key- thorpe system, so called from the name of the estate of Loi'd Berners." M. De la Trehonnais then declares that, having been an eye-witness of the extraordinary results of this system of draining, and the questions arising out of it having been discussed in his presence, he considers himself in a position to treat the subject, not only ft-om his own observations, but from those of the most eminent agriculturists who have taken part in the discussion. He then explains the principles of the system, which — after all that has been said — as we presume most of our readers must know by this time, consist in the taking advantage of certain natural and subterranean furrows, grooves, or chan- nels, which exist not only between the soil and subsoil, but, at different depths, between different members of the superficial deposits, and perform different functions in land and in spring-draining. Into the theoretical views advanced by M. De la Trehonnais respecting the mode in which these natural and sub- terranean furrows were formed, we will not follow him. H.e will find few geologists inclined to coincide with him in attributing the deeper set to a general deluge. Most of them are now agi-eed that those members of the superficial dejiosits between which the most deeply- seated furrows exist, were formed by glacio-marine action, during the subsidence and re-emergence of the land; and as to those furrows nearer the surface, which have been formed by some anomalous and hitherto- unexplained action, upon a terresti-ial siirface, it would be rash, in the present state of the information which we possess respecting them, to found on them another diluvial theory, after the warning we have received from the signal failure of that of Dr. Buckland. Whe- ther the Scripture narrative requires that the deluge by which the human race was once destroyed should have been imiversal, or merely confined to the regions then inhabited by man, are questions which we may pro- bably discuss on some future occasion : at present, we waive it. The question, moreover, of the manner in which these furrows were formed, is foreign to that of their agricultural application. Their existence, depth, and direction are the only questions with which we have any concern, as regards their practical application to the drainage of land. The first does not admit of a question ; and the laws of their depth and distribution, and the forms of surface in which they prevail, are questions only to be resolved by careful observation. It is evident, moreover, that, if they exist, they must have so important an influence on the success of land- draining operations, that the study of them becomes one of great practical importance, to which our drain- ing engineers would do well to turn their attention. The existence of these furrows is attested by many P P 554 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. impartial observers ; and M. De la Trelionnais regards it as an incontrovertible fact. He then shows the effect which they must produce on the land, supposing drains to be laid on the parallel and equidistant system, so as to coincide in their direction with that of these subterranean inequalities, in an impermeable bed filled with a more permeable soil, instead of intersect- ing them; and concludes this part of the subject in the following woi'ds : " If," he says, "as we have demonstrated, there exist in the subsoil alternations of poro?ity and imper- meability, we must avail ourselves of them to attain our end, in order to diminish the number and length of our drains, and, by so doing, to diminish the ex- pense attending draining operations. The reader," he adds, " will appreciate, like ourselves, the value and importance of a system whicli has for its basis an in- contestable scientific fact, and for auxiliaries simpli- city, economy, efficiency, and durability." These views are followed by a description of the method by which the drainers of Keythorpe proceed in regulating the position of their drains by means of trial holes, and the effect of drains in clearing them of water, at different distances. These details are illus- trated by two actual sections along the length of an exploring drain at Keythorpe, showing the irregular alternations of porous and retentive deposits fol- lowing the deeper set of furrows in the lias. Into these remarks, and others which follow, on the manner in which water percolates through the soil, and the manner in which it enters the drains, our limits will not permit us to follow the writer ; nor is it necessary, seeing that he has recently explained him- self on these points. CATTLE PATHOLOGY. The annual report of the Veterinary College to the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society reminds us that as our live stock are being improved in breed, and forced forward to early maturity, their position is be- coming the more artificial, requiring a greater amount of attention in household accommodation and feeding, while they are also becoming more liable to a certain class of diseases, when neglected. Hence the growing importance of pathology, physiology, morbid anatomy, and the other branches of veterinary science taught at the College. Pathology (from the Greek words iraOog, a disease, and Xoyog, a discourse), or the science of diseases, treats, first, of the naming and arranging of diseases into classes, orders, genera, &c. ; second, of the pre- disposing and exciting causes of disease ; third, of the signs and symptoms by which the disease is marked ; fourth, of the changes of structure efi"ected, involving physiology, or a comparison with the same functions and structure in a state of health; fifth, of the necessary treatment to effect a cure ; and sixth, and lastly, of morbid anatomy, when cases terminate fatally. Pleuro-pneumonia, and other inflammatory com- plaints affecting the respiratory functions, with certain parasitic diseases, appear to have been very prevalent during the period embraced by the report; and from the discussion which followed its reading, are so still in several provinces. In Lincolnshire, and some others, for example, they appear so obstinate and confirmed in character, setting defiance to the exhibition of medicine, that farmers are giving way to despondency, leaving affected animals to the vis medicatrix Natures, or " cu- rative force of Nature," as it has rather not inaptly been termed. In all inflammatory cases, and indeed in diseases of every kind, the old adage, " prevention is better than cure," is applicable — a fact specially alluded to in the College report. This arises from the indifference mani- fested by cattle when first 'affected, and the consequent difficulty experienced by farmers in recognising disease, and applying a timely remedy. The moment man feels the predisposing causes beginning to act, he applies to his medical adviser for relief, communicating to him many things which otherwise he could not ascertain at this period from any symptomatic evidence. As soon as a change of structure begins to take place, indica- tions manifest themselves enabling him to prescribe, but not with the same degree of confidence and success as at an earlier stage, while the sufferings of the patient are greatly increased. And before even the first sensa- tions are felt, man, from being endowed with rational faculties, and knowing his own constitutional charac- teristics, . and what course of dieting is necessary to preserve health, is able to adopt the same. These infirmities, too, generally hereditary, are often themselves chronic diseases of the most loath- some kind, liable to assume an acute form, or terminate in others of a more malignant kind. Take scrofula as an example, where the whole lymphatic sys- tem is in a diseased state of action, more intense at cer- tain seasons of the year than at others, and where the action not only predisposes the system to inflammation, but gives to it a more obstinate character. Again, a plethoric constitution, or a system overloaded with blood, disposes it to inflammatory affections, as pleuro-pneu- monia, apoplexy, &c. In this case the diet should be cooling, temperate in amount, and regular as to meals, accompanied with gentle exercise, the liberal use of the flesh-brush to keep the insensible perspiration up, and an active aperient occasionally, especially in early spring and autumn. The opposite temperament of this — viz., the phlegmatic or verminous — has an excess of serum in the blood and cellular membrane, and predisposes the system to worms and morbid secretions ; consequently, as a prevention, a warm strengthening diet is recom- mended. Then we have gouty, rheumatic, and nervous temperaments, requiring their respective modes of diet- ing to keep down their action to the lowest degree of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 555 tensity. In all these cases experience has taught man the truth of the adage, and therefore he acts accord- ingly. The brute creation in a wild state, too, is often guided by instinct to pursue a similar course, by select- ing various medical herbs for food, eating earth, going great distances to drink sea-water as a vermifuge, and the like ; but with