m ^1, ^ w^^- w^^-^^^-. ^A. U / ■/^yz LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL . COLLEGE No._ 76,Z2___._ DATE.6jaa.a. s o u R c E _ rri ajt-cJ:^ . ^■-uri _cl . _ . Pe\- 1545 CHAFic "Ss;:- Qj^-. Qyuz/pz^/^e^^ .&ty/. .:-Th .'jL:.'fj:..rr. 24 IhrfbUn Sircct StriwJ. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. VOLUME THE ELEVENTH. (second series.) JANUARY TO JUNE, MDCCCXLV. LONDON : OFFICE, 24, NORFOLK S T R K E T, STRAND. MAY I'li HAD BY OBDJiE TUroUGII ALL UOOKSELLl B>. LONDON: Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 2i, Norfolk-street, Strand. 2 4 THE EMBELLISHMENTS. Portrait of Henry Handley, Esq. , Plan of a Farm occupied by J. Hudson, of Castle Acre Durham Heifer, the property of Henry Bro^\^l, Esq. Foig-a-Ballagh . . , Portrait of Jonas Webb, Esq. . Hereford Bull, the property of W. Perry, Esq. Long-horned Bull, the property of W. Brine, Esq. Hetman Platoff . . • t Portrait of Dr. Liebig .... Short-horned Heifer, the property of Thomas Crofton, Esq. Short-horned Bull, the property of Sir Charles Tempest Plan of Farm Buildings • t • Page. to face Title. 1 . 101 . ib. . 195 . ib. . 291 . ib. . 387 . ib. . 481 . ib. Series. * v\ LEACRE, re, Norfolk, aeon, which ^0 farms, in ed as one of one of the lets we have ;ention and 1 ciUtivated, ireat Britain id who have 3 like\vise," ot." There my eri'ors — on — ere the n questions district ia / a young;er imily. His in iJncoIn- ri as anup- ■r; the bank to the same vark. Such mily in the ranclics re- i^ht bo seen . XXIL Hekri^ua^. Ahrrif^ o/' /»//■/.(■ s .■1 fhrl,- ,1, r . • i I!„n, ,„..i y„r,l 6 J f'/n/ri(je ru'd' Oil 11 J iW.t'JU' /■!<*//'' -l [ l>if/fiiiJ:i IJlr.ih :. .(a /;„,/,/,■,„ .Im.. :j - I /;r..«/r m, Jrim- rSJvK,,,. ■rmiiiy/hv.-l.ia ZT\11»ulfy ..l.r Ari-r.s Z^ \Twffi^ Ihrrc ri," ZU'\AborJ.* - -.- SiJ.Ml' nh r,r Mm ,lr» ^^' e.fiOnv/iiii.'r. 17m, CtiUiiiirt: S Kiiiflvris /Ji,n,r.^rna l^riiiHliii,t.roiil.~H>vm.m :■ /hislOtr ynf;i.,Hi,iotJS.Xo rUhr^A/riitioir n, ijiL-Mc I Id /\/l,\ M/4_ SIMM ill' y. ntnl. \/!,M\2\3S Yn r,i.ilh„rryM-''\-' j-''" AGKICULT THE FAEMEK'S MAGAZi:iTE. JANUARY, 1845. No. 1.— Vol. XL] [Second Series. PLATE I. PORTRAIT OF HENRY HANDLE Y, ESQ. PLATE IL PLAN OF THE OCCUPATION OF J. HUDSON, ESQ., SITUATE AT CASLEACRE, THE PROPERTY OF THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF LEICESTER. We submit to our readers a map of the farms occupied by John Hudson, Esq., Castleacre, Norfolk, and which has Ijeen deemed worthy of a place in the Essay on Norfolk Agriculture, by Mr. Bacon, which obtained the prize of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. The map comprises two farms, in the whole upwards of fourteen hundred acres. Mr. Hudson is well and deservedly appreciated as one of the best farmers in Norfolk, and we have the authority of good judges for stating him to be one of the best and most spirited farmers in England. His system of farming is shown, in the extracts we have taken from Mr. Bacon's Essay. His method of harvesting his crops is well deserving attention and' imitation, and wiU be found described at page 4. Were the soil of the United Kingdom cultivated, as is the estate at Castleacre, the landlords, the tenants, the labourers, and the consumers of Great Britain would stand on vantage ground. MEMOIR OF HENRY HANDLEY, ESQ., OF CULVERTHORPE HALL, Late M.P. for South Lincolnshire, and President of the Royal Agricultural Society of Enrjland. ITiere is a peculiar appropriateness in the period we have selected to publish the memoir of this dis- tinguished " farmer's friend.'^ At tlie com- mencement of a session of parliament which pro- mi&es to be pregnant, in an extraordinary degree, with agricultural debates, and especially on the malt tax, the rei)eal of which was never advocated either before or since in such a luminous, demon- strative, and felicitous speech as the one dehvercd by the subject of this memoir from his seat in the House of Commons ; it is, we repeat, particularly appropriate, and may serve, by exhibiting (very imperfectly) a true farmer's friend, to induce those OLD SERIES.'] who would fain be considered such, and who have no objection to the title, to " go and do hkewise," to " assume a virtue, if they have it not." There is sufficient time yet to atone for many errors — some of commission, far more of omission — ere the great masses of tenant farmers put certain questions from the hustings of every agricultural district in the kingdom. Mr. Henry Ilandley is descended l)y a younger branch from an old Nottinghamshire family. His father practised as a solicitor at Sleaford, in J^incoln- sliire, in which place he was long known as an up- right, lil;eral, and most respectable banker; the bank is still existing, and another Ijelonging to the same family is in tlie neighbouring town of Newark. Such was the general respect felt for this family in the neighljourlioods in wliicli the various branches re- sided that in one and tiie same session might be seen n \_No. \.— VOL. XXIL THE FAllMER'S MAGAZINE. three Handleys chosen as representatives of Par- liament, each in his own locahty, viz.. Major B. Handley for Boston, W. F. Handley, Esq., for Newark, and Mr. Henry Handley for South Lin- colnshire, Mr. H. Handley's mother was a lady whose maiden name was Conington, of a Lin- colnshire family. In early life Mr. Handley was sent to be edu- cated at that Uttle democracy of juvenUe aristo- crats Eton College, and finished his studies on the more solemn seats of Christ Church, Oxford. When released from the somewhat frigid embraces of Alma Mater, the young student proceeded to the continent, and stored his mind \vith that prac- tical knowledge of men and things which was afterwards developed in a striking manner in and out of Parhament. On his return from his con- tinental tour, in 1820, he was elected for the borough of Heytesbury, for which he sat till 1826, taking however but little part in debate, though voting as an independent member. In October, 1825, he married the Hon. Caroline Edwardes, eldest daughter of the Lord Kensington, who has brought him and blest him with ten children, all, we believe, yet alive. After 1826 the sober duties of Parliament ap- pear to have given way to the sweeter delights of domestic life, for it was not till 1832 that we again find Mr. Handley in the House of; Commons, and then it was in the proud jjosition of member for his native county, Lincolnshire ; for which he sat ^vithout a contest, and continued to represent without a contest, till 1841. Not that Mr. Hand- ley owed his elections to an union or combina- tion Avith parties or great families ; not that he was unthreatened upon more than one occasion ; not that his circumstances and ability to maintain expensive contests were not freely and " fairly" canvassed by certain great houses, who would if they could have turned him out headlong; but Mr. Handley was " the man of the people" — the man of the farmers. If ever member were independently returned, Mr. Handley was that member. He had no lord to please, but most to oppose ; he had no aristocratic influence to " nominate" him, no vast wealth to buy friends or frighten enemies ; his estate was small, but his heart was large ; he felt for the far- mers, and he fought for the farmers. They knew it, and the support he received from them was spon- taneous, unanimovis, overpowering. Now, what had Mr. Handley done to merit this universal esteem of his brother fanners, conquer- ing mthout a conquest the nominees of noble mar- quises, covutly earls, right honourable lords, and " Large-acred men In many a golden field, in many a fruitful fen ?" We will briefly, but most imperfectly, sketch a few of the parliamentary doings and sayings of the " tallest and properest man" of the county. 1 . Repeal of the duty on insurance of farming stock. Now, taxes on insurance are taxes on pru- dence, and bad in principle upon whatsoever levied; but taxes on the insurance of farming stock were especially bad with reference to their effect iqjon incendiarism. Mr. Handley had seen the wide -spread havoc, and stiU wider-spread anxiety and horror that the torch and match of the midnight incendiary were occasioning to the far- mers and their tender connections. Were a plan of universal insurance adopted or compelled in all agricultural districts, there need be no more fear of arson. Few men could be found who would risk their lives, or at all events their liberty and their country for hfe, to get an immediate market with certain payment for the farmer they desired to in- jure. Such, we presume, were Mr. Handley's views ; and though no compulsory enactment was passed, he persevered in his great purpose of i^ro- curing'the repeal of the duty ; and, though strongly resisted by the government and their constant cuckoocy that the revenue could not afford it, ulti- mately conquered, and enabled every prudent far- mer to insure his buildings and dead stock for one- third the sum he had previously to pay, 2. Relief from the duty on taxed carts. This was an odious impost, which affected not only the business of the farmer, but frequently the com- forts of his wife and family. The effects and the success that attended the efforts of Mr. Handley to relieve the farmers to a very considerable extent, ai'e too well known to be enlarged upon. 3. Post-horse duties. When Parliament saw fit to let loose upon the country post-horse master and respectable innkeeper the colossal and crush- ing rivalry of railways, the least thing that might have been expected was a total remission of all taxes upon those devoted though innocent parties, Mr. Handley's strong sense of justice and deter- mination to fight for so important a portion of the rural constituency induced the Post-master Society of the United Kingdom to place their case in his hands and to his advocacy, and how he performed the duties required from him the annals of that society sufficiently tell, 4. Relief from the soap and increase of the tal- low duties. Tliese taxes which, on the one side impede cleanliness, though said to be next to god- hness, and on the other deeply and prejudicially af- fect the great grazing interests of this covmtry, j were handled in Mr. Handley's usual powerful and demonstrative manner, so as to receive the] marked and pointed thanks of the soap manufac- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. turers of London, as well as the admiration of the whole country. 5. Carrying the Islington market bill against the Lord Mayor and Corporation of the city of London. This great practical measure, called for ahke by hatred of cruelty to animals, benefit to the grazier and the consumer, and the comfort and con- venience of the inhabitants of one of the densest portions of the gi-eat metropolis, was carried, after a tremendous struggle, through Parliament, by Mr. Handley,con\'inced of its necessity, notwithstanding the civic force and the civic purse opposed to him. There is, however, the old proverb of bringing horses to the i)ond without being able to make them drink. Mr. Handley did provide a market of healthy and excellent character, but the great majority of two- legged — not horses certainly — Init slaughterers or buyers refused to go — the human beasts " returned to tlieir vomit," and the patriot legislator to his place. {■). The magnificent speech in Parliament, in 1H35, in seconding the motion for the repeal of the malt tax. To do anything like justice to this most powerful appeal, it would be difficult to abridge it ; and to gi\-e the whole, the small space to which we are limited absolutely forbids. Our only alterna- tive is to point out to our readers whei'e it may be perused, faithfully and, we believe, literally reported, viz., in the volume of the Mirror of Parliament for 1835. Every man who feels an interest respecting the repeal of this tax, and who wishes to prove to otliers the various ways it would tend to benefit the country at large — the barley growers, the graziers, the labourers, the farmers, and the vast body of consumers, should procur, or at all events peruse, tliis most valuable oration. llie various speeches on the corn laws and other agricultural subjects made by Mr. Handley in Parliament are too numerous and too foreign to the unj)olitical character of this periodical to notice ; suffice it to say, that as a speaker, and especially in rej)ly, Mr. Handley has few equals ; not that his speeches are ornate or elaborate compositions ; not that they abound with euphonies or far-fetched meta- phors; not that they are imj)assioned or brilhant; but they are antithetical, pungent, and to the point. They tell, because they are true ; they come home, because the speaker lafdt to be honest ; they wither others, because all who heard acknowledged " his withers were imwrimg." A right hon. Baronet who once, as " a Cumberland farmer," did represent a honest and independent county constituency, felt this to his exceeding cost, after he had indulged in some flippant remarks u])on the consistency of Lord Worsley and Mr. Handley; and a noble and learned Lord, the most elorpient and vituperative orator of the present time, whose sarcasm is wither- ing, and whose energy is overpowering, found, at Exeter Hall, in 1838, an opponent on the slavery apprenticeship clause in the person of Henry Handley, whose reproof he has not forgotten. The crowning excellence of Mr. Handley's life, and that with which our readers have most to do, is the distinguished part he took, in conjunction with the Duke of Richmond, Earl Spencer, and others, in forming and estabUshing the Royal Agricultural Society of England. "We have before us the third edition of his celebrated letter to the latter of these noblemen on the subject ; a pam- phlet more replete with varied information, agricul- tural learning, powerful reasoning, and noble patriotism, it has never been our good fortune to find. We trust our readers will allow us to call their attention to one or two short extracts. Mr. Handley thus puts the case and condition of the English farmer before discussion institutions and pubhcations had made him what he is. " I am well aware how strongly prejudiced were farmers of the old school against what they were pleased to call ' book-farming.' Theory was a term which they held synonymous with ruinous specula- tion—its effect nothing, its tendency the Gazette. And even where chance, rather than well considered experiment, had produced a favourable residt, such was the suspicion with which they regarded the in- novation, that it was not until their neighbour had reaped repeated and substantial benefits from it, that they were seduced into avaihng themselve of the improvement. Confined during their lives to their o\ra immediate neighbourhood, with no fur- ther intercourse with the world than their market town might afford, and with minds uneducated either to seek or appreciate information, we perhaps ought not to be so much surprised, that whatever improvements may have been dicovercd, have scarcely travelled beyond the hmits of their first ap- phcation. In proof of this, I woidd quote the use of bone manure ; which, incredible as it may ap- pear, though it has for the last twenty years worked miracles, and changed the face of the Midland Counties, is at this time viewed as a new discovery in many districts of England, by no means remote from the scene of its earhest and continued suc- cess. "That class is, however, fast passing away. Education, which happily has penetrated into every quarter of the country, has furnished in tlicir place an intelligent and a tliinking race of men, who de- sire knowledge, and who are ever striving to ob- tain it. The facilities of internal communication throughout the empire have tempted and aided their endeavours. There arc few yoimg farmers with adequate means who do not avail themselves of it to see and learn ; and the comparisons whicli B 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. they have been thereby enabled to institute between the varied systems of farming which pervade diffe- rent districts become the subjects of their consi- deration, and are, according to their supposed me- rits, adopted or condemned. " It is to encourage and direct the praiseworthy efforts of this valuable and deserving class that I caU upon your lordship and the landed proprietors of England, for your own sakes as weU as theirs, and permit me to add, for the credit and advantage of our common country, to bring to bear upon this subject the invaluable aid of science. " Science — by which is to be understood, that knowledge which is founded upon the principles of nature, illustrated by demonstration — is the pUot that must steer us into those hitherto imper- fectly explored regions, where I am well convinced a mine of wealth is stiU in store for British agricul- ture. Chemistry, botany, entomology, mechanics, require but to be invited, to yield us a harvest of valuable information to guide and to warn us." After travelling through almost every subject connected with agriculture, after sho^ving the di^'ersity and hostility that exists almost upon all, after pointing to the boundless but most bountiful and profitable field of improvement which lies be- fore the young farmer and the young student, Mr. Handley commences his peroration by observing — " It is an ancient but sage authority who has said, that ' Agriculture is the nursing mother of the arts ; that where the former succeeds prosperously there the arts will thrive, but where the earth is unciUtivated, there the arts are destroyed,'* " In the foregoing observations I have endea- voured to point out to agriculturists the field of discovery and information which I conceive lies open before them, and which still remains unex- plored. I am aware that many have formed con- clusive opinions upon various points to which I have alluded as matters of doubt. On some of them I certainly entertain a strong conviction; but they are still more or less in dispute ; and by sifting them thoroughly, exposing error and esta- bhshing truth, though we make httle addition to the science, we may contribute largely to the pro- fitable practice of agriculture. " I would here, my lord, conclude my remarks, but that it may be expected from me that, having devoted some attention to the subject, I should state my own views as to the nature and constitu- tion of the Society to which I propose to refer the consideration of the matters I have introduced, and which have furnished the grounds of my ad- dress to your lordship. In so doing, I beg to re- peat that I merely hazard an individual opinion. Xenophon's Economics. which I shall gladly yield to those whose judgment is better calculated to mark out the course which it may be desirable to pursue. " Most cordially do I coincide in your lordship's view, that no matters of a political or legislative tendency should be entertained by the Society. Its objects should be purely confined to the ad- vancement of agricultural science, and the encou- ragement of the most approved practice." Mr. Handley, after pointing out in detail what measures he thought ought to be adopted, and nearly all of which were so, thus concludes : — " To achieve these desirable objects, I am per- suaded it is only necessary for your lordship to make the effort, in conjunction with the Duke of Richmond and others who have expressed them- selves favourable to the project, and you wiU con- fer a lasting benefit upon your country, and esta- blish an additional claim to the deserved respect and esteem of your brother agriculturists. " I have the honour to be, " Your lordship's faithful servant, " Henry Handley. " Culverthorpe, January, 1838." We trust, as this is the age of statues, though some of them are very properly in bronze, that the agriculturists of England, for whom Mr. Handley has laboured so long and so successfully, wU give him a niche in the great institution he has so largely contributed to give them. We would rather, however, see him again in Parliament, fighting the battles of his brother farmers, though " Among the faithless, faithful only he." Why is he not there ? We must cast a veil over the cause. At a period of consternation when aU were afraid, men's eyes were blinded by their fears, they could not distinguish the true friend from the professor, the solid one from the glittermg tinsel ; he might have been there, he would not have been op2)Osed had he only uttered a httle word ; but no — "Unskilful he to fa\vn or seek for power By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour ; Far other aims his heart had learned to prize. More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise." N. HARVEST. FROM bacon's prize ESSAY ON NORFOLK AGRICULTURE. There is no part of husbandry which is the cause of more anxiety or such joyousness as harvest, and it is performed in all parts of ihe county in a similar manner. Within the last few years, the introduction and general adoption of mowing wheat upon all soils has created a new era in this portion of husbandry work ; and, although it has abridged THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the humbler classes of some part of their privileges ■ — a change to be regretted — it has yet been other- wise beneficial, in so far as it has shortened the du- ration and the labour of the harvest, and added to the employment of all ages by calling in the aid of the wives and children of the lal)ourers. Nei- ther has it decreased the wages of the harvestman. A descri])tion of the mode on one large farm, wit- nessed by the UTiter, will be an exemplification of the system pursued in the county, except upon very small farms ; and these only differ in the number employed, and sometimes in reaping instead of mowing. I'he crop on the farm to which, I refer, gene- rally consists of 300 acres of wheat, and 300 acres of barley, for which from one hundred and ten to twenty men, women, girls, and boys, are engaged. Thirty-four men mow the wheat, and, in order to lay it evenly, the scythes are furnished with cra- dles made of iron rod. These men are each fol- lowed Ijy two women, or one woman and a boy or girl, to gather and tie up the corn into small sheaves and tightly, in single bands. Eight team- men belonging to the farm follow to shock up the sheaves, of which they set ten in a shock ; the plan being ah\'ays to place the two middle sheaves first, thus — A ; they are thus a support to each other, and are very seldom blowTi down. As the sheaves are shocked, the stubble is horse-raked. The rak- ings are tied up, and when carted away are carried and placed by themselves. ITiese are not allowed to be mixed with the rest of the crop. The 300 acres of wheat is usually cut in six days, and by that time that which was first cut is ready to be carried. The carting takes three days, with eight pitchers, eight loaders, and eight teams of three horses each, and four odd shaft horses. Four stacks are carried up in the field at the same time. There are five men to each stack, and the eight men will each pitch a stack of thirty loads a day. The stacks are of a round form. The wages are £5 15s. each man; the women earn about r2s. a week, and the girls and boys double wages. The har\'est is generally completed in from eighteen to twenty days. The stack stage in use is worthy no- tice for its simplicity, utility, economy, and neat- ness, as well as the ease with which it is put together, and moved to whatever place it may be required. The barley is sown by the same men, and gath- ered by eight women with forks, at 6d. per acre. Six women follow the gatherers, with rakes six feet long, to rake up the corn before the waggons go over the ground. The crop is pitched and loaded by the same men who pitched and loaded the wheat. Each pitcher is followed by two rakers. The barley is stacked by the same hands as the wheat, and both wheat and barley stacks are thatched as soon as possible, at fivepence ver yard, measured at the eaves, by the labourers on the farm. On the first fine day the men are sent with sail cloths and poles to secure the outside corn. The cloths are laid round, and the men thrash the sides with poles ; and thus from twenty-five to thirty coombs of barley are secured, which would other- wise be carried away by birds, or become so stained as to spoil the sample. ESSAY ON EPIZOOTIC PLEURO-PNEU- MONIA AMONG OXEN AND COWS. BY JOHN BARLOW, J UN., V.S., ANATOMICAL DEMONSTRATOR, &C., AT THE EDINBURGH VETERINARY COLLEGE, WHICH OBTAINED THE PRIZE GIVEN BY THE FARMERS' AND graziers' mutual CATTLE ASSOCIATION. There are no pursuits more worthy the attention of man, or more in unison with the design of his creation, than those whereby he directly or indi- rectly seeks to benefit his fellow creatures ; and va- rious are the means available under rightly consti- tuted minds of accomphshing these noble objects. In the present advanced state of social improve- ment, man finds it impossible to pursue his tempo- ral concerns in a way proportionate to the require- ments of the age, without calling to his aid many an animal of the inferior creation. The horse min- isters to the pleasure of his master in a manner of which every other animal is incapable. The dog be- comes his servant and valued friend, watching him with fidelity when the care of every one else is with- drawn. The sheep furnishes us with the most va- luable articles of food and clothing. Still there is not an animal so subservient, not only to our posi- tive wants, but to our comforts and luxuries, as the cow. He, then, is a useful member of society, who seeks to secure to his fellow men the services of these valuable animals advancing their general com- fort, promoting the breeds most useful for especial purposes, and relieving the maladies which domes- tication and artificial habits entail upon them. Although the diseases of oxen and cows may, under ordinary circumstances, be considered more rarely to result from domestication than do those of the horse, inasmuch as the purposes for which they are kept require a mode of life more in accor- dance with their natural state, still it must be con- fessed that they are frequently exposed to, and suf- fer under, diseases from which the horse is compara- tively free. The cow is also subject to epizootic dis- eases differing in their nature from any we find existing in the horse, exceeding tliem in fatality and the extent of country over which their ravages extend. The murrain among the cattle of the last century, displayed as M'ell as the pleuro-pneumonic disease of this, is exhil)iting a course of fatality of which we have not any jiarallel in the annals of the maladies of the horse ; whilst their late vesi- cular disease furnishes an instance of ravages un- equalled in extent by any malady to which that animal has hitherto been hable. Is it not then remarkable, that while much hght, resiUting from the well directed researches of scien- tific men, has been thrown on the diseases of the horse, enabling a veterinary siu-geon to form his prognosis and diagnosis with tlie certainty of a hu- man physician — is it not rcmarkal)le, if not dis- graceful, that the diseases of an animal equal to the horse for many useful i)ur|)oscs, more essential to the positive necessities of life, forming a large share in the sum of our national wealth, and subject like others to the most destructive diseases, should, un- til recently, have been denied that scientific treat- 6 THE FAHMEE'S MAGAZINE. ment which the horse receives under disease, and consigned to the care of men wliolly devoid of the fundamental principles of medical knowledge ? The Royal Agricultural Society of England has proved itself worthy of its country's gratitude, by nobly patronizing the appointment of a distinct professorship of cattle pathology, at the Royal Veterinary College. Tlie duty of incidcating pro- per principles in this important branch of veterinary science, could not have devolved upon one more capable of properly fulfilling it than Professor Simonds — an appointment from which none but the best resuUs can be anticipated. May this mu- nificent act meet with its deserving return. It is useless to argue now, as once was done, " that a man who understands the anatomy and ])athology of the horse, is fully equal to combat the diseases of cattle, as there is not any essential difference between them." The futility of such an argument has been sorrowfully demonstrated in the experience of many practitioners. Various diseases common to the one, occur likewise in the other, yet scarcely in any one disease can the same type or development of symptoms be recognised in both animals. There are important anatomical and physiological variations. These involve jmthologi- cal differences which must be familiarized to the practitioner before he can hope to undertake the diseases of the cow with any prospect of successful or satisfactory treatment. Independently of important differences in or- ganization, there are inherent constitutional pecu- liarities possessed by the cow which exercise as powerfid influence on her capabilities of bearing, as of modifying the diseases to which she is sub- ject. Her diseases frequently do not assume a very tangible or decisive character, even when existing in an acute form. Tliey are subject to complication, often affecting several organs at once ; and are especially liable to be early attended by a low, febrile state of system, even those of an inflammatory character, soon forbidding a pursuance of depletive measures to an extent we find essential in some other animals. In fact, to determine the true nature and treatment of many diseases aft'ect- ing oxen and cows requires from a veterinary surgeon all the tact, discrimination, and judgment which attentive observation, and a systematic study of his profession, resulting in extensive pathologi- cal knowledge can confer. These qualifications, indispensable as they are in a common routine of practice, are yet more essential in treating epizootic diseases. On such occasions we have seldom experience to direct us ; such maladies often make their appearance under types to which other affections bear but indis- tinct resemblance, and from which, conseqviently, we cannot derive any plain indication of treatment. A bigoted adherence to specified forms of medicine, or plans of treatment adopted on other occasions, will not then avail ; we must cultivate a searching spirit of independent obsen^ation, and his measure of success M'ill be greatest who possesses most philosophical knowledge of disease, is best ac- quainted wdth the structural uses of the tissues that are involved, the relation in which these stand to the functions of animal life, and the principles upon which diseased actions are amenable to re- medial and medicinal agents. From professionally educated men alone then can satisfactory adnce be obtained by the proprietor of cattle ; and the veterinary surgeon will now have fewer difficulties, according to his talent and diligence. In the folio-wing essay we shall endeavour to state our opinion as to the nature, cavises, symptoms, and treatment of the present pleuro- pneumonic disease, by submitting our observ^ations in as popvdar a form as we can, without com- promising the talent and worth of any professional and scientific man. How we shall succeed, our friends and the public must determine ; but nearly three years' extensive experience in the treatment of this disease, in a district where its ravages have been severely felt, have afforded us ample oppor- tunities of observing its nature and character. The name Pleuro-Pneumonia is peculiarly appropriate as applied to the present epizootic among cattle; the words conjointly signifying inflammation of the lungs, and involving of a thin membrane, which forms their immediate invest- ment, and is reflected over or covers the chest inter- nally. These terms are of Greek origin : the former from UXevpa, the side ; and pneumonia, Uvivfiojv, the lungs. Epizootic is also a word of Greek origin, from itti, upon, and ?wot/, an animal, and is used to signify a disease of similar character prevailing among inferior animals, as epidemic diseases do among hinnan beings. Although this disease had some time previously existed and committed sad devastation in Ireland, we first noticed its appearance in this country about the latter part of 1841, following close upon the vesicular epizootic of that time. These, how- ever, were mostly isolated cases. In the winter and spring of 1842 and '43 it appeared more frequently than during the summer of 1842. In the summer of 1843 it somewhat abated ; during the later winter months of 1843, and in the spring month of 1844, it more frequently occurred ; but in the late sum- mer again considerably subsided. During these periods many farmers lost from twelve to thirty and more cows, and some the whole of their stock. On its first appearance it afforded an instance wherein all remedies seemed alike ineffectual in arresting its progress. Many persons, on obsen'ing the post-mortem appearances, attributed the extensive and peculiar pulmonary disorganization to rottenness or decay of the tissues within the thoracic cavity ; but the veterinary surgeon, from obser\'ing the nature of these appearances, both during their earlier and later periods, knew them to arise from other causes. He has attained considerable knowledge of their true pathology, and, although many cases bid defiance to his best-directed efforts of cure, a larger proportion is now recovered than when the disease originally manifested itself. Epidemic diseases among the human race, and epizootic ones among the lower animals, appear under various characters, attributable to the season of the year, or some peculiar kind of food used during such season, when the digestive organs are most likely to suffer. At other times they occur THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. during- the prevalence of some particular wind, as in spring or winter, and frequently when there are many sudden changes of atmosphere combined with moisture. On such occasions the air passages, synovial membranes, and muscular faschia; are aHected under the forms severally of catarrh, influenza, rheumatism, and some others. Althougli epidemic and epizootic diseases occur most frecpiently in seasons during which there exists the greatest variation of temperature, they sometimes appear for a considerable period, when their connection with any predisposing or exciting cause may not appear so evident to us. On such occasions they continue to exhibit some pecu- liar type, or manifest a preference to a particular system in the animal frame — one epizootic affecting the respiratory, another the digestive system, and a third the mucous or serous membranes, and all without any very obvious cause. Since tlie murrain of the last century, the cow has not suffered from any- epizootic disease which for fatalitj' can be compared with the one we now j)ropose to consider. This affection, although apj)arently consisting in sub-acute inriammation.and its consetpiences involving tissues and organs within the thoracic cavity, and parts without, as tlie larynx and the trachea, which are concerned in resjiiration, still the course and ultimate terminations of that iniiamraation differ from those pursued by ordinary inHammation of these parts, so much so as to warrant us in our opinion applying to it the term specific. Inflammation may be considered as consisting n an increased determination of blood to a part ; causing swelling, pain, redness, or heat. The swelling of an inflamed ])art is occasioned origi- nally by a distension of its vessels ; they, contain- ing more l)lood than natural, impart to the seat of inflammation a greater sensation of heat than ex- ists in surrounding parts. Swelling is also caused by effusion. Pain is occasioned by the undue pressure of congestion or effusion on the sensory nerves of such part. Inflammation may, either from treat- ment or not, spontaneously su])sidc ; the vessels regain their usual condition without breach of tissue : such a termination we call one of reso- lution. But, if the exciting causes of inflammation have been severe, and more blood is determined to any part than was actually required, there will, from such increased propulsion and inadequate withdrawal, result in a yielding tissue other means of relief, as a matter of necessity. First, the thin- nest or aqueous ])article8 of the imprisoned blood are forced through their smaller or capillary vessels into the surrounding tissue, and may relieve their distension, terminating tlie inflammation by cflu- sion of serum. Should tliis be inefticient for re- storation, other particles of jjlood — its coagulable ])ortion — are efl'used, and sometimes nearly inij)cde circulation by pressing upon the containing vessels. We have then the firm, hard, red condition of an inflamed part. 'l"hc fibrinous effused fluid in this frequently takes on the formation of jnis, or termination by suppuration. At other times the fibrine effused sufliciently relieving the inflamed part, and not interfering therewith, or not proving itself a source of irritation, becomes an organized part of the whole. Thus we frequently see i)ermanent thickening roimd a part once inflamed or wounded. This is a common process of healing simple incised wounds, and is a termination by adhesion. Again, should these means continue inefficient to I'elieve the inflamed part, and the circulation is entirely impeded, as by excessive effusion, it dies ; it loses its relation to the l)ody, and is decomposed. This is mortification. Although this is the usual course of inflamma- tion, still its terminations are considerably influ- enced by the meml^ranes or parts wherein it exists, some showing a preference for one and some for another kind of action. Inflammations of serous membranes, it is well known, rarely terminate in effusion of pus, but commonly enough in cflusion of serum and lymph. Inflammations of mucous membranes, as those of the lungs and bowels, very frequently terminate in suppuration. In this ap- pears a wonderful i)rovision of Providence ; for, should the lymph or organizable constituent of l)lood become effused as in the intestines, how hurtful would be such an event, while many hvmian beings and other animals also, live with compara- tively httle inconvenience, although adhesions may exist between the walls of the thorax and its con- tained viscera, or between the abdominal parieties and contents, through organization of lymph, the dej)osit of former inflammatory action. Inflammation is said to be specific when its ef- fects are othenvise than those ordinarily resulting from its existence, or are specifically distinct from those following what we call healthy inflammation ; for inflammation, although frequently a])pearing in the hght of a primary disease, is an indispen- sable process in the operations of nature towards effecting the restoration of parts irritated or in- jured. A wound cannot be healed without it, and our most serious diseases are frequently efforts of nature to overcome the irritation that caused them. Extended ideas of inflammation, whether existing as a state needful for restoration of i)arts from breach of substance or irritation, or in a condition endangering destruction of life or tissue, are most essential of all others in medical requirement. The jmst-mortem appearances of pleuro-pneu- monia will, in connection w\i\\ its nature and pathology, l)e considered in detail hereafter ; and ha\'ing made these remarks on inflammation and its consequences — a subject whereon we Avish to be understood, and to which frequent allusion will be made — we now propose describing the symptoms of pleuro pncmonia. Prom what was previously stated respecting the sub-acute character of this disease, some difficulty in an early detection of symi)toms may be antici- jjated. This is the case, and we are fully conN-inced that, in many instances, oiu' earliest intimations of its existence are some natural consetpienccs of in- flammation. It must, however, be remembered, that on an early detection rests our sole hope of successful treatment. We will sup])ose the patient to be a milch cow. Our first indication of the malady is a partial sup* THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pression of the lacteal secretion, with tenderness of udder, which is often accompanied by cough and quickened respiration. In the field she leaves the herd, and stands without ruminating. The back is sometimes shghtly arched — the head depressed — the general appearance dull and dejected — evacua- tion of faeces scanty — the pulse about 70. In this state, frequently mistaken for one of cold or indi- gestion, she may, to all appearance, continixe for a day or longer, when she begins to walk stiffly, and moans when first moved. There is total neglect of food, tenderness of the throat and sides ; there is a hot, dry nose; the horns, ears, and extremities alternately are hot and cold, the ptdse ranging from 70 to SO, but seldom very strong or vibrating ; the eyes somewhat sunk in their sockets, and the conjunctival vessels injected. During inspiration the nostrils dilate more than previously ; moaning, or rather grunting, on expiration, becomes audible when the animal is not moved, and particularly when lying, for, unlike the horse under inflamma- tory pulmonary disease, she will, in the earher stages. Me down; constipation exists; the cough becomes more painful and supjiressed. Little or no milk is yielded, and there is great debility. Should not any remedial means be adopted — and, indeed, too frequently, if the most judicious are emplo3'ed — the second or incurable stage super- venes, after a continuous aggravation of the above- named symptoms, during variable periods of three, four, five, and sometimes more days. Inflam- mation has run on to some of its terminations, with condensation of the lungs, or efflision of seriun within the thorax, or both. Breathing becomes in- tensely laborious ; the head is extended almost on a line ^vith the trachea; the nostrils expand to their utmost, so as to afibrd every facihty for the admission of air. The cough frequently almost subsides, or the animal becomes unable to utter or bear it. The pulse rises in number to 90 or 100 beats per minute, but decreases in strength. Frothy fluid accumulates in the mouth and trachea. There is diarrhoea and wasting of muscular sub- stance, especially near the shoulders ; the horns, ears, and extremities continue deadly cold; the feet are brought almost together under the centre of gra\nty; and the tail is often dra\vn close between the hmd-legs. In this condition our poor patient, when afraid to lie longer, endeavours to stand, as if to avoid the sense of impending suff"ocation ; she reels helplessly about; her groans become more frequent and louder; breathing is almost impossi- ble; and a short interval of dehrium usually ensues before death reheves the animal from suffering. Death occurs at variable periods, this being de- termined by the severity of each case. About eight days we have found the average duration of life, bhould a beast survive fourteen days, she may stand a chance of a hngering recovery— an event, at such late period, being scarcely desirable. Amendment to be practicable to the owner, should commence on the fourth or fifth day of illness : not that re- covery may not occasionally take place where in- disposition has longer existed, but amendment pro- tracted beyond this period is generally accompanied by so much organic pulmonary disease as to render the animal comparatively worthless. There may be some variation in the early symp- toms from what lias already been noticed, for the dis- ease does at times appear in one only of three fonns. Either in that of bronchitis inflammation of the membrane lining the larger terminations of the trachea; in pleurisy, inflammation of the fibro- serous membrane covering the lungs and chest in- ternally ; or in pneumonia, inflammation of the jjulmonary substance itself. If a pleuritic attack be most prominent, there is usually or almost invariably cough ; but more resonant and longer than in bronchitis. There is much pain evinced when the ribs are struck, or pressure made upon the intercostal spaces, and also when the back is pressed. There is unusual tucking up and heaving of the abdomen, leaving a prominent muscular hne from the ilimn along the cartilages of the false ribs ; respiration being accomplished as much as possible by parts with which the inflamed pleura has not any con- nection. Again : the disease may commence as pneu- monia when it is not always attended with cough. The pulse is quick, but more oppressed than in bronchitis. Tliere is usually in this case a shght grunting on expiration from the first, but less pain is manifested than in either pleurisy or bronchitis, when the sides are struck or the throat pinched. Although these may, and do on some other occasions, exist as individually distinct diseases, not any of them, ever distinctly marked, pri- marily, exist long in this epizootic as an indepen- dent affection without becoming the concomitant of one, and frequently of both others, the most common combination being pleuro pneumonia ; nevertheless pleurisy may in some, and pneumonia may in others, be the predominating malady. In addition to what may be tenued these ex- ternal recognitions of disease, we possess in aus- cultation ( listening to internal sounds by appU- cation of the ear to the body) a valuable aid, in determining the actual nature and extent of chest affections. The expiration and inspiration of air by the lungs cause, during their respective actions, a pecuhar sound, termed the respiratory murmur, with which the veterinary surgeon is, or ought to be, familiar. The inspiratory mur- mur is occasioned by air passing through the larger air tubes into smaller ones, and, ultimately, into the air cells : the murmur accompanying expiration is occasioned by a return of air fi'om and through the same parts. All these structures, when healthy, are elastic ; and considerably modify, when diseased, the sounds which we hear. Both sides are seldom attacked -with similar severity; when the pulmonary parenchyma is much affected, the disease is sometimes confined for a period to one, and that very generally the right lung. Early in its existence there is bronchial respiration on auscultation, or a sound existing in a part usually giving rise to the common respiratory murmur similar to that in the bron- chife during health. Auscultation furnishes a means of deciding whether effusion has taken place in the chest; for, should such be the case there is suppression of all respiratory sounds as high as the fluid THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 9 extends. We can also determine with tolerable certainty whether the absence of soiind is owing to " hydrothorax" (water in the chest) or " he- patization" (hardening of the lungs). Should hydrothorax exist, there will be a horizontal line along which sound is evident, and rather louder or more bronchial than in other parts. Below this all is noiseless. Should hepatization be the cause of suppressed sound, such suppression does not follow a level line of demarcation, but a murmur or rather rale will be heard before, behind, and perhaps below the part in which none exists. Bronchial respi- ration is usually heard round such part. Hydrothorax, even in its most advanced stage in the cow, is not, \\'ithout the aid of auscultation, denoted by other pathognomonic signs common in some annnals ; for instance, swelling of the legs and infiltration under the belly. But the extended head, A-ivid although sunken eye, di- lated nostrils, heaving flanks, soon rising again after lying do^\Ti, quick and undulating i)ulsation of the heart, absence of respiratory murmur, are symptoms which, taken in connection with the animal's general appearance, pretty clearly manifest its existence. It is necessary to be aware when hepatization of the lungs or hydrothorax occurs, as then our hope of success is usually gone. We do not deny that partial effusions may become sometimes absorbed ; but tliis in the cow is far less within the range of probability than in the horse, and especially in this epizootic, one characteristic symptom of which is early debility. Auscultation is, perhaps, the most valuable aid which modern science has bequeathed us towards forming a diagnosis and prognosis of disease. It requires, however, a familiar acquaintance with both healthy and diseased sounds. In addition to the absence of respiratory mur- mur, and other unfavourable sjTnptoms noticed, there is sometimes haemoptysis, or bleeding from the lungs, ^^'hen it supervenes, it is frequently from the fourtli to the sixth day, and on some occasions takes ])lacc when the farmer supposes that there is a change for the better, such temporary change, however, l)eing caused by effusion into the chest. The Ijleeding arises from disease breaking do^vn pulmonary structure, permitting blood to escape from its j)roper vessels into the air tubes, whence it is dislodged in the act of coughing, or even gra^'itatc's thence when the head is held down. If profitable amendment take jjlace, it is early, and should l)e evident about the fourth or fifth day, a time when eflfusion or hepatization arc other- \vise frequently observable. The cough, however, does not subside, but becomes less painful and more prolonged. We have not the muco-jnnulent expectoration which a human physician hails as the jirelude to recovery ; but there is often more mucus in the sujjcrior air ])assagcs than has i)re- viously existed, with a cooler and moister muzzle. The res|)iratory sound becomes heard in parts where from congestion it might have been in- audible. The jjulse becomes less frecpient and increases in volume, but is soft. The horns and cars, although sometimes cold, continue warm longer than before, as do the extremities. Ten- derness of parts, previously most sensitive, di- minishes ; the beast rests on both sides — will take a little water or gruel, and food ; but ru- mination does not commence for some days. The bowels are lax without medicine, secretion of urme is more copious ; the coat appears smoother ; breathing is easier ; the milk is seldom discharged in considerable quantity, but the animal becomes more alive to things around ; smelling at food and other objects whereof befoi'e it was heedless. The period of convalescence is varied according to the mildness or severity of attack. The peculiar liability manifested by the diseases of cattle, however acutely inflammatoiy at their outset, to degenerate into, or be accom- panied by, low typhoid fever, is not, on any occa- sion, exhibited more decidedly than in the jiresent affection. When, to all appearance, the obvious symptoms of the disease and its consequences have departed, there %viU, in some cases, re- main for an uncertain period the common char- acteristics of low fever, and in a degree of intensity disproportionate to any apparent exciting cause. For instance, the ai)petite is extremely capricious : on one day the animal eats and ruminates ; on the follo^\'ing day she will not do either, but stands, or lies dull, listless, with staring coat and cold skin ; the vidder shrunk ; yet the breathing will be little impaired, nor is the pulse much accele- rated. It is a condition annoying to both the owner and the veterinary surgeon, and one from which time or gentle tonics are the only soui'ce of re- covery. Morbid post-mortem appearances of this disease, after the foregoing description of symptoms, will almost be anticipated 1jy the jjathologist ; and there are a few, even not professionally educated, who, having seen the lungs of healthy animals, would fail to detect the existence of disease in others when it had been sufficient to cause death. But, although such, so far as appearances are concerned, may decide as to a diseased and non-diseased lung, without lieing able to account for their respective conditions, we shall summarily advert to the healthy appearance and comj)osition of pul- monary tissue, as it may more clearly illustrate the sequel. The lungs are large glands, consisting of several [larts or lobes, situated within the chest or thoracic cavity, lliey are by their structure adapted for receiving and distrijjuting atmospheric air over the greatest j)ossible extent of surface within their substance, and for exposing to the l)urifying infhience of such air all the blood in the animal frame. In fact, the l)lo()d is imfit for the support of life, until it has undergone the process of aeration. The lungs consist in part of minute cells or ultimate terminations of tlie broneliial tubes, from which they originate, and of wiiich they are subdivisions. The large proportion of air vessels in the lungs occasions their small specific gravity and capa- bility to float in water. Then we have blood vessels : first, arteries, con- veying from the heart in this instance impure blood round the circumference of the air cells. 10 THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. for purification by atmosplieiic air taken therein during inspiration, wlience it is separated by a membrane .so thin as freely to admit exhalation of impure parts afterwards expired. Secondly, and originating from the smaller or capillary terminations of the former vessels, we have veins returning aerated blood to the heart for systemic distribution, maintaining hfe, and imjiarting nutrition, until, exhausted of its vivifying properties, it again returns from every part to the heart. We shall now more rapidly notice the heart, or chief agent in circulation, which is situated in the left thoracic region. It is a fleshy organ, composed of two sides — an arterial and venous one, and on each side containing two cavities. Tliose on the right are concerned in receiving impure or venous blood from the system, and pro- pelling it into the lungs for aeration. The left, or arterial side receives this aerated blood from the lungs, and again distributes it to the system. On removing the thoracic parietes and exposing the parts just enumerated, we find in epizootic pleuro-pneumonia the following appearances : — The costal pleura (covering the ribs internally), is obscured by a yellow covering of coagulable lymph, bands of which stretch across to the pulmonar}' jileura, or the pleura covering the lungs, and which is also similarly coated. We have seen this many lines in thickness, and in some cases forming of itself a complete sac, con- taining a large quantity of serum. At other times the fibrinous coating is not so thick, but is seldom, if ever, absent. On removing it we find the vessels ramifying over the pleura costalis much injected, forming red streaks or uniform redness where, in health, it is colourless. The quantity of serum is sometimes enormous, but varies from two to ten, twelve, or more gallons. Wlien very large the lung is compressed into a small compass. As both sides may not be affected with like intensity, considerable effusion may exist in one without extending so much to the other. As is mostly the case in horses ; the pleural sacs being in the cow more complete than in those animals. On some occasions we observe false membranes or adhesions existing between the ])ericardium and heart, from the extension of disease, and this is also accompanied by an increase of pericardic fluid. In these cases the pulse during life is irregular, and imparts to the hand applied to the ribs an undulating sensation during contraction. On cutting into the lungs they offer some resistance to the knife, and present, on incision, a smooth marbled surface internally, consisting of two colours — a grey, or rather yellow substance, firm in character, encircling a darker portion, containing little of any air, exceedingly heavy, and sinking in water. The grey portion appears to be composed of air tubes and cellular tissue filled with and compressed by large quantities of lymph. The darker portion consists chiefly of air-cells and small blood-vessels, containing impure or non-aerated blood, and lymph. The bronchial membrane is often inflamed, and covered with frothy mucus. This extends so far as air-tubes are discernible ; the further we trace them the more complete does their obstruction become. The heart, especially the right side of it, is distended with blood. This, if the case be of long duration, is of a dark colour ; but lighter, or pre- senting much fibrin when death sooner occurs. All these parts, when exposed, emit an odour far more offensive than in animals dying from common pleuritis or pneumonia. Even during life a pe- culiar cadaverous smell is frequently evident in the animal's breath. There are occasionally abrasions of the intes- tinal mucous membrane ; but this is generally attributable to the excessive diarrhoea or dysentery, arising, in advanced stages, from irritating and altered biliary secretion. Having noticed the symptoms and post-mortem appearances, we will, previous to entering into a consideration of the causes inducing pleuro-pneu- monia, make a few remarks on its pathology, as connected with post-mortem appearances: From what was previously stated respecting the nature of inflammation, it will be remembered that the effusions consequent thereon were serum, or lymph, or pus ; these may in some cases exist in combi- nation for a time. We noticed serum and lymph as the most usual terminations in serous membranes, as the pleura and peritoneum — effusion of pus as most apt to occur on mucous membranes, the respira- tory passages, the intestinal tube, &c. But in the present disease and resulting therefrom, we find pus so rarely effused from inflammation of the pulmonary mucous membrane, as to warrant us in not taking it into the account ; yet lymph is abundantly and invariably thro^\^l out, when from pathological induction we might pre-suppose an existence of pus : lymph pervades the air-cells, air passages, cellular tissue, large blood vessels, and i)leural surfaces, forming in this disease its peculiar or specific character. In the effusion of lymph, inflammation is an indispensable agent; and for production of in- flammation an application of some positive iri'itant is required. Such may consist of wounds or bruises on external surfaces, vapours or gases noxious to the respiratory system, or excessive determi- nation of blood thereto from cold or over-exertion, or improper food or substances poisonous to the digestive system. On reception of such or any other irritants by a part, in proportion to their intensity nature endeavours immediately to re- move them, curtailing the various excretions, and concentrating blood in greater quantity on the seat of injury : in other words, inflammation is excited, and by some of its terminations strives to remove the irritant, or proves by its existence or consequences, as in the disease under con- sideration, a cause of destruction. What the pe- culiar irritants or incentives to inflammation in this affection are, will be our future duty to inquire. ^Vliy the epizootic shordd be characterized by its particular tendency to the deposit of lymph, may not be in our power to explain, but from what is known respecting the nature of inflammatory action, the following may be taken in illustration ; — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 11 When inflammation attacks secreting surfaces, as mucous or serous memljranes, and does not sub- side by resolution, its first elt'ects tend to increase the natural secretions of such parts, and the fluid continuing effused becomes more viscid, until it attains a muco-purulent, sero-albuminous, or fibrinous character. Should the infiammatory action in any part be so severe, as symi)athetically to aflect the system, we find the fibrin of the blood increased in proportion to the other constituents, and much disposed to aggregation of its own particles. The inflammation most congenial for the effusion of lymph, appears to be neither very mild nor extremely acute. When acute, we with good reason expect suppuration ; when this increases, there will be gangrene. When mild, we look for resolution, or merely serous effusion ; but when it is of an intermediate or sub-acute character, lymph is most certainly thrown out. The same degree of inflammation, promoting adhesion in an incised woimd under other circumstances, favours the effusion of lymph as its natural rehef, wherever existing. We have before stated that epizootic ])leuro- pneumonia is a sul)-acute inflammatory affection of the res]nratory organs and their membranes. Tliis is estabUshed by the longer duration of cases after an attack, com])ared with those of an ordinary acute character, and by post mortem appearances. An or- dinary or acute case of pleuritis or pnemnony may be, and often is, fatal in two or three days, or some- times earher — surnving the fifth or sixth day, they frequently recover ; but their average duration in this epizootic is much longer. Here also post- mortem examination detect the grey instead of the red hepatization of the lungs, and more disjiosition is manifested to efl'usion of lymph within the thorax, than under common pleuritis. Highly acute inflam- matory action tends sooner to the destructit)n of life, by materially impairing the functions of organs, and the great amount of sympathetic fever it occa- sions. It will be remembered that aeration of the blood dejiends on inhalation of air into the air cells, in vessels round which venous blood is distributed, se])arated from the contiguous air by an extremely delicate memljrane. Inflammation attacking the lining of these cells occasions primarily an increase of their natural secretion, and still continuing, yet not being so intense as to occasion suj)])uration. gangrene, or speedy death in any other manner ])roduces consc(juently efl'usion of lymph. Thus we have some explanation of post-mortem appearances; thel)lack spots in the marbled or mot- tled looking substance, when divided, are the jjarts containing l)lood charged with carbonic acid ; and the yellow, or sometimes grey, su])stance surround- ing them, is comjiosed of air passages, and other tissues, laden and compressed with coagulable lymph. There is a vital relation existing between blood and the vessels wherein it circulates : thus, when imperfectly arterialized. its course is delayed in the small capillaries, from which the ])nlmonary veins originate. The left ventricle of the heart lias also been fonndto contract imperfectly, or manifest a want of sensiltility, on ccmtaining venous lilood. Hence we have the confused, quick, and almost im- jierceptible pulse, near the close of this and other pulmonary diseases. Any part or parts of the lungs attaining this condition, imjjervious to air, gorged with blood and lymi)h, preventing the entrance of blood for aeration or their own nutrition, is placed 1)eyond the power of vital action ; and cannot, therefore, sup- jmrate or ulcerate, but becomes subject to changes operating physically upon dead animal matter and ])Utrifies. Thus we have the offensive smell of some advanced cases, and can account for the ex- treme fragility which the lungs present on com- pression after death, and their smooth marbled appearance displayed on incision. It now jjecomcs an important consideration as to the period at which this destructive efl'usion first occurs. Our own decided opinion, from numerous examinations of cattle destroyed early, on exhibit- ing symptoms of the disease, is, that it generally exists when to us the beast appears only just aff'ected. From this it will be supposed that ill- ness or sub-acute inflammation has previously and for some time existed, an inference which we are fully convinced is correct. So long as a beast eats and ruminates, even if she slightly falls oflf in her milk, which occasionally occurs at other times without subsequent ill result, nothing is usually apprehended ; but susi)ension of rumination and appetite always excites in the farmer's mind, and justly so, the idea of illness. He would, however, on occasions like the j^resent, do well to attend to other circumstances ; when, if carefully obser\'ed, a roughened coat, slightly quickened breathing and pulse, and also cough, precede loss of aj)petite and milk. If his cattle are consigned to servants, the chance of early detecting disease is still more remote. Few can l)e induced to take interest in concerns whence they derive not any ultimate lienefit, and frequently the veterinary surgeon finds here, as on other occasions, that disease has made sad ravages unsuspected by them, and which he cannot remedy. This inflammatory action, in its early stages, is of so mild and mitigated a character, as veiy slightly to att'ect the constitution. A cow never seriously refuses to eat, except when seriously ill ; she is never feigning indisj)osition. What, in our- selves, might lie considered a sore throat or in- fluenza or mild bronchitis, and, as such, receive its remedy, passes in her imnoticed ; yet, inilamma- tory action it is, of a peculiar character, and under certain exciting causes progresses to its own remedy. We are jierfectly convinced, as just noticed, that the earliest symptoms of disease re- cognized l)y us, proceed, in too many cases, as mucli, or more, from the efl'ects of inflaunnation as from inflammation alone. Not only is this con- viction confirmed l)y post-mortem ajijiearances, but is more strongly corroborated by the dreadful fatality of this disease. Inflammation of the i)ul- monary organs is a serious aflair at all times, but in the characters it ordinarily assumes iu horses and cattle is, to a great extent, under remedial con- trol, inasmuch as it is mostly combated previously to its causing structural disorganization. In this instance, however, the disease lias crept on un])cr- ceived, until we become cognizant of it by its efl'ects. l/ymph is deposited in tissues whose 12 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. perfect integrity is essential to health, this l}TTiph itself proves an irritant, fresh inflamma- tion is naturally excited, and consequently more and more eflfused, excessive weakness from non- arterialization of blood is the concomitant, and a condition is soon induced from which no result but death is possible. Tlius we obsen-e an ob^'ious relation between the symptoms, post-mortem appearances, and patholog)', wliich cannot fail to convince every one how infinitely important it is to be fully awake to the earliest indications of a disease, the treatment of wliich is successful only in proportion to its early detection. Epizootic diseases, somewhat various in cha- racter, but extremely destructive, have appeared at intervals from the earliest ages, ^ythough we are not wholly destitute of dates and other information connected with some of them, the accounts as furnished by their respective au- thors are frequently so confounded with super- stition and the ignorance of the ages in which they were %\Titten, as to aftbrd little of interest to the scientific medical inquirer. They are ascribed to various causes, and often to the rage of offended deities. That the hand of Providence is con- nected -ndth them, no one confessing the omnipo- tence of the Deity can deny, or that various means are employed by that hand sometimes e^ddent to, and at other times hidden from, man. " And the Lord did that thing on the morrow, and all the cattle of Egypt died." We have in the Iliad of Homer an account of a devastating disease among his countrj-men and their cattle engaged in the siege of Troy, attributed by him to the " vengeful arrows" of Apollo. Plutarch and Li\7 also notice the occurrence of fatal pestUences among cattle, succeeded by sad mortahty among men. Virgil furnishes an interesting account of a dis- ease, bearing considerable resemblance to the mur- rain one hundred years ago. From the commencement of the Christian era until about that period — 1744 — we have accounts of fatal diseases among cattle at various inten-als, somewhat alike, in general characters, to the terri- ble murrain of that time. Practitioners of human medicine were the only competent recorders of their nature, for veterinary schools and properly educated veterinary surgeons may be said not to have had existence until 1761, and in this country not until much later. Among the medical men of oiu- own countr)' who honourably exerted them- selves in ascertaining the nature and treatment of the murrain, are Doctors Mortimer, Hird, Layard, and Brocklesby. They also left such accounts of it as the knowledge of the age enabled them to im- part. Ainongst the foreign waiters on epizootic diseases, previous to the establishment of veterinary schools, may be mentioned as deserving of particu- lar notice, Lancisi and Rammazini, Italian phy- sicians. Of later years eminent veterinarians have appeared, chiefly of the French schools, as Dela- fond, Dupuy, Hurtrel d'Arboval, and others, who have paid much attention to these strangely de- vastating diseases. Of our own countiy, Youatt is decidedly the best authority on the murrain and other diseases of cattle ; he, in fact, may be said to have placed the veterinary art, as connected with these animals, on a basis which, previous to his time, it had not attained in England. More recently, and with respect to diseases almost similar in character to the present epizootic, we have some accounts by veterinary surgeons, chiefly foreign. Professor Abelgaard speaks of a contagious disease which eflfected great devastation in Denmark. There is an account in " Le RecueU de Mede'cine Veterinaire," 1838, by M. Lecoq, of the Veterinary School at Lyons, respecting a pleuritic aflection somewhat similar in nature to our epizootic, only more chronic. An account of an enzootic contagious gangren- ous peripneumony is described by M. Mathieu, a continental veterinary surgeon, as existing in mountainous districts, among ill-fed and badly housed cattle, which appears to continue more or less through all seasons, but does not, except by means of contagion, affect cattle in the plains. Causes. — Even in the production of what are termed common diseases, although we may often be able to trace their occurrence to some positive cause, at other times their relation thereto is not so evident, and not unfrequently imperceptible. It is, however, against all sound reasoning to sup- pose that an effect, as disease always is, of a pre- disposing or exciting cause, \nll occur without the operation of some agency. Still the connec- tion of epidemic and epizootic diseases, with, to us, obvious excitants, is commonly of extremely difficult perception, and at times so obsciu-e as entirely to elude our powers of discovery. Yet there are not any circumstances connected with these kinds of disease more important than such investigation ; for, by avoiding ascertained causes remote or proximate, we can render far greater benefit than in combating their effects, A\liat we term the predisponents of disease, are causes that have existed prior to exadent mala- dies occurring. We cannot distinguish on all occasions between these and the immediate or exciting causes, and very often disease is produced by both. More clearly to illustrate this subject, we may observe that the various kinds of animals that come under our care are predisposed or hable to pe- culiar diseases. Sheep are predisposed constitu- tionally to the rot. Cows of a certain form, con- stitution, or colour, known to the farmer and grazier, are liable to acute dysentery. Horses also are constitutionally predisposed to peculiar dis- eases, as farcy and glanders. Predisposition to certain maladies may be acquired by hereditary descent, and are often developed by the application of some exciting cause. Thus, phthisis in a cow, the offspring of diseased patients, may remain almost unsuspected until in the spring season, when, perhaps, becoming short of food, or that food innutritions, and she exposed to cold winds, the predisposition already existing is excited, and death soon follows. It is now highly necessary to take into con- sideration the nature of the various causes of disease to which our cattle are exposed, and by which so many of them have been destroyed. Of these malaria, injurious emanations from THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 the earth, atmospheric poisons, organic pulmonary or other diseases and contagion, present themselves. Epizootic disease arising from malaria, although occurring in various districts throughout a country, always atiects the cattle in those localities that bear a common resemblance to each other; and does not invade others, however near the former, which, in point of situation — more especially dampness — are dissimilar, even if there is actual communica- tion between cattle of such districts. We cannot, except by removing into other districts, exempt cattle from the liabihty to certain diseases. It will be obvious that malaria can have httle influence in producing pleuro pneumonia, as it occurs not only in parts where malaria cannot fairly be sup- posed to exist, but in localities subject thereto. With respect to aerial poisons or irritants, it may be obsen-ed that when existing, their effects are extensive ; being obsen^ed in various parts of a country, under all varieties of situation. Admission of air into the lungs is reqiiired for j)urification of the blood ; such air of itself, if not containing irritating or injurious substances, does not injure their texture, or in any way incom- mode the other accessor)' respiratory organs. We are all aware that some gases, when inspired, cause spasmodic contraction of the glottis ; others are inspired with difficulty, leaving an un- pleasant sensation behind, or they produce in- flammation. Still, air may be inspired containing small proportions of deleterious ingredients, elud- ing the vigilance of the larynx, and not at the time creating any unpleasant sensation or inconvenience; but which, nevertheless, by long continuance of its action, proves irritating to the lungs, hurtful to the arterialization of the blood, and, consequently, a predisponent of inflammation, which as a natural process will be occasioned by its presence. This deleterious matter may at various times be of dif- ferent kinds, and producing dift'erential conse- quences. Nevertheless, such consequences will usually be of a similar character, and uniform throughout one epizootic ; for the causes operat- ing unavoidably over large districts or coun- tries from the nature of their transmitting medium, atmospheric air, necessarily produce such results, whatever they may be. While we state our conviction that some atmos- pheric irritant is one cause of jileuro pneumonia, we are compelled to acknowledge our ignorance of what this specific poison really is, but the nature of the disease and its duration show it to result from a gradual application of some cause un- connected with the domestic condition of cattle. It has been queried why should not other animals, like cattle, suffer similar affections as they are jiartly exposed to the same causes? Let such ask them- selves whether, until late years, they have known so many among our owm race suffering from pul- monary disease, and disease of the superior air pas- sages also ; not including the immense numbers annually dying of consumption in this country. Influenza — a convenient name, aj)j)licd to various kinds of disorder invading the air i)assages and sinuses of the head sliort of actual acute inflam- mation, and not unfrequently including that also — has been unprecedentedly common; and, when occurring in old persons or debilitated habits, has been extensively fatal. Can we attribute all this to peculiarities in food, clothing, situation, or other remarkable difference in mode of life adopted in late compared with former years ? or are we compelled to attribute it to atmospheric influences, influences aflfecting man and brute, existing in the air breathed by both ? Horses, during the spring and autumn, have of late years been more than usually disposed to pleuritic and pneumonic affections, assuming at times epizootic characters. At this moment swine are dying of pleuro pneumonia in large num1)ers, both in this country and in Ireland. In some places sheep are affected. It seems impossible not to consider as one great cause of this hability to pulmonary disease manifested by various ani- mals, the presence of some irritant in this most essential requirement for animal existence, which they are continually receiving and exhaling, and a large quantity whereof their lungs always con- tain. Let the grazier, farmer, or dairy keeper ex- amine their stocks closely; and although they might now dispute our prediction that one-third at least have hoose, they wLU find us rather under the mark than exceeding the truth. If we ask the butcher whether all the cattle he slaughters ha-ve sound lungs, he A\'ill often reply, " Oh yes, only they often grow to the ribs." When we reflect on the vast amount of air in- haled by the cow, the extreme delicacy and sen- sibility of membranes it traverses, her high temperament of body, and great exposure to atmosjjheric influences, we may feel less surprised that she should often suffer from them. The nature of inflammation in the cow differs somewhat from that of horses and many other ani- mals, being generally less acute. Wounds in the cow heal with considerable rapidity ; stdl their heahng process is accompanied by far less suppu- ration than in the horse. Incised wounds also are more disposed to heal by adhesion in her than in him. Her blood more quickly coagulates ; and its corpuscles are smaller in proportion to the size of body in ruminants, than some other mammalia. From the disposition, then, which inflammatory action manifests to assume the chronic and sub- acute character — a character to which organic or structural change is closely allied — we account, as before noticed, for her fatality under disease, to which other animals are exposed but more fre- quently recover, for reasons which wiU now be ap- parent. The tubercles of phthisis, a disease to wliich cattle are fearfully liable, and which frequently exists for a long time unsus])ected, are composed chiefly of matter not analogous to any kind of ani- mal tissue ; consequently, being a deposit foreign to the body generally, and incapable of organi- zation, it is a continual source of irritation to the lungs. Inflammation of a low, and, for a time, imiicrccplible nature, is continuing to exist on the common principle of all irritants, or other causes operating against the integrity of animal fimctions occasioning it. Such cows may live some years, and even frequently die of other diseases. 14 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. After all, if the tubercular deposits are small — (for the inflammatory action caused by their presence envelops such matter with coagulable lymph, to protect the neighbouring tissues from irritation) — still inflammatory action, however small in degree, cannot, for obvious reasons, entirely subside, and Avill evidently favour or predispose to the operation of other irritants. On these grounds, to a cer- tain extent, we are entitled to consider organic pul- monary disease, whether tubercular or of any other character, a predisposing cause of pleuro-pneu- monia. It will probably have occurred to the observation of many veterinary surgeons that pleuro-pneumonia has been most fatal where the previous pustular epizootic has existed, and been severely, improperly treated. Such has been our own experience, as wiU be particularized hereafter. This disease belongs, evidently, to the contagious exanthemata, or eruptive diseases, accompanied with fever. In this eruption the mucous memljranes may partake. That of the tongue, Mps, and gums was first ele- vated in blisters, and afterwards peeled off". The mucous membranes, generally, were necessarily, from their intimate sympathy and relation with each other, affected. Their irritable condition was displayed by small doses of laxative medicine causing unusual purgative etlect. Whatever was the cause of the disease originally or independently of the contagion, we are not aware ; but the results of such affections are to exem])t the frame from a future and similar attack, whether by conferring immunity with regard to the influence of a specific morbid poison, or by what other means we may conjecture, but cannot deter- mine any further than that experience shows us that cows having once undergone the disease, are not liable to a second attack if exposed to its con- tagion. Small-pox, scarlatina, measles, &c., in the human subject, belong to this class of diseases, occurring only once in the life of the animal. It is well known to be extremely injudicious to attempt suppression of these eruptions in such kinds of diseases ; and although in a vast majority of in- stances the epizootic subsided without any obvious ill effects under the means employed, it may not be amiss to consider whether sixch means were rightly adapted to the case. We weU remember the re- covery of many animals, though more tediously, and perhaps with more suppurative action of the parts affected, than might have recuri'ed under the usual treatment, in which not any means except laxative medicine were employed ; many recovered without this or any topical remedy. Topical dressings, however, of a highly stimulating, astringent, or sometimes caustic nature, were ex- tensively used, certainly at the time apparently hastening a cure. In some instances this sudden sui^jjression of the discharge, or alteration of character in the inflam- mation, caused its metastasis, in which the udder, serous membranes, and bursal cavities were impli- cated. In fact, numerous cases were actually lost from inflammation of articular cavities, and the im- mense amount of sympathetic fever ever attendant thereon ; leaving the farmer to deplore his confi- dence in such empirics as the farrier, cow-leech, or blacksmith. A knowledge, however, of exanthe- matous disease in general, in this instance, furnish- ed the veterinary surgeon with more judicious means of relief to the affected animals. It does not appear that pleuro-pneumonia has any connection except \vith the consequences of this affection, for we have, like others, observed that when improperly treated, inducing organic change in the mucous membranes, and probably the organic functions also, pleuro-pneumonia has been most unmanageable and fatal. In many cases chronic coughs, chronic indurations of the udder, and enlai-gements of joints, have dated their exist- ence from that epizootic. And why may not the numerous false pleural membranes observable in cattle of late years be traceable to such origin ? We do not say that pleuro-pneumonia never occurs when the pustidar disease has not taken place, far otherwise ; but we do maintain, as the result of our decided experience, that it has been much less fatal when not preceded by it, inducing the belief that such organic change in the respiratory mucous membranes was occasioned thereby, aggravated in many cases by unscientific treatment. Epizootic diseases may, and frequently do, propagate themselves by contagion. There is variation of intensity in the contagious qualities they possess, some being disposed by apparently slight communication with healthy bodies to in- duce their peculiar effects ; while others require continued or frequent exposure to create them. By some medical men and veterinary surgeons there is a difference made in the acceptation of the terms infection and contagion ; the latter being limited to disease produced by actvial contact with it ; and the former to that resulting from effluvia contained in or connected with the at- mosphere. By most, however, of the present day, contagion and infection are considered almost identical, for it is evident that the infecting material, although to us imperceptible, must enter the system either by the lungs or integu- ment, in order to produce the desired effect. Its particles being so minute and diffused as to mingle with atmospheric air, escape the obser- vation often attendant on the introduction of contagious poisons so called, yet in point of fact there can be little difference between them. It is still a matter of doubt with some veteri- nary surgeons whether pleuro-pneumonia is or is not contagious ; many cattle proprietors consider that it is so. There are also many, both in and out of the profession, who deny it that property altogether. A careful extensive collection of facts relating to the disease, unbiassed observation particularly on the mode of its extension, the application of these to certain estabhshed laws which have been ascertained respecting contagion, will be the only way to reconcile this discrepancy, or tend in any manner to elicit the triith. The following, then, are what we may state as ascertained facts, establishing the contagious cha- racter of a disease, in addition to its being epi- zootic : — 1. When cattle, to all appearance previously healthy, come into bodily contact with others, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. inhabit with them the same buikling, and are ex- posed to tlie exhalations of certain diseases, they become atlected in greater proportion according to numbers, than others which are not so exposed. 2. A carefid and early separation of the diseased animals from those apparently healthy, vnih puri- f)'ing in any proper manner the building they inliabited, has an obvious effect in staying the progress of disease among the stock of cows to which such belonged. 3. Whole stocks of cattle not having had positive communication with others, by frequen- ting fairs, or any way mixing among cattle, which though not themselves diseased, have been exposed to, or in contact with such, even in the midst of an infected district, frequently escape. 4. The cattle in a stock or district are soonest affected that have had earliest communication with the sick, either by bodily contact, or by standing in such situations as to receive currents of air passing over diseased animals. Although many animals may escape a prevailing disease while others are ailected, such a circum- stance does not prove the disease non-contagious, for morbific poisons frequently only affect certain animals constitutionally or otherwase predisposed thereto, in a manner which it is difficult for us to trace. The matter to be ascertained is, whether the greatest number exposed to the liabihty of a probably contagious disease become similarly afl'ected or escape it. Or whether animals early ke])t entirely apart from those first affected suffer in the same proportion as stocks of cattle where no such precaution is adopted. We must remem- ber that there are diseases, epizootic as well as others, which, although not arising from contagion, become ultimately of a contagious character, and spread subsequently by that means. It is important to bear this in view, that a few animals in a stock or district, may, by a concurrence of predisjiosing or exciting causes, become diseased independently of contagion, as by an epizootic. Such disease, however, may, during its develop- ment, assume a contagious character, and in that manner propagate itself among cattle not posses- sing any pecuhar predisposition till exposed to such contagion, and in absence whereof they might have escaped. We may conclude that an e])izootic, on its first appearance, soonest attacks cattle possessing the greatest predisposition for the affection, whatever kind it may be. If the epizootic is not contagious, many cattle under ordinary circumstances will diffusing itself naturally accumulates in air long retained rovuid the animals, whilst its morbific qualities will be much diminished under plentiful admission of pure air, and may at times be ren- dered almost innocuous, or entirely so, at certain distances. The miasma of contagion is destroyed by great heat. Any fomites may, by exposure to 120° Fahrenheit, be rendered harmless ; and many con- tagious diseases affecting animals are much less prevalent during the heat of summer than in other seasons, although much below this tem- perature. Not\vithstanding, we justly deny any contagious projicrty to pleuritis or pneumonia, as commonly observed, there are some characters occasionally attendant in these diseases when appearing as epidemics and epizootics, leading us to suppose they may possess that quality ; and however unable we are to conceive in what the contagion consists, a reference of circumstances under which a sus- picious disease is propagated to such ascertained facts as the foregoing, ought generally to settle any doubt which may be entertained respecting it. Our own opinion was originally against the popular belief that pleuro-pneumonia is contagious. Extended observations on its different results when appearing in stocks where precautionary measures were and were not adopted, and atten- tion to other collateral circumstances to be con- sidered in deciding the contagious or non-conta- gious i)roperties of a disease, have induced us to think differently, and to conclude that in addition to its epizootic character, pleuro-pneumo- nia is contagious. Having stated this belief, and made some general observations on the principles of contagion, we shall now adduce a recorded account of cases which appear to possess grounds for support of this rather than a contrary opinion : Nov. 1, 1841. — This, the earliest case which came under our notice, was an only cow, belonging to John Bracegirdle, a poor man. The symjitoms were at the time somewhat ambiguous, yet evidently such as betokened infiammatory afl'ection of the respiratory organs, and when compared with future cases of pleuro-pneumonia, were pre- cisely similar, although their altered character from those of common pleuritis or pneumonia in cattle, rendered them obscure at the time. The treatment of this case comprised little dif- ferent to that usually adojjted in infiammatory affections of the lungs, and after hving eleven days the cow died. The post-mortem appearances cscaj)c It, although in constant intercourse with I were as before noticed in pleuro-pneumonia, and those diseased, being destitute of the requisite pre- then excited much surprise from their extreme disposition, or exciting conditions possessed by rarity in cattle. The disease was considered to those affected. If the disease is not highly con- be non-contagious, nor was any jirecaution used tagious, the animals, after those first attacked, respecting other cows belimging to various pcr- will sicken graduidly ; but cases are more and sons standing in the same building, formerly a more frequent as their exposure to contagion be- 1 cow-house belonging to a farm, but now used comes i)rolonged The disjjosition to contagion is much increased amongst cattle inhabiting crowded and badly aired buildings. Exhalations from diseased am by several poor i)eople and a cattle-dealer. 2. Three cows standing in the a])0vc building were, two weeks after the death just stated, at- tacked with the same disease. One recovered; mals stand in greater probability of aflccting others one was sold ; and the other, belonging to a cattle* 60 confined, than when i)lenty of air is admitted | dealer, was removed, not from any belief at Uie among them, for the poisonous matter readily j time that her disease was contagious. Tlxis 16 THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. cow lived fourteen days, had little treatment, and died. 3. Several cows belonging to Peter Read sick- ened within a month after the former one came among them. Some ched; hut all the rest, dis- eased and healthy, were disposed of. 4. A cow belonging to John Burgess, was pas- tured in a field close to the place where the case No. 1 was opened. Three weeks afterwards it became ill of the same disease ; and, after living and under- going treatment thirteen days, died. AU the cases yet mentioned were within four hundred yards of each other, and cattle in the surrounchng locality were not in any case similarly affected. 5. John Morris, of S , kept in January, 1842, thirty head of horned cattle, which in the previous year had undergone the vesicular epi- zootic without loss of life. At this time, mthout any assignable cause, pleuro-pneumonia commenced among them : several sickened, but were not sepa- rated from the others ; and although the disease continued, this precaution was not adopted for many weeks. Twenty died during the spring. A\1iite-washing and fumigations, also separation of the healthy from the diseased, were adopted after most of this number were dead, and subsequently to a few more fatal cases the disease subsided. This farm is in a dry situation, moderately elevated. 6. John Potts Chapman kept at the same time twelve milch- cows. Pleuro-pneumonia appeared among them in February, 1842. The earliest affected were not separated from the others, but as more sickened, this precaution and white-wash- ing, with fumigations, were adopted. Seven cows and two heifers died. This stock had the vesi- cular disease. The farm stands dry and sheltered. After precautionary measures were adopted, fresh cases decreased, and the disease subsided before summer. 7. Thomas Blackshaw, of Furnock Farm, kept in 1841, and commencement of 1842, twenty-seven cows and ten heifers. The cows had the vesicular epizootic, but the heifers had not. Early in January, 1842, pleuro -pneumonia appeared amongst this stock ; several cows were succes- sively affected, and died. Separation of the sick and the healthy animals was not observed until many fatal cases had occurred. Some fresh cases and deaths took place after fumigations, white- washing, and separation of the healthy from the diseased animals, but the disease disappeared be- fore summer. Eighteen cows died; and out of the ten heifers, although more were affected, only three deaths occurred. This farm is dry, and rather elevated. 8. A cow suffering under pleuro-pneumonia, bought by a butcher, was, when on her way to toAvn, lodged in a cow-house during one night. James Wilson, of H , to whom the house belonged, in four weeks afterwards had a cow which stood regularly therein, sick of the same disease, and died April 4th, 1842. Not any other cases occurred in this neighbourhood. 9. Ehzabeth Wych, Burly Hurst Farm, kept. May, 1842, above twenty cows. On the 23rd of this month two sickened of pleuro-pneumonia. They were immediately separated from the stock, and after hving one six and the other nine days, died. Two others afterwards sickened; they were also immediately separated, all the other cows kept away from thebuUding, and milked some weeks in the fields. These latter cases both recovered, and not any more occurred. This stock had not the vesicular epizootic. Pleuro-pneumonia did not appear elsewhere in this vicinity. The farm is wet, and the land poor. 10. R. Leech, Cross Town, K , previously to leaving this farm. May, 1843, lost several cows of pleuro-pneumonia. At the sale of his stock before leaving, Isaac Hewitt, Church House Farm, M- , bought six cows, one of which at that time was unwell ; but Hewitt not being aware of the previoixsly existing distemper on this farm, suspected from her appearance that she was little wrong. Of these, successively, after reaching M , four others became affected, and also several of his own stock that before were healthy. Rigid separation and other precautionary means were here adopted. Hopeless cases were early sold off. Only two died in the place. Tlie total number of cases was nine. The disease entirely disapijeared early in the summer. 11. Robert Bennett, immediately after Leech's leaving the above farm, came and brought a stock of twenty-two cows that had prev'iously sviffered under the vesicular disease. In thi'ee weeks pleuro-pneumonia commenced among them. The diseased were not separated from healthy animals until many had died, when white-washing and fumigations were used. The apparently non- affected animals were milked in the field. After a few more failures the disease early in summer disappeared. Sixteen had died, and only one recovered. This farm is dry, moderately elevated, but not exposed. On leaving this farm. Leech mahciously closed every crevice leading into the cow-houses, and would not suffer Bennett to enter until his entire departure. 12. Caleb Simcock fed, during the summer and autumn of 1843, five young cattle in T Park, where, in August and September, pleuro- pneumonia prevailed and had been fatal in many cases. One of the five died before coming home; another sickened immediately aftenvards, and shortly three of his own cows were successively attacked. Rigid separation and general preventive measures were here adopted from the outset of the illness, although the unaffected young cattle were then amongst the dairy cows. Two other cases occurred : one out of the sLx recovered. Ten cows, that have had the vesicular disease, are kept in this place; it is half a mile from the farm in case No. 10. 13. John Holland, Esq., keeps 26 cows, and lives within a stone's-throw of No. 12. Pleuro- pneumonia appeared here in March, 1844, and rigid sejiaration and other preventive measures were adopted ; six have died, and two recovered. The disease appears to have subsided. This stock had the vesicular epizootic. A large farmer who kept upwards of forty cows a quarter of a mile from these has escaped both the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. l: vesicular and pleuro-pneumonic ei)izootics-. There is not anylliing peculiar in the situation, oxcci)t that No. 13 is driest, and Xo. 12 most sheltered. 14. George Barton, Back Levenshulinc, keeps forty-five or fifty cows. He lost above twenty ol them by the vesicular epizootic, but were most imjiroperly treated. The abraded surface between the digits being rubbed witli a ro])e, as humanely recommended by Clater for foul, was afterwards dressed with caustics. The " new distemper " commenced early in 1843, since which period fifty- two cattle have died. The reason that this person lost more cattle than the usual amount ^^'as from buying fresh cows in the place of those who died. He is not exactly aware how the disease com- menced, but is veiy frequently clianging his cows, and attending fares and markets. After some time from the commencement, the sick cattle were as ertectually sei)arated as possible ; the disease has now disappeared. "Whitewashing was here had recourse to, but not until much fataUty had occur- red. The farm stands on a level, or rather sheltered situation. 15. Daniel Ashbrook, R , lost just thirty from pleuro-pneumonia. As in the former case, he, for some time, bought fresh cattle in place of those dying, the number of deaths exceeding the usual number of cattle kept. He conceives that he got the disease by some hay from an affected farm brought to his, as his cows commenced to fail shortly afterwards ; but he also frequently changes his cattle, and frequents fairs. Tor two weeks the first attacked were not separated from the others, and in two months — namely, the last fortnight in March and April, and two weeks in May and June, 1843 — he lost eighteen cows. Rigid se])aration was soon afterwards adopted — whitewashing and fumigation emj)loyed; and the disease subsided gra- dually, and has not returned. This person lost cows in the vesicular epizootic. Towards the close, many were ciu'ed of pleuro-pneumonia. IG. John Woolfendalc, R , keeps twenty-four cows ; he lost several from the vesicular disease : the present distemper commenced without any assignable cause in February, 1844, since which time sixteen have died or been sold off, and fresh cases still continue to occur. Not believing the disease to be contagious, separation was not adopted, yet perfect cleanliness and frequent white- washings are attended to. It is worthy of remark that the disease dwelled longer here than among his neighbours, M'ho separated the healthy from the diseased animals. 17. "William Houghton, G , August, 1843, kept nine cows, which had the vesicular disease when it was so ])revalent. At this tj^ne (August, 1843), one sickened of pleuro-pneumonia, and was not removed imtil three more became diseased, which were then all separated ; these, and four others that sickened afterwards, all died. White- washing and other precautionary measures were adopted before fresh cows were bought, none whereof sickened. "We could have m\dti])licd these cases, but their results are so similar according as j)recaution was or was not adopted, that we deem it needless to proceed. "We never saw an instance where plcuro- l)neumonia commenced in a stock, and disappeared after affecting only one or two, imless precaution against contagion was used ; but many instances have come under our observation in addition to these noticed wherein the fatality was great, where separation and other judicious measures were neg- lected. We conceive that the results of pleuro- pneumonia show that the cows which are in con- nection with diseased ones become affected in a greater proportion than others ; and it is also evident that a decline of disease follows precautionary measures at no very distant time from their adop- tion. Cases of pleuro-pneumonia doubtless frequently originate epizootically, or independently of conta- gion, in many stocks ; affecting, first, animals pos - sessing peculiar i)redispositions tliereto, but sub- sequently becoming propagated by contagion. From numerous and extended inquiries into vari- ous localities where pleuro-jjueumonia has appeared, their great dissimilarity, as before noticed, induced us to believe that any climate or situation has little appreciable effect on its development, or in con- trolling its action. Once commenced among a stock of cattle, whatever be their situation, it will, as experience has taught us, ultimately affect the greater number, unless rigid precautionary mea- sures are adopted. One fact, however, is certain — the disease is less virulent and jjrevalent during very hot and very cold weather than in more tem]jerate. This is a frequent accompaniment of contagious diseases. We solicit particular attention to the cases de- tailed, and their results; also the reference of these to what has been stated respecting the ascertained laws or principles that have been found calculated to restrain the sadly fatal progress of the disease. We also call particular attention to what we pre- viously stated concerning the greater fatality of pleuro-pneumonia when the vesicular disease ap- peared. Treatment. — In the treatment of pleuro-pneu- monia, as of all other inflammatory diseases, it will be evident that we have two fundamental indica- tions to fulfil — to remove the causes or irritants ; and to counteract their effects. I. The first of these is essentially important, and we should at all times endeavour to ascertain wlierein the cause of the evil consists, that oiu' curative intentions may not be frustrated. In avoiding or removing causes known ])y experience to induce common inflammatory disorders among cattle, we are frecjuenlly successful; but oiu- inability to detect the atmosjiheric irritant, we con- sider, from negative reasoning, a great cause of pleuro-jjuiumonia, renders it a matter of abso- lute impossil)iIity for us to adopt any system of management among cattle sufficient to exempt them from its operations. In so far, however, as peculiar kinds of do- mestic treatment have been found to aggravate attacks of this or other prevailing diseases, the case is different, and wc accordingly discard them. If, then, we arc luiablc to evade the morbific poison epizootically causing pleuro-pneumonia, from our knowledge that bad food and water, low condition, foul air, exposure to great vicissitudes of tcmpera- C 18 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tine, and other circumstances causing debility of system, much aggravate any existing disease? it becomes our duty to avoid subjecting cattle to these states, whether they are already free from pleuro-pneumonia, suffering under it, or exposed — as all may be considered to be — to a liabihty to its attack. As the contagious visicular epizootic, prevailing 80 extensively in 1841 and '42, still exists in some districts, and as many cattle hitherto escaping it may become affected, it is important that the treat- ment should be imdertaken by scientific men, so as not to endanger subsequent organic disease of mucous membranes, acting as a predisposing cause of pleuro-pneumonia, or aggravating it when existing. Phthisis, as favouring the attacks of pleuro- pneumonia or any other disease of the lungs, is irremediable when existing, or can only be ob- viated by early attention to its peculiar hoose, and avoiding the causes which occasion it, for tubercles once formed, although sometimes long dormant, rarely if ever become absorbed. Having stated our behef in the probability of contagion being a cause whereby pleuro-pneumo- nia, in addition to its epizootic character, may be propagated, we will next state what appear the most judicious and effectual means of counteracting its efiects, and which, in some of the cases as already mentioned, were adopted with, apparent benefit. The cattle on first manifesting s3anptoms of disease should be instantly removed from those still healthy, and jilaced, if medical treatment is contemplated, in some (hstant out-house, where plenty of fresh air, more especially at its upper part, can enter. Both the building they have left and that which they inhabit should be white- washed and fumigated : chloride of hme in solution is an excellent disinfectant, sprinkled Avithin the house, or washed upon the walls. Plenty of dry htter should be allowed ; and the excrements, which are mostly very offensive, should be constantly re- moved, and kept from any situation frequented by other cattle. The cattle diseased are best when loose, and, if convenient, may be tied whilst medi- cine is administered. As contagious miasmata emanating from diseased bodies are contained in and diffused by atmos- pheric air, fumigations neutralizing such kind of morbific matter are highly advisable. Of these the most useful and conveniently prepared are nitric or muriatic-acid gas in the form of vapour. It is of little importance which is used. Perhaps the muriatic, from its extremely diffusible properties and cheapness, may be preferable, and is readily prepared as follows : — Take an earthenware dish containing two or three pounds of common salt ; warm it over a few hot coals, or in any other manner ; and in the cow- house or buUding intended to be fumigated, pour thereon at intervals small quantities of sulphuric acid foil of vitriol), until the salt becomes moist. The number of vessels must be proportioned to the size of the building, and the process repeated accordmg to circumstances. It should be used in all the buildings of an infected farm inhabited by cows. Although some farmers think otherwise, we scarcely conceive the disease to be so virulently contagious as to affect sound cattle, through the medium of persons having intercourse between them and those diseased. In the vesicular epizoo- tic, however, there are some well-attested cases wherein contagion appeared to be spread in this manner. II. In fulfilling the other indication required in treating pleuro-pneumonia, namely, combating the effects of irritants, i.e., inflammation or the disease itself, our intentions are carried out under two heads, chiefly ; imposing an antiphlogistic regimen, consisting of such restrictions or regulations in the domestic treatment of sick animals as shall operate against an inflammatory state of system ; and adopting antiphlogistic remedies conducive to the same effect, consisting chiefly of surgical and medicinal means. 1. Regimen. — Our first object is to avoid all kinds of food or drink in any way exciting the system or accelerating the pulse, and to have the animal so placed as to insure the greatest degree of quietness. A cow labouring imder this disease, if she wiU eat, should have very little solid food, and even that of the simplest kind. All stimulating farinacious food must be avoided. Clover or hay is better mthheld. Mashes may be allowed in very small quantities, containing boiled linseed or barley. If she will drink, nearly all sohd food may be dispensed with, and well-boiled linseed or wheat- flour gruel allowed. Anything more than such diet cannot fail to be injurious during the suspen- sion of rumination, which mostly takes place early. Many cows will eat a little during the first day or two of illness, and we have seen instances in which such were indulged in all kinds of solid meat : rumination then ceasing, its continued presence in the first stomach caused hoven, leading the farmer to suppose that disease of the digestive organs chiefly existed. If the beast will take neither food nor drink, let the owner remember that this refusal to take sustenance at these times is a wise provision of nature. 2. From our knowledge that pleuro-pnevimonia is originally an inflammatory affection of various parts concerned in respiration — parts, of all others, in the animal frame most vascular — and knowing also that under the peculiar inflammation existing there are speedy effusions into these tissues, and obstruction offered to their circulating contents, it must be obvious that, in addition to means attain- able by domestic management, other antiphlogistic measures are essential which lessen the actual quan- tity of blood, depress the circulation itself, and prevent effusions resorted to by nature as a rehef of increased arterial action. The most potent of all agents in effecting these conditions, and indeed one without which all others are comparatively useless, is blood-letting. When we reflect that the veiy existence of inflamma- tion in a part depends upon an increased determina- tion of blood thereto, it will be evident that, after re- moving the exciting cause, no other means can be adopted so effectually to counteract it as that which immediately weakens the circulation. THE fahmer's magazine. 19 Pleuro-pneumonia is soon characterized 1)y de- I)ility, arising doubtless from early effusion into the air cells. This debility is greatest, for evident reasons, when bronchitis and pneumonia predomi- nate, than in the ])leuritic form of disease. Accord- ing to the duration of the disease before treatment is adopted is the animal able to withstand, bene- ficially, loss of blood ; for although intlammation is in more advanced stages partly relieved by effusion, it is not removed, and blood-letting in many such cases only hastens death ; it cannot be tolerated, because blood is required in large quantities to support hfe from an absence of its vivifying proper- ties in their usual proportion. Notwithstanding the dreadful fatality of this dis- ease, madoubtedly many more cases would recover if observed sufficiently early. The blood-letting they might then undergo would eflectually deprive the system of conditions essential for inflammation to continue. Blood-letting, in addition to subduing inflamma- tion by weakening the heart's action, causes deri- vation, and prevents blood from accumulating in the inflamed pulmonary substance, facilitating circu- lation tlierein, which would otherwise soon be- come obstructed. The extent to which it can be carried in pleuro-pneumonia must be decided by the veterinary surgeon. The character of the pulse, that sure index of the intensity of inflammation, must be his choicest and his best guide. In early stages of disease it must be resorted to until arterial action is reduced — until the quick \viry pulsation usually attending pleuro-pneumonia becomes softer, more compressible, and slower. If bronchitis be most apparent, it cannot be carried so far as when pleuro-pneumonia predominates. It is impossible to sj)eak of abstracting specified quantities, for there is not only frequently a difl'erence in every indivi- dual case, but in every constitution also, and which is alone denoted by its effects upon the pulse. Generally speaking, however, when we usually first see our patients in this disease, the quantity of blood to be safely taken is smaller than in some other inflammatory diseases, but rejjetition is required. The nature of this inflammation is such as seldom to be arrested by one or two evacua- tions ; and should we, as on some other occasions, carry these to a great extent, much risk of depress- ing the powers of nature beyond recovery is in- curred. Blood should be taken from the jugular vein in cattle, by an opening made therein with a large fleam or lancet, in order to ensure quick aljstrac- tion ; i)erfurmed in this manner, a small quantity will really ])roduce a greater impression than a larger quantity more slowly removed, the arterial system being unable so suddenly to accommodate itself to the loss. If we are called in after a few days' illness, it will be found that the pulse has decreased in strength, but increased in (piickness ; the heart endeavoius to compensate loss of j)owcr by fre- quency of contraction. The small, (piick, some- times intermittent pulse is present in liydrothorax, hepatization of the lungs, and effusions into the peri- cardium; conditions, when accomi)anyiiig i)leun)- piieximonia, wherein bleeding is contra-indicated, as, if adopted when rapidity of arterial contraction depends ujjon weakness, (juicker pulsation would inevitably result, hastening death sooner than otherwise. It will be seen that absolute quickness of circulation alone is not a safe criterion whereby to determine the propriety of blood-letting, the pulse being frequently most rapid when that operation would be most injurious. It is the actual degree of tenseness, fulness, or incompres- sibihty of an artery under the finger, which must have greater weight in our opinion than the mere rapidity of its luilsations. In fact, there are some inflammatory diseases, as of the brain, impera- tively demanding blood-letting, wherein the pulse is even slower than natural, from causes well known to the pathologist; but here it presents pecviliarities perfectly intelligible to him, and point- ing out the necessity of powerful depletion. There are some who maintain that the pulse in cattle presents more ambiguity of character than^ in the horse. That there are some occasional differ- ences is certain, but these, by constant attention, we become able to discriminate, and its general characters vary httle in both animals. In the horse the presence of the bufly coat, upon a former blood-letting, often assists us in determining the propriety of its repetition under somewhat doubtfid states of the pulse. This bufly coat, however, in the cow is absent ; pointing out, among other things, the importance of being well acquainted wth every character her pulse displays. We con- ceive that the axillaiy artery in cattle, as felt passing over the first rib, is an eligible situation to examine it. The vessel is large, .and with a little practice can easily be felt if the animal is not too fat, when the submaxillary or femoral ofler them- selves. In a healthy moderately-sized cow or ox the pulsations are 45 to 50 per minute. By some persons they are stated to be lower. We find the above to be nearer the standard. III. Another important class of agents, in causing derivation of blood, comprises purgative medicines and external counter-irritants. 1. Purgatives. — Under inflammatory pulmo- naiy disease in the horse, every veterinary surgeon is aware that an administration of purgative medi- cine is attended wth danger, from the extreme susceptibility presented by his intestinal mucous membranes to partake in similar action under such irritants. The cow, however, bears them with com- parative impunity,*;and thus affords us an oppor- tunity, Ijy drawing more blood towards the intes- tines, not only to divert it considerably from the seat of disease, but also to carry away large quan- tities of its thinner portions by means of the fifces. To fulfil these objects, then, in \)\q\\tq- pnemnonia, we recommend, immediately after bleed- ing, the following medicine, as it produces in this form more certain action and more watery evacua- tions than many others: — Croton oil 10 drops, calomel \ drachm, aloes (bbd.) 1 drachms, sul- phate of magnesia 8 ounces, ginger V ounce. Tlic aloes must be powdered, and dissolved in a quart of hot gruel; among which llie other ingredients are. afterwards to be stincd. and M'hen cooled down witli a pint of whey or water, administered. All mcilicincs given to cattle must lie fluid or sus- c 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pended in a fluid, for any solid body forced down the oesophagus enters the first stomach or paunch, where, under suspension of rumination, it may remain long inert. A fluid cautiously given will more probably ].ass on to the third and fourth stomachs, where it will produce its specific efiects. 2. Counter-irritants are pecuUarly serviceable in pleuro-pneumonia. It was maintained by John Hunter that two inflammations cannot exist at the same time in one body ; although this perhaps is not hterally correct, still a bUster appUed to an ex- ternal surface, and acting well, is known by experience to afl^ord us good grounds for forming a favourable prognosis of inflammatory pulmonary disease; inasmuch as, being a powerful irritant, more blood than usual is determined to a part whereon it is apphed, and inflammation excited in a substance or situation less important to life than the lungs. If this action is greater than the inter- nal one, much benefit may be expected, as blood which would otherwise be determined to the lungs is directed in large quantities to the seat of artifi- cially excited inflammation. In applying a blister, then, in this disease, we should endeavour to raise external irritation as intense as possible, without leading permanent blemish. If the blister only acts slightly, excitabihty of system is increased thereby, and the original disturbance still continues most severe. The common method of applying blisters to cattle under pleuro-pneumonia is far from eflSca- cious ; we have seen those of the farrier and cow- leech, six or eight inches in diameter, of common ointment rubbed in merely as upon a horse, fol- lowed, of course, by scarcely any eflfect. What possible prospect of causing the derivation of inter- nal mflammation infinitely more extensive than this can Ije seen here ? The hair should be removed from a space twelve to SLxteen inches broad, and in length extending from the vertebral column above to the sternum below, immediately behind the scapula on each side. This, with shears, is somewhat tedious to eflect, but is well and quickly accomplished by very shghtly moistening the part with oil of tur- pentine, securing the cow by her horns and nose, in a situation where no mischief can arise from the flame, and setting fire to it. It is highly requisite to moisten the part very shghtly with this hquid, otherwise the burning will be so severe as to cause sloughing of the true skin after recovery. About an ounce is sufficient for the purpose. A large woollen horse-rug should be had in readiness to lay flat upon the parts when the flame has just covered them, or it may burn too long. Any who dare not A^enture in this way, must, after well shaving, or otherwise removing hair from the sides, wash them thoroughly with very hot (not scalding) water, dry and rub them with a hard brush till they become tender. Half the following ointment on each side:— Croton oil, A an ounce; euphorbium and cantharides, each 2 ounces ; com- mon turpentine, G oz. ; lard, or palm-oil, G oz. The lard and turpentine must be melted over hot water in a pitcher, and the other articles stirred among them as they cool. This must be used upon the sides with considerable friction, fifteen minutes at least being devoted to each, "^^'e have seen irrita- tion of the bladder arise from an absorption of can- tharides, but never any permanent ill result. Other cheaper stimulating articles may be used, if on that account preferred ; their action, however, is not so certain. Such a compound as the follow- ing wiU'occasionally act well : — Mustard, h pound ; spirit of ammonia, 2 ounces ; spirit of turpentine sufficient to form a thin paste. A seton may be inserted in the dewlap, and each side of the chest, if deemed advisable. The actual cautery may be used by those preferring that mode of irritation ; in fact, as the object to be attained is extensive and severe — counter-inflam- mation—it is of little importance what means are resorted to, if but calculated for the purpose. Not any of them should be used until blood-letting has been employed, unless the animal has reached a condition wherein blood-letting would be injurious. IV. Sed.\tive Medicine. — In addition to the remedial means already mentioned, we have certain medicines that depress the heart's action, by inducing nausea. Their operation is perhaps more uncertain in the cow than any animal coming under the veterinary surgeon's care; still all means hitherto advised cai'ried to the utmost bounds, consistent with safety, frequently fail in pleuro- pneumonia to reduce the circulation without their assistance. It seems to be a law of the animal frame, that any medicine or other agent inducing nausea, should abate arterial action. There are some medicines which reduce the pulse without nau- sea, but their use is often inadmissible, and in vete- rinary practice we nearly exclusively prefer the former class in combination with diureties. The only nauseant which has appeared to us deserving of confidence in pleuro-pneumonia is antimonial tartar. Digitalis and heUebore possess that pro- perty to a great degree, but the former is extremely uncertain in its action, and sometimes comes into operation injuriously after lying inert during the period when its effects were required. Hellebore, in addition to being in cattle scarcely more certain, is not to be employed excej^t under the constant eye of a veterinary surgeon, from its peculiarly dangerous properties if carried too far. We have not, however, anything to fear from tartarized antimony, except a little irritation of the bowels, which may, with proper care, usually be avoided ; and it is more applicable to various stages of the disease than any other sedative \vith which we are acquainted. It is properly combined with nitre, as, beside possessing considerable diuretic qualities, this salt is also a refrigerant. V. From what we have previously and so often stated respecting the liability of pleuro-pneumonia to be early attended with ett'usion of lymph and serum, we are naturally led to inquire what other medicines can be emjiloyed to counteract this ten- dency. Increasing the action of the glands, and other parts of the body whose secretions are derived from the blood, increasing also that of the absorbent system, whose office is to remove effete particles of animal tissue, and also, to a certain extent, that recently deposited ; offer, in con- junction with the abatement of inflammation, that condition essential for such morbid deposits, the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 21 most reasonable hopes of success. Mercury and iodine are medicines known to possess the proper- ties just mentioned. Although mercury is by some eminent \'eteriuary authorities discountenanced in cattle i)i-actice, under careful management we con- ceive it a valuable agent in maintaining and restor- ing the balance of secreting jjrocesses in all parts oftheljody; l>y its action ujjon the blood it ope- rates against tlie existence of fibrinous and albu- minous j)articles in undue proportion. Iodine internally or externally apphed, hastens the pro- cesses of absorption. We have seen cases in horses where serous thoracic etlusions ha\'e been removed by it ; yet, until of late, we have not adopted it to much extent among cattle. Having stated the general principles upon which medicines are to be given in pleuro-pneumonia, and the objects it is essential for them to accom- jdish, we would recommend the follo^\^ng formula as having proved in our own experience best in counteracting the disease and its effects : — Tart, antimony, 2 drachms ; calomel, i drachm ; nitrate of potass, 1 ounce; iodine or hydriodate of potass, 1 drachm. In order to avoid the irritating action of mercury and antimony upon the bowels, we unite powdered opium, i dradnn ; and, to ensiu-e susjjension of these, they must — finely powdered — be mixed with a cjuart of thick fiour-gruel, and given thrice every four-and-twenty liours ; the first to be taken twelve hours after the purgative before recommended. We can seldom with safety continue this form of medicine longer* than three days ; if persisted in over this period, and occasionally within this time, some specific action of mercury will become evi- dent. Should this occur to an inconvenient extent, linseed gruel, with now and then a few eggs, beaten with small doses of opium, must be given. In some cases a saline purgative may be proper. Slight mercurial action, judiciously managed, is often accompanied by cessation of the more urgent symptoms attending pleuro-pneumonia. AVhen our antiphlogistic measures have been so severe as to incur danger of irrecoverably pros- trating the i)owers of nature, or when we have more to dread from weakness than any lingering inflammation, nitric ether and acetate of ammonia must be given twice daily in thick gruel. Should not, as is too frequently the case, much apparent good result from all our endeavours, and, about the fourth, fifth, or six days, no visible amendment becomes manifest, l)ut the jjulse in- creases in rajjidity and weakness, the breathing l)e- comes more laborious, and the respirat(My murmur is less audible, it is far better to destroy the ani- mal, than suffer her continuance in a miseral)le ex- istence. If, however, about this jjeriod the symp- toms do not become aggravated, the beast appear- ing lively and her various secretions tolerably copious, we must, if the jmlse will admit, assist nature to rally by exhibiting gentle tonics and a little aromatic occasionally mingled with tlie gruel. Obvious amendment will soon be jjcrceptible if the case is to be ultimately satisfactory, and little fur- ther interference on our part is required than admi- nistering to cleanliness, allowing small quantities of good food, and avoiding vicissitudes of tempera- tiu'e. Many farmers entertain high opinions of all gruel containing bitter infusions. While there cannot be any objection to this in protracted cases of debility, it is needful not to employ such compounds too early. The nitrous ether and acetate of ammonia are most judicious in the first i)lace, and do not en- danger return of fever. There is yet another method of treating pleuro- pneumonia, sedative in principle, which, from its acting successfully in a considerable number of cases, it is our duty to mention. The action of cold by any means applied to the body is at the time sedative; that is, during the time of its application it lowers heat, and depresses the circulation and sensibility ofthe nervous system. We have during winter examples, more especially in fo- reign northern countries, yet far from unknown in our own, wherein persons have died from the influence of cold in producing these depressing effects. When intense, and long applied, this action upon the cir- culatory and nervous functions promotes a torpor or insensibility of system, rendering man or other animal indisposed to adoi)t that Ijodily exertion which by generating heat would counteract these tendencies. Applied severely to any particular part of the body only, the powers of animal and organic life may be so depressed as to become incapable of restoration, and the part dies, as is the case with the fingers, toes, or nose of the human being, and frequently the ears of young calves. Large draughts of cold liquid are known as dangerous to man and other animals when o\'erheated, from the same de- pressing influence upon the pre\aously excited ner- vous system. The more usual effects of cold not too long or intensely applied are to produce reaction, that is, increased nervous and circulatoiy actinty. We have famihar examples of this in our own bodies after the cold bath, which become, subsequently to removal from the water, diffused \^■ith a grateful warmth. A power of re-action in the system, after the operation of causes which miglit otherwise in- juriously depress the powers of life, is of much be- nefit to all animals, and enables them to withstand the effects of injuries or diseases otherwise fre- quently in all i^robability fatal, Wliether it was a knowledge of this circumstance that led to an aj)plication of cold in j)lcuro-pneumo- nia we are not aware ; but we hold tlie ))rinci])le good, becaiise the re-action thereby induced, in addition to already excited inflannnation, ])crmits the employment of depletion to an extent notothei- wise to Ije tolerated, offering greater certainty of su])duing disease than by not promoting such re- action, whilst danger of injuriously increasing in- flammation is obviated by depletion. The metbod to be pursued is this. As soon as possible after it has been attacked by the disease, let the cow be i)laced in some convenient situation, where cold water can be continually flowing or thrown ui)on her during half an hour. Every pait of the Ijody must be thoroughly wetted, excejjting the head, and this is well accomphshed by using a common large garden watering-can. Immediately afterwards the beast is to be^warnily covered .with 22 V THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. dry clothes of considerable thickness. Some per- sons prefer wet covering, InU here reaction is much longer in supervening. During the time cold water is applied, the breath- ing is often much easier, and the pulse falls six or eight beats per minute. After a time under warm clothing the breathing becomes again accelerated, and the jjulse and bodily heat increased. In this state blood-letting must be resorted to, and it is a condition wherein considerable quantities of blood may be abstracted with manifest advantage ; we have taken eight, nine, and ten Cjuarts. The body is then to be more lightly covered, and the purga- tive administered. This process must be repeated during some successive days; but blood-letting must depend upon the re-action induced, and not resorted to unless the pulse indicates its re- quirement. The following powder is to be given once or twice daily, according to circumstances, so long as there is anjthing to dread from inflammatory ac- tion: Nitre, 1^ oz. ; sulphur, 4 oz. ; Antimon. tart., 2 dr. ; counter irritants may be employed at discretion of the surgeon. We have not directed any minute modifications of treatment in whatever of the three usual forms before mentioned pleuro-pneumonia appears. The real principles of that treatment are in all precisely similar, and from the uniformity manifested by the disease to assume the pleuro pneumonic character can scarcely differ in their detailed application. With respect to preventive measures, we have lit- tle dependence upon any other than already named when speaking of contagion and antiphlogistic regi- men. ITie great cause, or atmospheric irritant, is as far beyond our control as above our capability to detect ; but subsequent propagation of the di- sease by contagion is certainly to some extent mthin our means of prevention, and we would ad- vise all cattle proprietors, besides avoiding condi- tions that aggravate attacks of epizootic or other diseases, to employ the means advised when speak- ing of tlie counteracting effects of contagious mi- asmata, whether there is a probability of their cows being exposed to neighbouring diseased stocks, or to cattle which ha^'e travelled from one market or fair to another. All communication with such fairs and markets should, if possible, be avoided by the fanner, his cattle being kept entirely away. Some farmers conceive that they have preserved their stocks healthy by using salt largely among them, as forming it into strong brine and laying it on their backs, which the cows hck ; others put salt into the stalls and fields. Salt is certainly a most powerful antiseptic, and, taken into the system, conduces much towards preser\-ation of health ; although we can hardly supj)ose it to be in this manner capable of really preventing pleuro-pneu- monia, it is a practice on various accoimts com- mendable. 'ITiere is a popular belief in some districts that this disease originates from using bones, guano, and other natural and artificial manures, a suppo- sition possessing scarcely anything in shape of fact or argument to support it. That the disease oc- curs on farms where such manures have been used is admitted ; but it remains to be shown whether these farms are affected in greater proportion and earlier than those whereon not any has been used, or whether the appearance of disease thereon bears any relation to the time of using these articles. The period during which bone manure has been adopted, compared with the very recent appearance of pleuro-pneumonia, the inroads of that disease on farms dressed with bones or giiano, and of its visits to large town dairies entirely removed from their influence, are circumstances v/hich, on fair in- quiry, cannot be found bearing any other way upon this question, than to negative the ])robabi- lity of these useful manures originating that ter- rible malady. In bringing these remarks on the nature and prin- ciples of treating pleuro-pneumonia to a conclusion we would advise all cattle proprietors against either trusting themselves to specific medicines and treatment, or to persons professing with certainty to cm-e the disease. Many cases of pleuro-pneumo- nia the veterinary surgeon is from their com- mencement aware will terminate fatally, let his curative endeavours be directed with all possible skill. Of the probability of this termination he in- forms his employei", whose interest hes in destroy- ing the animal. It reqviires no great extent of pathological knov.-ledge to perceive that the disease is profitably curable only in its very earliest stage, and before inflammation has run on to any, or merely to slight effusion. The peculiar sub-acute character of inflammation constituting the disease, which ren- ders it nearly certain to commence sometime prior to our detection of its existence, being congenial to efiusion of l}'mph, and consequent congestion, almost from its origin, shows how palpably absurd are the pretensions of those who profess to cure in every stage, by some specific medicine, adminis- tering to the effects of inflammation as they would to inflammation itself; the two cases for their rehef requiring, as every scientific man is aware, oppo- site conditions of system. The diflficult breathing accompanying ordinary inflammation of the lungs is occasioned by congestion of blood only in their substance, ancl always becomes relieved by our depletive measures — often radically cured by blood- letting alone. The purely congestive or inflamma- tory stage, unaccompanied by effusion, is very rarely detected in ])leuro-pneumonia ; the only op- portunity where blood-letting might be carried sufficiently far to destroy inflammatory action passes by unperceived, and we have still existing inflamma- tion and its eifects at once to combat. Effusions of serum slight in extent may become absorbed ; those of lymph to much extent never can : in the air cells, air tubes, andthoiacic cavities, it is placed entirely beyond the influence of organic life, and operates precisely as a foreign body, not only des- troying functions of parts wherein it is situated, but by its presence inducing an action in them more favourable to increasing than lessening the de])osit. If there is any specific for this disease, it is early blcod-letting, carried as far as the safety of the system will admit ; and there is not anything requn-ing more diligent observation on the p^rt of cattle projjrietors than to detect the malady in its earhest stage, the only one wherein abstraction of blood can be pursued to an available extent. Let THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. 23 tliis stage pass by, and it requires every resource the A'eterinary surgeon can command to subdue inflammation, yet to preserve constitutional strength sufficient to overcome the injury of morljid de- posits, or to prove adequate fortheir removal l)y ab- sorption. All secret and s])ccific medicines will here befound undeserving of confidence, from being imadapted (as they generally are) to ert'ect tbu dif- ferent purposes required for arresting the \'arying characters of morbid actions existing diu'ing tlie progress of even one disease, purposes only to Ije fulfilled under measures directed by those well conversant with the departments and philosophy of veterinary medical science, and not by the votaries of empiricism. MEETING OF TENANT FARMERS, TO AGITATE FOR THE REPEAL OF THE MALT-TAX. On Friday, December 13, a meeting of the tenant farmers and other gentlemen engaged in agricultural pursuits was held at the Freemasons' Tavern, for the purpose of adopting a series of resolutions upon which to found a petition to Parliament, praying for tlie re- peal of the malt tax. The meeting had been announced ibr one o'clock ; but another meeting connected with agriculture, ai)pointed to be held in Bond-street at an earlier liour, prevented a numerous attendance until nearly two o'clock. At that hour, some of the persons present having given expression to a wish that business should not be longer delayed, Mr. Bakf.r (of Writtle) stepped forward, and said — As they had been disappointed by the absence of the chairman they had expected to preside, he begged leave to propose that they should call upon Mr. Spot- tiswoode, the Queen's printer, who was in the room, to take that position (cheers). As that gentleman represented the landed interest in a very material degree, he should feel obliged if he would accede to the call he was making upon him (hear, hear). Mr. Spottiswoodk, who was at this moment at the lower end of the room, addressed the meeting from where he tiien stood. lie said he was here present without any ex|)ectation of filling such a position, and feared that he should be at a loss how properly to per- form the duties of the office. But as a landed pro- prietor, and as one feeling a deep interest in the welfare of the farmer, he had no objection to accede to tlie proposition of I\Ir. Baker, if in filling that chair he could be of any use (cheers). Having been voted into the chair by acclamation, The CuAiRMAN said, that having taken that posi- tion at their flattering request, he had little more to say than to beg of those present to confine themselves to the subject before the meeting, and to add that lie should be glad to hear their opinions and views given in a temperate and rational tone upon the subject which iiad called them together fheiir, hear). They liad met for the purpose of doing good to those whom he s;iw around him, and who were desirous of a greater share of protection than for some time past it had been their lot to receive {hear). This, he believed, was perfectly possilde, and he should now be glad to hear the sentiments of any gentleman present upon that de- sirable object (cheers). Mr. Ba.ki:k immediately stepped forward amid the cheers of the ineeting, and said with their permission he would submit the first of a series of resolutions on the subject, which was as follows : — " That the first source of national wealth being the labour f)f an indus- trinns population, the first object of laws for the regu- lation of society should be to encourage industry by such enactments as will best secure permanent and profitable employment for those who live by their labour; and unless permanent relief is given by a removal of the taxes or revision of the cur- rency they will be unable to eftect this oh'\ccV' (hear). He then proceeded to contend that the industry of the people alone supported society and provided for the exigencies of the state ; but, unfortunately, the weight of taxation which had fallen on the industrial portion of the community of this country had, from its extreme pressure, become an object of the greatest solicitude to every inhabitant of the kingdom ; and it was by the producing classes more especially that this feeling was entertained. Whatever taxes fell on the producing classes tended to diminish the sources from which taxes were derived ; and whenever taxes were inflicted upon that class over and above the fair proportion which they ought to pay to the state, the efliect was to cripple the sources from which taxation flowed. (Hear.) 'I'he farmer had more especially been the prominent movers in the cause for which they were assembled, l)ecause, as farmers, they were producers of the article from which malt was manufactured. Upon that article a greater amount of taxation was inflicted by the state than upon any other ; for the tax upon barley growing was equal to the rent of the land. The tax was enormous in amount, and it aflected the agricul- tural interest in the most extraordinary degree. (Hear, henr.) Hewould not particularly dwell upon a Une of argument which he might adopt, viz., that the tax was one which was most oppressive on the labourer. This was indisputable, and on that ground alone he might ask for the repeal of the malt duty. But he would rather endeavour to show how directly it affected the agriculturist himself — how it applied to the working farmer, and how it deprived him of (those means of which ho would otherwise be glad to avail himself of employing some of that labour with which the market was now unfortunately overstocked. It was a well known fact, that there was no mode of cultivating land which employed so much manual labour as the cultivation of barley. In Essex it re- quired two years' cultivation to produce one crop of that grain. Indeed, they were there more interested in the production of barley than they were of wheat ; and, by the removal of the tax on malt, they doulited not they would greatly extend the consumption of the article, and, consequently, greatly extend the produc- tion of barley and the employment of labour. Thus an especial benefit would be gahicd by those classes whose labour was the only article they had to sell. To a certain extent the argmnent applied to all con- sumers, but with respect to the malt duty it applied to the farmers in an especial degree. It had till recently been the custom, from time immemorial, for farmers to provide good home-brewed ale for their labourers, and he believed there was no dis- trict in the country in which this custom had not more or less prevailed. The speaker then dwelt on the importance of maintaining this cus- tom, by means of which the labourers were provided with a beverage necessary to enable them to endure their daily toil, and which also kept tliem from the mo- ral contamination of the l)eerslioi)s. But he regretted to say that for some years jiast. owing to tiie malt tax, this custom in the agricultural districts had been broken in uiion, anrl their labourers had not only been worse paid, but had less ale than heretofore. The labourers looked upon ale as essential to their comfort, and they 24 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. deeplj' regretted too that, owing- to the taxation, they had to pay double its vahie for it {hear, hear.) He re"- gretted also to say that with the disappearance of this old custom had also disappeared much of the kindly feeling which had formerly existed between the masters and the men. It was most desirable that this feeling should be restored, but with the present lieavy duty it would not answer to malt any but the finest qualities of barley; whereas, if the farmer could but malt the second qualities of barley, he would be enabled to brew for and find his labourers in ale as formerly, and the kindly feelings which heretofore existed would again be renewed ; and thus, independently of the special relief, the whole community would derive a material benefit (hear.) There was another point of view in which the malt tax most materially affected the tenant farmers. From the improvements which had taken place in agri- culture in this country, and from the vast extent of grazing which was carried on, there had been a great introduction of foreign oil cake. Now, to use that oil cake wliich was the production of foreign countries was tantamount to introducing the labour of foreign countries to the same extent, and it appeared to him that the necessity for using this labour, which was owing to the duty on malt, was of ten-fold more in- jury to the grazier than the introduction of foreign meat under the tariff. Great complaints had been made by the farmers of the effects of the late tariff. It was said that it had the effect of bringing down the price of meat so low that English graziers could no longer carry on their business with a profit. In that complaint he concurred, for he had witnessed the vast increase of meat in our markets owing to the introduc- tion of foreign material, and he had observed the great injury which the competition of lean with fat animals, introduced by this system, had inflicted on the farmers. Now, if the malt tax were taken off, English grown malt might be used with great advantage to fatten cat- tle, and do away with the necessity of resorting to fo- reign oil cake; andhe put it to them, whether the far- mers and the community generally would not derive more advantage from the production in England of five quarters of barley than from the importation of one ton of oil cake (hear hear.) It was said that one ton of oil cake used in fattening cattle was equal to five quarters of malt, but a gentleman present who had tried tbem both could tell them that five quarters of malt were more than equal in efficacy to a ton of oil cake. Owing, however, to the operation of this law, far- mers were prevented from applying malt to fattening purposes. Indeed, they could only at present use one portion (the finest quality), and for the second-rate qualities there was no sale whatever. The consequence was that the demand was limited, the supply increased, and the result would be that the first year they obtained a large growth they would have a minimum rate of prices [hear). In two or three years— in fact, before one year was over their heads— perhaps they might have barley under a guinea a quarter. Such things had been before, and might happen again ; and if the means of consumption were not increased, and the article was overgrown, it must happen over and over again (hear, hearj. Tlie pre- sent position of the farmers was one of the hit;hest importance, and it required little reflection to compare it with what it had been in times past. At the pre- sent moment the cost of production was doubled, as compared with that of the preceding century ; and' he would ask them whether it could be supposed that this state of things could continue, and whether it seemed paradoxical that the farmers should not be able to hold out with corn grown at double the ex- pense of the last century (hear, hear) ? They were selling wheat now at less than they sold it then, and he would ask them whether they had not, therefore, some ground for asking to be placed in such a position as to be able to cultivate a more extended growth of barley (hear) 1 The farmers had in a short period been deprived of 33 per cent, of their capital. To this they were obliged to submit; and he could only say that there was a policy pursued towards the far- mers which, if persisted in, must lead to the ruin of this country. There was no country in the world, having such an enormous amount of taxation, with prices brought down to the very lowest possible point; and he asked them whether it was possible that, with reduced means and an increased amount of jjayment, they could continue to go on (hear, hear) ? They must either remedy this state of things by removing taxation, or give people a better means of paying it. They must remove taxes upon all consumable articles from those upon whom they pressed most heavily, and place them upon those most able to bear them (cheers). Let them give every one his fair portion in the state, and let every one pay as he was able ; and then very little would, in point of fact, fall upon the labourer. For, if the pecple were properly and fairly taxed, the minimum amount would fall upon him (hear). The labouring classes ought, indeed, to be free of taxation ; and not only that, but they ought to participate in all the benefits which the state could give them. The labour- ing man had nothing but his labour to depend upon ; and that labour, at the present moment, un- fortunately, glutted the market (hear, hear). Could they imagine any position worse than the existing condition of the labourer having to go round day by day begging for work, and saying, " give us employ- ment for our nerve and sinew ? (Cheers). I have nothing else, and have a right to demand that, having nothing but my labour to dispose of." (Hear, hear). They were told that " the poor should never cease from off the land," and that being the case, it was their duty to assist them as much as possible. (Hear). They derived more advantage from the labourer than i'rom all the other classes put together ; this advantage they would not have if they did not interfere with him in an especial degree. Some persons thought to benefit the agricultural labourer by allotting to them strips of land, which they could just stand upright upon. (Hear, and a laugh). He did not wish to hold out any objection to the allotment system as far as it went, but the labourer wanted something more; he wanted something to give him habits of industry and a stake in the hedge of the country. But they were not to suppose that a labourer with four or five children could receive any great benefit from ten or twenty perches of land, for which he was called upon to pay a higher price than the richer occupier. (Cheers'). Let them look to the Essex farms : for- merly in every farm house there was a malting. These maltings were built for an express purpose, but they were not now used. In 1704, the population was little more than one-third of what it now was, yet the con- sumption of malt was as great or greater than at pre- sent. (Hear). If they looked back to the investigation of this subject before the House of Commons, they would find the observation of Mr. Ellman, that he re- membered when all the labourers brewed their own beer, whereas none of them brewed at the present time. Thelabourer now had no means of procuring ale except at the ale house ; and if he were not driven there, he would not go there. (Hear, hear). Why, it took one-fourth of his earnings to produce a quart of ale. If he had the opportunity of drying and steeping his barley and brewing his beer, he would get it at one- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. fourth of that price, for the quarter of barley which cost 40s. would make 160 gallons of ale. Some per- sons argued, that if the tax were abolished, the labourer would not brew because he had not the means. How had he the means formerly ? If he had them then, he might have them now ; it was perfectly absurd to say the labourer had not the means of brewing if they gave him the opportunity; (Hear, hear). There was another point which had very much at- tracted the attention of the Legislature, and that was the question of tlie beer-houses. At present tiie labourer could obtain nothing in this way except through the beer-houses. Tor his ]»art, he would either inflict a greater tax upon beer sold at these houses, or he would make the sale of beer as free as the sale of breud. [Cheers). If beer were sold over every counter like other commodities, the labourer would not frequent the beer-house, but take it home to his family, because he would get it at half the present price. Tiiat would be a boon to him, and he would then become a good and useful member of society. A great variety of opinions had gone forth in respect of the position they were now taking. It had been said by some that the fact of government allowing maltsters a large discount upon tlie ])ayment of the impost, was an argument that they ha. fixer ' of ammonia than it had previously done as a top-dressing for the clovers, ^cc. Tiu> sulphuric acid in combination with the lime to form gypsum has already been seen to 40 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. exercise considerable affinity for that base ; but although the action of acids or heat has no influence in decompos- ing the sulphate of lime, the decomposition is easily ef- fected by the presence of another base, for which the acid has a still greater affinity than for the lime, of which ammonia presents an example. When ammonia is, therefore, brought into contact with sulphate of lime, decomposition takes place, sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime being the resulting compounds, if the ammonia previously existed in the form of a carbonate ; but in order that this change should take place, it is es- sential that both substances should be in a state of solu- tion. All the compounds of ammonia are soluble ; that substance itself, when uncombined, existing in the ga- seous state, in which it is highly soluble, the solution being the liquid ammonia of the shops, the properties of which are so well known. Gypsum has also been seen to be slightly soluble in water, in which state, as before mentioned, it must be before it can be decomposed by the ammonia ; but this property of being so sparingly soluble has been considered rather beneficial than other- wise, as its action is tliereby almost indefinitely pro- longed, and the ammonia being also generated slowly, the proper cpaantity of the former can be added to /^ the latter as it appears. When considermg the subject of saline manures, pro- perly so called, ammonia was seen generally to exist in the form of carbonate or in an uncombined state, in both of which forms it is distinguished by its volatiUty, por- tions of it being constantly given ofl'and dispersed through the atmosphere, and the whole being at once driven off" by heat. It is a plentiful ingredient in the urine of the horse, and in most animal substances, and is abundantly disengaged during the fermentation of these matters. Immediately after being formed, much of it comes in contact with matters containing carbonic acid gas, and thence carbonate of ammonia is formed. During the fermentation of the urme in the gutters of the stables where they are not kept particularly clean, and after- wards in the manure tank, ammonia is disengaged; and it has consequently been recommended to strew the sta- bles over with powdered gypsum after being cleaned out, and to add portions of it at intervals to the manure tank as the fermentation is ca ried forward. Gypsum being so sparingly soluble, it is questionable whether dilute sulphuric acid added in small quantities would not with greater certainty effect the same pur- pose, and a slight excess of the acid being always mam- tained by small additions as neutralized, the escape of any portion of the ammonia would be prevented. But here an important distinction between the substitutes for gypsum, sometimes employed, and that substance, is to be noticed. Matters rich in carbon have been recom- mended to be added to the manure tank to prevent the escape of the ammonia, by which means the carbonate of ammonia is formed. It must, however, be observed that the carbonate is also volatde, as exemplified by the com- raon smelling salts of the shops which it forms ; and that substances added to compounds in which ammonia is ge- nerated, converting it into carbonate, cannot be called fixers, but merely retarders, as, though rendered thereby much less volatile, it still possesses that property in a great degree. The sulphate is not volatile at the ordi- nary temperature of the atmosphere, and hence to sul- phuric acid or gypsum tlie term/.rcr may be properly applied in connexion with ammonia. But gypsum has been supposed by Liebig to fulfil a more important purpose in the economy of vegetation than has hitherto been assigned it in this paper. After showing that ammonia in the gaseous form pervades the atmosphere, and is contained in rain water in much forms the important function of parting with a portion of its acid to enter into combination with the ammonia carried into the soil by the rains, and that in this man- ner the latter substance is chiefly rendered available for the support of the growing crops. The whole of this theory is plausible, and much of it cannot be contro- verted; still, it does not appear to be quite conclusive. Though inappreciable to our senses, the fact is not the less certain that ammonia exists in the atmosphere, through every portion of which it is dispersed : for, wei"e this not the case, when, it may be asked, could th exhalations of that substance, which are constantly taking place, be deposited, considering that throughout the universe an atom is never lost ? As ammonia is so soluble in water, it seems highly probable, nay, in- deed, it may be regarded as certain, that much of that pervading the atmosphere is again carried to the earth by the rains, no doubt to fulfil an important part in accelerating the growth of its productions. So far, this theory seems to be beyond question. In soils con- t lining gypsum, that substance will, further, exist in a state of solution in greater or less quantity, as evidenced by its presence in all such cases in spring wat3r ; and it is highly probable that by means of this solution sulphate of ammonia may be formed in the soil, in which case it will no doubt serve an important purpose, and Le directly available as food fof the growing crops. But that this is the only, or even the principal, way in which ammonia is available is liable to be questioned. There are many soils in which sulphate of lime is not found in any consi- derable quantity ; and although such may probably be very inferior soils, does it follow that in such cases ammonia does not contribute to the development of the crops thereon ? Ammonia is, besides, regarded as a fer- tilizer of general application ; whereas the advantages of gypsum are chiefly confined to the clovers and other forage plants. Indeed, there are many cases in which its ap- plication has not been followed by any sensible advan- tage, especially to crops in which it does not naturally exist — wheat for example, and many other plants. Now, ammonia is not more important in the case of any other crop than in that of wheat — containing as it does such a considerable proportion of nitrogen, a substance which is supposed to be supplied by ammonia, of which it is an ingredient ; but gypsum has been found uniformly un- successful when applied to wheat, while it has never been known to fail as a manure for clover when judiciously applied. These facts do not appear to warrant the con- clusion that it is chiefly through the instrumentality of gypsum that ammonia is rendered available as food for the growing crops. Having now brought our " Observations" on the im- portant and, at present, aU-absorbing subject of manures to a close, a few general remarks may not be out of place. The list to which the attention of the reader might be directed could be greatly extended — extended, in fact, almost ad infinitum ; but it is extremely question- able whether any good purpose would be served by such a course. The large sums of money annually expended on quack medicines, it is believed, fall very little short of the entire sum paid for such as are prescribed by the pro- perly qualified members of the profession — a circumstance not very creditable to the good sense and discrimination of the public, who thus allow themselves to be duped ; and unless the farmers of the United Kingdom exercise a sounder discrimination in this department of their pro- fession than they usually do, the annual income of the venders of the quack manures will soon become very considerable. We would strenuously advise the farmers greater quantities than has been usuaUy supposed, that to have nothing to do with any manure— however spe- learnea protessor states that the gypsum in the soU per- cious the pretensions of its inventor maybe in its behalf, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41 or however respectable be may be as a merchant— with- out its composition being plainly and distinctly stated ; and in every case in which any considerable quantity is to be jiurchased, it will be well that an analysis by a coni- petent chemist should accompany the parcel. The im- portance of acting in this manner we have already en- deavoured to press on the attention of the reader, and counsel so to do cannot be too frequently repeated. It is, in fact, only by following this course that empirical pretenders and im|)osters will be driven from the field. Many of the substances at present in the market, and which may come under the denomination which has been proscribed in the preceding paragraph, may be, and no doubt are, valuable manures ; but, as a general rule, we cannot recommend the farmer to employ any substance of which he may be ignorant of the composition. The very terms in which such manures are brought before the public should make farmers cautious in employing tlieni largely. They, in fact, profess to be suitable for every soil and every kind of crop — professions which, of them- selves, are sufficient to cause them to be used with great caution. It must, indeed, be an extremely compound substance which is so generally applicable as a manure, and such a substance, at best, cannot be an economical fertilizer ; as, although it may contain the peculiar sub- stances really required, it must also consist of much that is applicable for a very diftVrent class of crops. Although, therefore, some of them may emanate from parties above practising decei>tion, still we cannot the less decidedly enter our protest against the whole class, as presenting such an extensive held for deception and fraud on the part of the vender, which are sure to be followed by disappointment and loss on the part of the farmer, but v>hich he will perceive too late to admit of remedy. The number of substances in the market, the composition of which is known, is quite sufficient to ad- mit of a selection being made to suit any particular case ; nay, the difficulty is rather in the selection, the number being so great. The farmer, in short, who buys without knowing what, has scarcely reason to complain of being cheated, as he has not exercised those powers which any person of ordinary understanding is stipposed to do. Before finally taking leave of the subject, we would again press upon the attention of the British farmers the importance of paying more attention to the manage- ment and economical application of the home supply, the value of which can never be lowered by any extra- neous matters. A great improvement has, no doubt, taken i)lace within the last few years in this branch of rural economy, but much still remains to be done. Under a pro])er system of management, every farm should produce the necessary supply of manure, by the consumjition of its j)roduce by the domestic animals ; and when such can be done, it may fairly be supposed that the large sums annually expended on extraneous manures are so much money thrown away. Every par- ticle of animal or vegetable matters allowed to go to waste is so much actually lost, and a corresponding quantity must be procured to make up the re(|uired supply. Few of our farmers would allow the shillings, or even the jience and farthings, to lie scattered about their homesteads, to be carried oft' by every passer-by, as here the loss is too evident to tlie senses to be ovi'r- looked ; but how fretjuently may the liciuid manure be seen running from the yards and the heap, without any effort being made to retain it! and how often, also, may rich, solid manure be seen spread abroad to the weather for a considerable time after being carried to the fields, before it is covered up ! Although the loss in the latter cases may be less evident than in the former, it is not in any degree less certain. It is, in- deed, not a little singular that any article which does not immediately require an outlay of money is but little prized. Guano is not more valuable, in a certain sense, than farm -yard manure ; yet few, after purchasing a quantity of that article, would allow it to remain in the open air, exposed to the action of wind and rain. It causes an actual outlay of cash, and it is, therefore, carefully guarded against going to waste ; but the farm- yard manure, though not less valuable, did not require any such expenditure for its production, and is, in con- sequence, little prized. This is short-sighted policy, and is very unlike what a merchant, or any other pro- fessional man but a farmer, would follow. The introduction of the portable manures, commonly so called, has been of great and signal service to the improvement of our agriculture. Wherever a defective system of farming has been pract'sed, and over a large liroportion of the inferior class of soils, the chief ob- stacle hitherto to the introduction of improved ma- nagement has been the want of an adequate sui)ply of manure, without which advantage can only be taken to a limited extent of the productive powers of the soil. Any means to supply such a desideratum are obviously of great moment ; and, in these times of low prices, the class of manures of which we now speak has most op- portunely come to the farmer's assistance. By means of these, he is enabled to raise the largest amount of produce oft" his land which, according to our still some- what imperfect agriculture, can be raised ; but, having done this, he should not further, unless in special cases, require their assistance, as the consumption of this in- creased produce on the farm should produce such an increased quantity of manure as to be amply adequate to maintain it in the highest state of fertility after- wards. If the introduction of the portable manures in any degree contributes to the perpetuation of the present slovenly mode of managing that of home pro- duce, it may be productive of more evil than good. It is extremely bad policy to continue to neglect the home supply, on the ground that an extraneous one can be obtained to make up for any deficiency which may arise. To go on year after year using an equal or increased quantity of extraneous manures, is the most suicidal policy which our farmers could adopt. Although we have had very considerable experience in this department of farm management, on which we have presumed to offer directions to others, yet the attentive reader will not have failed to perceive that the expla- natory method of instruction has been followed rather than the didactic. We have been anxious to lead rather than to drive, conceiving that, by placing the causes of the action of the several manures before the less expe- rienced farmers, so far as the limited space at our com- mand would admit, a greater inducement would be held out for the prosecution of further inquiries and more extended observations than by the mere enunciation of rules to be stringently followed. It is only by under- standing the circumstances by which the action of any of the numerous fertilizers which have been noticed is effected that the farmer can ascertain which of them he should select. The results of experiments with tlie various substances might have been multiplied without end ; but the space allotted to the consideration of the subjec't, we considered, could be more profitably occupied by the course of instruction adopted than by any mere enumeration of dry details. It is, in fact, conceived tiiat a statement of results, without showing to some extent the causes by which they have been produced, is of little avail to "the practicalfarmer. The success of any ))articular course of management, or of any of the numerous fertilizers now candidates fiir public patron- age, cannot be regarded as of much importance, unless the circumstances atlecting such results, with the causes of their production, arc also stated, so that it may be 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. seen whether their attainment is practicable under other and dissimilar circumstances. Such has been the course of instruction kept in view in the preceding papers ; and it is, of course, for the candid and intelligent reader to consider how fur the object in view has been attained. TO THE MEMBERS OF THE CHEPSTOW FARMERS' CLUB. REPORT. In giving a brief report of what we observed during our survey of the farms of the eight candidates who competed for the cup presented by John Buckle, Esq., to the Chepstow Farmers' Club, to be awarded to the occupier of the best cultivated farm above 100 acres, we consider we are only fulfilling our duty as judges ; and, in so doing, we will try to avoid any personal allu- sion, confining our remarks to general observations on what we have seen worthy of commendation or censure. In the first place, we will address a few words to the landlords, whom we wish to convince that in no way can they do more towards improving their estates than by giving premiums for good cultivation. A tenant occupying two or three hundred acres of land would be sure to lay out many times the value of the prize in preparing his farm for exhibition, with the hopes of ob- taining such an honorary testimonial of agricultural skill ; and, at the same time, this expense would benefit the candidate himself, inasmuch as good cultivation, provided the outlay be judicious, is always more profit- able than slovenly farming. We would also wish to draw the attention of both landlords and tenants to the mutual advantages of leases, though we are decidedly of opinion that the only eligible form of lease must be founded on a corn-rent, and then it should be of such duration as would enable a good farmer to improve his farm to the utmost. No tenant, without a lease, can feel secure in investijig capital in the permanent im- provement of his farm. We are well aware that the landlords in general, in this neighbourhood, will not take advantage of the enterprize of a tenant ; but still, by six months' notice, there is the power to deprive him of the whole of his expenditure. It is well known to all practical men that to bring a farm into a good state of cultivation is a work of years, and that the most experienced agriculturist cannot effect this desirable ob- ject in a year or two, let his command of capital be ever so ample. To commence with the cropping. The quantity of Swedes and turnips was more than one-fourth of the arable land on all the farms we visited, except two ; and in these exceptions very little less than one-fourth was planted with these roots. In the case of the suc- cessful candidate, the proportion was much larger, he having nearly half his arable land under Swedes and turnips ; but it must be stated, in justice to the other competitors, that he has about three acres of pasture to one of arable. We found the general plan was to sow one-year-old clover with wheat at one ploughing. M^e saw some fallows, but the quantity was comparatively small. Where the clover has been sown on foul land, which should never be the case, the only remedy is to fallow for wheat. Part of the turnip land is generally sown with wheat ; and the quantity of land under barley was, in consequence, small. We found the Swedes and tur- nips for the year very good, without exception, though, of course, suj)erior on some farms to others ; but we noticed a much greater diflerence in the cultivation than the weight of crop. We were sorry to see some e- I good Swedes and turnips that we could not consider clean, many acres not properly horse or hand- hoed, and nearly all those broadcast were far too thick ; and we"' wish to lay particular stress upon the necessity of re- medying this defect, as, on the four-field system, the only chance of cleaning the land is when under a root crop. We have this year seen land intended for Swedes made as clean as a garden by means of the Uley culti- vator, first using the broad shares to pare off all the stubble ; then the grubbers, till all the weeds were brought to the surface ; and, lastly, all the rubbish was gathered together with a horse-rake, and carted into a heap to rot. The average proportion of land in clover and grass-seeds is about one-fourth, part of which is sown with the wheat after a root crop. We wei-e sur- prised and delighted to see many fields with a capital plant of clover ; and in other instances we had the mortification to witness a complete failure, which is to be attributed to the dryness of the spring and summer. We think that, by some alteration in the rotation, the quantity of clover might be lessened, and the extent of root-crops augmented, without reducing the propor- tion of corn ; thus avoiding so frequent a repetition clover. We do not at all mean to lay down an arbitrary course, to be followed for years without any deviation. In fact, we have known this done, and the plan mate- rially altered in a few years. Still, we would suggest, on the light lands of this district, something like the following rotation : — LIST OF CROPS FOR TWO HUNDRED ACRES OF ARABLE LAND First Year. Second Year. 5 acres tankard turnips") 10 M mangel wurzel j 10 »> carrots y 30 acres wheat 2 >> potatoes .... 1 3 »J cabbages .... J 20 »> Swedes 1 15 >> turnips, after |- vetches J 35 >) barley, seeded G5 )? green crops, all after wheat 05 »> wheat 65 >j roots, &c. 35 >> barley 35 !> clover 35 " clover 35 •i> ley wheat 200 acres 200 acres Without pursuing this course any further, it will be evident to every farmer that the crops may be varied so as not to repeat clover, Swedes, and turnips, so often as in the usual rotation. As regards the implements, with some few exceptions, T~ which we intend to mention, we only observed those in general use ; viz., ploughs, old-fashioned drags, har- rows, rollers, hoi'se-hoes for turnips, &c. Some of the land we noticed was too stony for scufllers or cultiva- tors to be used profitably ; but we saw much land where one of Lord Ducie's implements would be most va- luable. Wherever the Uley cultivator can be used, the manner in which it will pare off the foul surface and bring all the couch-roots to the face of the ground is so far superior to ploughing the weeds in. We observed that admirable implement for reducing rough land for barley, turnips, &c., Crosskill's clod-crusher, at Mr. John Dowle's, of Claypit ; a horse gripping-plough, a hand ditto, and a mole-plough, at Mr. Thos. Perkins's, of Matherne. We also noticed one of Finlayson's harrows, and a horse-hoe of simple construction, for hoeing turnips when drilled on the flat ; the latter was made to fix on to a part of light cart-wheels, and con- sisted of three shares, to take three rows at a time. The THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 43 width between the shares could be altered, and narrower shares might be substituted, to fit it for hoeing wheat. This hoe was made by a country blacksmith, at a very moderate jirice. These two last implements we saw at the house of Mr. S. Matthews, of Ifton Hill, who was not a candidate for Mr. Buckle's cup. The carts and waggons we saw were all of the heavier description, which certainly require to be replaced by others of a less cumbersome character ; but, whenever this takes place, we are aware that the change must be gradual. The largest quantity of stock was rather less than two sheep to an acre, and one head of cattle to every five acres, taking the wliole farm for both. On one farm we saw three sheep to each acre of arable land ; but the pro- portion of meadow and pasture to the arable was as three to four, which reduces their number to our standard. In every instance the number of cart horses was greater than we consider requisite, in all cases exceeding one pair to every fifty acres of arable land, which we should say was quite sufficient. The breed of horses for farm purposes in this district is generally bad. We found great cause to complain of the management of some of the hedges and headlands. In many places a belt of two or three feet wide was left uncultivated round the fields, full of couch, nettles, and other w-eeds. In but one instance did we perceive any attention paid to the land adjoining the fences to prevent the weeds from seeding over the farm. We should like to see every inch of groimd kept clean round the hedges, and all the weeds in them cut out two or three times in the course of the summer, to prevent them ripening their seeds. ^lany farmers may complain of the expense of this, but it would pay enormous interest in the saving of future labour. We recollect once seeing a fallow for wheat which was very clean except a few roots of knotted couch, all of which laid on the surface and were ploughed in. For sixpence an acre they might all have been picked off; and surely by its not being done a much larger expense was incurred in cleaning the land for turnips. We sincerely wisli the management of farm -yard manure were better attended to. We did not see a single tank to collect the drainings of the yards, stables, ])igstics, etc. In some places the liquid manure escaped into the road and ditches : in others it was led into the nearest field, and when there, suffered to soak into the ground, only benefiting a very small spot ; and, worst of all, some of the yards and buildings were allowed to drain into the pool where all the horses and cattle were taken to drink. A little knowledge of chemistry here would sliow the farmer that the ammonia and other salts contained in this liquid are strong stimulants, and therefore liable to cause violent inflammatory disorders. We observed that lime is not used at all as a manure on the light lands we inspected, but we think a moderate quantity, applied once in a rotation, would pay well for the outlay. Chemical analysis teaches us that lime is contained in both the straw and grain of wheat ; in short, that there is only one plant yet discovered in which no trace of lime can be detected. We recommend all those who are opjiosed to the use of lime, to read some of the many scientific and practical articles on the subject that have been published lately in the agricultural periodicals, and can be obtained at our liljrary by every member. The only complete set of farm buildings we met with was on the farm of Mr. Thos. Dowle, of Ifton (who for the cultivation of his turnip land deserves unqualified praise), and they only require tanks to be everything a farmer could wish. The drains are all laid in readiness, and the tanks are to be added shortly. The buildings are mostly new, but not being quite completed, we con- sider they woukl be seen to much better advantage another year. The roofs are all covered witli reeds (combed straw) under the tiles, which keep the buildings warmer in winter and cooler in summer than tiles alone. In giving our decision, we have no hesitation in award- ing the prize to Mr. Thomas Perkins, of Matherne. He has a great breadth of his arable land under .Swedes and turnips, all clean, and the rest of his arable land in a better state of cultivation than the other competi- tors, though we think there is still room for improve- ment ; and we wish all who read this paper to observe that we cannot consider a farm to be well cullivated because the tillage of some of the fields is good, but ex- pect them to be all clean and in a high state of cultiva- tion. It is in the management of his grass land that Mr. Perkins so much excels, he having been at great ex- pense in cleaning his fields from bushes, and laying down some miles of drains ; besides which, he has cleared away all the banks formed by cleaning out the ditches. The soil he procures in this manner he mixes with farm- yard manure or lime, andjannualiy dresses a considera- ble portion of his grass land. In conclusion, we must state, that in a brief article like the foregoing much is unavoidably omitted, and only a mere sketch given of the subjects mentioned ; but that is all we intended, because, to have entered fully into every point would have made this a much more voluminous report than is at all requisite for the purpose we have in view. We will merely hint that we should like to see some cattle soiled all the year, with every particle of tlieir manure preserved and taken out upon the land ; and we think that any gentleman who wished to encourage im- provement in farming, could not do better than to ofler a jiremium for the largest number of cattle kept in houses and yards all the year round. R. W. PuRCH.\s, Hon. Sec. Mon. F. Club. J- Judges. Arthur Hall, Hon. Sec. C. F. Club, KOHL RABI. — IMPORTANT TO FARMERS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE CHRONICLE. Sir, — Everything which in the slightest degree tends to the improvement of agriculture is in tlie present day of so much importance that 1 need not apologise to you for troubling you with a few lines on a subject so inter- esting to the cultivators of the soil. Tlie deficiency of tiie turnij) and .Swede crop, in consc(iuence of the extra- ordinary drought of the last summer, and the innumer- able destructive insects, fly, grub, &c., produced by tlie dry and warm weather, has been a lamentable blow to the farmers of this county, and should k-ad agriculturists to endeavour either to eradicate those enemies to their hopes, or to introduce a root equally valuable with the turnip, while it is less obnoxious to the attacks of tliose vermin. Tlie Kohl Rabi appears likely to supjily this desideratum ; and I wish, by giving you an account of my ex]ierience of it, to induce the farmers of this coimty to try it on a larger scale. It we can obtain a root (if I may use the Irishism of calling that a root which grows above groutul) producing an amount of food — 1st, equal in bulk to tin; largest crop of Swei'i>:li turnijis ; 2nd, of equal or more nutritive (pialitics ; Wrd, not obnoxious to the attacks of grul) or fly ; lib, bettor adapted for keep- ing through tl>e winter; .'itb, capaldc of being ])lante(l at any season of the year; Ctii, enduring the frosts of cur winter — we shall have obtained one of the most useful 44 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and valuable plants which the Giver of all good has be- stowed upon man. Perhaps I may be considered too sanguine if I attribute all these qualities to the Kohl Rabi, but I feel convinced that it deserves the greatest part if not all the praise which I ascribe to it. 1 ob- tained a small quantity of seed in Germany, last year, and in the month of March I sowed (thickly) a patch in a sunny bed in my kitchen garden ; the plants soon came xip as thickly as possible, much resembling young broc- coli plants. The dry weather set m, and I despaired of being able to plant them out in the ground which I had prepared for them. After waiting several weeks, and feainng that the plants had become almost too old to transplant, I ventured to do so lest the season should goby. I made a good strong compost with cow-dung and water from a muddy pond, and another sort of diluted pigs' urine, and in planting each plant (about 18 inches apart) I made a good puddle about the roots ; in less than a week the plants held up their heads and began to grow vigorously. In October I gathered in my crop, and the result is as follows: — On a plot of ground, as nearly as I can reckon containing 18 perches or lug, I had 27 kipe baskets full, weighing on the average 801bs. each, or, deducting 5lbs. for the basket, 751bs. each ; thus I had 2,0251bs. on this small piece of gi'ound, be- sides 4 or 5 cwt. of mangel-wurzel and self-set potatoes. This, however, was the produce of the driest season in the memoiy of man. I have no doubt that more than double the amount might be expected in any other season. Several of the bulbs weighed 6 or 71bs. T pur- pose sending a few as specimens to the Gloucestershire Agricultural Show. I sowed some more seed on chance, without any manure, in a soil rather impoverished, in the month of June, having waited in vain for rain. The plants came up, but did not thrive. During the last month, after I had dug a field of potatoes iu a good soil, I transferred these sickly plants to the late potato patch, where they have taken root, and are growing surprisingly ; I purpose letting them stand the winter, and have little doubt that they will endure the frost and snow. Any agriculturist who would like to see them growing, and will apply to my bailiff, at Hempsted, is perfectly welcome to inspect the growing crop. The bulb par- takes of a mixed character, something between the inside of a cabbage stalk and a Swedish turnip. When young, they are an excellent and delicious table vegetable. I am, Sir, yours obediently, Samuel Lysons. Hempsted Court, near Gloucester, Nov. 11. N.B. — The seed should always be sown in a bed, and transplanted ; it grows more rapidly, and would secure it from the attack of the fly, if it were inclined to attack it, which I believe it never is. REPORT OF THE NETHEREXE FARMERS' CLUB, ON THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT MANURES. Several members of the club having tried experiments ■with different manures, kindly invited the committee, with other members, to inspect them ; and your com- mittee venture to hope that this report of their opinions may not be wholly uninteresting or foreign to the object of the present meeting. The first field visited was one on Livinghay's estate, in the parish of SQverton, occupied by Mr. Hewitt : this was a four-acre piece of hill land, of a dry gravelly nature, worth to rent about 25s. per acre ; one acre of which was manured with 15 cart loads of dung, of an ordinary description (viz., made by young bullocks fed on straw) ; with this was mixed 15 cwt. of salt, and turned over once in a heap. The access to the field being difficult, the loads were necessarily small, and valued at 4s. per load ; the salt cost Is. per cwt., the carriage and expense of spreading, 20s. 6d. ; making a total of 4/. 15s. Gd. The next acre was manured with 8 hogsheads of lime, at 4s. 9d. per hogshead, which with carriage and turnpike would cost 3/. The seed was drilled with four bags of wood ashes, the cost of which, with drilling and spreading the lime, was 13s., making the total expense of manure, &c., in this acre, 3/. 13s. Another acre was manured with two quarters of bone dust at 19s. per quarter, and 3 bags of ashes, which with carriage amounts to 21. 2s. But a portion of the bone being very coarse, it was obliged to be sown broadcast. The ashes being of inferior quality, are taken at Is. per bag, which with the expense of drilling would amount to 4s. 6d., making together 21. 6s. 6d. The fourth acre being the higher part of the field was manured with 2 cwt. of guano, at lis. per cwt.; the carriage 4s., making \l. 6s.; drilled with 3 bags of peat ashes 3s., expense of drilling Is. 6d., making together 1/. 10s. 6d. The part manured with dung is the best crop, but your committee are of opinion that this being the lower part of the field, and the soil here somewhat of a loamy nature, gives it a decided advantage over the higher parts of the field, the late dry summer being considerable. That part manured with lime is decidedly the worst, although it was the second lot from the bottom of the field, and being somewhat in a pan may be considered the very best acre of land. Betwixt the crops manured with bone dust and guano, there is very little difference, but the majority was in favour of the bones. The whole of the field was drilled the same day (about the middle of July), and is now in a very growing state, conse- quently could not at this time be tested by weight. Relying only on the judgment of those who inspected them, they are of opinion that the plot dressed with lime will not produce above two-thirds the quantity of these plots manured with bone or guano ; that with the dung about one-tenth more than with the last- mentioned manures. The turnips are the white globe. The second piece inspected was a three-acre field in the parish of Bradninch, in the occupation of Mr. Richard Mortimore, of Stokewell. This too was a very high piece of ground, on a soil not unlike the first, but of a poorer description. One acre was manured with 10 cart loads of dung, at 5s. per load, carriage and spreading the same 1/. Is., making toge- ther 3/. lis. The next acre was manured with 2 cwt. of guano, at 10s. per cwt., carriage and sowing broad- cast 5s., making a total of 1/. 5s. The remaining acre was manured with 2.j quarters of bone dust, at 19s. per quarter, which with IDs. for carriage and drilUng makes an expense of 21. 17s. 6d. Here in a field of poor gravel soil, worth about 15s. per acre to rent, the bone dust is decidedly the best, producing some large fine roots of the green globe sort, it surpasses the guano, and is decidedly better than the dung. Here your committee would observe that the bone dust not being sufficient to hold out, the seed was sown without any for two or three drills, the effect of which was very ap- parent from the turnips in the bone being very large, and tnose without any manure very small indeed. The next in point of goodness is that manured with guano, at an ex- pense of \l. 5s. per aci"e, producing a crop better than the dung at a trifle over one third the expense ; and they, the committee, are decidedly of opinion that guano should always be drilled, in order that so small a body may be more concentrated, and to test fairly the merits of bone dust and guano, the experiment should be made with the same cost of each article, the expense of caniage being nearly alike. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 45 The next piece your committee inspected was that of a fiekl in the parish of Rewe, in the occui)ation of Mr. John Griffin. This was a close of land of 3 acres of early red turnips, sown the 7th July, after a crop of vetches, on a soil of a light sandy description, worth about 25s. per acre to rent. Here was an acre manured with 10 cart loads of dung Talued at 5s. per load, car- riage 1/., and spreading Is. Cd., making together 3/. lis. Gd. The next acre was manured with 2 quarters of bones at 19s. per quarter, which, with Is. for carriage and sowing broadcast, makes the expense 21. 2s. The third acre was manured with 3 cwt. of guano, at lis. per cwt., 4 bags of ashes at 2s. 6d. per bag ; and, allowing 3s. for carriage and drilling the guano, will make a totcrt expense in this acre of 21. Cs. The whole of this is a very excellent piece of turnips, the guano is considered the best, and the bones the next. Here your committee would take leave to observe that they consider the bones should have been drilled, but on inquiry they find that the bones were so large they could not be used with the drill, and they would strongly impress on the minds of those about to use bones, to have them reduced to such a state as will afford a faci- lity for drilling. This piece, too, like the previous ones, has not been submitted to the unerring test of weighing, but those who have seen them are unanimous in tlieir decision. In the first piece that was inspected, the dung is considered the best crop ; in the second, the bone ; and in this last instance, the guano. Your committee also saw some excellent pieces of Swede turnips on Mr. Griffin's farm, in plots some manured with dung and others with guano. The dung turnips here are the heaviest crop, but, when the cost of the manures is considered, they feel themselves warranted in recommending a stUl more extensive use of those portable manures that have come under their inspection. COMPOUND FOR FATTENING CAITLE. Sir, — I have much pleasure in forwarding you in- structions for making the compounds now so much in use to fatten cattle, than which nothmg can be more simple. You have got a linseed crusher, and I believe an iron copper erected. 1st. Let a quantity of linseed be reduced to fine meal, that is to say, let every seed be thoroughly broken. 2nd. Put about 15G pounds of water into the copper, and let it boil. 3rd. Stir into the water quickly 211bs. of the linseed meal, and let it boil for about five minutes. 4th. I^et G31bs. of barley or bean meal be sprinkled upon the boiling mucilage by the hand of one person, while another as rapidly as j)ossible stirs and works it in. The whole will now have assumed the form of a thick mess or pudding. Tlie fire should be put out, and in a short time the food may be given to the cattle. When cold, the compound should be perfectly stiff. Many farmers put it into moulds like those used for bricks while hot. Tiiey are thus made : i i f~ i i and placed u])on a flat piece of I I I I I board, somewhat larger and wider. The compound is put in with a trowel, and pressed down firndy ; the moulds are then lifted up, and the cakes left to cool. In this way the food will keep longer; but I generally put it into a tub, and ram or press it down with an instrument made of wood,* in or- der to exclude the air. • Tliese rammers arc squnro or cliib-cndcj, with n kiieb like a peitlo at top, or u cross-stick stuck through, to give better hoUl. The compound is generally given in small quantities at first, and increased at pleasure ; for the first week, 51bs. or 71bs. per day, when, according to the size of the animal and quality of other food given, the quantity may be increased to 1 libs., 2llbs., or 281bs. per day. Ob- serve, the inside of the mould should be a little wider at the bottom, in order to prevent the compound from sticking to the sides. This the carpenter will easily un- derstand. With respect to making beans into compound, no difference is to be observed, except that they will require 201bs. or 301bs., or even more, of water than barley, as j'ou will perceive in the course of your ex))erience. But observe, the beans must be reduced to a. fine meal, equal, if possible, to flour ; otherwise, the unbroken pieces will pass through the bullocks undigested. Peas are to be treated in the same manner for the same reasons. After a little observation, you will be able to regulate the quantities by measure, without the trouble of weigh- ing ; for the extreme of exactness is by no means ne- cessary. Of one thing you may rest assured, viz., that it is impossible to spoil the compound ; for if made a little too thin or too thick, the cattle will devour it with avidity after they take to it — which they will not all readily do at first — as occurs with oil-cake also. Lin- seed can be incorporated with chopped hay or straw with great effect. 1 use it largely, and find it much cheaper than corn. The proportions, according to the size of my copper, are nine pails of water, a pail and a half of linseed meal, and about 9 bushels of cut hay, chaff, or straw. The plan of mixing is — first, to form the mucilage as you would for other compounds ; next, place a large tub with a strong bottom, or trough, near the copper; then put a bushel of the cut hay into it, and pour two or three bowls of the boiling mucilage upon it, which is to be immediately stirred up with the hay. Then add a bushel of the hay with some more of the mucilage, which, after being intimately mixed, is to be pressed down as firmly as possible with the rammer. The first layer is then finished. Proceed as before till the copper is empty, smoothe the top of the mess over with the trowel, and in the course of two or three hours it will be fit for use. To make cattle-compound with potatoes or white car- rots, nothing more is required than, after having been properly steamed or boiled, to remove them from the vessels, as hoi as possible, into a trough, then sprinkle some linseed meal upon them, and knead the whole into a mass with the rammer. The compound may be put hot into the moulds, and made into cakes, or used from the trough. Less labour will be required if the roots are removctl from the cooking vessels in small quantities, and incor- jiorated with the meal. The proportions must be left to circumstances and to the cost at which cattle are intended to be fed. The effect of giving only one pound of linseed meal l)er day to a bullock, when incorporated with potatoes or carrots, will soon become visible ; but if a pound or two more were added, the animal would fatten at a rate which those alone who watched the proceedings could believe. The price of linseed for crushing purposes appears to be about l^d. per lb. Remember that your copper being larger than mine, you must regulate the quantities accordingly, and ob- serve that when the hay compound becomes cold, it turns sour, and the bullocks then reject it. Mine eat it smoking. You will find this food extremely economical, cffica- 46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cious, and, at this dry season, an excellent substitute for grass. Should you require further information, I shall be happy to give it. Yours, &c., John Warnes, Jun. Trimingham, Norfolk, May 26. P.S. — Do not forget, on all occasions to damp the fire, either by throwing wet cinders upon it, or by re- moving the greater part from the furnace. The boxes may be made (by landowners) best of hard materials, and by tenants, at their own charge, of fir or other cheap posts and poles, either for the doors or sides and backs of the boxes, so placed as to admit of furze or material being interlaced between the external parts of the boxes, of which a, the doorway for the cattle to enter ; n, a passage •way, to feed the animals in their feeding-troughs ; c, the pits, two feet deep and ten feet square, wherein the beasts stand, separated from each other by partitions between a each box ; and the boiling-house should be handy at one end of the boxes, but which will not be absolutely ne- cessary, if a farmer has in his house the means already of boiling and preparing the composition, which, when made, should be kej)t in a cool place and covered up from birds, flies, and wasps, &c., and of course making only in proportion to the consumption while sweet and palatable to the beasts or to sheep. But this kind of food is not at all suitable for the fattening of either porkers or bacon hogs. If further information be desi- rable by personal inspection, it will be open to all agri- culturists dcsiious of benefiting themselves by the adoption of the system, at Sir Charles Burrell's farm, at West Grinsted, near the brick and tile yard, adjoining the Horsham Road, where the feeders of the stock will generally be found in his business, and willing to afford answers to any inquiry on the spot. THE ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. (to the members of the mechanics' institute, stourbridge ) Gentlemen, — Permit me to call your attention to an Association which has now existed in this neighbour- hood for four years, but will, I trust, be greatly increased in utility by extending its operations to different branches, and by having a permanent agent appointed, whose sole duty it will be to conduct it. I allude to the " Stewponey Association for improving the condition of the Labouring Classes." There are many persons who mistake the intentions of this Society, and view with jealousy and suspicion the attempt to improve the condition, by supposing that it is our wish to alter the rank of life in which the labourer is placed : now I beg distinctly to state that that is not our intention, nor within our power if we had the desire to do so. Different gradations of rank are acknowledged as necessary, and as existing in all parts of the civihzed world. Sorry indeed should I be to hold out to the la- bourer the impossibility of changing his condition — that as he was born so must he live and die. There are in- stances, but they are rare ones, of the agricultural la- bourer rising by industry and economy, by degrees, to i"ent the farm which he has cultivated ; and there are, perhaps, more numerous instances of the mechanic, pro- fiting by genius and assisted by education, having made a fortuue by some useful discovery ; but these are efforts depending upon their own exertions and beyond the power of any society to interfere with ; and forlorn must be the condition of any man deprived of such hope, and depraved the nature of those who would desire that he should be. I can, perhaps, best explain the object of our societies, by calling your attention to the usual existing circum- stances of the labouring classes, and for the sake of my argument I will suppose the wages of the agricultural la- bourer to be 10s. a week, and those of the manufacturer to vary from that sum to 30s. ; neither of them with fa- milies to support can be said to be rich.:;;; It is our inte- rest that they should live contented and happy, should pay their way honestly, without debts, and without be- coming burdensome to the parish. And how do we en- courage them to do so ? In too many instances the me- chanic's first obstacle is a truck master, who deprives him of at least a fourth of his nominal income and pays the remainder in things he has no need of. It is cus- tomary, to meet large orders that must be promptly exe- cuted, to retain double the number of workmen that can be constantly employed, and this is done by divid- ing their labour into half days or else alternate days. Tlie men thus reduced by circumstances which they can- not control, with a greatly diminished income, have not the means to employ their leisure time to advantage, and stroll about the roads a prey to every temptation to evil that occurs. It is in vain that they seek land, for either none are disposed to let them any, or else charge them three times as much as a farmer would pay, and the same is the case if they stand in need of borrowing a few pounds to meet some sudden emergency — their only re- source is the pawnbroker's shop, with exorbitant inte- rest. If some are more prudently disposed to make a provision for sickness, old age, and death, who takes the trouble to point out to them a cheap and safe insurance ? All connive at their being induced to join clubs founded en erroneous principles, carried on more for the advan- tage of publicans than the members, and what is the na- tural result ? In the situation of Chairman of this union, which for some years I had the honour of filling, I have put this question, not to one, but to hundreds of aged paupers applying for relief : — Why did you not be- long to a club ? We did, sir, for 40 years, but now it is broken up, and we are left without a farthing, to end our days in wretchedness and want. I have explained formerly why this occurs, and I have urged those who have influence to persuade their men to insure in the club we have provided for them ; but I have appealed to you in vain. It hurts the deUcate feel- ings of some to interfere with the innkeepers — it would render them unpopular ; others have no time and still less inclination, and the natural result of this apathy is, that in the parish of Oldswinford, containing a popula- tion of ui)wards of 18,000 persons, the branch of our Becher Club, after four years, consists of ten members : a Committee has been formed to superintend it, but I am not aware that anybody has ever attended the monthly meetings. Such, however, is not the feelings of other places ; the club does increase, is increasing, and will in- crease. Bad as its prospects may appear at present, I will lay before you a statement I have got of one formed on similar principles at Chelmsford, in Essex, twenty- six years ago, of which the following is an extract, from the 25th Report, 1843:— " Balance, 22,412?. 18s. Id. ; Members, 5,373. At the outset, such was the want of confidence that it was with the utmost difficulty persons could be induced to enrol themselves as members of this Society ; it was fore- told that it could not exist 20 years ; how far that pre- diction has been verified, let the experience of a quarter of a century answer : duruig the first five years the ave- rage increase was only 8 a-year, the next five 36, the last THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 47 five 600. The Stewponey Becher Club has begun with far better prospects than this. Male. Female. Honorary. Total. 1842, from Mar. to Nov., 1st year 50 18 55 123 1843, 2nd year 137 36 70 263 1841, 3rd year, to Nov. 4tU only 256 130 386 I trust I have not been deviating from my duty, as placed in the gratifying situation of being President of your valuable Institution, to call your attention to the situation of the labouring classes ; the object of the So- cieties which I have named, and the prospectus of which I now lay before you, is to endeavour to alleviate these hardships, by procuring for the labouring classes allot- ments of land, conveniently situated, at a reasonable rate. They purpose to offer loans of small sums of mo- ney to deserving persons, under safe and proper res- trictions ; they have already, for four years, held out to them the means of providing at a cheap rate, with pay- ments varying according to their age, and calculated by learned and experienced actuaries, for sickness, old age, and death. I beg you to remember that the lower classes are composed of the same materials, flesh and blood, as we are, that they have the same feeUngs, sympathies, and affections, and are equally capable of appreciating kindness, and repaying it with gratitude. Let me remind you that it is a commandment of your Divine Creator to do your duty towards your neighbour. And, lastly, permit me to observe that if you neglect to assist and instruct him how to avail himself of these rea- sonable advantages held out to him, you do not consci- entiously obey that uij unction. I am. Gentlemen, your faithful and obedient humble servant, J. II. II. Foley. Prestwood, Slourlridye, Nov. 25. STEWPONEY FARMERS' CLUB. 'i'he eleventh monthly meeting of the Stewjioney Farmers' Club was held at the Stewponey Inn, on Monday, November 4, Mr. George Robins in the chair. Amongst the company were the Rev. George Whf.rion, John Armery, Esq., Mr. Burgess, ^Ir. Parrish, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Mantle, &c., &c. The minutes of the preceding meeting having been read by the secretary, the chairman called \i\nm Mr. .\mery to read his essay " On the Ijest mode of keejjing farm accounts." Mr. Amery, then, after a few oljscrvations, read the following : — " Before I enter njion the subject for discussion this evening, I liope I may be ])ermitted gratefully ij to acknowledge how deeply sensiljle 1 am of the i| kindness of my friend Mr. Wharton, who ])reparcd, ji at a short notice, his admirable essay to sujiply ni}' I place at your last meeting, when, in consequence [] of a sudden and severe bereavement, i had not been able to give any consideration to the subject allotted to me. " I earnestly hojie that this association will exert itself to carry out Mr. Wharton's most valuable suggestions for ' bettering the condition and in- creasing the comforts of agricultural labourers,' for surely there is no other class of the community which has equal claims on the kindness and sym- pathy of tlie owners and occupiers of land. " When 1 acceded to Mr. Foley's rci^uest, per- haps somewhat inconsiderately on my part, not being engaged in agricultural ])ursuits, and con- sented to introduce for discussion ' the best mode of keci)ing farm accounts,' I thought that I should have little or no difliculty in obtaining from ])rac- ticalmeninfonnationofsuchanatureaswouldenable me to test the comjjarative merits of different pub- lished forms of farm accounts, and from these to extract such data as might lead, if not to the best, at any rate to a short and easy system intended to show the actual amount of jjrofit or loss at the end of the year, and ^\'hich every farmer could readily comprehend; but the more 1 have extended my inquiries, and examined such printed forms as have fallen in my way, the less able have I been entirely to satisfy myself. " I find that a great many opulent farmers have for years Ijcen contented with very meagre and im- perfect accounts, and that a still greater number of the middle class can hardly be said to keep any accounts at all. With these facts before me, I am quite sure that it would be altogether useless on this occasion to take as a text-book any of the published forms of accounts, or to recommend any one in particular for general adoption ; for altliough some of them are, 1 know, used with advantage by bailiffs and stewards on large estates, they are all, I think, much too complex for persons not well versed in the details of book-keeping, and \\'ould, moreover, require much more time to work out than most farmers would reasonably be expected to spare. " I feel that the subject which it has fallen to my lot to introduce, though much less attractive than most, if not all, those which have been previously discussed by this association, is in no respect in- ferior in importance ; on the contrary, an accurate system of accounts affords the only safe index by which you can ascertain the value of new and im- proved modes of farming ; but as the necessity and importance of farm accounts do not form part of the question before us, which is simply the best mode of keeping such accounts, I shall not fiu-ther enlarge on this branch of the subject, thereby ex- pressing my own deep conviction that a system of accounts of some kind is absolutely necessary to enable the tenant farmer to know how and where to look for his cajiital employed in farming— to enable him to see that he obtains such a rale of interest for it as it would command if it were in- vested elsewhere, and also that he might know what remimeration, in tlie shajic of i)rotit, he re- ceives in return for his own time and labour. 1 think it is possible to suggest a short and simple system of acco\mts which will embrace all tlicse o])iects, which may be easily understood, and will recpiire very little time to work out — the prin- ciple of which may, however be amplified to meet eveiy case requiring the most minute detail. "It appears to me tiiat only two accounts arc really necessary, namely, a day-book or journal, and a ledger, which may l)e kept in different parts of the same book; but in order to have the advantage of double entry, I very strongly recommend a cash account also. " The day-book or jom-nal will embrace work- men's labour and wages, and entries of all purchases THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and sales, and a record of every transaction con- nected with the business of the farm. " The ledger, which is jiosted from the day-hook, either under distinct heads, or on the same page, according to a form which I hold in my hand, and wliich presents at one view all })aid and impaid accounts due to the farm, or owing by it, and which, from its extreme simplicity, is preferable in a general way to a subdivided account, unless the transactions are very extensive, and in that case I should recommend a separate subdivided account in addition. The cash account, which is not absolutely essen- tial, though I think it very important, embraces all receipts and payments of cash only during the year, and shows the same result as the ledger, upon which it is a complete check, and insures acciu-acy in e\-eiy department. The first thing, however, to be done in com- mencing any system of accounts is to take as ac- curate a valuation as possible of all produce on the farm, live stock, implements, fallows and seeds, &c. ; and Michaelmas, when harvest is ended, is, in many respects, the most convenient period to do this. This valuation represents the capital at that time actually employed in the farm, and the amount thereof should be the first entry in the ledger to the debit of the farm, and the first entry in the cash account to the credit of cash, as due from the farm. All subsequent entries will be made from the journal or day-book as they occur, the farm being debited with all items of expenditure, labour, ])urchase of stock, implements, repairs, rents, taxes, interest on capital at five jjer cent, &c., &c., for which the cash account would have a corresponding credit, and being in like man- ner credited with all sales of produce and stock, and the value of the produce consumed on the farm, except the keep of horses which are reqviirefl to cultivate the farm, for which, also, the cash account would have a corresponding debit. " At the end of everj' year, say from Michaelmas to Michaelmas, the ledger and cash account must be cast up and balanced ; and if they are kept cor- rectly, the result of both wll appear to be the same. Then, in order to ascertain the actual profit of the year, a fresh valuation must be taken, at the times' price, similar in all respects to that at the commencement of the year, taking care to de- duct a per centage for the wear and tear of imple- ments from their former estimated value, perhaps fifteen per cent. : and the difference between the amount of this last valuation so taken, and the sum standing to the debit of the farm as due from it shows the real amount of profit or loss for the year. " This closes the account of the farm for one year, and the amount of the last valuation will form the first entry of a new account for a succeeding year, the journal, ledger, and cash account will be then worked precisely as before." Mr. Amer}' then submitted to the meeting fonns of accounts drawn out according to the plans he had proposed. They comprised a journal, ledger, and cash-book, ruled and headed so as to present his system clearly and succinctly to the eye. These forms were inspected by the members present, and by some of them copied ; and it was understood that copies would be accessible to aU the members. The forms, it will be seen by the foUowng resolu- lution, were much approved. It was then proposed by the Rev. George Whar- ton, seconded by Mr. Burgess, and carried unani- mously— " That a vote of thanks be given to Mr. Araery for his ^-ery valuable paper, and for the in- teresting manner in which he has treated a subject generally considered a very dry one." It was afterwards proposed by Mr. Parrish, and seconded by Mr. Mantle — -" That the published plans of keeping farm accounts are generally too compli- cated ; that a more simple system is very desirable ; that the i)lan proposed by Mr. Amery appears to be, from its great simplicity, capable of being car- ried out by farmers generally withovit any difficulty, and that it is worthy of being adopted." The reso- lution was unanimously carried, and the meeting separated. MR. DENTON'S A LEVEL. Being daily in receipt of communications on the matter of my " A Level," you will, if I may judge from the number of these communications, interest many of your readers by affording me the oppor- tunity of explaining the geometrical problem upon which this simple instrument is based, and the best method of using it in the field. The woodcut above shows the instrument — its figure will explain the reason of its being called the " A Level ;" while the observer yviW com- prehend at a glance its portability and the fa- cility wdth which it may be used either on the surface or in the trench. The bar B turning up on a hinge and falling into grooves cut in the legs A, these legs may be closed, as a pair of compasses fold ; and the whole may be used as a rod for mea- surement. The legs A are sufficiently narrow to stand in the narrowest trench ; while the false feet F afford the means of stationing the instrument on the surface. The object of the instrument is to assist foremen and workmen in testing and preserving an uniform fall in aU works requiring such regularity. A spi- rit-level, if understood by workmen, is a thing easily put out of order, and is at all times liable to be broken ; its use, therefore, is dreaded by work- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49 men, as a process involving too much time, care, and precision, for their fingers to perform. In draining and sewering, if the first object of the operator is to direct his drains according to the best fall of the ground, the next jioint of imi)or- tance is that the floor of the trench, and the course of the tiles, soles, or bricks, should I)e even and re- gular from the top to the bottom of the drain. Any hoUou' in the drain intercepts the sedimentarj' matter wliich the flow of the drain-water would otherwise carry out with it ; the sectional area of tlie water-way is thereby lessened, and the sedi- ment, gradually accumulating, after a time causes a stoppage, the drain bursts, and the work has to be re-done. The level placed in the trench, as it is dug pre- paratory to laying in the tiles, indicates by the plumb-line any irregularity bad workmanship may occasion. Such use of the instrument is merely analogous to the mode by which the carj)enter ap- plies his square and plummet. It is my wish to lirf>ve that the extended princijjle upon which the A Level is based is so sound, that if accurately constructed, the instrument cannot work otherwise than with perfect efficiency, in determinint/ the ave- rage full nf surface between any two spots icithin sight of each other. It should be obsen-ed, that the legs of the in- strument being equal in length, form, with the base upon which they are placed, an isosceles triangle, and that, when that base is perfectly level the ])lumb-bob pendent from the apex must necessa- rily divide the triangle directly in half. This ad- mitted, it is equally clear that by means of a bar connecting the two legs at any given distance, and exhibiting on its face the centre or half of the angle at the aj)ex, any person is competent, guided by the plumb-line, to raise or depress one leg until it stands on a level ^vith the other; tlie plumb line will then hit the centre. Xow, as the plummet will always hang verti- cally, by reason of its weight, any rise or depression of either leg is immediately indicated on the con- necting bar by the equivalent deviation of the plumb-hne from the centre. The angle A B C is equal to the angle 1) E F i.e., the angle made l)y the hypothenuse or surface, with the horizontal line, is etpial to the angle of the line dividing the triangle in half, with the vertical line. llius, the diflference of height between D and E may be calculated by multiplying the natural sine of the angle, D E F (read off on the bar as A B C, if the index represents degrees), by the length of the ground spanned between E and D. In the A level, this is already done; and, instead of degrees and minutes, inches and quarters are divided on the ])ai-, so that the operator may at once read from it the dirterence of height between the two spots ujjon which the instrument stands, and rice versa'. If it is required to sink one leg an incli below the other, the ground is lowered until the plumb-line strikes the 1-inch division of the index on the bar. It will be seen, that at a certain distance from the apex, on each leg a hne of sight is shown. On the one leg there is a shding sight-hole an- swering to a fixed index, agreeing with that on the l)ar B ; on the other leg, there are cross airs fixed, the centre of which are exactly the same distance from the apex as the nonius of the index on the opposite leg. The line of sight, there- fore, from these two points is ever parallel with the base of the instrument. To arrive at the average fall of surface from the top to the bottom of a field, the instrument must be placed on a level by means of tlie pluralj-line. The operator must then send forward his assist- ant-workman to the spot D, at which he intends to end his drain, with a stick marked by a paper fixed in it at a height C above the ground, agreeing with the height of the cross hairs B, above the base of the instrument. He then sUdes up or down the sight-hole until he fixes the cross hairs upon the paper in the stick. This hne of sight, C B C, is i)arallel wth the line of surface, E D (regardless of its sinuosities), and therefore forms, with horizontal line of sight A B A, an angle C B A, equal to the angle D E F, formed by the datum horizontal and the surface. Now, as the o])posite angles of lines crossing each other are equal, the angle A B C is equal to the angle C B A; and we have shown that tlie angle C B A is equal to the angle D P^ F ; and, therefore, A B C is equal to D E F, and conse- quently you are enabled to read from the index at (', the angle converted into inches and rj:iarter.\; which is common to the whole distance from E to D. Tlie height thus read ofl' is transferred to the bar B, and retained by the shifting limb (J (see the woodcut), to the edge of which the jilum- met is afterwards worked. Tins limb is used only to save memory, and assist the man who can- not read. From the explanation given, I ho])c I have shown that, without any measurement of dis- tance whatc\Tr, the average fall of surface is arri\c(l at \\ith(mt any chance of error, if the sjian of the instrument is always the same, and the indices are accurately made (agreeing with that sjiace) in the first instance. — J. Bailey Denton. K 60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURE OF NORFOLK.— GENERAL CULTURE. The Turnip. The prosperity of the Norfolk farmer de- pends principally upon his successful cultiva- tion of THE TURNIP, and consequently upon no one crop is so large an outlay made, either in manure or labour, or so much care or at- tention bestowed. The necessity not only for a clean but a fine tilth is established, and the best mode of obtaining it, both upon mixed and light sefl^is so well known as ahnost to preclude the iiecessity of a minute description; at the same time it must not be entirely overlooked. The mode and tim£ -ofrpreparing the land for the recep- tion of the seed, depends upon the state of the wheat stubble. If the land be not clean, it is skeleton ploughed immediately after the harvest, should the weather permit ; it is then harrowed and scarified until all the couch grass and weeds are brought to the surface and separated from the mould, when they are raked up and carted off the land. By some farmers these are mixed with lime to assist their decomposition ; by others they are laid at the bottom of the cattle yards. Should the stubble be clean, the land is ploughed in the autmnn, as deep as the soil will allow, care being taken to lay it light, to raise a small quantity of new soil, and thus gradually to add to tlie general depth of the cultivated surface. The land is then left to the operation of the elements during the winter. In March and April it is ploughed twice, in some instances across the former ploughing ; in others in a parallel direction, a similar depth being m-aintained. Scarifjdng and rolhng follow, their frequency being regulated by the state of the land, until it is ready for the seed earth. By some far- mers the land is laid in two-furrow ridges, the soil, it is thought, becoming more mellow and fri- able by such practice, particularly on good land. Light lands are ploughed as little as possible, because experience has proved that the less weak soils are ex- posed to the action of the atmosphere in dry wea- ther, the less is the exhaustion of their producing powers. Upon the fine loams in the North-eastern part of Norfolk it is usual among many of the most practical farmers to allow the land to lay late in the spring before ploughing, the soil being thus found more kind for the plant, although skeleton ploughing and scarifying in the autumn, when foul, is the quickest and surest system of cleaning it. Different opinions exist in various parts of the county as to the relative number of ploughings and han-owings ; Init in this case, as in all others, it is impossible to lay down rales to which exceptions will not occur, llie precept and practice of men of admitted experience and intelligence on different soils is the best general guide. The usual time for sowing is from the beginning of May until the middle of June, but when an earlier maturity is re- quired for feeding, it sometimes takes place in the latter end of April. The quantity of farm-yard dung is regulated by the amount and sort of arti- ficial manure to be added. The foUowng are the relative quantities most generally applied : — From 12 to 13 and from lo to 20 loads of farm- yard manure. From 8 to 10 of ditto with one-fourth or one-third of a ton of rape-cake. The same with 4 cwt. of rape-cake and 4 cwt. of bone dust. From 12 to 15 bush, of bone dust and rape-cake in equal parts. From 12 to 15 bush, of bone dust. „ 5 cwt. to 7 cwt. of rape-cake. „ A ton of carbon. „ 1 to 200 bush, of muscles. 