domesticated animals, under our artificial systems, no such privileges are enjoyed, while the poor brutes are, on the contrary, induced by a thou- sand pampering means to increase the action of consti- tutional disease. And in addition to constitutional maladies of the above nature, the stomach of man is frequently either in an alkaline or aciduous state, re- quiring antacids and antalkalies to correct them ; and such are always better given in food containing these in their natural state — as lemon-juice or sour milk — than in the shape of crystallized acids and alkalies, as citric acid and lactic acid, from the shops. Such is the case of man ; and analogous to it will be found that of our domesticated animals. To prevent pleuro-pneumonia, therefore, farmers should watch narrowly the prognostics of plethoric animals, and pay attention in time to the kind of regimen or food, and grooming they require, especially when they are constitutionally of scro- fulous habits. Again, to prevent worms in the wind-pipe, a disease very prevalent at present, phlegmatic animals should be narrowly watched, and a warm stimulating and strengthening diet given in time, such as a liberal allowance of oil-cake or linseed- meal and India-corn, with a suitable seasoning of salt and bitter herbs as tonics — the latter more especially for sheep, as they, when left to roam in the natural state, consume large quantities of bitter herbs, many of which are anthelmintics. Parasites on the skin are also common in constitutional habits of this kind, and therefore a similar course of prevention should be adopted in time. Special notice is also drawn to urinary calculi, generally of the calcareous and phosphatic kinds, in sheep, attributed to too nitrogenous a diet. There is yet too much diversity of opinion as to the cause of calculous deposits of this nature, to hazard a CQnclusiou as to what kind of diet should be used to prevent them. The more sound philosophy appears to be that they are the result of disease, most probably, of the absorbent and secretionary functions, for in themselves they cannot be a disease, nor the cause of injury to the kidneys, ureter, bladder, or urethra, until once they exist. Such being the case, we have to pre- scribe a diet calculated to promote the healthy action of these functions, and this is more hkely to be accomplished by the exhibition of bitter tonics, with diuretics when required, than a less quantity of nitrogen in food. During the discussion which followed the reading of the report, the chairman, Mr. Miles, M.P., drew the attention of the council to consumption and oestrus ovis (if we understood him aright), as being very prevalent in several flocks this year. Consumption or phthisis is an hereditary disease; and wherever it assumes this type, the best plan is to change the breed without delay. Pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs, when accompanied with a scrofulous habit, frequently terminates in phthisis, sometimes with a slow, incipient, lingering action, but more frequently the very reverse, carrying oflf its victim in an in- credibly short time. Scrofula being an hereditary disease, the same rule applies to this case as the last — a change of breed. The bot in the frontal sinuses of the head of sheep is not strictly speaking a disease, but it may or may not be the cause of one ; while, on the contrary, it may even prevent disease. In illustration of this apparent anomaly, we have first to observe that this bot is the larva of the cestrus ovis ; that the frontal sinuses of the sheep are their natural winter quarters, and that they thrive here, feeding on the mucus secreted from the membrane to which they attach themselves, without doing any apparent harm, from the time they enter to April and May of the following year. In crawling up and down the nos- trils to and from the sinuses it is otherwise; for at those periods, and especially the latter, they greatly annoy the sheep, giving rise to a degree of excitement in nervous temperaments which in a few days often creates alarm in the mind of the shepherd. When, however, the sheep possesses a plethoric constitution as well as a nervous one, or the former only, and is highly fed, and in that condition hable to inflammatory attacks of the respu-atory functions, this excitement may counteract, or rather prevent pneumonia, pleuro-pneumonia, or other inflammatory affections ; and when the bots are once expelled from the nos- trils, it has long been observed that such sheep fatten very rapidly. But if they are seized and the attack proves fatal before the bots have loosened their tentacula or hold from the membrane of the frontal sinus, no counteracting excitement will be experienced, while they (the bots) will be found there by the morbid anatomist. Whether sneesewort (Achillea ptarmica), or any other sternutatory, could be given to sheep to promote the discharge of bots in nervous and phlegmatic cases where excitement does harm, is for the Veterinary College to say ; hut in plethoric constitutions it would appear that " let alone" is the way to comply with the adage. There are several other maladies and topics we had intended to notice, but having exceeded our Umits already, these we must defer to a more convenient season, meantime thanking the Governors of the Royal Vetermary College for their report. RAIN FALLS. When the English farmers of a past generation gi-avely employed themselves on rainy days in pondering over the weather predictions in old Francis Moore's alma- nac, they were on a useful scent, but hunting in a very barren cover. They felt, as they opened their miserable calendar, that on the kind of weather they might expect rested all their harvest prospects. They sought out, in their anxious musings, the only work on the subject in their possession ; and still they pored over its assertions, in spite of the countless failures of old Moore's silly guesses. But by taking another and a surer road to the same interesting object, are there not useful probabilities at least to be gleaned ? May we not by the aid of the thermometer and the rain-gauge P P 2 536 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. gather a few facts from which we may predict the general produce of certain crops — the hay and the turnip crops, for instance ? Let us see what these instruments tell us with regard to the grass-growing months of March, April, and May, of the present and two preceding years ; and if we find that we liave had during these months of the present year a far greater temperature and a much larger rain-fall than during the same period in 1854 and 1855, ^hall we not be well warranted in our conclusion "that the hay harvest of this year will vastly exceed in amount those of the two previous seasons ? Now, the rain-fall in inches near London (to May 24 of 185G) has been as fol- lows :— 1854. 1855. 1856. March .. .. 014 1-13 OSO April 017 010 214 May .. ,. .. 3.34 2-32 257 Total.. 3-65 3-55 501 We see, then, that nearly double the amount of rain has fallen this year in the gi'ass-growing months of April and May, than during these months of 1855. And not only has the moisture been more considerable, but the temperature has been commonly higher : take, for instance (not to encumber our pages with that of every night), the lowest temperature of five nights in each month : — April 1855. 1856. 1.. .. 20 38 6.. .. 31 33 12.. .. 37 41 18.. .. 30 30 21.. .. 24 34 1.. .. 31 27 6.. .. 28 31 12., .. 32 38 18.. .. 40 39 24.. .. 39 42 May And, again, the temperature of the soil has also been generally gi-eater during these months in the j^resent year. A thermometer placed at 18 inches from tlic surface, indicated at 9 o'clock, a.m. — Apri 1 )> 6 12 18 it 24 May 1 >j 6 » 12 18 » 24 855. 1856. 35 34 37 41 40 43 43 40 39 41 40 41 40 40 43 44 42 46 46 49 All these facts would lead us to the conclusion that we shall be blessed with a fai' more profitable hay harvest than those of late seasons. So that anrid all our mani- fold disappointments, surely wc have reason to be grateful for being placed in such a climate — capricious, and ever-varying as it is; and thus thought the late Philip Pusey, ever the English farmers' staunch and watchful friend. He could not on one occasion relriiiii from telling us, on his return from a continental tour, that he felt that our climate is the best in the world for healthful exorcise and for farming, enjoying as it doci the most temperate summer, comljined with the mildest winter, and on the whole a steady downfall of rain, added to a much greater amount of insensible vapour in our atmosphere than on the continent — an excess of vapour shown by the difficulty of growing in French green-houses the Heath, a plant requiring moist air, and in the difficulty of working om" electrical telegraph. The moisture we owe partly to our neigh- bourhood to the sea on all sides — partly to the preva- lence of westerly winds arriving from a wide ocean, full of the warm vapours of the Gulf-stream. Had our summei'S been hotter, we could not have grown tur- nips : had they been colder, they would not have ripened our wheat. NO COUNTRY CAN BE GREAT THAT IS POOR IN AGRICULTURE. Sir, — The great-minded, far-sighted, and foretJiougJited French monarch, Napoleon III., to make France as great and as rich in agriculture as England, has offered magnificent premiums or prizes at Paris for the best kinds of English cattle and sheep, &c. The wise Emperor has also ordered prizes to be given to the best cattle that can be found in any other country besides England upon the face of the earth, which is a gigantic example to all monarchs in the world, because it is the greatest and wisest scheme in agri- culture that has ever been put in practice by any emperor, king, or prince since the creation of Adam ; for what monarch before him has ever done the like ? Therefore Napoleon III. has not only made himself an ornament in France, but useful to all the globe by tempting agriculturists from far distant climes to bring their best cattle and sheep to Paris. And the French people in a few years may expect to see, if the persevering Napoleon lives, the land in France stocked with the best Durham, Devon, Hereford, and Scotch cattle : with them the Dishley, alias Leicester, South-down, Cots- wold, and Lincolnshire sheep, and their land farmed upon the four-course system, half in green crops, alias clover, turnips, &c., green crops being the mainstay of all good farming. It is plain the English farmers of the first magnitude have kept pace with the times : as a proof, where can the English cidtivators of land go into a foreign land to improve their cattle, sheep, and horses, we have the best that can be found upon the earth. And the great luminary Napoleon will prove it at the Paris Exhibition. I recommend the French farmers to take the English Farmer's Magazine, to enlighten them in agriculture by an interpreter, more espe- cially in the breeding of cattle and sheep ; and iu foreign and artificiaJ manures, &c., which are brought thousands of miles by sea to manure the English soil. Does any other country do the same ? Then does not the English farmer stand pre-eminent not only iu cattle and sheep, &c., but in the cultivation of the soil ? Millions of gold have been paid by English farmers for foreign bones, guano, &c., to improve the laud in England; and the Farmer's Magazine and the Mark Lane Express vtiW prove my assertion. Let any highly- talented practical foreign farmer value the stock and crops iu the far-famed and liighly-farmed counties of Lincolnshire and Norfolk in the month of July; or let him Rvalue the stock upon the grazing l«ud in Leicestersliire, Northampton- shire, Warwickshire, and Buckinghamshire iu the same montli, and he will find that no part of the world is worth so much per acre in cattle, sheep, horses, and corn, as the above-named counties ; and let him fiiiisli by inspecting the great Christmas New Smilhfield Cattle and Sheep Market. Samuel Arnsby. No. 18, Norfolk-street, Hyde Park, London, May Gt/i, 185G. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 557 GEOLOGY AND 'THE KEYTHORPE SYSTEM." What use or advantage would follow from the re- searches of the geologist being practically applied to the drainage of land ? Common sense prompts us to reply, a very great deal. Perhaps, however, the answer is already supplied to us : the application of such a science has been fully acted on ? We all of us know well enough how far geology can assist and ad- vise us in bringing our lands into proper condition — Is it so ? By no means. There is scarcely any study as susceptible of being hourly tested by the farmer himself, in the pursuit of his business, that is so little understood or appreciated by him. More than this, our very professors rarely allow the science that im- portance and consideration it should have. We have one or two gentlemen justly famous as the geologists of agriculture, and only one or two. These have, no doubt, done much ; though their labours so far have hardly produced that general effect that might have been expected. A discussion, then, amongst agriculturists, and other practical men, upon the principles of geology, would appear to be very well timed. As we have just inti- mated, it is a subject so far by no means overdone. There was ample opportunity for both teaching and learning. There was a fair opportunity to encourage inquiry, and lead men to think more of the data upon which they acted. The announcement of such a ques- tion being arranged for, could consequently but pro- mise well. It came, too, in every way, under good auspices. The members of the Central Farmers' Club placed it on their card, while one of their best men un- dertook to introduce it. Mr. Baker, of Writtle, very happily unites in his own person the experience of the farmer, with some of the tastes and acquii'ements of the geologist. His sayings and doings for many years have shown him to have a natural turn this way ; and it is not too much to declare that, from his antecedents, the Club could not have made a better selection, or asso- ciated the subject with the name of any one more likely to put it usefully before them. This discussion took place at the usual Monthly Meeting in May. In additon to Mr. Baker himself, there were other members present who might well follow in the consideration of such a thesis. Amongst these were Mr. Trimmer, one of the few really eminent geologists known in agriculture ; Mr. Bailey Denton, and Mr. Bullock Webster, equally enthusiastic as draining engineers ; with the chairman, Mr. Tre- thewy, Mr. Thomas, Mr. Charles Stokes, and others, ! to give the customary sound tone and character to the^ ! proceedings. The report of what occurred there will be found in another part of our paper. In simple truth the result in no ways realized what was antici- pated. The records of these meetings, we know, are read far and wide with much interest and attention. We believe, however, that few will rise from a perusal of what the London Club said or did to advance the science of geology, but with a feeling of disap- pointment. The business of the occasion nevertheless began and finished well. The Chairman introduced the subject as " The application of Geology and Hy- draulics to tlie Drainage of Land" ; and the meeting broke up with the adoption of a very sensible resolu- tion— one that reads well for the future. It was — '' That the principles of draining are so far dependent upon a knowledge of geology and hydraulics as to render information upon these subjects essential to its utmost development." It would be impossible for one to come in stronger or more becoming support of the other. The interim, however — the two hours' discus- sion— so far as either is really concerned, might almost as well have never taken place. We confess that we never sat out one so thoroughly irrelevant. Every man's hand was against everybody's. Deep drainers stood up for deep draining, and shallow drainers for shallow. Smith of Deanston and Josiah Parkes were alike denounced and defended. There was the flourish- ing of twenty-pound clieques, and the offers of most saevus challenges. There was my Lord Berners and his system, and his hospitality, kept up from one to another as the most agile of shuttlecocks. Was his Lordship a success or a failure ? Great was the discus- sion thereon, and proportionately small that on the application of Geology to the Drainage of Land. It is but too well known a fact that our different draining authorities hardly work on with as much har- mony as is desirable. So far as we can understand the dispute, one division maintains tliat to b3 effectual there should be no drainage at less than four feet ; the other, that it may often be quite as good at a less depth. The dispute, as far as it has gone, would appear to be endless, though common sense would seem to dictate that a difference of soil would frequently warrant a difference of treatment — in a word, that a knowledge of geology would be of advantage in the draining of lands. Either by design or accident in the first in- stance. Lord Berners' estates at Keythorpe have been drained in accordance with the dicta of this science — at different depths, and on different plans, as the nature of the soil would appear to warrant. Mr. Trimmer, as a geologist, approves the principle upon which this is done, while Mr. Baker, Mr. Bullock Webster, Monsieur Trehonnais, and others, "pass the work" — The drain- ing is good and effective. On the other hand, Mr. Bailey Denton condemns the principle as soon as he hears it, and condemns the work as soon as he sees it. Mr. Hewitt Davis, we believe, coincides with this view; as to some extent does Mr. Wood, the Chairman of the Club, who, in company with a few of his brother mem- bers, has also lately been to Keythorpe — " He must confess he did not think the system of drainage there perfect," 558 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The merits and demerits of this Keythorpe system will be found to have occupied the greater part of the evening. Cited as an example of the application of geology to drainage, we are quite willing to allow this might have been sufficiently in order. Such, however, was not the case. Mr. Bailey Denton, who imme- diately followed Mr. Baker, scarcely spoke a word to the question as it stood on the card. The application of geology to