3 Coombs of malt cumbs per acre. Sowing both on the ridge and the flat is some- times fjursued, in equal proportions on the same occupation. Upon the light chalky soils the for- mer is thought to be best for drawing, the latter where the turnips are to be fed with sheep. For the ridge system the land is laid up by a double breast plough, into whose furrows farm-yard muck is spread as equally as possible ; the ridges then split upon the manure, when a light roll is passed over them, and if no artificial manure be used, the seed is drilled in at the rate of from 2 to 4 and 3 to 6 pints per acre, 24 and 27 inches being the distance. If either cake or bone dust be added, it is drilled in at the same time with the manure by Holmes's seed and manure drill, which is in gene- ral use in this county. AYhen the seed is drilled on the flat, the manure is spread over the surface and ploughed in fleet ; after laying some time, the land is again ploughed dee]}, then rolled, and the seed drilled in at the width of 18 inches, the dis- tance generally preferred, as the turnips obtain a better quality. In drilling, care is taken not to de- posit the seed upon the rape-cake, as it is a well understood fact that the active fermentation of the cake will destroy the germ of the seed. When, therefore, it is drilled by itself, a fork is either fixed to the drill between the two coulters, or the one is made to drill deejier than the other, by which means the same object is attained. This practice, which has been long followed in this county (Mr. Coke having commenced it at the end of the last century), has been borne out by the science of the present age. The author of the Essay on the use of Rape Dust, in the fourth volume of the Society's Reports, supports the system with unan- swerable arguments. An inteUigent farmer, vv'ho occupied for many years a lai-ge farm of sand upon chalk, informs me he pursued the following plan, recommended by a gentleman's gardener, with unvaried success : — Previous to drilling, he sowed the bone dust broadcast and ploughed it in. In the month of September the plants invariably made a greater progress under this system than when the bone dust and rape-cake were drilled in with the seed. This he attributes to the fact, that when the cake and bone dust are drilled together under the seed, the plant obtains more nourishment than it re- quires during its early growth, and in September, when the bones are required, the plants begin to flag. Wlien the bones were sown broadcast, the plants received the nourishment at the time most necessary, and invariably attained greater weight THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. >1 than they did under tlie fomier system.* Another farmer says, on kind tiirnij) land, the manure l)eing broadcast, is not objectionable, as the jilants get the manure when they most want it. If too much nourishment be put under the drill, it forces too much top instead of bulb, and the plants become necky ; these never attain much size. But tm-nips drilled on unkind land require a little exciting manure in the early stage of their growth to force the i)lants away from the fly, and forward them for hoeing. There is a decided objection to turnips being drilled on the Northumberland ridge on wet land, when they should ])e sown on small ridges not exceeding three yards wide. At tliis width the horses which draw the harrows will walk in the furrows, and avoid causing the tenacity their tread- ing would occasion. 'ITais is, presuming the land has been under-drained. As soon as tlie i)lant is sufficiently above the soil to prevent its being covered by the operation, the horse-hoe is used both on the ridge and on the flat work ; the plants are then hand-hoed across the drills, leanng small bunches about nine inches apart; these are subsequently "singled" by chil- dren. Ilorse-hoeing again succeeds, followed by hand-hocing by men, who take care to scour the earth well round the plants, in order to destroy * This experience is certainly in direct oppo- sition to Mr. Hannan's opinion in the treatise to which we have before referred. He says, "The gain in the quantity of produce from an applica- tion of rape dust in the drill system is thus ex- plained : — We know that the plant in its infancy feeds upon the matter in the seed ; but after it has developed certain fibres, it begins to take up noiu- ishment from the soil, while the green leaf or shoot which it has sent upwards extracts carbonic acid from the air. "We know also that if its fibres find no food near, they increase in number and length, and spread over a large surface. Thus we find that i)lan s growing in very poor soils have an im- mense number of fibrous roots, and a poor stunted stem. The reason is, that the plant has exhausted its vigour in its eflbrts to maintain hfe ; for these mimerous roots have been formed at the exjiense of the matters which ought to have assisted the growth of the stem. By placing, therefore, the manure under the seed, the plant will have no necessity to exhaust itself by such fibrous exten- sion ; and as decomposition will be going on at the time when the ])lant is rearing its stem and ])utting out the green leaf, it will be well supplied with liquid and gaseous food at the most critical period, and consequently will be able to develo])c a stouter stem and leaf, and in less time than if the manure was farther distant or more difl'uscd. Indeed it is a matter beyond <|Ucstion, that the sooner the plant escapes from that state of transition in which It cannot be said whether it derives its food from the seed, the soil, or the atmosphere (the state in which it is commonly said to be ' spaining'), the sooner its organs for extracting its food from the air and the soil are developed, the more vigorous will be their growth, and the more efficient their use in the process of vegetation." — Vol. iv., p. 180, R. A. S. Reports. the annuals. Horse-hoeing is resorted to as often as possible or convenient, until the bulbs become too large for tlie operation. On some farms a small board is fixed on the plough flat, and drawn down the ridges, in order to slightly mould up the plants. There are several modes in use for seciu-ing the turni]) crop; one is by placing the roots in furrows, with their tops and tails on, and in such a manner that they touch the bottom of the furrow, moulding them u]) with the plough ; another is by setting them on end in a large mass upon the ground; a third, by putting them into long banks, about six or seven feet wide at the bottom, and thatching them ■«'ith straw or mould ; while a fourth plan is to heap them in hills of an hundred bushels in various parts of the field, having been first topped, to cover them with straw and mould, after allowing a few da3's for the heating to pass oflT, but always taking care to leave an orifice at the top for ventilation. This is the most general practice. But in order completely to carry out what appears to l)e tlie object of the society, it will be better to give an exact description of the systems pursued in the cultivation of this important branch of rural economy, by occupiers of acknowledged practical skill, even at the hazard of too great prolixity. Mr. A.'s System. The farm is on the four years' course, but it being in high condition and clean state of tillage, one-fourth of the wheat stubble is so\\'n with peas, which is repeated only once in sixteen years, one- fifth of the stubble coming for turnips is sown with rye for spring feeding and folded oft" with sheep. This is afterv/ards ploughed as deep as the land will bear, harrowed, and rolled as often as required. In a month it is made into Northumberland ridges, twenty-seven inches apart, dunged with twelve or thirteen loads per acre, and drilled wth Swedes from four to six pints per acre, and finished in June. The remainder of the stubble is i)loughed two furrow deep, but the last furrow without the breast. In the spring scarified as deep as ploughed, harrowed and rolled two or three times, drilled on the ridge at twenty-seven inches, and treated in the same way as the other. The weight of the crop averages from fifteen to twenty tons, and sometimes twenty-five tons per acre, but this is an exception. Mr. B.'s System. Immediately after harvest, should the weather l)e dry, such of the wheat stubbles as time and means will allow are skeleton ploughed, to enable the sun to destroy whatever twitch grass may be in the land, as well as to open it to the beneficial operation of the air. The land is next scarified by Blaikie's giidjber, harrowed ^\ ell with heavy harrows, in order that the roots of the grass may be brought to the siu-face, and again lightly. The grass is then raked ottby women, the stubble and quicks all carried oft' and stacked up, to l)e laid at the bottom of the cattle yards in the winter. All annuals are at this period readily killed, becavisc their vegetating powers are weak ; it is therefore the best time for cleaning laud. The land being dean, about the latter end of E 2 5-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, October, after wheat sowing, it receives a ploughing from five to six inches deep, and is left thus rough from the plough for the operation of the air and frost through the winter. Should there have been any portion of the stubbles not skeleton ploughed in consequence of wet weather having set in, which in this county is often the case, it is ploughed over from five to six inches in depth, in ^ovember or December, in stetches of twenty yards wide, where it is left till March, when it is again ploughed the same depth in the same way. It is then scarified, well harrowed, first with heavy, then with light harrows, and the twitch grass and roots of weeds picked otF at the cost of sixpence per acre. After barley sowing in the beginning of April or May, it receives another deep ploughing, across the former stetches of the same width, then rolled with a light horse roll, and harrowed with light harrows. In this state the land remains till within a fortnight of the time of sowing, with this exception, that if any annuals appear, it is harrowed with light har- rows to destroy their growth. Another good earth by ploughing is then given it the same way back, and the land is thus made tolerably level. This is preferred, because if the land which has been once cross-ploughed be cross-ploughed the reverse way to which it was cross-ploughed before, those parts where the second ploughing crossed the first will be left with less soil than the rest of the field, and the turnips, not finding the same depth, will not be so good as the remainder of the crop. The land is then again harrowed and rolled, and the surface will by this time, with tolerably fair weather, have become in fine tihh. Two of Ransome's double- breasted ploughs then open the furrows, into which farm-yard muck, in its fermenting state (the muck heaps having been turned a fortnight previously), is thrown off" by a man from the cart with a three- pronged fork into the furrows, assisted by the team- man with a crome, six women, girls, or boys, as may be, following, and shaking the manure evenly along the furrows. Two other double-breasted ploughs follow close, and cover the muck as soon as It IS in the furrows, to prevent the least evapora- tion. A Northumberland seed and cake drill fol- lows, and deposits as near to the manure as possible from ten to fourteen bushels of bone-dust and rape- cake mixed, the quantity being regulated by the state of the land. In order to prevent the turnip or mangel wurzel seed coming into immediate contact with the rape cake, there is a fork placed in this drill between the cake coulter and the seed coulter, which shghtly covers up the cake and bone dust before the coulter deposits the seed. Before the seed is sown, it is the common ])ractice to roll the ridges lightly, in order to enable the drill to deposit the seed with greater precision than the fine edge left by the plough would allow, but on this farm, in order that the land may he as lightly as possible, a " mould board" precedes the manure coulters, and sweeps off the top of the ridge. The seed coulter follows, and buries the seed as shallow as possible at the rate of four pints per acre for Swedes. Behind this a light chain attached to the driU, and hanging loosely, covers over the seed by sweeping over the ridge! The drill is drawn by one horse, which walks in the furrow, and sowing two ridges at a time. An acre an hour can thus be completed easily. The land is thus left perfectly light, and of course the first rain makes the seed germinate quickly, while the cake forces the plant rapidly beyond any material injury from the fly, and the bone-dust and manure sustain it in its later growth. As soon as the turnip plant has obtained its rough leaf, and is sufficiently strong to bear a slight disturbance, the land is horse-hoed with a one-horse hoe, taking two drills at a time; and the reason of this is obvious : it loosens the earth and brings the air more in contact with the roots, and the formation of carbonic acid is favoured. As soon as the young plants are ready to hoe by hand, which for the reason already given will be in a very few days, they are cut into bunches with a nine inch hoe, at the rate of two shillings per acre ; subsequently they are singled out by children at one and sixpence per acre, who at this rate will earn from sixpence to eightpence per day. They are again horse-hoed when they have arrived at a more forward state ; afterwards hoed and scoured, that is, each man takes a single drill and draws the earth around every plant, the effect of which is that the root is preserved more eflec- tually from heat, and the moistui'e does not exude so rapidly. Nature points out that a greater quantity of moisture is more important to the growth of the Swede turnip, which is exemplified not only by the formation of the stalk but from the leaf retaining the moisture of the night, or of rain, much longer than its relation, the white ; and that it is also the first to catch the dews of the evening ; besides, it will always be found that in proportion as the circle of the roots extend, so will the leaves, which thus partially exclude ex- cessive drought. But to proceed to the mode of cultivation. This scouring costs three shillings an acre, which can be done in one day. The crop is again horse-hoed with a triangvilar horse-hoe, and repeated as often as time will allow. In consuming the crop, two-thirds are sliced and eaten by the sheep in troughs on the land, while one-third is carried into the yards for the cattle. With the turnips, each sheep is allowed half a pound weight of linseed cake a day ; while the cattle in the yards have from seven to ten pounds weight. By this, which may be probably thought a large allowance of cake, it is considered that a double cpiantity of both sheep and beasts can be grazed, five pounds of cake being equal to a bushel of turnips. Mr. B.'s consumption of cake from November to May has not been less than ten tons a week. For mangel wurzel, the same system of prepa- ration and culture is pursued, with this exception, that seven pounds per acre of seed is drilled. On two occasions only in twenty-two years has this crop failed, and then the seed had been dibbled. The probable reason for this failure was, the seed was planted too deep to feel the effects of the sun, for the mangel being sown somewhat earher than the Swedes, might have been deposited beyond the heat necessary for the vivification of its vital principle remained inactive, and finally THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 53 decayed. If, on the contrary, according to Dr. Lindley, the seed is either deposited in moist earth, or is moist itself from previous absorption, and is pl&ced at such a depth, that while it is screened from the action of the night, the earth attains suf- ficient heat, the integument swells, " oxygen is absorbed, carbonic acid expelled, and the vital action of the embryo commences." How far this theory accounts for the failure of the mangel in these two years, must be left to the judgment of the reader.* Again to return from comment to fact. In the last week in Octol)er the mangel is pulled, the tops wrung oft", loaded and stored in the usual way in l)anks ; for this the price is five shillings an acre ; for placing the turnips four shillings an acre is jiaid, and the same price is paid for topping, tailing, and loading them for cattle. The sheep cost for tending, a shilling a score per week, for which the turnips are sliced, the sheep nets moved, &c. The to|)s of the turnips are thrown on stub- bles, and consumed by the store beasts. After the turnips are placed, the land is looked over by women and children, and the twitch grass, if any, l)icked oft', at from fourpence to sixpence an acre, thus preserving throughout the same attention to one of the greatest points, a clean tilth. Mr. C.'s System. On the tenacious land that has been rmder- drained, a sul)soil-plough is run up all the furrows, to the depth of tweh'e or sixteen inches, and as the land is ploughed in small ridges (three yards wide), the surface water percolates to the imder drains, and the land becomes much sooner dry for the spring work of harrowing. The wheat stubbles are afterwards ploughed deep in the months of November and December, the breast of the plough used being rather short, in order that the land may not be pressed down so close as flag land when ])loughed for wheat sowing. By this system the soil lies light, and the frost of winter i)roduces a degree of fine pulverization that cannot be othenvise obtained on lands of this quality. This is fully demonstrated by harrowing and scarifying in the spring, not a single clod being * The sjjring of this year, 1844, was remarkable for a drought of thirteen weeks. In this county one very slight rain occurred during this period, but it was not sufficient to confer any material benefit, besides being exceedingly partial. In conseq\ience, sowing turnips was delayed ; where not delajed, when they came up, they either were taken off' by the fly, or the seed did not germinate. Mr. Hlomfield, of Warham, who is the father of the Ilolkham tenantry, and whose practical expe- rience is perhaps longer than almost any other agriculturist in the county, determined to try a different mode of cultivation. Instead of sj)lit- ting the riv, Mr. Hume, M.P., Mr. Tuftnell, M.l'., Mr. Pusey," M. P.. &c., &c. These distinguisheil visitors, when recognise«l, were shown througli thccxliibition, citlK-r by Mr. Gibbs, tlic secretary of thcclul), or Mr. Boubiois, thcpro])rietor of the bazaar, who explained the jioints of iierfection in the prize animals. Petwecn four and tive o'cdock Ihe crowd augmenti-d considerably, and from that lime to eight o'clock not less than from 3,000 to 1,000 66 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pei'.sons were assembled, and the cattle show never before had so many lady visitors. Frid.vy. — The show was visited this day by the most distinguished company, among whom were his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge and the Duke of Mecklenburgh Strelitz. The adjourned meeting of the club was held this day, when it was unanimously agreed to give two gold medals in the catMe classes in- stead of one, VISIT OF HER MAJESTY AND H.R.H. PRINCE ALBERT. On Saturday the Show was honoured with a visit from her Majesty the Queen and his Royal Highness Prince Albert. The announcement that such an event was likely to take place was not communicated to the Committee of the Smithfield Club until late on Thursday evening, and on its reception immediate means were resorted to, both by adv^ertisement and otherwise, to inform the public that the doors of the Cattle Show would not be opened until eleven o'clock. Notwithstanding this precaution, as early as eight o'clock the whole of King-street and the neighbourhood of Portman-square was densely thronged by respectably attired persons. At ten o'clock the Queen arrived at the terminus of the Great Western Railwayat Paddington, where her Majesty and the Prince were received by Mr. Russell, M.P., the chairman, andseveral members of the Board of Directors. Three of the royal carriages and four, with out-riders, were already in waiting to receive the royal party, as were also an escort, composed of a detachment of the 17th Lancers, under the command of Lieutenant Innes. Precisely at a quarter past ten o'clock the first of the royal carriages was observed at the end of King- street, Portman-square, coming from the direction of Glouces- ter-place, and in a minute or two after it arrived at the principal entrance to the Horse Bazaar. Tliis carriage contained his Royal Highness Prince Albert, the Duke of Saxe Coburg Gotha, Duke Ernest of Wurtemberg, and Lord Chai-les Wellesley, equerry in waiting on the Prince. Some three or four minutes elapsed before the arrival of her Majesty, and the Prince on alighting shook hands cordially with Earl Spencer and the Duke of Richmond, who were in waiting to receive her Majesty, and intro- duced them to his illustrious relatives. The cheers of the populace now announced the approach of her Ma- jesty, and in an instant after the arrival took place. Her Majesty, who rode in the second carriage, was accom- panied by the Duchess of Saxe Coburg and two of the ladies in waiting, and on her alighting she was loudly cheered. The third carriage contained the Earl of Hard- wicke, Major-General Sir E. Bowater, and two other gentlemen connected with the royal household. Major- General Wemyss, equerry in waiting, and the Hon. Mr Anson, secretary to Prince Albert, had arrived a short time before. Her Majesty, on alighting, was received by Earl Spen- cer, the president, his Grace the Duke of Richmond, vice-president, Mr. B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, the hon. se- cretary, Mr. H. Gibbs, the late secretary, by Messrs. Millward, Druce, Umbers, and Turner, stewards of the Smithfield Club, and by Mr. Boulnois, the proprietor of the bazaar, who had been for some time waiting the Queen's arrival at the entrance to the vestibule, the whole of which was covered with crimson cloth, extend- ing from the kerb to the entrance of the cattle depart- ment. These noblemen and gentlemen conducted her Majesty and the Prince Consort and suite throughout the exhibition, and no other person was permitted to enter. The Queen leant upon the arm of the Duke of Sa.\e Coburg Gotha, while Prince Albert oflered his to the duchess. Immediately prior to the entrance of the royal and illustrious party into the cattle department, IMr. Brand- reth Gibbs had the honour to present to her Majesty and Prince Albert, as well as to each of the royal suite, a copy of the catalogue to the show, which her Majesty accepted in the most affable and condescending maimer. After entering the enclosure, the first animal which attracted the attention of her Majesty and Prince Albert, and which had been removed from the dark corner it had previously occupied into the light near the entrance, was the black polled ox of the Scotch breed, bred by his royal highness. The poor animal, as the prince approached to pat its neck, tried to lick his hand. This attracted the attention of her Majesty, who, having read the placard attached to the descrip- tion, announcing that it was sold to Mr. Bannister, butcher, Threadneedle-street, declared, with great feel- ing, that the poor animal should not be killed if she could help it, and that, if possible, she would purchase it back of Mr. Bannister, and keep it herself at Windsor. Proceeding along the first class the next animal which excited attention was the ox bred by Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre, and which had gained the second prize in that class. On viewing the short-horned steer bred by Mr. Smith, of Burley on the Hill, and which obtained the prize of 20/., her Majesty was loud in her approba- tion of its appearance, and the Prince inquii-ed of Earl Sjiencer and the Duke of Richmond its weight. On arriving at the pens in the inner yard, where the specimens of Southdown sheep were exhibited, those bred by his Grace the Duke of Richmond were pointed out to her Majesty, and the Prince was exceedingly par- ticular in examinmg the quality of the wool. They next proceeded to the pens which had obtained the prizes in this class, belonging to Mr. Webb and Mr. Grantham, and paid particular attention to the wool also. The next point to which the attention of the illustrious visitors was directed was the fine sheep bred by Mr. Upton, of Oving, Sussex, and which obtained the gold medal, as the best specimen of short- woolled sheep. The Prince was much struck with the beautiful appearance of the wool, and put several questions with respect to its value. From this point the royal party ascended the central staircase of the bazaar, and proceeded to inspect the implement department. They first went to the stand of Messrs. Garrett and Co., of the Leiston Ironworks, and examined a subsoil-xilough, a clod-crusher, dig-rakes, chaff-cutter, thrashing-machine, bean-mill, some drills, and other agricultural implements and models, which have obtained for Mr. Garratt various prizes from the Royal Agricultural Society of England. The Prince was exceedingly anxious in his inquu'ies as to their re- spective uses, and they were explained by the Duke of Richmond and Earl Spencer. Hornsby's drills, of Spital Gate, near Grantham, were next examined, and excited equal attention, and her Majesty appeared much interested in learning the nature of the composition of Claridge's asphalte, a great block of which, as a speci- men of flooring, was exhibited. The royal party were then much amused by models of felt roofing, the uses of which were explained to them, as was also a peculiar rake, constructed by Mr. Grant, of Stamford. This latter article was particularly noticed by the Prince. Patent chaft'-ciitting machines, invented by Messrs. Barrett, Exhall, and Andrews, of Reading, were next put in motion, and attracted much attention on the part of her Majesty and the Prince. The next point of attraction was the splendid show of seeds and roots, e.\hibited by Messrs. Thomas Gibbs and Co., of Half- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 67 moon-street, Piccadilly, in whicii her Majesty appeared deeply interested. On being shown a large mangel wurzel, grown by Lord Radnor, from seed supplied by Messrs. Gibbs, both her Majesty and the Prince expressed their astonishment at its extraordinary dhncnsions. Her Majesty and the Prince were next shown the new patent fire-engine, invented by Mr. Read, of the Regent-circus. Its use was explained by ^Ir. Gibbs, and its applicability to halls and rooms, in cases of fire, in which her Majesty ajipeared deeply interested, as was also the Prince when the sub-soil plough, manufactured also by !Mr. Read, and which obtained the prize at Southampton, was exhibited to liim. At this point of the view of the implement depart- ment the royal party arrived at the stand occupied by the portable courvoise, or hatching machine, and the grenier mobile or moveable granary, invented by Mr. Birmingham. Tliis created great amusement to her Majesty, who, as well as some members of the suite, took the hatching machine for a butter churn. Mr. Brandreth Gibbs explained the various jirocesses, and her Majesty frequently laughed heartily at some jokes upon the subject made by Major Gen. Wemyss, and which the Prince explained to his illustrious relatives in German. The last, though not the least object which attracted the deep interest of her Majesty and her royal consort, was Hatcher's Benenden tile machine, manu- factured by Messrs. Cottam and Hallcn, of \Vinsley- street, for the produce of draining tih-s. Earl Si>eucer explained the extreme value of such a machine, now that tile- draining had been proved to be so absolutely necessary to advance the produce of the land, in which the Prince cordially concurred, and ex- pressed his opinion that the invention was of great value to the agricultural community. The royal party now returned to the cattle depart- ment, and, having again looked at some of the South- down sheep, proceeded to view the extra stock and pig chisses. The first prize — carried off against the Prince by Mr. Fisher Hobbs, of Mark's Hall, Kelvedon, Essex — attracted much attention ; and whilst the prince was patting them, and comparing their relative merits with those bred by himself, her Majesty laughed heartily, and felt much amused at the inharmonious tones of the swinish multitude. The Neapohtan ox next attracted great attention , and the Prince remarked upon its great resemblance to the buffalo species. The royal visitors then proceeded to view the cow classes, and much admiration was excited at the beautiful symmetry of the Durham heifer, bred by Mr. Brown, of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, which obtained the prize of 20/. and silver medal to the breeder, and the gold medal as the best beast in any of the classes ; and the same may be said of Lord Exeter's pen of Leicester sheep, and Mr. Thomas's cross breed. Her Majesty, throughout the progress round the show, frequently put (piestions concerning the value, &c.,of tiic rcsjiective animals, and walked amongst the cattle without the slightest apparent fear, changing her sides frequently with the Duke of Saxe Coburg, in order to pat the sheep and other animals which more 1' irticularly attracted attention. After staying in the exhibition for about an hour, her Majesty and the Prince Consort, again attended by the noble president, the Duke of Richmond, and the other gentlemen by whom she had been received, returned to the entrance, and having entered the royal carriage, drove oH' amidst the enthusiastic cheering of the populace. Prior to their departure, her Majesty and the Prince expressed their great gratification at the attention which had been paid them tu tl>e noble president, Jvul Spencer, aad also the pleasure they cxpericiiccil at the ciliibition. It has already been stated that the public were not to be admitted until after eleven o'clock, and that a notice had been given to that effect. No sooner, however, had her Majesty departed, than the rush of the populace to the doors was so tremendous, that a strong body of the police of the D division, under the orders of Superin- tendent Hughes, and Inspectors Tedman and Black, were wholly unable to resist it. Neither money nor check takers had taken their places, and a large number of persons managed to effect their entrance into the show w ithout paying. The arrangements generally for the reception of her Majesty were excellent in the extreme, and reflect the greatest credit on Mr, B, T. Brandreth Gibbs, the se- cretary of the club, and Mr. Boulnois, the spirited pro- prietor of the bazaar, to whose general courtesy through- out the proceedings the press and the public are greatly indebted, Mr, Mayne, the police commissioner, was in attend- ance at the bazaar during the visit of her Majesty, and the police arrangements, under the orders of Superin- tendent Hughes, and Mr, Inspector Tedman, were most efficient. Her Majesty looked remarkably well, and was attired in a black silk drawn bonnet, a black Cashmere dress, and black velvet tunic. The Prince was attired in a black surtout and dark grey trousers, and wore a black band on his hat. After the departure of her ^Majesty, the bazaar conti- nued to be visited throughout the day by thousands of persons, up to nine o'clock on Saturday evening, when it finally closed for the present year. It is stated to be the intention of Mr, Bouhiois, prior to the next show, instead of the canvas awning now used as a covering to the cattle-yard, to erect a splendid roofing upon the same plan as at railway stations, and which will afford greater air to the cattle, and be much more comfortable to the public. Shortly after the departure of the Queen and Prince Albert, Earl Spencer and the Duke of Richmond quitted the Cattle Show, and proceeded to Hanover-square, in order to attend the annual meeting of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England, It is computed that this year not less than 60,000 persons have visited the cattle show. From a careful examination of the stock exhibited, vvc are of opinion that, though the animals shown in classes I. and IV. — viz., oxen or steers, and cows, of any breed, under 5 years old — were excellent, and there were some few fine specimens in other classes, yet the generality were below the average of stock which wc have been in the habit of seeing brought forward. Wc subjoin the names of the Judges : For Beasts and Long-ioooUed Sheep.— ^Ir. ^^'orth- ington ; Mr. Ladds; Mr. Franklin. For Short-xooolled Sheep and Pigs.^Mr. Morris ; Mr Farncomb ; Mr, Crisp. AWARD OF PRIZES. Oxen. Tlicre were about GO oxen shown under the several classes. Class I, — OxeuorStccrs,ofanybrced» under Hvc years old, without restrictions iis to fecdin,', yet the kind or kinds of food must lie certified. The first prize of t"JO and a silver medal to the l)rcciler was given to Air, Uobort Smith, of Uurley-on- the-Hill, near Oakani, Hutiand, a ;> years and llf months old improved sliort-horned steer, bred by himself, and ted on oil-cake, barley and bcan-nieal, vegetables, and hay. Travelled to the show by van F 2 68 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 20 milea, and by railway 100 miles. This was an ani- mal of enormous weight, very evenly fatted, and of re- markably fine bone. It was purchased by Mr. Min- ton, of Windsor, jiurveyor to her Majesty, for 70 guineas. The second prize in this class, of £15, was carried off by Blr. John Hudson, of Castle-acre, near SwaS'ham, jVorfolk, a 3 years and 10 months old Hereford ox, bred by Mr. John Longmore, of Orlton, near Leomin- ster, and fed on grass, hay, swedes, linseed cake, and mangel-wurzel. Travelled to the show by van 100 miles. This was a well- fed and well-bred and very complete animal, but rather light in the half-leg. The third prize of lOL was given to Mr. T. L. Meire, of Cound Arbor, near Shrewsbury, Shrop- shire, for his 3 years and 11 months old Hereford ox, bred by himself, and fed on cake, pea and barley-meal, boiled barley, grains, grass, hay, turnips, and mangel- wurzel. Travelled to the show on foot 2 miles, by van 7 miles, by canal-boat 50 miles, and by railway 100 miles. A fine specimen of breeding and symmetry of form, but not fat enough in his rumps. There were many other well bred and fatted beasts in this class, particularly that of Mr. Trindor, of Wantage, Berks; an animal of great depth of carcass, and every way suited for a farmer. This beast was very deservedly commended by the judges. Class II. — Oxen or Steers, of any breed, under 6 years old, weight 90 stone and upwards, that shall not have had cake, corn, meal, seeds, grains, or distil- lers' wash, during 12 months previous to the 1st of August, 1844. The prize animals were alone in this class deserving especial notice. The first premium of 30/. and a silver medal to the breeder was awarded to Mr. James Bult, of Kingston, near Taunton, Somerset, for his 4 years and 10 months old short-horned steer, bred by himself, and fed on hay, grass, Swede turnips, SOOlbs. of flax-seed, 5 bushels of peas, 11 bushels of barley, and 9 bushels of beans. Travelled to the show onfoot 5 miles, and by railway 163 miles. Although called a Durham, this animal was a de- cided Lincoln, This was a splendidly fatted bullock. Second prize of 20^, to Mr. J. T. Senior, of Broughton House, near Aylesbury, a 4 years and 8 months old Hereford ox, bred by Mr, James Nash, of Aconbury, near Hereford, and fed on grass, hay, and 9601bs. of oil-cake. Travelled to the show on foot 4 miles, and by railway 43 miles. This beast was purchased by Mr. Joseph Armfield, of Brook street. Bond street, for GQl. Third prize of lOl. to Sir John Henry Palmer, Bart,, of Carlton, near Rockingham, Northamp- ton, a 4 years and 2 months old Durham ox, bred by himself, and fed on grass, hay, turnips, carrots, mangel-wurzel, cabbage, 1,545 lbs. of oil-cake, and 435 lbs. of bcan-raeal. Travelled to the show by van 25 miles, and by railway 60 miles. This was a good ox, but not fat enough on the ribs. It was sold to Mr, Page, of Lambeth Walk, Class III. — Oxen or Steers, ef any breed, under 5 years old, under 100 stone and above 70 stone weight, that shall not have had cake, corn, meal, seeds, grains, or distillers' wash, during 12 months previous to the 1st of August, 1844. The first prize of £15 and a silver medal was ad- judged to his Grace the Duke of Bedford, of Park Farm, near Woburn, Bedfordshire, for a very fine 4 years old Hereford ox, bred by his Grace, and fed on grass, green tares, hay, turnips, 5001bs. of linseed- meal, and 5001bs. of barley-meal. Travelled to the show by van 42 miles. This well-bred beast carried a great deal of well laid on fat. Mr. Henry Chamberlain, of Desford, near Leicester, » 4 years and 10 months old Hereford ox, bred by him- self, and fed on grass, hay, green vetches, turnips, 180 lbs. of cake, and 6251bs, of pea-meal, which obtained the 2nd prize of £10, Travelled to the show on foot 10 miles, and by railway 102 miles. Class IV.— Oxen or Steers of any breed, not exceed- ing 4 years and 3 mouths old, and under 80 stone weight, that shall not have had cake, corn, meal, seeds, grain, or distillers' wash, during 12 months previous to the 1st of August, 1844. This class consisted of a quantity of very well bred and fatted beasts. The first premium of £10 and a silver medal was adjudged to his (J race the Duke of Bedford, of Park Farm, near Woburn, for a 3 years and 9 months old Hereford ox, bred by his Grace, and fed on grass, green tares, hay, turnips, 5001bs. of barley-meal, and SOOlbs. of linseed-meal. Travelled to the show on foot 3 miles, by van 6 miles, and by railway 41 miles. The breeding of this animal was particularly good, the symmetry being light, and, al- though carrying much flesh, not coarse. The second prize of ,£'5 was given to Mr. John Man- ning, of Harpole, near Northampton, for a fine 3 years and 10 months old Hereford ox, bred by Mr. James Williams, of Culmington, near Ludlow. Class V.— Oxen or Steers, of any breed, under 4 years and 6 months old, and under 80 stone weight, without restrictions as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food must be specified. The animals exhibited in this class were neither re- markable for fat or breeding. A prize of i.'IO and a silver medal to the breeder was awarded to Mr. W. J. Bailey, of Shenley House, Stoney Stratford, Bucks, for a 3 years and 8 months old Hereford steer, bred by Mr. W. Wheeler, of Ivington Park, near Leo- minster, and fed on grass, hay, and cake. Tra- velled to the show on foot 5 miles, and by railway 50 miles. Cows and Heifers. Class VI.— Fattened Cows or Heifers, under 5 years old. Freemartins and speyed Heifers not qualified. In this and the two following classes there was more choice of blood than in any other. The number of animals shown was 20. The first prize of .£'20, with gold and silver medal, was awarded to Mr. Henry Brown, of Ashbyde-la- Zouch, Leicestershire, for his 4 years and 6 months old Durham heifer, bred by himself, and fed on oil-cake, barley, grass, cabbage, Swedish turnip, and hay. Tra- velled to the show by van 25 miles, and by railway 96 miles. This animal attracted much attention. The second prize of lOL was carried off by the Right Hon. Earl Spencer, of Wiseton, near Bawtry, Notting- hamshire, for a 4 years and 5 months old short- horned cow, bred by his lordship, and fed on hay, turnips, cabbages, pea-meal, barley-meal, and oil-cake. Travelled to the show by van 20 miles, and by railway 172 miles. This cow was sold to Mr. Ryder, of South- ampton. The third prize In this class, of £5, was given to Sir Thomas Whichcote, Bart., of Aswarby Park, near Folkingham, Lincolnshire, for a 4 years and 5 months old Durham heifer, bred by himself, and fed on linseed cakes, bean-meal, oat-meal, hay, and vegetables. Tra- velled to the show by van 38 miles, and by railway 107 miles. Class VII. — Fattened Cows or Heifers, of 5 years old THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 09 and upwards. Freemartins and speyed Heifers arc not qualified, The first prize of .i.'20 and asilvermcdal, wasadjiidged to IVlr. John Beasley, of Chapel Hraiupton, near Nor- thampton, a f) years and 4 months old short-horned cow, bred by himself, and fed on grass, turnips, mangel wurzcl, hay, linseed-cake, and oatmeal. Travelled to the show by van 9 miles, and by railway (iO miles. This was one of Lord Spencer's stock, and sold to Mr. Bannister, of Windsor. The second prize of ^'5, was given to Mr. John Car- wardine, of Marsh, near Leominster, for a 5 years and 11 months old Hereford cow, bred by the late Jlr. John ISForris, of Stratford Bury, near Leominster, and fed on grass and oil-cake. Travelled to the show on foot 18 mills, and by railway 113 miles; has had 1 calf. Class VIll. — Fattened Cows, of 5 years old and up- wards, that shall have had at least 2 live Calves at separate births. The first prize of £15, and a silver medal to the breeder, was awarded to Mr. J. S. Burgess, of Holme Pierrepont, near Nottingham, for a 7 years and H months old short-horned cow, bred by Mr. Robert Bur- gess, of Cotsgrove Place, Nottingham, and fed on cake, beans, vegetables, and hay. Travelled to the show by van 5 miles, and by railway 13G miles; has had 3 calves. The second prize of .£'5, to Jlajor Brown, of Wel- bourn, near Cirantham, Lincolnshire, a 13 years old short horned cow, bred by himself, and fed on linseed- cakes, Swedes, turnips, hay, clover, and lucerne. Tra- velled to the show by van 40 miles, and by railway 100 miles; has had G calves. Extra Stock. — Cattle. There were about 18 animals exhibited as extra stock ; that which attracted most attention was a gigantic black ox, of .'> years and 0 months old, about IG hands high, of the pure bred Angus polled breed, bred by Mr. Hugh Watson, of Keillor, Forfar, and shown by His Royal Highness Prince Albert. Although a prominent object of Interest, this animal was anything but handsome. It was purchased by Mr. Bannister, of Threadneedle-strcet, butcher to her Majesty, for the sum of (iO guineas. A silver medal was given to Mr. R. Morton, of IVakill, near Spalding, Lincolnshire, for his 4 years and 8 months old short-horned ox, bred by himself, and fed on linseed, turnips, cabbages, and carrols. Travelled to the show by van o5 miles, and by railway 70 miles. A fine red Scotch deer, brought up by Mr. Poole, of the Star and Garter, Windsor, and bred in the Windsor Great Park, was also an object of interest among the visitors. Shekp. The collection of sheep for the present year was re- markably fine, and fully equal to any of theexhibitioHS of former years, i he i)rincipal competitors among the short-woolled were the Duke of Richmond, Mr. S. Grantham, of Stiuuham, Mr. S. \\'ebb, of Babrahani, near Cambridge, Mr. K. G. Barnard, M.P., Mr. IL Upton, of Chichester, and .Mr. J. Harris, of Hinton. Class IX. — Long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, that liave never had cake, corn, meal, seeds, or pulse. — 1st i)rize, £20, and silver medal, to Mr. J. S. Burgess, of Holme Pierrejjont, Nottinghamshire, a pen of three 20 months old long-woolkd wethers, bred by himself. 2nd prize, X'5, to Mr. Thomas Twitchell, of Wellington, near St. Neots, Bed3.,apenof three 20 months old Leicester wethers, bred by him- self, from rams hired of Mr. Samuel Bennett, of Bickerings Park, near Woburn, Beds. Class X. — Long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, under 8 stone weight, that have never had cake, com, meal, seeds, or pulse. — £10 and silver medal to Mr. J. S. Burgess, of Holme Pierrepont, Not- tinghamshire, a pen of three 20 mouths old long- woolled wethers, bred by himself. Class XI.— Long-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, without restrictions as to feeding.— 1st prize, £20, and gold medal and silver medal, to His Grace the Duke of Bedford, of Oakley Farm, Bedford, a pen of three 20 months old new Leicester wethers, bred by his grace. 2nd prize, £.'), to Mr. John Painter, of Hurley, near Oakham, Rutland, a pen of tliree 21 months old new Leicester wethers, bred by himself, from a ram hired of Mr. Thorpe, of Clifton, Nottinghamshire. Class XII. — Long and short-woolled cross bred fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, without restiictions as to feeding. — 1st prize", £10, and silver medal, to Mr. C. Tomson, of Sundon, near Luton, Beds, a pen of three 21 months old Southdown and Gloucester cross wethers, bred by himself. 2nd prize, £5, toMr. \\. Bcnnet, of Lewsey Farm, near Dunstable, Bedford- shire, a pen of three 21 months old Down and Leicester cross wethers, bred by himself. Extra Stock. —Long-woolled Sheep. Silver medal to Mr. Charles Large, of Broadwell, Oxfordshire, a oG months old new Oxfordshire ewe, bred by himself. The Oxford and Cotswold sheep, shown in extra stock, were of a very superior description ; and the new Leicesters distanced the old breed. Class XIII. — Short-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, without restrictions as to feeding. In this class some well bred and well fatted South- downs were shown, remarkable for symmetry and staple of wool. The first prize of £20, and a silver medal, were adjudged to Mr. Samuel Webb, of Babrahani, near Cambridge, a pen of three 20 months old South Down wethers bred by Mr. J. Webb, of Babraham. 2nd prize, £5, to His Grace the Duke of Richmod, of Goodwood, near Chichester, Sussex, a pen of three 20 months old Southdown wethers, bred by his grace. Class XIV.— Short-woolled Fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old, under 8 stone weight, without restrictions as to feeding. A prize of £10, and gold medal and silver medal, to Mr. Henry Upton, of Oving, near Chichester, Sussex, a pen of three 20 months old Southdown wethers, bred by Mr. A. Pinnix. These sheep were purchased by Mr. JefTrys, of Knightsbridge. Class XV.— Short-woolled fat Wether Sheep, 2 years old, without restrictions as to feeding. 1st prize, £20, and silver medal, to Mr. E. G. Barnard, M.P., of Gosfiehl-hall, near Halstead, Es- sex, a pen of three 32 months old Southdown we- thers, bred by himself. This pen was iturrhascd by Mr. George Kent, of King-street, Russell-s(|uare. 2nd prize, .£^), to Mr. Steidien (irantham, of Stone- ham, Sussex, a pen of three 32 months old Southdown wethers, bred by himself. In tliis class there was some severe competition, for all the animals shown were of a most superior description. The Duke of Richmond followed close upon the heels of the suc- cessful competitors. Extra Stock. — Shout-woollkd Sheep. A silver medal, to Mr. John Harris, of Hinton, near Abingdon, Berkshire, a 21 months old Southdown wether, bred by himself. 70 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. There were some fine sheep shown in extra stock rf-flf eting credit on tlie breeders. The collection of Pij^s was comparatively small, there being but IG pens. Class XVI. — Pigs of any breed, above 13 and under 26 weeks old. The first prize of £10 and a silver medal was awarded to a gentleman who has already attained a high reputation for his breed of pigs. Mr. W. F. Ilobbs, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex, a pen of three "25 weeks and -4 days old im- proved Essex pigs, bred by himself, and fed on oats, peas, meal, potatoes, raangold-wurzel, and milk. The second prize of £o to His Royal Highness Prince Albert, of Windsor Castle, a pen of three 25 weeks and 4 dayi? old Suffolk and Bedfordshire pigs, bred by his Royal Highness, and fed on milk, barley- meal, and pea-meal. These were purchased by Mr. Slatter^ of Knightsbridge. Extra Stock. — Pigs. Mr. W. F. Hobbs, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex, a 25 weeks and 4 days old improved Essex pig, bred by liimself, and fed on oats, peas, meal, potatoes, mangold wurzel, and milk. — Silver medal. Class XVII. — Pigs, of any breed, above 26 and under 52 weeks old. First prize, £10, and silver medal, to Mr. J. Buck- ley, of Norraanton Hill, near Loughborough, Notting- hamshire, a pen of three 27 weeks and 2 days old Nea- politan and Warwickshire pigs, bred by himself, and fed on barley-flour. This pen was sold to Mr. J. Garland, of Oxford-market. The second prize of £5 was carried off" by the Right Hon. the Earl of Radnor, of Coleshill, near Farringdon, Berks, a pen of three 44 weeks and 1 day old Coles- hill pigs, bred by his lordship, and fed on whey, barley- meal, and potatoes. THE ANNUAL DINNER. The annual dinner of the members and friends of the Smithfield Club took place on Friday evening, at the Freemasons' Tavern. Earl Spencer, the President of the society, took the chair, and was supported on either side by the Duke of Richmond and P. Pusey, Esq., M.P., the Vice Presidents. Among the agriculturists present, who were near the Chairman, we observed Sir Harry Verney, the Hon. M. Nugent, T. L. Hodges, Esq., C. T. Towers, Esq., J. V. Shelley, Esq., J. Hud- son, Esq., H. Gibbs, Esq., B. T. B. Gibbs, Esq., Messrs. S. Druce, Milward, Umbers, Tanner, and Saxby, stewards of the society; E. Majoribanks, Esq., — Calder, Esq., Mr. Alderman Copeland, — Thorn, Esq., Messrs. Franklin, Worthington, Ladds, Morris, Farncomb, and Crisp, judges of stock ; Mr. J. Beasley, Mr. Moore, Mr. S. Bennett, Mr. Ed- wards, Mr. Keasy, W. F. Hobbs, Esq., R. D. F. Shawe, Esq., C. Barnett, Esq., R. W. Baker, Esq., Mr. W. Bennett, W. Shaw, Esq., E. D. Majoribanks. Esq., — Pulleine, Esq., Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. R Smith, Mr. Stokes Franklin, Mr. Jonas Webb, and Mr. Hugh Watson, of Kcilor. There were also many other gentlemen and tenant farmers present, but the attendance was not so numerous as on some former occasions. The cloth having been removed. The Chairman said he was sure that on no occa- sion would they require much inducement to drink the health of the Queen, but he had to state to them that there was a peculiar reason for their doing so with en- thusiasm on that occasion. Her Majesty had that day done them the honour to say that she wished to inspect their show, and he was accordingly commanded to meet her at the Bazaar for that purpose to-morrow at ten o'clock (cheers). He was satisfied that great advantages would result to the society when it was known that it was of such national importance as to induce her Majesty thus to honour them with her countenance (cheers). This was an unexpected honour, but it was therefore only esteemed the more highly, and he was sure it would induce them to drink her Ma- jesty's healtli with more enthusiasm than even that toast had ever before been drunk by any society {loud cheers). The toast was drunk upstanding, and with three times three. The Chairman next proposed "The Health of the Queen Dowager, Prince Albert,the Princeof Wales, and the rest of the royal family." He was happy to say that Prince Albert was a member of their society, and had been successful in gaining one of the prizes (cheers). His Royal Highness had intimated his intention to visit their sliow before they were informed that her IVIajesty would do so, and being one of their members he would have done so in the ordinary manner, and there would have been no exclusion of strangers; but her Majesty's visit would render it necessary that the view should be a private one {hear, hear). It was not at all necessary that he should enlarge on the advantage to the society and the country at large from a person of the rank of his Royal Highness taking an interest in agriculture. It must necessarily be a great encourage- ment and stimulus to every person to promote its im- provement. He would, therefore, call upon them to drink the toast with three times three, and good cheers. The toast having been warmly responded to, Tlie Chairman said the next toast he had to pro- pose was, " Success to the Smithfield Club." He was sorry their attendance there that night was not so nu- merous as he could have wished; but, perhaps, it was to be accounted for by the cold weather (hear, hear). He was happy to say, however, that the attendance at the show itself had not at all diminished (cheers). He would not say the present show was the best they had ever had, for in particular classes, as, for instance, those in which there were restrictions on food, he thought it not so good as on some former occasions. But, taking the whole sIiow together, he could say, conscientiously, that it had been a very excellent and good show (cheers). They might have had better, but there was not the least reason to be disappointed. An alteration had been that day made by the club with respect to the restriction classes, which he thought it was desirable should be known as soon as possible. Hitherto no animal could be admitted in the restric- tive classes which had eaten artificial food for twelve months previous to the 1st of August before the show. Many members of the club thouglit that this was not a good regulation, and that it gave too great an advan- tage to those farmers in the country who happened to have very good grazing land over others who in this respect were not so fortunate (hear, hear). It had, therefore, been that day decided by the club, that this restriction should be from the 1st of May instead of from the Istof August. The effect would be, that any per- son wishing to compete in the restrictive classes might give his animals artificial food during summer, from the 1st May instead of the 1st of August, wliich ought to make these classes much better in appearance. ( Hear, hear). He hoped there was nothing in this alteration contrary to. the original principle of the so- ciety, that on which it had been established by Francis Duke of Bedford, and had ever sinceacted on — namely', to encourage the production of the best meat at the cheapest rate. (Hear, hear). He might have some little doubt about it, but on the whole he believed the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 71 alteration was right, and would not interforo with that principle. (Ilcnr, hear). He need not tell them he considered their club of the greatest advantage to the country. He thought among other ad\antages that it had improved the breed of stock throughout the coun- try in the greatest possible degree. (Hear, hear). It was true they did not give prizes for breeding stock, yet by giving prizes to that produced by breeding stock hetlioiight they encouraged breeding more etfcc- tively than they could do in any other manner. (Hear, hear). Their club had now been in existence for nearly 46 years, and no doubt during that time, and he believed through its agency, the improvement in stock had been beyond calculation. It might be said that, having arrived so near perfection, their club could do no more good ; but he was sure the cessation of giving prizes in the public manner in which they gave them every year would tend to deteriorate very rapidly the stock of the country (/iwr, /(er/r) ; and it was fortius reason, because, although they knew what good ani- mals were, and the principles they should act on to make them such, he doubted if competition were taken away whether their knowledge would induce them to exert themselves as they now did. (Hear, hear). It was, moreover, of immense advantage that the graziers throughout the country should have an op- portunity once a year of witnessing animals in their most jierfect state, that they might increase their knowletlge, and learn there were animals to be seen abroad even better than their own at home. (Hear, hear). It was for these reasons tliat he felt satisfied the club was a great advantage to the country, and its continuance a great national object. lie was happy to say there was every reason to hope that it was per- manently established. (Cheers). Looking at the financial state of the society, he was happy to inform them that it was most flourishing; so much so that not only had they sufficient for the prizes and ex- penses of tliis and the ensuing year, but they were also able to order some of their money to be funded (Cheers.) He hoped, however, this would not induce tiicm to l)e either lukewarm or extravagant, but would merely satisfy them that they were safe in giving tlie prizes they now did, and that they could antici- jiiife any occurrences which might afl'ect the pros- pciity of the country or of agriculture. He did not anticipate any such occurrences, but it was always well I o be prepared for them. (Hear, hear.) Having said tlius much, he called upon them to drink " Success to IJK! Smithtield Club." Tlie toast was drunk upstanding, and with three times three. The Chairman then proposed the health of the Vice-Presidents, the Duke of Richmond and Mr. •'iisey. Since their last meeting the society had had ;rcat loss in the death of one of their vice-presi- iits, who was also one of their oldest members — a .Miin wiiom every one who knew him as a farmer, or as I friend, must deeply regret — he meant Lord Western. {Hear, hear.) It was liis happiness to have been in- timate with tliat noble lord for the greatest part of his life, and every one who knew him knew what an iniiablc, kind, and honest man ho was. Tliat lainent- id nobleman had been throughout a constant sup- porter of tlieir society, as lie had ever been of every- thing which was I'or the good of agriculture or of the country. (Hear.) It was with deep regret he alluded lo bis loss, but he could not give this toast without alluding to him to whom the society owed so much, lie would oidy add that tliey had elected tlie Earl of Hardwicke to sujiply liis place — a nobleman who, lie doubted not, would also render the greatest services to their society and to agriculture. (Hear, hear.) The Duke of TJiciimon'd sa'd, he rose to return thanks for the compliment they had paid the vice-pre- sidents; but he was anxious that each should do so for himself, because he felt Mr. Pusey would do it more effectually than he could. The expressions of kindness he had ever received from them, not only on that occa- sion, but on every occasion when he had met them, was, he could assure them, most deeply appreciated. He would ask them to place themselves in his situa- tion. Was there any man who could be indifferent to the marks of approbation and regard from that body of men for whom he had ever felt and would ever feel sentiments of the greatest esteem — the farmers of England .' Whenever it had been his good fortune to meet the Smithfield Club, or any body of English farmers, they had done him the honour to believe that his intentions were good, though he might not have had it in his power to look fairly at the question at issue — and he regretted In say that, as the wealth ofthe many had accumulated in the hands of the few, the very laws which had been brought forward, from the passing of that wicked mea- sure the Currency Bill, down to its " complement," as Sir Robert Peel called the Bank Charter Bill, had aji- j)earcd to have but one prevailing spirit, viz., to destroy the energies of the industrious classes, and to enhance the value of money by diminishing the produce of the soil — the produce of that soil on which honest men for- merly existed, but which now, unfortunately, was con- verted into tangible heavy gold that found its place in the pockets ofthe legislature, while the farmers weie robbed and drained ofthe last shilling in their pockets {hear). Mr. Bennkit said there was one passage in that report which he should certainly like so see expunged ; it was that which stated that the agriculturists had everything to hope and nothing to fear. Now he could not be a party to the publication of that senti- ment, seeing what had been done by the legislature — seeing what was going on in the country — seeing, as he did, the property of the farmer frittered away in many instances, and the lamentable condition of the labouring classes in some parts of the country. He said that, seeing all this, and perceiving that incendiary fires were not at all diminished in number, it did appear to him that they were not in a condition to say that British agriculture had every thing to hope and nothing to fear. lie somewhat agreed with the remarks of Mr. Allnatt, but he could not go so far as to expect any material modification of the corn bill. He thought that any better prices, or any further protection, was under the circumstances of the case almost imjiracti- eable ; but he thought it behoved noble dukes and lords, and owners of the soil, to look to these prices, and ask themselves whether they were to be maintauied along with the burthens to which farmers were sub- jected ? Although the farmers had among them those who, to use a humble phrase, had the forehorse by the head, and who could bear the burthens he alluded to, it was yet clear to him that the real cause why agri- cultural labourers were not fully employed was the want of money on the part of the farmers themselves. (hear, hear). It would be useless to deny this fact. He ajipcared there not as a party man ; he was no party man, but he did say that, situated as they were, it behoved gentlemen who possessed large landed estates in the country to look the matter fully in the face, as he thought, from peculiar circumstances, they did not know the real jiosition of the country. He admitted that there was no difficulty in letting farms, and it was from this circumstance that the landowners were, he thought, deluded (hear, hear, hear). There was a competition for farms because men brought u]i to the cultivation of the soil had no other prospect of a beneficial investment of their capital, unless they were to sell off and depart to some distant colony or foreigii state, and there carry on their accustomed pursuits. The habits of the farmer were such as to indispose him to go into trade or commence commercial business. Eitlier better prices must be maintained, or the burdens which fell so heavily on the occupier of the soil nuist be borne more fairly by the commercial interests of the country. If this were not done, and low prices were to be the order of the day, the interests of agriculture would be swamjied. He was sure that where he ]>ai(l fifteen shillings the manufacturer did iu)t jiay five sliil- lings (hear, hear). He did not wish that they should appear disunited, but that the words of the report to which he alluded should be struck out. The noble Chairman thought that when the whole of the paragraph to which Mr. Bennett had referred was read, that gentleman would see it 806 19 -1 able on the Funds of the Society J i;5,736 5 2 Payments. Dinners Ladies' Gallery Refreshments Pavilion Show Yard and Trial of Implements Police Judges Consulting Engineer Auctioneer Surveyors Printing , Stationery Advertisements Carriage Postage Official Staff Extra Clerks , Swearing in Constables , i,'5,736 5 2 (Signed) Richmond, President Thomas Raymond Barker, Chairman of Finance C. B. Challoner Thomas Austen Henry Blanshard These balance-sheets having been formally received, The noble Duke in the chair said the next business on the paper was a vote of thanks to the Judges at Southampton. A vote of thanks to those gentlemen was unanimously carried. The noble Chairman observed that the Society had now to pass a vote of thanks to Dr. Playfair for the lec- tures he had delivered. Earl Spencer was sure that, in the presence of many of those gentlemen who had heard Dr. I'layfair's leeturcs delivered at the theatre of the Royal Institution, it was scarcely necessary for him to say anything in moving such a vote of thanks. The Professor had mentioned that he had been obliged to prepare his leeturcs very hastily, but he (Earl Spencer) was certain that no one who listened to them emild discern any marks of haste in their composition. Those lectures, as they were heard, were very valuable ; but they would be still more valuable in a printed form. It was extremely difhcult 0 £. s. d. 946 1 0 25 0 0 794 12 0 2,630 11 7 121 15 0 354 14 6 65 1 2 21 0 0 7 14 0 499 5 9 19 1 7 255 5 4 36 14 10 11 4 7 32 0 4 15 8 0 0 15 6 82 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to follow viva voce explanations of scientific subjects. To understand them properly it required that they should be read with care and attention, and he was quite sure that when he and others had the pleasure of reading those lectures, they would be found much more inter- esting and valuable than gentlemen now deemed them to be. He had no doubt that other persons, like him- self, had but imperfectly understood some of the expla- nations given by Dr. Playfair, and particularly in refer- ence to the first lecture. These explanations would be clear enough when they had the pleasure of seeing the lectures in print ; and he had no hesitation in saying that their publication would be extremely beneficial. He therefore had great pleasure in moving that the thanks of the Society be given to Dr. Playfair for his lectures. The Marquis of Downshire seconded the resolution, wliich was carried, nem. con. INIr. W. IMiLEs, M.P. could assure the meeting it gave him great satisfaction to rise for the purpose of moving a vote of thanks to the Royal Institution for their kind- ness in granting the use of their theatre for the delivery of Dr. Playfair's lectures. He need scarcely say, that whenever the cause of science was brought forward in England, the Royal Institution always proffered, in the most handsome way, the gratuitous use of one of their rooms for the furtherance of it — for the assistance of that science for which the Royal lustitution had been specially formed. He hoped and trusted that this was the beginning of the good feeling that would always sub- sist between them, and that they would hereafter go hand in hand together in the prosecution of inquiries for the benefit of agriculture. The Royal Institution had set the society an example by offering a considerable sum for the analyzation of the ashes of plants, and he trusted that the Royal Agricultural Society would, and parti- cularly after what they had this day heard of the flourish- ing state of their funds, second the endeavours of the Royal Institution. He knew he should meet with the assent of the meeting when he moved, as he now begged to do, the thanks of the society to the Royal Institu- tion for their kindness in granting the use of their theatre to Dr. Playfair. Mr. Brown seconded the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Solly returned thanks. Sir Harry Verxey moved a vote of thanks to the Finance Committee and the Auditors. The resolution having been seconded was carried unanimously. Col. Challoxor said, that in the absence of Mr. Barker, who was the Chairman of the Finance Com- mittee, he begged to return thanks in the name of that committee for the vote of thanks the society had just awarded them. It was very gratifying for the committee to know that they contuiue to enjoy the confidence of the society, and also of the auditors, who had gone so far as to say the accounts had got into such a state of regularity as to be very creditable to the society. The Auditors returned thanks. Sir Harry Verney said, he was anxious to bring before the society a subject that he had for a long time past thought would be a very desirable addition to this institution. His motive for introducing the matter was that he had seen the admirable working of it in the sister kingdom, and in corroboration of which he could refer to the noble Marquis on the right of his Grace. He referred to the establishment of local societies in con- nection with the Royal Agricultural Society of England. It had always appeared to him that the usefulness of this society would be enhanced if, in every county of Eng- land, there were an authorized body governed by the same laws which, so fortunately for British agriculture, governed this society, and which body might be autho- ritatively referred to by farmers desiring information, and be the organ of communication with the farmers of the district. He had heard that difficulty had existed in collecting the subscriptions. If these local societies existed, this difficulty would in a great measure be obviated. But the object he had in making his suggestion was of a far higher character than this : he made it because he thought the local bodies would be able to correspond with the parent Society in an ef- ficient manner, and Ijecause he had been assured in Ire- land that the most useful part of the Irish Agricultural Improvement Society consisted of the local institutions in connection with it (Hear, hear, from the Marquis of Downshire). He repeated that he thought such local societies would be most useful to the farmers of Eng- land. With respect to Ireland, he thought those local bodies would go far towards regenerating the Irish na- tion, and restoring tranquillity to the country. He was aware that many districts of England enjoyed the advan- tage of local agricultural societies ; but all districts had not. It was not his intention to make any motion on this subject, yet he did wish to elicit from the members their opinions as to the propriety and utility of forming such local associations. The noble Chairman could only say he would take care that the subject which Sir Harry Verney had men- tioned should have the best consideration of the Council. He did not know how they were to set about ef- fecting the junction of the local bodies with the society without those bodies first seeking such a union. It appeared to him that the hint his honourable friend had thrown out would have been better made at one of the local bodies, where he might have originated a mo- tion for their joining this society. He had no doubt that in Ireland the local bodies had been of great use. In his own county there were many local societies, who had been of the greatest possible service to agriculture ; and not the least valuable of those services was their circulation of the information which this society had collected. The subject was one which was very well worthy the consideration of the Council, and he could assui-e his honourable friend it should be brought before them at one of its first meetings. The Marquis of Downshire begged to confirm what Sir Harry Verney had stated with respect to the service rendered to Ireland by the local agricultural societies of that country. Sir Harry Verney was, he (the Marquis of Downshire) was sure, a competent witness to the ad- vantages which had been derived by Ireland in general from the formation of the Royal Irish Agricultural So- ciety ; a society which took its origin from the example set by that whose members he now had the honour of addressing, and that also set by the Royal Highland Society. He was sure that evei-y body in Ireland felt extremely flattered when gentlemen from this country went over there for the puqiose of being present at their agricultural meetings ; and he had much pleasure in instancing the visit of Sir Harry Verney. The attention which that hon. gentleman paid to every- thing connected with the soil of Ireland had struck liim when he (liie Marquis of Downshu-e) had the pleasure of meeting him at the agricultural meeting in Dublin. He was happy to find that what Sir Harry had witnessed there had not passed from his mind ; and he was sure that hon. gentleman would in liis sphere and neighbour- hood bear witness to the fact, that the landlords of Ire- land desired most anxiously to lend their best assistance to improve the agriculture of that country. He was sure the meeting would not think he was trespassing too much on their time when he said he thought the land- owners in Ireland, and the cultivators or occupiers of the soil, were both of them bound together by mutual THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 83 interests, and that they were now exerting themselves in a way that was doin^ much good to the country in geneniJ. Tlie hint of Sir Harry Vcrney was deserving everj' attention from the Council ; and lie had no doubt it would cause the establishment of a great many local societies in connection and co-operation with the mem- bers of this establishment. Earl Si'ENCER then moved a vote of thanks to the no- ble Chairman, wliich was carried by acclamation. The Duke of Richmono could assure them he was grateful for the manner in wliich they had given him a note of thanks. He felt that he had done little as Pre- sident of the Society to deserve it, but he hoped tliat when he vacated his office he should leave the Society in as flourishing a state as it was at present. He believed the Society was calculated to do a very great deal of good to the country. He believed it had done a great deal of good ; and from the very tirst moment of its establish- ment, finding it was supported by a great body of the tenants and practical farmers of the country, he never could have doubted its success. He begged to repeat that he was much obliged to them for the vote of thanks they had given him, and to state tliat on every occasion that he could promote the welfare of agriculture, he was at their service (cheers). The meeting then adjourned. A weekly Council was held at the Society's House, Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 11th of Decem- ber, present : — His grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G., President, in the chair ; Marquis of Downshire, Col. Austen, D. Barclay, Esq., M.P., Thomas Ray- mond Barker, Esq., J. Browne, Esq., W. R. Browne, Esq., F. Burke, Esq., Dr. Calvert, W. B. Canning, Esq., Rev. T. Cator, Colonel Challoner, H. Coleman, Esq.. J. Dean, Esq., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., H. T. Grant, Esq., C. Hillyard, Esq., W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq., W. H. Hyett, Esq., J. Kinder, Esq., Filder King, Esq., J. Parkes, Esq., C. E., Sir R. Price, Bart., F. Pym, Esq., J. Allen Ransome, Esq., Pro- fessor Sewell, \V. Shaw, Esq., Rev. J. R. Smythies, Manners Sutton, Esq., E. Tattersall, Esq., and T. Tweed, Esq. Agricultural Chemistry. — The Marquis of Down- shire presented, on tlie part of Dr. Hodges, of Down- patrick, a copy of the Introductory Lecture on Agri- cultural Chemistry, delivered by Dr. Hodges, before the Members of the Seafordc and Hollymount Farming Society ; intended to convey, in a ]topular manner, illustrations of the advantages which the Irish farmer might derive from science; the more scientific details being added to the work in the form of notes. Agricultural Improvemont. — The Marquis of Down- shire also presented copies of the "Transactions," for the year 1813, of the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, and the report of a visit to the Gleneask estate of the Irish Waste Land Improvement Society, containing analyses of soils, &c., by Professor Kane ; and submitted to the members present the va- rious i)lans on which the thorough-draining at East- hampstead Park, in Berkshire, had been conducted. Mr. Davidson transmitted, from Darlington, a trea- tise on draining; Mr. Dalgaims, vice-president of the Royal Guernsey Agricultural Society, a paper on leases ; Mr. Dean, a paper, by Mr. Arthur Dean, C.E., on the gold ores of Merionethshire, and the igneous and sedimentary rocks in North \\'ales ; the R«v. Tiiomas Cator, a communication on Coates's " Hird-book ;" Mr. Mo(iat, a letter on a wooden pat- tern for a drain-tile ; Mr. Meclii, an acknowledg- ment of iiKiuiries made of him by the CJouncil ; and Mr. Rodwellii, results in the cultivation of Italian rye-grass. Mr. Agrew, of Manchester, proof impressions of his " Scene at Wiseton ;" and individual portraits, already ]tublished, from his great painting of the annual country meeting of the Society, by Mr. Ansdell. Mr. Freebairn, of 23, Mornington-place, Hamp- stcad-road, presented a proof impression of the portrait of Earl Spencer, obtained by the ruling machine ap- plied to Mr. Wyon's original medallion. For all wliich communications and presents the thanks of the Council were ordered. Special Council. — A special Council was held on Saturday, the 11th of December, present: His Grace the Duke of Riclimond in the chair, David Barclay, Esq., M.P., Thos. Rjiymond Barker, Esq., Henry Blanshard, Esq., W. R. Browne, Esq., Col. Challoner, John Ellman, Esq., C. Hillyard, Esq., W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq., W. 11. Hyett, Esq., John Kinder, Esq., Wm. MiUs, Esq., M.P., Sir Rt. Price, Bart., J. Allen Ransome, Esq., Prof. Sewell, John Villiers Shelley, Esq., R. A. Slaney, Esq. The report of the Council to the general meeting was taken into final consideration, and agreed to. The meetings of the Council stimd adjourned over the Christmas recess to the 5th of Febnaary. NEW MEMBERS. Pryse Pryse, Esq., of Lodge Park, Aberystwith, was elected a Governor, and the following gentlemen Mem- bers of the Society : — Alexander, Caledon, Rothampsteed Park, St. Alban's, Herts iVnderson, Walter, Oakley, Bedford Bruce, John, Tiddington, Stratford-on-Avou, Warwick- shire Cox, Thomas, Parkfields, Derby Cross, William Assheton, Redscar, Preston, Lancashire Donaldson, Thomas, Longlands, Eltham, Kent Dymock, Rev. Edward, Pexley Hall, Ellesmere, Salop Fountain, Henry, Leake, Boston, Lincolnshire Handy, Edward, Sevenliampton, Andoversford, Glou- cestershire Haiding, J. Goldie, Monkleigh, Torrington, Devon JoUiffe, Colonel JohnTwyford, Amnerdown Park, Batli Justice, Henry, llinstoek. Market Drayton, Salop Landsdale, R., jun., Worsley Hall, Manchester Le Blanc, Arthur, Maiesfield, Uekfield, Sussex Lee, James Noah, 1, Little Charlotte-st., Blackfriars-rd. Lucas, Lieutenant Richard, 2nd Life-Guards Matthews, Richard, Esgir, Machynlleth, Aberystwith, S. W. Maunsell, Tliomas P., M.P., Thorpc-Malsor, Ketter- ing, Northamptonshiie Nesbit, John Collis, 38, Kenniugton-lane, Lambetli Norris, John, llughendcn House, High-Wyconib, Bucks Palmer, William, Green-Lane, Feckenhani, Wore. Peers, Joseph, Ruthin, Denbighshire Pryse, John Pugh, Peit Hill, Aberystwith, S. W. Ramsay, George lleppell, Derwent Villa, Newcastle-on- Tyne Renshaw, James, Westheath House, Erith, Kent Ruck, Lawrence, PantUudw, MachynlleUi, Aberystwith, S. W. Rutley, Samuel, Wrotham, Kent Stanway, J., Holt, Brookfield, Manchester Thompson, John, Woolvers Farm, Reigate, Surrey Tomes, Thomas, Norgrove, Feckenhani, Wore. Turner, John licresford, Hrockmaiitoii, Leominster Westcote, John liakcr, Coate, Marlock, Somerset Widdicombe, John, Hay-Ugborough, Totness, \)c\oi\ Williams, Matthew Davies, Cwyncinfeilon, Aberyst- with, S. W. G 2 84 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE FARMERS' CLUB ANNUAL DINNER AT RADLEY'S HOTEL. The annual dinner of the Fanners' Chib took plaec on Thursday, Dec. 12, at half past five o'clock. Up- %vards of TOO tenant fanners sat down to an excellent dinner, comprising all the delicacies of the season. Among tliose present were several of the successful exhibitors at the " Show." Mr. Overman, of Weasen- liam, Norfolk, presided on the occasion, and gave all the principal toasts of the evening. By his admirable tact in the chair he kept the company together, in harmony and good feeling. The chairman was sup- ported on the right by Mr. Shaw, and on the left by Mr. Hudson, of Castle Acre ; Mr. II. Baker, of Writtle, and Mr. Turner, of Alphington, near Exeter, acted as vice-chairmen. Amongst the pardes present we noticed Messrs. Emery, Oakly, Beadell, W. Hutley, Brown, C. AY. Johnson, Gates, F.King, Knight, Shaw, Jun., Northami)ton ; Wood, J. A. Ransome, W. Torr, Capt. Aitchcson,Dickson,B.T.B.Gibbs,Sec.SmithfieldClub; Grantham, Lattimore, Price, Pocock, Rasen, Stace, Tyler, Beck, Lovell, &c., &c. As soon as the cloth was drawn, and grace had been said, The Chairman rose and said, he felt almost ashamed to have allovved himself to be placed in the position in which they saw him, feeling sure that they might have selected some gentleman from among their members who would have been more competent to perform its duties. (No, no.) It was not until last night, or rather early this morning, that he had con- sented to occupy the jjost in which tliey now saw him. It was with extreme difficulty that some of the gentle- men around him had succeeded in seducing him from the quiet and retirement in which he generally lived, and he doubted whether they would have succeeded at all had they not put it to him as a duty which he owed to their body. (Cheers.) Under these circum- stances he was present before them, a plain, rough, but he trusted honest farmer. (Loud cheers.) And if he could at all conduce to their comfort on this oc- casion, he should feel extremely happy. (Hear, hear.) It was the first of his duties this evening to propose the health of our beloved queen — (cheers) — and in doing so he felt assured they would think it extremely arrogant in him if he attempted to make any comments upon so virtuous a woman as they all knew her to be. (Cheers.) He should call upon them to drink this toast standing, with all the honours; but to the re- maining toasts he should not trouble them to rise, as it would be more convenient not to do so, and their loyalty no one would doubt. (Cheers.) The toast was drunk with tliree times three hearty cheers. The health of the Queen Dowager was the next toast given and heartily responded to. Tlie Chairman again rose and said, the next toast lie had to propose was the health of Albert, Prince of Wales, Prince Albert, and the rest of the Royal family (cheers). It would be necessary for him to say a few words upon this toast, for as his Royal Highness Prince Albert had shown himself a competitor with farmers, they must pronounce him to be a farmer, and they well knew that he insured his stock in the Farmers' Insurance Office (Cheers). He (the Chair- man) had not had time to inquire whether or not he had yet become a member of this club, but if he had, it would stand a good chance of becoming a chartered society (cheers). He concluded by giving the toast. Tiie Chairman, after a short interval, again rose and said, the next toast which he had the honour of submitting to them was, " I'lie Army and the Navy" (^cheers). He thought it would be little less than im- pertinent in him to attempt to pass any euloglum oil either branch of the services to which this country was so deeply indebted. But as there was at least one oflicer of one of the services present, that gentleman would be able to tell them more of what they had done for us than he (the Chairman) could. Their deeds were a matter of history, and he thought they would agree with him in saying that tlie toast ought to be drunk with sincerity (cheers). Capt. AiCHESON rose with peculiar pleasure to re- turn thanks for the honour done to the navy and army by the toast which had just been given and responded to. He was extremely happy in acknowledging the obligation on the part of tlie service to which he be- longed ; he believed it had always done its duty when called upon, and he trusted that it would ever be found to do so (cheers). He also begged to say that he felt great pleasure in appearing among them as a farmer, now that duty no longer called him to sea j and whether handling the'plough or wielding the sword, he trusted he should never forget his duty to society (cheers). The Chairman said, the next toast which he had to give was one which very much concerned all pre- sent (hear, hear). It was, " Prosperity to the Farmers' Club-house." In drinking that toast he was sure they would agree with him in saying, that so long as they could keep away from political discussions they should continue to be a respectable and efficient body (hear). He (the Chairman) had but very recently become a member of their body, but he saw that it was one of their rules that political subjects should not come under discussion at their meetings. This was highly proper ; as they had hitherto, so he trusted they would con- tinue to avoid that rock upon which so many societies had split and gone to pieces {hear, hear). He would impress upon thein the necessity of observing this rule, that they might not be told that they had constituted themselves into a debating society for the purpose of showing off, and concluded by calling upon them to drink " Prosperity to the Farmers' Club-house." The toast was duly honoured. The Chairman said, the next toast which he had the honour to propose related to a society which was established rather before that which they were now celebrating. But he believed it was at the second annual meeting of the Royal Society of Agri- culture that the propriety of organizing the Farmers' Club was discussed; in fact, the Royal Agricultural Society had two years' precedence of this society (hear, hear). It would be ridiculous in him to attempt to relate to them the advantages which had been derived from the meetings of the Royal Society, which were many and great, and where advantage was not derived it was only because the society was not regarded through a proper medium (hear, hear). Without further comment he would propose that they should drink, " The Royal Agricultural Society," coupling with it the name of one of the most cflicient members of the council, Mr. Samuel Bennett (loud cheers). The toast was duly honoured. Mr. Bennett rose to return thanks, and said he was taken very much by surprise in being thus called upon. He had not anticipated that he should be called to return thanks for the honour which had been done to the English Agricultural Society. True, he was a member of the Council, but he was only an humble individual; and when he looked round him, and saw members so much better qualified for the task, he felt sorry that it did not fall into their hands. (No, no.) He had known their worthy chairman many years, and glad he was to see him in the position he at present occupied. (Cheers.) He thought the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 85 farmers had done very right in selecting for that chair ' a farmer out of the far-famed county of Norfolk — a county the most famous in the world for its agricul- ture. (Loud cheers.) True, many others were tread- [ ing very hard upon its heels (/tear, and laughter), and he hoped they might make such strides as soon to overtake her. (Hear, hear.) At the same time they | must acknowledge that they had all received a great deal of light from Norfolk (hear). He (Mr. Bennett) was placed a few years only in that county, in the very worst soil that could be found in it, (hear, and a laugh), and very glad he was to getaway from it. He iiad, however, derived a great deal of information Ihcro, which he had profited by since he had been re- siding in his own native county. (Cheers.) He felt that he was highly favoured, notwithstanding the jin- expectedness of the call upon him, in meeting .' _ members of this highly respectable club. He had liimself been a member almost from the time of its first establishment, but had never dined with them before to-day, and felt deliglited with the information which was to be obtained relating to the farming interest, without trenching upon politics. If ever there was a period in the history of farming when it was difficult to " make both ends meet" — if ever there was a period of great difficulty, they had it now (hear) ; for, in ad- dition to poor stock and low prices for produce, they had a most distressing year for food throughout the length and breadth of this country (hear, hear) ; and, now that the winter had set in severely, it would be felt dreadfully. Much of the stock would be literally starved to death, imless some artificial means were used for their sustenance. (Hear, hear.) It therefore became necessary that thej' should receive that inform- ation which would enable them to keep these poor animals alive through the winter, and, at the same time, have a prospect of being remunerated for their outlay. (Hear, hear.) He (Mr. Bennett) lived in the county of Bedford, but farmed in Buckingham- shire in a very extensive dairy country ; and he could tell them that his cows had never had a full meal during the past summer. They were kept very poorly on hay, and he could not see how the dairymen were to obtain a sufficiency of feed during the winter (hear). Any mode that could be pointed out for saving the lives of tlie cattle by artificial means would therefore be a great boon. (Hear.) Mr. Sua w, of Northampton. — Why don'tyou plough up your grass lands? (Cries of Order, order.) Mr. Bennett proceeded to say that he did not know that he had anything more to say on the subject of the poor half-starved animals. Some of them carried avery fair face, although they werclowenough in pocket; it was satisfactory, however, to see that they had not yet begun to starve themselves (hear, and a laughj. He bad been called upon to return thanks on behalf of the Agricidtural Society (hear) ; he was of opinion that this society would prove a great benefit to agricul- tural science (hear). A gentleman near their Hon. Chairman (Mr. Wm. Shaw) had had a great deal to do in connection with the Duke of Richmond and l-arl Spencer, in establishing that society (cheers), and great benefits must accrue to agriculture if the projier means were only made use of to carry it out into i)ractieal results (cheers). Many of them were still at a loss for information, and he hoped they would be willing to become learners as far as tliey could be instructed by other members of the society (hear). He looked upon the great advantage of an agricultural society to be the opportunity it gave them of coming together and com- bining their knowledge for improvements in the breed of stock, and the general advancement of the science of agriculture (cheers). If these objects were carried out the greatest advantages must accrue to agriculture from tlic establishment of such a society (hear, hear). It had been the opinion of some persons that Uttlc good would be done among the general body of farmers by science, and if they were to judge from the past, he should say so too. The bulk of the present company were undoubtedly much better acquainted with prac- tice than with science ; and if it was to be a great deal of science and little practice, little good would come of it ; but if with a little Sjcicnce they combined great practice, then great would be the results (hear). The time had come when they wanted all the advantages which they could possibly obtain to keep upon their legs, and to produce a sufficiency of food for the grow- ing population of the country, and thereby keep ort foreign competitors (hear, hear). He concluded Oj returning his hearty thanks for the toast. Mr. SiiAW, of Northampton, wished to explain what he had interposed during the speech of Mr. Bennett, with respect to ploughing up the grass lands for the purpose of obtaining food for the cattle, and which appeared to be received by the company as if it had been a foolish or unmeaning observation. Now, what he meant was this, that the inferior grass lands sliould be ploughed up, and sowed witli turnips or mangel wurzcl; he (Mr. Shaw) had a considerable number of acres of the latter, which was no little satisfaction now that feed was scarce. (Hear, and cheers). Mr. Paris, of Iladleigh, Middlesex, said, he had called "chair" when Mr. Shaw spoke, not because he dissented from what he had said, but because another gentleman was speaking. The point, however, was, that they wanted to keep their cows alive, and be remunerated by the milk they should give. (Hear). Now, he (Mr. Paris) was told that nothing gave so much milk as a feed of oats, and compared with hay a very cheap kind of food it was. He had, however, himself tried the experiment with some success of giving them linseed; namely, a pint and a half boiled into a porridge, and mixed up with a pailful or about half a bushel of bran. This would cost about lid., and given morning and evening it will be found to benefit the cattle, and produce good milk. (Hear.) It might perhaps be thought presumjituous in him to have risen to mention this matter, but knowing that it had been tried with success, he had himself made the experiment, and atlded a few oats, giving them as much chaft' as possible, in order to save the hay. (Cheers). The CuAiRMAN |said, that when he had gone into the chair he had taken it with the determination of not being altogether despotic (hear, and a laugh), and, therefore, when some gentlemen had thought proper to call " chair" upon Mr. Shaw's interjiosing his ob- servations, he had not thought it a part of liis duty to interfere, feeling assured that that gentleman wotdd not trespass too far, and he did not think that the little discussion to which the matter had led was to be re- gretted. (Hear, and cheers). The Cm A I UMAX, after a short pause, again rose, and said, the next toast wliicli he had to submit to their notice was, " The Smitlilield ("attle Club." (Cheers). They knew so much more of its merits than he could tell them, that he should not say much upon this subject. It had spurred many of them on who had at first been unsuccessful in their at tempts to gain prizes, and had thereby been beneficial. It was he under- stood at present in avery floiirishingeondition, and he thought they ought to drink continued prosperity to it, coupling with the toast the name of Mr. Brandreth Qibbs. (Cheers.) He concluded by giving " Pros- perity to the Smithficld Cattle "Club, and the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. health of Mr. Gibbs." The toast was drunk with en- thusiasm. Mr. Gibbs rose with j^reat pleasure to return thanks for tlie honour conferred upon him by the toast which hatl just been drunk, but regretted that tliis task had not fallen into hands more capable of doing justice to it than his. It was most gratifyine: to him to hear the manner in which the club had been spoken of, and the toast received, which he regarded as a proof of the interest they took in its welfare. (Hear.) It was also a source of the greatest gratification to him to watch the prosperity of the Farmers' Club, mixed up and associated as it was with the Agricultural Society and the Smithfield Club. (Cheers.) He (Mr. Gibbs) had had great opportunities of observing the necessity of a club similar to that which had now been estab- lished for the accommodation of the farmers visiting the metropolis at the time of our show ; and he looked forward with interest and pleasure to the time when their ultimate arrangements would be made, and their object crowned with success. (Cheers.) Mr. William Shaw said, the duty of proposing the next toast devolved upon him ; and a pleasing duty it was, because it had reference to the attainment of one object with respect to the establishment of this club, which he had hoped to witness at an early period, but did not expect so early as this. (Hear.) Gentle- men wlio came only occasionally to town, and saw the progress of this or any other society, were not ac- quainted with all the difficulties which attended the bringing it to so advanced a position. lie remembered at this period last year, that some observations he had the honour to make, in allusion to ulterior objects con- templated by the club, were considered as of rather a mystic character, and seeming to indicate that he en- tertained notions and ideas different from those which he really did entertain ; and he acknowledged that his allusions had reference to objects which might not be considered by some the true object of such a club as this. He was glad, however, to see tiic realization of their one principal object ; and he must say, that in the last twelve months most rapid strides had been made. The time had arrived when the necessity oj the existence of such a club as this became manifest- The subjects which presented themselves to the con- sideration of men like those whom he now saw round the table were of the highest importance (hear). He should be sorry indeed to trench upon topics of a political character in this room, but there were many questions at the present time commanding their most serious attention, because involving their deepest interests, which had recently, and only re- cently, been adverted to, which he did think might fairly be discussed in this room (hear, hear). He would remind them that great changes had taken place. He would not advert so broadly to them as Mr, Bennett had done, but certain it was that very great changes had taken place, and if those changes affected their (the farmers') interests in a prejudicial manner, tlien the time had unquestionably arrived when it was essential that they should look to them- selves (loiul cheers). He had felt a little delicacy in respect to some of the observations which had been made at their meeting last year, because he knew that there were some gentlemen in the room who were ex- cessively tenacious of their position. He was not quite prepared to say that this club ought to consist of one certain class of the agricultural body exclusively; his feelings rather leant that way, but, at the same time, he was of opinion that if members of another class should be disposed to come among them, they ought not to refuse to receive them (hear, hear). Circum- stances had made him (Mr, Shaw) very much dis- posed to "go ahead," as Jonathan would say; bnt the time was approaching when, without seeking to promote hostilities and differences between one agri- cultural class and another, the class (tenant farmers) with which this room was at present principally filled, should unite for the maintenance of their mutual interests and the protection [of their undoubted rights (loud cheers). He trusted that the word "protec- tion" would not be interpreted in any sense other than he intended to convey (hear), namely, a protec- tion of those rights which every farmer ought to enjoy, considering him as a man possessing capital, infor- mation, skill, and industry; and going, as a matter of contract, upon the soil of another, to employ it to its utmost extent (loud cheers). He thought they had now made so complete a step in advance, that this subject, which formerly they might have thought it necessary to treat with a little more delicacy and tenderness, might now be touched upon without fear (hear). They must, however, keep pace with the times, or the times would outrun them (hear, hear). He now came to the main object with which he rose, that was to propose to them the health of their Chairman (Lotul cheers) ; and he did so most heartily and most sincerely, not only on his own account, but on their account ; because they had now arrived at that point of their existence as a club, at which tliey should have presiding over them, as they now had, a man of their own class, and a man well known as being fully equal in position to any man in the room — (cheers) — a man whose family is well known in the county of Norfolk, and celebrated for their fiirming (hear), and many of whom have lived under those joyous and fortunate circumstances which we should wish now to see extend over the whole face of the land (cheers). He trusted that the example set to- day, of placing a tenant farmer of first-rate character to preside over them in that chair, would be followed out in future years ; that they would feel that it was quite enough to have sucli a man, and that no appetency for " aristocracy" would lead them to look higher. It had been the fault of the class of tenant farmers to suffer themselves to be led by others ; but thoy had good authority of late for say- ing that the tenant farmer had learned his strength, and, having once so learned it, it is his own fault if he docs not use it (hear, hear). With regard to the Club itself, he considered it as a point of centralization to which farmers should look ; for, in proportion as they extended the influence of this club with the local clubs throughout the country, they would establish, not a physical influence — for that he did not desire — but a moral influence, which no power on earth could con- trovert or injure (loud cheering) He concluded by giving the health of the Chairman, with long life and happiness, and resumed liis seat amid the warm and hearty cheers of the comi)any. The toast was drunk with much enthusiasm. As soon as the cheers had subsided. The Chairman rose to return thanks. He said he really felt puzzled what to say in return for the honour they had done him, and he could only attribute it to the natural modesty and diffidence of farmers in gene- ral that they had not hitherto found one of their body sufficiently venturesome to expose himself in the man- ner which he (Mr. Overman) l-.ad done by taking that chair (hear, hear, and a laxigh). He should be very glad to be deserving of the high encomiums which had been passed upon him and upon Ids family by his friend Mr. Shaw, which, he feared, were beyond what they really merited (" no," and cheers). He begged to tell them thiit he had at first been extremely reluctant to fill that, position, but when it was urged upon him as a duty to his brother tenant farmers, he felt that that one THE FAllMER'S MAGAZINE. 87 word overcame all his objections {loud cheers). He hoped, liowever, that they would look from liiin to liiglior and more influential jjersons to occupy that post on future occasions ; to jiersons whose i)rc'senco tliere would he of more advantape to tliom tlum it was in liis power to be (" no, 7io"). He again thanletween 25s. and 35s. per qr., and that unless and cattle, be has had to struggle with other they are led to believe that their consignments severe difficulties. Wilh the solitary exception of , to this country will nett them terms corrcspondmg wheat, the harvest of 1 844 has yielded below an ' with those rates, they would cease to send us their average, and but Uttle comjjensation has been ' produce. The best possilde i)roofthat this is not afforded for the shortness of quantity by increase j so is afforded by the facts above stated. About of value. Sjiring corn and pulse has, it is true, 200,000 to 300,000 qrs. have been received and sold at relatively high prices, as compared with , entered at 20s.; and had prices ranged only 5s. i)er those obtained for wheat ; but we fear that the j qr. higher, the quantity would probably have been tenns obtained have failed to remunerate the j doubled. grower for the deficiency in the produce of those The advantage in the present coni-law over its articles. The extensive failures in the hay-cro]), | predecessor consists in the difficulties placed in with the dearness of all kinds of fodder for cattle, j the way of getting the duty down to a very low has likewise been severely felt, and on the whole it j point, by the rests introduced at certain stages ; must be admitted that the occupiers of the soil | and had the maximum i)oiut been fixed higher, the have had trj'ing times to encounter, llie average whole machinery would certainly have been an price of wheat has at no jieriod of the year risen [ imjirovement on the Ijill of 1828. AVhilst we are on the sidjject of duties, it may not be amiss to direct attention to the exertions which are now in progress to insure active co-operation between all classes of agriculturists, to press on government the pro])riety of abohshing the tax on malt. The recent meeting to take this su1>iect into considera- tion, held at the Farmers' Club House, must lead to beneficial results, if farmers will only unite and use their utmost energies. It was well remarked by Mr. Baker, of Writtle, Essex, that it would be useless to dei>end on others for assistance. In sideral)le proportion has paid tliat rate. This I concluding his able sjieech, he gave the following having been the case with prices so low as they advice: — " I^et them, (the farmers), put tlieir have been, it may easily be inferred that little en- j shoulder to the wheel, and not call upon Hercides couragemenl would suffice to draw forward large j for assistance, imtil they had sccti that they could supplies from the continent, and we feel satisfied : not obtain assistance among themselves."' If (his that henceforth a regular yearly imjtorlation of{ counsel be rightly followed, tlie cause must idti- from one to two millions of quarters must be j mately jirosper ; and we therefore, in our humble reckoned on. j capacity, lu-ge upon our readers to shake oft" apathy. The statistics respecting the cost of growing and apply themselves vigorously to the xmder- wheat in Poland and other foreign countries are taking. of so loose a character that we must acknowledge During the'greater jirut of the monlii of Decem- being rather in the dark on the subject. Were we I)er, we have experienced very severe weather: a to gi\e credit to the accounts iuruisLcd by the sharp frost set iu quite in tlic commencement, and above 56s. 5d. jier qr., this, the highest point at' tained, occurred in the month of March. Just previous to harvest, at a time when the farmers had least to dispose of, the holders of bonded wheat benefited ; but it was not till that entered for h(»me consumption which they were enabled to do 3s. per (|r. below the maximinn point of duty. It nas now been tolerably well ascertained that 20s. per qr. duty on wheat is a Aery inadequate i)ro- tection to the British grower. Of the 800,000 qrs. imported within the last twelve months, a con- 96 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. continued till the 15th; long before which time the canals and small rivers had l)een locked up by ice, and the navigation of several of the more imjior- tant estuaries, including the 'lliames, had become much impeded from the same cause. Very little snow fell in any part of the kingdom during this period, and the young wheat plant was thus ex- posed to the full rigour of the keen easterly wind, which must have proved extremely trying. On the 15th a complete change took place, the temperature rose considerably above freezing point, and though there was little rain, the atmosphere became surcharged with humidity : this continued till the 20th, when a return of frost took place ; and though of a milder character than that which pre- ceded it, the cold has at times been intense. We are disposed to think that the change in the middle of the month from frost to wet, and then a return of frost, will hereafter be found to have done some mischief to the seed in the ground, but trust that we may be wrong in this opinion. Beyond carting manure on the land, httle out-door labour has been done, the ground haAing been either too hard or too wet to allow of its being worked. Quite an a-\'erage breadth of wheat was sown previous to the commencement of December, and, should the seed escape injury, there is likely to be less sown in spiing than was the case last year. The cessa- tion of held operations and the favourable weather for thrashing experienced the first fortnight in the month, together with the necessity of providing the required funds for Christmas engagements, caused good supplies to be brought forward at most of the markets in the agricultural districts, except in those locahties where the mode of conveyance was by water; the trade, nevertheless, assumed a firmer tone, and, owing to the imjjroved condition in which the samples came to hand, an advance of Is. per qr. was partially established. Subsequently the upward movement received a check ; but, dur- ing the last eight days, buyers have again come forward pretty freely, and, from present appear- ances, we infer that a further small enhancement in the value of wheat is about to take place. Our principal reason for coming to this conclusion is the belief that the stocks in the hands of farmers must now be reduced into so narrow a compass as to lead to a falling oft" in the supplies. Ever since har\'est wheat has been thrashed freely, and, o^ving to the low rates at which it has been selling in comparison to other articles, the consumption has been immense. Merchants and millers have at no jieriod held large quantities, what they have bought from week to week having immediately gone into vise ; the growers are therefore the principal hold- ers ; and, if we are right in supposing that the stack-yards and barns are not better filled than is usually the case at this period of the year, a mode- rate rise in ])rices may be regarded as more' than probable ; at all events, there is no reason to reckon on lower rates until spring, before which time no supplies of importance can reach us from abroad. That the last crop of wheat was large in quantity^ and with, few exceptions good in quality, does not admit of doubt ; but that it was all that it was then represented to be, we much question : on the other hand, we are disposed to think that, in the same ' degree as the yield of wheat has been exaggerated, the deficiency in spring corn may have been over- I rated. Indeed, by the test of experience, we have found that public opinion is very apt to run into I extremes on these matters. There is no medium ' course — things are either extremely good or very bad. When the notion once gains ground that a particular article has tiu-ned out ill or well, the cry is immediately taken uj) and rei:>eated from so many quarters, that the real truth does not become known until all excitement on the subject has died away, and the parties actually concerned begin carefully to investigate. As the quantities of the different kinds of grain sold at the towns from whence the returns are collected for making up the averages, though imperfect data, must, nevertheless, be some sort of guide for judging of the dehveries, we have taken the trouble to compile the following table, showing the number of quarters sold and returned each week for the last four months, with the sales during the corresponding period last year ; from which it will be observed that of wheat and barley the quantities have been larger this than the preceding season : — 1843 Wlieat. Barley. Oats. Beans, Peas. Sept . 5 54,682 3,552 29,593 4,376 970 M 12 69,213 3,403 33,832 4,134 970 )) 19 88,349 4,172 36,948 2,970 901 ,, 26 111,007 7,029 38,043 3,257 1,505 Oct. 3 138,257 12,655 43,925 3,317 1,842 )) 10 154,649 27,019 45,107 5,374 2,408 !> 17 138,815 40,041 45,912 4,989 2,798 !) 24 120,634 47,931 48,608 6,209 2,756 ,, 31 117,310 57,596 45,657 6,544 3,135 Nov . 7 111,949 66,762 37,512 5,759 3,161 )) 14 110,378 77,975 35,440 7,496 3,086 )> 21 107,095 74,795 39,544 8,491 4,196 )> 28 108,812 107,220 33,420 9,246 3,780 Dec 5 109,573 108,139 38,595 8,564 3,701 >) 12 109,119 124,983 50,351 9,492 4,629 )j 19 116,293 134,096 41,610 10,517 4,421 t) 26 Is. 114,850 132,516 44,893 688,990 10,807 4,211 Tota 1,880,985 1,028,884 111,542 48,470 1844. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. Peas, Sept . 5 94,309 4,036 27,847 3,477 1,191 12 114,316 5,453 29,154 4,621 1,473 19 104,511 7,277 21,092 3,937 1,702 26 110,154 17,321 28,682 3,937 1,966 Oct. 3 120,548 27,552 32,539 4,694 3,297 10 130,968 39,759 30,706 5,027 2,909 17 143,874 49,959 34,385 5,049 3,022 24 143,862 54,478 29,508 5,626 2,422 31 122,078 61,050 33,498 5,000 1,795 Nov . 7 126,282 72,240 32,177 5,240 2,457 14 124,231 84,526 38,495 5,465 2,740 21 123,655 96,685 32,840 6,938 3.123 28 123,504 112,133 34,407 6,064 2,971 Dec 5 128,622 125,980 36,526 8,326 2,971 12 131,862 124,97? 33,210 9,333 4,412 19 138,250 122,525 42,910 9,194 3,667 26 147,666 127,49Q 40,750 10,135 3,795 Totals. 