draining, according to his showing^ simply meant himself versus the Keythorpe system. Eighteen inches' depth anywhere was wrong ; bushes, except for tenant-farmers, were wrong ; and going across the fall was wrong. Not much geology here. The cost was great, the system without system, and he would forfeit twenty pounds if he could not show a better! Mr. Trimmer almost altogether contented himself with answering Mr. Denton. Mr. Webster cited the efficacy of three feet, and the rest of the debate feet, went very much on the relative merits of three or four with little or no i-efereuce to the subject the meeting was convened to consider. We fear there is but little good likely to follow from all this. Many will share in Mr. Trethewy's disap- pointment " at the turn the discussion took." Instead of a new and interesting topic, there was a great deal very old and stale that had been said over and over again at the Club, the Society of Arts, and elsewhere. Indeed it is very evident that, what with its friends and its foes, unless m.anaged with far more temper and discretion, "the Keythor^De system " will soon become less and less inviting. It is very certain that its intro- duction here " spoilt the evening." Mr. Baker himself pointedly apologised for the little time he had been able to give to his subject. It was plain this was not prepared with that care and completeness he generally bestows on his productions. There was still sufficient, however, to open the question, and it is fi-om his addi-ess Ave gather almost the only piece of information likely to be useful to the farmer. Even this, too, refers as much or more to the study of botany than of geology : — " He con- sidered it essential that every one proceeding with the ch-ainage of land should beforehand perfectly under- stand the nature of the soil below that he might have to deal with ; this was essential to success, and indeed soils were designated below by appearances above. The plants that grew upon the surface also indicated the quality of the subsoil below. Thus the corn poppy, tine-tare. May-weed, corn marigold, white charlock, groimdsel, fumitory, all indicated by their presence a light sandy or silicious soil. The wild oat, garlic, daisy, charlock, millilot, fescue varieties of grasses, cowslip, orchis, all indicated the presence of chalk, especially chalky clay soils ; corn mint, arsmart, colts- foot, &c., indicate wet spongy subsoils ; thus geology and botany go hand in hand so far as the constituent properties of soils and subsoils influence vegetation. The knowledge of these matters greatly influences successful draining." It is in some such tone as this the discussion should have continued, instead of with personal challenges, wholesale condemnations, and assumed infallibilities, that can in reality tend to no good. There never was a subject that was stated in more general terms, while there never was one argued so little in accordance with that comprehensive view which might and should have been taken of it. We say nothing of hydraulics ; but, confining ourselves to geology, we are quite certain all the chief speakers on this occasion might have shown to much more advantage than they did. Once unkennelled, however, " the Keythorpe fox" went clean away with them,* CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. Turnips are most generally sown during this month, except in the eastern counties, where a later season is less exposed to the fly. Open drills at 2,6 inches distance by one furrow of the common plough ; spread half-rotted farm-yard dung along the hollows in quantity to cOver the bottom of the intervals ; reverse the drills over the dung by two furrows of the plough, and sow the turnip seeds with a two-drill sowing machine. With artificial manures of all kinds make ridglets as before, with one furrow of the common plough, deep as can be done, and sow the manure and seeds together with Hornsby's droi)-drill, which deposits a bulb of manure and seed at nine inches distance, securing a ready food to the plant, and sowing the quantity as in a continuous stream. The coulters pierce deeply the ridglets of soil, and deposit the manure and seed in a moist bed of fresh tilth, which is much superior to making ruts on a level surface of a parched cultivation. A fresh tilth is invaluable. On very dry lands sow with Chandler's liquid- manure drill, in which the dry manures are mixed in water and deposited in the drills in a liquid con- dition, with the seeds above the manures. In a combination of dry soils and seasons a large bene- fit will be derived from this practice. Sow as the first crop Swedish turnips in the best green kinds, then green round, and lastly white globe, which will provide a succession of feeding roots for winter use. Plough pared and burned lands, and sow turnips on a single furrow, with ample harrowing, if the land be clayey and stiff; if it be light or loamy fallow land, ridge it and sow as usual. Sow on * While the recent Easter party at Keythorpe were inspect- ing Ijord Beriicrs' farms, the hounds more thsn once c«me across them, aud, aa a conaequence, agriculture had to give way to the chase. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 559 suitable places rape and cole for winter food. Plough with one furrow lands on which winter crops have been consumed by sheep ; scuffle the surface if foul with weeds, and sow turnips on the flat ground by a machine with lengthened coulters. Plough for fallow the headlands of sown turnip fields, or manure with short dung, and sow seeds in broadcast. Hoe beet, parsnips, and carrots, and precede hand-hoeing by the horse-hoe of width to suit the intervals. In all drilled crops try to approach the acme of farming, that nothing, or as little as possi- ble, grows except what is sown. Harrow potato drills if not rolled after planting ; plough the intervals deeply with a small plough for the purpose, the turnip scufflers being too light, but may be used after the ploughing ; hand-hoe the drills very clean, passing the Loe between the stems, breaking and loosening the drills. Continue soiling with clovers and vetches horses, cattle, and pigs in the yards ; provide ample litter- ing, and convey the superfluous moisture to a tank. The grain crops will now require weeding; cut from among them all tall weeds, and from pastures and road sides, and allow not any seeds to be per- fected. The shearing of sheep is generally finished this month. Examine every animal; put on separate marks of age and quality, and choose with great nicety the animals for breeding by the points required. An inspection at this time much assists the sorting for the tups in October. Lambs may now be weaned. Put the animals on the best pastures, on the mown clover fields, as soon as cleared of hay. Continue to put mares to the stallion every fort- night. In early climates sainfoin and clovers, and in some places meadows, will be sov/n this month. Ted the grass close behind the mower with six persons to each scythe ; put the grass into cocks every night, shake it out, and led in the mornings, and carry to the rick as it is got ready. Clover crops are best dried into condition by turnings of the swathe, which does not break away the leaves as by tedding, and the leaves are the best nutri- ment. The quality of damaged hay is improved by sprinkling on the rick 20 to 30 lbs. of salt to a load of hay. Hay-ricks should be built in succession, and not rapidly by trampling ; the hay laid on the rick in different tim.es will sink into consolidation by its own weight, and the time of building will be effec- tually protected from rain by a tarpaulin cloth raised on- stakes, and hung upon pulleys, forming a roof over the rick of hay. In this way a daily quantity will be added to the rick when the weather permits. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MAY. From a long continuance of cold north-easterly winds, we have at length arrived at a genial spring. Under the influence of a mild temperature, and with an abundant supply of moisture, the crops generally have rapidly improved in appearance ; and, with some few exceptions, our accounts on the sub- ject of both the early and later-sown wheats are as favourable as could be expected. It is quite true that, upon some of the heavy clay soils, the wheats do not exhibit quite so healthy an appearance as could be desired : nevertheless, when v/e fairly examine the general bearing of our reports, we see no cause to be under the impression that we have a bad prospect before us. Spring corn has derived great benefit from the late fine rains ; and we have the assurance from numerous large growers that the potato crop is most luxuriant, and, as yet, wholly free from disease. Evidently, the remu- nerative prices obtained for corn during the present year have stimulated our farmers to increased exertions, and had the effect of bringing into culti- vation large tracts of waste lands : in point of fact, the whole country, viewed in relation to cropping generally, never presented so fine an appearance as it now does. Fortunate for England there is so much energy amongst us ; because, in periods gone by, we have had to deplore a decline in our