2,128,692 1,133,413 558,726 102,663 45,913 Should this give rise to any doubt respecting the" accuracy of the estimate in regard to the extreme deficiency in the produce of barley, there can, we THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 97 are convinced, be but one opinion respecting the quality of that grain ; the proportion of really fine malting barley secured has, in fact, been so small that the ale brewers have experienced considerable difficulty in meeting with suitable parcels, and so long as the malting season lasts, the finer sorts vnW unquestionably command high rates ; in many parts of the kingdom 40s. are still being freely paid; but, excepting for choice samples, the de- mand lias latterly become dull, which has, in a great measure, been occasioned by the large importations of foreign. Between 700,000 ?ind 800,000 qrs. of barley have arrived from abroad at British j)orts since the commencement of the year, and having, for the most part, consisted of those descriptions least required, viz., distilhng and grinding sorts, this circumstance has been exceed- ingly j)rejudicial to the English grower, inasmuch as it has kept do\vn prices of these varieties below the level they usually occupy in relation to malting qualities. In regard to oats, the returns show a great difference, 130,000 in four months being of im- portance. The deficiency of English is here fully proved ; and it may also be doubted whether an average crop was secured in Ireland last autumn. In taking a retrospective view of the transactions at Mark Lane during the month, the most striking feature will be found to be the great falling off in the supplies of all articles, as compared with the arrivals of the month immediately preceding. This having been the case, it is rather singular that httle or no improvement in quotations has taken place ; indeed, so great a want of animation has character- ized the proceedings as to impart a degree of monotony to business, which renders the process of recapitulation tedious and uninteresting. As a re\'iew of the com trade would, however, be incom- plete were Mark Lane to be left unnoticed, we must address ourselves to the task. As already remarked, the receipts into London have been short. Of English wheat, the weekly arrivals have averaged little over 4,000 qrs. ; factors have, conse- quently, tried hard to establish some improvement on previous prices, which the millers have as firmly resisted. The contest between l)uyers and sellers has left the value much in the jjosition as before. In some few instances picked samples have realized Is. per qr. more than could have been obtained in the month of November, but on the general cur- rency the rise has been very trifling. This may be easily shown by the averages, the weekly returns for Ijondon having l)een resi)ectively as published on the Gth, 49s. 2d.; 13th, 48s. .'id.; 20th, 4Ss. 7d. ; and 27th inst., fjOs. 4d. per qr. The inquiry for free foreign wheat has not been much more active than the demand for English ; indeed, tlie improve- ment wrought in the condition of the latter l>y the frost, has enabled manufacturers to grind home- grown wheat with a very trifling admixture of old ; this, together with the high pretensi(ms of holders of the latter, have rendered ])urchasers exceedingly cautious. Fine (pialities of Danzig and Rostock are the kinds whicii have excited tiic most atten- tion, and for both these descriptions an advance of Is. per (ir. has been insisted on. The to[) price of the former may now be conaidercd 595., and that of the latter (the growth of 1842), 56s. per qr. The extremely reduced state of the stock has alone enal)led holders to realize such high terms ; but as the old wheat is likely to be still required for some jmrposes, and the quantity of superior quahty having been further diminished by recent pur- chases, there is no prosjiect of lower rates. In bonded wheat nothing of interest has transpired during the month ; arrivals from a])road have nearly ceased, and by the trifling lots released from time to time under the provisions of the Grinding in Bond Bill, nearly as much has been taken out of bond as has lieen received ; the stocks being respectively on the 5th November, and 5th Decem- lier, 363,373 qrs., and 304,278 qrs. A steady consumptive demand has been expe- rienced for flour, and though the sale of town-made has been a good deal interfered with by tolerably large receijits coastwise, the town millers have worked up the greater part of the Lincolnshire wheat received by them in November, and their present stocks are liy no means heavy. The top price has remained at 45s. per sack, a rate, however, which must be regarded as perfectly nominal, by far the greater jiroportion of the flour used by the London bakers consisting of households : the latter has been selling at 35s. to 3Gs., and country marks were, at one period, sold as low as 31s. 6d., but subsequently rose to 34s. per sack. Of the Canadian shipments a comparatively small portion only has come to London, the greater part of the su))ply from thence having been di- rected to Liverpool. During the last month scarcely any has arrived; and the quantity here having been reduced into a narrow compass, prices have rather tended ujiwards. 'llie 1)est l)rands have been held at 28s. per brl., equal to 40s. per sack. The first week in December we had a very large arrival of English and foreign barley ; since then the receipts have fallen off materially. The actual variation in prices of this grain has not been of much importance ; liut the demand has, throughout, been excessively slow. Fine malting samples have at no period been obtainable below 38s. per qr., and latterly few sellers have been willing to accept that rate. Quotations of grinding sorts have remained equally stationaiy, sweet thin foreign of 49 to 50 lbs. weight having been held at 2Gs. to 27s., and 51 to 53 lbs. parcels at 28s. to 29s. per qr. Contrary to expectation, the duty did not fall below 3s. per qr. ; tlie whole of the bonded was, therefore, released at that rate. It is imjiossible to ascertain exactly what the stock of free foreign barley in the kingdom may at jire- sent amount to : we should estimate it, in round numbers, at about 400,000 qrs., including what is held by the distillers ; that is, about one-half of the whole amount imported, the other half having, we conceive, already gone into consum|)tion. The jirevalence of easterly winds has rendered it very difticult for vessels from the westward to work uj) channel ; the arrivals from Ireland have, consequently, been extremely small, and as London depends mainly on the sister isle for supplies of oats, the market has become unusually bare of that grain, Wc rarely remember the port so entirely U THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cleared of parcels on board ship, whilst the stocks held by dealers have become much reduced. In this position of affairs all parties have contracted their operations, and the trade has been as devoid of interest during tlie month as can possibly be con- ceived. The retad business done has been at enhanced rates, fine Enghsh and Scotch feed having com- manded 25s. to 27s. ; good Irish, 22s. to 24s., and free foreign, from 21s. up to 25s. per qr., accordmg to quaht)', weight, and condition. The knowledge of rather important shipments having been made for this port from Ireland, and the behef that a few days of westerly wind would bring forward a large fleet of vessels from thence oat-laden, accounts for the extreme caution which the ])rincipal dealers have deemed it necessary to observe; meanwhile, they have drawn largely upon their stocks ; and unless the anticipated ar- rival from Ireland should prove far greater than we believe it will, no immediate fall from present rates is likely to occur. The only description of corn which appears to us likely to recede in value, is Scotch of this year's growth, owing to the inferiority of the quality. There is no chance of any arrivals from abroad till spring ; but should jiresent rates be maintained till then, an important supply would, we question not, reach us from the northern ports of Europe ; indeed, many contracts have already been entered into with foreign houses, who have engaged to ship at from lis. to 13s. per qr., free on board, at first open water ; weight averaging from 36 to 40 lbs. per bushel. Quotations of malt have remained very nearly stationary since our last. The working of the barley of this year's growth is still a good deal complained of; and whilst really fine quahties have sold with- out difficulty, secondary and inferior descriptions, owing to their comparative abundance, ha^'e, though offered on relatively low terms, moved ott' very tardily. The rapid rise which took place in prices of beans in November induced farmers to thrash out freely, and the supplies of English into London have been on a liberal scale during the month. The increase in the arrivals has not been met by a corresponding increase in demand, and a fall of fuUy 2s, per qr. from the highest point has oc- curred ; this abatement has latterly brought for- ward purchasers, and there are now not many re- maining in first hands. The value of foreign beans, free as well as in bond, has dechned in the same ratio, and it has become a very doubtfid question whether the purcliascs of Egyptian, to arrive at 24s. to 26s. cost and freight, \vill turn out a very advantageous speculation. Rather impor- tant shipments of this article have been made from Alexandria, and between 50,000 to 60,000 qrs. are believed to be on passage from thence to British ports ; some bought as high as 25s. per qr., inclu- eive of freight, ITie duty has stood at 5s. 6d. per qr. throughout the month ; the recent depression in prices has, however, already produced an effect on the averages, and an advance of a step or two in the duty must shortly be expected. The frost has (as is usually the case) given rise to an improved demand for boiling peas, and fine samples of English have recently been selling at Mark Lane at 38s. to 40s. per qr., whilst foreign, warranted to break well, have brought 37s. to 38s., being at least 2s. per qr. above the rates current at the close of November. Grey and maple peas have, on the other hand, been neglected, and have receded Is. to 2s. perqr. There are no stocks of bonded peas in London of consequence, the quan- tity as officially returned being, on the 5th of December, 7,009 qrs. The stock of free foreign has also been greatly reduced, and what now remains in granary is quite unimportant. As the Baltic ports are likely to be closed for the next two months, there is perhaps less occasion now than when trade is in fuU operation in that quarter to take particu- lar notice of the position of the principal grain mar- kets of the north, still we deem it necessary to give some account of the present position of affairs there, inasmuch as it may afford material for arriving at conclusions relative to the probable extent of the shipments in spring. Commencing with Danzic as the place of first importance, our adAaces from thence state that though the stocks are heavy, being estimated at 400,000 qrs., no material re- duction in prices was expected to occur during the winter months. Polish merchants not resident at Danzic are said to be the owners of the principal part of the wheat in granary there : many of these, after having been at that port till the close of the shipping season, to watch events, had, we are in- fonned, returned home, determined to enter into no engagements respecting the sale of their pro- perty tiU spring. Up to the close of November, 45,991 lasts of wheat had been shipped from Danzic, of which 295,693 qrs. had been dispatched to Great Britain. The last ship chartered for England, previous to the close of the port by ice, had been for London, at a freight of 4s. per qr, ; her cargo consisted of mid- dling mrxed quality, weighing 60lbs. per bush., for which 26s. per qr. was paid : this being an actual transaction, wiU afford the best criterion of the real price. For spring shipment very few con- tracts had been closed; the rates asked, viz., 31s. to 32s. per qr. for choice high mixed parcels, being , considered too high. Respecting the yield of the 1 last crop of wheat the reports from Poland and : Russia are very vague, but not, on the whole, un- favourable ; from some parts of Prussia, howe\'er, 1 complaints are very general. In the neighbour- hood of Konigsburg the harvest seems to have > been exceedingly bad, not only in regard to wheat, 1 but likewise as concerns rye, spring-corn, and ' pulse. So far from being enabled to send sup- plies, it was expected that considerable quantities of grain, &c., would have to be imported for the use : of city. In Silesia, Pomerania, the Ukermark dis- tricts, Mecklenburg, the Danish Islands, and Hol- stein, the produce of wheat woidd appear to have been good, and we must calculate on receiving rather large supi)lies from those quarters. At Rostock a good many engagements have already been entered into to ship 60lbs. to 62lbs. red wheat at first open water at 25s. to 26s. per qr., all charges included till put free on board; and should our merchants not show too much eager- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 99 ness to enter into speculative purcliases?, prices may, during the winter, when the deliveries from the growers increase, perhaps fall a few shiUings below the rates named. The last re])orts from Stettin state that there were, then, no sellers of fine 6 libs, to 62lbs. per bush, red Ukermark wheat below 2Gs. per qr. for spring delivery ; and few purchasers having come forward, the operations had been un- important. At Hamburg, Bremen, and other near ports, attention appears to have been more directed to spring corn and ])ulse than wheat. At the first named place a sudden stop M-as put to the shipment of barley for England (which had previously been carried on with great activity) by the frost, and about 20,000 qrs. in craft, ready to load, had been frozen up. Before tlie close of the navigation fine Saale barley, a quality not disliked [by our maltsters, had been selling at -iTs. to 29s. per qr. free on board. Upon the cessation of the English demand, howe\'er, prices fell materially, and by the most recent accounts we learn that sales 'liad been made at 25s. to 26s. per qr. for spring delivery. A temporary thaw was experienced there about the middle of the month, but the ice in the Elbe being ver)' thick, little impression had been made thereon. The last letters state that all was still fast, and that the frost had returned. The advices from the Mediterranean, in respect to the grain markets can at present have but little interest. Wheat has for some time past been, and seems likely to continue, higher there than in the north ; and as the transactions in the article have been of a local character at the i)rincipal ports, they scarcely require notice. In the Black Sea prices of [the article have also been kept up, and according to the most recent re- ports from Odessa, superior sorts of wheat, suitable for the English market, could not be bought there below 17s. to 19s. per qr. free on board, which, con- sidering the high rates of freight and insurance from thence, the risk of the condition suffering by the length of the voyage, and the difference in qua- lity, leaves a decided advantage in favour of pur- chases in the Baltic for spring shipment. From Canada nothing more can now be expect- ed till next June, winter having set in, accor- ding to the last accounts, and put a total stop to shipments. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Decembek 23. Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 40 48 Old, red 48 50 62 Rtb, old 30 34 Barlky, Grinding, 29 30 Malting 33 86 Irish 2a 28 Malt, Suffolk and Xorfolk 58 63 Kingston and Ware 60 — Oats, Yorkih.ic Lincolnshire, feed 22 24 Youghall and Cork, black,. 22 23 Dublin 22 ?8 Waterford, white 22 23 Newry aS 24 Oalway 2! 22 Scotch, feed 23 24 Clonmel 23 24 Londonderry 33 24 Beans, Tick, new 36 87 Peas, Grey ,34 30 ^'hite 30 38 Hour, Town-made 42 Suffolk Stockton and Norfolk 33 White 46 50 54 Do 62 50 New.... ."»6 — Chevalier 37 38 Bere ... 26 — Brown.. 50 60 Chevalier 65 — Potato.. 24 25 Cork,white22 23 Wostport 22 23 Black .. 22 — Potato . . 25 27 Limerick 23 25 Sllgo •J2 83 Old, small 4U 42 Maple.. .36 37 Boilers.. 38 40 33 35 perak. or2801bl. 33 Irish 34 37 FOREIGN QRAIV AN'D PLOUR IN BOND. Kostoek^ *S0 — 5 29 7 18 Feed ... 15 17 Beans — 24 29 Peas 3J i 32 — Baltic ..20 — Flour, American , per brl 2 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week ending. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans. Peas. Nov. 9th 40 3 36 1 21 e 34 6 87 11 Si 7 16th 46 4 85 9 21 9 34 2 38 4 85 7 23rd 45 10 35 2 21 8 80 9 38 6 36 2 80th 45 4 85 1 21 8 82 2 88 0 35 11 Dec. 7tli 45 2 34 9 21 10 81 2 37 6 80 4 14th 45 1 34 6 21 11 32 0 36 9 86 1 AffKregate averoRe of the six weeka wliicii rej4ulatt^8 "le duty. 45 8 85 3 21 9 32 6 37 10 35 9 Duties payable in Loml.m till Wed- nesday next inclu- Bive, and at the Out- ports till the arrival of the mail of that' day from London . .| 20 0 3 0 6 0 10 e 6 6 7 e Do. on praiu trom. British poaseseiona out of Europe .... 4 0 0 0 2 0 \ 6 8 0 2 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES hy tlie Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, Dec. 20th, 1844. B. d. Wrbat 45 I Baulby 34 5 Oats 21 11 Rye 82 0 Beans 36 9 Peas 36 1 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding Gazette in the last year, Friday, Dec. 22nd, 1843. s. a. Whsat 50 9 Barlby 32 0 Oats 18 8 Rye SO 0 Bbans Si 6 Pbas 33 4 PRICES OF SEEDS. December 23. Linseed, English, sowing 52 58 Baltic — — crushing 88 Linseed Cakes, English. .121. lOs.to \3l. Os.per 1000 Do. Foreign,. SI. 10. to 9/. Os. per ton. Large, foreign .... — — Mediter. & Odessa 38 Carraway ••• 44 Coriander 15 Mustard, brown, new.... 12 Hapeseed, English, new . . 23/ Hempseed 85 Trefoil — Bye Grass, English. Tares, Winter Tares, old 43 per qr 40 46 new .. 48 SOpercwt. 18 percwt. 17 white.. 14 18 p. bush. 25/. per last. 88 per qr. — old.. — new — — — Scotch — — nominaU 5s. 6d. to 68. Sd. — new — — per qr. Canary, flne 63 50 per qr. new, 64s. to 688. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Monday, Dec. 23. There is a quiet market for Hops, and at about pre- vious rates. Not much business is expected until the turn of the year. POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK, WATERSIDE, Dec 23. The supplies during the past week have been small. Four vessels made their appearance from the Channel Islands and by some extraordinary chance tliere have been three arrivals from the northern districts, one from Yorkshire, one from Scotland, and one from Lincoln- shire, leaving the remainder of the fleet in each district wind-bound. York Reds are sellinij at 110s.; Scotch Reds, from 90s. to 100s. ; Lincolnshire Kidneys, 80s. ; Channel Island Blues, 70g. to 758. LEEDS POTATO MARKET, Dec. 20.— Our ar- rivals this week are very Urge, but \M tlemaud ia not ( f ■ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. so good. The best Prince Regents are Is. Id. j Irish Cups Is. Id. ; Short Top Reds lid. to Is. ; Shaws lid. per 48 lbs. to the weigh. WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. Since our last we have had a very active trade, and a considerable quantity of both clothing and combing wool has changed bands at advanced prices. The manufac- turers liave held off from purchasing as long as possible, but many of them had allowed their stocks to get so low that they were obliged to accede to the terms of the dealers. Even now, many are still procrastinating their purchases week after week, with the hope of buying bet- ter, and instead of that they cannot buy so well. The fact is, that an unprecedented quantity has been con- sumed, and had it not been for the farmers selling so freely the advance would have taken place before. The quantity of wool in the farmers' hands m the counties round London is very small indeed, and the great bulk of the dealers are in a like predicament ; the stocks being held principally by large holders, who will wait some months before submitting then- wool for sale, so that with the present consumption no reason can be adduced to lead to the conclusion of any lower prices being taken for some time to come ; indeed the opposite is the gene- ral impression, and farther advances are universally de- manded. Blanket wool has been the only article that has suffered a continued depression, which is generally accounted for by a consideration of the great quantity of East Indian, and other low descriptions of foreign which have come in at low prices, and have superseded low Enghsh wool. Flannel wool has been favourably affected by the severe weather, and has experienced an advance of Id. to l^d. per pound ; but this description was under par, which it has now rather more than attained. On the whole, the general aspects of our trade are decidedly propitious ; the operatives being mostly employed — the price of bread being reasonable — a considerable amount of business being transacted with South America — China having taken a large quantity of woollen goods — all these features combined produce a joyous impression on all those who pay attention to this department of mercantile affairs. It is not, moreover, to be overlooked that the seeding-time has been deUghtful, and every ap- pearance would warrant the expectation that our bountiful Creator will again favour us with a plentiful wheat crop, and so prevent any despondence with regard to the future. May his continued benefactions meet with the gratitude and service that is too frequently their unrendered, but always their merited due. LEEDS, Dec. 20.— Prices of wool are firm, and rather higher than three weeks ago, but it is difficult to obtain rates here in proportion to those which are ob- tained by the growers and dealers in the country. LIVERPOOL, Dec. 21, Scotch. — There continues a moderate inquiry for Laid Highland Wool at our quotations. In white High- land we have also more doing. There was rather more inquiry for good crossed Wool, and a few sales were made at full rates. The demand for all kinds of Cheviot is limited, and our quotations are barely supported. s. a. 8. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs .... 8 9 to 9 6 White do. do 12 9 13 o Laid Crossed do., unwashed.... 10 3 11 6 Do. do.. washed 11 (> u 0 Do. Cheviot do. unwashed .... 11 0 13 0 Do. do.. washed 14 0 18 6 White Do. do 24 0 27 6 Foreign. — We have experienced a decidedly better feeling in our market generally, and a fair amount of bu- siness has been done at full rates. FOREIGN. There has been a moderate demand for wools, and we are given to understand that the public sales will not come on so soon as anticipated ; probably not before February. The following is part of a statement received from New York, relative to the manufacturing industry in the North American republic : — " There has recently been a great deal of space and time consumed by the organs of both political parties, in endeavouring to prove, on the one hand, that the manufacturers of cotton and woollen goods have made enormous dividends, and, on the other, that they have not made a per centage profit ap- proaching that realized in almost every other employ- ment. We annex a table, showing the dividends of several large eastern establishments, for several years past : — Dividends of New England Manufacturing Companies. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. Average. 12 "" " " Merrimack 11 Hamilton.. Appleton 5 Lowell 5 Suffollc 11 Middlesex Treraont 11 Laurence 10 Boott 11 Massachusetts .... * Cabot 6 Chicopee 9 Dwight • Perkins 5 Thorndike . . Palmer 20 Otis -t Amoskeag York 16 Nashua 10 Ifl 0 C "e 4 6 7 5 4 11 11 4§ 4i 9 1-1 54 8^ H 7* 3| 7* 2i 6 5-6 llj 10 4J Hi 5 5-6 Average for all, each year 7^i 315-18 8 1-9 3i 6 7-10 10 4-5 percent ♦ Not in operation, t Earnings to renovate machinery. These dividends are exclusive of the large surplus many of these companies retained. In 1843, the Middlesex company of Lowell declared an extra divi- dend of accumulated profits on manufacturing, sales of land, and rents, of 25 per cent, to increase the capital from 600,000 to 750,000 doUars. In 1844, the York company declared an extra dividend (not included in these returns) of 10 per cent, from the reserved profits of former years. The first 10 in the above table are Lowell companies. The Merrimack, Suffolk, Tremont, and Boott have declared dividends every year ; the ave- rage for the past six being 11, 9, 8, and 7 percent. These six years include three under the compromise act, and three under the present tariff. In 1839 and 1840 the rate of duty, under the compromise, was very much reduced ; notwithstanding which we see that many of these Lowell companies declared good dividends. Of those out of Lowell, the Palmer company has been the most profitable ; in fact, according to this report, the Palmer and York companies have averaged better divi- dends than any others in all New England. In 1839, the Palmer company declared a dividend of 20 percent., being larger than any since ; in that year the York com- pany declared a dividend of 16 per cent. In the averages given of each company, we have taken the whole num- ber of years included in the table, and not the average of the dividends actually declared ; for instance, the Hamilton company, the 4^ per cent, is not the average for the 4 years in which dividends were made, but for the six. This shows just the per centage realized by the stockholders annually on their investments. Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London. iv!»,ti^S< S 1^ q3 .Xj ^ J S. ^. ^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZIl^E. FEBRUARY, 1845. No. 2.— Vol. XL] [Second Series. PLATE I. A DURHAM HEIFER. The animal (4 years and 6 months old), a portrait of which we have selected to illustrate our present number, was bred and fed by Henry Brown, Esq., of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire, and was ex- hibited by him at tlie late Smithfield Show, where it attracted much attention, and obtained a prize of 20/., together witli the gold medal, "as the best beast in yard." The silver medal was also awarded to Mr. Brown, as the breeder. PLATE 11. FOIG-A-BALLAGH. Foig-a-ballagh, a brown colt, was bred by George Knox, Esq., of Brownstown House, Kildare, in 1841, and is by Sir Hercules, out of Guiccioli by Bob Booty, her dam Flight by Escape (Irish), out of Young Heroine l)y Bagot. ^Vc have here some of the best blood of the day (Irish all through), and particularly esteemed in the "land of the West." Sir Hercules, who, it is almost unnecessary to say, as a stud-horse stands high in the first rank, is a native of the Emerald Isle, where he achieved the majority of his victories, and where his name is still held in due rcsi)ect from tlie {)erformances of those he left behind him. .Vmongst others of hi:s stock who have shone over tlic Curragli were Maria, Langford, Cruiskeen, Artluir, Honest Ned, Waterwitch, Mulgrave, Birdcatchor, and (Jipsy; and since his return to this country, Coronation, Hylliis, Robert de (iorham, The Corsair, Newcourt, The Hydra, Venus, Vi1)ration, Jenny Jones, and many more, have done much to increase the honours of" tlie Black Baronet." On the decease of Mr. Weatherby, at the commencement of last season, he was bought at the hammer by the Hon. Sidney Herbert for 900 guineas, and stood at Tattersall's i)addocks, Willesdcn. For the next season he is already advertised to cover at his owner's seat, Wilton House, Salisbury, by a subscription of forty mares-, at 20 guineas each. Guiccioh, bred by Mr. Blake, in 1823, for many years ])layed a good part on the turf, and has jiroved equally, or still more valuable in the stud. .\s well as the Lcger winner, slie is also the dam of Bird- catcher, George, and May-boy ; three nags that could all " run a bit." Birdcatcher (own brother to Foig-a-ballagh) was indeed second only to one horse of his year, liut that one being the terril>le cli|)per, Harkaway, his success was considerably less than it otherwise might have been ; as a stud-horse lie l)romises well, if we may put any faith in the Poacher, or Ballinkeele. Of the two others, (ieorge has made his bow on this side of the water, chiefly, we ratiicr think, with a design on one of the Newmarket (Jreat Handicaps ; but something soured his tcmjier, and hitterly not even his countryman, that rcffolutc horseman, Mr. WilHam M'Donough, could persuade him to run kind or straight. Foig-a-liallagh stands Ifj hands .i\ inches high; has a very neat head, small cars, full eyes, and large nostrils ; head particularly well set on ; clean light neck ; strong and oliliiiue shoulder ; large and long arms, with rather small fiat legs; pasterns long, and inclined to be ui)riglit; good ojien feet ; dco|) in the brisket; high loins ; straiglit back, tail set on high ; l(mg quarters, immense gaskins. tiiiglis, and hocks ; the near one considerably lilemishcd from the eflecls of some strong application for a very bad curb, which causes it to look crooked. He is, altogether, a horse of great power, witli plenty of courage land fine temper. 1 Summary of Foig-a-Ballagh's performances: — In 1843 started once, when he was beat. In 1844 started five times, won four: tlie (iieat St. I.eger, value, clear, £2,525 ; a match at Doncastcr, £1,000; Ithe Grand Duke Michael, £1,100 ; the Cesarewitch, 1,175 ; total, £5,800. OLD SERIES.] 1 [Xo. -2.— VOL. XXU. 102 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL ON VEGETATION. It is necessar)', in the first place, to name the ordinaiy elements of soils ; and while naming these elements, and shortly describing their properties and their effects on vegetation generally, and there- after their sjiecial action, when combined in varying l^roportions in soils, in promoting the germination and growth of particular vegetables, we may as well state the simplest practical modes of ascertaining their presence in different soils ; and in the case of those of most importance, as appearing in the greatest quantity and as being of more uniform or frequent occurrence^ the easiest rules for determin- ing their proportional quantities by simple analysis. This must unquestionably be the first step which it will be necessary for us to take with a view to exj)lain clearly and intelligibly what is the best admixture of the ordinary elements of soil for ])romoting the germination and growth of particu- lar vegetables ; for any attempt to proceed, trusting to general vague descriptions of soils, as charac- terised by distinguishing accidental, mechanical, physical, or other properties alone, could only result in our leaving impressions on the minds of our readers sp very general and indefinite as per- haps to result in very little practical economical benefit. We shall therefore proceed somewhat more systematically. But let it not be supposed that we are going to enter into any statement which may not be rendered practically available by the intelligent agriculturist, without putting himself to the trouble of scientific study or research. On the contrary, it is just to prevent the necesssity for such study on the })art of the agriculturist who does not desire it, that this practical essay has been begim ; yet it is hoped that there will be few of our readers who will not be tempted to pursue the subject much arther than our legitimate limits will at all permit. nie first i)reliminary step to be taken in pro- ceeding to the rough chemical analysis of a soil, with a view to classification, is the following. After carefully ^^'eighing out a kno^\'n portion of soil, and s])reading it thinly over clean white paper, place this portion in an oven, or on a metal plate over a fire, and let it remain to dry till the paper, from heat, begins to show symptoms of discolouration ; weigh again, and the loss will correspond with the quantity or proportion of the water of absorption, or contained water in the soil. It is important to ascertain this, for many considerations. The //■.',•/ step after this ])reliminaiy process is to weigh out 1 00 grains from the identical portion of soil on which we. ha^-e just been ojierating, and ])lace this 100 grains in a small vessel composed of fire-clay or ])latinum, and subject it to a duU red heat over a common fire or spirit lamp ; then weigh it, and the loss may be set down as the quantity or proportion of humus or organic matter present (say 11^). Seco7id. Still retaining the same portion of soil, let it be mixed with half a pint of v.'ater, and to this mixture add half a wine-glass full of spirit of salt (muriatic acid), and stir it frecpiently. If lime be present, effer\-escence Mill take place, or, in other words, minute bubbles of air will rise to the surface and escajie. This air is the carbonic acid gas contained in the carbonate of lime present in the soil. Whenever these air bubbles cease to rise to the surface on stirring, the process may be con- sidered at an end. Then leave the mixture to settle down and pour off' the water carefully; dry the soil as directed in the preliminary step, and then weigh carefully, and the loss may be set down as the quantity or proportion of lime present (say 4t2-). Third. We may now lake a fresh portion of the soil, dry it thoroughly, and weigh out 100 grains so dried, or take it ■without the preliminary drjdng, but making due allowance for the propor- tion or qiiantity of the water of absorption already ascertained to be present previously by the pre- liminary drying process, and let it- be boiled and thorovighly incorporated with the \\'ater. It may then be poured into a vessel (one of glass would be l)referable) and allowed to settle till all the large sandy particles shall have subsided. This point must be carefully watched ; and while the lighter clayey particles are still suspended in the water, and before they have begim to subside, let the liquid be poured off, and the sand in the bottom collected and dried as directed in the preliminary step, and second, and then weighed. This will give the quantity or jn'oportion of sand in the moist soil, which by the preliminary steji ^^'as found to contain a certain quantity of water ; deducting then, if the ]iroportion of soil shall have been used moist, the ascertained proportion of the water of absorp- tion corresponding to the quantity examined at present, as instructed by the preliminary step to this analysis, let the quantity or proportion of sand remaining be found equal to 10 (say 10). Then we have Humus llj „ Lime 4^1 „ Sand lo" Remainder will be Clay 74 Making together 100 the proportions of a strong wheat soil. 1. Claij. — The presence of clay in soil maybe known by its softness to the touch, its tenacity, plasticity, and adhesiveness; and another general character of all aluminous or clay soils is to give out a peculiar or earthy odour when breathed upon, which is supposed to arise from the combination of the clayey substance (alumina) with a portion of oxide of iron, which is present in most soils, to such an extent at least as to influence or modify in some degree their colour, but in some rare instances in such quantity as to be prejudicial; though in very small quantity it is thought by scientific men to be rather favourable, if not necessary, to vegeta- tion. Clay, at least the aluminous particles, are thought to act as absorbents of gaseous substances, as cf ammonia for instance, and have a powerful attraction for organic matters and the various salts, the produce of decomposition in the soil itself, and being very retentive of all such substances, the presence of a due admixture of clay must be ever necessary to a fertile soil. 2. Sand. — The ]n-esence of sand may be ascer- tained from soil containing it being capable of scratching glass, and feeling rough to the touch. Sand has no apparent particular attraction for THE FARMER'S 3IAGAZINE. 103 organic mattiTs or gaseous substances, and seems princi]ially \alual)le from the just and desirable mechanical division wliich it ensures when present in regulated j)roi)ortions in a well-wrought soil, thus imparting to it the requisite friability and looseness of texture, that healthful moisture and - fostering heat may l)e freely conducted to the root fibres, and that eva];oration and absorption may l)roceed uninterruptedly. 3. Lime. — 'I'he presence of calcareous matter we liave seen is easily detected by the test of spirit of salt. Calcareous matter assists in puh'crising clay by attracting moisture at all times from the sur- rounding earth and air ; and this moisture, in winter, being congealed by frost, expands and dis- turbs every neighbouring jjarticle in the mass, and also operates in giving adhesiveness to sand, aids in reducing insoluble organic substances, combines with them in part, improves the soil in texture, and renders it — jjarticularly sands and gravels — more retentive of enriching sul)stances, thereby incal- culably increasing their fertility, particularly if api)lied in combination with clay in the form of marl. When aijjilied as quick -lime, it has a power- ful eliect in destroying many noxious weeds and their seeds, besides insects and their larvop, ])nr- ticularly on clover leys, which are often infested l)y them. The lime is generally found in the form of insoluble carbonate ; but \\e may show, ])erha]is, under the head salts and saline matters, that some comjiounds of lime may he rendered in part solu- ble, and this with a view to ascertaining the gross quantity of saline matter ])resent in the soil. 4. H;/rti//.s-.— The presence of humus, or organic matter, is detected by weighing the soil after being thoroughly dried, exjiosing it to a red heat, and then weighing it again. The loss is organic matter, or humus. 'I'hroughout the kingdom there are few tracts containing more than eight per cent, of humus ; but, if the staple of the land be loamy, even two jier cent will render it capable of bearing grain crops, though a smaller quantity will not in any soil (unless accidentally or extraneou.sly su])- l)lied by irrigation or otherwise, which is often the case with grass lands) supj)ort the more valuable agricultural crops, favour their jjcrfect development, and carry them on to i)ro(luctive maturity. The true nourishment of plants is principally decom- posing organic matter; at least, such substances contain the necessary elements of their noiu'ish- nient. In the more minute analyses the organic substances are chictly included imder the varieties — humic acid, insoluble huuuis, and organic sul)- btances, containing nitrogen ; ulmic and humic acid, carbonic acid, and ammonia are likewise produced during the decay of organic substances. 5. Motul/ic Oxidps. — The presence of metallic oxides in the soil, such as oxide of iron and oxide of manganese, may be known by the colour — ferru- ginous, red or yellow ; cupreous, with greenish streaks; but ciq)reous imjircgTiations are rare, the green colour being fre(iuently and generally com- municated by iron. Indeed, ferruginous impregna- tions are the only metallic impregnations whicli occur to any extent in soils. Ferruginous iuipreg- nafums in excess are injurious to vegetation, although, in due i)roportion, they are believed to be friendly to fertility. j A few other substances will sometimes be met with by the agriculturist, such as salt, suli)hur, ' coal, &c., in particular localities. I Salt, or Saline Impreyiiations. — The presence of i salt or saline impregnations in soils may be dis- tinguished easily by the taste on the palate. These, in due jiroportion, are friendly to fertility. The saline or soluljle portion of the soil in this quantity j is in small proportion, and may be tolerably ascer- 1 tained by poiu-ing a jiint or a pint and a-half of t boiling rain or distilled water over a peimd weight of soil, ])reviously well dried in an oven ; and after stirring sufbcier.tly, and time being given to settle, let the pure licpiid 1)0 ])oured completely off, and then evajwrated or Ixnled to dr}'ness over a fire, ' and (he quantity of solid saline matter left will give I the number of grains of saline matter present, i This will generally consist of common salt (chloride \ of sodium) a substance composed of one part of ' a gas called chlorine, and another of a metal called sodium; f/i/j)sin)i j sulphate of soda (glauber salts), composed of one part of a gas — sulphuric acid, and one part soda — itself a com])ound substance, and composed of one part of a gas called oxygen, and one part of the metal sodium, which we have j already mentioned ; sulphate of macjuesia (Epsom I salts), composed of one part of a gas — sulphuric ! acid, and one jiart magnesia — itself a compound I and composed of one ])art of a gas called oxygen, ond one part of a metal — magnesium. Also of the i nitrates of jiotash, soda, and lime, or compounds of one part nitric acid and one part of i)otash, soda, or lime severally ; and these are the soluble saline substances of the soil which supjdy to the growing herbage the portion they require of this description of nourishment. jSLiynesia, potash, and soda then occur in soils, but generally combined with other matters. Magnesia often occurs in great quantity as a carbonate, or combined with carbonic acid gas. If it shoidd remain uncombined in a soil in any quantity, it is uniformly ])rejudicial, and some soils are foimd unfavouraljle to vegetation in consequence, and it is difhcidt to a])])ly a remedy. They are included, then, under this head without any sejDarate notice. Magnesia, potash, soda, and lime, when combined with the gases, such as ])hosphoric acid gas, chlo- rine gas, sulphuric acid gas, or carbonic acid gas, are severally ])lios])hates, chlorides, suljihates, and carl)onates of magnesia, potash, soda, or hme, and are here included under the head salts or sahne impregnations. Tiie jjresence of sulphur may be detected by the unpleasant odour soils will give out on being thrown on a hot iron. Suljjhurous impregnations aboimd in some localities, and often, where they occur in nature, seem to be connected with fertiUty, and a portion is desirable. The presence of coal is detected by the apjicar- ance of its fragments, after the soluble j)or)ions of a soil have been removed by water and spirit of salt. The soils on coal are generally unfertile, though they are very often composed of alluvium or transported materials, and they are by no means in siu'ii cases necessarily unfertile. Sueli are the simple rules for detecting the presence of the elementary suljslances of which soils are generally composed, as also the projior- tions of tliose which occur in largest quantity and I 2 104 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. most frequently. It was absolutely necessary to say this much, to enable the uninformed reader to comprehend ^^'hat follows. We shall have to talk of the several soils most suitable to the several crops in usual cultivation, as being composed each of the ordinary elements in certain proportions ; and it was absolutely necessary to show how in every instance their various propoi'tions could be readily ascertained by the practical inquirer, with a view to the classification of any soils which might be hereafter submitted to his notice for examination, and which examination would ma- terially assist him in determining which were the best adapted, for instance, to the wheat or barley husbandry. According to Von Thaer, the follow- ing soils are best calculated for icheut : — Clay Sand Carb. Humus <^ No. per per of lime per -^ cent. cent. p. cent. cent. >^ 2 )Fu-st class of (^ g ^. g| 3.( S^S^'^^"*)79 10 4 4 96 4.. J ^°^^^ V40 22 36 4 90 5. 1 Good wheat ^ 58 36 2 4 77 6. i land ^56 30 12 2 75 7.") r6o 38 , ,, 2 70 8. y Ordinary ditto < 48 50 ^^y 2 65 9.5 ^68 30q"^"^'*y- 2 60 The first column shows the number, the second the class, the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth the proportions of the elementary constituents, and the seventh and last comprises an analysis of the comparative value of the different component parts. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are alluvial soils of the richest quality ; and from the large proportion which they contain of vegetable mould or humus, and the intimate state of commixture in which it is found, they are not so stiff as the quantity of clay which they contain would seem to indicate. No. 4 is a fine clay loam, such as is found in many parts of the United Kingdom ; and although what may be called strong land, is yet of a textui-e which i-en- ders it easy to be worked, and consequently not diflScult to be kept in heart if properly managed. Nos. 5 and 6 are both good soils, the quantity of carbonate of lime in No. 7 compensating in a degree for the smaller portion of humus; but necessarily requiring the addition of a proportion- ate quantity of dimg, to supply that deficiency. Nos. 8 and 9, although soils of the fair average quahty of ordinary tillage land, yet, from the want of carbonate of lime, require the addition of lime or marl. It is unquestionable that good wheat-land ought to possess a certain degree of consistence, which can only be produced by the presence of clay in large proportion, and if about 15 per cent, of lime be present, httle sand will be necessary to render a clay soil sufficiently friable ; but an ample inter- mixture of humus or decomposing organic matter is absolutely necessary, which will have the efl^ect of colouring such soils dark brown or brownish. If the soil be a really superior loam 2 per cent., of humus or vegetative earth Avill render it productive of grain crops, and indeed one seldom meets mth more than 5 per cent, in British soil. However, the greater the proportion of lime and humus present, the less necessity is there for a great pro- portion of sand to produce friability, and the same proportion, within certain limits, as shown above, will the fertility of a clay soil increase. Thus, good wheat soils have generally from 5 to S per cent, of decomposing organic matter. The wheat crop absorbs more nutriment from the soil than any of the other cultivated cereal grasses, and Thaer has calculated that for every 100 parts of nutritive matter present in the soil, a crop of wheat will require to al)sorb 40 to bring it to perfect maturity. In rich clays, or clay loams, wheat maybe raised every second year ; with a fallow, every four, six, or eight years, according to circumstances; on in- ferior clays or light lands only twice in six years at the ^•ery utmost ; and it is quite an improper crop for light lands, unless they should have naturally a considerable degree of tenacity, or unless this adhesiveness should have been artifi- cially communicated. If sown in a dry and well- drained soil, particularly if covered with snow, wheat \viU endure a great deal of cold without injury, bvxt requires a mild and warm temperature and season for the blossoming and ripening of the ear, otherwise the grain v/ill be deficient in gluten. It is on this account that the wheat of Sicily is so superior to that of more northern countries. But the consideration of climatic influence is somewhat foreign, although we have ventured an incidental remark. Red wheats are the most hardy, and best adapted for strong clays and loams ; but white yield the most flour. Sir Humphrey Davy's analysis of a good wheat soil gave Silicious sand 150 parts. Finely divided matter. Carbonate of lime 28 Sihca 32 Alumina 29 Animal or vegetable matter and moisture 11 —100 „ This soil was firm and coherent in its texture. In all cases it is the finely divided matters in the soil which give it firmness and tenacity ; these properties dei)ending on the carljonate of lime and alumina, chiefly on the latter. We ha^T already said, when speaking of the properties of lime, that it communicates absorbent powers and consistency to sands, while it aids in pulverizing clays and gi^^ng them friability. We shall conclude our analysis of wheat soils by the folloM'ing minute analysis of the ash of wheat, by Sprengel, and of an arable soil that had been cropped for 160 years without rest or intermission, and without manure or naked fallow. Sprengel's Analysis of the Ash of Wheat, 1,000 lbs, of wheat leave 11.77 lbs,, and of wheat straw 35.18 lbs. of ash, consisting of Grain of Straw of wheat, wheat. Potash 2,25 lbs, 0.20 lbs. Soda 2,40 0.29 Lime O.96 2.40 Magnesia O.9O 0.32 Alumina, with a trace of iron 0.26 0,90 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 105 Silica 4.00 28.ro Sulphuric acid 0.50 0.37 Phosphoric acid 0.40 1.70 Chlorine 0.10 0.30 11.77 lbs. 35.18 lbs. Soil cropped for 160 years successivel)^ &c., &c., from Nebtsein, near Olrautz, in Mi)ra\ia. Silica and fine sand 77-209 Aliiinina 8.514 Oxides of iron G.592 Oxide of manganese 1.520 Lime 0.927 Magnesia 1 . 1 Go Potash, chiefly combined with silica 0.140 Soda, ditto ditto 0.(340 Phosphoric acid, combined with lime and oxide of iron 0.G51 Sulphuric acid in gypsum 0.01 1 Chlorine in common salt 0.010 Carbonic acid united to the lime . . Ilumic acid 0.978 Insoluble humus 0.540 Organic substances containing ni- trogen 1.108 100 parts. Barley Soil. — The soil best calculated for barley is a rich, warm, light loam ; but it equally dislikes a strong wheat clay, and a soft sandy soil. We shall give \'on Thaer's analysis of barley soils, the residt of long and patient investigation and en- lightened ex})erience ; and beg to refer our readers Ijack to the exj)lanation of the columns which we have given, when we i)reviously presented his analysis of wheat soils : — Clay Sand Carb. Humus ^ l)er per of lime per '^ cent. cent. p. cent. cent. ►" Rich barley land 20 67 3 10 78 Good ditto 38 60 small 2 60 Ordinary ditto.. | ^^ G5 quantity 2 50 ■' L 28 70 in each. 2 40 The comparative value of the dilierent compo- nent parts is ascertained from a comparison with a first-class wheat soil composed as follows : — Clay Sand Carb. Humus ^ per per of lime per '^ cent. cent, percent, cent. <' First class wheal soil 74 10 4 J Hi 100 'llie rich barley land contains such large propor- tions of sand and humus mixed with the clay, as to peculiarly adapt it for the growth of barley and green crops : it is consetjuently evidently suitable to the alternate system of husbandry. Tlie good barley land, and first and second quality or ordinary ditt(j, although soils of the fair average quality of conunon tillage land, yet, from the want of carbonate of lime, recpiire the addition of lime or marl. For barley the soil must be rich, friable, and mellow, and free from injurious wetness. In very sandy soils, after long protracted drought, as we have witnessed frequently in a portion of land lately in our posaession, the crop fades, yellows, and suffers severely ; but if the season should be moist, barley will succeed in such soils, if in good heart; but it cannot be deemed a secure crop in land containing less than 50 to 65 per cent, of sand, with the remainder chiefly clay. Barley, however, will succeed on sound mellow land containing a much larger proportion of clay, ])ro- vided it be tempered with a large enough c^uantity of organic matter to correct its adhesiveness ; and the necessary friability may be also secured by a wholesome and large admixture of calcareous matter alone, or combined with silicious matter. But from two to three per cent, of decomposing organic matter will support a crop of barley. Nevertheless a small proportion of finely divided matter will fit a soil in some measm-e for the pro- duction of barley. Some turnip or barley soils contain as much as 1 1 and 1 2 parts sand ; but these are very poor soils, and cannot stand diy weather. Barley must have a sound, warm, and genial soil, well pulverized and cleaned, and suf- ficiently manured ; but of course this manure will ha\'e been applied in a previous root-crop, as the barley crop is so short a time in the ground (often only nine weeks between sowing and cutting) ; and the root-crop should on all occasions be eaten oflf on the field, and the plough follow the sheep- fold or net as closely as possible, so that the benefit of the leathing may not be lost, but turned down and secured in the soil with as httle delay as ])ossible. It is of importance to sow barley on a hot furrow, and the land is often prepared to receive the seed with the grubber alone. Barley requires a warm and dry chmate, and has often been reaped without a shower from the day of sowing : but it is all the better for genial showers from the time of sowing, till it gets into ear ; but very heavy rains at any period of its growth are very injurious. The follo^ving are Sprengel's analy- sis of the ash of barley and barley-straw. BARLEY. 1,000 lbs. 1,000 lbs. dry gram. straw. Potash 2.78 lbs. 1.80 lbs. Soda 2.90 1.06 0.48 Lime 5.54 Magnesia 1.80 0.76 Alumina 0.25 1.46 Oxide of iron . . a trace 0.14 Oxide of manga- nese 0.20 Silica 11.82 0.59 38.56 Sulphuric acid . . 1.18 Phos])horic acid . 2.10 1.60 Chlorine 0.19 0.70 23.49 lbs. 52.42 lbs. We shall add a few words on Turnip soils, llie turnip thrix'es on all barley soils, and indeed on all soils which are rich, dry, and friable ; and there are some \'arieties adajjted to the ricluT free loams ; but no \'ariety will succeed well anil surely on strong clay soils. The Norfolk turnip, or nliile Gloljc is best suited to rich soils. The Abcrc/ei'ti i/fllow, and scune of the more initritive varieties prefer strong soils ; and rnta bnya or Swedish turnip, the most nutritive known species, thrives 106 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Nutritive Matter, tons. cwt. 1 16 1 10 1 8 nutritive matter best on rich friable loams. It is endent, then, that the nutritive qualities of these varieties are in proportion to the soil by which they are pro- duced, and to which they are best suited. They were severally found to yield Produce, tons. Best Swedish turnij) . . 30 Green-top yellow ditto . . 30 AVhite globe ditto 35 The relati^'e jjroportions of afforded by each of the follo^\'ing species ha^e been estimated by Sinclair, in his Hortus Gram. Woburnensis : — In G4 drachms the relative portion of nutriment was found to amount to, in The white Tankard 76 grains. Common white loaf 80 „ Norfolk white 83 „ Stone or garden 85 „ Swedish turnips 110 „ According to which the Swedes would afford 1 cwt. 1 qr. per ton, while the largest roots of that species produced 110 grains, the small ones how- ever only yielded 99 ; and the common white loaf variety, measuring 7 inches in diameter, gave only 7'2h qrs., while the same cjuantity of a root mea- suring only 4 inches, afforded 80. The Cruciferce, to which the turni]j or Brasslca species belongs, are believed to possess a greater proportion of azote than any other tribe, wliich is apparent from the foetid smell they give out in burning ; and as this component is derived from the manure applied, or the contained fecundity of the soil, which depends mainly on the proportion of decomposing organic matter or humus present, it will be at once apparent how very necessary it is to the success of this croj) that the soil be rich, and in good heart, and also well pulverized and wrought, for the germination of the seed is very tender. For the analysis and composition of turnip soils generally, we refer back to those we have already given of barley soils, which are sufficient for our purpose, without needlessly extending our remarks on this division of our subject. A cool and temperate cihnate is most favoiu-able to the turnij); and it even succeeds better in Scotland, Ireland, and the northern counties of England, than in the southern, and better there than further south; and a short summer and rapid growth is equally vinfavourable to the development of the bulb. The ash of the turnip has been found to yield on analysis, root and leaves separately as below, that is, taking them as carried fi-om the field, in 10,000 lbs. respectively. Roots. Potash 23.86 Soda 10.48 Lime 7.52 Magnesia 2.54 Alumina 0.36 Oxide of iron 0.32 Oxide of manganese • Silica 3.88 Sulphuric acid 8.01 Phosphoric acid 3.67 9.8 Chlorine 2.39 8.7 63.03 180.9 Clover soils. — A deep marly, sandy loam seems the native and favourite soil of the clover. In such a soil the plants can extend their tap roots and rootlets with freedom in any direction ; and the clovers will grow in most soils if dry; yet different varieties prefer different soils. White is a native, and rather prefers a light, cleareous soil. 'Ilie broad-Ieared red is also a native, bvit is better adapted for stronger soils, and even clays ; and must be ]ilanted deep and well rolled in light soils, to secure it from the winter frosts and summer droughts. Rolling or pressing must be particu- larly attended to, to consolidate the soil, and ex- clude as effectually as may be in such unfavourable situations these excessive and unfriendly agencies. The corn-clover or niarl-(/rass is also a native, and will grow on strong or light soils, and sometimes with good management produces abundant crops in the latter in a moist season. In strong soils, it is of the greatest importance in preparing f(3r clover with a previous green crop, that the land should be brought to the finest state of friable tilth, and deeply u'rought, that the roots may descend and extend at freedom and in safety from the effects of any severe and penetrating winter frost, or scorching summer heat. Calcarious mat- ter is so congenial to the clover family, that the mere accidental strewing of lime on a soil will quicken and call into life clover seeds that have been dormant for ages. The presence of gypsum (sul- j)hate of lime) in the soil, seems very favourable to the production of clover ; and it is often added alone or combined, as in Dutch ashes — the ashes of peat — very rich in saline substances, and in other manures and dressings. Gypsum is yielded by the ashes of burnt clover in considerable quantity ; and this is a scientific theoretic reason for its direct apphcation as a manure to this crop, did exyie' rience not daily give us independent and satisfactory proofs of its efficacy. The nutritive products of the varieties of clo\'ers in most frecjuent use, we find by Sir H. Daly's Analysis to be as follow : — o > „• o c giic u ii a; ^'B 35 B 5 a gs Systematic English namf>. K S o a '< j;.5 §. O a name. CO K, '3 '5 s ^■c S "oS S o 3 B 2 3 i: -a ■" &es s UJ3 a kS-§ Trifolium pratense. . Red clo^'er. 39 31 3 2 3 Tif. medium Corn clover. 39 30 4 3 2 'i'rif. repens Whte clover 32 29 1 3 5 Hedysaram onobrj'chis Sainfoin . . 39 28 2 3 6 Medicago sativa .... Lucerne . . 23 18 1 0 4 The ash of the red and white clovers contains the following proportions of inorganic matter. It will be observed, as we huxe already noticed, that their ash contains a large proportion of sulphuric acid THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 107 and lime— the components of gypsum. Tlie plants were in a rather dry state. Red clover Potash 19-95 Soda r)-29 Lime 27-80 Magnesia .... 3*33 White clo\'er. .. 31-05 5-79 . . 23-48 3-05 1-90 n-C)3 Alumina .... 0*14 Oxide of Iron . . — Oxide of Manganese — Silica .... Sulphuric Acid . Phosphoric Acid. Chlorine . . . 74-58 91-32 As cloA'ers on light, porous, piilverulent soils are easily destroyed hy the action of frost and drought, so on stitl' soils the same effect is pro- duced l)y excess of moisture. However, a certain comj)actness, particularly on the surface of the soil, previous to winter, is must desirahle ; for there are few moderately hardy plants so impatient as the clovers of sudden and extreme variations of tem- perature, or more readily injured, as we liave seen, in unfavourahle situations. In light soils, the eat- ing of the crop on the ground with sheej), woidd, besides enriching the soil, operate most powerfully in securing the desirahle compactness of body, a consideration which is of such vast importance in enalding open porous soils to resist the injurious effects of extreme heat or cold to the crops on its surface, more particularly the different varieties of the clover family, which are all tender. Com- pactness can be also communicated by rolling, clay- ing, marling, chalking, and Uming ; but on loose lands, if the other corrective i)rocesses should be too expensive, or impracticable in particular lo- calities, yet the first is always easily practised, and a careful farmer will never neglect it. AVe may just say that the chmate most suitable to the clover family should be temperate, both as to heat and moisture. A moist and warm season jiroduces the bulkiest crops of herbage ; but a dry and warm temperature is desirable, when the object is to reserve the crop for seed bearing. Oat soils. — Von Tliacr has gi;en the following analysis of oat soils, or rather of soils usualli/ abandoned to outs, we should say, as producing a more valuable return under o«/4', than under wheat or burtetj. 0.\T OR IIVE LAND. Clay per Sand per Carb.oflime Humus Value, cent. cent. per cent. jjcr cent. 23i 75 small (plan- \\ 30 18^ 80 titles in each \\ 20 Both these are evidently light sands, which, though sometimes brought into cultivation, and even ren- dered ])rodiictive through the api)licalion of ma- nure and judicious management, yet can rarely be kept in heart withcmt the aid of a folding (lock ; and land of a jmorer quality should invariably ])e kept on sheep pasture. Oats prefer a comparatively moist and cold cli- mate. In warmer climates they degenerate ; and tlieir open i)anicles being unable to resist the drought, they become thick in the husk, light and chaffy. Oats, under the best system are generally the first crop after (jrass, and are seldom taken after a r/reen or root crop, except jn very cold and moist climates, adapted for neither wheat nor barlctj. There is no question but rich soils, and soils in good heart, will produce a superior crop of oats to an inferior soil ; and oats are sown on poorer soils, only because the more valuable grain crops would not be likely to succeed in such situations. In moist climates, however, they supply the ])lace of superior grain crops on the best soils, and are under such conditions more jjroductive and valu- able than any wheat crop. Oats are much the best crop to succeed the breaking up of rough grass pastures, or even two-i/ear-old (jrass. Different varieties, however, like different soils. Tlie Poland and potato prefer good rich loam ; the black and red varieties succeed well in elevated and late situa- tions ; and the intermediate varieties may be grown on all the varying qualities of British soils under the plough. The common black oat is much sown in the Highlands, in exposed situations, though the grain is very small and scanty, and the fodder inferior both in ([uantity and quahty ; and varieties are met with, dnn, red, and white. Although the black oat is easily shaken with the wind, the red species (one variety of which is the Marjhee Ilill oat) is equally early, and adapted to high situations, and even peaty soils ; but is not liable to loss by shak- ing. The dttn oat has a thin husk, and is compa- ratively productive in meal. The white is not so hardy, l)Ut superior to the former ; and comprises the BlainsUe, Kildrummie, llulkerstone, Anr/us, &c., &c. ; the latter being veiy valuable for its ])ro- duce both of grain and straw, though one variety is later in ripening considerably than the other varieties of M7n7e o«/a*. The potato oat requires a rich, well-cultivated, dry, or very moderately moist soil ; the Poland, the white and black varieties (the latter, though easily shaken, very prolific, pro- ductive, and weighty), a rich moist soil, or drained marsh land ; and the Vrieslund will succeed in a hght dry soil, though originallyraised in the fertile alluvial district of East Friezeland. The liopetoun, a variety from i\\Q potato, requires a good soil. Besides that the temperature is best suited to their growth, we find the best sam])les produced in cold climates ; for this further reason, unquestionably, that the better soils are ajiiiroiiriated to oat culture ; whereas, in more favoured localities, oats are confined exclu- sively to the inferior, or exhausted, or dirty and weed-becovered soils. One thing is certain, that oats are a most valuable crop on all rough, newly- ploughed, waste lands and moory soils, and on all crude and ill-prepared land; and they even succeed best when the soil is not too finely jjulverised, and under conditions where other grain crops could not possibly thrive. AVe may mention that the most abundant crops and heaviest weighing oats are generally produced after grass, and oats seem i)ar- ticularly calculated to thrive after lea, and when de- riving their nourishment from the decaying roots of tlie i)rcvi()us lu-rbagc plants; and tlicre can be no (|Ucslion that these dectmiposing roots yield U]) al)Uii(lantiy all the necessary constituents of the food of tlu- oat tribe. Clovers, in the same way, are good 108 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. preparations for wheat ; besides that the smother of a good crop is beheved to rot the surface weeds and check their growth, as well as to protect the soil from exhaustion by the agency of the atmospheric influences, thus further advantaging the wheat crops. 1,000 lbs. of the ash of the grain and straw of good oats are found to contain the following pro- portions of inorganic substances : — Grain. Straw, lbs. lbs. Potash 1-50 .. .. 870 Soda 1-32 .. .. 0'02 Lime O'SG .. .. 1-52 Magnesia 0'G7 ,. .. 0*22 Alumina 0'14 .. .. 0-OG Oxide of Iron . , . . ()-40 . . , . 0-02 Oxide of Manganese . . 000 . . . . 0'02 Sihca 1970 .. .. 45-88 Sulphuric Acid . . . . 0.35 . . . . 079 Phosphoric Acid. . .. 070 .. .. 0-12 Clilorine O'lO .. .. 0-05 25-80 57*40 These proportions, however, vary according to the soil. In boggy lands, the proportion of silica will be less ; and in inferior lands, the other ingredients will vary in their relative quantities. But in all the analyses of ash we have given, care has been taken to compare only the most produc- tive and healthy specimens ; and in all such cases, the residue of ash in any two healthy plants of the same variety, equally luxuriant, will be substantially the same, and of uniform composition, at the same age and in the same stage of its growth. Rye-f/rass Seeds. — Rye-grass will grow on all soils not injuriously wet or cohesive, or undecayed bog ; and though it pi-efers a rich loamy soil, it can be cultivated on iqjlands too low in the scale of fertility for clovers, and in such situations it is A'ery valuable. However, it will generally be found to succeed well in good sound clover soils; at least, any failure that may occur will not be found to arise from the influence of the soil. The ash of rye-grass hay was found to contain the foUott'ing proportions of inorganic matters : — Rye-grass Hay. Potash 8-81 Soda 3-94 Lime 7-34 Magnesia 0-90 Alumina 0.31 Oxide of Iron — Oxide of Manganese — Turnip Roots. Potash 145.5 Soda 64.3 Lime 45.8 Magnesia 15.5 Alumina 2.2 Sihca 23.6 Sulphuric acid 49.0 Phosphoric acid 22.4 Chlorine 14.5 Silica 27-72 Sulphuric Acid 3-53 Phosphoric Acid 0*25 Chlorine 0-06 52-80 T\ie perennial variety, as it is called, is of smaller growth than the annual varieties; but, although not often perennial, it will last in sound dry soils 1 for four or five years, and in some rich soils longer. With this short explanation we refer back to what we have just said of clover soils. Professor Johnston, of Durham, has stated in his lectures, in the course of publication, that he calcu- lates the effect upon a soil, of a course of cropping of three years, fallow, ivheaf, oats — no doubt a most scourging rotation — and, taking the crop of wheat at 25 bushels, and the oats at 50 bushels, there would be carried from the soil, every three years, in pounds — avhe.\t. oats. Grain. StraAv. Giain. Straw. Tot;il . Potash .... 3.3 0.6 3.75 32.7 40.35 Soda 3.5 0.9 3.3 — 77 Lime 1.5 7.2 2.5 5.7 16.9 Magnesia ... 1.5 1.0 1.7 0.8 5.0 Oxide of Iron . — — 1.0 — 1.0 Sihca 6.0 86.0 50.0 172.0 314.0 Sulphuric acid 0.75 1.0 0.9 3.0 5.65 Pliosphoric acid 0.6 5.0 1.43 0.5 7.53 398.13 The total quantity will l)e very nearly 400 lbs. ; but the professor admits that they will vary with the kind of wheat or oats, and may even be greater. Three-fourths of the whole consists of silica, and the rest of the materials are equal to — 60 lbs. of dry pearl ash, 36 lbs. of the common soda of the shops, 28 lljs. of bone dust, 12 lbs. of gypsum, 5 lbs. of qviick-lime, 5 lbs. of magnesia ; or for the last three may be substituted 33 lbs. of common Epsom salts, and 17 lbs. of quick-lime; and unless they are re- stored to the soil in this form, or some other, the time will come, under ordinary circumstances, when the soil will be no longer able to supply the demand of a healthy and luxiu-iant vegetation. Again, suppose a four-course system adapted to lighter soils — turnips, barley, clover and rye-grass, ivheat — and let the crop of turnips be 25 tons of roots and 7 tons of tops, barley 38 bushels, clover and rye-f/rass 1 ton hay, and wheat 25 bushels, the entire rotation will extract from the soil, in pounds — Red clover. Rj^e Grass. 45.0 12.0 63.0 7.5 0.3 8.0 10.0 15.0 8.0 This is independently of the leaves of the turnips. Total. 233.0 96.6 149.0 32.9 10.3 299.2 72.8 51.5 25.6 970.9 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 109 It will be here observed tbat 19-20ths of the potash and soda are contained in the turnip crop ; and, therefore, the great importance of consuming this crop with sheej) on the field as a pre])aration for a yrain croj). To place the relative ellects of yreen and (jraiii crops iijjon a soil in a clearer light, the j)rofessor states, that the cjuantities of common and artificial salts and manures which it woidd he necessary to add at the commencement of this rotation, in order to supply the various in- organic substances about to be extracted from the land in the next four years' cropping, would be as follows — „, , , For the For the lOtal f, f, r, f, breen l^rojjs LornCrops 1 »ry i)earl ash 3-2"> 310 9 Chystahzed carbonate j 333 ^3 oi sofla^ S Common salt 43 38 '> ( ; ypsum — 30 — Quicklime 1 50 100 7 Epsom salts 200 150 50 Almn S3 27 50 Hone dust 210 150 CO With the exception of the silica, the above- named substances will rejjlace all the inorganic matters contained in the whole crop reared, the turnip tops alone not included. We have stated what is the best admixture of the ordinaiy elements of the soil for promoting the germination and growth of the particular \'ege- tables and cro|js most frequently cultixated, and shall now draw our remarks on this interesting subject to a close, otherwise they would extend beyond the desirable limits of an essay. THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. nv CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESa., F.R.S. Although since the estal)lishment of the Veterinary College very considerable advances ha\'e Ijeen made towards the more successful treatment of the dis- eases of animals, j-et it is only very recently that the general attention of the fanners of Eng^nd has been directed to the subject ; few, in fact, of these are aware of the aggregate value of the horses, the cattle, the shee]), and tlit other live ftock, which now tenant our islands. The calculation of Mr. M'Culloch makes the horses of (ireat Hritain amount to between 1,400,000 and 1,500,000; the cattle to 5,100,000; and the sheej) to 32,000,ooo. The amount of live stock sold at Smithfield in the la^^t nine years, as given in the subjoined table, will aflbrd some idea of the great value of a portion only of the domestic animals of oiu* country (John- son and Shaiv's Farmers' Abnunac, vol. 2, p. 2lOj : — Sheep and Beasts. Lambs. Calves. Pigs. 1835 .. 172,919 1,047,310 24,853 43,134 1836 .. 158,438 897,008 22,981 3J,2'2-4 1837 .. 179,701 1.540,000 20,259 3(1,325 1838 .. 183,017 1,407,574 15,705 45,283 * Or, for every 100 Ihs. of the common carbon- ate of soda may be substituted 40 lbs. of common salt, or Co lbs. of dry nitrate of soda. 1839 .. 188,535 1,464,383 18,576 51,740 1840 .. 180,041 1,521,093 14,194 .50,314 1841 .. 175,318 1,444,597 10,287 50,461 1842 .. 188,157 1,030,820 19,290 39,213 1843 .. 188,208 1,854,320 18,870 30,320 And if the jmblic are, generally speaking, but little ac(|uainted ^ith the value of these noble races of domestic animals, to a still greater extent are they unac(juainted with the amount of the annual mortality which, through neglect, or ill-treatment of their diseases, or the incurable nature of them, so materially thins the ranks of these invaluable te- nants of the farmers' lauds. As information on this head can hardly be too much difi'used, in orde, to excite still greater exertions towards the ])revenlion of so great a national loss, I will here collect toge- ther a few facts from my note-book, bearing on the question. According to Mr. Youatt (C«///e, ^>. 2), one-tenth of all the lambs and sheej) of oiu' island die an- nually of disease; of cattle one-fifteenth of their num- ber, die annually by infiammatory fever, and milk fever, red water, boose, and diarrhoea. Of the great amount of ])roi)erty thus lost few persons are aware. Professor Youatl gives the following calcu- lation : — " 100,000 head of cattle are sold in Smith- field alone, without including calves or the ihad market — the carcasses sent up from various j)arts of the country. If we reckon this to be a tenth part of the cattle slaughtered in the United Kingdom, it follows that 1,000,000 cattle are sent to the butcher every year, and, a\-eraging the life of the ox or the cof/ at five years, the ^■alue of British cattle, esti- mated at £10 per head, will be £80,000,000 ster- hng. 1,200,000 sheep, 30,000 ])igs, and 18,000 calves, are also sent to Smithfield in the course of a year, and if we reckon these to be one-tenth of the whole number, and allow only two years as the average duration of the lives of shee]) and pigs, and value the calves at £2 10s. each, the ])igs at £2, and the sheep at £l 10s., we shall arrive at the ad- . of phospliates. The corn having thus exhausted the soluble silica and phosphates, they grew a green plant, and havingbeforehad two which required a considerable amount of potash they now resorted to one containing lime (artificial grasses), and by the lime consumed, the action of the air upon the soil again liberated enough silica and jihosphales to grow a new crop of corn ; barley, when there was lime in the land ; or oats and wheat when lime was deficient. This was the general I system, though, of course, it varieil with localities and , circumstances. Mr. J. C. Morton had obligingly fur- nished him with a table of the rotation of crops on particular geological formations, the genernl result of which was, that in clays or soils rich in potash the i crops intermediate with the corn were plants taking I much i)otash, but little silica ; while the system on the calcareous soils was to alternate them with plants more fond of lime than of potash. When this class of soils was very poor in silicate of potash, they found sain- foin much cultivated and preferred to clover, as it con- tained only one-half of the amount of silica and a small proportion only of i)otash. From this it would be perceived that the first object of rotation was to liberate some ingredient, either contained in a small quantity in the soil, or set free so slowly as to be insuf- ficient for two successive crops of the same plant. Rotation, therefore, was not a means of improving the soil, as farmers generally supposed. It was only a means of delaying its exhaustion, and of enabling plants more comi)letely to rob it of its treasures. Other pro- cesses produce alike result — as for example the paring and burning of land, which besides destroying weeds and organic matter, which might be injurious, com- pletely altered the nature of the soil, plastic clays becoming porous, and admitting the oxygen which formerly was unable to liberate the nutritious ingredi- ents of the soil; but sandy soils being reduced by it to a caput mortuum. The same evils did not, however, at- tend the burning of chalk as of limestone, as the libe- ration by it of a certain amount of silicate of potash aflbi-ded new vigour to the lime-loving plants which were afterwards cultivated upon them. The next aua- loijons process in farming was liming the land, by which the silica, the potash, and the phosphates were li- berated from the soil and administered to the wants of vegetation. But by this operation no equivalent was furniiihed to the laud for that removed by the crops, and, therefore, the continuance of this system was merely a continuance of a rapid system of exhausting the soil. It might, however, not unfrequently sup- ply an absent constituent of the soil, but there was no manure sometimes more beneficially used, or some- times more disgracefully abused, than this. All these processes had merely one object in view, the rendering soluble the nutritious ingredients of the soil, not the sup- ply of materials which the soil might want. There were two other operations in this class, the use of common salt and irrigation. The latter process was of three kinds, which he would call true irrigation, warping, and liquid manuring. The former, or irrigation by pure water, played the same part, but more actively, as a fallow ; and for this reason, the land should be well drained that the water might percolate the soil, and be renewed by water from which the air had not been excluded. trnder some circumstances, irrigating waters seemed to act as a direct manure. The other two kinds and their effects were too well known to re- quire especial notice. Hitherto he had considered only those operations which made the soil itself available for plants ; but the great proportion of our soil was so imiioverished, that it could no longer yield within a year all the necessary materials for crops. The ingre- dients generally deiicient were the phosphates, espe- cially in lands long devoted to arable culture. Now, how must they proceed to return the soil to its original fertility ? Animals eat the vegetables which you have grown, these turn part of the organic matter of which they consist, and ultimately nuike it resort to the original form from which it sprang — carbonic acid, ammonia, and water. 13ut with these we take little interest, for they went again to the great nnigazinc of food, the atmosphere, to be extracted from thence as before. But the valuable mineral treasures of the soil could not assume the form of air, and therefore they re- mained, the ashesof the consumers food, and were voided in the solid and liquid excrements. If these were care- fully collected and restored to the soil, it must be pre- served in its unimpaired statits of diflerent nations. The maccaroni of the Italian and the train-oil of tlie Greenlanders are not adventitious freaks of taste, but necessary articles fitted to administer to their comforts in the dif- ferent climates in which they have been born. " Example No. 1 . — A flock of Leicester sheep on tolerably good food will increase in weight througliout the year about 52lbs. of mutton for each sheep, but this accumulation takes place chiefly during the spring and summer months, for, during the cold weather, it requires all the fanner's supplies of food to keep them at the same weight. Should the cold prove very in- tense, and the supplies of carbon and hydrogen in the form of food be not at hand, the store of fat which the animals have been accumulating in the mild seasons will be soon made use of to keep up the animal temperature. " Example No. 2. — ' One hundred sheep were folded by divisions of pens, each of which was •J2 feet in length by 10 feet in breadth, and pos- sessed a covered shed attached to it. They were kept there from the 10th of October to the 10th of March. Each sheep consumed on an average 2()lbs. of Swedes daily. Another hun- dred were folded in similar pens, but without sheds, during the same time, and their daily consumption of Swedes amounted to 25lbs. each. The sequel was, that those sheep which enjoyed the protection of the covered sheds had increased 3lbs. each more than those which were left un- protected, although the latter had consumed one- tifth more food.' '• Example No. 3. — In the mountainous dis- tricts of Scotland, the necessity of artificial shelter for sheej) has long l)een acknowledged ; for, when the .stormy season sets in, tliere is a necessity of feeding the sheei) with hay, both morning and evening, the quantity of the fodder necessary being generally proportionate to the degree of cold. '* Rest also, as well as the necessary protection from cold, is an ecjiiivalent for food. The con- sumption of oxygen in a given time may be ex- pressed by the number of respirations ; it is there- fore obvious that in the same animal the quantity of nourishment required must vary with the force and number of respirations, and, as the number of respirations is fewer in a state of rest than during labour or exercise, the quantity of food necessary in both instances must be in the same ratio. This can also be exemplified by the farmer's daily j)rac- tice, since he is well aware that the quieter an animal is kept when feeding, the quicker it fattens. " Example No. 1. — It is uniformly found that a stall-fed cow in the summer will yield consider- ably more butter and milk than one fed in the field with a greater sup])ly of food. The reason is ob\ious ; absence of oxygen prevents the inspiring of so large an amount of it as would take place in the o))en air. " Example No. 2. — In the rearing of calves for veal in Holland, it is usual to confine them in suckling houses or pens so narrow that the animal cannot turn round. The calf is fed through an o])ening in the doorway, just large enough to allow the head of the animal to be thrust out : as soon as he is fed, the opening is closed, and the animal is kept in total darkness. In this manner it is foimd that calves get fat in a considerably shorter period than if allowed to move freely in an open stall. " Example No. 3. — In the suckling of house- lambs of the early Dorsetshire breed for the London markets, the dams are fed with hay, oil-cake, and cabbage in an enclosure adjoining the apartments where the lambs are confined. The lambs are excluded from the light, except at the intervals when the shepherd suckles them upon the ewes. Some feeders confine their lambs in narrow separate stalls, to prevent them from playing with one another ; but others deem the exclusion of light and the a])sence of motion and noise the best for this purpose. By these means they speedily fatten, and their flesh becomes ex- ceedingly white and dehcate. " This brings us to that very important part of our Essay, the Production of Fat. We have seen, from the examples just adduced, that under certain circumstances, viz., the absence of exercise and cold, and the jjresence of a proper supi)ly of food, herbivorous animals speedily become fat. liy reference to the table containing the relative ])roportions of nutritious matter in the ordinary cultivated crops of the farmer, it will be seen that the jiroportion of l)eef-suet which exists in wheat or barley or straw and turnips, is exceedingly sm;dl ; indeed, the turnip does not contain any, and yet animals under such a diet will speedily fatten. The fat, then, is the product of a peculiar digestive ])rocess on the imazotised constituents of the food, and is formed in consi'(|uence of a want of due pro])orlion between the food taken into the stomach and the oxygen absorbed by the skin and lungs. Tile chief source of fat is starch and sugar; and its com|Jositiou is such, tliat if deprived of oxygen, fat remains. ' 'I'lius, if from starch C 12, H 10, O 10, we take [) at oxygen, there remains C 12, H 10, O 1, which is one of the empirical formulee for fat.' It is obvious from this that 128 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Liehig's theoiy is the right one, and that fat can only be formed by a process of deoxidation. He regards fat as an abnormal condition, since wild animals, such as the hare, the roe, and the deer, never produce any — the exercise which they con- tinually undergo preventing its formation. Besides this, they never eat except when hunger requires it, while 'the sheep and the ox eat almost without intermission, and, when young, they convert into fat and organized tissue all the nutritious parts of their food bej-ond the quantity required for sup- pl}dng the respiratory i)rocess and the waste of the system ; so they soon become plum]) and fleshy. "Want of exercise, then, and diminished cooling, are equivalent to a deficient supply of oxygen, for when these circumstances occur, the animal ab- sorbs much less oxygen than is required to con- vert into carbonic acid the carl)on of the substances destined for that purpose. We have a beautiful example of this in the ' conditioning of the hunter,' which consists in giving such exercise and food as will, \vithout reducing the strength of the animal, prevent the formation of superfluous flesh and fat. Air, exercise, and a propei- supply of nitrogenised food, such as oats, peas, lieans, &c. contain the grand secret in the art of training. But these articles also contain a large proportion of starch and fatty matters, and yet when in proper condition, the hunter never becomes fat. The reason is, that these substances, by the constant exercise which is given, are consumed in the lungs, while, under ditit'erent circumstances, the same horse with little exercise and httle oats, being fed chiefly with straw, hay, and turnips — articles that do not contain a quarter part of the fattening principle of food contained in the hunter's diet — would be found jilump and fat. Here we have the noi-mal and abnormal conditions compared together, as they regard the capability of horses to undergo fatigue, since the well-conditioned hunter is capable of undergoing great exertion with very little fatigue — while the frothy lather \vith which the non-conditioned horse is covered after very little exertion evinces undeniable inferiority. " From what has been stated, then, we may safely conclude that fat is chiefly produced from the starchy matters contained in the food of ani- mals, all the excess of which that is not consumed in producing animal heat is taken back into the circulation, and deposited, in the form of fat, in cells appropriated for that imrpose. It would appear also that the blood vessels have the power of taking back the fatty matter again into the cir- culation, when it is required ; so that one of the objects which this deposition fulfils is to store up, when nourishment is abundant, a supply that may be taken back into the system, and made use of in time of need. "These accumulations are found in diflferent parts of the bodies of animals of the same kind, some breeds of cattle being disposed to carry fat extenially, and others internally, while in others it is mixed in the muscle, forming what is commonly called a proper mixture of fat and lean. In the races of cattle disposed to carry fat externally, the African ox, with a large fatty hump on his shoul- der, and the mild zebu of India, with an imm^inse lump of fat on his neck and rump, are striking examples. .Vmong sheep we have many instances of accumulations of external fat. Throughout Arabia and SjTia, the countries over which the patriarchal shepherds roamed, the breeds, which are two, are characterized by immense accumu- lations of fat on their rumps and tails. In one breed, we have an accumulation on the tail, avera- ging from 14lbs. to 18lbs., while the deadweight of one of these sheep will not amount to more than 50lbs. or OOlbs. The Cape sheep are also of the broad fat-tailed kind. These animals have little or no internal fat, it being chiefly collected on their rumps and tails. Chmate must have some influence in producing these characteristics, smce the very women are distinguished at the Cape for their ]irodigious fatty nunps. In our own countr)', examples of external fat are jiarticularly seen in the once famed Dishley breed of cattle, which have an accumidation of fat spreading itself over the ramp. There appears a tendency of the fatty tissue to remain separate from the muscle, in the improved long-horned breed, the fat mingUng less with the lean than in any other of our native breeds. The Hereford lireed have also a similar tendency, but not nearly in so great a degree. In the Jersey breed of cattle, we have an example of accumulations of loose fat in the inside. This peculiarity is common, more or less, to all good milching breeds, for they all turn out well when well fed, in the ' fifth quarter.' Some French and Spanish cattle, imported into Cornwall in the summer of 1842, when killed, showed an immense accumulation of internal fat; they were also particularly lean and coarse-looking animals. In the improved Devons, the fat and muscle are generally well mixed; while in the common coarse breed of the Devon kind we have plenty of inside tallow. The short-horns carry more inside fat in proportion to their size than the improved Devons ; they are also better milkers. From these examples we may safely infer that the better the milking qualities of the breed are, the more likely is that breed inclined to carry inside fat." LIME AS A MANURE. From Liebiff's Letters on Chemistry. All plants cultivated as food require for their healthy sustenance the alkahes and alkaline earths, each in a certain proportion ; and, in addition to these, the ceraha do not succeed in a soil desti- tute of silica, in a soluble condition. The com- binations of this substance found as natural pro- ductions, namely, the siUcates, differ greatly in the degree of facility with which they undergo decomposition, in consequence of the unequal resistance opposed by their integral parts to the dissolving power of the atmospheric agencies. Thus, the granite of Corsica degenerates into a powder in a time which scarcely suffices to de- prive the polished granite of Heidelberg of its lustre. Some soils abound in silicates so readily de- THE f ARMER^S MAGAZINE. 120 composible, that in every one or two years as much siHcate of potash becomes soluble, and fitted for assimilation, as is required by the leaves and straw of a crop of wheat. In Himgary e.\- tensi^'e districts are not uncommon where wheat and tobacco grow alternately upon the same soil for centuries. The land never receives back any of those m.ineral elements which were withdrawn in the grain and straw. On the other hand, there are fields in which the necessary amount of solu- ble silicate of potash, for a single crop of wheat, is not separated from the insoluble masses in the soil, in less than two, three, or CA'en more years. The term falloiv, in agriculture, designates that period in which the soil, left to the influence of the atmosphere, becomes enriched with these soluble mineral constituents ; falloiv, however, does not generally imply an entire cessation of cultivation, but only an interval in the growth of the ceralia. That store of silicates and alkahes, which is the principal condition of their success, is obtained if potatoes or turnips, are grown upon the same fields, in the intermediate periods, since these crops do not abstract a particle of silica, and therefore leave the field equally fertile for the following crop of wheat. The preceding remarks will render it obvious to you that the mechanical working of the soil is the simplest and cheapest method of rendering the elements of nutrition contained in it accessible to plants. But, it may be asked, are there not other means of decomposing the soil, besides its mechanical subdivision } are there not substances whicli, by their chemical operation, shall equally well, or better, render its constituents suitable for entering into vegetable organisms ? Yes, we certainly pos- sess such substances; and one of tliem, viz,, quick-lime, has been emjiloyed for the last century past, in England, for this purpose ; and it would be difficult to find a substance better adajjted to this service, a.s it is simple, and, in alinost all lo- calities, cheap and easily accessible. In order to o1)tain correct views respecting the eflect of quick-lime upon the soil, let me remind you of the first processes employed ])y the chemist when he is desirous of analyzmg a mineral, and for this puii)ose wishes to bring its elements into a soluble state. Let the mineral to be examined be, for instance, feldsjjar ; this substance taken alone, even when reduced to the finest powder, requires, for its solution, to he treated with an acid for weeks or months ; 1)ut if we first mix it with quick- lime, and exjjose the mixture to a moderately strong heat, the lime enters into chemical comI)i- nation with certain elements of the feldspar, and its alkali (potass) is set free; and now the acid, even without heat, dissolves not only the lime, but also 80 much of the silica of the feldspar as to form a transparent jelly. The same effect which the lime in this process, with the aid of heat, exerts iqion the feldspar, it })roduces, when it is mixed witli the alkaline, argillaceous silicates, and they are for a long time ke])t together in a moist state. Common potters' clay, or pipe clay, diffused through water, and added to milk of chalk, thick- ens immediately upon mixing; and if the mixture is kept for some months and then treated %vith acid, the clay becomes gelatinous, which it would not have done without the admixture with the lime. The lime, in combining with the elements of clay, liquifies it ; and. what is more remarkable, liberates the greater part of its alkalies. These in- teresting facts were first observed by Fuchs, at Munich : they have not only led to a more inti- mate knowledge of the nature and properties of the hydraulic cements ; but, what is far more im- portant, they explain the effects of caustic lime upon the soil, and guide the agriculturist in the application of an invaluable means of opening it, and setting free its alkalies — substances so im- portant, nay, so indispensable to his crops. In the month of October the fields of Yorkshire and Oxfordshire look as if they were covered with snow. "Whole square miles are seen whitened over with quick-lime, which, during the moist winter months, exercises its beneficial influence upon the stiff', clayey soil, of those counties. According to the humus theory, quick-lime ought to exert the most noxious influence upon the soil, because all organic matters contained in it are destroyed by it, and rendered incapable of yielding their humus to a new vegetation. The facts are, indeed, directly contrary to this now abandoned theory : the fertility of the soil is in- creased by the lime. The ceraUa require the al- kalies and alkaline silicates, which the action of the lime renders fit for assimilation by the plants. If, in addition to these, there is any decaying or- ganic matter jiresent in the soil supplying carbonic acid, it may facilitate their development : but it is not essential to their growth. If wc furnish the soil with ammonia, and the, phosphates, which are indispensable to the ceralia, with tlie alkaline sili- cates, we have all the conditions necessary to en- sure an abundant harvest. The atmosphere is an inexhaustible store of carbonic acid. A no less favourable influence than that of hme is exercised upon the soil of peaty land by the mere act of burning it : this greatly enhances its fertility. We iiave not long been acquainted with the remarkable change which the properties of clay imdergo by burning. The observation was first made in the process of analyzing the clay silicates. Many of these, in their natural state, are not acted on by acids, but they become perfectly soluble if iieated to redness before the application of the acid. This jirojjcrty belongs to potters' clay, pipe clay, loam, and many different modifications of clay in soils, in their natural state they may be boiled in concentrated sulphuric acid without sensible change ; but if feebly burned, as is done with the i)ipe-clay in many alum manufactories, they dissoh-e in the acid with the greatest facihty, tlie contained silica being separated like a jelly in a soluble state. Potters' clay belongs to the most sterile kinds of soil, and yet it contains within itself all the constituent elements essential to a most luxurious growth of ])lants; l)ut their mere presence is insufficient to secure this end. The soil must be accessil)le to the atmosphere, to its oxygen, to its carljonic acid ; these must penetrate it, in order to secure the conditions necessary to a happy and vigorous development of the rootSt ISO THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The elements present must be brought into that peculiar state of combination which will enable them to enter into plants. Plastic clay is wanting in these properties ; but they are imparted to it by a feeble calcination. At Hardwicke Court, near Gloucester, I have seen a garden (Mr. Baker's) consisting of a stiff clay, which was perfectly sterile, become, by mere burning, extremely fertile, llie operation was ex- tended to a depth of three feet. This was an expensiA-e process, certainly ; but it was effectual. The great difference in the properties of burnt and unburnt clay is illustrated by what is seen in brick houses built in moist situations. In the towns of Flanders, for instance, where most build- ings are of brick, efflorescences of salts cover the surfaces of the walls, like a white nap, within a few days after they are erected. If this saline in- crustation is washed away by the rain, it soon re- appears ; and this is even observed on walls Avhich, like the gateway of Lisle, have been erected for centuries. These saline incrustations consist of carbonates and sulphates, with alkaline bases ; and it is well known these act an important part in vegetation. The influence of lime in their pro- duction is manifested by their appearing first at the place where the mortar and brick come into contact. It will now be obvious to you, that in a mixture of clay with hme, all the conditions exist for the solution of the silicated clay, and the solubihty of the alkahne silicates. The lime gradually dissolv- ing in water charged with carbonic acid, acts like milk of chalk upon the clay. This explains, also, the favourable influence which mar I, (by which term all those varieties of clay rich in chalk are designated) exerts upon most kinds of soil. There are marly soils which surpass all others in fertility for all kinds of plants ; but I believe marl in a burnt state must be far more eftective, as well as other materials possessing a similar composition ; as, for instance, those species of limestone which are adapted to the preparation of hydraulic ce- ments ; for these caiTy to the soil not only the al- kaline bases vxseful to plants, but also silica in a state capable of assimilation. The ashes of coals and lignite are also excellent means of ameliorating the soil, and they are used in many jjlaces for this purposes. The most suitable may be readily known by their property of forming a gelatinous mass when treated with acids, or by becoming, when mixed with cream of chalk, like hydrauhc chalk — solid and hard as stone. I have now, I trust, explsiined to your satisfac- tion, that the mechanical operations of agriculture the application of hme and chalk to lands, and the burning of clay, dei)end upon one and the same scientific principle : they are means of ac- celerating the decomposition of the alkaline clay sihcates, in order to pro\ade plants, at the begin- ning of a new vegetation, with certain inorganic matters indispensable for heir nutrition. REMARKS ON THE FORMATION OF FAT. BY GEO. KEMP, M.D., CANTAB., Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — In your Journal for Novemljer, we were favoured with a report of the admirable researches of M. Boussingaidt, Dumas, and Payen, with their deductions on the mode of the formation of fat. Of the value of practical researches on an extensive scale, as applied to agricultural pursuits, too high an estimate can hardly be formed ; it is, however, possible, even from facts undeniably estabhshed and faithfully registered, to make such inferences as may greatly modify or totally destroy their utility in a practical point of view. This I conceive to be the case with reference to the doctrine put forth in the paper alluded to, that the fat of animals is received as such into their system, and merely requiring the aid of the animal organs for deposit- ing it in their cellular tissue, or eliminating it in the form of those fatty matters which are found in milk; and I am convinced that any agriculturist acting up to this doctrine, and so modifying the food of his oxen and cows, will reap nothing but disappointment and loss. In a physiological point of view, the incorrectness of this doctrine wU at once appear. Nature is ever provident of her resources, admits of no superfluous organization, and has made such arrangements, both with refer- ence to structure and function, as to ensure the greatest number of ends from the fewest number of means; yet has she furnished the ox with four stomachs, each adapted for the performance of diflerent stages of assimilation, which can be easily traced, and are, therefore, matter of observation. But analogical reasoning may here be entirely dispensed with ; the previous very important facts elicited by M. Boussingavilt, and which I quote from the Handworterbuch der Physiologie, Art. Ern'dhruiKj, of Professor Wagner, furnish us with the means of setting the theory aside on purely chemical grounds. The following is Boussingault's statement of the relative proportions of the elements of a cow's food, consisting of hay and potatoes ; — Carbon 49.90 Hydrogen 6.18 Nitrogen. .'. 2.09 Oxygen 41.83 100.00 Now, considering this food as consisting of an azotised and a non-azotised portion, we may express the above by the formula, C H N O, giving 292 214 5 186 per cent. — Carbon 49-70 Hydrogen. . , 6.07 Nitrogen 2.08 Oxygen. 42.15 100.00 On examination it will be found that this formula contains the elements ot proteine and starch, with not nore than {a part which can be considered as fat, or a body alhed to fat ; thus— THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 131 C 292 H NO_/CHNO\,/C H 0\ 214 5 186~\40 31 5 12/"^V252 183 174/ __/CHNO\,/C H 0\,/CHO\ "~V40 31 5 12/"^ V240 173 173/ ^ \12 10— / But C H N O is Mulder's formula for proteine ; 40 31 5 12 C H O is Liebig's empirical formula for fat ; 12 10 — and it will be immediately seen that, by the mere addition of the elements of water, C H O repre- 240 173 173 sents 20 equivalents of starch ; thus — C H 0/HO\_C H O 240 173 173 "^ V 27 27/ 240 200 200 - 20 / C H () \ \12 10 10/ = 20 equi. of starch. Thus it appears that, in a practical point of view, the food of the cow may be considered as essen- tially composed of proteine, for the nourishment of the azotised portion of the animal frame ; and starch, which undergoes a series of molecular changes, in order to supply the margaric and stearic acids, in combination with glycerine as well as the various fatty acids in butter. A Khght allusion to the composition of these latter bodies will also prove that, even allowing the small proportion of fatty matter contained in pota- toes and hay to enter the animal frame, it cannot, without assimilation and important organic changes, become converted into the fatty matters found in milk. These are principally three. ButjTic Acid = C H 0 8 6 3 Caproic Acid = C H 0 12 9 3 and Capric Acid = C H 0 18 14 3 Now, the empirical formula for animal fats is C H O;* without oxidation, therefore, even the 12 10 — small quantity of fatty matter comtained in the food cannot be converted into either of the above forms. On the other hand, by taking into account the composition of the bile of the ox, and the result of the union of the elements of that fluid with the elements of the non-nitrogenised portion of the food, the processes ofassimilation and conversion of the large excess of starch into the fatty matters contained in butter become exceedingly simple. In fact, the i)ractical i)roblem to be solved reduces itself to the determination of the projiortions of azotised and non-azotised food necessary to pro- duce a maximum of caseine and fatty matters, or, in other words, of cheese and butter. Here again we obtain imjiortant ad\'antage from M. Boussin- gault's analysis of milk, which gave — Carbon 57.42 Hydrogen 9-05 Nitrogen 4.20 Oxygen 29.33 100.00 would suggest the giving— formula. from which I C H N O, 160 140 5 61 Carbon 57-9 Hydrogen 8.4 Nitrogen 4.2 Oxygen 29.5 100.0 Now, again, regarding this body as containing the elements of proteine and a non-azotised body, we find that the non-azotised portion consists of water and a body clearly representing the com- position of the fatty matters in milk ; thus — C 160 140 5 H NO _ / C HO 61 ~ M H 20 109 49 _ /C H N O )^(CHNO) 1-^ ^ ^40 31 5 12'' )^(C H 0>j ^40 31 5 12'' ^120 80 20/ = proteine -f 29 water + 10 / C H 0\ M2 8 2/ -}- 29 water In this case, then, we have ten equivalents of fatty matter to one equivalent of jjroteine or case- ine ; and, from what we know of the nutritive process in animals, we are safe in stating it as a general principle, that the products of assimilation bear a direct relation to the food ; so that we may conclude that the quantity of cascinc will be greater when a milch cow is fed with highly nitrogenised * It is by no means assumed that a small portion of fatty matter may not enter the system as such ; but the case is very fairly met by professor Liebig, in the last edition of his " Animal Chemistry,"' p. 307 — 320. As my researches on the bile were not published (at least so far as the theory is con- cernedj at the time of Ills refutations of the opiniona food, and of bixtter when less azotised food is given. Again, from the analyses of hay and potatoes, by the same authority, it will immediately be seen that hay represents the former, and pota- toes the latter sjiecies of food. In the former, the nitrogen is to the whole mass as 151.5 : 75,000; in the latter, only as 50 : 15,000. One point, however, cannot be too strongly urged — the jjrocess of nutrition and assimilation of M. Dumas, it was not known that the mutual combination of the elements of starch and bile furnish a body, from which the formation of the non-nitrogenised jiorticms of the animal frame, and the nature of the changes which take place in the amylaceous part of the food arc easily explained. 132 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. are not merely chemical or mechanical, but vital processes : whatever causes have a tendency to disturb these, will also operate unfavourably on the results of their action. The farmer who pays attention to stall-management, ventilation, cleanli- ness, and the general comfort of his animals, will, even with inferior food, have a more thriving and a fatter herd than one who, while he pampers his beasts with liLxuries, keeps them in an imtidy, moist state, with ammoniacal fumes constantly irritating the delicate mucous membrane of their respiratory and other organs. Hoinng that you may find my theoretical views satisfactory, and that your practical readers may derive advantage from the above hints, I have the honour to remain. Sir, your very obedient servant, George Kemp. Douglas, Isle of Man, December, 2rd. THE WASTE OF MANURE. " The richest magazine of phosphates is to be found near every farmer's dweUing ; and by add- ing ashes and vegetable refuse to this magazine is a good plan. Gypsum being adided would fix ammonia. It has been said by one of the first agricultm-al chemists of the day, that ' if it were possible to restore to the soil of England and Scotland the phosphates which during the last fifty years have been carried to the sea by the Thames and the Clyde, it would be equivalent to manuring Avith millions of hundred weight of bones, and the jjroduce of the land would increase one-third, or perhaps double itself, in five to ten years." — Extract from the Farmers'' Journal. The foregoing paragraph was met with most im- ostentatiously situated among a A'ariety of desultory matter, whei-e it would be passed over perhaps by nine-tenths of those who are peculiarly interested in its plain statement of facts ; it took us by sur- prise, and we resolved to appropriate it as a text, upon which to ofter a few additional remarks that may claim some attention at a time when every one is complaining of heavy rents, bad tenants, suft'ering labourers, and unremunerative prices. It were no difficult matter to establish the cor- rectness of the assertions, but ere we enter upon an investigation, we must premise that few persons are aware of the nature of those substances to which the paiagraph refers; yet, unless the foundation be made good, it mil be in vain to at- tempt to theorise upon its data. What are phosphates f and what proof have we that they enter into the comjiosition of plants and of manures ? By the term phosphate chemists un- derstand any salt the components of which are phosphoric acid, and an alkaUne or earthy base. Phosphoric acid is the direct product of the com- bustion of phosphorus in gas, and itself is a com- bination of phosphorus and oxygen. Phosphorus, that most combustible of substances, is generally considered elementary, that is, as a portion of manure which, while capable of combining as a base, is in itself incapable of decomposition; in other words, no " process of analysis" has hitherto been aljle to detect any ultimate elements. Yet when we perceive the intense avidity of phosphorus for oxygen gas, we may venture to express an opinion that it is a highly electrized substance or base in a condition opposite to that of oxgen gas, whence the powerful attraction which they mutu- ally exert one towards the other. Our reading agricultural friends will probably be gratified by the perusal of the follo\ving comprehensive passage, which is taken from the article " Phosphorus," of the Penny Cyclopeedia, vol. xviii., p. 112. " This elementary substance exists as an essen- tial constituent both of vegetable and animal bodies ; yet when applied in a concentrated and pure state to any organized structure, it acts upon it as a violent and corrosive poison. Into animal bodies it is introduced in a diluted and combined state (by which it is disarmed of its A-irulence), as an ingredient of many articles of food. One of the chief sources of it is the starch of the cereal grains, such as wheat-flour, in the ashes of which it amounts to 23 per cent, (see " Front's Bridgewater Treatise," book 3) ; also alliaceous plants, such as onions, in which it exists as the phosphate of iron ; polygonous, and other plants, in which it occurs as phosphate of lime. It also exists not only in the bones and other hard parts of animals, but in many of the fluids, especially the excretions. Thus it is found in the melts and rows of fishes, the substance of oysters, the yolk of eggs, in the liver, and also the brain, in which or- gan of the human being it amounts to from 2 to 2* per cent. "Phosphorus is, of all stimulants, the most powerful and diflTusable ; but, on account of its activity, highly dangerous. Its poisonous action seems to be connected with its strong affinity for oxygen, by which it is converted into phos- phoroMs and phosphoric acids. Hence, when brought into contact with the animal tissues, it ab- stracts oxygen from them, and produces an eschar, resembling a burn." The inferences to be drawn from the foregoing statement are these : Waving any reference to ulti- mate or final causes, it is evident that if phosphor- ous or its compounds are invariably found in bones and other animal substances, although it be admitted that by the law of their creation they may contain rudimentally the phosphoric principle, as in the instance of the minute speck or germ of a seed, yet as nutriment and growth are processes of assimilation, it follows that the food absorbed and appropriated must contain in itself the elements which the vital principle assimilates. Phosphorus is now pre])ared from hones j bones, therefore, contain phosphorus, yet not in its piue state. They constitute the skeleton of the animal : they grow with its growth, and that depends upon nutrition. Now, it is evident that nothing can nourish any individual part of an organized frame, unless it contain the elements of its organization ; therefore, in order to add substance to the bones, food must be supplied which contains phosphate THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 133 and carbonate of lime, and these salts are traceable in all the cereal seeds, and in abundance of otlier vegetable productions. Jyiebighas instructed us most faitlifully when he says, that by a correct analysis of the aslies of j)lants, we are led to most important results, as resi)ects the theory of a])propriate manures, and we believe that no scheme of agriculture will be faithful till it be formed from analysis. So much has been advanced, in order to evince that, whatever substance is traceable by examination in an animal or vegetable organism, must be referred to the food wherewith it is nourished. Upon this jirinciple it is that we now import thousands of tons oi r/tiano, that is, the excretion of sea-birds, collected into masses during the progress of countless ages. We })ay thousands and tens of thousands of jiounds, and subject ourselves to the grossest and most de- basing impositions, in order to obtain ammoniacal and ])hospboric salts ; while we actually tlu'ow away that which wc can command, and, what is far worse, poison and degrade the waters of our nolile rivers, by an act of i)rodigal waste : and this leads to the consideration of the charge brought against us in the extract with which this article is intio- duced. It is a notorious fact, that the sewers and drains of London pour all their ordure and refuse matters into the Thames, thus defihng its stream, while they carry into its bed millions of tons of some of the Ijest manure which a vast i)0])ulation ought to supply to the agriculture of the country. The waste alluded to, is that of the " night-soil," henceforth to be mentioned under its scientific and more fitting name — Cloacine. It is asserted that this substance, styled " ///(? richest ina(jazine of phosphates," would, if duly economised, greatly increase, perhaps double, the produce of the land in the space of ten years. Before we attempt to show that the assertion is founded in truth, we will obsen-e, in proof of the mischie\-ous conse- (piences of thus poisoning the waters of the 'I hames, that, a few years since, a specimen of the mud which was occasionally deposited on the land was sent for investigation by the curator of the Apothecaries" garden at (.'helsea. Of all the abominations which wc ever inspected, this was the foidest ; it was a filthy slime, in a high state of efieiTesccnce, develo])ing hydrogenous comjiounds of carbon and phosphorus, of the 'most poisonous (lualities. Whole breadths of land had been ren- ilered sterile by this deposit of the river, and it cannot be for a moment doubted that any atmos- ])here imj)regnated with gases so deadly must be rendered almost pestiferous. Is it not then evident, upon the ground of salubrity only, that a reform, fundamental and comidete, is imperatively called for ? 