agri- culture, and subsequently to regret, from a variety of causes, that we have not been able to produce more food, Even at the present time, consump- tion appears to be rapidly gaining upon produc- tion : the v/ants of the world seem to be in excess of the amount of food produced ; and each corn- growing country is being drained of its surplus produce. But we are told that, the war being ended, Russia wiU be able to meet every want, and that prices generally must come down. This ques- tion, however, can only be decided by lapse of time. As yet, we see no indications of over- abundance in Russia, or that we are likely to be overwhelmed with supplies from that country; still, we must admit that our aggregate importa- tions, combined with home supplies, will be found equal to our wants. But when we consider the 560 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. extent of those wants, and the increasing demand for food— the result chiefly of great commercial prosperity — we feel bound to oppose the theory so fully propounded of late, that we shall have wheat selling at a very low price at any period during the present year. It would be impossible for us to state in precise terms the quantity of grain at this time in the hands of our farmers ; but we are of opinion that it has been greatly under-estimated by several writers. That our stocks of foreign wheat and flour are very moderate, and that the quantities on passage to the United Kingdom are by no means extensive, must be patent to all who have watched the progress of the trade. The fa- vourable reports from various counties, in reference to the wheat crop, and the possibility of our receiv- ing large importations from the Baltic and Black Seas, have induced great caution on the part of millers in efiecting purchases : hence, the wheat trade has ruled heavy, and prices have had a down- ward tendency. The close of the malting season has had considerable influence upon the demand for barley ; and that article has, consequently, sold on lower terms. Most other produce, except oats, has been tolerably firm in price. Great effect has been produced upon the value of linseed, as well as cakes, by the large arrivals of the former article from India, and the extensive purchases effected in Russia, for August delivery. This decline has given great relief to our graziers ; and it has been the more appreciated, from the fact that natural food has become unusually scarce and dear. A wonderful improvement has lately taken place in the appearance of the pastures in our principal grazing districts. A continuance of fine showers, aided by warm sunshine, is likely to give us a much better crop of hay than we have had for several years past ; and this is much needed, as the expenses incurred by flock-masters and others in the purchase of hay during the last two years have been enormous. The' public sales of colonial wool commenced with much spirit, and prices advanced, compared with the previous auctions, from Id. to 2d. per lb.; but, owing to an immense influx of wool from Australia during the last fortnight of the month, and as it is announced that these arrivals will be brought forward at the next series, the demand has fallen off, the above advance has been lost, and less eagerness has been shown by foreigners to make purchases. It is to be regretted that some better means are not devised to obtain information from our colonies in reference to the season's supply of the article, and the extent of the shipments to England. At the present time, owing to the defec- tive state of our postal, or rapid, communications, v/e know little or nothing about quantity or price until the ships have actually made their passage to England. The advance paid at the commencement of these sales would not have been realized had the dealers known that over 25,000 bales were within eight or ten days' sail; and the effect is to place the first buyers in a position of loss. The English v/ool trade has been devoid of anima- tion ; nevertheless, prices have kept up remarkably well. A large portion of this year's clip has already passed into the hands of the manufacturers, and some quantity has sold for shipment to France and Belgium, in which countries the stocks continue unusually small. Some of our growers have tested the value of their flocks by forwarding small parcels for sale at the public sales still in progress. In every instance very full prices have been realized for them ; and it has become a question in several quarters whether it would not be much better for the growers to establish periodical public sales, by which they would be enabled to dispose of their stocks at the current price of the day, rather than run the risk of holding over for several months, and until certain fairs, or marts, take place. Sales of this kind could be easily conducted in all large provincial towns, to which manufacturers would speedily resort. Very large quantities of potatoes in excellent condition have come forward during the month. This is the most convincing proof that we could offer of the correctness of the views we have so long entertained respecting the yield of last year's crop. That it was by far the largest and best on record, does not admit of a doubt; and that the losses by disease were trifling must be evident. The prices obtained for all kinds, however, have been very low — lower, indeed, than for a series of years past ; but the immense abundance of the crop must have compensated in some measure for a limited price. The guano trade has been heavy for home use ; but over C,000 out of the 20,000 tons imported have sold for the continent. In Ireland and Scotland all farm labours are sufficiently forward ; and our correspondents state that the crops are looking remarkably well. The shipments of produce to England have fallen off. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 561 THE REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Notwithstanding that somewhat increased sup- plies of fat stock have been on sale in our leading markets during the month just concluded, and that their condition has been tolerably good, the trade has ruled brisk, and prices have rapidly fluctuated. Sheep, especially prime breeds, have reahzed unusually high rates, and most other stock has produced full currencies. Not a few of the breeders and feeders have expressed their surprise at the present high value of beasts and sheep, whilst graziers almost generally have felt much difficulty in effecting purchases of store animals — which are commanding greatly enhanced quotations — under the impression that present rates cannot be maintained, because they argue that we shall receive very large supplies from the continent. It is necessary, therefore, that we should explain the causes which have led to the present high value of stock, and offer an opinion upon its probable future range. It cannot, we think, be doubted for a moment that the consumption of food in this country — we mean both corn and butchers' meat — is in excess of the supply; and this fact is more strongly shown, both by the state of the trade and the prices reahzed. An import, in order to supply actual wants, becomes more and more apparent ; for every day's experience proves that even the rapid increase in the soil's productions has not kept pace with the enormous improvement in the commercial operations of the world, and which tend to benefit our industrial population — by far the largest consumers of food as a class. Had there been no competition for stock on the conti- nent, we should unquestionably have received ample imports from Holland and elsewhere; but the extraordinary impetus given to commerce in France since the year 1853 has had the same in- fluence there as in this country, that is to say, both bread and meat have risen in an equal ratio. The various classes of artizans have received higher wages, under the influence of full employment, and have become large customers both to the butcher and baker. France has imported immense supplies of all kinds of food ; and yet scarcity, with an increasing and pressing demand, actually exists in many departments; indeed, in some of them meat has become a luxury, and can only be purchased by those who have tolerably good incomes. This, then, is the competition we have had to contend with; in other words, France has succeeded in buying up from 120,000 to 150,000 head of stock in Holland, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal, which, had not severe continental pressure been felt, would have been sent to England. The question to be de- termined, then, is — what influences are likely to have any depressing effect upon our prices ? Those must of necessity be regulated by supply and de- mand. Is there a prospect of the former exceeding the latter ? We think not ; indeed, when we fairly consider the extent of the commercial operations both of England and France, the enormous pro- duce of the gold mines in xlustralia and California, the rapid increase in the circulation of the precious metals, and the wonderful state of trade generally, the prospect appears favourable to great firmness in price. Both Holland and Spain are still producing large quantities of stock ; but our readers may rely upon it that the dearest market, and that only, will receive the largest amount of supply. The Norfolk season for beasts is now drawing to a close. During its continuance the metropolis has drawn from that county an immense amount of valuable food — valuable both to the butcher and consumer. It has, also, been a profitable one for the graziers, who, however, have had to pay very high rates for cakes, and who have had to contend with a great scarcity of winter food. With all this, however, they have forwarded both beasts and sheep — especially the former — in the finest possible condition. The produce of lambs appears to have been a full average one. The annexed return shows the imports of foreign stock into London : — Head. Beasts ) . . 