'l"he substance now known as clnnrinr, contains all the secretions, solid and fluid, which are ])ro- duced by the volumes of food of all descriptions, animal and vegetable, that are consumed ])y the population of great cities and towns ; it must therefore contain every element of nutritive matter re-convertible intf) vegetable structure. Analysis shows that the urine contains, in 1,000 parts Of water 033O Urea, ])roductive of ammonia 30' 10 Sulphate of jjotassa 3'71 of soda 3' 16 Muriate of soda ( salt) 4*45 Phosphate of ammonia 1*65 of soda 294 Muriate of ammonia r50 Lactates, and animal matter, &c 17" 14 Earthy phosphates, with a trace of fluate 10 Uric acid 1 '0 Mucus of the bladder "32 Silica -03 1,000- Urea develops carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. The two latter form ammonia; but 1)y the addition of sidphuric acid, this salt can be i fixed in the manure. The solid i)ortion of cloac'me, estimated at only one-fifth of the whole, contains bile in considerable (|uantity. blended with the foecal products of digestion — and these are rich in nitrogen — and also some ])hosphute of soda, and soda : Liebig cites the authority of Boussinr/aiilt, which states that in one year a human being will, on an average "excrete 5471bs., which contain l,(3411bs. of nitrogen, a quantity sufficient to yield the nitrogen of 800 lbs. of wheat, rye, oats, or of 900 lbs, of barley." If these facts be unimpugnable. what can the legislature be thinking of to permit the existence of a horrible nuisance, which yearly deprives the agriculture of the kingdom of the immense advan- tages to be derived from more than thirteen hun- dred thousand j)ounds of manure multipUed by .547 ! Is it not monstrous ? If accredited authority be required to demon- strate the value of cloacine to the land, we may safely refer, 1st, to Liebig ; and 2ndly, to the late regretted Mr. Rliam, who investigated, and gave i)ublicity to, the agriculture of the Nether- lands. Liebig says : — In China so miich value is at- tached to the influence of cloacine, that the laws of the state forbid that any fluid or solid fa'ces should be thrown away; and "reservoirs arc placed in every house in which they are collected with the greatest care. No other kind of maniu'e is used for their corn-fields." "China is the birth-place of the experimental art; the incessant striving after exj)eriments has conducted the ("hinese a thousand years since to discoveries which have been the envy and admiration of Euro])eans for centuries." "The {'hinese are the most admirable gardeners and trainers of ])lants ; for each they luiderstand horn to preprire, and apply the best adapted manure. Tiie agriculture of their country is the most per- fect in the world ; and there, where tiie climate in the most fertile districts difl'ers little from the Kuro])ean, ceri/ little \ahie is attached to the excre- ments of animals." He describes the defective modes of j)rei)aring night-soil in France by desiccation ; and concludes thus : — " In other manufactories of manure, the excrement (chacinej whilst still soft, are mixe4 134 THE FARMEK'S MAGAZINE. with the ashes of wood, or with earth, both of which substances contain a large quantity of hme, by means of which a complete expulsion of all their ammonia is effected, and they are deprived of smell. But such a residue applied as manure can act only by the j}hosphates which it still contains, for all the ammoniacal salts have been decomposed." The agricultural reader who is disposed to collect and use all his store, should bear in mind that the weakest chemical alkali Avill expel ammonia from salts of which it forms the base; therefore, it should be made a practice to pour a few ounces of strong sulphuric acid, diluted with four times its weight of water, into the privy, t\vice or oftener every week : by so doing the ammonia \vill be fixed, and much offensive odour prevented. For the same reasons no hme, potash, or soda, should ever enter the receptacle. Our second authority, Mr. Rham, will instruct us how to store up the manure. He says : — " The maxim of the Flemish farmer is, that ' without ma- nure there is no corn ; without cattle there is no manure ; and ■without green crops and roots, cattle cannot be kept.' " It is impossible to provide manure upon the farm for a soil so %vretched as is that of the Ne- therlands, consisting chiefly of sand, till the land is duly prepared ; therefore, every effort is made to obtain and store up hquid manure. Every farm has near or under the stables and cow-houses one or more capacious tanks, into which the urine and washings of the stables flow. These tanks are generally sunk below the level of the ground, and have the sides built of brick, and the bottom paved ; they are sometimes vaulted over, but fre- quently only covered with loose boards. As the emptyings of privies are sold wholesale and retail, there are many large tanks near the ri- vers and canals, where the dealers have sometimes great quantity in store. ITiese tanks are gradu- ally filled by boat-loads brought from the large towns ; and when the season for solving, in spring and autumn, the farmers come with their carts and tubs, and purchase as mvich as they may want. In a small farm of 30 or 40 acres, the tank is gene- rally about 20 feet long, 12 wide, and 6 deep, with a partition in the middle, and arched over. The farmer would as soon think of dispensing with his plough as with his tank ; and no expense or trouble is spared to keep it well supphed. So important does the farming of the Netherlands appear, that, on a future occasion, it will be proper to describe more minutely; we, therefore, shall only offer one further quotation in this place. As every crop excepting buck-wheat receives a manuring, the farmer's constant attention is di- rected to the husbanding his resources. " The poor in towns sweep the streets, and make composts of all the refuse matter ; they reduce it to a fine powder, and dry it in the sun ; and this dry manure is most highly prized by the growers of flax ; and it is supposed to be more efficacious than any other, night-soil excepted. This last is the ne plus ultra of manure for light soils." It is collected, as before described, and " in a very dense population his resource is considerable, and no one would be o wasteful as to allow the common sewers to carri/ off a substance which is regularly sold and obtains a good price." Cloacine so treated loses its ammonia ; and, though we are ready to admit that it contains phos- phates, yet we cannot go all the way with our text, and view it as essentially a "phosphated manure." But what can we say to our conduct as a nation ? Do we not only permit our sewers to carry off nine- tenths of our finest enrichers, but constrain them to convey them to our best and noblest rivers ? — ^\vorthy this of a great and scientific people ! At a time when agricultviral seminaries are pro- jected and forming, it appears a peculiar duty to urge the lecturers to analyze all the manures we can command, and never rest till every pupil be made to feel the importance of a scientific economy of what the land itself possesses even to superfluity. Dec. 9, 1844. J. T. EAST DEVON AND DORSET AGRICUL- TURAL SOCIETY. SPEECH OF DR. BUCKLAND. You are most of you aware, gentlemen, that farming is not to be learnt at home ; that if we go on comparing ourselves amongst ourselves, we are treading only in the footsteps of our ancestors. At a time when we are pressed by competition from every region of the earth, the business of the farmer cannot so proceed; it is impossible, gentle- men, at this time, when every other department of the business of the world is taikng advantage of the discoveries of science, for agriculture to go on without a trial in those scientific trammels in which, I am sorry to say, a large portion of the agriculturists of |England are held. Gentlemen, we are not without an example of the effects of the apphcation of science to agriculture. I have seen acres of land that were not worth 25s. an acre, which have since been let for, and are worth (near Haddington), six guineas — five guineas when not near the sea shore, and sLx guineas when having the advantage of the application of sea-weed. Now these are local matters, and I \vill speak of them by and by ; but I will begin by stating, with your per- mission, that it is essential that the farmer, who would now make money by farming, should farm othermse than his forefathers, or he wiil barely keep his ground and never get rich. Now, sir, you may have seen, and many gentlemen present may have seen, observations made in Lancashire, not long ago, this year and last year, by Lord Stanley, as to the importance of the farmer in that county burning his plough of wood and buying a plough of iron — of expeUing from his lands the rabbits, and substituting good fat sheep, fat oxen, and rich fertile fields of waving wheat. This has been done abundantly in the counties of Norfolk and Lincolnshire ; and I would advise those gen- tlemen (and I am happy to see some here) that have turned over a new leaf in their profession, to go there, and they wiU get a thousand per cent, profit on their trouble. I would ad;ase them to take the advantage of the facilities of railroads, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 135 and go and see liow farming is conducted in Lincolnshire. You need not go to Scotland, but go to Norfolk, which set the example to Lincoln- shire, that you may realize those benefits. There are men now living who remember that those 40,000 acres, which are now worth £40,000 per year, were not M'orth 4s. per acre ; three-fourths of which were rabbit warrens, and the remainder were productive of miserable sheep. There is no reason on earth, as the peo])le of Lincolnshire have con- verted that miserable scanty sand, that realizes £30,000 a year, of Lord Yarborough's, which, in his father's time, was either a fox cover or a rabbit wan-en, and let for 4s. 6d. an acre, and ruined every farmer that paid 4s. 6d., and is now let, upon an average, at -iSs. per acre, that you should not be exerting yourselves. Farmers there are all flourishing ; some have lately made £60,000 ; they all keep their hunters, and a great many their car- riages ; and when I had the pleasure of staying with Mr. Pusey, he gave me a more handsome luncheon than Lord Yarborough did a dinner. The late Mr. Coke, when tenants came to him for farms, said, " How much money have you in j-our pocket? I have farms of every size, from £ 1,000 to £10,000, how much money have you got ? Here is thehst." "(I have £1000." "There are ten farms, take your choice." He had a farm for any man, with any amount of capital ; and he used to say to them — " If you have got a thousand pounds, you must have only one hundred acres. You have not enough to stock more. You must have £10 an acre, or you cannot manage your farm." And that, gentlemen, is at the bottom of tlie ])Overty which is so abundant in many parts of this country ; it is ambition, sir, it is the abuse of ambition, that prompts the peojjle to \mdertake more than they can perform ; it is ambition which prompts a man to undertake more than he can carry out, and \vith i-1000 in his jjocket to take a farm with which he ought to have £2000. Now, another point, which I will mention next, and which will be learnt by gentlemen who travel from their homes, is the most profitable system of the management of land. I am informed that it is the cvistom in this country, after breaking up the clay grounds, which have little left ii])on them but the stems of exhausted dry grass, to put in oats, and after that wheat ; they put successively three crops of the same kind of thing, instead of adopting the alternate system, which is the best system in all the world. (Gentle- men, I will advise you to go to Lancashire, York- shire, and Norfolk; but I would further advise you that as soon as that agricidtural college is estab- lished which is now in jjrogress in Cirencester, I would advise some intelligent young son of a farmer to go there, where practical agriculture will be taught him ; and in two or three years lie will come back and make his father's fortune, and the fortune of all his father's neighbours who will imitate him. Now, sir, I would state what you need scarcely be reminded of, that at the bottom of all good farming lies flrainintj. It is of no use i)Utting thousands of loads of manure upon land that will not admit of it ; upon land which has for one-third part of its ingredients clay. All the good it does on the surface is to dissipate in the air ; it is in vain to put manure on the surface unless the drainage has made the land permeable, and in a state in which the water can permeate going down, admitting the air, moisture, and rain. And every shower of rain which in spring comes dou-n, is charged by the Almighty with the elements of fer- tihty, carbon and ammonia. The rain comes down charged with charcoal from that very breath of charcoal which, if exhaled with sufBcient force, would put out that candle; that goes into the air, and is brought down again in the shape of rain ; every droj) comes down charged with it, with the ammonia which we exhale ; and if you only drain your lands, it goes down to the roots of every jjlant, and the roots will grow if you supjily them with these two of the elements of fertility. Now, another point in which you can personally judge ; you all know what it is to go home after having been caught in a «torm, and occasionally not to change vour clothes. 1 have seen imprudent friends who, in the hardiness of youthful strength, have said, " I do not care for being wet, I will not change." I have seen men of that sort dead and buried because they caught the rheumatism, be- cause they did not change their clothes, but per- sisted in remaining in this atmosphere of water, and surrounded by this sheet of water, which is precisely the condition of the roots (if draining is not properly attended to) of all those beautiful sweet grasses which are the best and most nutri- tious food for cattle. There are plants placed by Providence which are allowed to occupy the vacuum of thousands of acres of grass — fit food for insects, but not for cattle— they fill the vacuum which wouhl otherwise exist in the earth ; for which cause ever}^ particle of the earth, whether wet or dry, should be used, which the ingeriious- ness of man can convert to his ]nirpose. It is our duty to feed ourselves and our children, and to take advantage of eveiytliing that nature otters for increasing the productiveness of the soil. {Hear, hear, hear.) Examples are not wanting, sir. Fifty years ago Parliament gave a reward of £50,000 for an improved system of drainage. Mr. Smith, of Deanston, has lately called attention to drainage in this country, and at this moment he is employed by the President of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and by the Prime Minister of the country, to drain universally their estates ; and I know the result, for I happened, but four years ago, to be returning from Mr. Smith's farm, in Scotland, and I hajjpened to visit Sir R. Peel's, and was taken into a field — it was a floating, im- penetrable surface, covered with pools of shallow water ; the land was in ruin, and the farmer was in ruin. I said, " Pray drain it ; " the answer was, "The farmer wont— the farmer can't." I said, " Induce him to give it up." He did so, and the land was drained ; and what hapi)ened ? The very next year from 22 to 27 tons of turnii)s jicr acre were produced from that field which was not worth 5s. per acre ; and the year following it yielded a crop of barley so large that it fell to the earth with its own weight, and last year it i)roduced a croj) of clover equal in quantity; in short, it nearly re- paid the expense by the first year's crop alone. Mr. Bigg, the member for Northumberland, has L 2 136 tHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. done the same thing, and repaid himself in two years for draining in a very costly way some heavy clays. And what have the tenants of I^ord Hath- erton, in the neighbourhood of Wolverhampton, done? They have reclaimed 1,500 acres of land; and, what is more, they have made that land worth now, upon an average, from 25s. to 30s. an acre, and I sau-, myself, last year, a single spirited farmer, who, not having a lease, and relying entirely on the honour of Lord Hatherton, has laid out £1,800 of his own money in draining a large farm on his lordship's estate, and that with not even an assu- rance of a single year's possession. This same estate, for which he had paid only 4s. 6d. an acre, he has agreed witli Lord Hatherton to pay 20s. an acre ; and that sum he is contented and grateful to pay. (Hear). Now, these extreme cases occur where the land is intensely bad ; but there are other cases where land is good, and is eajiable of being im- pro^•ed by draining. Tlie rain which falls goes downward with the manure, which tUssolves in water ; and it is only when dissolved in water that any manure becomes the food of plants ; so that if the water does not go down, tlie dung cannot ; it goes to our nostrils and the \nnds. It is like the practice of putting a heap of dressing on turnips, in the dry month of Jime, expecting it would do good. They who do that manure the clouds and our nostrils. [A laugh.) If possible, dung should be buried imder ground, and then the earth ab- sorbs it \\\\\\ the rain, without the rislc of losing the most valuable part of it. I Mill mention only one more case, that is, as to the practice of our neighbours in Wales. I have read in a Glamorgan- shire paper which my friend, Mr.'Conybeare, has now in his house, and I shall therefore be giving him some information respecting his father-in-law, that Mr. Bruce Bruce, stated at a meeting in Glamorgan- shire, tliat a fai-mer there, upon the blue lias, the verj' same kind upon which much of your property lies, has, at an expense of £8 an acre, drained large quantities of this has, and is contented to pay more than £1 per acre, which, till drained, pro- duced merely a bed of rushes, and for which he paid 2s. fjd. There is another gain from drainage, which is time ; a farmer behind-hand is not a good farmer. The early farmer gathers his barley, and has the money in his pocket, before the lazy one begins to cut. Again, as to the time of somng ; if the land is dry you ha^e not got to wait, but if it is wet you will have to wait a week, or more, until it is fit to be ploughed; but the land, if drained, never gets water-soaked, but is always in a condition to be ploughed 24 hours after rain ; and there is no danger of haWng it done too soon : I think I may venture to state this, although I am not a practical farmer. ITie next point I mil allude to is this— no farm that is on cla)', naturally wet, can produce half the crops of which a dry one is capable, unless it has been thorough drained j I hoi)e you will follow the example of such excel- lent farmers as I have mentioned to you, and such good examples as your neighbour, Mr. Richards, has shewn you in those fields, which he has ver}' materially improved within my knowledge ; but he has not done all, as I wU tell him by and by, if he will give me leave ; but he has laid the fgundation; gentlemen, and can you all say that you have done so — that you have all drained your lands ? Tlrere is one brilliant exception — a gentleman sitting near me, who, I rejoice to say, is carrying out the scheme of Lord Hatherton, who is laying the foundation of general draining. When, then, your land is prepared to receive the seed, and that manure without which the seed would not pro- duce half its natural progeny, I need not tell you that it is essential to manure, and that the best of all manures is farm-yard dung ; and I need not tell you also, that no farm on earth did yet ever produce half so much dung as might with profit be applied to it ; therefore it is that the Norfolk, Scotch, and Lancashire farmer, having a large establishment, is not a stay-at-home, but has proceeded to London to purchase a ship-load of bones, and to Belgium to buy a lleet of oil-cake; and has gone to the best market to eat up the straw. What is the conse- quence ? The eating the straw improves the manure, and gives him such a crop of barley and turnips as you will not see in any other county. The Scotchman — the crafty Scotchman, as he is sometimes called, will break up a barren desert of gravel land, and spend £20 an acre in putting a wall round and draining it ; he then gets oats and tumi])s, and seldom gets a crop of wheat; but the oats, turnips, vetches, and clover pay him, and enable him to pay a good ])rice per acre for the land. Such is the result of industry in Scot- land ; but this is not done without bringing from a distance, the manure. Attention has been lately called to the value of manure from tlie hog-stye, which has been almost universally wasted, I mean the drainage of it ; it remains in gutters until the rain removes it, and thus that which is, of course, the essence and most valuable part of the dung heap, is seldom made use of. But, sir, there is another article of manure which I would impress upon the gentlemen present the importance of, and which was spoken of lately at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society at Southampton — I mean the application of guano. I purposely speak of it, sir, for I happened to be present the year that experiments on a large scale had been made mth guano which imi\'ersally failed. So much the better— I am glad of it, for those failures have proved the truth of the chemical principles upon which guano ought to be apjdied; guano is a ])ortable manure, and may be applied at ten hours' notice. Guano, sir, may be purchased, in the course of next year, at less than half the cost that it ever was yet sold for or ever will be again. It has hapjiened in the course of last year, to my knov.iedge, that 600 ships have gone from Liverpool alone in pursuit of guano, and that they will bring home at least G0,000 tons. The price per ton was, three years ago, £14 ; last year, £l0; and, in consequence of the quantity being brought home, it is only £7 or i'8 this year. There are two things I will mention ; if I were a jjro- prietor of land I would buy a ship load of guano for the benefit of my tenants {hear, hear, and cheers) and bring it into Axmouth, and would turn my coach-house into a warehouse, and lay it up in bags. It will keep — you ^^-ill not injure it if you THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 137 keep it in a dry place ; and you must regard the ' weather, and that is the point I next come to. I . v.'ould iiave in a stock of jfuano, from whidi any tenant might purchase hah''-a-crown's wortli, to make an experiment. A great deal of it is bad, or nearly .so ; the sand of the sea gets mixed with it occasionally ; but your business, when you buy, is to see that you get it good. If you do not it is your own fault ; for you have only to put a tea- epoon-fuU of it into a glass of warm water; and if there is any sand, after it is dissolved and rinsed the sand will go to the bottom. Now, as to the time of a])plication. Whoever applies guano when it is dry weather, will lose it all ; it is essential that it sliould be applied in wet weather — during the April showers is a good time ; but if, after it is apjilicd, there should be six weeks of dry weather, almost every atom of its virtue will be gone; there- fore those farmers who have tried the exjieriment without being aware of this circumstance will, ])erhaps, have lost their labour. A landowner (Sir (leorge Trevelyn) had bought, some time ago, a whole ship load for his neighl)ours : he divided it, and after it had been tried they were all grumlding and growling at the guano ; but they should not have grumbled at the guano, but, if at all, at the season. If you have bought guano, you can keep it; it is not like dung, it is per- fectly safe; and if you can get credit for the guano for six months, you will be no money out of pocket by it. Another point I would impress on the occupiers of small tracts of land is the value of preserving other manures which are most valuable. Experiments have lately been made, on a small scale, l)y owners of small allotments, which show the ])rescrvation of human excretions, soHd and liijuid, to be most valuable. Perhajjs you are not aware that in Holland the value per head or per : tail of every individual — the value of the pro- i duce of every human being is £1 I7s. Gd. a year. ( Now, sir, why should we go so far as the shores of I Africa when we have the remedies within ourselves j — the essence of ale and beer, and the quint- essence of beef and bread and cheese ? (Lfiiir/hfer.) I These are the best of all j)ossible manures, and why? I Because they restore to the land that which the I corn and ox have taken from it; because they I restore that which the elements cannot restore ; ; the elements give charcoal and ammonia, but not I tiiat nutritious phosphate of heef, nor the gluten I which enters into the commodities of which beer is ' com])Osed. All this should be cast uj) \vith a heap I of burnt earth, and it will not only jtrescrve its hnrtue, but take away any offensive smell. I have iniyself brought home two pockets full of this; it I was a compound of the produce of the i)ig-styc, sawdust, and of the excretions I have mentioned, which was all put together once a week under cover, and the odour was as agreeable as the ])re- sent odour of this room, and the effect as virtuous in promoting the desired agricultural result as I hope will be the result of your meeting together on the present occasion. {Hear, hear.) I will con- clude w\t\\ stating that the occu])ation of the farmer is not what it was some year;? ago : there were men endowed with natural good sense and of great understanding, and I sec one^'withiu three yards of me now, who, not 30 years ago, reclaimed a bog that was not worth Qs. Gd. an acre, and is now worth £2. Mr. Austice first applied the system of drainage, niifl then mdmrrinfj : there is nothing to be done without adding manure. The process of farming is a debtor and creditor ac- count ; if you gi\'e, for what you take, nothing, you are a robber, a plunderer, a blunderer, and a thief; you are stealing the elements of nutrition to your children and after generations if you would take away ever)'thing and give nothing. You are starving the land, and the land is just in its revenge ; for if you stance the land, the land will starve you (Cheers). Lastly, sir, I \^'ill con- clude by saying, it is not only those gentlemen whose profession is that of agriculture, M-hose attention has lately been called to the subject, it is not to be exjjected that renting farmers, whose education has not been scientific, should catch at every experiment that is offered and advertised in the newspapers ; they are half quackery, and it would be neither right, proper, nor prudent that the renting farmer should risk his property in making these experiments ; but, sir, permit me to say, that it is the landord's duty to make these experiments (Hear, hear). It is the landlord's duty to show, by their own successful example, and their unsuccessful failure, what is the thing to be done, and what is the thing to be avoided (Cheers). These are the kind of experiments that are now being made by Sir James Graham, by Mr. Pusey, whose name will never be forgotten, and by tlie Duke of Wellington, the greatest warrior of the age, and who is now the best farmer in Hampshire. But long before the time of the Duke of Welling- ton, in the classic history of ancient Rome, was one who bore the name of Cato, a name still common in many of the hundreds of the county of Devon. There is not a village in a hundred in which you will not find a farmer's dog bearing the name of Cato. Who can tell me why it is so common ? Is it from the virtuous recollection that he was never to be forgotten ? And it has gone on, nobody knows why, as a traditional recollection from the days of Cato, whose name has been inrmiortalized as being associated with the shepherd's dog, and as the farmer's favourite companion. Cato, sir, was a magistrate like your- self— a grave magistrate, a censor, to whose name llie Censor was attached. He was a great orator, and not only a great warrior (like Wellington), but a great statesman ; and he, at the close of hi.s life, saw, as many jjhilosophers now see, the pro- priety of turning his attention to agriculture, which has now become a science. While the far- mers went on by the nde of farm, no one else gave any attention to it, but the moment it be- came a matter of science, I as a little philosopher, and my friend the great philosopher, the Rector of Axminster, looked into it ; and \\e have turned our attention to the science of agriculture, and hope it would be to the advantage and profit of those who would take our ad\ice. One point more, and then I will conclude. The great Cato wrote a treatise ujion husbaiulry. In that treatise he laid down that tiie best thing in agriculture was to i)lough well, the next most important was to 138 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. plough middling well, and the third most impor- tant thing was Hemqiinari, which was to dung well, to ])ut on i)lenty and abundance of manure {Loud cheers). ECCLESFIELD FARMERS' CLUB. The first monthly meeting for the present year was held at the Black Bull Inn, Ecclesfield; G. Chambers, Esq., in the chair. Mr. W. Fowler read his paper " On the proper relation between landlord and tenant, with a \\&w to the improvement of agriculture." After a few introductory remarks, the writer proceeded to con- sider— first, the identity of interest of the landlord and tenant ; which is so ob\-ious as to render the giving of his obser\^ations unnecessary. He then noticed the effect of tenancies from year to year, with limited valuations for expenses of cultivation (called " the tenant right"), and compensation for improvements. Wliere this system prevails, a com- paratively hmited capital is required to enter upon a farm ; consequently, farms upon this principle of holding are generally occupied by tenants who grasp at an extent of land for which they have an inadequate capital, who expend the whole of their money in the entry and in stocking the farm, leav- ing nothing for contingencies or for improvements ; and, as the outgoing tenant would not recei\'e a commensurate compensation for his tillage and crops, it would be useless and absurd to expect that he would quit his farm in a good state of cul- tivation, the benefit of which his successor alone would reap. The new tenant would enter upon an impoverished farm, and he must first repair the damage done by his predecessor, before he can make profit for himself. If he have a small capital, he will be tmable to do this, and he will continue to live on from hand to mouth, with repressed ener- gies and a hopeless prospect. If he have a suflfi- cient capital to enable him to impro^'e the fann-, what inducement is held out for its expenditure ? We know that every change from evil to good in management, involves an outlay of capital. We know, too, that in every field there is an unworked mine of agricultural wealth, but it cannot be brought to light without an expenditure of money, which, once sunk in the soil, can only be recovered in tlie coiirse of years. How can the farmer enter upon this outlay : He is every year at the disposal and caprice of his landlord, who may at once oust him from his tenure, and take advantage of his improvements ; but, even if he enjoys a moral safety from his landlord being a liberal-minded and enhghtened man, he has no real security ; he is, therefore, compelled to decline those permanent outlays which, in the course of time, would be of permanent profit, and to turn his attention merely to the exigencies of the present. In cases of yearly tenancies with valuation for tenant right and liberal compensation for imjjrove- ments, the evil is somewhat less, but still it is less in degree only. The spirit of improvement and enterprise is retarded by the absence of security and con6aence ; the tenant remains uncertain how long he will be allowed to enjoy the fruits of his own industry, and a check \n\\ ever be held upon his eftbrts. 1 consider a lease for a term of years to be abso- lutely necessary to inspire the farmer Avith the confidence to develop his spirit of improvement, and for the successful cultivation of his farm. In cases of leases for a long term with a fixed rent, a hardship is almost sure to be involved towards either the landlord or the tenant ; for, if the farm be let in times of high prices for produce, and the rent calculated accordingly, and the value of pro- duce fall, a manifest hardship would rest upon the tenant. On the other hand, if a farm be let at a period when the price of produce is at a low scale, and, in consequence of a war or other causes, the price of agricultural produce should, for a series of years, rise to a high rate, the landlord would be deprived of a participation in the benefits which he ought to share as owner, in common with the culti- vator of the soil. The principle of fixing the yearly rent by the annual current price of wheat, has many advo- cates ; and, at the first view, it appears so fair and eqviitable as scarcely to admit of dispute ; for, as the landlord and tenant have one common interest in the soil, it may be argued that they ought to share the same fate in the outward circtunstances over which they ha\'e no control, and which affect the value of the produce of the soil, I will endea- vour to show the difierence. The landlord, being the owner of an estate let out in farms, derives his whole income from the rent paid by his tenants ; and as that rent fails, his in- come is reduced to the amount of the failure, with- out any counterbalancing advantage ; consequently, in adopting the principle of corn rents, he receives just the amount of the current price of wheat, without reference to the value of other produce of the soil, or to live stock ; whilst the tenant, in pay- ing the corn rent, is not affected by the value of corn alone, for in case of wheat being at a low rate, if caused by an abundant harvest, he is com- pensated by extra quantity of produce; and if there be a bad haiwest, and the price of com, and consequently the rent, rises, he has the in- creased value of produce to make up for the deficient quantity. Again, he is not wholly depen- dant upon corn ; he has sheep and cattle, from which he derives a large portion of the income out of which he pays his rent. It may be further stated that not more than about one-seventh of the value of corn grown is paid to the landlord for rent (being about the value of one load in seven of wheat), so that, in fact, a variation in the price of corn would not aflfect the landlord and tenant in the same ratio ; for, whilst it would affect the landlord exactly to the degree of fluctuation, the tenant has other counterbalancing interests, which render the fluctuation of less consequence; for his other expenses are not affected by the price of corn. The system of annual corn rents must at all times be extremely objectionable to the landlord, in consequence of his inabihty to ascertain the amount of his income from year to year. He must continually watch the price of wheat ; for it would be his thermometer of expen- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 130 diture. Suppose the price of three bushels of wheat to form the rental per acre of an estate of 1,000 acres. In 1835 the price current of 3 bushels was 14s. 9d. ; this would amount to 737/. 10s.: and in 1839 the price of 3 bushels was 26s. 5.Td. ; this would amount to 1,321/, 17s. 6d. How must a landlord estabhsh a scale of expenditure to meet an uncertain income ranging between so many degrees of fluctuation ? And we must bear in mind that the landlord possesses the disposing power, and he cannot be expected to subject his income to such never-ceasing fluctuation. The tenant is the trader ; he has counterbalancing interests, and the fluctuation is of less conse- quence to him, for he has three points out of four in, his favour. 1 come lastly to what I conceive to be the proper relation of landlord and tenant — \-iz., long leases, a ])eriodical adjustment of rent on the average price of grain, and valuation for improvements. The advantage of long leases would be to obviate the evils which the tenant-at-will system produces. The ai)parent interest of the tenant immediately on entering upon his farm, would be to com- mence those permanent improvements which would yield him permanent j)rofit. Take the case of a lease of 21 years, llie tenant's doubt of a return for any expenditure yielding permanent profit would be removed, and the confidence of ])rofitable repajTiient for caj)ital cxjjended would be esta- bhshed, and the advantage of immediately com- mencing the improvements necessary for the suc- cessful occupation of his farm would be aj)parent, that he might reap the full benefit of them. If the landlord should be disposed to sell the farm during the lease, he would be in a much better position by the certain rental, and the prospective improvement; whilst no hardship to the tenant would be involved. The periodical adjustment of rents would obviate the euls of the fixed system and the system of annual fluctuation ; whilst the ultimate result would be the same. Take the case of an adjustment of the rent every several years. The rent of the first seven years would, of course, be comjjuted on the average price of grain for the past seven years. According to tlie above statistics of the average price, the rent of 1,000 acres, at the ])rice of three bushels for an acre, would l)e for the first seven years, 1,088/. iGs. 9d. ; second seven years, 1,055/. 2s. Sd.-, third seven years, 1122/. 19s. lOd. AMulst by the annual fluctuating scale the rental of 1,000 acres, at the j)rice of 3 bushels ])er acre, would vary to the amount of 583/. 17s. Gd., the greatest variation on a sejitennial fluctuating scale would Ije G7/. 1 7s. 2d., or in tlie fornu-r case 79 per cent., and in tbe latter a little more tlian G per cent ! and yet, at the end of the lease, tbe tenant would have ])aid, and the landlord would have received exactly the same amount on tlie septennial, as on the annual adjust- ment ; thus the argument for the justice of corn rent applies to both cases with equal force. At most the septennial adjustment is but a question of a little extra capital foi- the tenant. The valuation for improvements and for tenant- right. I conceive to be a part of the liberal system of long leases, and that it would operate benefici- ally for both landlord and tenant: for in the absence of the valuation, the tenant would have an induce- ment to make such imjirovements only as would last the term of his lease ; and he would manage his farm the first 17 years of the term for his own present and prospective ])enefit ; but the last four years he would take as much for himself and lea\-e as little for his successor as possible. But in the valuation for im])rovements, an annual decreasing scale should be fixed ; thus for permanent draining, I conceive payment should cease after 10 years, for during that time the tenant would receive a full return for his ex])enditurc by the increased pro- duction of the land, and he woiild have the benefit, udthout cost, for the remainder of the term. For ])uildings of a durable character probably a de creasing scale of 21 years would be just between the contracting parties. On this system of pay- ment the landlord would be called upon for a very small proportion, and the tenant would have reaped the full benefits of his expenditure. The payment should be for improvements in the hteral sense of the term, and not for mere outlay of capittd. I anticipate one objection to leases, viz., that the influence of the landlord would be destroyed by the farmer being made too independent. If the in- fluence of the landlord whom Providence has blessed with the riches and the honours of the world, means an absolute control over the free will and the opinions of his tenant, and the rendering him powerless to resist oppression or dictation, the let- ting of farms on lease would unquestionably ope- rate to diminish that influence ; but the feudal ages are past, and the days of serfs and vassals are gone, and are known only by tradition and history ; but that it would injure the fair and legitimate influence which the landlord should possess over the tenant, I deny ; for the source of a landlord's influence is not in his power to do evil, but in his ability to do good ; and the connexion between landlord and tenant is too intimate, their interests are too much alike, and the value of a good under- standing is at all times too apparent to cause any diminution of the landlord's proper influence, or any abuse of the tenant's temporaiy power under the lease system, and besides the remembrance of benefits received would always claim the tenant's gratitude. I consider that stringent covenants in leases are useless and unnecessary, and such as are introduced should be of a negative character, and confined to stipulating rather what the tenant should not do, than what he should do. He should be bound by a stronger tie than a mere legal con- tract to imjirove his farm, and to cultivate it in uniformity to the rides of good husbandry — that of self-interest. Earl Ducie stated, at a meeting of tlie Gloucester Farmers' Club, " His opinion was, that till the question of leasing was fairly and clearly understood, all their eflbrts after improve- ment would fall short of what they ouglit to be. For himself he would say that he never wished to see any man enter ujion a farm without a lease, but in return he must have intelligence." The source from whence this comes renders the opinion valuable. No landlord would grant a long lease to a tenant unless he nossessed sufficient capital, and was a man of intelligence ; he would 140 THE PAli:\rER'S MAGAZINE. invariably, in acting upon the lease system, have a guarantee for the imjirovement of his estate, which he would not possess with tenants-at-will, for a land- lord before granting a lease would satisfy himself that the lessee had sufficient capital and intelligence to apply it properly. In conclusion, I may state that there are many moral and jiolitical considerations involved in the lease system. Agriculture would be studied as a science. The farmer would become more active, more inquiring and consequently more intelligent. The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Fowler, for his excellent paper, which was seconded by Mr. John Machin, and carried unani- mously. It was resolved that Mr. Winks, of Hesley-hall, read the next paper, at the meeting in January 23, 1845, on "The Smut in Wheat," OF MR. HEWITT DAVIS'S SYSTEM FARMING. (from the MAIDSTONE GAZETTE.) Mr. Davis has fa\'oured us with the following debtor and creditor account of his system of farm- ing, which we recommend to the attention of oiu- agricultural readers. No system of farming which will not stand the " pounds, shillings, and pence" test will do in these days, still less in times which are approaching ; and this communication supplies the only hnk which required to be added to complete the chain of conviction as to the applica- bility and the profit of Mr. Davis's system on three, or at least two, very different descriptions of soil. As we deem it of the highest importance that farmers of similar soils — namely, a sandy, beach pebble, and a thin, chalky soil — should make themselves thoroughly acquainted with this system, we in\'ite inquiries on the subject, which we are sure Mr. Davis, from the lilierality which he has e\'inced in making his system known, will feel pleasure in answering, if put in a friendly, candid, and truth-seeking spirit of inquiry : — "to THE EDITOR OF THE MAID.STONE AND SOUTH-EASTERN GAZETTE. " Sir, — It has occurred to me that at the time I gave publicity to my rotation of crops I should have accompanied it with estimates of the expendi- ture and returns, for I fancy the principal value of that rotation is the excess of the returns over the expenditure which is obtained by it, and which can be shown only by figures. With a \'iew to supply thi.s omission, I forward you the enclosed account, which 1 hope will be understood. " It has been my desire in this estimate to make myself perfectly safe, and for that purpose I have taken a A-ery high scale of charges on the one side, whilst on the other the quantity and value of the produce are put below what I have actually realized. To me, therefore, the calculation turns out very satisfactorily, for I find, with corn at the very low market prices at which I have pUt it, and the green crops and fodder at extremely low feed- ing prices, a profit of 25s. per annum per acre is the result. " The labour is taken at 2s. a day for the men, and 5s. per day for the horses and wear of tackle. There remains another calculation to be made — namely, the profit or loss on stock, valuing to them the farm produce at the low prices I have aflfixed, and gi\-injT them the advantage of the high price at which I have charged their manure. 1 confess I have viewed with far more alarm the introduction of foreign cattle and foreign meat than the low price of" corn. Our growth of corn is so much affected by the amount of .stock kept, that a mea- sure diminishing the inducement to keep animals, I fear, will greatly tell on our acreage fertility. Corn all over the world is the produce of labour, and its value represents the labour employed in its production ; and I have ever considered that the extra pay our labourer receives over the serfs of the north must be more than met by our improved practice and the shipping charges; but whilst cattle in Britain are reared and supported princi- pally on labour produce, abroad there are extensive regions favoured with better climate, and exemption from all public charges, and which produce hve stock at httle or no expense of labour, I cannot see any prospect of remuneration to the grazier in this country. Indeed, in my opinion, the difficulty that exists in providing an animal-machinery for dressing the land at a cost which the corn will afford, is one we shall scarcely be able to get over. My estimation of guano and artificial manures is very low, for, even allowing these to produce tur- nips—which, after all that has been said, is the only crop which it has been shown they can be aj)- plied to— the value of the crop depends on the return the stock will pay, and it is of little use to grow cattle-food if the cattle will not afford a pro- fit in their consumption of it. " I am, sir, yours very obediently, "Hewitt Davis. " Sprhie/ Park, near Croydon, Nov. 29." CROPPINGS FOR TURNIP SOILS. Debtor. First Year. Green Rye Cone acre). £ s. Broadshearing the wheat stub- ble 0 G Ploughing 0 10 Harrowing and driUing .... 0 G Seed, H bush 0 7 Sundries 0 5 Half a year's rent, rates, tithes, interest of capital, and man- agement 0 15 d. £ s. d. 0 0 0 G 0 ^ 2 9 6 THE FARRIER'S MAGAZINE. 141 0 14 0 0 G 0 0 G 0 0 5 0 1 10 0 1 10 0 0 14 0 Turnips. Dressing 20 loads of dunor, £ s. d. at 6s G 0 0 Plouorhing twice (once deep). . 18 0 Harro\\'ings, rollinnfs, dril- lings, scuffling, three times 0 13 0 Ridging and splitting 0 14 0 Seed 0 13 0 Hoeing and weeding 0 10 0 Sundries 0 5 0 Hall' a year's rent, &c 0 15 o Second Year. Oats. Ploughing (deep) Rolling, harrowings, and dril- li»S Seed, two bushels Sundries Mowing, liarvesting, slacking. threshing, and marketing. . A j'ear's rent, &c Third Year. Seeds. Clover, and expense of sow- ing Rolling, harrowings, and stone-i)icking Sundries Mowing, haying, and stacking Ditto, second cut A year's rent, &c l'"(iai-th Year. Peas. Ploughing (deep) Harrowings, rolling, drilling, and three times scuffling . . Hoeing and weeding Seed, two bushels Sundries Mowing, harvesting, stacking, and trenching A year's rent, &c Fifth Year. Wheat. Broadsliearing pea stubble . . Ploughing (dee])) Harrowings, rolling, and dril- ling • Hoeing and weeding Seed, one Imshel Sundries Reaping, harvesting, thresh- ing, and marketing Rent, ^:c Profit in five years, or 2.'js. |)cr acre per annum (as shown by the foll(»wing valuation of jjroduce) .... £ s. d. 0 5 0 0 5 0 1 10 0 1 0 0 1 10 0 0 14 0 0 13 G 0 G G 0 9 0 0 5 0 1 10 0 1 10 0 0 G 0 0 14 0 0 7 G 0 7 0 0 7 0 0 J 0 2 0 0 I 10 0 33 i; 40 10 8 0 4 11 0 5 S 0 .'i IG G Creditor. First Year. £ p. d. Sheep feed (rye) in A])ril, valued at 1 .'> o Sheej) feed (turnips) 3 o 0 Second Year. Oats, 7 qrs., at 22s 7 14 0 Straw, 2 loads, at 18s 1 IG 0 Tliird Year. Hay, 1} loads, at SOs 5 0 0 Ditto, second cut, 1 load, at GOs 3 0 0 Sheep feed (clover) 0 10 o Fourth Year. Peas, 3 quarters, at 32s 4 IG 0 Haulm, li loads, at 20s.; 1 10 0 Fifth Year. Wheat, 3.1 quarters, at 50s... 8 15 0 Straw, 2'load.s, at 28s 2 16 O d. 40 2 0 PASSING GLANCE AT SOME AGRICUL- TURAL ASPECTS IN THE RHINS OF GALLOWAY. Colonel M'Doiiall's home farm of Logan is of large extent, beautifully sheltered from stormy weather, and furnishes an exi)osure peculiarly ada])ted to ])romote the health of cattle. A large portion of his ])asture is of superior quality, the land having been well cleaned, manured, and sown out with a sufficient (piantity and variety of the best grass seeds. The fields, therefore, in which we saw a number of the Cialloway stock pasturing, were loaded with large quantities of splendid grass, which aljundantly sjjoke for the fine condition of the Idack, fat, sleek, and healthy animals which l)rowsed down the nutritious herbage. We liaA-e been told, on good authority, that (yolonel M'Douall is most desirous above all tbing.s, in his agricul- tural imj)rovements, to imjirove the breed of Cal- loway stock in the Rhins. The stock of the Rhins requires this eminently, and no j)ropriet()r can con- fer a greater Ijoon u])on this ])ortion of the county than to imjirove the breed of (lalloways. They are the native stock of the country, and their sujjeriority at one jjcriod shows the natural ajititude of the coimtry to rear and mature that sjiecies of stock, if the l)reeding of such stock in purity be attended to. And if the Riiins in f(jrmer times could support and mature large and fine animals of that breed, what with modern imjjrovements in agriculture, and tiie introduction of superior grasses and green crops, it stands to reason that modern times having sujjplied, in every res])ect, superior keej) or aliment for cattle, supjwsing the Calloway breed to be kept in a pure state, our farmers ought to be aide to rear and sell cattle of that kind lieavier and more renumerating than the cattle of former davs. We are glad to hear from various quarters, that such opinions be- gin to prevail. At a recent meeting of the Rhins Agricultural Society held in Stranraer, Sir John 142 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. M'Taggart, himself a first-rate agriculturist, stated lie had consulted Lord Spencer on this very suh- ject, and that his Lordshij), one of the best judges and breeders of cattle in all England, had given a decided oj)inion, that in Galloway, the native cat- tle of the purest breed ought to be preferred above all others, as generally the most likely to pay. Sir John also gave this as his opinion, and we are happy to see, that in the selection of his young stock and feeding cattle, he has this year given a decided preference to Galloways of a purer breed than he had been wont to feed. We do not by any means condemn the practice of some farmers, whose lands are peculiarly fa\-ourable for the practice of the dairy — keeping the Kyloe or Ayrshire breed. Some leading farms highly favourable for dairy produce may pay very well so managed, but these are com- paratively fev\'; and it is therefore of the larger breadth of land in the Rhins of which we speak as well adapted for the rearing of Galloway stock of a pure breed, which will probably be found, when tried, to pay in a superior manner to any other kind — certainly better than any indifferent broken breed between impure Galloways and Ayrshire or Irish stock. Nor must it be understood that we are now Avriting as if many excellent Galloway stocks do not at present exist in the Rhins. We are aware that there are a good many such. We had suffi- cient proof of this a few days ago, when taking a perambulatory survey of Mr. Murdoch's (of Din- ^^n) excellent farm, near Portpatrick. We there saw some hundreds of Galloway stock, of different ages — fine animals, of great bone, squareness, and fine breeding. Now, the most of these cattle had been selected and purchased by Mr. Murdoch in Kirk- colm and the neighbouring parishes of the Rhins, which proves two important things — not only that Mr. Murdoch is an excellent judge and selecter of GaUoway stock, but that there must be a nvimber of good stocks of that kind in the Rhins, out of which to select such fine specimens of well-bred Galloways. But still, comparing the vast multitude of farms in the Rhins which continue to practice the wasteful system of breeding and feeding miser- able crosses of spurious breeds which never can pay, we must say, that the argument advanced by us, of the advantage of the agriculturists of the Rhins still further encouraging and extending the breed of pure Galloways in this district, holds with abundant force ; and we do not think the subject can be too often or too earnestly urged on the attention of the agricultviral public by their local weekly journals. It is ob\aous, however, that in the rearing of pure and paying Galloway stock, next to the pure blood of the male and female, two things are essential — first, that the calves must get, for a sufficient length of time, plenty of their mother's milk, and other analogous and nutritious food, to increase both their bone and muscle ; next, that so soon as sitch food requires to be diminished or abstracted, the calves should have continued to them sufficient protection from cold, abundant nu- tritious grasses, and green food, such as turnip, lucerne, or tares, which foUow as substitutes for the milk, &c. Hence, in the profitable up-bringing of such stock, the extension of the turnip crop, the growing of lucerne, clovers, tares, and euch liJte food, necessary for soiling and nourishing the young stock, is essential. Logan is therefore an excellent experimental farm on which to work out this important experiment; and considering that Col. M'Douall had, beyond doubt, the best polled cattle of all the good stock shown at the late great Glasgow Show, and further considering that he has at this moment still finer bred Galloway stock on his farm, we augur well, not only of the experiment and example now set to all regarding the purer breeding of these cattle, but under the authority and patronage of so spirited a proprietor, and the management of so intelligent a factor, we have not a doubt that the stock to be seen in Logan home farm a few years hence Avill do great honour to Galloway, and tend materially to give a turn to the current of public feehng in favour of the Gallo- way breed. But let us return from this digression, we ho]:ie not an unprofitable one altogether, to some other particulars immediately connected with our agricultural tour and sketch. Colonel M'Douall has a very superior stock of whitefaced sheep grazing on a rich and well shel- tered pasture, in front of the mansion house, as well as a fine lot of lambs kept for stock; and another lot of half-breds, which for symmetry and flesh we do not think could be surpassed at any- thing like the price paid for them. The encourage- ment of sheep-feeding in the Rhins is a thing much to be recommended, particularly on sandy or hght soils, as the fact is not to be doubted, that the ma- nuring and paddhng Arith the feet of sheep has a most beneficial tendency in enriching and consoli- dating such soils. A considerable part of Logan soil is quite such a soil as can be thus improved ; and probably where soil is pecuharly loose, and hable to be poached, it should be pastured with sheep alone, or sheep with a mixture of young cattle, till the surface and sward of grass is completely consolidated. The fine grass fields of Logan are reclaimed and improved from a state and subsoil by no means fa- vourable, after undergoing subsoiling of the most efficient kind, which broke up a moor-pan or irony crust, thick and impervious to rain. Turnip crop- ping ensued, fed off wth sheep; and the lands were then sown out, thoroughly cleaned of weeds, with a white crop, and a sufficient quantity of grass seeds. Such is the general process through which very in- ferior, if not worthless, land has been converted to excellent pasture. Of course, no step in this process was undertaken till the fields had been thoroughly drained in the Deanston fashion. When lately on a stubble field on Logan, which had been previously drained, we saw the subsoil plough in progress, and certainly a more complete job we never saw. The subsoil plough, as worked by our friend Mr. Gil- lespie, Annanbank, Dumfriesshire, was drawn l)y four horses only — four prime animals perfectly trained to the work, and following a common plough which turned over a deep furrow — and the Annan- bank subsoihng was first-rate. The Logan subsoil plough, however, is drawn by six, instead of four horses ; and, on the whole, where so full and efficient a team can be got, we think six horses superior to four, unless in comparatively easily subsoiled earth, Svhere the BubsoU is verj' retentive, and interspersed THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. 143 with large stones, the work is done with less strain- ing to the horses where six are used instead of four : and, on the whole, the expense is no greater, as the six horses will go over more ground in the jjrojjor- tion of, at least, six to foiu\ The operation of drain- ing in an efficient manner, lies at the bottom of all improvement of the soil, whether in drying it, in pulverising it, or fitting it for the proper application of manure. But thorough subsoiling is, next to draining, the most essential step in the great pro- cess of agricultural improvement. We do not talk of suhsoihng as a system of agriculture to be adopted in every course of rotation. Thorough subsoiling for the first time after draining — say subsequent to the first crop after draining — is essential ; subsoil- ing once every time the land is turned up in subse- quent rotations being an entirely dift'erent thing, the propriety of which may depend on a variety of cir- cumstances. It is a pity that farmers generally do not club together, so as to command a com})lete team of efHcient horses, and take the plough in ro- tation, and thus thoroughly subsoil their grounds. Any partial or imperfect system is just money thrown away. THE LETTERS OF AGRICOLA ON THE PRINXIPLES OF VEGETATION AND TIL- LAGE. {Written for Nova Scotia, by the late John Young.) ON MANURES, WTien a coimtry advances in the progress of improvement from ])asturage to tillage, the various sources of manure are investigated and sought after with an avidity commensurate to the fervent spirit of enter])rise. The attention which is paid to this branch of management indicates with certainty the state of the art ; and wherever we discover little or no exertions made in it, in order to accumulate by artificial means the aggregate heap beyond the ordi- nary supply, no further ])roof is requisite of the state of debasement in which agriculture lies. On the other hand, when a A'igilant and persevering in- dustry is ever on the alert ; when numerous expedi- ents are tried, to enlarge the quantity as well as to improve the quality of maniues ; when composts, diversified both in the ingredients and proportions, become objects of curiosity and experiment — these are the first symptoms of returning life and vigour, and may be hailed as the precursors of more flattering and auspicious prosjjects. The ardour of agricultural jjursuit in England was ushered in by these beginnings ; and at the ])resent day, there is no subject of more jiaramount interest tlian the aug- mentation of the dunghill. Every kingdom of na- ture has been ransacked, to find out substances en- dowed with the ])rinci])le of fertility ; science has come in to tlie assistance of art ; ])hiloso])hy has stooped from her dignity, and joined in tlie cfcneral research ; and the j)ul)hc interest, instead of having flagged with the very am])le success which hitlierto has attended the inquiry, has only been roused to more spirited and aaventurous efforts, llie com- jiost middens of Lord Meadowbank, the mixture of soil with decomposable matter, the imiversal appli- cation of lime, and the late introduction of burnt clay, are stejis in that great race, in which all men, as if stimulated by one common impulse, seem to have engaged. Indeed, imless other means are re- sorted to, in order to rejjlenish the waste of vegeta- tion, than the simple contents of the barn yard. Great Britain could not sustain the half of her po- pulation, nor draw from her own territorial domains that exhaustless abundance which provides mate- rials for her commerce, and ministers to the necessi- ties, comforts, and luxuries of life. This exuber- ance of su])ply may all be traced to the improved and skilful methods, not of cultivation so much as of multiplying the efficacy of ])utrescible manures. There was a ])eriod in her history when, like this ])rovince, she was more " a grazing than a corn coimtry ;" and when butcher meat bore no sort of relation in jnice to wheat and other grain. When we review this part of her history, we are striick with the ])alpable blunders she once committed, and trace between them and our own a striking and remarkable analogy. The manures, when in use, were the simple excrementitious matter of the cat- tle on the farm, unaided by those compound ingre- dients which have been since introduced, and which may be considered in the light of the raw materials from which the modern stores are manufactured. In truth, Avithout great attention to the artificial in- crease of this necessary article, our agriculture can never rise to any importance ; and it would be vain to urge the extended culture of white crops, unless we possess the means of repairing the exhaustion of the soil. It has been long acted on in Flanders, and is now universally acknowledged in England, that an arable farm may be ke])t in good heart, and subjected to a continued course of cropping, ^\^th- out any extraneous dung, other than what is made on the premises from the consumption of green crops, straw, and fodder. The cattle which are fed on turnips, the horses employed in labour, the pigs and poultry, are perfectly sufficient to supply such a quantity, under the direction of a scientific ma- nager, as will annually restore to the land that rich- ness of which it is deprived ; and at the same time admit the grain to be carried to market, to meet the wants of the community. Eveiy spot, in both coun- tries, can be made to repair its own waste ; and the luxuriance of one is never emj)loyed to correct the poverty of another. Here our rich marshes and in- tervals are taxed, and as it were laid under contri- bution, for the benefit and supjjort of our up- lands. In the further prosecution of this subject, I shall point out some ca])ital errors in the management of manure, which prevail, with few exceptions, through- out the whole ])rovince, and which liave a most per- nicious influence on our agricultural progression ; and I shall jirescribe the remedies which the case suggests, and which are practic:d)le under existing circumstances. I observe, in the first place, that we have almost no pits dug upon a regular plan, for the collection and preseiwation of the dung which from time to time is wheeled out of the barn. Sometimes it is spread out on the green eward, sometimes cast Ui THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. carelessly In a court or adjoining yard ; but seldom in an excavation made purposely for retaining the juices which run from it. These are suffered either to stream along the surface, or sink into the earth ; and in both cases, their utility is sacrificed to inat- tention and ignorance. This is no more, however, than the half of the evil. The exhalations which arise from the ardent influence of a summer's sun, and from the natural activity of fermentation, are pei-mitted to escape freely, and to carry along with them all the strength and substance of the putres- cible matter. No means are taken to fix the gases which are generated, and which constitute tlie ele- ments of vegetable food. I do not know if there be one solitary instance, throughout the wide range of the province, of the application of soil on the sur- face of a dunghill, to prevent this unpardonable waste and dissipation ; and I am too confident there is none of lining the bottom with a regular coat or layer, to imbibe the nutritive moisture. The dung, too, is suffered to rot without any attention whate^'er to the degree of heat; and I should startle my readers, were I to tell them that the fermentation should never be urged beyond 100 degrees of Fah- renheit's thermometer. At a much lower heat, car- bonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, and the other gases of that family, ascend as elastic fluids, and are diflFused and lost in the atmosphere ; the dunghill becomes what is c&WeA. fire-famjed, and the principles of fertility are expelled "by the action of those chemical laws which regulate and pervade the mi- nute and subtile particles of matter. If the dung be injudiciously treated, the urine dis- charged by the cattle is squandered, and indeed altogether lost. This is owing to the construction of the barns which generally pre\'ail throughout the province, and which cannot be altered without some little outlay of capital. Being formed of wood, they are mostly raised and projjped on a foundation ; and a floor of plank is invariably laid. The whole urine of the cattle, except what is absorbed by the dung, finds its way through the seams ; and either oozes out into the earth, or forms ])eneath the barn a foetid and noisome pool of standing water. The essential elements of ^'egetable matter with which it is sur- charged assume quickly the gaseous forms ; and either mount up through the floor, or escape by the sides of the building. At all events, their fertihzing qualities are turned to no account, and the loss from this single circumstance is ruinous beyond calcula- tion. It may be necessary, in some measure, to as- certain the amount of this mischief, that we may set about correcting an evil of such formidable magnitude with a vigorous and resolute energy. I should be afraid to hazard my character with the public, by stating in round and unqualified language the value of this rich juice which is literally wasted and thrown away ; and, therefore, I shall proceed with caution, and give a detail of facts conclusive in their bearings, and substantiated by the best authority. They are contained in a letter from Charles Alexander, near Peebles, in Scotland ; and are addressed to Sir John Sinclair, in 1812, for pub- lication. This intelligent farmer had long been impressed with the great importance of the urine of cattle as a manure ; and he set about to discover, by a long and well conducted series of experiments, the best method of collecting and applying It. He began by digging a pit contiguous to the feeding stall, but distinct altogether from tiiat which was appropriated for the reception of the dung. The dimensions of this pit, according to his account, were 36 feet square, and four feet deeji, surrounded on all sides by a wall ; and the solid contents were 192 yards. Having selected the nearest spot where he could find loamy earth, and this he always took from the surface of some field under cultivation, he proceeded to fill it ; and found that, with three men and two horses, he could easily accomplish 28 cubic yards per day ; and the whole expense of transport- ing the earth did not exceed £4 l6s. When the work was complete, he le\'elled the surface of the heap, in a line with the mouth of the sewer which conducted the urine from the interior of the build- ing, on jjurpose that it might be distributed with regularity, and might saturate the whole from top to bottom. The quantity conveyed to it he estimates at about 800 gallons ; but his calculation was founded partly on conjecture, for he measured not the liquor, and it will be better and more instructiA-e to fvirnish and proceed on data that are certain and incontrovertible- The urine was supplied by four- teen cattle, weighing about 34 stone each, and kept there for five months on fodder and turnips. The contents of the pit produced 288 loads, allowing 2 cubic yards to be taken out in three carts ; and he spread 40 of these on each acre ; so that this urine in five months, and from fourteen cattle, produced a compost suflficient for the fertilization of seven acres of land. He states further that he tried this experiment for ten years, and had indiscriminately used in the same field either the rotted cow dung or the saturated earth ; and in all the stages of the crop, he had never been able to discover any perceptible difference. But what is still more v/onderful, he found that his compost lasted in its effects as many years as his best putrescent manure; and he there- fore boldly avers, that a load of each is of equivalent value. Conclusions of vast importance are de- ducible from this statement, and I cannot resist the feeling of placing them in a strong and advan- tageous light. They speak a volume of instruction ; and if we are willing to learn, they must lead to a very material alteration in the construction of oi;r barns. It appears, then, that in five months, each cow discharges urine which, when absorbed by loam, furnishes manure of the richest quality and most durable effects for half an acre of ground. Tlie dung pit, which contained all the excrementitious matter of the 14 cattle, as well as the litter employed in bedding them, and which was kept separate for the purpose of the experiment, only furnished during the same period 240 loads, and these, at the same rate, could only manure 6 acres. The aggregate A'alue of the urine therefore, when compared with that of the dung, was in the ratio of 7 to G ; so that we are borne out by these premises in this extra- ordinary inference, that the ])utrescible liquor which in this province, and under the management of our fai'mers, is wasted and annihilated as far as regards any useful pvu'pose, is intrinsically worth more than the dung, as an efficacious and permanent dressing : and if we take into consideration, that this latter manure is not treated with an)' skill and judgment, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 145 it will not seem surprising that the culture of white crops has neA'er been carried on here to any extent, since we have despised and neglected the only means of creating them. — Mechanic and Farmer. PRACTICE OF IRRIGATION. The first operation on the intended meadow is, to free it thoroughly of water l)y draining. If springs e.xist, they should be cut oli'by drains of sufficient depth to reach the source of injvu-y. But, in addi- tion to this, the land, if the soil is clayey, or rests upon a tenacious subsoil, should be etiectually fur- row-drained, so as to artbrd a ready egress to the water underground. The land is then to be levelled and otherwise ]ne]iared. If it is already in old turf, it will be well to pare off the sward with the s])ade, and after having dug and prepared the ground, to replace the turf. In this manner the meadow will be ready for the recci)tion of the water, as soon as it is formed. But should there be no turf upon the ground, or should this turf be filled with useless or innutrilious i)lants, the land should be thoroughly worked, levelled, and othen\'ise prejiared, and then sown with the suitable grass-seeds. These grass- seeds may be sown in autumn. We cannot, how- ever, in this case, admit the water during the first winter. We must retain the land in pasture for the whole of the following ^\^nter and summer, so that the young plants may establish themselves in the soil. But in the second winter we may generally admit the water. The ground may be in part pre- pared by the plough, and we may even economise e.vpenditure by taking a crop of some kind before we begin to level and othenvise form the meadow ; but generally it is better to proceed at once with the formation of the meadow, and employ the spade in jjlace of the plough for levelling and i)rei)aringtlie ground for the rec-eption of the grass-seeds in autumn. Along the higher side of the meadow is first to be formed the main conductor, to which the water is carried, and from which it is conveyed over the surface of the meadow, Tlie earth taken out of this trench is to be employed in banking it, and filling up hollows in the surface of the ground. The size of the main conductor must be i)roj)ortioned to that of the meadow, and the quantity of water to be conveyed. The next operation is, forming the main drain, at the lower part of the land to be fiooded. It is of the same size as the main conductor, and the earth taken out of it is to be employed in banking or filling up hollows. The surface of the meadow, sujjposing it to be flat, is now to be formed into l»cds or planes, from 30 to 40 feet in width, extending from the main conductor to the main drain. These beds may be elevated al)out 1 2 inches at the centre; they are not curved like the ridges of a ploughed field, but form inclined ])lanes from the centre to each side. At leaving the main conductor they may be 20 inches wide, gradually narrowing to nearly a ])oint at their termination when they reach the surface. If stojjs of solid earth are left, these may be six inches either way, >vith their diagonal in the line of the feeder, and such of them as are not required may be afterwards remo\'ed. The earth taken out of these feeders is to be emi)loyed in making good their own banks, and in levelling the inequalities of the surface. Cor- resjjonding with the feeders, and alternating with them, are to be formed the series of suljordinate drains, communicating with the main drain. They are of the same dimensions as the feeders, with this distinction, that they are widest and deejjest Avhere they communicate with the main drain, and become gradually smaller to the iq)per part of the meadow, \\-here they terminate. 'J"he surface of the meadow being formed, the grass-seeds, where no turf has lieen reserved, are to be sown. The fol- lowing admixture of grasses will be found suitable : — 1 . Alopecurus pratensis — meadow foxtail ; 2. Phleum pratense — meadow cat's-tail; 3.Agrostis alba — marsh l)cnt grass ; 4. Poa trivialis — rough-stalked meadow-grass ; r>. Poa ])ratensis — smooth-stalked meadow-grass ; G. Festuca loliacca — spiked fescue- grass ; 7. Festuca pratensis — meadow fescue. \\Tien the old turf has been replaced, the water, it has been said, may be admitted in the first winter; when grass-seeds have been sown, the water cannot be admitted until the second winter, and sometimes even not imtil the third. The ground should be depastured with sheep during the first summer to such a degree as to prevent the plants from putting forth their flowering stems and ])roducing seeds. The next jjoint to be considered is the management of the meadow when completed. At the beginning of October, we are to prepare for admitting the water. To this end the drains and feeders are to Ije cleaned out, and the banks where injured re])aired. The main sluice is then to be withdrawn, when the con- ductors and feeders will be gradually fiUetl. 'Ilie next point is to adjust the water in the several feeders. To this end the workman is to obsen'e that each feeder, beginning with the first in order, receixxs a due (juantity of water. If not, he enlarges the mouth so as to allow the pro})er quantity to enter. He then adjusts the tops in the several feeders, so that the whole surface of the beds shall be cohered ecpially about an inch deep with water. Diu-ing this and the three following mouths — namely, November, December, and January — the ground is to be regu- larly flooded for 1 5 or 20 days at a time, with in- termissions at each time of seven or eight days, during which the ground is to be laid perfectly dry. Further, when severe frost is threatened, the water is in like manner to be withdrawn, so as that it may not freeze upon the surface. During this, the prin- cijjal ])eri()ds of flooding, the meadow is to be in- spected CA'ery three or four days, to see that no in- terruption from the breaking of banks, accumula- tion of weeds, or otherwise, is given to the flowing of the water. "When the spring months arri\c, antl grasses begin to grow, the jieriods of flooding are to be shortened. In the month of February the water should never be allowed to flow abo\e six or seven days at a time, and in severe frosts it should be withdrawn, so that no ice may lie formed u|)on the meadow. The same management, sliortening from five to six days the ])eriods of flooding, may be continued till the middle of March, by which time the meadow will be ready for receiving any kind of stock. In tliis manner an early supply of 146 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. herbage is obtained ; and after the stock has been removed, as by the beginning of May, the flooding may be resvimed and continued till near the end of the month, so as to prepare the meadow for hay. But often this spring feeding is not resorted to. The irrigation is continued during the months of March, April, and until the middle of May, when it finally ceases. But, during this period, the fre- (juency and length of time of watering are gradually diminished from five or six days in March, to two or three in the latter period of flooding. Caution is required in flooding as the season advances ; because, were the finer grasses to be too long sub- merged at this period of their growth, they would be injured and destroyed. The actual periods of flooding differ with the state of the season and the nature of the soil. A practical rule adopted for in-igation is, never to continue to flood when a white scum is seen to form on the surface of the water, for this indicates that the putrefactive fer- mentation has commenced in the turf. By the middle of May, or rarely later, the flooding is to cease, and the land to be laid thoroughly dry. The grasses will now grow with great luxuriance, and produce an abundant crop of hay. When the hay is removed, the aftermath is depastured, after which the same process of flooding recommences. Sometimes, after the hay is removed, the ground is again flooded ; but, in this case, no sheep must be achnitted on the flooded land, or, if admitted, they must be such sheep as are to be immediately killed ; for tliis summer flooding never fails to bring with it the disease of rot in its most destnictive form. In place of the meadow being applied to the pro- duction of hay, it may be appUed to the production of green forage for soiling. This is a more profit- able mode of applying the watered meadow than for the production of hay. Three crops, in this case, may be taken, the meadow being flooded after each crop is removed. — Professor Low on Landed Property. BURTON-UPON-TRENT FARMERS' CLUB. ■\VHAT MODE OF TENANCY BEST PROMOTES THE INTERESTS OF BOTH LANDLORD AND TENANT ? On Thursday, the 19th December, a numerous meeting of the members of this thriving club was held in the large room at the Three Queens, Burton- upon-Trent. The subject for discussion was — What mode of tenancy best promotes the interests of both landlord and tenant f and it will be seen from the subjoined report of what transpired, that the subject was ably considered in an essay read to the meeting by Mr. Abraham Bass, Lord Waterpark, President of the club, pre- sided on this occasion ; and among the gentlemen present we noticed Matthew Gisborne, Esq. ; Chas. Arkwright, Esq. ; R. J. Peel, Esq. ; M. T. Bass, Esq.; W. Worthington, Esq.; £. Thornewille, Esq. ; and, indeed, most of the leading agricultu- rists of the district. From eighty to ninety persons were present, Sir Oswald Mosiey, bart., and Major Chetwynd came from London to attend the meet- ing, but wei'e unable to be present on account of bad colds. The Secretary (Mr. John Greaves) read over the minutes of the previous meeting, and several new members were proposed (one by Mr. Daniel, the Treasurer), and unanimously elected. The Presi- dent then called upon Mr. Abraham Bass, who proceeded to read as follows : — I have not engaged to bring imder your notice the subject for this evening's consideration from any opinion that I am at all competent to treat it as ably as its importance requires ; on the contrary, I am very diffident about my power to say any- thing which is worthy of consideration by prac- tical farmers. But the great anxiety I feel in a matter so interesting to every well-wisher of his country, has induced me to run the risk of failure in my mode of treating it, under the assurance that my errors and omissions will be corrected and sup- phed by those around me who are met to take part in its discussion. I am, however, sure that as far as regards the equitable principle which should regulate eveiy mode of tenancy, I have endeavoured to avoid any leaning to the interests of either landlord or tenant. For the practical details, I have sought the advice and assistance of others who are better able to form a judgment of them than I am. In what I have to say, I shall take it for granted that the landowner desires to have his land as much improved as possible, and that the tenant desires to reajD the highest return for the capital and skill he employs on the land. The means by which these advantages are best secured, I shall suppose to be " the mode of tenancy which best promotes the interests of both landlord and tenant," It is a subject of common remark, that while every other kind of trade, art, or manufacture, immediately avails itself of any new means by which it can be improved, agriculture alone remains stationary, or progresses very slowly, although the means by which great and beneficial changes in the methods of culture might be adopted are gene- rally known. Professor Low, in his recent work on Landed Property, says — " Within less than a century Great Britain has made a more rapid pro- gress in the useful arts than any countiy has ever made ; but how stands it mth agriculture, the most necessary of all the arts r Has this kept pace in any degree wth the other branches of producti-\'e industry ? It is manifest that agriculture has kept no equal pace with the other arts," After com- menting on the general backward state of agri- culture which he attributes mainly to the insecu- rity of tenure, the Professor adds — "When we consider the condition of the farmers of the greater part of the British islands, in certain cases, as in Ireland, oppressed by rents which scarcely any eflforts of incessant labour can make good, and which cut oflfall the means of accumulating funds for the proper culture of the farms ; in other cases, as in the midland and southern counties of Eng- land, where security of possession is withheld, and where the industry of the fanner is fettered by a mass of useless covenants ; and again, as in a great part of Scotland, where the farmers are not re* THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 147 moved above the condition of the poorer labourers, we have less cause to wonder at the slow progress which agriculture has made, as compared with other arts, than that so much has been done to add to the produce of the country, and supply the wants of a continually increasing population. There are, indeed, throughout the country, con- trasts to this state of things, as in the north of England, and in the southern and a few of the midland counties of Scotland, where leases have been established by customs and the necessities of the country, in which we find a race of tenantry comparatively exempt from the prejudices of an- cient habits, educated, and gi^"ing the benefits of education in a yet superior degree to their families, and possessed of funds necessary for the progres- sive improvement of their farms. The consequences manifest themselves to every eye, in the improved and continually impro\'ing condition of the country, in the costly works which are constantly in pro- gress, and in the large produce raised, under all the disadvantages of inferior soils, and a cold and un- certain climate." Upon such authority, therefore, I may declare it to be certain that the mode of tenancy has the greatest influence on the character of farming ope- rations throughout the country. The spirit and skill of individuals here and there will always dis- cover themselves, under any system ; and whatever be the mode of tenancy, some farms of a district are seen to surpass others. But if large districts be compared together, it has, I believe, been found that the greatest advancement of agriculture is usually the companion of that kind of tenancy which gives greatest scope and freedom to the tenant. Where leases for years are the prevalent mode of letting land, there the best rents are paid, the land Ijest cultivated, and the fanner reaps the best profit. But it must be admitted that there are not wanting many instances of spirited and good farmers who are tenants-at-will. Still, as Mr. Hannam, who has written so ably on leases, ob- sen'es — " Their lines are fallen in lucky places, or they could not do tliis ; and although we may doubt the wisdom of their outlays when so many circumstances may occur to rob the tenant of both principal and interest, we may rest sure, that if, in some cases, they do much without security, they would do more with a security." To this I would add, no kind of improvement, either of the texture of the soil, or of the modes of cultivating it, returns an immediate profit to the farmer. In some instances eight or ten years, and in others twenty years, are not more than sufficient to enable him to get l)ack his outlay in increased produce from the land. It would, there- fore, be scarcely consistent with good sense or prudence, to invest his capital in the land, unless he felt himself secure in his tenancy for as long a period as is necessary to enable him to get it back again. If the plan of letting land from year to year inspired a perfect confidence in the tenant, why should a difference be seen between those districts where it is the prevalent custom, and others where leases are common ? If leases should be- come more common, there can be no doubt that fanning, even under their operation, would be greatly improved by the introduction of a far greater number of competitors in the race of activity and enterprise, the collision of whose unfettered minds would produce the most beneficial effects to the country at large. If you were to surround a sin- gle leaseholder, or jiroprietor, with a body of ten- ants-at-^vill, he would, being isolated, in spite of his position of security, be insensibly influenced by the more timid system of those around him, and would perhaps make httle more progress than his neighbours. Such is the influence of habit and ex- ample, and such little effect ha\-e individuals upon general systems. It is very true that under a tenure at will u tenant may feel assirred of the honour and gene- rosity of his landlord, yet there are, nevertheless, abundant reasons why he should not feel perfectly secure ; for the landlord himself cannot answer how long he may possess his land. He may die ; he may sell his jn-operty; another may succeed him who may be ignorant of the tenant's rights — or extravagant, and may not regard them — or capricious, and the tenant may offend him ; or the estate may be in the hands of trustees who may feel bound to make the most of it. The landlord may be absent, and trust to agents who may have no motive but to raise their master's revenue ; and it is seldom that a landlord who is inattentive to, or regardless of, the rights of his tenants, employs a very scrupulous agent ; and even a just and kind landlord may listen to the counsel, and believe the representations, of an agent whose character is very unlike his own. These and many other causes conspire to produce such reasonable doubts in the tenants' minds, that in the average of cases they are deterred from investing their capital as they would if they were defended by a legal secm-ity. It is urged that leases sever the kindly relations between landlord and tenant, and rob the landlord of the just influence which his property ought to give him over his tenantry. Here I venture to remark that so far as the landlord's influence is founded on his power to do good, and not on his own power to inflict injur}', his influence need not be diminished by leasing instead of letting his land from year to year. His command over the acts of his tenants is derived from other sources some- times ; but all his influence, all the real resjiect and homage and wiUing services of his tenantry, are given in return for his kind regard to their welfare, and the substantial benefits he renders them. These, if they were continued to the tenant under lease as to the tenant-at-will, would induce the same proofs of attachment, and the landlord woidd be then assured that they flowed from a free affec- tion, and not from the forced, and perhaps unwil- ling deference which fear might create. Though I am, |)erhaps, ovcrstepi)ing tiie limits within which it is proper I should confine myself in this place, 1 may venture to remark, that while the system of tenancy-at-will is productive of little injury, and no injustice, in the hands of lilicral and honoinable men, yet their example is jjroductive of injury in an indirect way. It is alone the trust which is reposed in them which inspires a trust in the system, when it is adopted by others not so worthy of confidence as they arc. 14& THE FARMEirs MAGAZINE. A landlord is injured in his interests also by the tenfint-at-will system. In scarcely any case is his land improved as it might be imder a secure tenure; in most cases it is not improved at all, and it is too often much run out by tenants of little capital and less enterprise, who, by a few adverse seasons, are compelled to impoverish the land to meet their difficulties. Often too, when from temporary causes the prohts of farming are much lowered, the landlord has to n|ake abatements of his rent. And nothing can show the unsatisfactory state of the tenant-at--\nll system better than the fact, that, in adverse seasons, while some landlords \v\\\ return as miich as thirty per cent, of their rents, others will return none at all. That the capital of the farmer should be at- tracted to the land can scarcely be expected, unless he is secured bj"^ some legal agreement; but should the landottTiers refuse to give any legal security for tenure, and should yet wish to see their land in the highest state of cultivation, they must lay out their own capital, both in what are called permanent im- provements and manures ; in which case the land- lord might get the best rent, the farmer the best profit, and the country the largest i)roduce. But it is a question whether the landlords can effect improve- ments ^\^th as much skill and economy as a tenant; and if he cannot, it would of course be more to his interest to adopt such a mode of tenure as should give the tenant a strong incitement to effect them. It seems to me then, that no mode of tenancy can effectually sen-e the mutual interests of both land- lord and tenant, unless the rights of each be defined and guaranteed by some sort of settled agreement. By the rights of the landlord I intend a fair and just amount of rent, and a security that his land shall suffer no injury as regards its renting value. The rights of the tenant I take to consist in a fair and equitable return for whatever ca])ital he lays out in the improvements of the land, and in the privilege of reaping all the profit the land is capable of yielding, so that he preserve the land from dilapidation. Whether the tenure be from year to year, or a lease for years, the agreement should fulfil these conchtions, and the question which I propose to examine is, in what manner it is best to effect them. The difference between these two modes is, that in one case the tenant is allowed a definite time to enjoy the benefit of the improved land, while in the other case there is only an implied engagement that he shall do so. As I see no other way of recompensing a tenant for improvements, except by giving him possession for a period of years, I would propose, in the absence of a lease, that an (njreement of tenancy from year to year should be founded on the same principle as a lease. If the tenancy be by lease, the land is taken at the rent it is \A'orth at its present condition ; the tenant makes improvements and holds the land, which is thereby worth more to rent, at the agreed low price until his saving in this way rej)ays him back his capital ; he runs the risk, and reaps the benefit of his measures, or incurs the loss of their failure ; while the landlord receives back the land, with its rent value increased in proportion to the cajntal judiciously expended on it. It is generally the case that a man of enterprise and capital is the only one who prefers a lease, and he will usually pay some- thing more in rent for tlie ])rivilege of a secure possession of his land ; such men are deterred from taking farms on other conditions, and the conse- quence is, that others, less enterprising, are too apt to take their places. The tenant's usual objection to a lease is that it is dangerous to take a farm for a period of years at a rent proportioned to the present price of farming produce. It seems to me a striking instance of the unequal contest between an old habit, and a sound argument, that the easy i)lan of obnating this ob- jection is not generally adopted in all kinds of tenancy. The rent can be made to vary, in proi)oi-- tionas the price of farming produce itself varies, by means of a corn rent. I do not mean to say that a corn rent is a perfect adjustment of the diffi- culty, but it is infinitely ])referable to a fixed rent. The principle is this : The jirice of wheat is com- monly adopted as the most convenient standard, and the average of the preceding seven years taken as the standard by which the present rent is to be adjusted. If the average price be 35s. per cpiarter, and the agreed rent be 35s. per acre, then the tenant pays every year the price of one quarter of wheat per acre, according to the average of the ])receding seven years, be that what it may : or if the agreed rent be 40s. per acre, and the average for the preceding scA'en years 50s. the rent after- wards would always be 4-5ths of a cjuarter of wheat. But it is said that wheat is not a fair measure of the rent of land on which other gi-ain is chiefly grown, and still less of pasture land ; and it is true that it is not in any one year. But in the average of years wheat, and all other farming produce, bear one and the same proportion to each other, for the pro- duction of one or other kind is great or little in pro- portion to the i)rice it bears. If it be thought, however, that wheat does not serve well as a measure of the rent of lands growing other corn, or in pasture, it is equally easy to take the average price of the several kinds of grain, or the mixed average of corn and cheese, for farms part in tillage and part in pasture, or cheese alone on pasture lands. It is said, too, that though a corn rent may meet the rise and fall in price caused by perma- nent changes, it fails where the price is altered by abundant or deficient harvests. When his harvest was deficient, the tenant would pay the highest rent, and the landlord would suffer in like manner in an abundant harvest. But it is to be borne in mind, that when the price rises from a deficient harvest, the increase of price is much greater than the deficiency. Hence, although the tenant has to pay more in a scarce year, the value of wheat left for his own share is often greater than when his crop is of average abundance, and the same rule, reversed, holds when the haiTest is more than of j average yield. If, for instance, the farmer grows ' thirty bushels'of wheat per acre as an average crop, when the price of Avheat is 50s. he will pay 4-5ths of a quarter in rent. The whole thirty bushels will sell for 187s. 6d., and the rent 40s. being deducted, leaves him 147s. 6d. If, now, in a deficient harvest, he grow l-5th less, or twenty- four bushels, and the average price rises 2-5ths, or to 70s. per quarter, the whole twenty-four bushel^ THE FAllMER'S MAGAZINE. Ud vAW sell for 210s., from which deduct the price of 4-5ths of a (juarter for rent — 56s. — and l.')4s. will be left him, that is 6s. Gd. more than when his crop was of average yield. But as the rent would be measured, not by the average of .one year, but by the average of seven, the tenant would never have to pay the large increase of rent in any one year, for in the course of seven years there would cer- tainly be both good and bad harvests. It would perhajts be an im})rovement on tlie usual jjlan, if at tlie end of the first seven years the rent were adjusted, so as to be exactly in accord- ance with the price of the seven years during which the farm had been held. The adoption of a corn rent, in place of a fixed money rent, takes away the only element of un- certainty which need cause any doul^t to the tenant. ^Vllether he impro\e the land or not, he can be under no Morse circinnstances than a tenant-at-will ; and as far as regards the rent, the landlord is equall)' assured that he .«hall have a fair rent, according to the price of agricul- tural produce. Hut a lease is worthless, luiless it create other benefits to both landlord and tenant. Uidess Ijy means of a lease the tenant is incited to farm his land in a superior manner, he reaps no higher profit while he holds it ; and the landlord has no benefit in an increased rent for the improved land, after the term of the lease has expired. There can of course l>e no certainty that a farmer will have the necessary skill, judgment, enterprise and capital, to treat the land as it is the object of a lease to secure its being treated. But it cannot be doubted that a lease, by giving security of posses- sion for a definite time, and by thus assuring to him the profit of all improvements which he judi- ciously makes, not only gives a new incitement to the man, whoever he be, that enters on a lease, but has great infiuence in inciting men of capital and skill to embark both in agriculture. If any other way could be discovered by which a tenant could in all cases be secure that he should receive back a fair compensation for any improvement he ett'ec- ted, and if. at the same time, the landlord could be secure that not more than a fair comjjensation should be allowed the tenant, and it might be argued tliat leases were imnecessary, yet e\en in this case there would be advantages in the lease which no otlier mode of tenancy could accomplish. As these advantages have notliing directly to do with pecuniar)' interests of either landh)rd or tenant, it is not necessary to dwell on them in this place. But it cannot fail to be remarked, by every one acquainted with farmers, whf)se intelligence and feelings are above the common level of their class, how very great a hindrance the common obligations of a tenancy from year to year oppose to the entrance of such men into agricultural j pursuits. These are the kind of men whom it i would serve the best interests of landlords to at- tract to the occupation of farming, and the practice ; of giving leases has, in every district where it has I been tried, succeeded in raising the general charac- ter of the tenantry by inducing siuh persons to 1 settle among them. The great difficulty in any I agreement from year to year, of providing adequate compensation to the tenant for improvements, will always, I should suppose, lead to a preference of leases in every case were it is desired to give the tenant a legal claim to what he has expended in im- proving another's j)roperty. It has, however, as I liave before said, suggested itself to me, that the principle of the lease might be beneficially ex- tended to agreements from year to year. This prin- ciple is, that the tenant shall have possession of the land, at a fixed and definite rent, for as many years as are sufficient to remunerate him for the kind of improvements the land may require ; in some cases twenty years, and in others seven, ten, or 14 years. It a])pears to me worthy of conside- ration, whether the introduction of this principle into common farming agreements might not, in many cases, where objections exist to the lease, be found to give a stimulus to the farmer, second only to that of a lease. The plan I would propose is simi)ly this : — The agreement to be for a term of years, at a fixed, or better at a corn rent. At the end of the term the landlord would be allowed to avail himself of liis right of raising his rent, accord- ing to the degree of imj)rovement the land had re- ceived. Both landlord and tenant to ha^•e power to determine the tenancy in any year, and in each case, the tenant to be compensated for improve- ments, according to a rate agreed on beforehand ; but the mode of comi)ensation to be difierent. If the tenant quit at the landlord's notice, he should receive back for any improvements, either by drainage, fencing, marling, manures, &c., a pro- portion of their cost to him, without regard to their having been beneficially apphed, it being but right that the landlord should take on himself the risk of the outlay, when he takes the land out of the tenant's hands. The tenant to hand into the landlord or his agent, once in every year, an ac- count of what he has expended in improvement of the land, over and above what is stiinilated he shall do, in order to preserve the equal condition of the land. The number of years' interest which the tenant is to have in diti'erent kinds of improvement to be determined beforehand. So many years for drainage, say twenty ; so many for lime, say ten ; marl, ten ; common manures, say six ; artificial manures, say four. The tenant to receive a pro- I)ortion of the cost, according to the luimber of years which shall have expired since the outlay. But in case the tenant (piit at his own desire, it would be unfair the landlord should take to his, ])crhai)s foolish and injudicious, outlay. In this case, therefore, the tenant to be jiaid a like propor- tion of the cost, but only for such part as in the judgment of arbitrators shall have l)een lieneficially applied to the land. It is often objected that the decisions of arbitrators are very unsatisfactory ; but this objection will scarcely ai)ply to such a case as this, where they would be calledon, not to decide the amount of compensation according to their own oi)inion of what is due, but merely to say whether the outlay had been beneficially made. Many of the advocates of leases acknowledge that they are not fitting for small farms. On these, therefore, the agreement I propose might be tried, and 1 do not think the plan of causing the tenant to give in, yearly, an account of im outlay, would be without M 150 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. effect in stimulating the indolent, though it might cause some trouble to the agent. I have occupied so much time in stating a few of what appeared to me the best reasons in favour of leases, or some such definite agreement as shall secure the tenant from all possible risk of losing the outlay he might make on improvements, that I think it better to omit much notice of the course of husbandry enjoined by any express con- ditions of the agreement. You will readily excuse me from this task, because every one of my hearers is perhaps better able to form a judgment on this point than I am. I wiU, however, shortly mention what have appeared to be the best opinions among those I have taken pains to collect on this subject. 1 merely state them that the questions they involve may not pass over unnoticed in the discussion, and not with any hope that you \vill find them free from imperfection. What is required, and all that is required, is that the land should be defended from dilapida- tion. This point being secured, all restrictions which inconvenience the farmer, or which diminish his profits, should be avoided. He should be res- trained from farming ill, but he should be allowed to use his own discretion as to the particular fashion of farming well, for the ways of farming well are many. As the growth of grain crops which are carried away from the soil exhausts it of its ferti- lity, and as the soil is again restored by growing crops of cattle food which are all consumed on the farm, of course the most, and I believe the only, important stijjulation is, that there should be a certain number of crops of plants grown for cattle food for a given number of grain crops : in other words, that enough manure should be supplied in each year to the land. But bare summer fal- lows, when the land is idle, are commonly held to have equal effect in restoring the fertile condition of the soil, as manure, making green crops, or roots. This is an opinion which late discoveries with re- gard to the nature of the food of plants have con- siderably weakened. A bare fallow cleans the land of weeds, and has great effect in producing decay of vegetable substances, and thus making the materials in the soil available for the use of plants, but it adds Uttle or nothing to the stock of food re- quired by plants. It would perhaps be enough to allow to the fallow one-half the restorative value of a cattle crop. As far as respects the condition of the land, it is only necessary to provide a certain quantity of manure for each crop. Though, therefore, there may be, and certainly are, other good reasons why a farmer should alternate his grain crops with others grown for the purpose of food for cattle, I do not see the importance of stipulating that he should follow a strictly fixed succession in his crops, or, provided he supply manure, that he should be restricted to any fixed proportion of one or the other kind of crop. Yet, as it can seldom be to the interest or convenience of the farmer to depart far from the plan of alternate cropping, I woidd propose the follomng ndes as suited to lands of average fertihty. As to the proportion of each kind of crop, I wiU suppose that the basis of the arrangement shall be that it be equal. Then it may be allowed that the tenant shall be permitted to grow three-fifths of his arable land in grain, pro- vided he carry back to the farm as much manure as is necessary to supply all above one half which is in grain crop. But in the case where summer fallows are used, the tenant must either grow a less proportion of grain, or supply more manure, than in the case where he grows crops for cat1;le food on all the arable land which is not in grain crop. Thus, two acres of fallow, and four acres of green or root crop, would be set against five acres of grain. Thenas^to the succession of crops, it may be prescribed that not more than two grain crops should be taken in succession, and not more than three until two green or fallow crops have intervened. In order to prevent the tenant from keeping one part of the land in grass, and the other severely cropped with grain, it may of course be enjoined that each acre be laid down in its regular course. On this plan not more than one-fifth will be required to be in grass. On lands which will bear a more severe course, or on others which require a more lenient one, the same principle may be applied with proper modifications. In the first case an additional crop of pulse or beans may be allowed in the course, and in the latter it may be enjoined that the land be kept in grass two or three years. A very bad practice prevails gene- rally in farms which are part meadow and part arable. The grass land is apt to be robbed of its fair share of manure to support the tillage land. But in every good course each acre should be made to grow its own manure ; and it should, therefore, be made a condition that the grass land should not be mown twice in any one year, and that after each mowing, a quantity of manure equal to what the hay would make should be laid on the mown land. In some cases, irrigated fields, but not wthout exception, might be mown without manure. A farmer cannot always dispose of his produce to the best advantage unless he is allowed to sell it off the land. It will seldom be to his interest to sell off cattle food or straw, but yet if it can be done without injury to the land, it is but right to allow him the privilege. If no manure were in any case allowed to be taken off, and if as much manure, and manure of the same kind as the provender itself would have made, were returned to the land, it is not possible to injure the land by granting this privilege ; or if an equal quantity of some other kind of provender were brought for every quantity sold off, the land would be no worse. But the provender brought on to the farm in place of hay, straw, turnips, or green food sold off, should be of one or other of these kinds, and not grain or any product of grain, because it would not restore the salines to the soil ; and the manure carried back should be good manure, that is, made by cattle, horses, or sheep, &c., fed on a diet of which straw formed but a small part, and that had been Uttered with straw. There are plenty of data collected by practical men, by which it can be ascertained with sufficient precision what quantity of manure should be returned for any quantity of produce sold off, and also how much should be carried back to repair the waste a corn crop occasioned. I will not weary you with the details of such cal- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 161 culations, but merely state the results, which seem to me to be a near enough ajjproach to precision for practical use. For a ton of any kind of straw, two tons of manure should be the equivalent ; for a ton of hay, clover, sainfoin, lucerne hay, vetch hay, three tons of manure ; for e\'ery four tons of turnips, mangold, beet, carrots, parsnips, cabbage, cole, green vetches, clover, and any other green food, three tons of manure ; for every ton of potatoes, one ton of manure. I calculate a large crop of seeds at three tons of dry hay for the whole year, and the straw of a corn crop at 30 cwt. ; twelve tons of manure would be the equivalent of the two crops. Of this, half belongs to the corn crop. For every acre of corn crop more than half the tillage land, therefore, six tons of ma- nure should be carried on to the land. I am here allowing nothing for the straw of the white crop. I will add only a %-ery few words on the arrange- ment between the oft-going and on-coming tenant. If agreements for a term of years were adopted, it would be an improvement on the usual way of quit- ting land, if the tenant had a year's notice, and were required to quit the land intended for fallow in the spring, so that the on-coming tenant might do all the work himself, instead of papng for the badly executed work of a person not interested in its success. No way-going crop would be al- lowed for; and aU stubbles and land intended for til- lage crop the succeeding spring, should be entered on in October by paying for the herbage. The ma- nure shoiUd l>e left free of charge, and all straw, hay, or other provender, at a consuming price. By this arrangement the tenant would not have his capital employed in paying for his predecessor's management, and he would always be \villing to pay as much additional rent as would repay the landlord for the expenditure he must incur to place the land on this footing. I need scarcely say that with regard to any pri- vilege which the landowner chooses to retain, it should be a matter of agreement that whatever injury is done to the tenant's profits should be fully made up to him. Among the chief things asking for any remark is the right to the game. \o arrangement beforehand can, as I beheve, com- pensate the tenant for an indefinite damage done by game. If he takes his farm at a somewhat lower rent, he is in no degree repaid for the injury so occasioned. It would certainly very much con- duce to the welfare of the tenant, and to the good feeling between him and his landlord, if in all cases the injiuy done by game was estimated by valuers every year, and deducted from the rent. I propose such an agreement as I have described, not as a rival of a judicious system of leasing (for I think leases have many advantages, both as respects their influence on a farmer's interests and his position), Init as a substitute for them in cases where the landlord or the tenant is averse to a long engagement. I am very far from expecting you will find the plan without great faults, but still I hope you will find in it one feature, namely, the making of agreements for a definite time, at a fixed rent, which is worthy of consideration. Of the conditions by which it is attempted to secure the tenant's title to compensation for liis outlay in im- provements, }-ou will be much better able to judge than I am ; but many practical men, to whom I have mentioned them, have told me they saw nothing to object to in them. I had at one time intended, either to have embodied in this paper, or given as an appendix to it, the draft of an agree- ment, founded upon the conditions which have been just detailed ; but it will be sufiiciently ob- vious to the experience of every one engaged in farming, that so many points would require aUer- ing, or modifying in detail, according to the difterent circumstances of each individual and property to which the system might be apphed, that any exact form of agreement would be useless as to the details of a majority of such cases. This objection, how- ever, does not, I hope, detract from the utihty of the suggestions I have ventured to advance. While agriculture was stationary, the injury to the farmer and landlord of a system which opposed, rather than fostered, improvement, was not so much felt ; but now the backward are thrown into com- petition with those who have advanced before them, and who, from superior methods of culture, are enabled to sell i)roduce at a lower price. There is especial need, therefore, at the present time, that every facihty should be given to enable farmers to avail themselves of the new practical rules which science has of late taught, and it is beginning to be a very general opinion that nothing wovild so much tend to incite them to the required change as an alteration in the common mode of tenancy. With- out this no very speedy change in the habits of farmers can be expected, for their habits, as they are the natural result and eflect of the circumstances in which they ha\'e been placed, can only be im- proved by placing them under the same influences as are known to have wrought a total overthrow of the old ways of culture in other districts. I fear you will have found what I have said has done but httle to solve the difficulties of the ques- tion, yet still I hope that I may be the means of eliciting something more useful from others. If you should think that there is any value in my suggestions, I can claim but little credit to myself, since I have chiefly adopted the opinions of practi- cal friends more conversant Math agricultural pur- suits than I am ; and with respect to the clauses relating to the culture of the land, my paper is, like many books we read, a good deal more learned than its author. The reading of this paper was frequently inter- ru])ted by applause, and at its conclusion the l)laudits were very general. Very little discussion followed. The paper seemed to be generally ajjproved, but exception was taken to one point, which led to a few obser- vations from Mr. C. Arkwright and others. Mr. Thos. Allsoi'p declared himself against leases. He would have it comjmlsory on the tenant to improve the land, and on the landlord to repay him for the outlay. He would not have the tenant, as it was now too freciuently the case, subject to the caprice of agents, bailiffs, or attorneys {cheers and laughter) ; but solely to his landlord, between whom and the tenant mutual obUgation ought to exist (hear). Groat good would be effected l)y a closer intimacy and interchange of sentiment be- H 2 152 THE FARMEH'S MAGAZINE. tween landlord and tenant ; and he (Mr. Allsopp) hoped to see the day when landlords who neglected or refused to consult the interests of their tenants M'ould be compelled to subsist upon one pound a week. He could not concede the justice or policy of a lease. Suj)pose, for instance, a man lets a farm on a lease of fourteen or twenty-one years. The indindual to whom he lets it may at that time be an honest, frugal, industrious man; but who could say that he might not be overtaken by illness, or become profligate or neghgent, and let the land go waste : What control had the landlord in such a case ? He would like to see a generous confi- dence between landlord and tenant, whose interests were identical ; and in his opinion the best guaran- tee was for the landlord to look after his estate him- self, instead of delegating power and authority to other parties. Mr. Lathruky, Mr. Greaves, the Secretary, and others, thought Mr. Bass had taken a very proper view of the entire question. Mr. G. Greaves, referring to that portion of Mr. Bass's paper which treats upon agreements between landlord and tenant, said, that in his opi- nion the stipulation in behalf of the tenant was not sufficient, for a landlord might give a tenant notice to quit for kdling a hare, or giving a vote contraiy to his wishes, and thus turn him and his family adrift upon the world. Mr. A. Bass : In order to be secure against such a contingency, the tenant must have a lease. Mr. G. Greaves: According to the suggested mode of agreement a tenant might have the money which he had expended during the year returned to him, but he would receive no remuneration, and was thus entirely at the mercy of the landlord. Mr. Charles Arkwright said, with reference to this particular part, namely, that if a tenant got notice to quit he was to be repaid for all he had done, it might probably happen that the very reason why the tenant received the notice was for those very " im])rovements " which the landlord was to be called upon to repay him for. Instead of being a benefit, they might be a positive evil to the land; and in that case by the terms of the agreement the landlord would have no protection whatever. For instance, a tenant might double dig a good soil of a foot in thickness, and by bringing up the gravel M'ould injure the land, and if the landlord turned him oflf", he must pay him for his foolish and injurious outlay. Mr. A. Bass thought that Mr. Arkwright was taking an extreme case. Mr. C. Arkwright thought it was one which ought to be provided against in any agreement of the kind recommended. A tenant might lay out £6 or £8 an acre, and call it an improvement ; but it might not be so ; and surely the landlord was not to be called upon to repay the tenant for that which was injurious to his property rather than beneficial ? Mr. Whyatt said there were many cases where capital might be so injudiciously expended upon the land, that the tenant might not have a fair claim upon the landlord for compensation. How were such cases to be dealt with — by arbitration? This objection was urged by one or two other members (Mr. HeiTey, we believe, was one), and Mr. A. Bass, in replying to them generally, said — It is true, as Mr. Arkwright has objected, that a landlord might have to pay for the unskilful ojjera- tions of his tenant, in case he chose to turn him out of his farm before the expiration of the term agreed upon; but I consider the case but a very extreme one, and the objection of little force, for it would be seldom that a tenant, intrusted with a farm under such an agreement, would so thoroughly want skill as to spend his money in injuring the land, and in the few instances where such a circum- stance did occur it would be no great hardship for the landlord to be forced to the alternative of either paying to get rid of the tenant, or of allowing him to wait the result of his outlay. Let a tenant turn up the subsoil as he might, the land would certainly be benefitted after a time ; though, therefore, the tenant might be injured, the landlord would run no risk. And if in all cases a tenant were only to be paid for such operations as arbitrators should judge were prudently and skilfully undertaken, a check would be given to his desire to make improvements. If a landlord undertake the improvement of his own land, he must run the risk of his errors ; it is but fair, therefore, that he should take on himself the risk of the errors of the tenant, whom he has himself invited to do the work for him, or else suffer the tenant to be benefited or injured accord- ing to his own degree of skill. Mr. T. Allsopp referred to the subject of drain- ing, which was a scientific business, and ought not to be left to the discretion of those who knew nothing about it. Mr. Lath BURY would have the draining done judiciously, and by the landlord, the tenant to pay him a fair per centage for the outlay. Mr. M. T. Bass suggested that it would not be difficult to meet the objection urged by Mr. Ark- wright. For example; with regard to any expen- sive improvements, it might be stipulated that the landlord should have power to appoint a projter person to see that they are efficiently done; or, that the tenant should not enter on any extensive experiments out of the ordinary course of farming without consulting his landlord. Mr. G. Greaves said the further the discussion proceeded, the more was he convinced of the neces- sity of leases. The strong argument against leases with corn rents was, the farmer had to pay the highest price for his land when he had the least pro- duce to pay it ivith. But he thought he could prove such was not the case, for suppose a farmer groAvs an aA'erage of four quarters of wheat an acre — and he took that quantity only as an illustration of his argument, for he thought they should always grow more — and the price should be 30s. per quarter, it would make £G an acre. If, from an unfavourable season, he should only get three quarters per acre, or one-fourth less than he ought to do, the defi- ciency of crop would at once occasion a corres- ponding rise in prices, at least of one-fourth, and the farmer realizes as much per acre as before, sa\T;ng at the same time to himself one-fourth of the expenses of labour, and one-fourth of the ex- haustion of the land, which would have occurred had the crop been an average one, and of course THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 153 one-fourth of the expense of manure for the suc- ceeding crop. I After a few remarks from one or two present, The President rose and said, that as no other gentleman wished to oft'er any observations, it only ^ remained for him to take the sense of the meeting with reference to the paper read by Mr. A. Bass, j Before so doing, however, he would just remark \ that although they were not all agreed upon the [ cjuestion of leases, they were unanimously of o])i- | nion, he was sure, that a good tenant was as valu- i able as a good landlord (applause), and that being i so, they ought to work together for their mutual [ ad\'antage {hear, hear). He was sorry that Mr. i Whyatt was not jiresent during the reading of the ; paper, because that gentleman's experience might I have suggested some \aluable information. With regard to the question of draining, he (Lord AVater- park) agreed with Mr. Lathbury, that it was better the landlord should do this, charging the tenant an interest upon it [hear, hear). In that case, tlie landlord would have himself to blame if the thing was not efficiently done. If, however, the landlord found the tiles and the tenant did the draining, he (Lord Waterpark) thought the former ought to have a proper person to superintend the work, and to see that the tiles were not wasted, or the work improperly done. He for one felt obliged to Mr. Bass for bringing this question fonvard. Any fears they might have entertained as to the impolicy of discussing such a question were now entirely dissi- pated. The question had l)een discussed in the presence of landlords and tenants, and the best feeling evinced. It woidd now go forth to the public, and would i)robably do much good — at all events it could do no harm (applause). Tlie opinion of the meeting was then taken ; the ])aper was unanimously approved, and ordered to be handed to the Editor of the Derby Reporter, for publication in his journal, a copy of which was to be sent to the Fanner's Maya: i tie. Mr. D.\NiEi. then i)roposed a vote of thanks to Mr. A. Bass for the able manner in which he had treated tlie subject, and expressed his apjiroval of till' paj)er. ^lr. T, Allsopp seconded the vote, which was carried amidst ap])lause. Mr. M. T. Bass then rose and proposed the best thanks of the Club to their President, Lord AVater- park, for his appearance there that night, and for his conduct in the chair (much applause). His lordship had assured them that the i)resent discus- sion would have a tendency to jiromote good feel- ing between landlord and tenant, and if he (Mr. Bass) might be pardoned for a moment, he would avail himself of the opportunity to allude in brief terms to what had transpired elsewhere. Within the last three or four days he had seen a rejjort of proceedings in Ireland, at an entertainment given to the Marquess of Londonderry by his tenantry. At that meeting, which was a large one, his lord- ship gave a concise and lucid description of the mode of tenure upon his several estates, and the consequences arising from it. His lordship stated that each tenant had not only a lease, but a bene- ficial holding of it ; and he (Mr. Bass* fo\md from the i>aper which had been read that e\ening, that many of the provisions it contained were very much he same as those of which the Marquess of Lon- donderry spoke. At any rate it must l)e satisfactory to the meeting to know that no estate in Ireland was better, if -so well cultivated as his lordshiji's, and this the noble lord mainly attributed to the fact of the tenure between himself and tenants being superior to any in that country (hear, hear). Mr. Bass concluded by moving a vote of thanks to the President. Mr. Daniel seconded the vote, which was car- ried amidst applause. The President briefly acknowledged the com- pliment, stating that it would ahvays afford him jjleasure to attend their meetings, from which he anticipated great good. The Club then broke up, YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The annual report of the transactions of this society has been published within the last few days. The fol- lowing interesting address, from the council of the society, is appended to the society's Transactions : — "In the progress of societies, as in the life of an individual, it occasionally happens that some circum- stance will arise, at first sight trivial, but which rapidly assumes a more prominent position, until at length it becomes a leading object of interest and exertion. The exhibition of implements at the Yorkshire Agricultural Society shows, is a case in point. Those who were present at the first meeting, held at York in 1838, will readily recall to mind the marked contrast observ- able between the eager interest with which the merits of the rival short-horns were discussed and criticised, and the almost supercilious indifference with which the rather scanty collection of implements was glanced over, even by those who went to look at them at all. In the one case it seemed as if the whole family of Briareus, each inheriting the hundred-handed peculiarity of their progenitor, were engaged in pinching the ribs, and weighing the flanks of the prize animals ; whilst, in the other, most of the visitors of the implements seemed to think that they had a hand to spare, and accordingly deposited them in their pockets, while they took a sort of half- wondering survey, which said as plainly as looks could speak, that they were about as much above tiieir (comprehension, or beyond their reach, as if they had been the implements used by the natives of Africa in iiuuting the hippopotamus, or the North Sea fishermen in capturing a whale. Six years only have elapsed since the show in cpiestion, yet so great a change has taken place in this respect, that, at ilichmond, wiierc (in consequence of no water-carriage being available) tiie show was not so extensive as on one or two previou.^ occasions, the interest exhibited by practical men in examining, trying, and inquiring into the conqiarr.tive efficiency of the various imjilenients sliown, was at least equal to that observed in the cattle-yard. " It is not difficult to account for tliis change of feel- ing. The stimulus given to the inqirovement in agri- culture by tlie exertions of this and otlier leading agri- cultural societies, (caused the want of more efficient iin- j)lements to be generally felt ; and as soon as a disposi- tion was shown to reward Iheir exertions, the inqilenient makers spared no jiains to inqirove upon the niaciiines then in use. Tiie etTecfs of tliis moveineiit bcL'an to be 154 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. clearly seen at the Hull meeting in 1841, when a large and excellent assortment of implements was exhibited. The farmers, at that and subsequent meetings, laid out their money freely ; and a good deal of disappointment was felt at the failure of implements of great pretensions. An endeavour was made at Hull to work the implements in a field ; but the concourse of spectators, and the number of implements to be tried in a few hours, which required as many days, made it very evident that, as a test of merit, it was quite insufficient. In 1841, the importance of an efficient trial was so generally felt, that it was suggested a select portion of the implements exhibited should be reserved for future trial. This was acted on at Doncaster, and, as a first attempt, was tolerably successful ; and the experience of this meeting decided the council to carry out the plan still further. Accordingly, at Richmond a trial was made, previous to the show, of such implements as could be effectively worked at that time of year ; and from the rest a selec- tion was made by the judges for a subsequent trial in the autumn. This plan seems to have given general eatisfaction, and it is hoped that decisions founded on such lengthened and varied trials will have weight with the pubhc. The council felt, however, that, unless they had been fortunate enough to have the assistance of judges and managers of the trial-field who were thoroughly masters of their subject, and unsparing of their time and trouble, they would have been unable to have furnished the society with a report such as the one now published in the Transactions, and which, from its description of the actual working of each implement, even to the most minute detail, will be found of general interest and utility. " The council, however, cannot confine their praise and thanks to those concerned in the trial of implements. The contribution of 150^. from the town and neighbour- hood of Richmond towards the fands of the society is a substantial proof of their liberal and hearty support ; and, from the noble president (who sent his valuable pictures to ornament the pavilion) downwards, through all classes and ranks of the society, but one feeling seemed to prevail — viz., how they might best promote the success of the meeting. Under such circumstances, the visit of Richmond was both pleasant and profitable in spite of the unpropitious state of the weather. " A deputation from the town of Beverley, headed by E. H, Reynard, Esq., attended the council at Rich- mond, and made very liberal offers of support and accom- modation in case the next meeting of the society was held in that town. It was accordingly determined that the society's annual meeting and show should be held there in August next. ' ' The discussion on draining at the council dinner on the day preceding the Richmond show, was highly in- teresting. Much information on this important subject was communicated by men whose knowledge was de- rived from their own observation and experience ; and though their opinions differed on some points, yet, on the whole, considerable instruction was derived. It was found, however, that the time occupied by one subject of general interest is sufficient to prevent the adequate consideration of a second ; and, for the future, one sub- ject only will be proposed. The council have also de- cided that the question shall be opened by a paper to be read, or a statement made, by the proposer of the sub- ject adopted ; after which the members present will be requested to give their opinions upon it. The subject for the council dinner at Beverley is, — ' The best mode of preserving and supplying liquid manure.' Proposed by George Legard, Esq." In addition to the usual articles relative to the York- shire Society, the volume contains reports on draining, on prize farms, on experiments with guano, on dibbling, on the solution of bones in sulphuric acid, on grasses, on raising turnips, on rearing and feeding cattle, on drain- ing clay land, and on other subjects of great importance to the cultivators of the soil. The prize essay on guano, which is from the pen of the able secretary of the society, M. M. Milburn, Esq., Thorpfield, Thirsk, ought to be in the hands of every farmer, as very great advantages are to be derived from a skilful use of that valuable auxiliary to our artificial manures, and much injury may be done to crops by an improper application of it. Mr. Milburn has, to some extent, derived his important information, relative to the application of guano, by obtaining the names of about 40 persons, who had used that manure, in different parts of the country, and by re- questing answers from them to the foUowng questions :— 1 . For what crops have j^ou used guano ^ 2. In what quantity per acre ? Alone, or mixed with some other material ? 3. By the drill, or otherwise? And did it come in immediate contact with the seed ? 4. On what description of soil, and after what crop ? 5. Of whom was it purchased, and at what price ? 6. With what other manures have you used it in comparison ? 7. What kind of season followed is application, wet or dry ? 8. What were its effects, if possible, by weight or measure, and in comparison with other manures .' with any remarks that may strike you as being useful. To nearly all these queries prompt answers were re- turned, and Mr. Milburn gives reports in his essay of the different experiments which were made, drawing the following amongst other conclusions : — 1. The guano should never come into immediate con- tact with the seed ; it should be mixed with ashes or earth, and deposited below the seed, or lightly incor- porated with the soil, before sowing. 2. It appears to be more useful broadcast than sown by drill. 3. It appears most useful in a wet season, or during or immediately preceding rain. 4. It seems more adapted for strong lands than light. 5. It is peculiarly calculated to promote the growth of plants in their early stages, and consequently is a very valuable application for turnips, in conjunction with other manures. 6. It appears to answer well for green crops, which arrive at early maturity when used alone. 7. In ordinary crops it should be combined with other less rapidly decomposing manures. 8. It appears to be beneficial to all cultivated crops. VIOLENT HAIL STORM IN AMERICA.—We were visited on Tuesday night last, between 10 and 11 o'clock, with the most severe hail- storm, accompanied with wind and rain, that we have ever known. The fall of hail lasted some three or four minutes, covering the ground completely. Many of the stones were the size of a hen's egg — some even larger. The wind came from the N.N.W., and all the windows exposed were com- pletely shattered. Fowls were killed from the roost on many plantations, we are informed. Our planters who had not finished cotton-picking are now saved the trouble, as well as the time of their hands ; the truth is, the cotton is all beat out of the bolls and spoiled. We fear, from the violence of the wind and the battle of the elements, that we shall have some fearful disasters to re- count.— Ouachita Courier, Lotiisiana, Nov. 9. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 155 THE WEATHER. TO THE EDITOR OF THE BRISTOL MIRROR, Sir,— I wrote to you last year with a few remarks on the weather, and I now request the favour of your insert- ing an epitome of Mr. Whistlecraft's* Journal, which plainly shows that which I have always remarked, that in a given number of years we have nearly the same quanty of cold and hot, dry and wet weather — that the moving of iceberg,, and the " great alteration" in the climate of England, is more fancy than reality. The veteran Mr. Whistlecraft seems to have " weathered" it, as the sailors say, very well, as he has kept his journal for G2 years ! and still goes on with it ; but Thwaite, in Suffolk, is a few degrees colder than Bristol. I will conclude with expressing my expectation of a few more days' skating at the Zoological Gardens in 1845, for the amateurs in that elegant exercise ; but my fear of much disagreeable weather during the next two months, accompanied with some fog, rain, S<.c. &c. Your old correspondent, 35, York Crescent, Clifton, 19M December, 1844. Observator. • Extracted from Joliiison and Shaw's excellent " Farmers' Almanac and Calendar." THE CLIMATE OF ENGLAND. A Tabic showing the character of each Month, annualhj, from 1783 to 1844. By Ohlando author of " The Climate of England, &c. &e." N.B.— The asterisks denote the hottest or coldest months. Whistlecraft, Thwaito, Stiffoll;; Yrs. 1783 1784 1785 178C 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1707 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1810 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1820 1827 1828 1820 18.10 1831 1832 1833 18.34 1835 1830 18.S7 1888 18.39 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 I Jan. strmy I severe severe cold ' mild I inedin ' sv're* mild mild ■ medm • mdm* ; mdm* I sv're* V. mid raedm ! medm I severe I mdm* I medm I sv're* \ severe I strmv ! cold* I mild I cold* sv're* . mdm* sv're* sv're* cold* mdra* sv're* sv're* , stmiy medm ' strmy strmy sv're* ' mild ' mild sv're* , medm ' mild I frsty* sv'ri'* mild* ', cold* I sv're* j mdra* medm dr)-* I mild medm nidni* cold sv're* cold* medm sv're* cold* mild medm Trmpernturc 22nd, 71'^; aOlh nth, 78°; I2th, 820; 25th, 844° Fel). March April. | Muy. June. Strmy cold cold medm hot severe cold shwry hot* hot sv're* severe medm medm hot medm sv're* medm raedra strmy mild medm shwry fine medm medm cold fr. hot hot hot* medm severe cold warm hot* dry fine cold shwry sh'ry* strmy dry warm hot h&d* cold* wet warm dry shwry medm medm i medm medm fine mild mild hot medm hot severe severe j shwry hot cool mild warm | cold cold wrm* frsty* fine ! medm strmy rainy medm medm ; warm j warm hot* sv're* severe cold var. var, cld.dr cold wet dry cool medm medm fine fine fine mild ! warm medm v. cold cool sv're* warm warm cool cool cold cold cold warm d*&h. medm cold cold cold cool medm cold* cold medm hot* cold cold cold hot* hot sv're* cold cold hot fine strmy fine cold hot medm severe cold medm cool h. d. strmy warm warm hot hot var. cold . cold var. cool stnny medm ; fine medm fl. hot severe severe ' warm cold hot mild warm warm warm hot sv're* cold cold cold wrm* strmy cold* fine medm hot* frsty* w.&st. wet medm hot* & strmy strmy shwry medm shwry severe ev.inp. var. medm hot* frsty* strmy warm strmy cool mild warm warm warm h.v.d* cold cold medm pt. hot cool medm cold* cold rainy var. mdm* cold dry medm medm mild medm dry medm h.&d* sv're* cold var. var. dry medm var. rainy dry warm cold cold j wet d.icw. var. var. warm var. var, wet strmy strmy dry var. flne dry* strmy dry cold medm wet cold I wet h. d.* hot dry dry I dry dry hot* stnny wet cold medm hot* strmy wet cold dry hot strmy sv're* cold cold hot severe medm cold cold m( dm cold cold* cold var. hot* medm cold h.&d. shwry medm sv.inp. fl. hot fin.ht. v. ht* var. mild strmy dry dry h.&d. cold* flne medm wet var. medm shwry d.&ht. ' dry ! fl. dry ill the shiidr (luriiuj sonic of the Munthf of 1844, tit Thnviiti'.— April 2i ,78°. May 6th, 74°; (ith, 73"; 7114,70°; 8th, 77"; 9lh, 70°; 13lh, 7.')°. .Inn 82°; 13th, 87°; 2l»t,80°, 23rd. 89°; 24th, 92°; 29th, 70°. Ju'y 11th, 70° ; ; 28tli, 80°. August 29th, 77°; 31st, 70°. September 1st, 80°; 2nd, 78°. July. Au!?. Sept. Oct, h.&d. ll.&d* shwry fine medm medm warm flne hot* medm medm rainy sh'ry* warm shwry fine medm hot* warm warm hot* hot* shwry dry medm hot* fine strmy shwry fine warm shwry shwry hot* fine wet shwrv hot* wet shwry h.&d* hot shwry warm v.hot* hot medm medm cool warm h.&d* warm medm raedm wrm* medm hot* medm wet wet shwry hot medm raedm wet* wet wet wet h.&dr. v.hot* wet cool shwry f.hot* medm warm cool v.hot* hot hot v.hot* hot fine warm shwry shwry d.&h* warm cool mdm* warm fine strmy strmy shwry mild hot* hot cool medm v.hot* hot medm wet medm radm* medra flne strmy strmy hot* hot hot* hot hot hot cool* medm fine medm hot* hot* fine fine v.hot* hot warm raedm hot* hot hot warm wet wet medm warm shwry shwry fine cold Iry* to Sep. 5. shwry warm h.&dr. h.&d.* hot var. st.&h. medm fine var. medm hot* shwry warm shwry hot* flne wet shwry mdm* fine strmy flne shwry h. pt.* wet h.&d* warm v.wm. warm hot hot shwry warm d.&h* shwry var. fine sh'ry* shwry warm warm wet wet wet wet fl.hot* shwry wet flne fl.hot* fl.hot* warm warm fine hot* hot* warm medm dry strmy warm hot* hot hot var. h.&dr. h.&d* wet wet hot* dry wet wet hot hot* fine warm mdm* medm fine fine medm mdm* shwry warm medm h.&d* shwry fine wet mdm* hot wet medm h.&d* var. var. var. hot* h.&d. var. fl. hot fi. pt. shwry Nov. mild dry mild rainy mdin* cold strmy mild wet dry mild raedm strmy cold strmy cold wet strmy raild mild mild mild flne mild frosty wet medm wet mild cold fine medm cold frosty mild mild frosty mild etrmy wet fine wet wet fine flne flne cold wet strmy flne fine dry strmy wet cold wet wet frosty medm shwry medm Dec. medra sv're* wet rainy mild sv're* mild stmy* cold* raild mild frsty* mild sv're* wet sv're* sv're* medra cold* raedm stnny cold mild mild frsty* frosty strmy wet cold* Cold* frosty strmy cold frosty medm medm sv're* medm wet sv're* mild wet wet mild wet mild sv're* sv're* medm strmy strmy dry* frsty* medm mild fine wet sv're* medm mild d.mlil. Temp. mn. m*. o 90° 4 87 10 85 15 83 22 85 5 85 6 83 28 88 18 81 18 87 25 90 18 87 4 89 2 82 26 89 2 85 0 79 16 88 20 85 1 80 10 87 17 85 15 82 22 86 16 85 6 99 14 83 3 87 12 83 14 83 22 83 4 88 19 83 4 84 18 87 16 00 17 8S 0 87 17 83 20 80 8 81 22 83 23 91 15 89} 14 83 25 83 18 81 4 80 20 82 20 85 19 851 20 88 18 88 22 85 lOj 82 2 81 17 89 10 80 4 80 l^ 90 18 90 1, 70° ; 4tli, 70° ; Olh, 72° ; 10th, 74° ; 4lh, 70° ; 5(h, 79° ; 8th, 79° ; 9lh, 76° ; 2lsl, 7(1°; 22nd, 8.')°; 2,3rd, 81°; 24th, 156 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. GREAT OAKLEY FARMERS' CLUB. Fourth Report, presented at the annual meeting, held AT GREAT OAKLEY, NOV. 18, 1844. Your committee, in presenting you with yonr Fourth Annual Report, have much pleasure in announcing there has been a Ponsideral)le addition to the number of your members since the last annual meeting. 1 our committee are fully aware that a prosperous state of agriculture is more favourable to the encouragement of, and attendance on, these socie- ties, than adverse times ; but your committee also feel that the direct contrary should be the effect, for if these societies are of any use, it should be when we are beset with difficulties and sur- rounded with dangers, for it is then that skill, knowledge, and enterjDrise prove doubly ne- cessary. The discussions of the past year have many of them been of considerable interest, and that in- terest has been much increased by the attendance at two of the meetings of gentlemen who had devoted much time and attention to the subjects under discussion, and who came a long distance to give this club the benefit of their experience, and your committee wish thus publicly to acknow- ledge their kindness. The opportunities of thus receiving information from any gentleman who has a natural taste for, or who has devoted his time and attention to, any particular subject con- nected with farming, is one of the pecuhar advan- tages of farmers' clubs. Your committee, in conclusion, beg to remind the Club, that a general benefit can only arise from undivided support and regular attendance. First Meeting, ith Decetnber, 1843. Subject : — " On the advantages and disadvan- tages of long fallows." A member said, he thought the meeting ^\'ould agree that it was to our interest not only to look to the direct benefit, but also to the indirect ad- vantages, in the cultivation or mode of cultivation of any particular class of plants. It would be recollected it was pointed out at one of our meet- ings, tliat the time had nearly ceased when we could look for an increased quantity of produce from the increasing quantity of land to be brought into cultivation, and it therefore became us to look to where an increased quantity might be obtained on the land already under cultivation, and he thought the appropriating a larger portion of that land which was in the four-course shift on heavy lands, laid up as long fallows, to the growth of roots or some green crop, to be fed during the early months of summer, would tend much to increase the amount of labour and produce of a farm, if it could not be proved that it would increase the profits of the cultivator. He thought the necessity of long fallows, as stated by some for the destruction of grass, ike, would, by care and an improved mode of farming, be found unnecessary, and that the destruction of excre- mentitious matter arising from previous crops for which fallowing was said to be necessary by some, would be effected by the autumnal cultivation of land for roots, and the necessary hoeings in summer, which they wovdd require. It was the opinion of the meeting, that the pro- duce of a fann was much increased by the growth of roots, and although but little direct profit acci'ued to the farmer from their growth, the in- direct benefit in the employment of labour and increased ])roduce for the public were such im- portant considerations, that it was highly desirable in the present day so to farm as to render long fallows imnecessary, and to effect this it was of the first consideration that land should be pre- viously underdrained ; and this to be done effec- tually could not be generally carried into effect by the tenant farmer, unless assisted ])y the landlord, either in furnishing tiles, or in granting a lease on such terms as to enable the tenant to see a pros- pect of a return for so extensive an outlay. It was a subject to which the attention of landlords, having wet land farms, required particularly to be directed. Second Meeting, 1st January, 1844. Subject : — " On the management of potatoes and carrots, and their relative value to other roots." A member said, he regretted he had so little experience in potatoes and carrots, but that the opinion he had often expressed as to the superior value of beet-root over turnips for drawing off the land for feeding, had been confirmed by an experiment he had been then making. He had been feeding bullocks off beet and Swedes, and they did equall)' well ; but the quantity of land cleared by those eating Swedes, much exceeded those feeding on beet-roots. The crops of both were good. For feeding on the land with sheep, he much preferred Swedes to common turnips, not only for the cattle, but for the succeeding barley crop. It was stated by a member, that a gentleman at St. Osyth had last year been feeding some bul- locks on the white Belgian can'ot, and some on beet and cake, and he found the carrot-fed beasts did as fast as the others. This statement excited much interest, and a member who had been growing some cari'ots agreed to feed two bullocks on them, three on cake and beet, and three on compound and beet, and report the result to the club. But little or no discussion took place on pota- toes, it being generally considered, taking the expense of cultivation and the exhausting nature of the crop into consideration, that they were not so valuable as other roots for feeding cattle. Third Meeting, 29th January, 1844. Subject : — " On the cultivation cf flax, and the use of compound." The interest which the subject of discussion for this evening had produced amongst the members of the clulj was much increased by the intended visit of Mr. NN'arnes, of Norfolk, the zealous and THE FAHMER'S MAGAZINE. 157 aWe advocate for the cultivation of flax, both as a private and a national benefit. 'I'iie meetinj^ was the largest since the formation of the society, many strangers being also present. Mr. AVarxe.s introduced the discussion, by alluding to the history of the plant, the great importance attached to it in all ages, and the immense advantages derived by those countries where llax was extensively grown. He then e.xj)lained the causes of its going so much out of cultivation in this country, and the reason why a jjrejudice existed against flax as an exliausting crop, a i)rejudice which he trusted to remove, and to prove that instead of its being an e.xhauster of the soil, flax would, by a projjer application of the seed, tend greatly to increase farm produce, both as respects cattle and corn. Mr. Warnes entered fully into the detail of the mode of cultivation, preparing the stalks of the ])lant for market, and the preparation of the seed for cattle food. He dwelt minutely ui)on the latter point, and showed from his own experience and from various experiments made by others, that when formed into a compound, with the aid of grain or pulse, it was far preferable to oil-cake, being more economical, and jjossessing more fattening properties. These, he observed, were the advantages to the grower, and great as they miglit appear, they were nothing when comj)ared with the indirect advantage that would arise from an extensi\'e cultivation. Mr. Warnes afterwards alluded very forcibly and feelingly to the present position and vast amount of unemployed poor in the country, the ])rivations they were suffering, and the great evil, in a moral and a national point of view, from having so large a proportion of our ])opulation in a state of idleness and destitution. These e\nls, he contended, might be removed by an extended cultivation of the prolific flax plant ; the great amount of labour thus occasioned would convert the idle, destitute, and suffering portion of our population, into an industrious, well-fed, con- tented and happy ])eople ; instead of proving a burden to society, and detracting from the comfort •f their neighliours, they would I)y their increased exertions and consumption add to the welfare of all classes, and to no class more than the jjroducers of corn and cattle. Mr. Warnes was listened to with the greatest attention throughout his long and interesting address of nearly two hours, and after answering a great many questions, he received the unanimous and hearty thanks of the meeting. Several memljers expressed their intention of giving the growtli of flax a fair trial another year. Fourth Meeting, Ath March, 1844. Subject: — "On the comjjarative merits of the dirt'erent varieties of barley and oats." A memljer said he had grown the Chevalier barley for tlie last eiglit years w\ nearly the whole extent of his growth ; he had grown the Notting- ham in the same field with the ('hevalier, and found that it ripened some days sooner ; but, l)oth a« regards the Nottingliuin and Clievalier, lie was inclined to think they were the same, and that the little apparent diflerence arose from the different soils on which they had been cultivated, for he believed that if cultivated on the same soils the apparent difference would disappear. He could not conclude without expressing how much this and many other neighbourhoods were indebted to Dr. Chevaher for the introduction of this most invaluable barley, it had, in fact, rendered soils hitherto considered unfit to grow barley capable of growing good barley. A second member could not agree that the Nottingham and Chevalier were the same, for he considered there was a very decided difference, and without wishing to detract from the merits of the Chevalier, he much jjreferred the Nottingham for late sowing ; he had tested them in the same field, and found a considerable difference in the quantity, and but very little in the quality; the quality of the straw of the Chevalier was very inferior to the Nottingham, and if equally stout, its great tendency to go down rendered it more likely to injure the clover. A third member said, for late sowing he pre- ferred the Nottingham, as it ripened several days sooner than the Chevalier. The first meml)er said, as to oats, his experience led him to prefer the black Tartarian, it was much superior to the white. As to white oats he pre- ferred the Hopetoun. He spoke strongly on the importance of selecting seed oats ; he had witnersed the difference of selected and imselected seed, through the whole season, and although he had not tested them, he was satisfied there was a con- siderable quantity per acre more from the selected seed. Several members said the Hojietoun exhausted the soil as much as the black Tartarian, but would not produce so much per acre by several sacks. Fifth Meeting, \st April, 1844, Sid)ject : — " On the management of poor jias- tin-es." A member said, he thought pastures required harrowing and rolling in the spring ; and that pastures were not injured to the extent imagined by some, by repeated mowings. On bis farm he had two marshes that had l)een mown thirty-three out of thirty-five years, and still were the best marshes on his farm. He did not recommend mowings to this extent, but he thought occasional mowings I)eneficial. A second member agreed as to the management of pastures in the spring, and believed that occa- sional mowings improved the herbage, but when the scythe was in constant use, the dung cart nnist follow. A third member thought pastures were not injured by mowing; he had some jjastures, part of which were constantly mown, and he had ap- plied no manure, but admitted they were occasion- ally overflown with water. A fourtli member said no part of our fanning received less attention tlian tlie small portion of l)asture we had, and he l)elieved they would well repay for additional trouble and expense, and that he had experienced considerable benefit from a top dressing of malt coombs. 158 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Tlie second member tliowght, on our poor pas- tures no management could be worse than feeding them in the summer months with horses and sheep. It had been said that pastures that had been repeatedly mo^m required to have small seeds sorni on them ; but he thought if the manure was liberallj' applied the better sorts of grasses would be encouraged, and be found in sufficient quanti- ties. It was feeding them mth sheep and horses that destroyed pastures ; they consumed the finer sorts of grasses, and allowed the coarse sorts to seed, and gain the ascendancy. 'llie first member could not agree with the last speaker, on the effects of feeding pastures with sheep ; he considered they benefited pastures that had to be fed with horses ; they would restore that xmiform herbage, and encourage the suckling that the horses tended so much to destroy. A fifth member said he could confirm the last speaker's statement, as to the increased growth of suckling after being fed with sheep. 'Ilie second member asked if the rowing would be injured by manuring after the hay was off. The first member said not; that neat and other stock would eat it freely. A sixth member made some obsen'ations on the benefit of api)lying liquid manure. A seventh member said, hquid manure should not be applied in the spring, after the grass began to vegetate ; he had seen the grass injured by it. An eighth member said he had mown a pasture thirty years without injury to it. ITie first member said that draining pastures was uncertain in its effects, springy meadows were often injured by it, and that on poor flat pastures where benefit was derived from draining, the mole plough was a most useful instrument, the soil being suitable. The eighth member could not agree that hanging or springy meadows were injured by draining. The second member thought that instead of being injured, springy meadows were mvich benefited by draining; the reason that springy spots in meadows were supposed to grow much grass was, because nothing would eat it in such spots. The seventh member said, long or raw manure applied to pastures during the Avinter, and raked ofl" again in the spring, would be found highly beneficially. As summer grazing and stall feeding are daily coming more into practice, it is worthy of obser- vation that all the speakers agreed that pastures were uninjured by successive mowings, provided they were manured. Sixth Meeting, 29th April, 1844, Subject : — " On hoeing turnips and other roots." A member said he prefeiTed drilling turnips with six rows on a stetch, and that it was a great advantage to hoe them as early as possible. A second member said it was his plan to drill eleven i-ows on a stetch he thought on this plan they had a better chance of a plant, and to hoe them out early. A member observed the distance from plant to plant should be about twenty-one inches by fourteen. A third member went into a statement showing the difference between three rows on a stetch and six; the turnips were all a full plant, the land treated alike, and the stetches adjoining each other. On the three rows there were 11,079 turnips, or 562 bushels, weighing 14 tons 1 cwt. per acre. On the six rows there were 20,754 turnips, or 706 bushels, weighing 17 tons 13 cwt. The turnips were Matson's variety. A fourth member said he was not surprised to hear the result of the last speaker's trial, as he considered a moderate-sized turnip or beet pos- sessed more quahty and weight than the larger- sized. A fifth member said, in hoeing beet, the root cone was often injured l)y pulling away the earth too much ; he had experienced this in the manage- ment of some last year. A sixth member preferred Ransome's plough, with the breast taken off, for ploughing between beet, to the more modern beet plough. A seventh member planted three rows of beet on a stetch ; as soon as they were fairly up he ploughed the furrows and scarified the stetch, mth two hoes between each row ; he considered the separation of the fangs of upper roots of long beet beneficial, as it tended to make them grow much longer. It was the opinion of the meeting, that drilled turnips, notwithstanding the increased expense of hoeing, were best ; the regularity wth which they could be set out was so much greater than after solving. As it was thought by many members that the discussion for the next monthly meeting on ploughs and ploughing could not be fuUy entered into, unless a trial of the ploughs took place previous to the discussion, as it was not only necessary to ascertain which plough would do its work best, but what was the relative draught of the diflferent ploughs in this neighbourhood ; this was thought the more desirable, as much difference of opinion existed as to the comparative merits of the wheel and foot ploughs ; those advocating the latter con- tending that every description of work could be done as well with the foot plough, as with the wheel, and some descriptions of work could be done better. The first cost of the foot plough, and the annual necessary expenses attending it, being considerably less, it was thought highly desirable that a fair trial should be given to each, and gentlemen possessing the different varieties of ploughs were invited to send them for trial on the afternoon of the 27th of May then next. Seventh Meeting, 27th May, 1844. In the afternoon of this day, many gentlemen sent their ploughs, as previously agreed upon, and in addition to those in general use in this neigh- bourhood, were three from the celebrated foundry of the Messrs. Ransome's, two of which firm were present, and brought instruments to test the draught of the different ploughs, on a piece of tare stubble ; there was much less disparity in the draught of the different ploughs than was expected. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 159 Tlie ploughs of the Messrs. Ransome were much admired; they were composed entirely of iron. The execution of the work was much approved, except the shuttintr-up furrow; but this defect arose from the hake ot the plough not being long enouLfh to admit of the ])lough being set sufficiently wide so as to enable the horse to walk over, as is the cus- 1 torn of this country ; but this shght defect being remedied, there appeared no doubt of this being a most ])erfect instrument. The draught was one stone lighter than that of any other plough. In the evening, the discussion was opened by a member, who said, in order to arrive at a definite conclusion as to the merits of the respective ploughs in common use, it would be necessary to reverse the arrangement of the subject, and first discuss the latter part, on ploughing. He thought that with the great facilities now offered by means of other implements more economical in their iise and more effective in their work than the plough, for pul- verizing, mixing, and for cleaning land, there remained but three o])jects in \-iew. 1. To expose to the action of the atmos])here as large a j)Ortion of the under surface of the furrow -slice as possible. 2. To oljtain for the reception of the seed as deep a bed of loose mould as convenient ; and, 3. To turn in, and cover, as nearly as possible, all nibbish collected or manure spread ujjon the sur- face. Supposing, as in the first and second cases mentioned, he wished either to ])resent a large por- tion of the soil to the influence of the weather, or a large rill from which to harrow down loose mould, in which to deposit seed, in both instances the furrow would require to lay in the same position, as that angle which would expose the greatest sur- face to the atmosphere would also form the deepest rill from which to harrow down the mould. It remained then only to pursue a different course for the third case — covering manure ; when the object must be to turn over the furrow slice as nearly as possible, which may be done either with a second mould-l)oard, or by taking a wider and fleeter fur- row. Entertaining then the oi)inion that ploughing is not expedient excejjting in one of these three cases, he believed there can be l)ut one kind of i)lf)ugh adapted to the purpose. That such a ])lough was yet introduced he doubted, inasmuch as the mechanical structure of the plough is not, and cannot be said to be perfect. All may be classed as one of three kinds, viz. : the gallows jjlough, the foot ])lough — or plough with a wheel or wheels attached to the end of the beam — and the swing plough. The gallows plough appears to be gradually giving jjlace to the other descriptions of ploughs, being found more expensive and trouble- some, and, owing to conflicting forces, not so light in draughts. Its construction is such that the force necessarj' to move it throws additional weiglit upon the wheels, thereby increasing the obstruction in pro])ortion to the natural resistance of the soil. The foot ploufjh a])])ears to lie deservedly gaining ground ; and he thought j)ossessed an advantage over the suing plough, from tlie fact of tlie wheels tending to maintain an equality of deptli. The breast, to lay the furrow in the jjositiou described, would incline on the outside at the heel to the angle of forty-five degrees, which incline should not be too sharp from the nose to the heel of the plough. Beginning from the share, the mould- board should rise gradually, till having placed the furrow in an iq)right or vertical position, it should be steadily turned over to its intended position. The coulter, the land side, the share, and the bottom should be arranged that they may work in a i)erfect square. The coulter well cutting its work, and the cutting edge of the share being well adjusted, without a tendency either to dig or rise. Everything like friction occasioned by one ])art counteracting the efl'ect of another must be avoided, and all the different divisions of the ])lough allowed to work in perfect harmony with each other. Mr. A. Ransome spoke at considerable length, pointing out the defects and the good points of each variety, and contending that the plough at present in existence nearest to perfection, was the plough constructed on the jirincijjle of the old swing ]ilough, with the addition of two small wheels ; it combined all the good jioints of the wheel and the foot plough, \vithout the disadvan- tages of either. A second member said he had long been accus- tomed to foot ploughs, and although he had had to contend with great opposition from his men to introduce them into his neighbourhood, he did not regret the trouble it had cost him, for, independent of many other advantages, he beheved that they did not cost more than one half to estabhsh and maintain than a wheel plough, in which opinion many members concurred. A third member said when the men once ob- tained the masteiy of them, they themselves pre- ferred it to the wheel plough. The gentlemen who concurred in favour of wheel ploughs stated many objections, the princi- pal of which appeared to be, that the men could not, with foot ploughs, make such small headlands as with the wheel, and that the ends of the stetches were more stamjied than with the wheel. This was stoutly opposed by the the advocates of the foot ploughs, who said \\'hen men were accustomed to use foot ploughs the exact reverse would 1)6 the case. It was at last agreed, that at some future day, this point should be settled l)y trial. Although much discussion took place, to stimu- late more close obser\'ation to the peculiar jjoints of the different ploughs at issue — the best attendant consequences of all practical subjects at farmers' clubs — yet from the small disparity of draught between the foot and the wheel ploughs, the advo- cates of each still maintained their favoiu-ites, but it was admitted that the expense of foot ploughs was comi)aratively small with that of the wheel ploughs. Eighth Meeting, •I'ith June, 1844. Subject : — " On the construction of Leases." A member said, perhaps it was hardly intended to confine the discussion of the evening merely to the constniction of leases, as jiroposed in the list, for that belonged and must be left to f^entlemen of legal ac- quirements. lUil he might, i)erliaj)s, with some degree ofl)ropriety,hiiitthepossibilityofintroducinggreater simplicity into the rnnstntction of leases without impairing the security of ever}' necessary reser^'a- 160 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tion. Now what appeared to lie more in the way for discussion was — 1st, Ihe utility of leases, ^nd, Cox'enants proper to be introduced into leases. And 3rd, Which is the most desirable to both landlord and tenant — a fixed rent, or a rent to be regulated by the price of agricultural produce ? First, As to the utility of leases. With a lease, a spirited farmer would effect necessary though expensive improve- ments, looking forwards with confidence under Divine Providence for remuneration from improved crops. Without a lease, he cannot with safety, and in justice to his family, effect those improvements (however obvious) which his own judgment and experience point out as necessary. He therefore asked them, as practical men, to record their opinions as to whether the farmer with a lease would not raise corn equal to a bushel of wheat per acre, upon his whole arable occupation, more than the fai-mer without a lease. If this was but proved, the utiUty of leases must be sufficiently apparent both in a national as well as in a private point of view. Second, Covenants. — The more liberal and simple the better, so that the landlord's property may l)e protected from spoliation, whilst a good farmer may be enabled to make the best of his occiipation, without incurring a liability to prose- cution for breaches of covenants, fines, &c., &c. The custom of tying tenants down to clean- fallowing one-fourth of their arable occupations every four years was generally growing into disuse in this neighbourhood ; and, indeed, to call a far- mer under such a system as this to thorough-drain and manure his land, to urge his honest and \-igorous endeavour to produce corn, so that this great nation may be, as it ought to be, in some de- gi-ee independent of other countries for a supply of food, is something like the Egyptians of old saj'ing, " Make bricks ; but there shall no straw be given you." Another covenant he believed not unfreqnent, although very objectionable, viz., that clovers should never be mown a second time during the same season under heavy penalties. He would a.sk, could we soil our horses and cattle up to and even during harA-est in any way so profitably as by mowing rower- clover ? And did they not find their stock of home-made manure considerably in- creased l)y following this system ? He had heard it suggested by intelligent men, and was of the o]nnion himself, that proper restrictions, and those restrictions acted upon, to commence four years before the expiration of a tenancy, would answer every required purjjose of protecting the pro- perty of the landlord. Thirdly, Which is most desirable, a fixed or corn rent? This is in- deed a very serious question at a time like this, when the progress towards a free trade in corn has been so steady, but yet so progressing as to induce a rational belief that the little protec- tion now enjoyed by agriculturists might ere long be entirely withdrawn. From every consideration he could give this subject, he was inchned to ad- vise well-regulated corn rents secured by leases, wherever practicable, and the longer those leases are the better. The \arious valuable points in this member's statement were then discussed, and the subject was considered to be of so much importance, that the discussion was postponed till the next monthly meeting. Ninth Meeting, 29th of July, 1844, ITie discussion on the construction of leases was renewed, and it was resolved — That this meeting fully concurred in the ^'iews of the member who introduced the subject, as to the vast importance of the fixity of tenure, believing that the deficiency between our produce and consumption would cease under a general fixed tenure, with a divine blessing on the stimulus to improvement it would give rise to ; and that in long and liberal leases, the amount of distress from the want of employ- ment, now so general, would not be knov/n in this country. They also agree that all restrictive clauses as to the course of cropping, except during the last fom* years of the term, tended much to cramj) the ener- gies and skill of the tenant, without being any equivalent benefit to the landlord. The members also considered it would be a great imjirovement in the present construction of leases, if, instead of being allowed to run out the full term, they were made renewable four years pre- vious to the expiration of the lease. The alternate system of improvement and exhaustion of the land would thus be avoided, and a great increase of pro- duce and demand for labour would be the conse- quence; and if the value of farms were to be regu- lated by the value of produce, there would be no difficulty in this plan. That this meeting cannot dismiss tliis important sul)ject without expressing that too much impor- tance cannot be attached to it by lando^vners ; and they hope these views, emanating as they do from a body of practical farmers, wiU be received by those landowners into whose hands they may fall, as not proceeding from any desire to infringe on their just rights and privileges, but from a conWc- tion that the supplying of our increasing popula- tion, the permanent improvement of the soil, the welfare, employment, and happiness of all classes, largely depends on a more extended feeling of con- fidence and co-operation between the landowners and occupiers of the country. Subject ; — " On the advantages of liquid ma- nure." A member, on introducing this subject, said he regretted — indeed he felt almost ashamed to ac- knowledge that he had only two years' experience of the value of liquid manure, for previous to that time the waste liquid of his yards had been allowed to escape. In the last year he had applied it to pasture in the spring, and on a small portion of wheat in the month of May ; on the wheat at about the rate of 900 gallons to the acre. On the pasture the effect \\'a9 very visible ; and, although not weighed, it was estimated by the men, in mowing, to be worth 6d, per acre more to cut ; the effect on the wheat was scarcely visible until it came to the ear, and then it might be distinctly seen, the ears being more uniform and large in size, and when threshed yielded over 3 bushels jier acre increase. One stetch on each side of the two so manured were threshed, to arrive at the result : the liquid applied for wheat was of excellent quality ; and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1(31 valuable as was the result, he thought it would | be useless to say anything, for its value was ad- be a still greater general benefit if the large quan- mitted by all parties ; but he would draw their tity of almost valueless hquid, now formed by the admission of so much water from the surrounding buildings, was prevented by troughing ; for in many farms, from the declivity of the yards allow- attention to a little machine called the "blower," for the purpose of dressing seeds, and for imjirov- ing the sample of corn, by separating the inferior Jvom the better portion of the grain : he had found ing almost the whole of the liquid to escape rapidly ' it most valuable ; its cost was £2 10s. Of the field away, it ^\■as almost impossible to form tanks of j implements he hardly knew how to particularize sufficient size to hold it, size to hold it, and being so much diluted it became almost valueless. If they could, he hojjed that farmers, one and all, would have tanks to prevent the loss of that which nuist other- wise escape, and that jiroprietors would see the necessity of troughing their buildings, to prevent the great injur)' of that without which no farmer could succeed, no property be impro^•ed. He had understood it was the calcidation of an eminent engineer that 1,400 gallons of water fell from every square of roofing. To allow all this to escape, carrying awa)- the best ijrojierties of the manure, was a great evil ; and if ])ossible to retain it in a tank, tlie e.\i)ense of moving so immense a quan- tity woidd 1)6 nearly ecpial to its value. The result this year on grass land was highly satisfactory. Teiilk Mectiiif/, ■2:\rd September, 1814. Subject : — " On the ad\antages of machinery." A member said he thought the sid)ject .«;hould embrace two views, the necessity and advantages of machinery ; and when he considered our fast in- creasing pojjulation, the daily increased amoimt of food required, and the low price at which we are likely to be compelled to produce it, both a ])atriotic ])rinciple and self-protecting one proved the necessity of availing ourselves of every means to increase the productions of our own soil. He should first allude to machinery that had for its object the preparing corn for market ; and foremost amongst them was the threshing machine. He was aware that fonnerly, in almost all districts, a strong juTJudice existed against this machine, as tending to lessen the amount of labour and wages ; but he thought in most districts tliis feeling was subsiding, for the labourer perceived that in gene- ral machiner)' tended to increase the amount of labour on a farm, rather than diminish it, and that whatever tended to increase the advantage of the farmer tended to his benefit ; for when the farmers were dei)ressed imj)rovement was at a stand still, and when otherwise improvements were pro- gressing, labour was abundant, ])roduce was in- creased, and lower prices followed from increased production — the only source from which low j)rices could be maintained in this country without ruin- ous consequences. The advantages of the thresh- ing machine did not so much arise from any saving of expense as from the improved condition at which the corn could be produced in market, and for enabhng the farmer to emjdoy his men in threshing at seasons and times of tlie year when least valuable for out-door employment. The horse part of the machine could also be valuably applied to other purj)oses, as cutting chafi", grind- ing horse-corn, &c. ; the cutting of clover and hay into chafl" for cattle was a practice much increasing, and of the benefit and saving from it there could be no doubt. Of the dressing inacliine it would them, so much depended on the character of the soil on which they were used ; but the drill was invaluable for all soils, and was now made avail- able not only for all kinds of grain and seeds, but i even for dej)ositing all kinds of manure. Of the various scarifiers and imjjlements made use of for cleaning and prejiaring land for cropping, the character of the soil must determine the selection of the implement. The plough had undergone many improvements of late years, and those con- structed on the lever ])rincii)le he considered best. Another member said the most valuable imple- ment that had l)een introduced of late )'ears was Gardner's turnip) cutter, both for the economy of food and enabling the largest amount of meat to be produced from a given quantity of food. Resolved that the use of machinery is a grea means of enabling the farmer to increase the pro- ductions of the soil, and that all machines that enabled the farmer to bring his corn to market at the least cost and time, instead of being an evil, and the means of lessening the labour of the poor, has a direct contrary eflect ; for instead of the time being employed in that dej)artment of the farm from which no increased produce can arise, and consequently no benefit to himself or em- ployer, it is diverted and employed to the means of increasing the produce, which must have a ten- dency to benefit all classes ; and although there may be isolated cases where it has not this effect, still the meeting feels assured that the amount of evil arising from these cases is nothing when put in comparison with the great amount of labour and good that arises from its general use. (For the Committee.) Jamk.s Barkkk, President. Henry Si'Urling, Secretary. THE CAll^LE EPIDEMIC. (from the mark lane express.") It will be seen by the subjoined extracts from foreign journals that the ej)idemic is exciting the greatest alarm on the continent ; so much so that the French government is about to send M. \vard, the Inspector-general of the veterinary schools, and M. Renault, doctor of the Veterinary School at Alfort, to (Jermany, to study the nature of the disease, and to devise means, if possil)le, to check it. It has appeared for some time, and is now pre- vailing, in (Cheshire, I)erl)yshire, Stafibrdshirc, and Shropshire. We announced last week that it had broke out near Brighton and at Reigate,^ and that in the latter place one fanner had lost six fine cows; we have since been informed that he has lost ten. The following jiaragraph from the Lcincnster Guardian shows tluit it is extending in Lancashire. INGLETON. — EriDKMic .\m()no Cattlk. — The diateinper amoog cattle bos at last reached this neigh- 162 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bourhood. Christopher Parkin, a small farmer m this village, has within the last few weeks lost six good milch cows by it, which formed the whole of his stock. Sub- scriptions are at present in progress towards making up his loss, as he is a sober and industrious man. We do not wish to prejudice the sufferer, but we cannot refrain from asking why he has not in- sured his stock. No sympathy would be felt for the man who, being burnt out, had not protected himself by insui'ance against fire, and we cannot see the distinction to be made between the losses of stock by the epidemic and the losses of grain or hay by fire. Prudence should dictate to a man to protect himself in the one case as much as in the other. THE MURRAIN ON THE CONTINENT.— " Several journals," says the Moniteur, " have spoken of the apprehensions inspired in Germany by the invasion of an epidemic disease which particularly affects horned cattle. The recollection of the dreadful ravages made at different periods among the horned cattle by contagious typhus, but particularly in 1814, 1815, and 1816, when the cattle brought into France by the foreign armies im- ported that disease, naturally excited the solicitude of the Government. The Minister of Agriculture and Com- merce lost no time in procuring information on the sub- ject, both in France and abroad. We subjoin the extract of a letter from M. Imlin, a distinguished veterinary sur- geon, of Strasburg, who is in constant communication with Germany : — ' Strasburg, Dec. 28, 1844. Typhus positively prevails in Poland, Silesia, and Bohemia. The German journals have referred to it since the close of autumn, and they now mention as an on dit its appear- ance in Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, and Saxony. Never- theless, those nimours are not confirmed by any official report. The accounts brought by the German journals are evidently exaggerated. The director of the Veteri- nary School at Munich (Bavaria), with whom I am in correspondence, does not mention a word either of typhus or sanitary cordon in a letter 1 received from him in the beginning of the month. The Prague Gazette of the 10th instant contains the first official report on the epi- demy prevailing in Bohemia. It results from that docu- ment, that down to the 24th of November, the typhus had attacked 1,544 heads of cattle, 75 of which had been killed, and 60 were still labouring under the disease. No authentic news makes any mention of its having reached Bavaria. Wurtemburg and the Duchy of Baden have as yet adopted no measures of precaution, so that our east- ern departments are only menaced by the journals. An epidemy which affects the mouth of the cattle, and the ' pleuro-pneumony,' have appeared on different points of our department, and I am often called to treat those dis- eases. The German veterinary journals not having been published since the last quarter, have not yet spoken of the malady.'" "However reassuring this intelligence may be," adds the Moniteur, " the Government is about to send to Germany M. Yvard, Inspetcor-General of the Veterinary Schools, and M. Renault, Director of the Veterinary School of Alfort, to study the progress of the epidemy, and the administrative measures adopted for the purpose of checking it." The German Universal Gazette of the 28th ult. armounces that the epidemic ■which had been raging for some time amongst the horned cattle in Gallicia, Austria, Silesia, and Moravia, had likewise appeared in Poland, in several districts near Warsaw. The Prussian Government had established quarantines, in order to prevent the spreading of the contagion to the Prussian provinces. — Times. THE MURRAIN ON THE CONTINENT.~The JPresse publishes an article on the danger to be appre- hended from the invasion of the epidemic which is now raging amongst the oxen in Lower Hungary, and which is known there by the name of contagious typhus fever. M. Moll, the professor of agriculture at the Conserva- tory of Arts and Sciences, who is the author of the article, explains as follows the nature of the malady : — ' ' The epidemic in question raged in Europe at five dif- ferent intervals in the course of the eighteenth century, and appears to have attacked not only oxen, but sheep, horses, asses, and mules. A German writer has estimated the number of animals which perished by this disease at more than 100,000,000, and their value at five milliards of francs. It has been ascertained that the same typhus fever occasioned a loss in France, in consequence of having been introduced by the foreign cattle which ac- companied the invading armies in the years 1814 and 1815, of nearly 100,000,000f. In presence of these facts, it is naturally demanded what will be the result of the invasion of our territory by this destructive scourge ? If the losses were to be confined to the value of the cattle destroyed by it, agriculturists might expect to recover after a short period, but there is even a more disastrous effect to be apprehended. Land produces only in proportion to the manure given to it, and the diminution of manure caused by the mortality conse- quent on the epidemic must produce an alarming defi- ciency in our harvests. We wish to recall to the recol- lection of those j^ersons who see no safety for France excej)t in the development of her commerce and manu- factures, that no increase of commercial prosperity can compensate for the rum of agriculture, which produces value to the amount of six milliards annually, and that, in fine, the first condition of commercial and manufac- turing prosperity is the well-bemg of 25,000,000 French- men who exist by agriculture. THE MURRAIN ON THE CONTINENT.— The Presse pubUshes a second article on the typhus fever at present raging among the oxen in Germany, and on the best mode of preserving France from that scourge. " First," says the Presse, " it is necessary to state an important fact, the result of long experience, which is, that the malady is completely incurable, and that no preventive measure can protect animals from its attack. We insist on this point, in order that the Government may not, like other Governments during the last cen- tury, lose much valuable time in seeking for preservative means, which they might have employed in efficaciously opposing the progress of the malady. In the year 1770, the Dutch Government proposed a prize of 80,000 florins to any person who should discover a specific against the epidemy ; and, whilst the colleges of Leyden and Utrecht were discussing the subject, the contagion car- ried off 284,534 oxen in the United Provinces. There is another fact not less important to be mentioned. This malady never developed itsof spontaneously either in France or in the other parts of western Europe. It has always been introduced into those countries either from the south of Russia, Wallachia, Moldavia, or the marshes of Hungary, countries where it appears to be endemic, without, however, exercising as great destruction there as in the countries in which it appears from time to time. Every time the typhus has appeared in Germany, in Italy, in France, or in Belgium, it has been ascer- tained in the most positive manner that it has been im- ported by animals arriving from the above named coun- tries, which may be considered as the permanent focus of this epidemy. With respect to the mode of guaran- teeing France from this scourge, the best appears to be an absolute prohibition against the admission into France of foreign oxen. Common sense indicates this as the surest mode of preventing the infection from penetrating into France. Should, however, notwithstanding every precaution^ the disease unfortunately appear in France, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 163 to abandon the malady to itself would be to incur the al- most certain risk of seeuig the epidemy cease solely for want of aliment. During the last century several coun- tries in Europe, amongst others the Campagna di Roma, lost the entire of their horned beasts. Entire herds were destroyed, and it was found necessary to import oxen in order to replace those which were carried off. Of all measures of repression, the most efficacious are the in- terruption of all communication with diseased cattle, and their destruction and burial under the earth as soon as they are found to have caught the infection. During the last years of the empire, whilst the typhus abandoned to itself penetrated into France, and caused the destruc- tion there of 400,000 head of oxen, its progress was ar- rested at Utrecht, where it was brought by Russian cat- tle, and the consequences avoided by the prompt mea- sures adopted by the authorities — the interruption of all communication from abroad, and the immediate slaughter of all diseased cattle. We may add in termination that the public would do well to be on their guard against favourable accounts brought from the theatre of the con- tagion. Those countries are interested in maintaining a commuiiication from abroad, and they wUl, conse- quently attenuate the evil." PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. Allow me tlie liberty of addressing to you a few lines on a subject which, it is to be feared, will become of the greatest moment to the agricultural interests of your conntry. I have observed in your journal that the alarming distemper which partially exists among cattle in England, seems, from description, to have the same symptoms as those which have been observed for many years in some parts of this country, in the distemper called lung-sickness, which has ruined many farmers, and has occasioned, and still continues to occasion, a loss of several millions in the national agricultural capi- tal. This distemper is of such fatal influence in the disorganization of the lungs, that no cure for it is to be found, and we consider every recommended specific as useless and without effect. I have the pleasure of send- ing you a treatise on this distemper, written by one of our cleverest veterinary surgeons ; it gives a full de- I scription of this disease, and proposes the only possible I method for stopping the immense losses which it occa- I sions. This treatise has been already forwarded to your Government by the English Consulate ; but, being } written in Dutch, is probably neither understood nor I translated. If its translation could be ordered by your National Agricultural Society, it would give a more general knowledge of the character of this disease, and would open a dreadful prospect of its consequences, ) were it once to gain a seat in the blood of your immense i and valuable stocks of cattle. There is no doubt, if no effectual measures are taken by your Government, your cattle markets will soon bring this distress all over the country. The only way of preservation against this infection is, not only to kill every head of cattle attacked by this disease, but likewise every other, though appa- rently in a healthy state, which has grazed, or been in the same stidl with an infected animal. In tliis, our province of Zealand, this method has been adopted ; and I have witnessed eighteen instances of this dis- temper, against which, in the full conviction that no other remedy could have a chance of success, I proposed ■ to Government, in my (juality as President of the Pro- I vincial Board of Agriculture, to kill at once all the cattle I existing on any farm where this disease had broken out— tlie value of the said cattle to be reimbursed by Government to the owner, after valuations ordered be- forehand. This having been granted, I have had the satisfaction, by the execution of this very severe mea- sure, of preserving till this day this part of the country from those immense losses which have been experienced in other provinces. It has been very remarkable that, in every instance, the origin of the distemper lay in in- fection by other cattle brought over from Holland ; by which it has been fully proved that the cause must not be attributed to any atmospheric or other influence at home, but wholly to infection. The few instances of recovery are always partial ; the virus of the infection is never extinguished, for the power of its influence on other cattle continues, though the animal itself should become fit for the butcher. When we consider this dis- temper in its various periods, together with the results of post mortem examinations, the conviction is inevi- table that the lungs, which are grown to an immense fleshly volume, can never be brought back again to their former natural state, and consequently that no cure is possible. I hope you will consider this communication as having no other aim than to make you acquainted with the dreadful consequences which must take place when a proper line of conduct is not prescribed ; for, if owners of cattle should rely on the promises of veteri- nary surgeons, who should give hope of a cure, they will be in a false position, the contagion will gain ground every day, and when it shall become more general, it will be beyond human abi'.ity to put a stop to it. — C. Vis, Middelburg, President of the Board of Agri- culture, Province of Zealand, Holland. ANNUAL REPORT ON THE WOOL TRADE. (From the Circular of Messrs. W. Greame and Co., Liverpool.) In our last Annual Circular we indulged in the anti- cipation that the past year (1844) would be a more prosperous one (as regards the Wool Trade) than we have had for some time. We are glad to say, that the result, whether as regards the importer, manufacturer, or the merchant, has been very satisfactory to all par- ties. The abundant harvest of last season has no doubt contributed materially to bring about this favourable state of things. Again, the removal of all restrictive du- ties on the import of Wools has given a great impetus to the trade, and we think will fully answer the expec- tations of the most sanguine supporters of this measure. We shall, no, doubt, have large quantities of Wool for- warded from all parts ; we do not, however, anticipate this will have an injurious effect on prices here, as we look forward to this port becoming a large depot for Wools of all kinds ; and as such, a mart not only for the British manufacturers, but a Wool maiket for the world. The public sales of Australian Wools during tlie past year were well attended ; these Wools were all bouglit up by the trade almost immediately on arrival, and at very remunerative prices to the importers : there is a great improvement in the method of getting these Wools up, and some of the marks can now compete with the best Spanish and German Wools. Judging from the result of the last ten years, we siiall no doubt have a large increase in the imports from these Colonies, but we see no reason to doubt that the demand will keep pace with the sup])ly. East India Wools are in good demand, and i>rices firm at our quotations ; these Wools are liked by the manufacturers, and are generally a very ready sale. Buenos Ayres, Turkey, and Smyrna Wools, are in fair request at our quotations. We note a great increase I6i THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. in the import of low Wools from the IMediterranean, great part of which has been taken by the trade, at re- munerating prices to the importers, either for home con- sumption or to be exported. The import of Peruvian Wool has been very limited, and the stock at market unusually light for some time ; but as the ports are now open, we may expect a supply forward during the next few months. Alpaca Wool is much inquired for ; there is little or none remaining in stock, and a great part of what is coming forward is sold to arrive ; prices are very firm at our quotations. English and Irish Combing Wools are in demand at improving rates, at O^-d. and 0|d. per lb. advance on No- vember prices. We are glad to be enabled to make so satisfactory a report of the present state of the Wool trade, and we think, unless some unforeseen event occurs, such as a " bad harvest," &c., the prospects of the present year are very promising. TOTAL IMPORTS OF WOOL INTO LITERPOOL, FROM 1832 TO 1844. c wy^J 3 a M tdi)Mo >■ = £2 re g fi =£55 = Sr' rS" p' H ^ t- K t V w ^ O -^ 1— It.. — ►-■ I-. to Ci .^1 CD ii OS 03 ^ ^ to CD O ffi 00 o =-. » .^ !)• to » C M <1 to W (*^ ^ CS W 01 M CS 4- (O O «3 »I 3! ca ^D rffc cc .-" I*.- _— o c; ** SJ!^<^Kf^ef*5J'^"'^'2 -i S^ tJ O "?3 -►-£"■£■ =2 = 5^=5 = 2^^2." X 5V-, 5 ."^ i= S "< - S o< ^o_f -^ O 00 _ c^ ^f^Or»— ^-. 2vi' S"® H-'£J. " ^ jyj V p" p. Ol 5" 2 H- Foreign and I 1833. Colonial I 6,489 British I 29,800 Totals I 38, -.'89 1834. 1 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 25,447 22,815 47,163 43,304 49,178 26,196 29,200 29,025 17,620 25,870 51,043 52,075 76,188 60,924 7.S057 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. i 1844. 56,989 70,569 35,466 35,695 48,775 20,805 23,146 19.004 88,200 31,916 77,794 1 93,710 54 470 68,895 73,69! Foreign and j 1839. Colonial 59,417 British 18,691 Totals I 78,108 THE WOOL TRADE. Ln ERrooL, Jan. 1. — The wool trade is in a very satisfactory condition, compared with every other staple article. The imports have materially increased ; the range of prices has been moderate and i-emunerating to the grower and importer, without checking consumption ; and the manufacturer, we believe, has made a profit on his trade during the past year. An active demand commenced early in the year, which increased as the prospect of a good harvest became assured — prices advancing gradually, with the verj' large demand of the season, for wool of all kinds, till they subsided with it in November. The imports of wool have increased largely from every quarter except the west coast of South America ; and that deficit of 8,000 ballots (841bs. each) is counterbalanced by 14,000 bales from sundry parts, averaging probably three cwt. each, which shows a large increase in weight and value over any of the seven years' imports. We claim much of this excess as due to the repeal of the duty on foreign wool, which took effect in June last, by anticipating or promptly acting upon which importers of Portugal, Italian, Turkey, and many other wools, have availed themselves with much advantage this year. That such a concession to sound commercial policy has, in the article of wool, been its own immediate reward is highly satisfactory. For colonial wools the present year opened with a very brisk demand, the first series of public sales in London realizing an advance of 2d. to 3d. per lb. ujion Australian and Van Diemen's Land, and Id. to 1 Jd. per lb. upon Cape wools. The demand continued increas- ing, and prices creeping up, as the year advanced ; and at the public sales in London in June, and in Liverpool in July, a further advance of Id. to l^d. per lb. was established, which was fully maintained until towards the close of the year, when the demand for low descrip- tions slackened, and at the last series of public sales, in October, a slight reduction was experienced in low clothing and combing wools, leaving the average advance fully 3d. per lb., or 10 per cent, upon last year's prices, which we have no doubt our next public sales will fully uphold. East India wools have been in great demand through- out the year, and the advance upon even the high rates of the previous year, for the best qualities, has been fully Id. per lb., with every prospect of fair prices. Spanish wools are in good demand, and the supply is quite inadequate to it. We have no doubt this descrip- tion would remunerate importers to operate in at present rates. Portugal. — The increase of imports is large. Much of it is fairly attributable to the remission of the duty, and part, doubtless, to the care and attention bestowed by shippers on the washing and assorting this season. Peruvian wools have fallen from 21,000 ballots, in 1843, to 13,000 ; the smallest import for eight years past. We hope that the remission of duty, and upward tendency of prices, will turn attention again to this quarter. THE FARMER'S MAGAZtNfe. 1G5 Alpaca has also matetially fallen short in arrivals, verifying the accuracy of the accounts which the best informed parties have always given as to the limited growth of this peculiar article, and the difficulties and expence attendant upon its supply, although the fibre and goods are in the most extensive demand and ce- lebrity, and prices, in consequence, at the highest point which they have ever before reached. With regard to the prospects of the wool trade for the ensuing year, we can only repeat our views last year expressed, that we cannot foresee causes for any material variation from the past course of business or the range of prices which have been obtained during the year, till external causes act upon the trade, and principles ad- mitted to be sound in theory are carried into practice — freedom of ingress given to our merchants for every ar- ticle they can exchange for manufactures — free scope to the manufacturer by the reduction or abolition of all im- port duties on the raw materials of trade — fair play to labour by the regular employment and remuneration, which cheapness aud abundance of the necessaries of life, of clothing, and of home comforts, invariably pro duce and secure. A large reduction of the duty upon tea would seem to open the vast markets of the east to the worsted and woollen trades, and by promoting the consumption of the chief article of exchange which China at present has to offer, would confer mutual advantages upon both countries, and in a measure reciprocate the noble terms of a treaty which is the pioneer of European intercourse, and as reniarkable for the soundness of its principles as the generosity of its spirit. Meantime, the next harvest must decide the destinies of manufacturer and artisan, and overthrow, or by chance realize, their calculations of good or bad trade. Dawson and Hance. LivKRi'OOL, Jan. 1, 1845. — It is again our pleasing duty to give a favourable rejiort of the wool trade for the past year. The extension of our commerce with the east, which has been during the year more fully de- veloped, an increased colonial demand, with fully an average general export trade, have all contributed to give a tone of confidence and steadiness to business ; but, more than all, the recurrence of another abundant harvest has accomplished this result by giving cheap food and full em]iloyinent to the operative masses. We have, consequently, to notice in the home trade a vigour and enlargement to which it has for a long period been a stranger. One cause of this satisfactory state of trade may be traced to the very moderate j)rices of the raw materials, principally used in the woollen manufacture, such as cotton (which is extensively used for mixed fabrics), oils, indigo, &c. A most important ameliora- tion has been affected by the enlightened and liberal l)olicy of the government in totally remitting the import duty on sheeps' wool. The repeal of this obnoxious impost, which pressed so unequally on low qualities, and heavily on all by limiting the sujiply, came into opera- tion in >Jay last ; and it is most gratifying to state, that the good efi'ects anticipated from the measure have so far been fully realized by a much more extended assort- ment and liberal supply of low foreign wools. This, too, has been accomplished without injuriously aflecting the quotations of such domestic wools as seemed most liable to suffer by the competition. Scotcii and other low wools of home growth have continued firm throughout, and steadily in demand. Tiie trade acknowledges this con- cession as a great boon, the full importance of which is as yet only slightly indicated. The prominent feature of the wool trode for the past year is the very considerable increase of imports, amount- ing as nearly as we can ascertain, in the absence of official returns to the close of the year, to twenty millions of pounds weight, or to 50 per cent, on the import of 1843, and 20 per cent, on the average import of the three pre- ceding years. At first sight this large increase may ap- pear excessive, but it has been fully counterbalanced and absorbed by the immense increase in the export of wool- len goods and yarns, in amount exceeding two millions sterling, or 30 per cent, on the exports of 1843. Since the repeal of the duty act came into force, we have not the same means as formerly of ascertaining the quantity of wools in stock, but, considering the enormous in- crease of exports, and the fully commensurate increase of consumption at home, we are satisfied that the ge- neral stock of wool in the country at the close of the year does not exceed, if it reaches, the amount of the corresponding period of last year. The general steadi- ness of prices, during the year, is a feature worthy of remark. It reflects great credit on the manufacturers, and inspires confidence for the future that they have throughout steadily resisted any undue advance of prices, curtailing their production on the first appearance of cessation in demand, and generally working on moderate stocks of raw material. In Australian we have to observe a general im- provement in the condition of wools, particularly in those from Port Philip and Van Dieman's Land, which bid fair to rival those from Sidney. There is also a visible improvement in South Australians, though much remains to be desired in washing and getting up the wools. The public sales throughout the season have been well at- tended, and the returns will prove highly gratifying to importers and colonists. We trust it is an earnest of returning prosperity to that long-depressed interest. The enormous quantity brought forward at the London sales in July and October was not without its effect on prices, and, on the latter occasion, a portion had to be with- drawn. This would not have occurred had tlie con- signments been more equally distributed between Lon- don and this port. We regret to perceive that the in- crease in the quantity sent to Liverpool is very trifling, which is a matter of much surprise when the manifest advantages of the port are considered. Peruvian and Alpaca. — Owing to the quotations being too high, the import of sheep's wool has been un- important. There seems to be more disposition to send them in the washed state, which will no doubt continue should our market ofl'er encouragement. The disturbed state of the country has proved a great interniption to trade. This cause has delayed the arrivals to an unusually late period. The inconvenience occasioned by the delay has more particularly applied to Alpaca, tiie stock of which, both on the spot and in consumers' hands, has been reduced to a point not before known. The import this year has amounted to an average, and the consump- tion we estimate at one and a half year's cUj). East India. — These wools, throughout the year, have been in good demand, at full prices. They con- tinue in favour with the manufacturers. More attention has been paid to clearing them from burrs, but greater care should be taken inclassing the q\ialities. There is fre- quently a mixture of several sorts in the same bale. This has been increasing of late, and cannot be pointed out too strongly. .Should it continue, it will injuriously attect value and destroy confidence in the article. Russia. — Tiic imports have consisted eliietly of Don- skoy fleece, lambs', and autumii wools. They have been in limited rc(pu-st during tlie year, and jjrices have re- ceded. More animation has existed for a few weeks past, and at rather improving rates. Mediterranean Wools. — Here we observe a very 166 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. large increase in the import, but prices Lave been well sustained, with a good demand, and the rates have not varied more than about five per cent, throughout. We have little to notice respecting our domestic wools of English, Scotch, and Irish varieties, beyond the gra- tifying fact that a steady legitimate demand has existed during the year at prices remunerative to the grower, but not unduly enlianced by speculative operations. AU our inquiries respecting the home growth lead us to the conclusion that, for eighteen months past, the consump- tion has exceeded the supply, and we believe that the surplus of stock aiising from the depression of trade during the three years preceding 1843 is rapidly going into consumption. Hughes and Ronald. THE GERMAN WOOL TRADE. In the beginning of the year 1844 a favourable opinion for the wool trade prevailed generally ; it was not founded merely on speculation, but upon the real want of the article, which the experience of the past year has proved. The great losses, however, which were sus- tained in former years by some speculators raising the prices of wool above its real value, were still too well remembered, so that most of the buyers acted with great caution durmg our last summer fairs. Neverthe- less, competition raised the prices from 7 to 10 dollars per centner upon those of the year 1843. The last sLx months of this year have shown that this competition was not founded upon speculation, for, shortly after the fairs, a small advance was willingly paid upon well-made purchases. This improvement went on gradually, and raised prices up to the present moment, so that we pay now, upon the fair prices, an advance of from 6 to 10 dollars per centner. Fme wools, from 80 dollars up- wards, experienced the smallest advance ; middle quali- ties, from 55 to 70 dollars, were most in demand, and remain so now. The better lower qualities, mostly Polish wools, wliich were sold in the autumn of 1843 at 40 to 50 dollars, have advanced more than any other quahties, and are paid willmgly with 52 to 62 dollars by our combers and smaller manufacturers. For lambs' very high prices were paid in the month of August, they afterwards went a little flatter, but are now also in demand at the reduced prices. Locks, slips, and dead wool were continually in demand, and experienced the full advance. The stocks of wool we hold at present have not been so small for many years past, which is the only reason that but little business has been done. Our combers and smaller manufac- turers are, however, continually in the market, so that if anything new turns up it is sold almost immediately. Contracts are makmg continually for the new clip in all parts of Germany, and considerably more than last year has been sold akeady at an advance from 5 up even to 10 dollars per centner upon the last fair prices. The exportations of wool to England from Germany were larger this year than in 1843. From France and Belgium we had full twice as many buyers as in former years, and the exportation to these parts have been lar- ger than ever. There is not the least doubt that prices in Germany will be fully maintained up to the summer fairs; and we only wish that buyers may act with the same caution and steadiness, so as to enable us to give at the end of 1845, as favourable an account of the trade as this year. Louis Bernard, Sworn Broker and Taxator of the Royal Bank. Berlin, Dec, 29M, 1844. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. ' ' Though we have repeatedly expressed doubts as to the utility of agricultural shows, we have none upon the importance of a better agricultural education than has hitherto been generally imparted to those who purpose pursuing the occupation of a farmer." We are gratified in being enabled to quote an authority of such importance as the Times, in be- half of the advantage of "a better agricultural education" than has been hitherto given to those who would pursue the cultivation of the soil as their occupation. Scotland is again taking the lead on this subject, and we presume that as usual England will follow, in the course of another half- century. We are glad to observe in the south some movement in furtherance of agricultural education. The Agricultural College at Cirences- ter is making advance. We learn that at " a recent meeting of the Committee of the Cirencester Agri- cultural College, Mr. Scales, an experienced Nor- folk farmer, whose acquirements are said to be first-rate, was appointed head master. ; and that he produced a most favourable impression on the committee on a personal interview. The committee is now in communication Avith a gentleman, strongly recommended by Dr. Daubeney and Professor Graham, as Professor of Chemistry." We heartily wish success to the enterprisingand per- severing individuals who are the promoters of this establishment. As bearing on this subject, we have much pleasure in noticing the estabhshment of an agricultural training school about to be opened at Hoddesdon, Herts, on the 14th instant, under the direction of a committee of management, for general and scientific education, including every i branch of agriculture. The resident head master is Mr. Haslewood. Tlie professors for the different sciences are — Agriculture — Professors Austin, Gough, &c., &c. Botany — Professor Cooper, F.L.S., Author of " The Botany of Sussex," &c. Chemistry — Professor Holmes, five years Lecturer at St. Edmund's College, Geology, Mineralogy, 8fc. — Professor Richardson, F.G.S., of the British Museum, author of " Geology for Beginners," &c., &c. Managemeiit and Diseases of Cattle — Professor Youatt, M.R.A.S., author of "The Horse," " Sheep," " Cattle," &Cx Practical Surveying and Levelling — Mr. Haslewood. The school session will be divided into two terms, viz. — from the 14th January to Midsummer ; and from the 30th July to Christmas. The course of education will embrace the classics, mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistiy, botany, mineralogy, geology, land surveying, dra^ving, the French lan- guage, practical agriculture, and lectures on the breeds, management, and diseases of cattle. A library, museum, and laborator}', will be attached to the school; and the charge for board, lodging, washing, lectures, &c., &c,, ^vill be so arranged by the committee of management as to include every expense (except for books), at twenty guineas the half year. A separate class \vill be formed for those pupils who are not sufficiently advanced to attend the lectures, the charge for which \vill be sixteen guineas the half year. Any pupil may omit the classics, or such other portions of the general THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 167 education as may be desired ; and devote his whole attention to the lectures and practical agriculture. This is a most spirited undertaking for a single in- dividual, and really deser\Ts encouragement. We are given to understand that a considerable number of pupils have already entered the school. ESSAY OX GUANO. The design which gave rise to this essay was to present, at one view, a brief account of all the im- portant facts which have been published respecting Gitniio. These facts, having been observed at different times and l)y men of various pursuits, occur, scattered through many books and journals, which, to a large number of the purchasers of guano, may not be easily accessible. ITie writer, therefore, ventures to ho])e that this attempt to give a selection, from the information he has met Avith from these sources, m.ay be of some use, or may, at least, afford to others some of that pleasure which he has himself felt in examining into the natiue and history of a substance, the mean origin of which on the one hand, and, on the other, its important uses, present a very attractive contrast. Guano is the name applied to those extensive deposits which occur in Peru and other places, and which are the excrements of sea birds, as altered by lonrj exposure to air and mmstvre. Its name is an European corruption of the Perunan word "huanu," which means dung or manure. That it has origi- nated in the manner mentioned is well established. The cormorants, flamingoes, cranes, and other sea birds, from which it has been derived, live chiefly on fish ; and the chemical composition of guano is exactly such as we should expect if it really originated from the excrements of such birds. This will be given after^vards ; at present it is enough to state that, among other evidences, the bones and feathers of birds occur frequently in guano ; and that the linng sea birds have been seen to dc})osit ichite guano to such an extent that from 20 to 2.} tons of it are sometimes collected in a single season. Moreover, this white gunno is seen on the island of Torrecilla, on the coast of Peni, to be gradually changing into the brown variety, of which by far the most extensive and ancient deposits are composed. There seems, therefore, no reason to doubt that all the guano deposits have had their origin in the excrements of sea birds. It is known that guano was used as manure in Peni, at least as far back as the 12th century, but was little known in Europe till quite recently. Humboldt, indeed, in his travels ',in South America, in 1804, had observed it, and describes its valuable nerties ; and .Sir Humphrey Da\y mentions it is "Agricultural Chemistry ; " but it is only within the last few years that the farmers of England have become aware of its value, and that It has become an article so largely imported and so , generally used. Other locaUties than that men- tioned have fortunately, too, been discovered : it has been found in Chili and Bolivia (both in South America), and on the island of Ichaboc, off the African coast. Up to the present time the amount of guano which has been imported into the United Kingdom equals 37,000 tons ; of which 25,000 were from Peru and Boliviar, 7 thousand from Africa, and 1,500 from Chili. "We may be well astonished, that this enormous quantity of material, and the still more enormous quantities that remain, should have been merely accumulations of the excrements of sea birds, llie time that must have elapsed since the com- mencement of these accumulations is difficult to ascertain, but must be very great; more espe- cially when we consider that, according to Hum- boldt, the birds have formed, in 300 years, guano to the thickness of a few inches only ; while the thickness of the actually existing beds is very fre- quently 50 or 60 feet. Perhaps there may be some exaggeration here ; but much more moderate estimates do not allow less than 3,000 years, for the formation of some of the thickest beds, and that, too, even at the rate of 2 or 3 inches a year. Guano can only accumulate in regions where little or no rain falls, because more than one-half of it is soluble in water. Accordingly, m Peru, it occurs in quantity, only between the 13th and 21st degrees of south latitude : wthin these limits, the coast of Peru (from the Cordilleras to the sea), and the adjacent islands, are almost perfectly desert j rain falls so seldom that the roofs of the houses are made of hardened mud: ship-loads of wheat may be, and are, safely left in uncovered heaps on the mole of Callao; and at Iquique, a shipping port for giiano, even a very hght ram falls only once in many years. Although, therefore, the flocks of sea birds are as numerous to the north and south of the region between the 13th and 21st degrees of latitude as between these limits, yet there is no notable quantity of guano beyond them, because rain, though not abundant, yet compara- tively is too frequent. It will be obvious, there- fore, that both the quantity and quality of guano vnW greatly depend on the dryness of the climate ; it is most abundant and best where there is least moisture, other circumstances being similar; and so little would it be able to resist rain, that Pro- fessor Johnston says, " the thickest deposits woiUd be washed away, or dissolved, during a single year of Enghsh weather. A few details respecting the Peruvian guano may now be interesting. There are three varieties of it_red, dark grey, and white : this difference of colour arises from difference of age or exposure to air. The best guano is said to be furnished by the Chincha Isles (near the Peruvian coast); these are three in number, each about five or six miles in circumference. 