747 Sheep 2,239 Lambs 89 Calves 481 Total 3,556 In the corresponding month in 1855 we received 7,103; in 1854, 4,708; in 1853, 13,007; in 1852, 8,506; in 1851, 9,214; in 1850, 6,060 head. These figures tend to illustrate the remarks offered above in reference to demand. The total supplies of home and foreign stock exhibited in the great metropolitan market have been : — Head. Beasts 18,995 Cows 495 Sheep and lambs ..,..-.. 119,640 Calves 1,260 Pigs 2,545 COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES. May, 1853. May, 1854. May, 1855. Beasts .. .. 21,346 .. 20,831 .. 19,847 Cows .. .. 500 .. 576 .. 410 Sheep and lambs 122,250 .. 124,824 .. 113,600 Calves .. .. 2,341 .. 2,146 .. 2,470 Pigs 2,700 .. 2,435 .. 2,590 The arrivals of beasts from Norfolk, Suflfolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire have been 10,200 Scots and Shorthorns; from other parts of England, 362 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2,500 of various breeds; from Scotland, 2,320 Scots ; and from Ireland, 398 Oxen via Liverpool. Beef has sold at from 3s. to 4s. lOd.; mutton, in the wool, 3s. lOd. to 5s. 8d. ; out of the wool, 3s. 6d. to 5s. 4d. ; lamb, 5s, 4d. to 6s. 6d, ; veal, 3s. lOd. to 5s. 6d.; and pork, 3s. 4d. to 4s. 8d. per Slbs. to sink the oflfal. COMPARISON OF PRICES. May, 1852. s. d. s. d. Beef, from 2 4to3 10 Mutton 2 6 3 10 Lamb ..4 2 5 4 Veal .. 3 0 4 4 Pork .. 2 4 3 6 May, 1853. s. d. s. d. 3 0 to 4 6 3 4 4 8 5 0 6 4 3 10 5 0 3 0 4 4 May, 1855. s. d. s. d. 3 0to4 8 3 2 5 0 5 2 6 10 4 0 5 4 3 0 4 4 May, 1854. s. d. s. d. Beef, from 3 2 to 4 10 ,«.. Mutton 3 4 5 0 .... Lamb . . 5 4 6 8 .... Veal ..42 58 .... Pork .. 3 6 4 8 The supplies of both town and country-killed meat on offer at Newgate and Leadenhall have been very moderate ; and a fair average business has been transacted, at high rates. Beef has reahzed 2s. lOd. to 4s. 4d, ; mutton, 3s. 2d. to 4s. 6d. ; lamb, 4s. lOd. to 5s. lOd. ; veal, 3s. 8d. to 4s. lOd. ; pork, 3s, 2d, to 4s. 8d. per Slbs. by the carcase. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. CAWDOR TRYST.— A large show of stock, comprisiug a number of excellent lots, on the ground, and prices ruled high —there being a great many dealers in attendance, who seemed eager to buy, and thus raised the expectations of holders. In- deed, this eagerness was so manifest that several lots changed hands before they reached the stance ; and there is no doubt that there was a large amount of business transacted during the day, while it is admitted on all hands that this was the dearest and best selhng market that has taken place at Cawdor for many years past. It may be stated that, on an average, the rise in the price of cattle at this market over that imme- diately preceding was from 10 to 12^ per cent. DERBY FAIR. — The show of cattle was about the average of previous years, but the business done was veryliraited. For good milking cows and heifers high prices were asked, so high indeed as to prevent many sales being effected. Fresh barren things were enquired for, but here again the price asked checked business transactions. A good supply of young stock, but the business amongst them was not so brisk as is usually the case at this fair. A few good horses were exhibited, which realized remunerating prices. Altogether the cattle fair was considered to be a very flat one. EXETER FAIR. — The attendance of dealers was exceed- ingly small, and not much stock was exhibited for sale. Beef fetched from lla to 12s. per score ; working oxen, £30 to £40 per couple; cows and calves, £10 to £14; barreners, 5s. 6d. to 7s. per score. GROOMBRIDGE FAIR was unusually thin and dull, the attendance of our farmers scanty, and not mnre than one-third of our usual supply of stock. Beasts of superior quality were soon sold, but lean stock hung on hand. Of horses the sup- ply was liberal, but liitle business doue. Pigs were very dear, and but few sold. HAWICK FAIR.— The show of cattle was limited, consist- ing principally of milch cows, a few two-year-olds, and several stirks. For the best description of cows aud young cattle, the demand was fair, but inferior lots were late in being disposed of, and several reraaiued unsold. Prime short-horns brought \Al. to 20/. lOZ. ; Ayrshires, 8L to 12/. ; furrow and early calved cows, 5Z. to 77- ; two-year-olds, 9/. Ss. to 9/. 10s. : stirks, 5/. to 8/. lOs. HENLEY-ON-THAMES FAIR.— An unusually large supply of cattle and sheep, and the trade may be characterized as very dull and dear ; the supply in botli deacriptions consisted of store kinds, fat beasts and sheep being very limited in number ; milch cows made from 14?. to 18/. each ; barreners, from 10/. to 14/.; and yearlings, from 5/. to 8/. each ; in the sheep trade, couples made from 423. to GOs. per couple ; lambs, from I83. to 273. 6d. each; the few fat sheep made (out of wool) a price equivalent to Ss. 4d. per stone; for ewes there was a good demand ; of horses there were but few, and good ones were especially scarce and dear. HEREFORD FAIR,— Business was brisk iu all depatt- menta of the cattle market, without much change in recent prices. Fat cows sold readily at 74d, per lb., calves at 7d. ; for lean stock there was not so much demand, but those which were disposed of, for the most part sold well. In the sheep market a good trade was done, a trifle over Sd. per lb. being obtained for fat wethers in the wool. Most of the stock in the fair had been through the bands of the shearer, and conse- quently were sold from 9d. to Is. per stone less than their more thickly-clad neighbours. The late genial weather has improved the pasture lands, and keep being mote plentiful, a more ready sale was found for lean stock. In the horse fair, too, the same activity prevailed, and really good and useful horses of any kind met with a ready sale. MAENCLOCHOG FAIR was held on the 22nd instant, and was well supplied with cattle. There was a good attend- ance. Horses were selling well at very high prices. Cattle were also selling for high prices, but the trade was not so brisk as in horses. Although this is generally a great fair for sheep, yet very few were sold, and at a very low figure. Pigs were commanding high prices. ROTHVVELL FAIR.— There was but a scanty supply of store beasts, which met a ready sale at exorbitant prices. There was a fair show of l.orses, some of which were poor lean animals ; but the prime sort found ready purchasers at high sums. The show of sheep was good, and realized a consider- able price. RUDGWICK FAIR.— A good supply of lean stock, and things iu fresh condiiion sold at full prices. The others were not so much called for. A short supply of beef, which sold from 4s. 4d. to 4s. 8d. Mutton out of the wool, Ss. to 53. 4J. per score. Te^-s, 283. to 353. per head. A short supply of liorses, and little business done. Pigs were to be bought on easier terms. SPILSBY STOCK MARKET.— The supply of sheep was not large, but the trade was brisk, and good prices were ob- tained— as good as at any market during the season. There was a tolerable show of beasts, and in consequence of the abundant rains which fell on Sunday, and tlie favourable change in the weather, thoy sold readily at prices higher than had been obtained tiucc Boston fair. ST. AUSTELL FAIR.— Business was very dull, few cattle being offered for sale and buyers scarce. Fat bullocks fetched from 6O3. to 633. per cwt. ; sheep 7d. per lb. ST. COLUMB MARKET was well supplied with cattle. Beef sold at from 3/. to 3/. os. per cwt., and mutton at 7id. per lb. The quality was viry good, and a great many sales were effected to numerous dealers. STRANRAER MARKET.— Few distant buyers were present, and the market ruled rather heavy, a number of the best lots being driven off the field unsold. Stirks were selling at £i lOs. downwards ; two-year-olds ranged from ten guineas down to 5/, 123. 6d. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 563 METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer, Thermometer. Wind. Atmosphere. Weat'r. 1856. 8 a.m. 10p.m. Min. Max. lOp.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 p.m. Apr. 2 2 in. els. 30.10 in. ct5. 29.99 37 55 33 East gentle fine sun fine dry 23 29.97 29.94 31 59 48 East gentle fine cloudy cloudy dry 24 29.92 29.88 4U 59 46 E. by S. gentle fine sun fine , jdry 25 29.77 29.61 42 70 58 S.S.E. gentle : haze sun cloudy rain 2C 29.54 29.52 47 61 53 S. West airy fine sun cloudy rain 27 29.49 29.60 42 42 39 E.N.E. brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy wet 28 29.61 29.60 34 54 38 North airy fine sun fine dry 29 29.60 29.61 32 52 43 N. West gentle fine cloudy cloudy dry 30 29.61 29.61 37 55 40 Every way calm fine fine fine showery May 1 29.51 29.70 34 ■ 43 35 N. by E. brisk cloudy cloudy clear dry 2 30.00 30.00 34 55 40 N. West airy fine sun clear dry 3 30.04 30.10 34 43 40 North brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy showery 4 30.12 30.10 37 50 38 N. by W. gentle cloudy sun clear dry 5 30.10 30.10 29 50 40 N. East gentle fine fine cloudy dry G 29.99 29.63 37 51 43 East brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 7 29.41 29.60 39 41 39 N. East violent cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 8 23.81 30.11 39 46 42 N. East airy cloudy cloudy cloudy !dry 9 30.20 30.13 38 49 44 N. East gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy |dry 10 30.05 ■29.95 42 62 49 N. East gentle cloudy sun fine dry 11 29.95 29.85 45 &7 56 N. East gentle haze sun fine dry 12 29.S0 29.73 48 57 53 S. East gentle haze cloudy hazy rain 13 29.70 29.66 50 62 48 Variable. var. haze fine fine rain 14 29.59 29.59 43 60 47 S. West gentle cloudy fine fine dry 15 20.59 29.46 43 59 46 S. by W. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy showery IG 29.45 29.65 43 62 52 W. by N. gentle fine sun fine dry 17 29.70 29.67 45 59 45 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy fine showery showery 18 29.60 29 60 44 58 44J W.S.W. forcibl. cloudy cloudy fine 19 29.61 30.02 42 60 48 West lively fine sun clear 'dry 20 30.11 30.10 42 64 49 W. by S. gentle fine sun line dry 21 30.02 29.82 40 68 56 S.S.E. airy fine sun cloudy rain 22 29.71 29.65 43 61 50 ;S. West gentle icloudy cloudy fine 1 rain Estimated Averages of May. Barometer. Highest. 30.38 Lowest. 29.160 Thermometer. High. 70 Low. 33 Mean. 54 Real Average Temperature of the Period. Highest. 55.9 Lowest. 40 Mean. 47.1 Weather and Phenomena. April 22, 23, 24. Three fine days.— 25, 26, 27. Three wet days, wherein my gauge measured 0.745 inch. — 28,29. Dry, cold, overcast. — 30. Showery; 0'194 inch. Lunation. — Last quarter, 27tli, llh.26m. p.m. May 1 to 5. Low temperature, rather overcast. — 6 and 7. Rainy. — 8 to 11. Four days more ge- nial, but little sun. — 12 to 18. Wet, with only two days dry; in this period I register the rain-fall as 1.686 inch,— 19, 20, Most beautiful and sunny days. — 21. Fine forenoon, but rain set in at night. — 22. Showery, and a fall of 0.558 inch, guaged. Lunations. — New moon, 4th, 2h.42m. aft. ; first quarter, 11th, 8h. 45m. aft.; full moon, 19th, llh. 56m. aft. Remarks connected with Agriculture. The meteorological reader will perceive at a glance that the temperature has been low — beneath the usual average. Some frosts have occurred, but none to eflfect any m.ischief, excepting the one of May 5, about sunrise, which certainly brought down numbers of the young gooseberries. The rain-fall of the two months has somewhat compensated the deficiency of the second and fourth months. I noticed one shower of hail; but generally the spring rains have proved most refreshing and benign. Corn is beautiful, and wheat will soon exhibit its ears. The ground is covered with verdure, and the promise of hay-grass very great. Croydon, John Towers. 564 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE. DURING THE MONTH OF MAY. The month of May commenced with cold, un- genial weather ; and though a moderate quantity of rain had fallen in April, the severe frosts that fol- lowed began to give a yellow appearance to many of the fields of wheat, even where the plants were strong, while on poor soils they looked thin and unpromising. This weather lasted till the middle of the month, when the temperature became raised and copious showers fell; since which, notwith- standing the unsettled character of the season, a marked and general improvement has ensued, and with a few weeks' warm sunshine the harvest may yet reach maturity about the average time. On the whole there seems a fair prospect, much beyond last year ; and spring corn, which was backward, has greatly revived, with a regularity of plant indicating the favourable seed-time. The markets have exhibited little variation since last month's report, being characterized by steadi- ness, the tendency being towards lower prices. The ratification of thetreaty of peace, withmore promising appearances, seems to have occasioned more liberal supplies in the country markets than expected ; the present month's published sales having exceeded all before them this year, the last week being the highest, viz., 126,236 qrs. Foreign arrivals have moderately increased, and the permission to export from the Two Sicilies at a duty of about 9s. per qr. is calculated to insure their continuance. The free use of the thrashing machine is considered to have greatly reduced stocks in the country ; and as another r'ise has taken place in France, in con- sequence of the scarcity of wheat in the depart- ments, especially of fine quality, we may have a close run on the eve of harvest, with higher rates. The first Monday in London commenced with the appearance of a rise in wheat of Is. to 2s. per qr., which was actually reported in some instances, though not justified by the state of trade. The English supply was good, and the foreign liberal, though consisting mostly of inferior kinds ; there was, however, a fair quantity of useful quality from the Baltic and Hamburgh. The most that could be said was that fine red samples brought full rates. Many of the country markets, influenced by the favourable London rejjort, noted a similar rise, but fell back again in the course of the follow- ing week. At Liverpool an advance was attempted, but did not succeed. The Scotch advices reported a better business, and Ireland quoted an improve- ment in some instances. The second Monday was scarcely so well supplied, especially with foreign samples, though there was a good show from Essex. Higher prices were soon found to be impracticable, the millers steadily pursuing the hand-to-mouth system which their experience has justified, and a good quantity was left unsold. This was slowly quitted on the following market, and the week closed with a somewhat firm aspect, though the country reports were many of them cheaper. Li- verpool reported no change ; Spalding, Wakefield, and Bristol were Is. lower ; Birmingham, Lincoln, and Norwich, with others, making the decline 2s. Scotland reported barely the former rates, but the scarcity of supplies in Ireland produced [a further slight enhancement. The third Monday was well provided, partly from over-left Essex samples, with a fair addition from the same county and Kent. A few picked parcels early in the morning obtained the prices of the previous week ; but the Kentish factors having consented to a reduction of Is. to 2s. on all sorts in order to clear their stands, those of Essex had most of their bulk unsold. Foreign samples found a retail inquiry at a trifle below the previous quotations. The country markets through- out the week were influenced by improved weather and town advices, and were all either dull or about Is. cheaper, though fine wheat scarcely sustained a reduction. With large supplies at Liverpool, inferior qualities were 2d. per 70 lbs. lower, and business only in retail. With a fair supply from Kent and Essex on the fourth Monday, the town trade was very dull and Is. per qr. cheaper for English sam- ples, with a very slow foreign trade. The month's supply into the port of London has been, in English wheat 31,224 qrs., in foreign 45,931 qrs. : of this about 12,000 qrs. have arrived from India, of low quality and wholly unfit for the town trade: the exports were 1,218 qrs. The London averages showed a steady advance in price till the last week, owing more to the superiority of the quality received than the state of the market. The lowest was 68s. 6d. ; the highest /■2s. 2d. : the general averages through the m.onth have varied from 66s. to 6Ss. 9d. The foreign arrival into the jmncipal ports for the last four weeks was 215,503 qrs. The foreign trade" has presented some dif- ference in the several markets, those of France having risen in spite of forced sales by auction THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 665 from the great reduction of stocks and partial damage by floods. Those of Spain have also improved from the same causes ; and offers which were making thence, have ceased j the prices of flour in Santander having reached 51s. 6d. per sack, white wheat at Seville being quoted at 82s., and the ports being declared open in conse- quence. At Paris flour has risen from 89 francs per 157 kilos (equal to 57s. per English sack) to 92 francs, or 59s. per English sack ; this has brought over some French millers, who have taken mixed Spanish at 75s., cost and freight included, for Normandy, while 69s. and 70s. have been paid for English red. Belgium, as well as Holland, is also dearer, as well as Hambro, though rates have little altered in the Baltic, whence but small sup- plies can be expected, American slowly gives way ; low quality flour is about 2s. per barrel cheaper, but the best qualities are still worth 9 to 10 dols. per barrel (equal to 53s. to 58s. 6d. per English sack) free on board. In Southern Russia the bulk of supplies is nearly limited to the Sea of Azoff, where the failure of lighters makes shipments difficult, and arrivals must be late. In the Danube prices have receded, and some quantity is stored at Galatz and Ibraila ; but three months must elapse before free imports can come to hand, and the con- tinued closing of the Mahmoudieh canal in Egypt must retard considerable arrivals thence. Prices, however, have fallen seriously for merchants there, the present quotations for future contracts being 22s. 3d. per qr. : by this time the canal is expected to have opened, and large supplies were looked for. The flour trade, always influenced by that of wheat, has been remarkably steady under large arrivals, only evincing a decided dechne, and that but a moderate one, at the close of the month, to the extent of Is. to 2s. on Norfolk and country sorts, and Is. per barrel on American. The month's supply has been 62,916 sacks country-made, 8,455 sacks mostly Spanish, and 27,424 barrels of Amer- ican. The exports were small, viz., 133 sacks. Barley, as might have been expected • at this period of the year, has been receding in value, the maltsters having ceased from steeping. A summary of the month's decline may be given by noting a regular weekly reduction in value of Is. per qr., the last Monday excepted, when prices were firm. Distillers have been freely using Egyptian wheat, as better answering their purpose than paying very high rates for this grain ; lately, however, the foreign supplies from Denmark have increased, and all descriptions have been plentiful, but less in request. It seems probable, as a good deal of Indian corn is coming from America and other parts, the price may yet further recede. The arrivals for the last four weeks in English were 8,383 qrs. ; in foreign 16,040 qrs., making a weekly average of 6,100 qrs. The supphes of oats have increased as regards foreign and Irish qualities, but there have been less British, the stock being reduced, and prices some- what discouraging. The first Monday being under the disadvantage of a glut, consisting in all of 46,500 qrs., a slight reduction was submitted to on even the best qualities in good condition ; but among the arrivals were many cargoes in a bad state, which it was difficult to get rid of at Is. per qr. abatement. Ever since then the market has presented an unusually steady appearance, closing with an advance of 6d. to Is. per qr, on the last Monday on sweet parcels of foreign, as well as Irish and British. The present rates seem calcu- lated to increase the consumption with the return of peace ; and the Irish markets have had a firmer appearance than that of London. The month's arrivals have consisted of 2,956 qrs. British, 29,100 qrs. Irish, and 74,258 qrs. foreign; making the weekly average quantity 26,600 qrs. The exports during the month have been 603 qrs. Alexandrian beans have increased in abundance, the month's supply being 12,515 qrs.; while the English supply has diminished to 2,000 qrs. The first Monday commenced with a firmer feeling on the part of sellers of Egyptian, which has through- out been maintained, prices in April apparently having seen their lowest; while on the third Monday English samples were Is. per qr. dearer. On the last Monday both English beans and peas advanced Is., but foreign were unaltered. Peas have become quite scarce, the month only furnishing 257 qrs. to the London market ; while in consequence of their being relatively dearer in the Baltic, 500 qrs. have been reshipped to that quarter. No variation has, however, taken place in their value, the liberal supply of foreign lentils having diminished their consumption as an article of food for cattle. Linseed, contrary to expectation, has with good arrivals experienced a reaction upwards ; crushers being low in stock, from the hberal exports and large consumption for feeding purposes, which has carried the demand for cakes quite beyond the usual time. During the month the advance has been 3s. per qr. Till Russian supphes come to hand there does not seem much prospect of lower prices ; the East Indies alone, notwithstanding the increase thence, being insufficient to meet the con- sumptive and export demands. Mustard-makers being well in stock, this seed has been neglected. Canary has also been excessively dull, and some- what easier. The prices of hempseed, as well as coriander, carraway, and other small kinds, have still found some inquiry, at unaltered rates, It 566 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. has turned out that the foreign supply of clover- seed has been quite equal to the demand, though but little is left over for speculative purposes. Dealers have complained of a considerably reduced inquiry this season for sowing. A good quantity of foreign spring tares being left over, they have fallen to feeding prices. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Shillings per Quarter Wheat, Essex and Kent, white, new . 61 to 71 extra — 74 Ditto, red, new . 59 65 „ — 71 Norfolk, Line, and Yorksh., red, new 59 64 „ — 69 Barley, malting, new. . 39 40.... Chevalier.. 40 42 Distilling 36 38 Grinding . 33 35 MALT.Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk 73 75 extra 81 Kingston, Ware, and town made. . 73 75 „ 81 Brown 65 68 „ — Ryb — — — 40 Oats, English feed. .22 23 Potato. . 23 26 Scotch feed, new 24 25, old 27 28 .. Potato 25 26 Irish feed, white 20 21 fine 23 Ditto, black 19 20 „ 21 Beans, Mazagan . . . , , 34 36 Ticks 33 36 Harrow 36 39 Pigeon 38 43 Peas, white boilers 40 44. . Alaple 40 42 Grey 35 36 ELOUR,per sk. of 280 lbs., Town, Households 593., fine 62 65 Country 453. 473 Households 48 50 Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship .... — — 45 46 FOREIGN GRAIN. Shillings per Quarter Wheat, Dantzic,mixed. . 80 to 82 high mixed — SOextra 86 Konigsberg 78 80 , Rostock, new 72 73 fine American, white .... 64 70 red Pomera.,Meckbg.,andUckermk.,red Silesian , Danish and Hohtein , Odessa, St. Petersburg and Riga. . Rhine and Belgium , 76 72 60 60 - 81 „ .. 76 „ 60 77 extra 71 74 white 76 64 „ 60 62 fine 64 — old — ITOK THE LAST SiX WeEKS. Week Ending April 12, 1856. April 19, 1856. April 26, 1856. May 3, 1856. May 10, 1856. May 17, 1856, Aggregate average of last six weeks Comparative avge, same time last year Duties , Wheat, s. d. 68 7 69 0 67 11 66 6 67 7 68 9 68 1 70 8 1 0 Barley. s. d. 39 0 39 2 39 11 40 5 40 3 40 0 39 10 31 7 1 0 Oats.! a. d.! Rye. 3. d. 23 23 23 22 23 23 8142 7i44 4I4O 9 138 10 43 5 41 23 5 26 4 41 10 40 5 10110 Beans 8. d. 41 4 41 9 41 4 41 11 41 3 41 7 41 6 42 3 1 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF CORN. Averages from last Friday's Wheat.. Barley.. Oats . . . Rye Beans . . , Peas . . , Gazette. Qrs. , 126,236 17,166 12,997 93 4,718 428 3. 68 40 23 41 41 39 Av. d. Averages from the correspond- ing Gazette in 1855. Av. Qrs. s. d. Wheat.... 97,879 ..76 1 Barley.... 20,093 .. 32 5 Oats .... 12,394 ..27 9 Rye 100 .. 44 3 Beans.. .. 4,201 .. 44 5 Peas .... 426 .. 42 4 82 84 64 fcO 77 67 66 Russian French., none Barley, grinding 30 34 Distilling.. 34 36 Oats, Dutch,brew,andPolands253. to263. Feed.. 21 23 Danish & Swedish feed 2l8, to 233. Stralsund 23 '^5 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 36 37 Konig^herg . . 35 36 Egyptian . . 28 30 Peas, feeding 35 36 fine boilers 42 44 Indian Corn, white 32 33 yellow 32 34 Flour, French, per sack — — Spanish 49 56 American, sour, per barrel (nominal) 33 35 sweet 36 39 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Pess. 8. d. 37 10 37 4 39 2 39 0 38 5 39 11 38 7 39 1 PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Cloverseed, red, (per cwt.) — s. to — s. Ditto white — s. to —a. Trefoil, (per cwt.) — s. to —3. Tares, winter (per bushel) 73. 6d. to 8s. Od. Coriander (per cwt.) 203. to 243. Carraway (per cwt.). . . . new — s. to 503.,old — s. to — s. Canary (per qr.) 58a. to 6O3. Hempseed (none) — s . to — 3. Linseed (p. qr.) sowing — s. to 633., crushing 563. to 583. Linseed Cakes (per ton) £13 Os.to £13 lOs. Rapeseed (per qr.) new 883. to 908. Ditto Cake (per ton) £6 lOs. to £7 Os. HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, May 26. The reports from the plantations are somewhat unfavoura- ble : the bine is very weak and uneven. Fhe market contiiiuea firm, with a fair demand, and prices are fully supported, at last week's prices. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK, WATERSIDE. Monday, May 26. The arrivals during the past week were moderate, both coaat- wise and by rail, but quite equal to the limited demand. The weather beii^g now much milder lessens the consumption, and the trade has been very dull at the following quotations : — a. York Regents 50 Kent and Essex do 60 Perth, Forfar, and Fifeshire Regents 40 Do. Reds 35 AberdeensJiire and North Coun- try Reds 30 ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. May 26. Trade opens with us very slowly to-day, at a reduction of 4s. to 6s. per cwt. Dorset, fine , .. 110s. to \\2s. per evot. Do. middling < 96s. to 102s. „ Devon 100s.