'Dieir surface is of granite, and very uneven, and is covered with guano — in some places to a height of 200 feet up the sides of the elevations. The guano occurs in assemblages of horizontal strata, each stratum from 3 to 10 inches thick, and it is almost entirely free from earthy matter. In some parts the guano is only from 3 to 4 feet thick. It is worked and excavated like mines of iron ochre. There arc some places on the mainland of Peru, where, owing to the neigh- bourhood of sand hills, and the occasional winds, the guano which has been deposited is covered N 2 1G8 THE FARMEK'S MAGAZINE. entirely by sand, and its decomposition, therefore, considerably retarded. The shipping port, as already mentioned, is Iquique. I am not ac- quainted wth the method of packing the guano, but should think that, at all events, a suggestion of Professor Johnston's, that the guano should be ranmed hard, would be well worth adopting. This would considerably retard its decomposition, and the loss of the volatile and valuable constitu- ent, ammonia, would be nearly prevented. Tlie price of Peruvian guano is about £10 a ton, but was some time ago considerably higher. llie effects of guano, when apphed as a manure, are most beneficial and most remarkable. They are most striking when exhibited on the sandy plains of Peru, which, according to Humboldt, woidd be altogether barren without it. Boussingault says that, in Peru, the soil, composed only of white sand and clay, yields the richest harvests of maize by being manured with guano. From 600 to 700 tons of it are annually sold for the use of the inhabitants around Arequipa : they employ it, principally, as manure for their crops of maize and potatoes. In Taracapa, Tambo, and Victor, all in Peru, the quantity used is much greater, because they employ it to manure wheat, and all kinds of fruit trees, and plants, with the single exception of the sugar cane. The quantity they employ, in Arequipa, is about 3 cwt. to the acre ; in the other places mentioned, 5 cwt. to the acre are required. Tlie produce, in potatoes, is 45 to 1 ; in maize, 35 to 1. The Peruvian coast, from Arica to Chaucay, a distance of 200 miles, is manured almost entirely with guano. Its beneficial effects, as well as its origin, were indeed so well known to the ancient government of the Incas of Peru, that it was made a capital offence to kill the young birds on the guano islands ; and to carry this enactment into effect, each of these islands had what we should call an overseer. Guano is particularly adapted to be useful to vegetation in climates where little rain falls. It attracts moisture very quickly from the atmos- phere : indeed it always feels very damp : and Professor Johnston found that an average specimen absorbed six per cent, of water from the air, during ten days' exposure to it. This property alone would make it useful to plants in the climates mentioned ; but when we find also that many of the most important constituents of guano are readily soluble in water, and can therefore be taken up at once by the plants M'hen the scanty rains of these climates happen to fall, we can the more easily credit its great and ])ecuhar fertilising effects on the arid soils of Peru. In the United Kingdom, though its effects have not been found so great as in Peru, yet the expe- rience of some years, and of a great number of trials, under a great variety of circumstances, f^hows that these effects are generally and greatly beneficial. Some cases indeed of failure have occurred; jiartly, no doubt, from the guano not being of good or vmiform quality ; partly from pe- culiarities of the soil or the season, -which would have more or less affected any kind of manure ; but, on the whole, it is not too much to .^ay that guano has been almost universally found of great benefit in agriculture. It appears to be serviceable to all kinds of crops, but particularly to turnips, potatoes, and wheat. It sometimes increases the crops of grain, turnips, potatoes, and grass to the amount of 33 per cent. On this point, however, it is not necessary to enter into any detail ; for every one at all acquainted with scientific agri- culture must have observed many instances of its remarkable and beneficial effects. It is preferable to common animal manures because it is far su- perior in real value, far more portable, and more easily applied. These manures generally contain only -20 per cent, of food fit for plants, whilst almost the whole of good guano is fitted for their use. It is estimated to be four times better than the best dove-cot manure, which, of all animal manures, approaches nearest in kind to guano. The high estimation in which it is held by most agriculturists is amply supported by the opinion of the highest li\'ing authority on agricultural chemistry. Liebig states that the importation of 1 cwt. of guano is equal to that of 8 cwt. of wheat, that is, 8 cwt. of wheat can be obtained by the proper api)lication of 1 cwt. of guano. The chemical composition of guano is very inter- esting, because from it only can we learn why it is so beneficial to vegetation. Different specimens vary greatly in composition, owing to differences in age, in the degree of dryness of their locality, or in their more or less free exposure to air and light. The ichite or recent guano is of course the most A'aluable, because it has lost little or nothing by the action of the weather, as the more ancient kinds have : but of it we possess no detailed analysis. But we have analyses of |the excrements of the gannet and of the sea-eagle, which are both sea- birds, and, like those which deposit guano, live mostly on fish. The excrements of the gannet consist almost entirely of uric acid (a compound of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen). Those of the sea-eagle are thus constituted, per cent. : — Solid excrements. Ammonia 9.20 Uric acid 84.65 Phosphate of lime 6.13 Dried liquid excrements. Uric acid 59 Earthy and alkaline phosphates, sul- phates, and chlorides 41 There can be little doubt that fresh Guano is of a nearly similar composition ; and with very little chance of error we may consider it as containing from 60 to 80 per cent, of organic substances, of uric acid and ammonia; the remainder being chiefly earthy phosphates with alkaline sulphates and chlorides. Knowing the circumstances to which this guano has been exposed, and knowing likewise the ])roperties of uric acid, it is easy to anticipate the changes which Avill take place. An unusually heavy dew or a slight rain will enable the oxygen of the air to act on the uric acid, and produce from it urea, oxalic acid, and ammonia, among other compounds. This action Avill be^ , slow, but, continuing for long periods of tirae^ will THE FARMER'S iVIAGAZINE. 169 jfradually cause the diminution of the uric acid, I till it disappears entirely. Some of the ammo- niacal compounds which result from this action, and especially the most important and ahundant — curhonate of ammonia, being volatile, will be con- tinually emitted. To such an extent is this the case in one of the guano islands, that shijis caiinnt approach it, on account of the pimgent and fu'tid vapours which surround it. From these con- siderations it is manifest that the fresh guano will gradually change greatly in composition, according to the dampness of the air, and the length of lime since it had been deposited. Its uric acid will diminish and become, in a great measure, converted into volatile ammoniacal compounds, whicli will escape into the atmosphere. Tlie phosphate of lime and other earthy and alkaline salts, being little liable to change, will accumulate in the mass, and constantly increase in proportion to the organic compounds. The spray from the ocean will communicate to the guano common salt, and some other substances, and will have a tendency to hasten the decomjiosition above explained. The following analyses of guano arc the best that I have been able to find. Their results are such as the explanation just given woidd lead us to expect. The first analysis is by Dr. Ure ; it was made on an average specimen of good Bolivian guano, of a jiale yellow colour, dry, and partly in lumps, ])artly pulvendent. It contained '2-1 jjcr cent, of matter soluble in water. Of all the analyses of guano that I have seen, this seems to be the best ; and the specimen was evidently nnich nearer the normal state than guano generally is. It contained per cent. — (1) Urate of ammonia 15.27 Phosphate of ammonia, a little o.xalate of ditto, and urea 11.10 Undefined organic matter cajjable of giving 17 per cent, of ammonia . . 41.73 Phosjihate of lime, \vith some phos- phate of magnesia 10.25 Common salt and sulphate of potash 12.90 Silica 2.25 Water G.50 Tlie second analysis is by Professor Johnston, and was made on a brownish red specimen from Peru. It contained per cent. — (2) Ammonia 7.00 Uric acid 0.80 Water, carbonic acid, and oxalic acid, expelled by a red lieat 51.50 Phosphate of lime 29.30 Common salt, with a little sulphate and j)hosi)hate of soda 11 .40 Tlie third analysis is by MM. Fourcroy and Vauqulin, and gi^es per cent. — (3) Urate of ammonia 9.00 Oxalate of ditto lO.GO Phosphate and miniate of ammonia. . 10.20 Water and organic matter 32.30 Phosphate of lime and magnesia .... 1(3.90 Oxalate of lime 10. Oo Sulphates of potash and soda «.90 Clay and sand , 4.70 The fourth specimen (from South America), was analyzed by Mr. J. 1). Smith, and contained per cent. — (4) Uric acid and TU-ate of ammonia. . . . 17 -92 Oxalate of ammonia 7.40 Muriate and phosphate of ditto .... 8.80 Organic matter 8.70 Phosphate of lime, with some phos- phate of magnesia 22.00 Oxalate of lime 2. 50 Sulphate of potash 8.00 Water 22.00 W'e are now in a condition to understand ^\■hy good guano promotes the growth of ])lants so powerfully : it is because it contains a -very large (piantity of some of the most indisi)ensable parts of the food of plants, and in a state very well fitted for l)eing assimilated. All plants require, as food, the elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitro- gen ; and these must be supjilied to them in the form of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia ; other- wise they will not be assimilated. Besides the ele- ments already mentioned, plants like\\ase require certain mineral constituents, of which the most important arc, the earthy and alkaline phosphates, potash, soda, and silica : these form but a small part of the wIkjIc plant, l)ut it is perfectly esta- bhshed that they arc yet quite indispensable ; in very different relative projiortions, it is true, accord- ing as they occur in ditterent plants. Now, the carbonic acid and water which vegetables require for their existence, are supplied abundantly from the air : annnonia, too, exists naturally in the air ; but in such small (juantity, that it is, at least, always advantageous (if not always necessary) for the farmer to supi)ly it to his crops artificially : and the same may be said of the mineral constituents (especially the phosphates), all of which occur in every soil, but generally not in sufficient quan- tity, or not in a state in which they can be made use of l)y ])lants. Even if this were not the case, the certainty of exhausting the soil by repeated cropping, without replacing any thing, makes it necessaiy to add these mineral constituents in some form or other, to the land. Now they are applied, as well as the ammonia, by adding common ma- nure ; ]jut are in this mixed with a large quantity of matter that is comi)aratively useless (as woody fibre for instance). The mineral constituents and the annnonia are likewise afforded in guano, as is obvious from its composition; but in it they are applied in a much ])urer state, and in a form much more faA'Ourable for their ready assimilation by plants. Hence, a small quantity of guano goes as far as a great (piantity of common manure. To illustrate how tlie guano acts, suppose it has been ai)])lied to wheat. The ammoniacal salts which it contains cause the rapid growth of the stem and leaves ; but if these salts alone were present, the effect would end here, and little or no (jrain could be i)roduced. Hut the earthy and alkaline phos- phates ])resent then add their effects, and carry on the plant to a maturity corresponding to its early promise. How long the present great demand for a sul)- staiice thus curious and important can be sup- 170 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. plied, IS a very interesting subject of speculation ; but it seems probable that the present localities \\'ill be soon exhausted. New deposits of it are very rarely discovered ; and the flocks of sea-fo^^'l which produce it have been scared away from their old haunts by the bustle and movement occasioned in them by the guano-trade. It is, besides, impos- sible that the flocks of these birds, though extremely numerous, should be able to replace the enormous quantities that have been removed. J. C EASY MODE OF COLLECTING NIGHTS OIL. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir,— Herewith you will receive the model of a vessel intended as a receptacle for the human faeces and urine, for the purpose of preserving and applying it to the soil as a fertilizer. It represents a tar barrel (or cask) with a seat placed over its aperture, having a conductor to the bung-hole about five inches in diameter. Tliis con- trivance, if generally adopted, would tend to promote cleanliness, health, and moral conduct amongst a dense population, and amidst low, confined, and ill-ventilated habitations ; for, as the vessels need not exceed thirty or forty gallons, they could very readily be removed by night or by day without creating any very offensive effluvia. The wealthier portion of a city or town might adopt them in heu of constructing cesspools, or leposi- tories for the collection of vast quantities of such sub- stances, which must prove highly detrimental to their health and dwellings. To the poor, as the value of such materials became generally known to agriculturists and horticulturists, they would be a source of profit ; for few amongst them can imagine that a barrel containing 228 pounds of human excrement is equivalent to 1 ton 15 cwt. 2 qrs. of well-matured farm-yard dung; and that a barrel filled with three-fourths human urine, and the other fourth human excrement, admitting one pound of human urine to be equivalent to S^lbs. of farm-yard manure, its value will be equal to 1 8 cwt. 2 qrs, 6 lbs. The above calculations are taken from the Farmers' Almanac of the present year. Now, admitting a healthy and well-fed man to void Hlb. of sohds per diem, and 5 lbs. of liquid, it is to be presumed a family of five, allowmg one-third to be lost, will in twenty-one days fill a barrel, or 17 J barrels per annum, equal to 16 tons 0 cwt. 2 qrs. 21 lbs. per annum, and would in money's value be equal to the rent of a cottage. It is to be hoped such subjects are worthy the consi- deration of gentlemen interested in the cultivation of the soil, and of those officers who have to superintend the drainage of cities and towns, gaols and hospitals, and the guardians of the poor, in administering the law, and the cleanliness of poor-houses. Should you deem the above worthy of insertion in the Mark Lane Express, I shall feel obliged by your giving it a place, and subscribe myself Your most obedt. servant, Thos. Curtis, R.N. 22, London Road, King's Lynn, Norfolk, Jan. Ihth, 1845. CHEMISTRY FOR FARMERS. BY JOHN SPROULE, AUTHOR OF A " TREATISE ON AGRICULTURE," AND OF PRIZE ESSAYS ON "fLAX," " MANURES," &C., &C. I. Preliminary Observations. Practice with Science is the appropriate motto of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; indeed, peculiarly appropriate, inasmuch as the various operations to be performed in the cul- tivation of the soil are more dependant on the aid of science than those of any of the other arts. This country is justly famous throughout the world for the comparative perfection which has been attained in the various arts and manufactures in which its inhabitants are engaged ; but it is to the successful investigation of science, as connected with them, that the fame hitherto acquired has been attained. It is not necessary in this place to enter into detail in exhibiting examples of the bene- ficial application of science to the arts, as these, to a certain extent, are familiar to every one. Tlie application of science to agriculture, though it may be less apparent, is not less essential, even in those departments which may be regarded as of minor importance. The i*udest implement used in the cultivation of our fields is not constructed without an intimate knowledge of mechanics ; and although in this age of division of labour, the person who uses the implement is seldom or never the manu- facturer, still a knowledge of the principles on which it is constructed is of much importance, as often enabling it to be used more effectively and econo- mically; and this knowledge is especially necessary in the event of its going out of order. In the manufacture of the usual farm implements science has indeed already done much towards bringing them to their present highly-improved state. To the uninitiated many of the implements and ma- chines now employed in agriculture might seem more as objects suggested by the fancy of the mechanist, than as examples of mechanical skill admirably adapted for the intended purpose ; but the scientific farmer looks upon them in a very different light. As new implements and machines are being manufactured every day, it cannot be expected but that even the most intelligent farmer may be unacquainted \vith some of them^ but from liis practical knowledge of the operations which they are intended to perform, and the know- ledge which he should possess of the princi23les of mechanical science, he will be able at once to form an opinion as to the value of any new invention. The want of this knowledge on the part of the farmer is often a serious drawback on his opera- tions, as depriving him of the aid of many valuable implements, of which he is unable to appreciate the value \vithout having seen them at work ; while, on the other hand, a practical knowledge of the usual operations of husbandry, at least to a certain extent, would be eminently serviceable to the manufacturer, as enabling him better to adapt his implements and machines to the intended purpose. This species of scientific knowledge may be re- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 171 garded as of primary importance. It, in fact, forms the foundation upon which the entire super- structure of agricultural education is to be erected. Geology afterwards steps in to render its assistance in making the husbandman acquainted wth the nature and disposition of the various strata forming the outer covering or surface of the earth — the scene of his labours. By the aid of this depart- ment of science the origin of the several soils is explained, with the cause of the diversities which, even in the same field, they occasionally exhibit. The nature and origin of subsoils are also ascer- tained l)y the same means, wth the advantages which may be expected from breaking them up, and to what extent they should be brought up and incorporated with the surface soil. Geology is, further, of essential ser\-ice in the important opera- tion of draining. It points out the stratification and arrangement of the soil and subsoil, attention to which is often of incalculable advantage. By the aid of this science, moreover, the quality of the soil for agricultural purposes is determined with considerable precision. The primar)' ingredients of all soils being the result of the gradual disinte- gration of the rocks on wliich they are recumbent, it follows that a knowledge of the constitution of the rocky substratum is the first step towards forming a correct opinion of the quality of the soil itself. Thus the soils of limestone districts are uniformly fertile, whereas where granite forms the substratum they are generally barren. The determination of the precise ingredients of the soil belongs to chemistry ; but there are many variations in the qualities of apparently similarly constituted soils, which geology unassisted can explain. In conducting a geological examination of an extensive estate in Yorkshire, the result clearly demonstrated that the value of each field corresponded to the variations of the strata, and were limited by the areas which these occupied on the surface ; thus showing that the geological character of a country, when accurately understood, pointed out at once the natural value of the land, and the system of cultivation best adapted to it. For instance, on the highest range of hills on the estate in question, a few fields, without any appa- rent reason, have been \miversally productive in all seasons, more so than the fields adjoining them on a lower level, and which appeared nearly of the same quality, the cause of which was found to proceed from the circumstance of the substratum being formed of calcareous grit, 'lliis examination also showed that the wheat is usually thrown out in severe frosts only upon those fields formed by the coralline oolite ; the same cause having no effect upon the adjoining fields, which are on a different stratum. A limestone road lifts more in frost than a gravel road ; and a different method of planting wheat upon chalk or other calcareous soils is to be jjursued from that adojjted in other cases, to guard against failure from this particular cause.* Geology has relation to the soil itself, and modi- fies the operations which are performed with it. * Journal of the Royal English Agricultural Society, vol, i. p. 270. The next consideration, then, is the plants which are to be grown on it. Tlie science of botany im- parts a knowledge of these, and is a proper object of study with every farmer who is anxious to rise above the empirical practice of his art. The term is of course understood here in its most extended sense, and not merely in the hmited signification of classification and arrangement, to which it is too often confined. The art of culture is well known to modify the characters of plants to an almost incredible extent, in fact, to such a degree that the original characters can scarcely be traced unless by the practised eye of the botanist. The mere practical farmer could scarcely be convinced that the insignificant mid cabbage is the original whence we have derived the numerous -varieties in cultivation ; and the characters of some of these are even so different that it can scarcely be believed that they have a common origin. Thus the cauli- flower is not more unlike the drum-head and thousand-headed cabbage, than both are unlike the wild plant to which they originally owed their origin ; the peculiar properties of each being pro- duced by art. Nor is the wild carrot less unUke the numerous valuable varieties of that plant in cultivation in our fields and gardens. The sour crab is the original from which different varieties in our gardens have been obtained. But it is un- necessary to enumerate further examples of the great influence which cultivation can be brought to exercise, in changing the qualities of the natural products of the soil. These changes can, however, only be brought about by properly understanding the structure and functions of the vegetable eco- nomy, as it is only when our operations are in consonance with the great laws of nature, that they can be expected to be successful. Many of our cultivated plants are exotics, now become natural- ized to the vicissitudes of our climate ; while others must be kept entirely in an artificial atmosphere, the temperature of which is assimilated as closely as possible to that of their native places. But a knowledge of the science of plants, if the term be allowed, not only enables the cultivator to improve the quahty of existing varieties : it also enables him to produce new ones, or hybrids, possessing in some degi-ee the characters of each of the original plants from which they were derived. The beautiful organization by which the continuation of the species is secured, cannot fail to call forth the admiration of even the most casual observer. In the vegetable kingdom the sexual organs are not less perfectly developed than in the animal, impregnation of the ovaiy being not less essential for the inirposes of ro-i)roduction in the former than in the latter. Abundant arrange- ments naturally exist to secure this process taking place without the intervention of art ; but when a new or hyl)rid variety is desired, it is merely necessary to bring the jjlants from which it is to be jiroduced into contact at the \no\m- period, depriving the one of the male, and the other of the female organs, and securing the plants thus situated from the jiossibility of contact with others of the same family. This i)rocess is managed with great facility in the case of the Brassica tnbo of plants, and a very valuable turnip in Mcneral 172 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cultivation— Dale's Hybrid— was in this manner originally produced. 'ihe consideration of the development of the vegetable structure properly belongs to that depart- ment of botany termed vegetable ])hysiology ; but It is to chemistry that we are indebted for our knowledge of the means by which the necessary changes for that purpose are effected, with the various decompositions and combinations thereby produced. Chemistry not only determines the precise ingredients composing the structure of plants, but also those of the various other bodies by ^yhich they are influenced. The vegetable physiologist ascertains the means by which plants increase in size, the flow of a peculiar liquid termed the sap at particular periods of the year, the functions performed by the leaves in changing the properties of this hquid, and the pecuhar organs which serve as channels for its conveyance, with the various other jjhenomena of the vegetable growth; but the chemist determines the com])o- sition of this hquid both before and after the leaves have exercised their influence, and endea- vours to ascertain the sources whence the various ingredients found in plants are derived. These are in part suppHed by the atmosjjhere and by water, and in part by the soil. No other source exists from which plants can derive anything for their support. The composition of water and of the atmosphere being constant, the supply from these sources is unfailing ; and when the necessary ingredients are not found to exist in the soil they must be supplied by artificial means ; hence the origin of manuring exhausted lands, and the importance of chemistry applied to agriculture as determining how this can be best effected. The determination of the sources whence the various ingredients of the vegetable structure are derived, solves one of the most important problems connected with the culture of plants. This is, howe\'er, no easy matter satisfactorily to ascertain. So far as regards the mineral constituents of plants, no doubt can of course be entertained as to their being supphed by the soil alone. The recent researches of scientific men have done much to re- move the doubts with which our previous knowledge of the subject was surrounded ; and from the manner in which these investigations are at present conducted, there is good reason to hope that all doubts upon this important subject will speedily be removed. Chemistry further shows us the intimate con- nexion subsisting between the animal and vege- table kingdom— how organized matter is ])roduced from the soil, water, and the atmosphere— how this organized or vegetable matter is destined for the support of a still more highly organized exis- tence, in the form of the various animals which people the globe we inhabit, which all originally derive their food from plants, the herbivorous affording food to the carnivorous. Though ap- parently so dissimilar in their constitution, analy- sis shows animals and vegetables to be precisely identical in this respect, each being resolvable into a few primary elements, existing merely in dif- ferent i)roportions and in different states of com- bination. However different the bones of animals, which, under certain conditions, almost bid de- fiance to the ravages of time, may appear from the blade of grass or a grain of coin, precisely similar ingredients will be found in the one as in the other; the animal organism being incapable of forming within itself any new elementary matter not originally taken into the system by the food. Tt is to chemistry also that we are indebted for a knoM'ledge of the changes which take place in organized matter during its growth ; how, in the animal economy, one proportion of the food is devoted to the production of muscle, and another of fat, as well as the peculiar circumstance under which this is, with the greatest facility, produced. The influence of climate on vegetation has already been incidentally noticed. Peculiar fami- lies of plants are found only in certain situations, the circumstances most favourable for the pro- duction of some being inimical even to the very existence of others. In the animal kingdom, although peculiarity of situation is not without its influence, the animal economy is better able to adapt itself to the circumstances in which it may be placed. Chemical science shows us that it is not by any peculiarity of ])hysical constitution that the Indian is enabled to bear hardship and fatigue under which the European would sink; under similar circumstances, and under a similar regimen, the latter would, in fact, exhibit the same remark- able powers. In tropical countries, where the high temperature of the air, and the abundance of aqueous vapour which it contains, develop to the xitmost the resources of vegetable life, the amount of labour required from the inhabitants for self- support is extremely trifling : the heavy and laborious culture of the temperate regions, the unceasing tillage of the soil, so necessary with us, are altogether uncalled-for. In those smiling regions of almost perpetual sunshine, where the teeming earth gives its increase -with little labour, all nature invites to repose and indolence, and the energies of the mind itself are unstrung by the removal of that sharj) spur of necessity which goads men to the task of labour. Here, however, the sustenance furnished to the human race has been so adjusted chemically to this condition of things, as not to fail to excite the deepest feelings of admiration and gratitude. The North American hunter lives wholly upon flesh ; he patiently follows the foot-marks of his game through the wild woods for days together, until he finds an opportunity of s urprising it : fasting meanwhile, or at best sub- sisting on a few scraps of dried meat ; rivaling the beast of prey in his power of endurance, in his quick yet stealthy step, and in the searching glance of his eye ; careless alike of frost and heat, sleep- ing on the bare-ground, a thin blanket or a buffalo robe his only protection. It is his food which enables him to do and to suffer all this ; to bear exertions which would destroy him, were he not supported from within by a kind of nourishment so concentrated in its form as to supply abundantly the losses of bodily substance occasioned by change of matter, and even to render the exertions them- selves, long-continued and violent as they are, actually sources of pleasure.* The food which one * Fownes' Prize Essay on Chemistry, &c., &c. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 173 condition of climate renders nece^saiy, is, in fact, entirely unsuited for a different one, the reason of which shall be more fully explained in the sequel. The causes on which these phenomena depend it is well that the ajjriculturist should thoroughly understand. In the feeding and management of his stock, no less than in the cultivation of his crops, it is necessary that the i)ractice adopted should be founded on correct j)rinciples. Under different conditions, as regards temperature merely, it is satisfactorily ascertained that a given (piantity of food will prove more efficacious in putting on flesh in one case than in another. The same food, also, according as it is prepared by cooking or other means, j)roduces \ery different effects. It is evident, howe\'er, that it is necessary that the causes influ- encing these effects should he understood ; other- wise, the feeder is like a man groping his way in the dark, who, though occasionally on the right path, is liable to go astray, without possessing any means whereby he may be aware of his error. The more extended application of science is un- questionably calculated to do much for agriculture, and to raise it from its hitherto em))irical position ; and this is especially the case with chcmicul science. Tlius the analysis of vegetable substances informs us that they are composed of a few elementary sub- stances, existing in very various ])roj)ortions in dif- ferent famihes of plants ; in addition to which, cer- tain organic or jnineral matters are j)resent, derived (as before observed) from the soil, and which, though small in quantity, are not the less necessary to the healthy development of the vegetable structure. The proportion of each of these matters found in the same sjjecies is, moreover, pretty constant, no matter in what situation it may be found ; thereby indicating the necessity of sui)j)lying the pecvdiar matters necessary, where they do not already exist in surticient quantity in the soil. But in order to do this correctly, it is necessary to procure an ac- curate analysis of the soil itself, to ascertain the ex- tent to which the required substances are present. Tlie ingredients to be supplied then l)ecome api)arent, and hence the foundation of a rational and economical system of manuring ; rational, as supplying the matters really required, and econo- mical, inasmuch as those only are sujjplied. This is owe of the important advantages resulting from the more extended application of chemical science : and the importance or its being generally acted upon must be ajjparent to every thinking mind. Hut then the consideration presents itself — how is this to be effected ? That there are diffi- culties in the way must be admitted ; but they are not insuperable, especially where such imjjortant inter- ests are at stake. It is not by any means necessary that the fanner should become an adejjt in chemical munij)ulation, to enable him to enact his part in this desiraljle movement ; but it is essentially necessary that he should be in ])ossession of such an amount of scientific knowledge as to be able to imderstand the causes influencing any given results when brought under his notice by men of science. He has only to put himself in possession of the existing state of knowledge of the science, leaving, for the most part, the performance of chemical operations to those who devote themselves exclusively to such subjects. Although much remains to be done in this department of science, much has also been already accomplished. The physiology of the vege- table structure is not now mere matter of si)ecula- tion, as in times that are j)ast. The component in- gredients of the different classes of vegetables, with the sources whence they are derived, are now toler- ably well kno\\'n. The various kinds of manures, too, which are applied for increasing their growth, have also frequently formed the subject of analysis ; but in regard to these, the same degree of precision cannot be acquired, the same substance lieing very different in quality under different circumstances ; and hence the impropriety of arriving at general conclusions with regard to the com])osition of ma- nures from isolated cases of analysis. In the case of soils, the variation is still greater than in that of manures. In their analysis, moreover, the greatest accuracy is required, in order that any conclusions of practical value may be deduced from them ; and hence this is a j)rocess the practical farmer will rarely be able to perform. The quantity of some of the inorganic ingredients existing in plants is, in fact, so small, that a due supply might be contained in the soil, and still not be found in any appreciable quantity in a specimen submitted to investigation, unless extremely accurately conducted ; so that analysis deficient in this respect, unless for ascer- taining the general characters of the soil, is only calculated to mislead. It is, indeed, no difficult matter to jjcrform an analysis, in the ordinary ac- ceptation of the term, which is merely directed to the discovery of the predominating ingredients, and the proportion in which they exist ; but it is fre- quently the absence or presence of those contained only in small quantity which it is most important to ascertain. The fertility of soils being influenced by the comparative facility with which they can supply certain constituents of ])lants, it is only the most refined analysis that, in many cases, is capable of determining whether they are j)resent or not, much less of explaining to what their peculiar ex- cellences or defects may be owing, what ought to be added to render them more productive, or why, in short, certain effects are produced ujion them by the addition of i)articular substances, while the ap- plication of others may be attended by no beneficial results. To illustrate this subject by an example — gyp- sum is well known to be essential for the jiroduc- tion of red clover in luxiuiance ; but the ajjphcation of such a small quantity as two cwt. to the acre is found to be ami)ly sufficient for tliat purpose, an increased quantity not producing a corresponding effect. Now, supposing this quantity to be equally distributed through the soil to the depth of one foot, the proj)ortioii found in a poimd weight of soil would be about half a grain ; and in one hun- dred grains — a very common weight of soil to sub- ject to analysis — the quantity of gypsum would not be more than one seven-tliousandth part of a grain, a i)roi)ortion which only a carefully c(mducted analysis would l)e able to detect ; and yet the de- tection of it would be of the utmost importance were it desired to know whether gypsum should be applied to that particular soil, i'he necessity of 174 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. such accuracy as this need not discourage farmers from availing themselves of the advantages which science holds out for their acceptance. It only shows the means to be employed to really turn it to valuable account. But it may be asked — "WTiy has chemistr}' hitherto done so little for the advancement of hus- bandrj', when it is calculated to do so much ? It must, however, be remembered that chemistry is, as it were, only in its infancy. ITiis may be said especially of agricultural chemistry. Little, if any- thing, was done in this department of science before the publication of Sir Humphrey Davy's lectures ; but this distinguished philosopher was unable to bestow his imdivided attention to this subject, and was, besides, carried off in the prime of life, and in the midst of his brilliant discoveries. For nearly a quarter of a century after\vards little addi- tion was made to the existing stock of information ; in fact, some of the erroneous views previously ad- vanced had, in some degree, contributed to bring science into disrepute among practical farmers. Recently, however, the attention of scientific men has been attracted to the subject with unexampled zeal and ability, by whose exertions very consider- able additions to our previous knowledge of the science has been made ; and many disputed points have been satisfactorily settled beyond further con- troversy. It is true that the present comj^aratively advanced state of British agriculture has been attained with- out any very marked contribution from the efforts of scientific men ; it has, in fact, been owdng chiefly to the combined exertions of practical men that the improvements already introduced are to be ascribed. Most of the information already acquired in the art is the result of observation and experience ; and the path of cautious and accurate experiments must never be deserted for the speculations of science. Unaided l)y science, however, procedure by experi- ment alone is slow in its results ; the latter is there- fore calculated rather to test the accuracy of the conclusions arrived at by the former. It has, in fact, been the want of co-operation ])etween them which has caused the discoveries of science to be so little valued by the practical farmer. The crude theories of the laboratory have too often l)een brought before the farming community, and I'ecom- mended for general adoption, without having been previously tested by the standard of experiment ; and in many cases, as might have been expected, they turned out to be a mere mass of absurdities, the evil effects of which spread themselves, to the almost total distrust and ridicule of such investiga- tions, from whatever quarter they might come. {To be continued.) VALUE OF THE OAK.— In 1810 an oak tree was cut down in South Wales, and sold for one hundred guineas. It cost 82/. to cut it down, peel it, and cut it up ; five men were employed twenty days each in strip- ping it and cutting it down. It covered, when growing, 452 square yards ; diameter of the butt 9^ feet, and contained 2,426 feet of timber. The bark was three inches thick. The total produce of the tree was 600/. REMARKS ON BRITISH AGRICULTURE : its advancement and scientific progress, and on adjustment of rents as a means of ameliorating the condition of the labouring classes. [In a Letter addressed to Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., &c.] Sir, — The rapid strides science has made in this country during the last few years, and consequently the natural progress of agricultural improvements, has awakened the public mind into the necessity of doing something more than has yet been attained in elevating the art of culture to a level with the other arts and sciences. Those interested in the cultivation of the land have long felt the loss of that acquired knowledge which specially relates to the art by which they hve; and, the backward state of agriculture in England is mainly attributable to the small value hitherto placed upon any other than practical information, to the consequent absence of nearly all pubHc provision for acquiring it. Strange as it may seem, it is nevertheless true, that in Great Britain there is no institution suited to the wants of this great manufacturing and agricultural coun- try. Lectures are daily read, wd are told, in the Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow ; and in the University of Giessen, in the small state of Darmstadt, there is a chemical school, in which more has been done for organic chemistry than in any other schools ; and I trust before long no far- mers' club or agricultural society will be without its professors, to expound its nature and properties, and to gi\'e an intelligible account of the various experiments and discoveries, and also to detect the impurities mixed up with and found in manures, and also to show the absurdity of recommending any particular manure for a specific crop without a thorough knowledge of the constituents of soils ; so that in time there be not a single farmer igno- rant of these essential stimulants to agriculture and the feeding of stock. Within the last ten years a fresh and healthy impetus has been given to farming pursuits by draining and subsoil ploughing, manuring, and crojiping of lands. Vegetable physiology is every day becoming more unravelled and developed ; the constituents of soils more clearly defined and identified ; greater care exercised in the analytical deductions of all sorts of manures, and their pro- perties adapted to the diversities of soils ; better and more efficient implements used than formerly : in fact, a more systematic method of cultivation has been introduced, which, when carried out to its fullest extent, will, I trust, tend to promote the interests of all classes, increase produce, prove ad- vantageous to landlords, and strengthen the condi- tion of the tenant farmer and the labourer. Agri- culture in this country is, at the present moment, labouring under great difficulties and distress ; the first and most important cause is the constant alterations and interference of the laws relating to the importation of corn. Such constant changes tend to unsettle men's minds, cripple their powers, humble their spirits, discourage industry, check exportation, and prevent the markets being kept THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 175 up in that wholesome way which prevailed before these measures were introduced. The tarift" also has caused great distress, by keeping down the price of every description of produce raised by stock or dair)' farmers ; thus bewildering their plans and upsetting those httle manoeuvres to which they are obliged at the present day to resort, in order to get an honest livelihood. Farming, of all pursuits, is the most hazardous, owing to the changes of the seasons, failure of crops, fluctua- tions in the price of corn, disease in cattle and sheep, caprice of landlords, and want of capital. In times of scarcity, when the i)rice of corn rises, it generally happens that the greater portion of small fanners have little or no stocks to sell ; it is the scarcity of the article which occasions the ad- vance ; thus they are not only depri\'ed of the bene- fit of increased profit arising from advanced prices, but, in addition to high rents, all other things have a tendency to rise, and this when the farmers are least able to bear it. On the other hand, in times of abundance, whether arising from unusually large harvests or extensive importations of fo- reign corn, the price dechnes : they are again de- barred from profit, and the consumers being sup- plied, no reduction in price can increase the demand, save only at such a I'uinous reduction as will induce speculators to buy a perishable article which they do not want, with a view of hoarding it up against the time they do. According to the census taken in 1841, 3,180,942 adult male persons were then employed in agricul- ture and manufactures, and of those by far the greater number were employed in agriculture. In 1841, the average amount of the annual proceeds from agriculture in England and Wales was £279,137,820, and from manufactures £l80,7r)7,7GG. The value of the agricultural produce, therefore, exceeded the value of all goods manufactured more than one-third. For every £1 employed in manufactures £15 is employed in agriculture. As England, in favourable seasons, grows sufficient wheat for its own consumption, and has not in any year required more than from three io four milUoii quarters from foreign countries, we cannot expect in any year manufactures in exchange for corn beyond the value of the three or four mil- lions of quarters ; and if a quantity of wheat be imported beyond the average annual quantity re- (luired, every quarter so imported would supersede the same quantity of British corn, and conse- quently diminish the labour required in this coun- try to produce it. These three or more million fjuarters of corn are imported from Germany, l^russia, Russia, and Canada, at prices varying from 30s. to 3Gs. j)er quarter ; a higher duty being charged on the importation of corn from Poland than on corn from Canada, in the same manner as there is a higher duty im])osed on sugar from the Brazils than on sugar imported from Haibadoes, or as the duty levied on foreign cotton keeps the Swiss and Saxon cottons out of our markets. Yet the Anti-Com-Law theorists tell us that, if corn from Poland can be obtained at 44s., we ought to give it a preference to wheat from Kent, Essex, or Nor- folk at 48s. Thus free trade means the greatest possible amount of competition, and the smallest possible amount of profit ; and, if it should ever take place in this country, it would directly attack the farmer, inasmuch as his expenses must be met each year. With a low ])rice of corn, his capital would soon become exhausted, and competition so great that labour would be diminished ; and occu- piers of land would have to maintain their labourers from the parish funds, which would be derived from the lands in cultivation. From the statistics of this country, we find the fluctuations in the price of com were as great dur- ing the period from 1700 to 1790, as they have been since the termination of the war, the price of wheat for the most part averaging between 40s. and 50s. per qr. ; a bounty was then allowed ]jy the Govern- ment ujjon all wheat, giving to the producer of wheat at that period a protection equivalent to that which is now received under the present law. Average value of wheat — s. d. In 1817 . 94 0 1822 . 43 3 1829 . GO 4 1835 . 39 4 1840 . . 56 n 1844 . 48 0 The direct and indirect taxes, parochial charges, rent charge, and land tax, amount to about 25s. per acre, or upwards of 2()s. per (p-. upon the wheat pro- duced; and the average produce per acre is, in Eng- land— wheat, 28 bush. ; barley, 32 bush. ; and oats, 3G bush. In France — 14 bush, of wheat, 15 bush, of barley, and 18 bush of oats. In Poland — wheat, 13 bush.; in Austria, 13 bush.; in America, 18 bush. ; and in Russia four times the seed. Tlie rent in Prussia and in some of the corn growing districts averages about 3s. per acre, whilst in Po- land, from whence large quantities of corn are ex- l)orted to this country, the average rent is only from 3d. to 8d. per acre, and the whole amount of tax- ation is from Ijd. to 2d. per acre. In the agricul- tural districts of the United States, wheat is 2s. 6d. to 3s. per bush., and even in the trading cities not more than 3s. Gd. per bush., or not half oiu- price. Sir Robert Peel stated when the last Corn Law (1842) was introduced, that the farmers of England had arrived at that jirecise period of their history when they could aff"ord to give up ])art of their pro- tection ; and if the laws were altered in the manner proposed, it would not affect prices so much as was expected ; and that farmers would ol)tain 5Gs. per (|r. for wheat, or that the jirices woiUd range be- tween 54s. and 58s. per qr. But, according to the average at the ])resent time, the price of wheat has (lroi)i)ed to from 4Gs. to 48s. per qr. Previous to 1842, the English farmer enjoyed a protection of 5s. Gd., or about H) ])er cent. per. qr. up to 5Gs., and it was then stijjulated that if the price rose to 58s., the duty should droj) Is. j)er qr. ; so the price of wheat, under tlie law of 1815, which was in- tended to secure to the producer «0s. per qr., fell to very nearly half the amount in 1820-21-22, and under the Duke of Wellington's i)lan in 1828, which was introduced to kec]) u\) wheat to G5s., did it not fall in 1835 to 39s. Gd. ? Before the year 1843 American wheat was imported into Canada free of duty, and the importation from Canada into this 176 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. country was from 60,000 to 80,000 qrs. per annum. Such was the state of imports up to 1843; by the bill of 1843, a duty was imposed of 3s. on American wheat into Canada, and the consequence is, that a vast increase in the amount of importation took place last year compared with former importations ; and by the Gth and 7th Vic, c. 29, wheat and wheat meal, or flour, the produce of Canada, im- ported thence since the 10th of October, 1843, are imported at a fi.\ed duty, the former at Is. per qr. the latter at 42 per cwt. Thus the British farmer has now a protective duty of Is. only, with 10 per cent, additional on assessed taxes, whilst the Canadian farmer has no assessed taxes, no poor- rates, highway-rates, or county-rates. From a Statement of the several Rates of Duty which haA-e been payable upon each sort of Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour during the month ended the 5th day of January, 1845. Imported from any Foreign Country. Specie?!. In the Weeks following the Certificates of Average Price?, dated Dee. 5, Dec. 12, Dee. 19, Dec. 26, Jan. 2, 1844. 1844. 1844. 1844. 1815. s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s, d. Wheat, per qr.. . 20 0 20 0 20 0 20 0 20 0 Barley, per qr. — M&ize, or Ind. Corn, per qr. Buck Wheat, }■ 3 0 3 0 3 0 4 0 4 0 per qr Bare or Bigg, per qr J Oats, per qr . . , . 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 Rye, per qr 8 6 9 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 Peas, per qr.. . . 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 Beans, per qr. . . 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 Wheat Meal oi Flour, per cwt. 6 101 6 101 6 lOJ 6 lOi 6 lOi Oatmeal, per cwt. 3 8t-^ 3 8^^ 3 8,f,3 8,fii3 8i^ The Produce of, and imported from, anv British Possession out of Europe. Species. In the Weeks following tlie Certificates of Average Prices, dated Dec. 5, 'Dec. 12, Dec. 19, Dec. 26,1 Jan. 2, 1844. 1844. 1844. 1844. 1845. Wheat, per qr. Barley, per qr.'l Maize, or Ind. Corn, per qr. Buck Wheat, per qr, Bere or per qr. . . Oats, per qr. . Rye, per qr. . . . Peas, per qr. . . Beans, per qr. . . Wheat Meal or Flour, per cwt Oatmeal, per cwt. s. d. s. d. 0 5 0 0 C ,0 6 2 0 0 6 0 6 0 6 1 8i 2 0 1 0 0 6 0 G 1 81 1 9 98 1 9 g. d. 5 0 0 6 2 0 1 6 0 6 0 6 1 81 s. d. 5 0 0 6 2 0 1 6 0 6 0 6 1 81 I 2«A1 2/^ s. d. 5 0 0 6 2 0 2 0 0 6 0 6 I think, sir, I have now shown that prices will always be regulated by the relative proportions of supply and demand, and by bounteous or bad han'ests, rather than by any act of the legislature excluding foreign corn from coming into compe- tition with our home produce, and although prices may be depressed by a lower duty being imposed than in 1842, still there are many advantages we have over the foreigner ; we produce it where it i.s consumed, whilst he must be at the expense of freight, insurance, and shipping charges. AH coun- ties in England vary in their different pecuUarities of soil ; even in parishes approximating each other farms differ most materially in soil and produce. AVe find good loamy land on one farm, stiff clays on another, sandy and thin chalk soils on a third farm, and so on to the moors and wolds of Lincoln- shire, Yorkshire, and the mountains of Wales, where I have seen land hardly worth 2s. 6d. per acre. All counties are famous for the perfect growth of a particular genus of plants : wheat grows well in Kent, Essex, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and Suffolk; the barley lands are Hertfordshire, Northamptonshire, Combridgeshire, Huntingdon- shire, &c. ; the old turf lands in the Midland Counties and Herefordshire suit cattle better, and fatten them quicker than any other, and aid their growth ; whilst the rich pastures of Derbyshire, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, and Somersetshire, cause them to yield more and richer milk. So, corn or roots from certain kinds of land yield more nutri- tive produce than others, and go further towards improving the growth and fatness of the animal, which depends as much from what it lives on as the plant or root on what it receives from the soil. The object of agricultural labour is to raise on any given space the greatest quantity of any kind of grain or vegetation, consistently Avith a due regard to the quality of the produce : this can only be done by digging, ploughing, rolling, and manuring ; and in- directly by hoeing, weeding, and rotation of crops. As to fallows, modern experience has taught us that, besides the loss of produce, the object is better obtained by manuring and cultivating than by allowing them to remain idle. Every ge- nus of plant requires for its perfect growth and fruitfulness some particular principle to be de- rived from the soil. Hence the land, when it has raised and supplied to a crop all that it possessed of that necessary principle, it is no longer capable of nourishing the same until its principles are re- stored, and Avithout the aid of tillage becomes bar- ren. But it is capable of nourishing some other crop, which requires a different food from the soil. It is founded also on experience, that in order to effect the growth of large quantities of any kind of plant, the earth must be frequently moved, and fresh jiortions of it brought to the surface, so that all in turn might be subjected to the influence of the weather, and the fertility of the soil may be re- newed by supplying those elementary principles which the preceding crops have exhausted. A soil, to be fertile, must contain the constituent substan- ces which Dr. Playfair so ably described in his lecture before the Royal Agricultural Society last December. If any of these be absent, you will im- prove it by adding to them such as salt, gypsum, wood-ashes, &c. The constituents found in soils are silica, soda, alumina, sulphuric acid, lime, phosphoric acid, magnesia, chlorine, oxide, of iron, fluvium, potash, manganese, &c. Plants generally contain most of these ingredients, but in very THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 177 different proportions. The silica j)lants are wheat, barley, and rj'e-straw ; the lime plants, pea and bean straw, potato haulm, sainfoin and meadow hay and clover; the potash plants are maize straw, turnips, beetroot, and potatoes ; manure is generally rich in silicate of potash, and phosphorate, which gradually becomes more fitted for the plants by ex])osure to the weather : during this interval turnijis are grown, or a j)lant requiring little more than a fourth of the quantity of phosphates required by the corn crops, and which taking up no silica, and but little lime or magnesia ; the com crops having exhausted the soluble sihca and phosphates, green crops are grown, and ha^•ing before had two crops which re- quire a considerable quantity of potash, they now resort to those containing lime, and the action of the air upon the soil liberates silica and phosphates sufficient to grow a new crop of corn. To ex- emplify this, recourse is had to tlie four-course shift in Essex and Suffolk, and the probable result of good farming is — Turnips, 15 to 20 tons per acre, at from £3 to £4. Barley, 40 to 45 bushels jier acre, at 38s, per qr. Clover, \\ to 2 tons per acre, at £3 to £5. AVheat, 4 qrs. per acre, at 5Gs. per qr. Mangel M'urzel, 20 tons per acre, at£l Is. Oats, 48 to 56 bush, per acre, at 21s. per qr. Peas and beans, 28 to 30 bush, per acre, at 32s. l)cr qr. Thus by altering the crops, manuring, and a regular succession of green crops intervening, the greatest possible return from the land is received, but not without a considerable amount of outlay and labour. In Kent on land of only middling quality, the shift is, rye, £l Is. per acre; turnips, £3 per acre; oats, 7 qrs., £7 14s, per acre; seeds; peas, 3 qrs., £4 l6s, per acre; wheat, 3i qrs., £8 15s. per acre. In Lincolnshire the produce of a farm under the five field system, stands thus ; and the value per acre is, turnips, £4 per acre ; wheat, 4 qrs., at 56s. per qr., per acre ; seeds, £3 per acre; oats, 7 qrs., at 25s. per qr. per acre. I have taken these counties because few counties excel them in their mode of cultivating the land, as the produce proves. There have been some interesting details lately pubhshed, respecting the profitable mode of drain- ing lands ; and a great deal of unprofitable land may still, at a small expense comjjaratively with the produce increased, be brought into a decent state of cultivation, by the transformation which has been proved to have taken place by draining and subsoil ploughing, and crops which formerly were condemned to draw their sustenance from six or nine inches of soil, can now descend eighteen or twenty inches. The outlay of capital in adopting this new method, and which has been so al)ly carried out by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, might by some penurious farmers 1)e considered large, say £7 or £H j)er acre ; but I think the extra expendi- ture well worth tlic consideration and attention of .'dl practical farmers, for in the fens the advantage is obvious to a great degree, and in Wales sundry l)orti(msof wet land, hardly worth 2s. 6d. per acre, pave been jjo far improved by draining and subsoil ])loughing, that a fair crop of turnips has grown where they never grew before. ITie price of tiles in Wales is about 30s. a thousand; the price of making them 12s. per thousand. £ s, d. The sheds, containing 12,000 . . 105 o 0 The kilns holding do. . . . 85 0 0 Cast-iron mill . . • . .13 0 0 A Tweeddale patent machine . . 40 0 0 License 2 12 6 Incidentals . . . . , 10 0 0 £255 12 6 I have no doubt great alteration will take place in time as to their prices, and will tend to increase our average fertility to the amount of four or six bushels. The mode of cidtivation in the isle of Lewis, the most distant of the Hebrides is also very interest- ing. The crass croom, or hand and foot plough is there used, an instrument with a sole aljout fif- teen or eighteen inches long, thick behind, and sharp in front, which latter being shod with iron, penetrates the land. It is pushed forward by a man, by means of a long handle, and also by a pin attached to the heel of the sole, for his foot, and thus turns up the peat land and gravel, and then gathering up the soil from one part and adding it to another. It appears they have never attempted to break through the deep subsoil, which is often steeped in water ; nothing has been done in the shape of draining, and the system, if it can be so called, is first to move the land before i)o- tato planting, barley and oat sowing, which has been carried on in succession for the last hundred years. From the agricultural report of East Lothian fanning I find the following remarks in the Scots- man of last December : — " Notwithstanding that the weather has been so unfavourable, and so little has been done for some time past, it cannot yet be said that labour is behind. The greater portion of stubble has already been turned over, and most farmers have begun to plough lea, which is just about the stage of such matters at this date ; a good deal of wheat is frequently sown after turnips during this month, but little or nothing has been done in that way this year, and perhaps it is well, as from the experience of many farmers, it is proved to be safe, one year with another, to delay it till the last week of February or March, as when sown then, it keeps the ground better, and is less liable to suffer from the wire-worm and other diseases. Turnips are universally acknowledged to be stand- ing a good deal of eating, although sheep feeding on them become thinner but kindling. Cattle in courts have done better, their food being better se- cured ; and the frostbeing favourable for threshing, they have been abundantly sui)i)lied with litter. Prices for both fat cattle and sheep ha\e remained I)rctty stationary, but it is thought that a rise may be calculated on as the season advances, the de- mand for the Lf)ndon market being expected to im- prove, Tliorough draining goes on briskly in those locahties where this important imjjrovement has not yet been executed, Many extensive farms hav^ 178 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. been already gone completely over with drains about six yards apart. It is not easy obtaining data to form a correct estimate of the quantities of foreign manures apphed in a season throughout this dis- trict, but there cannot be a doubt that in each suc- ceeding year it is greater than the last. Guano has been used to a great extent, and its introduc- tion after thorough draining is perhaps the great- est boon ever obtained by the fanning interest. This cheap and most efficacious manure has acted like a spell, and is quite a relief to the tenantry, equal to as great a reduction of rent as has ever been granted by the most liberal landlord. It is now quite certain that the last crop is beyond an average, particularly wheat ; while the payments from other grains, and the profits being obtained from feeding sock, are such as to render farming, especially to those paying grain rents, a better con- cern than what it has been in any year since 1835. The only complaints come from a limited number whose farms are unfortunately situate with regard to that prime nuisance game, which is said to be more numerous, and consequently more destruc- tive than usual. Labourers are every where well employed, at wages fully 10s. per week. On the whole, it may be confidently affirmed that the agricultural body, tenants and laboui'ers, have sel- dom been in a more prosperous and thriving con- dition ; and this, let it be remarked, with wheat at 45s. per quarter." In the west of England, the hedge-rows and small inclosures demand particular attention, as they clog the best energies of the farmer. It will be found, in many parishes in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, that one-fourth of the inclosures are under two acres, one-third imder three acres, and nearly two-thirds under four acres ; and in no other counties in England have I seen the inclosures so small. Thus the tenant sustains a loss of 10 per cent, on the land which they occupy, and full 20 per cent, difference in the expense of plough-labour, as compared with inclosures from 8 to 10 acres, to say nothing of the vast and serious inconveniences and loss sustained in harvesting and securing crops ; for it is well known that corn can be carried in large open fields a day or two earlier, especially in showery weather, than in the small inclosures I have named with the high hedge-rows. All fields — at least, arable ones — should be from six to eight acres in extent ; and this evil would easily be reme- died by the owners allowing the tenant to cut doAvn the hedge timber, and to set it off against the ex- pense of levelling the embankment. The ditches should be cleaned out, as they are in Essex, every aiitumn or winter, and their contents added to the manure stacks or the dung mixens, as they are called in the west. The art of ploughing consists in having good steady teams well up to their mark. In Essex, on light soils, the ploughs are worked by two horses abreast ; but the stiffness of the clay lands demands strong ploughs ; the unavoidable hea\'iness of the draught prescribes lightness, as well as ease of management. Open soils are found to be benefited by pressers ; the stiff clays by clod- crushers, and by grubbers to tear out the weeds ; and the ploughman shotdd turn over the furrows wth an exactness and precision, so that they may not present a jagged appearance to the eye ; and one furrow should neatly roll over the other, aided by the strength and tact of the holder in keeping the plough well to its work ; and manure should be laid on the ground immediately before solving the crops, rather than in the preceding autumn, or de- posited in the drills when the seed is sown, so that the seed may immediately reap the benefit of it. The system of dibbling wheat is much practised in the lower parts of Essex and Suffolk. The land after manuring, ploughing, and rolling, is ready for the dibbers, who walk backwards paredlel to each other wth the implement, having two handles, for the purpose of making the rows. Women, boys, and girls, follow with the prepared wheat ; the harrows foUomng in quick succession. It may be a more expensive mode than hand-scattering, but it saves seed, as it is well known that different stems sprout from one seed, and the wheat is better at har\^est time. Green crops yield much manure, and they require much ; the higher the farming, the more liberal the supply of manure and the greater the profit ; hence, in large towns, manure is eagerly sought after, and thus the produce of the neigh- bouring land increased. This is not the case in remote rural districts, where manure is scarce ; recourse should then be had to more portable ones, such as bone and rape-dust, guano, &c., which are found A^ery beneficial on turnip land and on sandy light soils. Corn groAvn in this country is the produce of manure and labour, and its value represents, or ought to do, the labour employed in its production ; and its groAvth so much depends upon the amount of stock kept, that any measure tending to diminish it must de- crease our acreage fertility, and as the value of the crop is enhanced by the return the different stock fed on it \vill make, so it is necessary to procure and produce that sort of stock that will make the best return of profit by the consumption of it. No man of the commonest obser\'ation can have tra- velled over the different counties Nvithout being struck Avith astonishment at the vast difference of symmetry, strain and bone perceptible in animals bred in the different localities of these realms. From the stately Herefordshire, Devonshire, Durham, or short-horned ox, Avorth £40, down to the decrepid, half-starved Scotch, Irish, or Welsh abortion, worth as many shillings; or from the princely Down sheep to the wild haggard-looking specta- cles on the Cardiganshire or Carmarthenshire mountains. In the lower parts of Essex and Suf- folk the markets are well supplied in the autumn with, all kinds of lean stock; Herefords, Devons, and Durhams are very scarce, and are chiefly con- fined to such eminent breeders as the late Lord Western, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, &c., who can afford to combine pleasure Avith profit. The home-breds are generally good, and vast droves of Scotch, Irish, and Welsh cattle are brought into the mar- kets ; but they are generally of an inferior breed, although they suit the country, as it is not a grazing district. They are kept in the farm-yards during the Avinter, or on turnips, and go oflT in the spring. Good fresh beasts take about 4 months to fatten, and require 3 bushels of Swedes, or 4 bushels of whites, Avith the addition of from 5lbs. to 6lbs. of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 179 oil cake, per day. The sheep are remarkably good. I did not see many good Downs, but cross-bred ones, between the Downs and the.black-faccd. Nor- folk sheep are bought, in September or October, at from 258. to 30s,, and seem to do well on the land. In the salt marshes they do well with plenty of showers, and which they require to fall quickly. The ewes in this county have fetched 40s. a i)iece ; they are a lengthy sort, and strong, in order to get over the dykes and drains, which are of good width all along the banks of the River Colne and the neighbouring estuaries. The white-faced ones, as they are called, are not liked, are deceptiAe in appearance, and bad winterers. It is curious to observe how steadily cattle and sheep have increased in size, and improved in breed and weight. In 1698 sheep were calculated, in Great Britain, at 12,000,000; in 1740 the number increased to 16,000,000, and in 182G they were estimated at 26,148,463; in 1834 they had in- creased to 32,000,000. Since that time they have trebled in niunber, and have nearly doubled their average weight. In 1710 the average weight of black cattle was only 370lbs. ; of calves, 50lbs. ; of sheep and lambs, 48lbs. But it is now estimated that the average deadweight of cattle and sheep sold in Smithfield market is, cattle 6561bs,, calves 144lbs., and sheep and lambs QOlbs, In the construction of farm-buildings, greater respect should be observed in the durability, con- venience, and economy than at present. The yards should not be too small, and should have plenty of sheds for the cattle to retire to. I saw a good model of a farm-yard answering these ends, and admirably adapted for all farming purposes, which may be had of any of the booksellers, I be- lieve, in Colchester. The price of labour for above 100 years past, in this countr)', has been about the value of a peck of good wheat per day, except during the war, when wheat rose to lOOs. per quarter; labourers then earned from 3s, id. to 3s. 6d. per day, and the standing wages in Essex were 2s, 6d, per day. Since the war, wages have ranged proportionably with the value of wheat; wheat at 60s. per quarter, wages were 12s, per week; at 52s. per quarter, 10s, per week; at 44s, per quarter from Ss. to 9s. per week. And I have generally found, on investigating the matter, that in good farming districts wages are put at 2s. a day for able-bodied men vnth families, and about 6s. or 7s. a week for single men. The hinds in Scotland are i)aid in kind, or with the produce of the land ; and the following are the quantities they receive, the ])rices being computed according to the marketable value in February last : — £ s. d. 9 quarters of oats 9 18 0 2 quarters 2 bush, of barley . . 3 16 0 1 quarter of peas or beans, ... 110 0 Cow-keep 5 0 0 In lieu of hnt (flax) 1 0 0 Potatoes 2 0 0 £2.T 4 0 or aboutOs.per week. Unmarried men usually obtain from £3 10s. to £5 for the half year, with bed and board. In America wages are veiy good, a com- mon labourer has a dollar a day, or 4s. 2d. of our money ; and in the country places the farmers generally pay 16 dollars a month, or about 15s. per week, besides food, consisting of flour, pork, milk, potatoes, &c. In France, Germany, and Austria wages are about 4s. per week, and in Poland about 7d. per day. In the West Indies the wages of a negro are nominally as high as those of an English labourer, essentially tliey are a great deal higher, for the negro does less work than the English labourer, and receives all the necessaries of life, according to his wants, at a lower rate ; tea, coflfee, and sugar he gets for one-half of what they cost the English labourer, and tobacco for one-twentieth part of the cost in this country. I think, sir, it is quite clear the labourer is best oft" with wheat at a remunerating ])rice, for whilst bread falls, say lod., for a family of 5 persons, a re- duction of 2s. per week may often take i)lace also in the shape of wages ; and we find in Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, and Sussex, their able-bodied labourers getting 7s. and 8s. per week, with wheat at 48s. per quarter. Now, sir, is this not monstrous injustice ? Do not these statements harrow up our souls, to think that our fellow men, bearing the same par- ticles of humanity with us, are in such a state of abject misery, distress, and degradation ? Why, such wages will hardly keep a sheep, in these times, in decent condition ! Something must be done for them ; and, I trust, the Duke of Richmond in his place, and you, sir, in yours, wUl attempt to draw public attention to these facts. 0\ving then, sir, to the vast improvement in British agriculture, and its scientific progress throughout this country, I believe now is the time for improA'ing the condition of the tenant farmer and the labourer. The more we can refine the habits of the farmer, tlie more they will be ready to re- ceive from us ; the more we increase their resources, the more they will be able to give to the labourer and his family. Let landlords and far- mers meet face to face. Landlords, agents, stewards, mortgagees, and their attorneys, should determine and establish a systematic adjustment of rents throughout this great and powerful country, not founded on any illusory schemes, old corn laws, and sliding scales. Had this taken place years ago, instead of fixing it upon vague assump- tions and reckless assertions, it would have been no more than jiist towards all parties, as it is well known the old law undertook to keep up, as much as possible, the last war prices, while the amended sliding scale of 1842 was constnicted to secure only 56s. per quarter, or a reduction of twelve- ann-half per cent., while rents hn\e been doubled since the year 1790, and trebled since 1700. Why then, sir, not make a virtue of neces- sity, instead of putting oft' the adjustment of rents from year to year, and instead of restricting the tenant to a'certain mode of tillage for years in suc- cession, and grinding him down to the last penny, in order to reimburse mortgages and rent-charges, or granting him abatements which, in nine cases out of ten, are his oanti defalcation from necessity ? Grant him leases at a fair valuation, so that he may live and let live. The duties of the landlord and the tenant are reciprocal ; the former should not op« 180 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. press the latter by taking more rent than he can fairly afford to pay, whilst the latter should make a fair remuneration to his labourer. The interest in the land is almost the same, and it is the duty of the stronger party to see that the weaker be not op- pressed. Thus, sir, British agriculture and British industiy, under the most improved methods of cul- tivation, wiU be protected, and found beneficial to all classes of the community, and a fair day's wages obtained for a fair day's work. I am, sir, your obedient servant, RUSTICUS EXPECTANS. WINGERWORTH FARMERS" CLUB. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE AT THE ANNI- VERSARY DINNER, JAN. 14TH, 1845. Gentlemen, — Tlie Committee, in making their report of the proceedings of the Club, must claim your kind indulgence for any imperfections conse- quent upon a first attempt. To those gentlemen who have not hitherto at- tended the monthly meetings it perhaps may not be uninteresting to give a short sketch of its origin. It emanated principally from our vice-president, who, having known much good to result from so- cieties of this description, drew up the address ap- pended to the printed rules, and consulting with those persons composing the present committee, several private meetings were held, and arrange- ments made to carry out the principles of a far- mers' club in due form. At the above meetings several gentlemen were proposed as members, and on the 2nd April, the first general meeting was held at Mr. Turner's — the Nag's Head — Mr. John Bunt- ing, of Penmore House, in the chair : the subject for discussion — " The best method of draining. " In the absence of Mr. Brown, the vice-chair, Mr. Holland, sen., opened the debate. At this meeting it was also agreed that the rules of the club should be rexdsed by the committee, who met for that pur- pose on the 9th April, and ordered them to be printed against the next monthly meeting. From this time there was a rapid increase of members. We shall now only state the meetings in regular succession, with the subject for discussion each night, together with the business meetings of the committee : — May 7th, — " The best method of growing tur- nips from farm-yard manure," l)y Mr. F. Browne, the secretary. May 13th. — The committee met at the club room to arrange about the experiments to be tried for the growth of turnips upon the farm of Mr. George Dickens. May 18th. — The committee met at the Angel Inn, Chesterfield. Mr. Dickens reported progress of tillage, &c. May 22x1(1. — The committee inspected the field, and approved of the state in which they found it. May 25th. — The committee met at the Star Inn, Chesterfield, when a statement of the measure of each section of land, and the quantity of manure per acre was agreed upon, and it was further agreed that the committee by turns should inspect the mil- nuring, drilling, &c. June 4th. — " The best method of improving grass land by manures." Mr. Nathaniel Bacon opened the debate. June 25th. — " The best method of making hay, and securing it, when made, from injury by weather in the field, or from heating in stack." Mr. Sa- muel Denham opened the discussion, which was highly interesting, and gave great satisfaction. July 23rd. — "The best method of hoeing tur- nips." Mr. E. Holland, sen., was called on to open the debate in the absence of Mr. John Grat- ton. July 27th. — A committee meeting was held at the Angel Inn, Chesterfield, which agreed upon establishing a libraiy of books for the use of the club. The following works were selected and or- dered, viz. : — The Horse, by Youatt ; Dissertation on Lime ; Liebeg's Chemistry ; Hillyard's Farmer and Grazier ; Johnson's Agricultural Chemistry ; Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture ; the Bri- tish Cultivator. August 27th. — " The best method of cutting and securing corn, by reaping or mowing." Mr. Den- ham began the discussion ; it was carried by a large majority that reajjing was more economical than mowing, and more suitable for this part of the country. At this meeting the vice-president presented the club with 3 vols. " British Husbandry" and one vol. of pamphlets on various subjects connected uith farming. Mr. J. Nicholson made a present of the " Muck Manual," and the secretaiy gave Young's " Farmers' Calendar." August 30th. — A committee meeting was held at the A-ice-president's to fix upon the time to be al- lowed for perusing each book; and it was also agreed that the library should be kept at the Club House, and that Miss Turner be appointed librarian. September 24th. — " The best method of prepar- ing and so\ving wheat, and the proper quantity per acre." Mr. N. Bacon opened the discussion. October 22nd. — " The proper time for getting and preser\'ing potatoes and other esculent roots." The secretary opened the discussion ; the meeting passed an unanimous vote of thanks to the secre- tary for his suggestions on the preservation of ])o- tatoes, and to Mr. Bacon, of Boythorjje, for his ob- servations on preserving turnips. November 19th. — " The best method of feeding and managing store cattle during the winter," by E. Holland, jun., whose remarks were much ap- proved of by the meeting. At this meeting the secretary announced that he had received from the directors of the " Royal, Farmers' and General, Fire, Life, and Hail In- surance Institution," two vols, of a valuable work on the " Princiiiles of Agriculture," by Alfred D. ITiaer, translated by C. AV. Johnson and W. Shaw, Esqs, The secretary was directed to write them a letter of thanks, and another to the Rev. Josh. Nodder, of Ashover, thanking him for his kind of- fer of a loan of books, &c. December 5th. — The committee met at the expe- rimental turnip field, to measure and Aveigh four square yards of each section. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 181 December 24tli. — At this meeting the secretary read a report of the result of the various experiments on the growth of turnips, with the cost per acre of manures. Bones showed the smallest produce, at nearly the greatest ex])ense ; guano, with broken lime, the most productive in proportion to the ex- pense ; the largest bulk was produced by farm-yard manure and night soils. Taking into consideration the extreme dryness of the season, which had been very much against turnips ^progressing in growth after hoeing, the result of the experiments was quite favourable to artificial manures, and as showing in average seasons they were to be preferred. The discussion for this evening was opened by tlie secretary — " On the best implements for agri- cultural purj)oses." The following resolutions were agreed to : — That it is desirable that a depot of im- l)ements ])e established for the use of the meml)ers of the club : That a committee should be chosen to select those implements best adapted to the coun- try : and also the committee was requested to pre- l)are a memorial to Sir H. Hunloke, Bart., respect- fully soliciting his sui>port : and it was further or- dered that the committee report their proceedings at the next general meeting. TREE PLANTING. By J. TowER-s, Memb. Royal. Agri. Soc. Article III. In a former number, vol. 21, pp. 197, et scq., I entered somewhat at large ujion the prepara- tion and planting of an orchard ; showing the best methods, as demonstrated by practical experience, of laying a foundation which would insure great and i)ermanent fruitfulness with little danger of failure. Many ^\Titers have insisted upon the im- portance of those preparatory steps — that is, of deep trenching and thorough comminution of tlie soil— which I ha\e endeavoured to enforce ; but there is one other step that, even to the present time has not Ijeen efiectually taken, nor indeed apj)re- ciated. It is the adequate drahiaf/e of tlie snf)soil wherever tlie o])erations of trenching have detected the presence of si)ringiness, or of stagnant water. A \-er}' great sensation in agriculture has of late been created by the evidence adduced of the mis- chief that ine\-itably results from ili-drained land : landlords and tenants feel equally interested, but still they hesitate. A variety of methods have been i)roposed ; some very good, some very inef- ficient ; but all so costly as to involve doubt and hesitation, when attempted in the large way. But in the preparation of a i)lot of ground so small as that usually allotted to the orchard, no one who can attbrd to do the work at all should shrink from that which must tend to keep the trees in health during their term of life, and might effect- ually remove the causes of that bane of our best apple-trees — the canker. By the jjublication of Mr. Mechi's Jigricultural letters, we have been fwrnislied \vith the details of his own methods of draining ; which to me ap])ears to surpass any other that I have met with in the j)eriodicals of tlic day. This method I shall presently describe ; but Ijeforc doing so, I would sohcit the attention of the orchard- ist to a form of orchard that I never saw adopted even in our best gardens, but which ajipears to comprise advantages that have not generally been contemplated. I suggested tliis order of i)lanting in The Domestic Gardeners^ Manual, and now propose to make it the subject of the present article. The Espalier Orchard, if well situated upon good and appropriate soil — and none is more so than that excellent sandy friable loam, called pure brick earth, reposing upon chalk, or clayey bottom, effectually drained — may be made to combine every advantage of the fniit garden, producing fruit of superior quality upon trees so trained, as to furnish the best physiological lesson that the student of inquiring mind can be practically taught ; while it remoA-es from the kitchen garden those trees that are therein quite out of place, inasmuch as they never fail to injure all vegetable crops within the influence of their roots. Extent of the Orchard. — lliis will be decided by the i)lanter ; yet, as we must erect a standard whereby the area can be extended or contracted, I shall adhere to the dimensions laid down in the work above referred to, wherein a square of 1 ,600 yards — that is, of 40 yards each way — is proposed to receive nine rows of trees, twelve feet asunder, the rows running north and south. Each row has foiu" trees, twenty-five feet apart ; and this arrangement will admit of a handsome border on each of the four sides. Were the plot to be walled, it would form a capital and elegant fruit garden; and if the walls were built of cellular work nine feet high, trees of the highest order might be intro- duced and trained on four different aspects. The cellular wall I have proA'cd, and therefore can vouch for its economy and excellence. I built a garden wall of the finest red bricks of Berkshire nearlj' forty yards long, twenty-six of which were eight feet high, at a cost, laboiu' included, of some- what less than 20/. It has stood, firm and sound, up- wards of ten years, resisting the storm and tempest that razed a solid nine inch to the ground ; so j)erfect was the bond e\-en when the mortar was fresh and green. However, the fencing must be at the oj)- tion of the owner, though security from external attempts ought to be fully provided for. I have lately inspected espalier pear-trees of the ])est and richest varieties, l)ut so low that the in- ferior branches nearly touched the soil, whilst the ui)permost were scarcely three feet and a half ab()\e it ; yet the fruit of the colmar, Beurice, Chaumontelle, Audi, and the like, was extremely fine. Hence, I projiose to have three rows of the choicest autumn and winter pears, and six rows of the best and most prolific apples, excluding plums and cherries, as being more suitable to walls and open standards, according to the varieties of each. Among choice pears we may safely name Marie Louise, beurrc'c D'Aremberg's, crown beurive, bishop's thuml). glout morccau, and several of the late Mr. Knight's new varieties. Of apples the varieties are too numerous to ad- mit of any reference to the catalogues ; but the 18^ THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. object of an espalier is to enhance the value of the fruit by improving its quality ; therefore, if we can discover trees which are known to prosper locally, and to be good bearers, and permanently healthy, a planter will be \vise to select such trees. In my own premises I have found the ribstone pippin to be very prohfic, but somewhat more hable to can- ker than any tree which I possess ; and here I may remark, perhaps aptly, that a fine tree, the second year from the graft, was planted in' 1831 in the centre of a trench cleared above two feet deep, till we reached the marl and flints that top the deepest stratum of chalk so common in the neighbourhood. This trench was re-filled with the upper, good loam, blended with a considerable quantity of decayed farm-yard manure. In three years the tree cankered to such an extent, as to lose several of its main branches. 1 then had it removed to a spot not remote, but wholly unmanured : it there threw off its cankered branches, or rather it lost the tendency to disease, and now promises, though deformed, to become a healthy tree. Had the manure anything to do with the canker ? I am 80 far of this opinion that I never mean again to introduce manure about the roots in any other form than that of grass, loamy turf. The Ribstone or Formosa pippin, being a gene- ral favourite, as a high-flavoured dessert apple only, till the middle of January, stands first : next to it I would name the scarlet and royal pearmain, the Do\\Titon and old nonpareil, and the red streak. Other varieties may be selected by the local ride above cited ; and I therefore pass at once to the principles by which espalier-training is regu- lated. The season of plantiny after the turn of the year 18 February; because in that month the ground is generally open, and the time of growth approaches. Localities differ ; but in the drier states of soils March is too late, for it is very often character- istically parching. A great degree of moisture in the earth, during a month or more after planting, is always propitious to the trees, especially when the early influences of the rising year are at hand. Presuming, then, that the ground will be suflSci- ently open and tractable about the middle or third week of the month, the following rules may be adopted according to the judgment of the or- chardist : — Selection.— ilfairfere Trees, that is such as were grafted low in the stock last year, and have protruded one clean erect shoot, are to be pre- ferred ; because, in the first place, a young plant always adapts itself most readily to the soil, and in the end proceeds with the greatest rapidity; in the second place, because, from such a straight and simple shoot, the best figure can be obtained at the will of a skUful pruner. But yet, extremely fine trees can be formed by selecting young plants with three shoots, that is to say, one straight middle leader, two feet high from the graft, with a well placed horizontal shoot on each side of it, that may be trained right and left at about nine or ten inches above the surface of the ground. I would never select older trees, nor such as have more and irregular laterals j but^ having pro- cured the trees in number and of the figure re- quired, I woidd plant them, according to the rules laid down in the former articles, with the utmost care and precision, at the distances above des- cribed, and then place three stakes to each, so as to secure the upright shoot in its true perpendicular, and the two side shoots in a correct horizontal direction. Thus planted, and diUy watered from time to time, it may be prudent to leave the trees untouched by the knife for one entire year, be- cause it is quite certain that growth begins at the upper buds ; and, if this growth be arrested by pruning, the vitality of a young tree is often too feeble to effect the development of low-seated and weaker buds, and thus its very existence may be perilled. The first operation of pruning, to commence when the trees have established their roots, and just as the swelling of the buds indicate the activity of the fluids, consists in heading down the single stem, or the central shoot if there be three, so that seven biids remain on the stem, that is if it be a strony one, for thus we provide a leader, and choice of a good lateral on each side. If the shoot be weak, cut back for three buds only, and always make the cut slanting in the direction of the uppermost eye, and about half an inch above it: the latterals retained are not to be pruned, but always suffered to extend to the utmost limits allowed for each tree. Second pru7iiny ^vilI take place after the buds have pushed, and acquired three or four inches in length, and so much vigorous health as to de- termine which can be relied upon; then two of them (if all have pushed — that is, the third and fourth) must be rubbed off. Of the five remain- ing, or three, as it may be, one is to be trained straight up, to extend the leader, and the others horizontally. Figure is secured by regularly fastening the shoot, either to wires strained tight to the upright stakes, or by strips of a rod fixed from one to the other. It is of great consequence to obtain a per- pendicidar erect stem, and a series of straight horizontal branches from it, at an average about nine or ten inches asunder ; for thus the spurs and fruit \vill be equally and in every part exposed to the influence of air and sun. A crowded and irregular tree, trained on the fan figure, is ever liable to confusion ; hence we see so few handsome espaliers in even very fine gardens. By pursuing the plan laid do^vn, gaining one or two horizontal shoots yearly, and increasing the height in pro- portion, till it attain 4h or 5 feet at the utmost, a pear or apple tree, perfect in its kind, as an espalier, will be formed, which, if we mistake not, \vill produce cleaner and better fruit than any grown upon a wall. In recurring to that most important instru- ment of success in all rural undertakings- draining, I copy, verbatim, a few paragraphs from Mr. Mechi's "Second Letter." This has been before the public several months, yet it cannot be too extensively circulated. The drains are thus described — the language apphes to the field, but small plots may be equally improved by the system : "First; a double turn of the plough takes out THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. 183 nine inches; then a narrow spade, sufficiently wide to admit the drainer's foot, takes out ten inches ; then comes a still narrower si)ade 14 inches long, Sj^ inches \vide at the top, and li inches at bottom, which removes ]'.i inches more, making the whole depth from the surface 32 inches. The drain being well cleared out, we first fill it, to the depth of 10 inches, with nice clean 'gravel stones, and then place on the top of these stones a drain pipe, 13 inches long and three inches wide out- side, having a two inch bore. This fits so exactly into the space made by the last-named sj)ade, that it not only rests on the stones, but binds against the sides of the drain, thereby preventing the stones being choked by the superincumbent earth." Mr. Mechi, I conceive, might substitute to ad- vantage the 30-inches pipe now in vogue ; they would save trouble in the adaptation at least. He gives his reasons for preferring this order of placing the stones and pipes — First, because it is cheaper. Second, it is more durable, the drain being less hable to choke. Third, there is a larger area or space for the escape and filtration of the water, a circumstance not sufficiently considered. " It is quite e\adent that the filtration of the water must be according to the area of the pores presented to the air in the drains." As to the direction and site, Mr. Mechi says : — " The drains cross at a \'eiy acute angle the slo])e of the land ; they are four yards apart, with a leader every fourscore rods, the leader being rather deeper than the oth e drains, but not wider." Each acre requires 3,200 pipes, and 360 bushels of stones. It is quite evident that the stones should for ever remain open, unchoked, pervious to air, otherwise they ^vill not conduct water. The drain- pipe, therefore, ought to rest upon and completely cover the stones. For field culture and most farm crops (mangold perhaps excepted), 18 or 20 inches of soil above the pipes are quite ample ; but for trees we should command fully two feet of good mould : and to do this I think that each drain ought to be digged above a yard deep, then stoned eight inches, laying the pipes upon the stones, so as entirely to guard them ; and then, if possible, superadding a two-inch layer chalk in inch lumps, as a usefiU and salubrious adjunct. Chalk, in a word, is the finest medium of natural drainage : it causes no canker ; and if, according to some, a soil may acquire acidity, it assuredly must act as a corrective. In it the vine will grow and become fruitful, as I have proved by planting in a bed composed almost entirely of chalk artificially deposited. I come now to consider the availability of an espalier orchard, arranged in the order suggested, to the production of certain vegetables as a sub- sidiary object. The spaces between the ranks of trees are esti- mated at twelve feet. Now, it must be evident that for several years the roots of the trees will not encroach upon that In^eadth of land, and therefore it may l)e put imder the spade, and made to i)ro- duce abundant crops of broccoli, cabbage, potatoes, peas, beans, onions, spinach, and the like. Per- manent crops must be avoided ; but so long as a yard clear of ground remain imai)proached })y the trees, so long culture, with moderate enrichments, cannot act inimically. Thus, I trust that, upon rational grounds, I have proposed a new mode of arrangement, which will effect a great improve- ment in the cidtivation of the best fi-uit, while it obviates many of those inconveniences that result from the miscellaneous admixture of trees and vegetables, to the great detriment of both. THE CAITLE EPIDEMIC— This pestilence is beginning to excite much apprehension in this coimtry, so much so as to be taken up by the Highland Agricidtural Society of Scotland, and several of the agricultural protection societies. At the meeting of the Highland Society last week. Professor Low said — " The members were all, no doubt, aware that there at present prevailed an epidemic on the continent amongst cattle. He believed it originated in the marshy swamps of Hungary ; but it was steadily and rapidly extending northward. The opinion of medical men was, that the disease was contagious : and he thought it was safest to act upon the supposition. The French Government had been eagerly urged to take some precautions to prevent the admittance of these animals. He thought, therefore, that the Directors should apply to the Boai-d of Trade, that, if necessary, they might suspend the operation of that portion of the tariff which refers to the unportation of German cattle, so long as the epidemic continues. This would be no injiu-y to the consumer, as the quantity of cattle hitherto hnported had been very small, while the injury which might be inflicted by the importation of diseased cattle would be enormous." (Hear, hear.) Tlie following extract is from the report read at the annual meeting of the Sussex Agricultural Protection Society : — " Your committee have lately had brought before their notice the fact of a most fatal disease raging among the cattle on some parts of the continent, and your committee have taken measures that the existence of such malady should be brought before the notice of the Board of Trade, with the view that that board should take such steps as to prevent the landing of cattle so diseased." 'Hiese apprehensions afford additional confirma- tion of the advantages to be derived from the " Farmers' and Graziers' Mutual Cattle Insurance Association." A rumour is current that a further alteration in the Tariff is contemplated this session ; we know nothing of its correctness, but it gains ground. The Birmingham Journal thus remarks upon it : — " Among the contemplated changes, we have reason to beUeve there will be found a removal of some of the restrictions on the importation of articles of food — for example, butter and cheese. It is to this expected con- cession to the wants and wishes of the people that Sir Charles Knightly alluded, at tlie Northampton Agricul- tural Meeting, when he bitterly lamented that the Ca- binet had recognized the principles of free trade to be the principles of common sense, and that Old England had no party in the House to maintain the cause of protec- tion." We ha\'e been informed that the districts where barley is not grown, as the cidei- and dairy dis- tricts, have assigned the fact of their not growing 0 2 184 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. barley as a reason for not interfering in the repeal of the malt tax. We presume that if a proposal is made for taking off the duty of foreign butter and cheese, the barley and corn-growing districts will not interfere. This will be a fair retort, but a sad exemphlication of want of union amongst fanners. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — I should be thankful if some one of your experimental correspondents would inform me, through your magazine, of a method to keep off rooks from fields of corn, potatoes, &c. It may not be a question of general importance, but it is of very great importance to me, and many of my neighbours. A neighbour told me the other day that he considered that the rooks had done him an injury to the amount of £50 in the crops of last year ; and I should think, wthout any exaggeration, that they injured me £10 in a field of wheat, by l)ulling it up just as it came up ; and in a field of wheat now gi-owing, I intend to sow again, in con- sequence of the rooks so thinning the young i)lants. Also, I should be obliged if some one would give me some information respecting /«rce, as fodder for horses, &c., whether it should be mixed with chopped straw ; if so, in what proportion ; and if gi^'en to them alone, in what quantity— my horses will eat it greedily. And which is best for horses that are kept to work, wheat, oat, or barley-straw : my horses prefer the latter. If some chemical cor- respondent will give me an analysis of barley, oats, clover-hay, wheat, oat, and barley-straw, and furze, separately, he will greatly obhge a young farmer and subscriber in the N. W. of Devon. W. C. ^"■j— If Mr. Amery, would kindly make public, by means of your so ^videly circulated and really beneficial magazine, those forms with the illustra- tions which he produced at his lecture, at the Stew- pony Farmer's Club, November 4th, " On the best Mode of Keeping Farm Accounts " he would be conferring a benefit of no small magnitude on vast niunbers of farmers like myself, who know more of holding and dnvmg the plough, than of driving the quill ; for really we know not how to work out the sums. I have tried several of the pubHshed books, but always get confounded. Yours obediently, X. X. BURNING OF CLAY FOR MANURE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir,— Would you or some friend, through the medium of your valuable paper, be pleased to inform me of the best system for the management of burning clay for manure ; and also, at the same time, state on what de- scription of land the most benefit is derived from the application of clay after being burned ; and if some de- scription of clay is better adapted than others for burn- ing into a fertilizer ? Clay-burning is totally unknown in this quarter, both a 5 regards the process of burning and as to its usefulness after being burned for agricultural purposes. The clay iiof a very good quality for brick-making; the soil, generally speaking, of a wet and cold nature, previous to being under-drained ; which under-draining is very difficult to effect thoroughly, from the clay or subsoil being of so close and adhesive a nature as to prevent the water from penetrating the drains from only a very short distance. The stone is all grit stone. The land, too, is not well adapted for the growing of corn, being so late. I should therefore be the more obliged by receiving a knowledge of clay-burning, and of applying the ashes on the most economical plan to meadow and pasture land, as also to know if, from the above description, my land seems proper land for being at all improved by the use of the ashes from burned clay. I am, sir, respectfully yours, A North Staffordshire Tenant Farmer. ON THE ROT IN SHEEF. Sir, — An opinion appears to prevail amongst some low-pasture graziers that it is impossible to rot a sheep on such land (however dangerous under other circum- stances) during their period of lactation. Having land frequently flooded, and during the winter months gene- rally very wet, but j'roducing plenty of rough grass, of which stock sheep would reathly eat, and, with other food improved, not only themselves, but the pastures ; in consequence of a deficiency in my turniji crop, I feel very anxious to inquire, through your kindness, of some really practical man, whether I could safely put my flock on the above description of low-bottomed meadows after they have lambed. — I remain, yours obliged, A Tenant Farmer. Sir, — Could you or any of your numerous correspon- dents inform a constant reader of your valuable paper of the easiest mode of analyzing guano ? as, from the ac- counts we read of vessels going out for cargoes taking gypsum, &c., to adulterate what they bring home, we are afraid in this neighbourhood to use it to the extent we would do if sure of its purity. The insertion of this will much oblige, yours, &c., Clonmel, Jan. 7, 1845. B. P. P. Sir, — Will you or any of your readers be so good as to inform me whether rapecake is a good dressing for meadows, and in what quantities it should be used ? Also, which is the best artificial dressing for peas and beans ? The land is a stiff clay, pretty well covered with mould. Can you also inform me what are the prizes given at the Smithfield Cattle Show, and whether any but subscribers can compete for the prizes offered ? — I am, Sir, A Subscriber to your Paper. A correspondent inquires, would grass land be benefited provided it could be subsoiled without injury to the sward ? Would that portion of the subsoil next the sward have a beneficial effect if spread on the surface at a proper season of the year ? " A Constant Reader" inquires ifa farm is taken upon a lease, in which no clause is inserted as to who shall have the right of shooting, Avho has the light to shoot thereon — the landlord or the tenant ? " A Correspondent" states that he has a portion of land beside a river, and about five miles from the sea, of a strong marsh nature, rather bordering to clay, which was inclosed this last summer, and is, consequently, a little impregnated with salt, and asks if some of our readers could suggest the best description of a large horse bean to sow upon the same, and the price for five or six qrs. of them ? Also, the description of oats likely to succeed best on the same kind of land ? THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1B5 METEOROLOGICAL D I A R Y. Barometer, Thermometer. 1 Wind and State, t Atmosphere. Day. 8 a.m.' 10p.m. Min. Max. 10 p.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p, m. 10 p. m. Dec. 22 in. cts. 1 in. cts. 30.25 30.10 29 34 30 E. by N. 1 brisk fine sun fine 23 30.16 30.20 29 32 28 Northerly, var. cloudy cloudy cloudy 24 30.22 30,22 29 31 31 East. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 25 30.23 30.20 29 31 31 E. by S, gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 26 30.10 30.06 31 34 32 E, byS, gentle fog fog fog 27 30.05 30.0 31 34 34 S. East gentle fog fog fog 28 29.97 1 29.90 33 46 45 S. byE. gentle fog cloudy cloudy 29 29.90 29.90 45 47 45 S. East calm fog fog fog 30 29.95 30.0 39 43 40 E. by N. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 31 30.06 ' 30.10 36 42 39 E. by N. gentle ! cloudy cloudy cloudy Jan. 1 30.11 30.11 35 42 39 N. East gentle cloudy fine fine 2 30.09 30.0 33 41 32 N. by W, gentle t cloudy cloudy cloudy 3 29.98 29.95 29 38 35 W, by S, gentle 1 fine cloudy cloudy 4 30.0 30.16 34 47 39 Var., W.S.W. gentle cloudy cloudy fine 5 30.11 30.07 36 48 46 W,S.W. brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 6 30.08 30.14 43 49 46 W.S.W. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 30.20 30.22 44 51 40 Westerly gentle fine cloudy fine 8 30,20 i 30.12 32 33 53 S. E. calm fog fog fog 9 30.09 30.03 33 34 34 S.E. by S. gentle fog fog fog 10 29.99 29.74 33 45 43 S. West rising cloudy cloudy cloudy 11 29.66 29.76 44 49 46 S. West gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 12 29.73 29.80 42 45 42 Northerly gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 13 29.64 29.55 41 43 41 S. West. gentle cloudy cloudy fine 14 29.59 29.74 39 45 41 S.E. to S. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 15 29.68 29.66 40 44 41 S.W.,S.byE. calm cloudy cloudy cloudy 16 29.95 30.08 41 46 42 S, West livy. var. cloudy cloudy cloudy 17 30.09 29.97 39 43 40 S. West rismg. cloudy cloudy cloudy 18 29.79 29.64 40 45 41 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 19j 29.64 28.96 33 44 41 W. by S. nsmg cloudy cloudy cloudy 20 29.14 29.80 33 43 37 N., N.N.AV. strong cloudy cloudy fine 21 30.08 30.20 32 41 32 N.W.,S,AV.,N.E. gentle fine sun fine estimated averages of JANUARY. Barometer. Thermometer. High. I Low. "30.77 I 20.99 High. I Low. I Mean. 52 11 I 36.1 Real Average Temperature of the period. High. 41,6 Low. Mean, North and N. East Winds. . 8 East and to South. 4 South and South West 8:5- West and to North 1 0-J- days. 35.7 38.65 Weather and Phenomena. — Dec, 22. — Improved, bright ciunulus clouds. 23, — Totally overcast. 24. — Frosty — slight drizzle at night. 25. — Comfortless, piercing day. 26 & 27. — Ex- cessively foggy and damj). 28. — A thaw, ending in fine soft rain. 29. — Rain all the afternoon, with fog. 30, — Cooler and damp — broken clouds. 31. — A little clear sky early, then totally overcast. The year ends with that murky gloom which has marked the month, with only three or four ex- ceptions. 1845. Jan. 1. — Somewhat clearer — broken clouds — hygrometer very moist. 2. — First deci- sive westerly wind. 3. — Rain — lin])roving — dryer air. 4. — Generally serene. 5. — Rain the \)re- ceding night. 6. — Quite gloomy. 7. — Finer, and very spring-like. 8 & 9.— Dense fug all day, a concomitant of the south east winds of this season. 9. — Rain — again west — and hence for ten days consistent gloom and no sun, 11. — Rain, with the moistest indication of the hygrometer. 12, 13, 14, 15, & 16. — Rain, more or less. 17. — Finer and more cheerful — evening changeable. IS. — Drench- ing rain all the evening, 19. — A hint of fiost — rain — violent wind, and the lowest dejiression of the barometer. 20. — A rajjid rise of the mercury, and hoar frost. 21. — Ice seen — barometer high — fine sun ; but a fickle wind, with stratified cirru clouds. Lunations. — Dec: Full moon 24th da}', 7 h. afternoon. Jan.: Last quarter, 1st day, 3h. 21 m, afternoon; new moon, 8th day, 7h. 13 m. morn- ing ; first quarter, l.')th day, 8 h. 51 m. morning. ReMAUK.S UlilEUBING TO AgHICULTLRE, — 186 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Farmers complain of nothing but low prices. We recommend them to cultivate science and to pro- duce more. Numbers now talk of ha\'ing har- vested 5, 6, and 7 quarters of wheat per acre, last summer ; and the fine state of the present crops appears to give the highest promise. Gloom and want of sun our table proves to have characterized the winter; but the general weather has been so favourable to ploughing, folding, feeding, and moderately checking luxuriance, that every one has reason to Indulge in hope of better times. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— FEBRUARY. Retrospect. — ^This has been, and is, an extra- ordinary winter. December set in with a rigour of frost, which promised, as predicted even by M. Arago, to be the precursor of a severe cold season. Gloom, fog, and an almost total absence of sun, characterized a period of many weeks, even after the cold had passed away; thus everything has re- mained torpid. Some rain fell, and at length we have had a fair supply since the wind veered to the west and south-west. Looking over garden vegetables, we find nothing Injured; and as to shrubs, the laurestinus, that test of the season, has its pretty cymous clusters ready to expand, and all the bog plants are fresh and set for abundance of bloom. We think, also, that there is promise of a fair. If not a copious, supply of fruit germs — at least on the spur-bearing trees. Light is the prime agent of vital action : it is evi- dently not an emanation, a \'ision only. Its che- mical power is manifest in the discoloration and de- composition of oxides, and conversely in the pro- duction of the highest and most brllhant tints. The gardener and florist have dally and demonstrative proofs of the amazing phenomena which it Induces in the green parts of plants, and on their floral de- velopments. We have abundant opportunities to obseiTe the marked effects of the late and prevailing dark weather upon large collections. Heat — mois- ture— may be kept up to 70^ or more, and to satu- ration do only mischief: they cause enlargement of the open cellular tissues ; but the Inflorescence Is sadly debased. SunUght — the actual ray — at this season of the year Is essential in floriculture ; here- after, when the sun's power shall be exalted and protracted, it may be advisable to interpose some light screen to cause a softening and diffusion of the rays. Vegetable Garden. The weather must be our guide, for it frequently happens that cold, rain, and melting snows, render the ground httle better than a swamp. However, all being fa\ourable, work may become general, and the sooner that most seeds are in the ground the better. Potatoes — the ash-leaved — mil be quite safe If planted full five Inches deep ; the soil ought to be light and sandy, or made so l)y lightening mate- lials. The ashes of the haulm contain vegetable alkali and carbonate of lime ; hence, if the soil do not naturally effervesce wth acid, chalk or bone- ash is required. Potter's guano, with a little gyp- sum, and four or five bushels of road or liver sand to a gallon of each, well blended with the earth about the roots, would introduce phosphate, carbonate, and sulphate of lime, with some sulphate of ammo- nia. The same dress, we think, would do well \vith onions — a full crop of which should be sown by the middle of the month. Parsnips, carrots, and beet ought to ha\'e aU the manure a foot below the sur- face, to attract the root do^vnward : stable manure is, perhaps, best for these tappers. Peas and beans, the second early — as Prussian and scimitar peas, long pod and other beans — are nitrogenous and lime vegetables ; therefore, the soil should always be accurately tested, and as chalk is rarely obtain- able, a httle should be added whenever a drop of pure muriatic acid, let fall upon a few grains of the earth, does not produce any hint of eflfervescence. Such a soil Ave have lately Inspected, so near to our own, which abovmds Anth calcareous matter, that we could not without trial have believed the circum- stance. It is evident, from e^'ery well attested fact, that earthy Inorganic manures are taken up by the roots, which attract whatcA'er is congenial to thelr natural elements, and thus exhaust a soil. Now, it is equally evident that black carbonized humus In- creases in a soil during culture ; therefore we must look with a jealous eye upon the old humus theory of nutrition. Cabbages, borecole, Brussels' spi'out, and this tribe in general, may be sown or planted out once or twice ; they all affect rich dung, but the portion of it which operates most certainly is found in the ammonlacal salts fixed in the manure. "N^Tien planted out, and gro\\ing, each plant would receive benefit by liquid manure composed of cow-dung or horse-droppings, blended with a httle coal-soot, poured by the nozzle of a water-pot into a hole made slanting by the dibble towards the root. We once knew a gardener who literally poured the Uquld doacine from a prhy into holes so made, and pi'O- duced cabbages of very great size. Our delicacy revolts, but nature knows how to decompose and assimilate ; the question of due application is the point of consequence, and, therefore, as our know- ledge is as yet but a ghmpse of the dawn, we should try cautiously, and Introduce our specific manures in a \\'eak state, tlU we feel assured by experience. Sow radishes once or twice — they hke light mel- low soil, l)ut not fresh manure — lettuces for suc- cession ; the Pzris cos, Cilicia, and admirable are fine; very rich soil and plenty of water are required to grow good hearts. Early Dutch turnips in the last week ; superphosphate of hme is a capital dress — made by digesting bruised bones in one-fourth their weight of concentrated oil of vitriol, preA-iously covering the bones ^vith water, in any earthern or wooden vessel, till the substance be broken up. If this grey mud is Incorporated ■with tmce its bulk of saw-dust or leaf-mould (not ashes) it may be scattered over the plot, and digged into the soil before sowing the seed, A few poimds of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 18T bones will manure a rod or pole, and some insight of the rationale of the process of decomposition may be obtained thus by any housekeeper : Col- lect the meat-bones, and throw them on the top of any furnace fire. Tliey will ignite rapidl)-, and cany off the chief of the fatty and gelatinous matters. Take them from the fire before the flame ceases, and when cool they may be broken up with great facility. Bones so burned consist chiefly of phosphate of lime, charcoal deposited by the combustion of the fat, &c., and some carbonate of hme. On adding the sulphuric acid, an effer- vescence is excited by the displacement of carljonic acid from the carbonate. The phosphorous acid is also partly liberated, but not entirely so, for the quantity of sulphuric acid directed is not suflicient to decompose all the phosphate. The result after a few days will be diluted i)hosphorous acid, phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime (gy])sum), and charcoal in a minute state of division. It will be evident from this analysis that the above ma- nure must be a])propriate to all vegetables and roots which contain elementarily any or all of those substances named. The reader will do well to consult Liebig, and some chemical tables which allude to the inorganic constituents of i)lants. It will add much to the pleasure of his labour. We earnestly recommend every gardener to be early in his croppings, for there are not a few who feelingly remember the losses which were sustained through the drought of last spring, which defeated all the late sown crops. Transplant, after the 14th, cabbage, borecole, and other brassicas for succession. Dig, trench, and manure vacant plots. Stable manure contains all the elements of the more artificial manui'es ; but these are blended together, and the cultivator learns nothing : still it should not be neglected. Hardy Fruit Department. Plant every kind of tree and shrub, preparing the ground deeply and using grass-turf liberally, biu not near the surface. Prune first the gooseberrj'-bushes, substituting a regular succession of strong young wood in lieu of old spurless branches, now to be dis])laced. Currant-bushes are to be closely spurred ; and the pruning being done, dredge every plant infested by mosses or lichens, wth powdered quicklime three parts, and coal-soot one jiart. 'J'his latter contains sulphate of ammonia, which, acted upon by the lime, instantly liberates caustic ammoniacal gas, most destructive of the parasite plants. RaspbeiTies are next pnined back to a good erect bud. Prune apricots, ])eaches and nectarines — then plums and cherries, before the buds are fully en- larged : a])ples and pears last, cutting back the old snaggs to the best formed low buds, so as to keep the spurs short and compact. FoKcixG Department. Mushrooms — keep the heat in the house, about 50° to 55<^, and always steady. Renew the beds as \yanted, and as before directed. Cucumbers : the hot water in channt Is of six- inch paving tiles, cemented, acting as flues, with a central tank for bottom heat, form a complete forcing apparatus so genial, so sweet, and free from vermin, that the jjlan must recommend itself. The same remarks will ai)ply to melons, pine-apples, and perhaps peaches ; but for the last-named fruit great caution must be exercised in raising the veiy moderate heat required. Shade and external pro- tection are admirably aflTorded by frames with oiled canvas, laid over and secured above the sashes : independently of the defence, the plate of air between the glass and upper screen acts as a true non-conductor. The vinery ought to be now in bloom, and then steaming and syringing should be omitted. The second house ought to be excited at 6.5°. 2^o steam is required mth our water channels, which run a flow and return double course round the house, each six inches wide and deep, containing about 300 gallons, yet heated by a .'i-gallon boiler. Introduce strawberries in pots : give them plenty of hght, free waterings, and bring them gradually to sujiport 55* by night and 65° by day — fire heat. Pots l)uilt on purpose, heated by stone-ware hot water pii)es, are very available. Stoves and flower-houses must be kept at 55? by night, giving air by day if at 65° or plus. The greenhouse at 40° can never hurt. Water moderately. Give free air in fine dry days, but exclude mist and rain. Geraniums do best alone, fresh j)Otting them in loam and leaf mould, with perhaps one-sixteenth of fine bone-dust, whenever the roots reach the sides. Heaths do well in very airy, dry pits. Camellias cast their bloom fear- fully this season, in consequence, perhaps, of the great drought at the period of spring growth, and then again while they were hardening the young wood in summer ; they then required much and frequent waterings, inimical to their roots. Azalias bear heat well now, and expand their bloom finely. Camellias are frequently injured by winter exci- tation. Pleasure Grounds, Keeji every part neat; the la\\Tis and walks swept and rolled ; the soil free from litter. Plant every kind of shrub, but do not sow annuals in the open groimd ; and introduce few herbaceouB plants during this doubtful month. — Jan. 21. WILFUL WASTE OF MANURE.-Tlie instructed look with amazement when, on the borders of the Ro. man Campagna, they see whole hills of dung, the long- accumulating refuse from the stables of the post-house; or when, on the breaking up of the winter's frost, they see tlie yearly collections from the farm-yards floated away on the ice of the Wolga, almost literally realizing the times of tlie Augean stables. We never dream that anything half so barbarous could by possibility happen among ourselves ; and yet a visit to a hill-farm in Northumberland may show us tlie same winter accumu- lations emptied purposely on the side of a brook, that the waters may carry them off, or into .siome neighbour- ing hollow, where they are least in the way, and have been permitted to collect for entire generations. Such pali)able waste is seldom Feen, indeed, in the lower country, where intercourse is greater, and where know- ledge and public opinion spread more widely, and exer- 18S THE FAHMER'S MAGAZINE. cise a more immediate influence; and yet the no -less serious waste of the liquid from our farm -yards is still too widely prevalent even in our better-cultivated dis- [ tricts, and among our more improving and intelligent farmers. Within the last few weeks, we have walked over the farms of the first practical farmer of the Tyne- side, and of the most celebrated breeder in Yorkshire ; and yet from the fold-yard of the one the liquid was conducted by a drain into the nearest ditch, and from the cow-houses of the other, into a shallow open pond, where it stood reeking and fermenting beneath a blazing sun ! What merit, as a farmer, can that man claim, who, though he annually lays five tons of guano, or bones, or rape-dust, upon his farm, yet allows what is equal to ten or twenty tons of the same to run to waste from his farm-yard in the form of liquid manure. — Edinbtirgh Revieiv, January, 1845. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JANUARY. In noticing the weather experienced during this month, we may obser\'e that, notwithstanding the fluctuations (numerous in the extreme) which have been experienced, it has proved extremelj' mild. ^^Tiether, however, it has been seasonable is another matter to consider. True it is, there has not been a long continuance of cold east- erly winds, yet we have had scarcely a sufli- cient number of sharp frosts, which are generally so much required at this period. However, our accounts respecting the young wheat plants are extremely favourable. Scarcely a single instance has come under our observation in which they have appeared winter proud, or displayed in other respects an unfavourable apjaearance. It cannot be denied that they have greatly stood in need of a heavy fall of snow to protect them, as well as to form a good tilth for the Lenten crops. Although thus early, every progress ajipears to have been completed for the sowing of barley and oats. As may be readily understood, complaints are more general of the scarcity of winter keep ; in- deed, in some parts of the countrj^ nearly the whole of the hay is already consumed. For- tunately, the turnip crop turned out better than many persons were prepared to expect, or the consequences might have been even more serious than they have occurred. The great demand for oil-cake, consequent upon the scarcity of dry fod- der, has produced a further rise in the value of that article— as much as £13 5s. having been re- ahzed per 1000. Comparatively speaking, the stock, both beasts and sheep, has fared tolerably well, yet an unusually large number has been re- ceived up to our various markets in less than a half- fat state. The epidemic amongst the beasts ap- pears to have pretty well subsided in this countiy, though it has extended its ravages throughout nearly the w^hole of the continent of Europe, where very great losses have been sustained by the graziers. Strange as it may appear, in the face of a dry spring year, we ha\-e to notice a great in- crease in the rot in sheep, not only in the northern counties, but likemse in those Ijing south of the Humber. This we consider to have been princi- pally caused by the heavy rains, and the rapid gro\vth of rank vegetation in August and the be- ginning of September, which period our readers will recollect was a most fluctuating one. From the fact of most of the shipping ports in Holland being blocked up \vith ice, a ready infer- ence was dra^vn in the early part of the wnter, that the imports of li\'e stock into this countrj' from the above quarter, under the new taiitt*, would have been very trifling. But in this particular persons have been disappointed, for we find the arrivals thence in the course of this month to have amounted to 142 beasts and 200 sheep. About a moiety of those supplies have reached us in fair saleable condition ; but the remainder has jjroA-ed extremely inferior. The prices realized for the former have varied from 14?. to 19/., and for the latter 27s. to 43s. per head. At the outports no arrivals have taken place, neither are any ex])ected for some time hence. Speaking prospective!)', we may intimate that great exertions are being made in Germany and Holland, especially in the latter country, to improve their stock, so as to render it a profitable A-enture in our markets. That they will succeed in their endeavours, we entertain very httle doubt : hence we are looking forward to very large imports during the present year. Hitherto, the lambing season has gone on well, and very few losses have resulted from the severity of the weather. Mark-lane, as well as nearly the whole of the principal local markets, has been again well sup- plied with wheat of home produce. Owing to the extreme caution manifested on the part of the dealers in effecting purchases, the demand for that article has been, on the whole, dull ; yet the A'alue of the finest equalities has been steadily sup- l^orted — that of most other kinds ha\ing had a downward tendenc}^ Barley, both of home and foreign growth, haAing come very freely to hand, has sold heavily, at a reduction of from 2s. to 3s. per qr. Superfine malt may be considered as having supported previous currencies ; but the middling and inferior kinds have been almost un- saleable. Oats and beans have ruled about station- ar}' ; but peas and flour ha^-e again declined. Our advices from Scotland are to the effect that the winter wheats are looking remarkably strong and healthy. The various markets have been rather more steady than with us, yet some difficulty has been experienced in obtaining the f|uotations ruling in December. The shipments of oats from Ireland during this month have been by no means large, in conse- quence of the extremely low prices at which that article has been selling here. Prime qualities of that description of grain, as well as those of wheat, have met a fair inquiry at full quotations. Other- mse the trade has ruled dull. All agricultural labours aj^pear to be sufficiently forward. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 189 The follo\ving is our usual monthly statement of i the supplies and prices of fat stock oftered and sold in Sniilhfield Cattle Market. The former have been as under : — Beasts 13,802 Cows G27 Sheep 112,690 Calves 78:? Pigs 2,704 Tlie bullock supplies have l)een chiefly derived from the undermentioned districts : — Northern 3,G00 Norfolk, &c 2,200 Western and Midland 2,750 Other parts of England 1,900 Scotland 1,220 Tlie remainder have l)een principally derived from the neighbourhood of London, from Ireland, and foreign parts. The " season" from Norfolk having now fairly commenced, we are enabled to form something like a conclusion as to the proljable ^'alue of the future droves from that countiy. 'Hiose which have as yet come to hand haA'e l)een in most ad- mirable condition, and reflect the highest credit upon the graziers. (ienerally speaking, the trade with beef has ruled dull, and the rates have declined from 2d. to 4d. per Slbs. In all other kinds of stock a good business has been doing, at extreme currencies. The prices may be considered as under ; — Per 8 lbs., to sink the ofials, s. d. s. d. Beef, from 2 8 to 4 2 Mutton 2 10 to 4 4 Veal 3 8 to 4 10 Pork 3 0 to 4 G Uj) to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, full average supj)lies of countrj'-kUled meat have been received, yet the sales have proceeded steadily, at om* quotations : — Per 8ll)s., by the carcass, s. d, s, d. Beef, from 2 G to 3 G Mutton 2 8 to 3 8 Peal 3 4 to 4 8 Pork 3 4 to 4 G NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. The weather still continues humid, but no considerable quantity of rain has fallen to saturate the ground. The general aspect of the country islu.xuriant for the season ; our grass lands are badly supplied with fog (aftermath), but what little there is is valuable and muith economised. The wheat plant is excellent : I never saw it with a better blade at this season ; it was a fine seed time, and the result, so far, is everything the most sanguine farmer could desire ('tis too soon to predict). Tlie teams are fully employed in getting over lands intended for fallow, and the state of the soils is everything we can wish for ; the late frosts have had a most beneficial eftect upon them, and, technically speaking, the furrows turn up like honeycombs. The turnip crop, in many instances, lias rapidly disappeared during the last storm ; two months ago, the crop, in many instances, had a bulky top, which made the crop appear heavier than it rcully was ; and now we have been visited by a severe frost, it has been destroyed, and the crops now, in many instances, are very light ; sheep-keep, consequently, is becoming scarce. Hay and straw continue scarce, though without a brisk demand ; the former article is selling from 5/. to 71. per ton, according to quality and locality; the latter, from 21. 10s. to 3/. per ton. A considerable quantity of corn has been thrashed out since liarvest, not because jirices have been tempting, but because the pecuniary circumstances of too many have compelled them ; during the last six months, sums of any amount have been with difficulty raised ; if stock was taken to market, ])rices were low, in consequence of the scarcity of keep, and that was the evil at home ; but it has not^rested there, for numbers have had to purchase large quantities of cake, and to expend more capital than they knew how to spare, as a remedy. There is a general murmer amongst the farmers, but the evil cannot at present be redressed ; a return of 10 or 20 per cent, from the landlords would do but little ; the occupier must for the present bear the burden. We are on the eve of some mighty changes as regards agriculture ; a more enliglitened system of farming must be pursued, or thousands of the present occupants will become insolvent. Millions of money might be profitably employed in this country in draining and otherwise improving the fertility of the land ; this is an acknowledged fact, but the question is, who is to advance the required sums ; liigh prices have drained our most jiroductive soils of the vital principles of fertility, which now are reposing in the neighbourhood of large towns. 'Tis an admitted apophthegm that if the system of cultivation be pure, fertility will be eternal ; and if this be true, which no doubt it is, thousands have been and are pursuing an opposite course ; their mode of cultivation is bad, based on a wrong foundation, and if their present and past conduct continue, our fields will ultimately bear the marks of desolation. The question then so frequently asked — What must be done ? — is more easily answered than put into practice. Capital wants employing, and security given for the outlay ; and when the money is advanced, and measures the most judicious and economically carried out, the far- mer would still go to ruin, unless his system of cultivation was founded on principles to maintain fertility. Where draining is necessary, the landlord ought to do it if the tenant cannot, and require interest for his money, let his land at a fair rent, and then insert in his covenant a clause similar to this : T/tat no tenant shall sell anything from, without an equivalent being returned thereto ; and in a few years, complaints would not be so general. As they have been farming the last thirty years, they have been deteriorating the soil, and bringing themselves to beggary. My limits will not allow me to say more. The corn markets are well supplied. Of wheat we have a superabundance ; good malting barley fetches fair prices; oats have not reached that point in value we might reasonably have expected, taking into consideration the high value of hay and low price of store stock. The de- mand for labour is not good, neither can we at this season reasonably expect it ; emjiloyment might be found, but the pecuniary circumstances of the farmer will not admit of it. EPIDEMIC AMONG CATTLE.— There has lately been much disease prevalent among cattle of all kinds, but especially among sheep. A farmer ])resent at our fair, from the neighbourhood of Chipping, states that he never knew a season in which so many have died. He attributes the result jiartly to the rapid and un- healthy changes of the weather experienced for some months jiast ; but he says that most of the sheep have sufl'ereU from " blast." — Preston Chronicle. 190 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF JANUARY. Though the ^v^nter commenced unusually early, the severe weather was of short continuance, and contrary to what was generally expected. The month of January has been extremely mild and wet; indeed, httle or no frost has been experienced since Christmas ; and as the sun is now beginning to gain power, there is not much probability of protracted cold. Considering the extreme scarcity of hay, and the deficiency in the yield of the crops of barley and oats, the mildness of the weather has been greatly in favour of fanners principally employed in the rearing of cattle ; whilst to those having stocks of spring corn, the fall which has taken place in prices of barley, oats, &c., instead of the advance calculated on, has, no doubt, proved a sore disap- pointment. There can be no question, however, that, in a general point of view, a short mnter is decidedly favourable; and rarely have we been worse prepared for a protracted period of intense cold than when the frost set in last December; with the hay crop, in many districts almost a failure ; all spring crops reported to be short ; and even straw, notwithstanding the satisfactory yield of wheat, far from abundant, owing to a very dry spring and summer. With respect to the present aspect of the young wheat plant, we are very happy to state that reports are, vvith few exceptions, favoural)le. 'ITie frost in the eai'ly part of December appears to have done little or no mischief; indeed, it may be doubted whether, on the whole, the check thereby given to the previously somewJiat rank luxuriance has not proved of advantage. In exposed situations, the blade was a good deal cut up by the keen easterly winds \A'hich were so preA^alent during November and December ; but the recent high temperature and damp atmosphere have already imparted a look of health and vigour to the plant, rather unusual thus early in the year. The breadth of land under wheat is, we believe, fully as great as usual ; and though speculations on the future can, as yet, be of little value, the fact of the winter ha\-ing so far passed over without giving rise to rumours of an unfa\-ourable nature, is likely to have some in- fluence on the range of prices both at home and abroad. Up to the present period, the value of good f^ahties of wheat has been supported ; but OAving to the circumstance just stated, and the pro- babiht}' of the shipping season in the north of Europe commencing earlier than is usually the case, a generally dull tone has characterised the trade. Tlie mischief of fixing the maximum duty at 20s. per qr. is hkely to be fully proved this summer. Low as prices are in this country, the foreigner will, we doubt not, send us some of his surplus produce, whether it be required or not. Even now, importations might be made from several parts of the continent without much risk of loss; and the only reason for supposing that the ship- ments from the Baltic will not be extensive in the first instances, is afforded by the fact that the last harvest has turned out defective in Poland and some parts of Germany. Had the produce been as large as in ordinary years, our farmers woidd, not- withstanding the exceedingly low rates here,havehad to prepare to meet an active foreign competition ; and we are 1)y no means certain that such may not even under existing circumstances prove the case. There have been oflfers latterly to ship good quali- ties of red wheat — from Pomeranian, Mecklenburg, and Holstein ports — at 24s. 6d. to 25s. 6d. per qr. free on board, at first open water; and though prices are still comparatively high at Danzig, should British speculators refrain from sending out orders, we are disposed to think that in that quarter, as elsewhere, quotations vAU give way in the course of a few months to a suflScient extent to permit of im- ports being made at the 20s. duty without much hazard. This is a disheartening prospect for our agriculturists, inasmuch as any advance in the value of the article is likely to be prevented thereby. We have been at some pains to endeavour to ascer- tain how farmers are situated with regard to stocks ; but information on this head is obtained ^^'ith so much difficulty that our best exertions have failed to lead to any definite result. Judging, however, from the liberal deliveries ever since harvest|(as proved by the quantities sold at those towns where the returns for the averages are collected), we are led to believe that — after due allowance shall have been made for the superiority of the yield of the last over the pre- ceding crop — the quantity remaining in the hands of the growers is not larger than was the case at this period of 1844. That such is the case in the south and south-western counties we feel fully assured ; but in the eastern and northern parts of the kingdom the rick-yards are still tolerably well filled, though the drain from the east to supply the west has for some months past been immense. Should we be right in our conclusion, that farmers do not hold a larger stock than usual to commence the year with, the threatened foreign importation can scarcely bring prices down below their present level ; for so extensive has been the consumption, that merchants, millers, and dealers, have at no period accumulated any quantity, what they have bought from week to week having immediately passed into use. The whole extent of encourage- ment we can hold out to our agricultural friends is, however, merely that at about present prices they may reckon on a steady demand for the remainder of their wheat. Should quotations only rise a few shillings per qr. in this country, our present liberal corn laws would speedily insure supplies from abroad of sufficient magnitude to check the upward tendency. The generally humid state of the atmos- phere throughout the month has prevented any im- provement occurring in the condition of the grain in stack ; and most of the corn thrashed during the last few weeks has come to hand in very in- different order. To this circumstance a portion THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 191 of the langoiir by which the trade has been charac- terised must be attributed ; and excepting the fall of about ]s. per qr., caused by the decrease in the intrinsic value of the article, no variation has occurred in prices at any of the leading markets. The soft weather has also prevented out-door oc- cupations being proceeded \nth, the land having been kept in too wet a state to permit of its being worked wth advantage ; leisure has, therefore, been aftbrded for thrashing, and, with a slow de- mand, rather large supplies have been brought for- ward, a position of aflairs well calculated to depress prices. That quotations have withstood these in- fluences says much for the healthy tone of the trade, and atfords strong evidence of what we have previously asserted, viz., that middle-men of all descriptions are almost without stocks, whilst the weekly wants for immediate consumption must have been of sufficient magnitude to take off the whole of the supplies. AVheat has been the only species of grain which has not receded in value, a decided re-action having occurred in prices of spring corn. As has frequently ])roved the case on former oc- casions when a particular article has been reported deficient, the deficiency of liarley seems to have been more or less exaggerated ; so general was the con- viction that this crop would turn out miserably short long before it was ready for the sickle, that large purchases were made abroad in the spring and autumn under tlie impression that all that could be got would be required. By this means nearly a million of qrs. of foreign barley were imported be- fore the termination of the year 1844. Of this im- mense quantity a considerable proportion is still re- maining in warehouse at the different maritime ports, Avhich ought to have deterred sjjeculators from entering into fresh engagements, but which failed altogether to have that effect ; further pur- chases were made, and so soon as the Elbe and other continental ri\'ers shall have become free from ice, shipments to (ireat Britain will again be re- sumed. Tliis being perfectly well known to our own fanners, they have determined to be before- hand, and wth a generally acknowledged short yield the supplies from the growers have, during the last three or four months, exceeded tlie deli- veries in the coiresponding months of ls44 ma- terially. It was scarcely to l)e supjwsed that jirices could withstand such a combination of events, and a steady decline has, as might have been expected, occurred. Superior malting (jualities have, owing to the veiy small jjroijortlon of really fine l)arley har\-ested, been less aft'ected than other descrip- tions, but even these have lately been selling at some of the markets in Norfolk at 35s. jjer qr., M-hilstthe depreciation in the value of other varieties has been more important. The future range of jjrices must depend ])rincipally on the extent of the im])orl in spring ; from all we have In-en enabled to ascer- tain, we are inclined to think that the deliveries from our own growers will soon begin to fall off, and as comparatively little high priced barley now comes forward, there is a jircspect of the duty rising sufficiently to act as some kind of check on the fo- reigri supplies. Until the change from rather severe frost to very mild weather took place, Oats rose in value each succeeding week, the prospects of a protracted \nn- ter having given rise to very sanguine notions res- pecting the ultimate range of prices of this grain. For a long period almost constant easterly wind was experienced, whereby arrivals from Ireland were kept back; meanwhile, shipments from thence went on in the usual way, and when, at length, westerly winds brought with it a rise in the temperature, and dispelled the expectations of a protracted winter, the accumulated shipments of a month or six weeks reached our shores at one period. ITie ports along the east coast were crowded with vessels from Ire- land oat-laden ; at the same time rather important supplies came to hand from Scotland, and the receipts from both countries being composed for the greater part of indifferent quality, further deteriorated by the length of time on the passage, the total advance gained from week to week during the period of scarcity was almost immediately lost. These re- marks apply, however, more particularly to those markets situated within an easy distance of the ports at which the inHux of Irish and Scotch oats has taken place ; in the interior, where they have to depend mainly for supplies on the growers, the reduction has not been of much importance ; in- deed, the more the matter is investigated, the more certain does it become that the yield of the last crop has been extremely short in all parts of England. It is, therefore, by no means unhkely that the de- pression may prove temporary. Quotations of beans and peas ha-\'e remained nearly stationary at all the principal pronncial markets. The foregoing general obsei'vations on the trade in grain might almost he deemed sufficient without going into i)articulars as regards London, but as the business at Mark Lane is often subjected to lo- cal influences, requiring a separate notice, we shall not depart from our accustomed plan, and proceed to give an account of the occurrences of the month in the metropolitan market. The system introduced of late years by our prin- cipal millers of making purchases of wheat free on board is felt seriously by factors, instead of the goods being consigned to London houses for sale, as used formerly to l)e the case, the shippers at the difierent ports on the east coast and elsewhere now employ agents, who, for a trifling commission, enter into contracts to shij) a particular quality of wheat at a given i)rice free on board, whereby the transactions at 5lark Lane are greatly circum- scribed. Whether the plan is really advantageous to millers may admit of question ; formerly they had an op])ortunity of examining what the)' bought before they closed their bargains — now they have to run the risk of \-oyage, and gain nothing by large arrivals, and consequent depression in value, as the price was fixed before the goods were put on board. Be this as it may, a large jiortion of the business is now done in so tiuiet a manner, that of the total arrival into the port only a comparatively small quantity ever appears on the market. That such is the case has been fully proved during the montl), and, with the weekly supply averaging 10,000 qrs., the show of samples at Mark-lane has been quite trifling. 192 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Tlie wants of the millers have been amply provided for by arrivals from Lincolnshire, Cam- bridgeshire, and Norfolk, direct to themselves ; and factors have experienced considerable difficnlty in meeting with buyers for the Essex, Kent, and Suf- folk runs, unimportant as the total quantity re- ceived from these counties has been. The value of really fine wheat has, however, vmdergone no change since our last, but about the middle of the month ordinary ill-conditioned samples were, in partial instances, sold Is. per qr. below previous rates. Tire damj) order in which the greater part has come to hand has caused the averages to tend downwards ; the return for London for the week ending 3rd January being 49s. 7d. per qr., whilst that published on the 24th inst. was 48s. 4d. per qr. The superior manner in which the wheat crop was harvested in the northern counties is fully borne out by the generally good order in which the shipments from thence have come forward, as com- pared to the condition in which the supplies from the neighbouring farmers ha^'e reached us ; neither the one nor the other has, however, been suffi- ciently dry to be manufactured into good flour Arithout an admixture of old, and free foreign wheat has consequently excited a moderate degree of attention. Besides what has been required for this purpose by the town millers, we have had occa- sional buyers from some parts of the country ; and stocks being quite insignificant, holders have been enabled to realize very fviU terms. Of superior Dantzic there is scarcely any remaining in the Lon- don warehouses, and purchasers have therefore had to content themselves \vith secondary sorts, for which prices varjdng from 52s, up to 56s. per qr. have been obtained, the latter rate being about the top quotation for English white wheat. Other de- scriptions have sold on equally advantageous terms, and, from present appearances, a further small advance seems more likely to take place than any decline. The imports from abroad ha\'e been unimpor- tant, but some of the fresh arrivals have been cleared in for consumption, partly under the pro- visions of the Grinding in Bond Bill, that is by depositing an equivalent quantity of British-made flour or bread, under lock, for the supply of our shipping. The stock of wheat in bond in London has not increased or diminished much, the last official re- turn being 133,112 qrs., against 128,582 qrs. the preceding month. In the kingdom the quantities were respectively, on the 5th of January 362,156 qrs., and on the 5th of December 364,278 qrs. The dull tone of the wheat trade has had a de- cided influence on business in flour, buyers of the article have been disappointed in not obtaining some concession, overlooking the fact that good wheat has at no period given way in value, and that millers have consequently been unable to manufacture a serviceable article at a cheaper rate than before. Under these circumstances the top quotations of town-made flour have remained un- altered, \vith a very limited sale. The receipts coastwise have been to a fair extent ; and the ex- tremely cautious manner in which the bakers have ' conducted their operations, has obhged sellers, in I some cases, to accept Is. per sack less for parcels afloat. Of free foreign floiu- little is left on the market, and a slight export incpiry having been experienced for bonded, fresh parcels have ob- tained rather enhanced terms. The arrivals of barley, without having been par- ticularly large, have proved more than equal to the demand. It has, unfortunately, happened that the greater part of the arrival has consisted of those sorts least rec[uired, inasmuch as we had previously large stocks of secondary kinds on hand. The best malting parcels have met a comparatively ready sale at but a slight abatement, whilst secondary descriptions, as well as distilling aad grinding qualities, have been exceedingly difficult of disposal, though offered Is., and in some cases 2s. per cp-. below the rates cvuTent in December. The distillers who imported a considerable ]3ropor- tion of the foreign during the summer and autumn, are still large holders ; and, -with the prospect of early arrivals from abroad, this grain can scarcely be expected to rally, unless the deliveries from our own growers drop off" materially. At present there are only about 2,464 qrs. of barley in bond the kingdom. The maltsters do not generally express themselves satisfied with the work- ing properties of the barley of last year's growth, and have consequently conducted their operations on a restricted scale. Their stocks are not large, nor is it likely that they vnU. make more malt than what they may consider will be required for con- svimption ; the still high value of the finer kinds of barley rendering it a somewhat hazardous imder- taking to hold over for the next season. Choice qualities of malt have commanded former rates, but prices of the ordinary runs have tended down- wards. Of English oats the receipts have all along been small, but from Scotland and Ireland the arrivals have been very liberal during the month. It will be found, however, on comparing the total su]3- plies into London for the four months ending 25th of January, with the receipts of the corresponding period in 1843 and 1844, that the former were 40,000 qrs. below the latter ; and it is quite certain that when the recent arrivals came to hand the stocks here were reduced to a very low ebb. The latest accounts from Scotland and Ireland state that shippers had been greatly disappointed at the result of their consignments, and that the late im- portant fall in the English markets would be likely to check further shipments. How far this Avill prove correct we are not prepared to say, but, on the whole, we feel disposed to think that prices have declined somewhat below the point warranted by circumstances, and should not be surprised if a moderate rally were to occur. We certainly can see no reason to reckon on lower rates until su])plies from the continent reach us, on the ex- tent of which the ultimate range of prices must depend. In reference to what we have above stated, we beg to direct attention to the comparative arrivals into London. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE 103 Quarter ending Dec, 28, 1844. English 7,217 Scotch 10,002 Irish 136,050 Foreign 54,003 Totals 208,172 From Dec, to Jan. 1S45, Enghsh 8,G77 Scotch 22,049 Irish 116,160 Foreign 430 Totals,.. .. 147,316 1843. 16,723 25,942 208,259 20,145 271,069 1844. 13,785 11,849 97,383 947 123,964 Totals of the 4 months 355,488 395,033 The yield of beans appeared to have been as good (if not better) in Kent and Essex than in any other counties, and with an ascertained deficiency in the total produce in the kingdom, the London market has, up to the present time, lieen well sup- plied with the article. Notwithstanding this cir- cumstance, prices have slightly crci)t up within the last week or two. A demand has Ijeen expe- rienced for shipment coastwise, which, with a good local inquiry, has imjiarted a buoyance to the trade, indicative of a further advance. In free foreign comparatively little business has been done; nor has there been much passing in bonded parcels. The quantity reported to be on passage from Egypt is variously estimated ; but that it is con- sideralde is generally admitted ; and speculation has thereby been kept in check. In bond there were on the 5th January 2,050 qrs. in London, and only 13,442 qrs. in the kingdom. The duty is at i)resent 6s. 6d. per qr., with more chance of a rise than a fall. The change from cold to comparati\'ely mild weatlicr caused a falhng oft' in the consumjjtion of ])eas. With extremely small stocks of both English and foreign, and moderate weekly arrivals, this article has been very dull of sale. The finest wliite boilers which were at the close of Deceml)er worth 40s., have since been sold at 38s. ; and \'ery good foreign, warranted to break well, at 37s. per qr. Maple and grey peas have also receded in value to the extent of about Is. ])er qr. The quan- tity under lock consisted on the 5th instant of 7,304 qrs. in the LTnited Kingdom, and 1,517 qrs. in London. The duty is high, viz., 7s. 6d. per qr. ; with but sliglit pfosj)ect of an early reduction ; and as tlie article is relatively dearer on the con- tinent than in this country, the imports are not likely to l)e large. Before closing our remarks, we shall, as usual, give a short sketch of the j)osition of aftiiirs al>road. A proceedinjT the more neccssar)' as the shij)ping season at the northern ])orts of Europe is likely to commence earlier in spring than in ordinary years. 'ITic satisfactory result of the wlieat har\'est in Circat liritain, the modenite range of i)rices here, and the very slight jjrospcct of the duty declining below the maximum ])oinl, liave ])rcvented spe- culators directing their attention to wheat, and very httle variation has occurred in quotations of the article at any of the leading Baltic ports. Tlie latest advices from Dantzig state that really fine qualities of high mixed wheat were still held at 32s. to 33s., and fair parcels at 28s. per qr. The business had for some time been mostly of a local character, a few ])urchases for Konigsburgh account having been the only exception. At the close of the year the stock in granary was estimated at 450,000 qrs., but of this quantity only a very small pro])ortion consisted of the finer sorts, the bulk being composed of ordinaiy descriptions, the growth of 1843 and 1844, few i)arcels exceed- ing 58 to 59 lbs. ])er bushel in weight. There was, on the 14th. inst., no ])rospect of the winter breaking uj), and goods continued to be con- veyed to Konigsburgh over the ice. The re- ports from the last named town state that a great deal of distress had been experienced there, in con- sequence of the continued high price of articles of food, and as the surrounding farmers had little or no grain to sell, supplies for the consumption of the city had still to be drawn from distant (piarters. In Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, and that neigh- bourhood, the yield of wheat appears to have been toleraljly good, and the c[uality, on the whole, satis- factory ; ])rices were, according to the most recent accounts from Rostock, "NVismar, and Stettin, comparatively moderate; very good 61 lbs. to 62 lbs. red wheat jjeing tlien offered at 25s. to 26s. per qr. Meanwhile few contracts to deliver in spring had l^een closed, the trifling orders received from England havang been generally limited very low. At Hamburgh and other near {)orts the Ijusiness in wheat has also been unimportant, at- tention having been more directed to barley and oats. It was at one period expected that the Elbe would ere now have been free from ice, but by the latest advices from Hamburg, we learn that a return of sharp frost had rendered it doul)tful whether shipments could l)e resumed till February. Of barley rather a large quantity had been bought during December, to be shipped at first open water ; and some important contracts for oats have likewise been closed, ])artly to be shijjiied from Hamburgh and partly from the Danish Islands. The news from the Mediterranean is of little inter- est ; quotations of both wheat and spring corn having remained nearly stationary at the principal ports. From the United States and Canada the accounts are also uninteresting, commercial operations having been impeded by the close of the inland navigation. STOCK OF GRAIN IN BOND IN LONDON JANUARY 5. Wlic;it. Barley. Oats. Beans. IVn*. Byp. Flour. ijis. <|i3. (i<-9. qri. <|r'<. qis. cwtp, 133,11'^ .. 23,154 2,060 1,517 5 82,N0 IX THE KINGDOM. Wlicnt. HiuIi'V. Oits. lU'nn.s. Tens. Uvc. riour. 30^,156 2,404 74,Iti3 13,442 7,3U4 4 UQi.Odl 194 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. January 27. Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 46 48 White 46 50 54 Old, red 48 50 52 Do 52 56 Rye, old 30 34 New.... S6 — Barley, Grinding, 27 30 Malting 33 35 Chevalier 36 — Irish 26 28 Bere... 26 — Malt, Suffolk and Xorfolk 58 63 Brown.. 56 60 Kingston and Ware 60 — Chevalier 65 — Oats, Yorksh.&; Lincolnshire, feed 22 23 Potato.. 23 24 Youghall and Cork, black.. 20 22 Cork,white21 23 Dublin 21 23 Westport 22 23 Beans, Tick, new 34 36 Old, small 38 40 Peas, Grey 34 36 Maple.. 35 36 White 33 35 Boilers.. 36 38 / Flour, Town-made 42 Suffolk 33 85 per sk. of 280 lbs. Stockton and Norfolk 33 85 Irish 84 37 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Wheat, Dantzic 32 3S Hamburg 30 — Rostoek 30 — Barley 20 24 Oats, Brew 17 18 Feed ... 15 17 Beans. — 24 29 Peas 28 32 Flour, American, per brl 19 — Baltic.. 18 — IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week ending. Dec. Jan. Uth . . 21st .. 28th . . 4th.. 11th .. 18th .. Aggreg^ate average of the Bix weeks which reeulatea the duty. Duties payable in London till Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Out- ports till the arrival of the mail of that day from London Do. on grain from British poBseSBions out of Europi Wheat. Barley. 34 5 34 2 34 3 34 2 34 5 34 7 46 1 45 3 45 6 45 8 45 10 45 7 45 6 34 4 20 0 4 0 4 0 0 6 Oats. Ky e. Beans. 86 9 21 11 32 0 21 10 32 0 35 11 30 10 31 9 35 7 21 10 33 9 36 3 21 7 81 4 35 9 21 8 31 4 85 7 21 7 82 0 36 0 6 0 10 6 6 6 2 0 I 6 2 0' 36 1 35 4 35 5 36 1 36 0 35 8 35 9 7 6 2 6 COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN, WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, Jan. 24th, 1845. s. d. Wheat 45 7 Barley 34 7 Oats 21 8 Rtb 31 4 Beans 35 7 Pbas 35 8 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding Gazette in the last year, Friday, January 26th, 1844. 6. rt. Wheat 51 8 Barley 33 7 Oats 18 9 Rye 31 7 Bbans 29 6 Peas 30 3 Account shewing the Quantities of Corn, Gram, and Flour imported mto the United Kingdom, in the month ended the 5th Jan., 1844; the Quantities upon which Duties have been paid for Home Con- sumption during the same month, and the Quantities remaining in Warehouse at the close thereof. .Quantity en-i Quantity Species of Grain. Wheat, from British Possessions Barley, do Oats, do. Peas, from do. Wheat, foreign Barley, do Oats, do Rye, do Peas, do Beans, do Indian Com, do Malt, do Flour from British Pos- sessions Flour, foreign \, Quantity qrs. bush, 4590 6 175 3 631 3511 15088 104487 18647 7 2170 6 14764 1 6648 1 cwts. qrs.lbs. 17573 2 27 sen 2 26 tered for remaining in imported. '^'="=" '".' '^'"'"^'e " •^ consumption, warehouse. qrs. bush. 3827 1 175 3 631 0 3.512 1 12502 7 128139 2 17778 6 7 1 1530 6 10116 2 8923 5 owts. qrs.lbs. 24500 3 11 861 3 8 qrs. bush. 921 4 361229 0 2464 0 74483 0 4 7 7304 4 13442 7 531 5 7 6 cwts. qrs.lbs. 7701 8 21 264089 S 10 PRICES OF SEEDS. January 27. The rather important fall which has occurred in prices of red Cloverseed during the past month, and its comparatively low value at present, have at length directed attention to the article, and there was certainly more inchnation to buy this morning ; of white a good many parcels were offering, free on board at Hamburgh, which kept the trade duU. Canaryseed was rather cheaper ; Linseed quite as dear ; Spring Tares were inquired for, and would have brought full terms. Linseed, English, sowing 52 58 Baltic — — crushing 38 43 per qr.. Linseed Cakes, English.. 13;. Os.to 13/. 5s. per 1000 Do. Foreign.. 8/. 15. to 91. 5s. per ton. Large, foreign .... — — Mediter. & Odessa 38 43 Carraway 44 46 new .. 48 50percwt. Coriander..... 15 18 percwt. Mustard, brown, new.... 12 17 white. .14 18 p. bush. Rapeseed, English, new . . 23/. 25i. per last. Hempseed 35 38 per qr. Trefoil — — old.. — new — Rye Grass, English — — Scotch — — nominal. Tares, Winter 5s. 9d. to 68. 3d. Tares, old .... — — new — — per qr. Canary, 51 52 per qr. fine 63s. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Monday, Jan. 27. There is a Uttle business doing in the Hop market, almost entirely to meet the present wants of the con- sumers, and prices are firm. A revival of business and an active demand are confidently anticipated, and, with existing stocks, these must affect prices. POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK, Waterside, Monday, Jan. 27th. The supplies during the past week have been mode- rate : these, with those left of former arrivals, have been more than sufficient for the demand in consequence of the town markets being abundantly supplied with vege- tables, which are selling at unusually low prices. This market has been considerably depressed, caused by several vessels coming on demurrage ; and other cargoes turning out damaged, were forced into the trade at low prices. S. S. 8. S. York Reds 70 to 80 Kent & Essex Kidneys 60 to 66 Perth do 50 to 60 Wisbeach Kidneys . . 60 to 65 Fifeshire 45to55 Do. Whites 50 to 60 Early Devons do ... 60 to 65 Guernsey Blues 55 to 60 Cornwall do 60 to 65 Prince Regents 60 to 65 Jersey Blues 55 to 60 j WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. WAKEFIELD, Jan. 24.— The improved rates we have lately reported are fully supported in any sales that have been made this week, and the market may be reported firm for both long and short wools. FOREIGN. CITY, Jan. 27.— The Wool auctions at the Hall of Commerce are expected to comprise from 13,000 to 15,000 bales. Messrs. Simes have announced 6,600 bales, Southey 3,000 bales. Marsh 2,000 bales, and Loughnan 1,786 bales; comprising Australian, Van Diemen's Land, Port Philip, Cape, Russian, German, South American, &c. Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London, I //y/.f/yi Icn-.-PubUslieeLhy Joseph Roacr-sori, %t h'ortoUc Street Sfnr.d. iVAfi. THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE. MARCH, 1845. No. 3.— Vol. XI.] [Second Series. PLATE I. PORTRAIT OF MR. JONAS AVEBB. PLATE n. A 11 E R E F O R D B U L L. The above animal was bred and fed by Mr. William Perry, of Monkland, Leominster, Hereford- shire, was exhibited by him at the late meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, held at Southamj)ton, in July las^t, and obtained a prize of 'lliirty Sovereigns. MEMOIR OF MR. JONAS WEBB, OF BABRAHAM. denominated licks. Now, some of the most skilful of the English flockmasters never allow their sheep to be without salt." The uniform experience of all flockmasters is in accordance with these great beacons of nature. Whenever the breeder attempts to run counter to her dictates, he is sure to reap disappointment in varying degrees. To this truth the breeders of England have ever been ready to bear witness : 1)reeding in and in — feeding on pasturage too succulent — on damp, ricli, low- land soils — the keeping the sheep in too high con- dition, for the purposes of show — and many other lengthened attempts to deviate from the course which nature has laid down — have been always eventually unsuccessful. The effects of high keej), for instance, have al- ways disi)layed themselves l)y diminishing the re- productive powers of the animal — a fact to which the subject of this memoir, in a recent communi- cation, gives very decided testimony. Mr. Jonas AVebb, whose engraved portrait, by Cooke, from a photograph, by Beard, is prefixed to this brief memoir, was born at Great Thurlow, in The eflbrts which have been made in our time — and so successfully too — by the great breeders of England, to improve the race of Southdowns, have been, perhaps, unexampled in the history of the sheep in any other age or country. These great benefactors of their native land have had, however, to encoimter many and very considerable difficul- ties : these chiefly arising from the natiu-e of the animal, the natural habits of the domestic sheep being so foreign to the artificial circumstances in which it is placed in our highly-cultivated and closely-enclosed country. Since, as I have else- where remarked, these habits of the sheep attach it to the highest ground — to the dry upland slopes, where the heath and other aromatic ])lants on which it browses abound, "Nature never intended this animal to occupy the deep alluvial turnip lands of our rich arable farms, or to consume the succulent grasses of our water meadows : every shepherd is aware that their natural instinct, after being for ages domesticated, still leads them invariably to the elevated portions of the field in which they are l>laced. All these facts tell the farmer in very intelligible language that it is change of food, of ^ the county of Sutlblk, on the 10th of November, pasturage, and. if possible, the giving them occa- I 179(3, being the second son of Mr. Samuel Webb, «ionally aromatic food, that will l)est coiulucc to j of West Wickham, in the county of Cambridge, the i)rosperity of his flock. With this view parsley . in which county his ancestors had long re- has been successfully cuUivatcd. Then, again, sided. Commencing business as a farmer the wild sheep are found to frecpicnt all those at Babrahain. in llu- county of Cambridge, places where saline exudation are to be found. ' in 1822, speedily turned his attention to the They lick the salt clay of some of the American , breeding and to the improvement of Southdown up'ands to such an extent, that these ulaccs are I sheep, with what success is known to most of our OW SERIEii.} V [No. 3,— VOL, XXII, 196 tHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. readers. The object with which he commenced breeding, the points for which he has laljoured so well and so successMly, the triumphs he has so justly attained, as well as the few errors into which he has now and then fallen, are detailed so care- fully and so fairly in a recent obliging communi- cation, that I am sure my readers will deem no apology necessary for its insertion here. Mr. Webb remai-ks — "As you were kind enough to request me to give you ' any facts relative to my career of sheep breeding,' 1 will endeavour to do so ; but, as I think you will agree with me, that ' on their o\^'n merit modest men should be dumb,' I am sure you M-ill not expect much from me, es})ecially as I fear I can lay claim to only a small share of it. " I commenced breeding Southdown sheep as soon as I began business for myself, about twenty- two years since, from a comnction, through many experiments made when at home with my fether with niant/ different breeds of sheep, that more mut- ton and wool of the best quality could be made per acre from Southdown sheep than from any other breed, upon nine-tenths of the arable land in this country, where sheep are recjidarhj folded, espe- cially where the land is poor and the animals ha^'e far to ivalk to fold. " I commenced by purchasing the tiest bred sheep which coxild be obtained from the principal breeders in the coimty of Sussex, regardless of expense, and have never made a cross from any other breed on any occasion since. You are aware that at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land, held at Cambridge in July, 1840, I won the first prize for the stock ewes and lambs of the Southdown, or any other short- wooUed breed of sheeiJ, and also the first prize for the shearVnuj- stock ewes, at the same meeting ; since which time I have never shown for any prize but for rams, being convinced of the ruin inevitably brought iijjon all breeding stock by over feeding. I believe I only raised two or three lambs from the nine shearhng ewes which I had fed to exhibit at Cam- bridge ; and I lost, I think, four of them also. My brother Samuel, who also resides in the same ]iarish of Babraham, has shown for the shearling- ewe's prize for the years 1841, 1842, and 1843, and has obtained the first prize every year from my blood of sheep, he having purchased the ewes of me, and always hires my rams to put to them ; he has been equally unsuccessful with those which he has over-fed. You are also aware that I won three out of four of the prizes offered by the Royal Agricidtural Society of England, at the meeting at Liverpool, in 1841, for Southdown, or any other short-woolled breed of sheej) : and at Bristol, by the same society in July, 1842, I won two, out of four, of the lams' prizes j and also at Derby, in 1843, at the meeting of the same society, I won three out of four of the prizes for any kind of shorl-ivoollcd sheep ; but in feeding sheep for that occasion, I overfed two of my best, and killed them before the show took place : they were both two-year-old sheep, and were each highly commended by the judges, as yearlings, at the Bristol meeting. I had refused 180 guineas for the hire of the two sheep for the season. I also quite destroyed the usefulness of two other aged sheep, by over-feeding them last year. They never either of them propagated throughout the season, and I have had each of them killed in consequence, which has so completely tired me of over-feeding that I never intend exhibiting another aged ram, unless I greatly alter my mind, or can find out some method of feeding them which will not destroy the animals, and which I have hitherto failed to accomplish. ^Vhat I intend exhibiting in future will be shearlings only, as I believe they are not so easily injured by extra feeding as aged sheep J partly by being more active, and partly through having more time to put on their extra condition, by which their constitutions are not likely to be so much impaired. / wish particularly to let the public knoio that in future I do not intend exhibiting aged rams, through the reasons tvhich I have stated. Y'ou can, if you please, also notice my repeated success at the Smithfield Club, and that I also obtained the first prize at the Highland Society's show at Dundee in 1843, the only time I ever exhibited stock in Scotland, for the best shearling South-down ram, the only prize I showed for ; and, contrary to the rules of the society, the committee decided to have my sheep's hkenesses taken for the society's Museum at Edinburgh. One of the rules of the society is, that no animal shall be taken as a specimen for that purpose, unless it is full grou-n. My sheep was considered in every respect more finished and complete than any old sheep which had been exhibited. I also won the two first prizes lust year, at the Royal Irish Society's Meeting at Belfast, and the Society's medal for the best ram of any breed, exhibited at the meeting, never having i)reviously shown my stock in Ireland. " I do not know what you will be able to make out of these observations, but you are quite at liberty to do as you please with them." Mr. Webb adds, in a i)ostscript : — " I omit- ted to state that, at the Saffron Walden Agri- cultural Society, which is open to any i)erson in the united kingdom, who choose to subscribe to it, I obtained all the first prizes in all the classes of Southdown sheep, with the exception of two, during the whole period I continued to show in it, and I also won the first prize every year for the THE I'AUMER'S MAGAZINE. 197 be«t pen of shearling wethers of any breed, which I beheve, brought the Southdown sheej) more into repute in this and the adjoining counties, than all the other prizes which I obtained, as there was at one time a strong prejudice against them. 1 be- heve I obtained twenty-four silver cups, varying in price from three to five guineas each, independent of about a dozen silver medals." Since receiving this communication from Mr. Wel)b, and which was previous to the meeting of tlie Royal Agricidtural Society, in July last, he has again been an exhibitor in the class for sheading rams only, at the meeting at Southampton, and again obtained the first prize of 30 sovereigns. Such has been the successfid career of Mr. Jonas Webb, as a breeder of Southdown sheep, and it is with only that portion of his history that the farmers of England are interested. It would hardly be gratifying to their taste, if I indulged in any remarks u})on Mr. Webb's personal good qualities, since to them it matters httle to be told that he is kind-hearted, generous, and hospitable ; that he has secured the good estimation of his neighbours and a large circle of friends, by never faihng to unite with the energies of the zealous and ever-watchful Ijrecder, the kindliness of feeling which adorns so gracefully the British Yeoman, Uemarks on ploughing. BY T. SULUVAX, ESQ. Ploughing is universally regarded as the most important operation which tlie cndtivator of the soil has to perform. History informs us that it was the favourite rural employment of the princes, heroes, and statesmen of auticpiity ; and we know that the poets of Ijoth ancient and modern times are exuberant in their praises of the " good old plough."' It is unnecessary, however, to refer back to the example of tliose in ancient times who are said to liave " turned their swords into ploughshares;" or to (juote any specimen of the glowing panegy- rics of the poets, in order to illustrate the impor- tance of ploughing. It is justly regarded as the most essential operation connected with tillage husbandry ; for it is evident that on the time and manner in which any piece of land is ])loughed must, in a great measure, depend the facility of executing any subsidiary tillage which it may re- quire ; as, for example, in the j)n)cess of summer- tallow, and in preparing for green crojjs, as well as the quantity and value of the produce which it is expected to yield. Good ploughing is an almost intallible criterion of good husltandry, as bad ploughing is of defective husljandrj-; and, there- fore, the intelligent tourist can seldom err in form- ing a just character of the system of cultivation pursued in any district or farm wliicii may coinc under his inspection, from the ai)pe;uan(e presented \>\ the ploughed liclds, and tlie manner in wliich the ridges are formed and arranged. Ploughing is the fundamental o])eration on arable farms, and wherever it is carelessly, and as a necessary con- sequence, imperfectly executed, the other dejiart- ments of farm-management will be foimd, in nine cases out of every ten, to be defectively conducted ; for the man who ignorantly or indifterently suffers his land to be insufficiently ploughed possesses but a small amount, indeed, of either taste or judg- ment, and is quite incompetent to the task of ju- dici(msly and i)rofitably directing the minutiae of agricultural affairs. " Nothing," says a celebrated farmer and mechanic, " can be more beautiful than a field commodiously laid off' and neatly ploughed. There is even none of man's handiworks that can please the eye more, and at the same time show more of its unrivalled accuracy, than a lawn which l)resents ridges of the same width, with furrow- slices running in straight, equidistant Unes ; and that, too, with such minute exactness, as scarcely to be equalled by the gardener." It is freely acknowledged that the exigencies of the country, and the present condition and future prospects of agriculture as a profession, render it im- perative on farmers to seize upon and iminediately to adopt eveiy well-authenticated means of improve- ment which the researches of scientific men have l)lace(l or may yet bring within their reach ; but it must also be admitted that agricultural theory is com})aratively valueless, nay worse than useless, as it tends to mislead, unless it results in the im- provement of i)ractice. Whilst enterprising agri- culturists, therefore, are soaring into the mysteries of science, and confidently anticipating the great things that are to be brought about through the instrumentahty of chemical skill, apphed to the cultivation of the soil, they should not overlook or undervalue the many advantages \\'hich will assur- edly and immediately arise from the judicious and economical performance of the minuticP of practice. It is truly astonishing to find what little attention is paid in some quarters to the jierformance of that important branch of farm-management— ploughing. We see fanners in some of the most fertile and pro- ductive districts in the kingdom, complaining of, and j)erhaps suffering under, the pressure of high rents, heavy taxes, &c. ; and who, nevertheless, pertinaciously adhere to the miserably defective, half-a-tillage system of their ancestors. Rut, were only one-half the numl)er of the experiments that have been instituted within the last few years for the ]niri)ose of testing the comparative efficacy of certain foreign and other fashionable manures been made with the view of ascertaining the most effi- cient construction of that universally employed imi)lement, the plough, the most economical mode of working it, and the most pr()fita])le method of jjlougliing and ridging different kinds and condi- tions of land, we may safely affirm that the very expensive and defective modes of ploughing which still undeniably prevail throughout a large extent of England wouhl be superseded l)y a much cbeajjer and more efficient system, and that those farmers who have not as yet set out in the great march of M<,mcultnral improvement would be e.v])e- riinentally icasoncd into the abandonmrni of their clumsy, old-fashi'ined ploughs, anti(juatcd teams, V 2 198 THE FAllMEU'S MAGAZINE. and long procession of horses, ■which iinqueslion- ably constitute an especial reproach to the national industry. But it is not Eniflish agriculture alone that is susceptible of vast improvement in this res- ])ect. To whatever division of the em])ire we direct our attention we shall find that an incalculable amount of good would he effected, and the progress of improvement materially accelerated, even in the most advanced districts, liy the final overthrow of long-cherished dee])-seated jirejudices, the employ- ment of efficient and easily-drawn implements, and the general adoption of an improved system of ploughing. Although the Irish farmers are unable, even were they disj)osed, to employ so formidable a team as the more wealthy agriculturists of Eng- land deem it indispensable to use, and although the improved swing-plough is almost eveiywhere at work, yet, generally sj)eaking, the Irish modes of ]iloughing and ridging are extremely defective. Even in Scotland — a country which proudly, and not unreasonably, boasts of its ploiighs and plough- men— it must be confessed that much, very much, of the arts of ploughing and plough-making re- main yet to be learned in some of the more remote districts of that country. The object of ploughing is to turn over the soil into small, ecjuidistant ribs or furro^^■-slices, for the purj)ose of exposing a fresh surface to the action of the atmosjjhere, and of obtaining a sufficient quantity of loose earth, to form a seed-bed for the gro-wth of plants. Land is also frequently jiloughed to assist in the destruction of weeds either by bury- ing ^\•ith a deep furrow the surface A'egetation vmder- neath, M'here it eventually decays and becomes ma- nure ; or — and this is the most general practice — by loosening the soil to facilitate the operation of the harrow and grubber, which are the implements especially designed for dragging up root-weeds, &c., to the svu'face, to cover in dung or other matters spread upon the land, and generally s})eak- ing to prepare the soil for the growth and produc- tion of crops. Before proceeding, however, to the minute and practical details of the mode of plough- ing, most applicable to different soils, situations, and purposes, it will be necessary to offer some observations on the instrument with which this imjiortant rural art is ])erformed. The plough being the fundamental implement of agriculture, is common, in some shape or other, to ail ages and countries. The ancient Romans, who it appears, had acquired, a very considerable amount of skill in agricultural matters, possessed, hke our- selves, A-arious forms of the plough, designed, if not adapted, for different kinds of land. The Rev. ;Mr. Dickson, in his •• Husbandry of the Ancients," remarks that "they (the Romans) had ploughs with mould-boards and without mould-boards, with and withovit coulters, with and A^'ithout wheels, with broad and narrow pointed shares, and with shares not only with sharj) sides and points, but also with high-raised cutting tops." It is somewhat singular, however, that amidst all this variety, and aided by the many descri})tions given in the ancient classical authors, no one has been able to depict more than imaginary repre- sentations of the Roman ploughs ; but it is certain that they must have been of a verj' inefficient con- struction. It appears that the rude ])loughs of the (ireeks and Romans were employed throughout Eurojje, without undergoing any material alteration from their primitive form , till the sixteenth century, M-hen they began to be partially improA-ed by the Dutch and Flemish, to whom we are indebted for the origin of the swing plough. Amos, in his Essay on Agricvdtural Mechanics, informs us that one Lummis first attempted the construction of the plough on mathematical princi})les which he had learned in Holland; but having obtained a patent for the making and vending of his plough, he withheld the knowledge of those principles from the public. It appears, however, that one Pashley, a plough-wright, had, by some means, acquired a prior knowledge of the mathematical principles on which the Dutch plough had been con- structed, and from which he made a great nvunber of implements; subseciuently his son carried on the same trade, and established a manufactory at Rotherham, in England; and hence they obtained the ajipellation of " Rotherham })loughs." The ingenious James Small, of Ford, was, at that time, an o])erati\'e mechanic at Rother- ham, where he first became acquainted with those improvements on the Scotch swing plough which have rendered liis name so deservedly celebrated. Previously to Small's alterations the plough was so clumsy in its construction, and so difficult to draw, that he has been regarded more as the inventor than as the improver of the swing plough. Small matured his improvements in Berwickshire, and his ])lough got rapidly into use in all parts of Scotland, everywhere sujiplanting the old Scotch plough ; but not, however, without encountering a good deal of opposition from prejudiced and in- terested parties. It was strenuously opposed in some ])arts of Lanarkshire, and was there, in some instances, completely beaten out of the field, owing, it has been supposed, to the over-concavity of the mould- board — a form not well adapted to the ])articular kind of land in which the trials were made. The defeat sustained by Small's plough, in Lanarkshire, gave rise to an improAed form of the mould-board by Wilkie, an ingenious mechanist, then residing at L'ddingstone, near Glasgow ; and the Wilkie plough, as since improved by the son of the ori- ginal maker, is A'ery generally employed in the southern counties of Scotland, and in several i)arts of Ireland. All the different varieties of the swing plough now used or manufactured in Scotland, are merely imitations, with slight modifications of some of the parts, of the models left by Small and ^\ ilkie, as I shall have occasion, hereafter, more j)articularly to notice. In this A-ery l)rief historical sketch of the i)lough, I have alluded to the suc- cessive improvements effected on the Scotch swing plough only, because, as this kind is likely, ere long, to supersede all others, an account of it will, it is presumed, be more interesting to general readers. Ploughs may be conveniently divided into the three following classes : — 1st. Those haA'ing one or more wheels, named wheel plouffhs. 2nd. Those wthout wheels, and having fixed mould-boards; termed srciv(/ ploughs. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 109 3rd. Those furnished with moveable mould- I shces in one direction, denoniinated turn-wrest boards, which admit of turning all the furrow | plou(/hs. Fig. J, 1. Wheel FLOfGns. — There are two kinds of wheel ])l()uohs : those, and they are by far the most numerous, to which the wheel or wheels are at- tached for the jjurpose of insuring; imiformity in the dimensions of the furrow slices, and of render- ing the imj)lenient more steady and managealjle in the hands of inexperienced ])l(mghmen, and those to which the wheel is added as a sul)stitute for the sole of the ])lough, with the view of diminishing the ])()wer re(juircd to work the iui])lement. This latter kind has obtained the aijjiellation oi friction-wheel j>loii(/h. Much diversity of oijinion exists regard- inir the comi)arative merits of wheel and swing ])loughs, each kind ha\inj? jjarticular advocates. Wheel j)loughs are of unknown anti(|uity, having been used by the Romans. They are still very common in England, but seldom, 1 shoidd have said never, to be met with in Scotland. They are l)robably, better adajjted than [)loughs of the swinj^ kind to the condition of districts in which good |)loughuien are scarce, as, by the addition of wheels to the implement, some assistance is vm- doubtedly rendered to the inexperienced and in- competent, which enables them to ])erfonn their work with more uniformity of depth, and with greater neatness and regularity than they could do with swing pkmghs. Jiut, althoutrh wheel ploughs do not ;jenerally require the exercise of so much skill and dexterity in their management as those of the other kind, yet the former possess j)e- culiar disadvantage owing to their construction, to which the latter are not subject. They, in con- sequence of the great amount of friction to which the wheels are subjected, undoubtedly att'ord {,'reater resistance, and consequently demand the exertion of jrreater force from the animals (jf drought, than what is sufficient to draw the swing plouf^h in the same quality of land ; besides, wheel jiloughs are more comi)licated aiul costly in their construction at first, more liable to lie thrown out of order, more exi)ensive to keej) in re|)air, and more apt to be interrupted and retarded when at work, by earth, in soft wet lands, adhering to the wheels ; and also by large clods, stones, or other obstructions on the surface, than ])loughs of the swing kind. The latter are confessedly lighter of * 'ITie term " wrest," as here employed, is a sy- nonyme for mould-board. draught, and, when properly constructed, are by no means so difficult to manage as some uninitiated persons may ajiprehend. A short course of train- ing, coupled with an earnest endeavour to im- proA-e is all that is required. AVheels were, doubt- less, originally added to the instrument in conse- quence of the scarcity of ploughmen competent to perform anythini? api)roachinfr to efficient or regu- lar work ; and the fact of their existence at the l)resent day. in any part of Hritain, speaks but very httle for the tendency of our boasted imi)rovements in the ])rinciples of mechanics and of good hus- bandry. But it is only where agriculture is in a backward condition that those remnants of anti- quity, wheel jjlousihs, are now used. As imi)roved modes of farming are introduced, and as ])lough- men become careful, and ambitious to excel in the ])erformance of their own pleasing and venerated art, wheels, as useless ai)pendajj[es to the simi)le form of the plough, are sure to be dispensed with. 'I'hey are regarded by good ploughmen merely as an encumbrance to the implement, although it is not here denied but that their ado[)tion ma)', in some degree, compensate for the unskilfulness of inex])erienced persons. One ;'ery e\ident and strikinf^ disadvantage inseparable from the em- ployment of wheel jjloughs, arises from the ad- mitted fact, that they do not demand that degree of exertion, nor excite that anxious unceasing atten- tion in their manafjement, which is so indispensable in the training of skilful and accurate i)lough- men. I mi<;ht here notice several ploughs of the wheel kind, which are accounted sui)erior instrmnents in certain localities ; but it is considered that the readers of this magazine are so well accpiainted with the ploughs of this class, as to render any de- scri])tion of individual implements sujierfluous in this place. The other kind of wheel plouijh, to which allu- sion has been made, is that to which the wheel is added as a substitute for the sole, with the view of diminishing^ the power recpiired lo draw the im- plement. The friction-wheel i)lou;.rh, which is the name given to the instnuuent so cDUstructed, is, as yet, but little known or employed, althouirh it ap- |(ears, from the com])arative trials that have been instituted between it and others of the usual fi)nn, that the substitution of a low wheel for the plough's 200 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sole does very materially tenrl to lessen the requisite draught. A considerable iioiliou of the draught (if tlie swing plough is occasioned bv the large amoTUit of friction on the sole- plate and share, arising from the Aveiglit or jn-essure of the imple- ment on the land ; and this friction is, to a great extent, obviated by substituting for the sole a small wheel on whicli the plough rests. Wilkie's improved friction-wheel jjlough (Fig. 1.) the oldest, and probably the ])est, of this kind, was invented ' in IS'2.'). The wheel is i)laced so "as to incline from the perpendicular at an angle of about '^0^, and is so contrived as to ensure a considerable degree of > steadiness in the motion of the i^lough. The great objection, VlO\^•ever, to this imi)lement arises from the difficulty experienced in its management. It is rather " kittle to hold," as Scotch ploughmen phrase it, excejjt by the most skilful " hands." It can be made, 1 believe, something cheaper than the common s\\'ing plough ; but this circumstance is not sufficient of itself to bring the friction-wheel plough into anything like general use. There are several implements on the same principle, now manufactured in diflerent parts of England and Scotland. Fig. 2. 2. Swing Ploughs. — The improved Scotch swing plough is now regarded by all imprejndiced parties, capable of appreciating its merits, as the most simple and the most efficient tillage imple- ment ever im-ented. It is adapted to all situations and to eveiy description of laud. Since the jieriod of its first great improvement by the ingenious Small, it has undergone va- rious alterations in difterent localities, with the view of adapting it more perfectly to particular soils and circumstances ; l)ut here I am com- pelled to obsen-e that the diversity of soil to be met with, however great, cannot jjossibly justif)' the almost endless variety that exist in the form of the plough. Wifkie Ploufjh. — It has been already remarked that AVilkie, of Uddingstone, near Glasgow, was the first who remedied the defects of Small's mould-board, and that his improved plough is much employed in certain parts of Scotland and in Ireland. It works on nearly the same principle as the old Scotch plough in use prior to Small's improvements, by cutting deep on the side next to the unploughed land ; but the mould-board, in- stead of being concave, like Small's, is quite the reverse, being convex throughont — a form which renders it well adapted for ploughing stitf', adhesive soils, old grass lands, &c. In its construction the iipper lines of the land-side lie in difterent ])lanes, giving to the fore ])ortion of the beam a direction, that, if ]n-olonged would ])ass nearly through the centre of the body. The edge of the sole lies at a small angle with the mean direction of the vqiper lines, but the land-side of the body has a very con- siderable twist. The horizontal and vertical sec- tional lines of the mould-board are all more or less cuiTed, giving the surface a character of convexity especially in the horizontal direction. In lieavy clays NVilkie's plough is decidedly sui)erior to Small's, althoiigh it is not denied ])Ut that it may be inferior to it for ])loughing light, friable soils, to which the latter is particularly well suited. From these two kinds have arisen all the diflerent varieties of the plough now used or manufactured in Scotland. Some of the existing makers still adhere to Small's model of a conca\'e mould-board ; while others follow the convex form, invented by Wilkie. In many of the numerous attempts that ha^'e ])een made from time to time to im])rove Small's ])lough, some of its worst faults have been left uncorrected, and, in not a few instances, others have been added by ignorant imitators, which, of course, have had the effect of rendering the jilough much inferior to what it originally was. Nevertheless, several me- chanics have succeeded in ingrafting some decided imjirovements on the parent swing-jjlough (for such Small's may well be called), which have made it more perfectly adapted to particnlar soils and purposes. I shall here briefly notice a few of these, always confining my remarks to imj)lements com- monly used in Scotland. Currie PJoufjli. — Denholm, of the parish of Currie, in Mid-Lothian, has effected an improve- ment on Small's plough, by lengthening the fore- part of the mould-board, to meet at the feather or wing of the share, 'lliough this maker has strictly adhered to Small's model, in fonning the remainder of his mould-board, yet this alteration of the fore- part— combined with the circumstance of the coulter being inserted farther forward in the beam — en- ables the Currie ])lough to cut a deeper and narrower furrow-slice than what can be effected by Small's. In the mould-board, the horizontal and vertical sectional hues are slightly curved, but the surface is sensibly conca\'e, and is prolonged for- ward. The land-side lines are straight, the sole line having a considerable twist land-wards, the points of the beam always set high; but the point THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 201 of attachment of the drauo^ht is br()uarts of this plough : — The extreme length, from the muzzle at the extremity of the beam to the wooden handles at the ends of the stilts, is 10 feet; and the length of the body, at medium working order, is, from heel to point, :i feet--inclu- sive of the sole and share. "The working part of plough in the ground will, of course, vary in con- KCfjUence of the share wearing shorter ; but at no time, even, when newly repaired, should the dis- tance from heel to point be more than 3 feet 3 inches : nor should the share be ever worn down to make the length below 2 feet 10 inches." The length of the share should never exceed J 3 inches when newly rejjaired, nor be worn down Ijelow 8 inclies. When the share is between 9 and 1 1 inches in length, it is said to work in the sweetest trim; but, when ploughing old ley, from 8 to 10 inches is found to be the most suitable length for tlic share. The length of the stilts, or handles, from the hi'el of tlie plough backwards, is 5^ feet; the height of the left handle, above the j)lane of the sole, is .\ feet ; and tliis handle, which is 2 inches more elevated than the other, projects 6 or 7 inches over the line of tlie left side of the jtlough. The extreme width below, from the lower edge of the mould- bi)ar(l tij the sole-plate, is S\ inches ; and the sole prujei'ts about 3 inches behind the heel of the mould-board.* The Ihmterian plough cuts a very sure and jjcrfect furrow-silce, and is easily managed liy the jiloughman, but is somewhat heavier in * Sep Hunter on tlie ■Edinburgh, 1«43. Scotch Swing I'l(.ii<.'h." draught than the average of jiloughs, which is its greatest imperfection. Self-cleiiniii;/, or Rid P/o;/y//.— Small's plough may be said to be the parent of the imjiroved swing- ploughs ; l»ul there are some jieculiar kinds of work to which neither it, nor any of those now briefly described, is strictly adapted. In the ordi- nary form of the plough, it is not wefl suited for ploughing moor or heathy lands from a state of nature, as the heath and other rough vegetable matter is liable to accumulate between the coulter and the beam, thereby impeding the jirogress of the plough. To remedy this inconvenience, Mr. Finlayson, an eminent farmer and mechanic, of Ayrshire, constructed an imjilement named the " Self-cleaning, or Kid Plough" (Fig. 2) in which the beam is curved vertically, so as to terminate in a coincidence with the coulter; and when the heathy or other vegetable matter collects, it is pusheil uj)- wards as the plough advances, and falls oti". There is thus in this implement no resting-place for heath or other loose rubbish between the coulter and beam, where, in rough grounds, and with jiloughs of the ordinary construction, it gets entangled, and impedes the work. The share and mould-board i are also so contrived as to cut and lay over the I furrow-shces in such a manner as to deprive tliem j of the power of springing back to their original j position. Besides the jiloughs now briefly described, there I are several others used in different parts of Scot- i land— such as Kirkwood's, Scouler's, Carrick's, : Coltman's, &c., manufactured in East Lothian, all of which are excellent instruments, and well deserv- ing of notice ; but to enter further into descriptive details of particular ]jloughs wovdd extend this article beyond due limits. I shall now rather en- deavour to i)oint out some of the leading general principles which ought to be attended to in con- structing the plough. It would, perhajis, be impossible— and certainly would serve no useful purpose — to lay Aown any- thing ajiproaching to a system of rules whereby to regulate the form, size,' strength, itc, of a plough which would be the best adajited to any of the differ- ent varieties of soil to be met with ; neither is it necessary to occupy space in investigating all the considerations which determine tlie form best cal- culated to eff'ect all the purposes which the plough is intended to accomplish ; but there are a few fun- damental or general princii)les which ought in\'ari- ably to be attended to in forming and proportioning the essential jiarts. These will, jierhajjs, be better understood by shortly considering the fimction.s which the jirincipal or working parts of the jilough have to accomjilish, and also when these functions are performed in the most efficient manner. In the act of ploughing a piece of land, the coulter and sliare have to cut— the former vertically, and the latter horizontally— a sod or slice from the solid land; and each slice, on being cut. is immediately forced from its horizontal ])osition by the onward motion or pressure of the plough. The share and the fore-jiart of the mould-board are the i)arts which effect this ; and the furrow-slice is finally transmitted and |iressed iiome to its place through the niefhum of the mould-board. These are the 502 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. simple duties requiied of the working parts of the plough — to cut, raise, and turn over the successive sods or slices. Now, when are these performed to the best advantage r Good ploughing, I ajjprehend, consists in turning up the land to a given depth — de])endent, of course, upon the nature of the soil and other circumstances — and so disposing it into imiform and equidistant ribs or fuirov.'-sUces that the largest or maximum extent of fresh surface may be exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, or in raising up in the form of ribs the greatest or maximum quantity of earth consistent with a given depth of furrow; for it admits of demonstration that, with any given depth, when either of these criterife of good ploughing exists the other must accompany it ; oi', in other words, whene\-er the extent of exposed surface is a maximum, the quan- tity of fresh mould turned up in the form of ribs will likewise be a maximum, the dejjth of furrow- shce remaining the same. Xow, it will be readily admitted that the most efficient construction of the ])lough is attained when its essential parts are so formed, projjortioned, and connected, as to insure the accomplishment of good i)loughing, as here defined, when managed by an experienced ])loughman (for it is im])ossible to make a plough which shall jierform perfect work in the hands of an incompetent person), with the least possible ex- penditure of labour on the part of the manager and the animals of draught, and with the least injury to the implement itself. But instead of speaking in general terms, which can serve no practical purpose, I shall here briefly advert to the most approved forms and proportions of the principal parts of a well-constructed iron swing-plough. The beam is the part to the extremity of which the motive power is attached ; but its shape or de- gree of cur\ ature has no effect whatever upon the draught, or the efficient working of the jjlough. If duly proportioned to the size of the other ])arts, and of sufficient strength to withstand the strain or ]n-essure to which it may be subjected, it is of lit- tle consequence whether the beam be straight or twisted, or curved high or low, horizontally, or vertically; such differences occasion no deviation from the general working principle of the i)lough. Indeed the chief object in giving the beam any curvature at all is to jjrovide against the })lough being choked and impeded while working with stubble or other rough vegetable matter on the surface of the land. Being the ])art of the imple- ment most endangered by sudden and violent shocks from large, hidden, or fast-bound stones, the beam should be made of sufficient strength to sustain the "tear and wear" of the roughest work, and to withstand the strains to Vi'hich it is likely to be subjected. The beam has been called the horse or draught lever, in contradistinction to the stilts or handles which form the ploughman's le^-ers. It is obvious, therefore, from the princijiles of mecha- nics, that by lengthening the Ijeam, we augment, to a certain degree, the power of the animals in drawing the plough. It is likewise evident that when this part is of considerable length the instru- ment is less affected by irregularities in the motion of the horses, and is consequently more steady and manageable in the hands of the ploughman. Con- venience in the size of the other parts, however, imposes a limit to the length of the beam. In a subsequent jjart of this article I shall have occasion to observe that the line of draught of the plough jjasses from the point of attachment of the draught- chains on the hames to the centre of the resistance met with by the implement at work ; and in a pro- perly constructed plough this line passes through the middle hole of the horizontal part of the ])ridle at the extremity of the beam. In order therefore to ha^'e the bridle at the height above the plane of the sole which convenience in the draught renders the most desirable, it is ascertained that the length of the beam cannot much exceed three feet measured from the sheath or brea.st of the plough to the muzzle. The bridle is the moveable apparatus at the end of the beam, by means of which the swing-trees and draught-chains, or traces, as they are also termed, are attached to the plough. Besides serving to connect the implement and the moving j)ower, it enaljles the ploughman to alter the line of draught to suit the nature of the soil, and the dimensions to which he is recpiired to plough it. It is apparent that this part may be constructed in any form which the taste of the farmer may suggest, or the ingenuity of the mechanic devise ; and accordingly v.-e find that almost every ploughmaker gives it a peculiar shape of his own. The coulter is the name given to the cutting in- strument vertically inserted in the beam : its office is to cut the sod from the vmploughed land prepa- ratory to its being turned over by the mould-board. There are two i)articulars connected with the proper position of the coulter which demand some attention, viz., the inclination or angle which the cutting-edge makes with the plane of the plough's sole, and the ])osition of the coulter with regard to the line of the land-side. The majority of plough- makers fix the coulter in the beam so as to inclii^.e to the sole-line at an angle of about 4.")°, whilst some others, by setting the coulter more erect, and farther forward, make the angle of inclination so nmch as 70'". It is obvious enough that the more inclined the coulter is to its work, the more easily will it cut through the soil opposed to it : l)ut if too obliquely set, on the other hand, it undoubtedly renders tlie plough liable to be choked up with rough stubble, rank weeds, &c. ; and also while covering in farm-yard dung which has not been well fermented. Surely, however, a suitable medium j)Osition may be o])tained between these extremes. The other jioint to be noticed in connexion with the coulter is the position of its cutting-edge with regard to the line of the land or left side of the plough. One of the chief difficulties, indeed the great art of i)loughing, consists in cutting a perfectly square-cornered furiow-slice ; but this cannot be easily effected unless due attention is i)aid to the relative i)ositions of the cutting parts of the instru- ment. In order to obtain the set best calculated to accomplish this kind of work, some })lough- makers give the land-side a peculiar t\\'ist — a prac- tice which for obvious reasons cannot be too strongly censured. The most ajiproved plan, and that which is now ado])ted by the best mechanics, is to make the land side a true plane ; but in forming the beam THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 the aperture or mortice in wliich the coulter is in- serted is not made exactly in the centre of the heam, but a little nearer to the furrow-side. This posi- tion, it will be oljserved, places the edge of the coulter a little out of the plane of the land-side, but in order to prevent any defect in the work arising from this circumstance, the side-plates are sloped a little oil' towards the sheath of the jjlough, until the land-side, at In'cast, corrcsjionds with tlie cimlter. Tliis gradual taper, which is scarcely perceptible, affects the side-plates only a few inches towards the front, the remainder being a true jjlane ; whilst the covdter l)y being thus set, is ena- bled to cut a furrow-slice perfectly scjuare- corncred, or at an angle of 90^\ There have ])een several plans lately introduced for alter- ing the jjosition of the coulter, for sliifting it uj) and down, or monng it backwards and forwards in the beam. But such devices, however ingenious, are comj)aratively A'alueless, as I)eing altogether un- necessary. V/hen the neck of the coulter has been jiroperly fitted to the aperture, there cannot, I imagine, be a more sim])le or effectual mode of securing or altering it than by means of a few iron wedges fastened with a small chain to the Ijeam. The next part to l)e considered is the sliare or sock, as it is fre(piently termed, the function of which is to cut the sod luirizontally at the bottom, while the coulter severs it vertically from the solid land. As it is indispensable that the furrow-slice be jjer- fectl)' cut before being turned o\'er, this jiart is al- most invariabl)- furnished with a wing orfcaflipr, as it is technically termed. The share admits of little di- \er.siity of form : there, are, however, se\'eral modifi- cations of it, each intended to suit some peculiarity in the land. Thus, for tough, heathy lands, very old ])astures, and the like, the share has the feather w ider and higher set than is necessary for ordinary jikjughing; and in light soils, where many small stones have to be encountered, a kmg narrow share without any feather at all is found to ansv/er best. \\'ilkie's share is of medium lireadth in the feather, chisel-])ointed, convex on the back, and rising to- wards the furrow-side. This part is most generally made of mallcalde iron ; but in some jjlaces cast- iron has been found to answer equally well for clay soils free from stones. Tliey are very cheap at first — only a shilling each I bche\c — are re- paired with facilit)-, and will last for a considerable time. The mould-board is justly regarded as the most important jjart of the plough, as on its shajjc and pro])ortions must, in a great measure, depend the l)roper execution of the work. There are various forms and modifications of this essential part, each of which is su])ported by particular parties. Small's mould-board, it has been seen, is considered to be rather concave for the generality of clay soils ; and AVilkie, though his jjlough is an admitted im])rove- nient, has fallen into the opj)osite error by giving his too nuuh convexity for light soils, &"c. The mould-board is the only part of the plough M'hose form need be altered to suit different soils, and it is obvious that no one particular shaj)e can be the best adapted for all the diversity of soils to be met with. The concave form of Small's is effective enough, indeed it is particularly well suited forplouoji- ing light friable soils^ but for working strong ad- hesive clays it is far sur])assed by the more C(mvex- shajjed mould-boards. The share and mould-board combined form a species of wedge, and as the sheath or breast is the part of the plough's I)odv which first jierforates the land, it should ha\e that narrow, sharpened, tajiering form which all'ords the least resistance, while the mould-board ilself should liave that gradually twisted form which tends not only to diminish friction, but likewise to leave the furrow slices compact and unbroken behind it. The perpendicular height of the mould-board ouglit to be such as is sufiicientto prevent the loose earth from falling in over the toj) in deej) jiloughing — from 14 to l(j inches is the usual height. Plough makers should not be too sparing in the length of the mould-board, as a sufhcient length is absolutely necessary to the efficiency of the jjlough ; the ex- treme width below, from the heel of the mould- board to the sole-])late, should n(jt be great ; it may be nearly equal to, but should never exceed, the breadth of the furrow-slice, which it is geneially in- tended to work. In Small's j)lough, and in those of the makers who have adhered to his principle, the width l)elow is about {)\ inches ; whilst in \\'\\- kie's, and others of lliat make, it is from 7i to s.J inches, which is nearer to what it should be. The form of tlie mould-l)oard will be seen in the an- nexed re])reseiitation ( I'ig. 3) of a swing-pkjugli, as seen from llic right hand side. rr^j-i^ l"lG. 3. That part of the ))lough which rao\-os in contact With tlie unploughed land is called the Inint-slde ; it ^Ii'Mild always l>e a true plane, which causes the })lough to lie e\eTdy and firmly up to the solid land. Many of the swing-ploughs in general use are, however, comi)lelely twisted in this part, witli tlie 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. view of compensating for some defect in the relati\e ' positions of the other parts ; Init this is only suIj- stituting one evil for another, for when the side- plates deviate much from a true plane, too much pressure and, of course, too much friction is thrown on the posterior ])art of the land-side, whilst little or none is imparted to the anterior por- tion of it, as may he inferred from tlie imequal manner in which the plates become worn. It is evi- dent, too, that any considerable deviation from the true j)lane in this part must increase the draught of the})lough and the difliculty of pro])erly directing it. The form and connections of the land-side will ])e seen in the accompanying sketch (Fig. 4), re- ])resenting the ])rolile or iside appearance of the plough. Fig, 4. A portion of the lower side-plate is generally turned imder the sole, and is thence called the sole-plate or sole-shoe. The length of the sole .should be regulated by that of the mould-board, and ought invariably to be such as to render the plough steady in its motion. A very long and wide sole is, no doubt, highly objectionable, as, owing to the great amount of friction to which this part is sulijected, it materially augments the draught ; but it must 1)6 borne in mind that one of the most in- dis])ensable pro])erties of a well-made plough is to maintain a steady and uniform motion when at work. In order to obtain this desirable ])roperty, and to render the plough as easily directed as ])os- sible, it is found advantageous to make the sole of such a length as to pi'oject a few inches behind the heel of the mould-board. The usual ])lan is to make the sole and mould-board to correspond at the posterior parts, but in many instances the former is made so short as not to extend so far back even as the heel of the latter. This is done for the purpose of diminishing the amount of friction, and, consecjuently, the force necessary to draw the plough; but however praiseworthy the mo- tive may be, tbe ]n-actice is highly re])rehensible. The parts of the ])l()ugh that now remain to be noticed are the handles, or stills, as they are more frecjuently termed. As they constitute the jjlough- man's lever, it is obvious that the longer they are in projjortion to the length of the beam, the greater will be the power which the man commands over his implement. Accordingly, one of the most judicious improvements effected in the construc- tion of the plough within the last few years has been the lengthening of the handles to as great an extent as is compatible with convenience in the size of the implement. In all well-formed j)loughs the extremity of the left handle projects about G or 7 inches over the line of the land-side, in order to enable the ])loughman to walk with ease and free- dom between the stilts. The extreme height of the left handle above the plane of the sole is generally 3 feet ; and the right, or, as it is in some places called, the little stilt, is a few inches more depressed, which gives the man increased power over the im- plement, particularly in deej) ploughing. From the preceding cursory obser\ations on the princi})al parts of a swing-plough of the most ap- proved constriiction, it appears that whatever form and proportions of the several parts of the frame- work are adapted to any one description of land, will likewise be generally found to answer for every other. It is only necessary that the material and strength of the frame be such as are capable of sustaining the pressure or strains to which the dif- ferent parts may be subjected, and of withstanding the force requisite to work the implement in any particular kind of land, or for any sj)ecial purpose. The proper shape and ]jroportions of the mould- board, and the relative positions of the cutting parts, viz., the coulter and share, are determineil chiefly by the nature and condition of the soil in which they have to work, and they must be \'aried accordingly; but it is quite imnecessary to alter the form or connexions of the ditFerent parts of the frame-work, such as the beam, bridle, handles, &c., with the view of rendering the plough better adapted to particular soils. It is customary in some quarters to affix a chain or an iron rod under the beam (as in the friction- wheel plough. Fig. 1 ), with the double intention of strengthening the beam, and of diminishing the draught of the plough. But it is rather difficult, to me at least, to comprehend how either of these jjurposes can be attained by such an appendage. There cannot, I conceive, be any great strain upon that part of the beam between the coulter and bri- dle, which is supposed to be supported by such means ; at all events, it is decidedly more ])referable to make the beam sufficiently strong at first, than to be luider the necessity of resorting to rods, stays, or such like fixtures, whose utihty, at the best, is highly questionable. Nor is it more evident how a rod or chain extending from the bridle to near the insertion of the coidter could in any degree effect the draught of the plough, when, as already hinted at, and as I shall hereafter have occasion more jjarticidarly to notice, the line of draught passes in THE FAI^MER'S MAGAZINE. 205 quite fi different direction altogether from that in which llicse fixtures are placed. It is veiy ques- tionaljle, then, whether these a])])endau;es have really any etlect whatever in supportini^ the beam, or in (liininishiiit!,- the draught of the ploufrli, while they undoubtedly occasion tliis inconvenience — that when ploughing- routrh stubl)le or heathy lands, and in covering in farui-yard thing wliicli has not been well decomposed, the i)lough is certain to become choked up and retarded by the accumula- tion of rough vegetalde matter Ijetween the ctndter and the so-called stay, in consequence of a de- ficiency of what Scotch ploughmen designate by the name of ?•((/. In the northern division of the island, the jjloughs which we have been hitherto considering are al- most invarial)ly drawn by two horses or oxen yoked aljreast, except in some ])articular instances, where, on account of the more than ordinary te- nacity of the soil, or of the greater depth to be jiloughed, it becomes necessary to einjjloy three or foin- horses. A plough of a similar form, l)ut of smaller dimensions than those already ad\'erted to, is em])loyed in the after-culture of green crojjs, for the ])urpose of paring away a portion of the earth from the sides of the drills, pre})aratory to the other hoeing operations being performed. This little plough is also fretpiently employed in certain dis- tricts as a substitute for the corn-drill machine. It is found to ansv/er remarkably well for the purpose of forming fallows and other tilled ground into small drills or ribs for growing wheat and other corn cro]Js in ro\\'S ; for, as the greater ])art of the seed, on being scattered by the hand, necessarily falls into the hollows of the small drills, the plants grow U]) in ])arallel rows, in the same manner as if the seed had been dej)Osited l)y the drill-machine. This is called the riljljiiuj or jXiriiHj ploiujh, and is invarial)ly drawn bv one horse, it is furnished with two mould-ljoards while ribl>ing ; Ijut the left hand side one is removed when the plough is to I)e employed in j)rocess of j)aring. There is another kind of swing-plough, com- monly known as the iloufjle-inoitld board ploiif/Ii, wliich is used for the ])urpose of forming i)ulveri7,ed land into drills or ridgelets for growing turnips, potatoes, or other drilled crops ; and also for raising nji eartli to the stems of certain jjlants, after the inter\-als between the rows in which they are grown has jjeen cleaned and tilled ])y the hand and horse-hoes. A mould-board on each side fonns the characteristic feature of this plough ; they are jointed at the fore-part to tlie head, and thereby rendered ca])able of expansion and con- traction behind. It is unnecessary, however, for fanuL-rs to keep any implement solely designed for forming drills or for earthing-up certain ctojjs, as the majority of the imjjrovcd drill-grubbers or liorNt'-hoes are now so contrived as to admit of a furrowing-up body, consisting of two mould- boards and the necessary connecting apparatus l)eing attached to the frame after the coulters lia\-e l)een removed. There are several other kinds of ploughs in ad- dition to those now enumerate. For clay and strony land. — Two cwt. of guftno, with tlu-ee times the bulk of mixture named in rule 4. The al)ove, if ajjplied to crojjs of corn in a healthy state, will gi\'e additional increase, render the (juality finer, the bulk of straw greater, and earlier at maturity, than farm-yard manure, with less labour, and half the exj)ense. 11. Potatoes [for land yem'raUy). — Three cwt. of guano, with three times its l)ulk in ashes or earth, with ten tons, or half the usual quantity of farm- yard manure, to be strewed at the bottom of the furrows, by hand, before the sets are ])lantcd ; will not only increase the croj) one-third in quantity, but will be earlier, and render tlie quality superior. It must be i)articularly obsen-ed, in drilling guano, or ploughir g it in after being sown broad- cast, jireviousto having been turned over, llie depth of the furrow sliould be calculated according to the nature of the soils. If cold, nearer the surface than gra\-el, or light soils ; and to those farmers who lune not exi)erienced the increase by the in- troduction of guano, it is advisable, to show the marked alteration, to lea^x a (juarter of an acre of each'in its original state, and to notice the ditl'erenco in produce and quality, also that of farm-)-ard manure, if used in the same field as an experiment. 12. For litrnips and manyel wurzel. — The ma- chines used for drilling the manure and seed at the same time may be adojitcd, i)roviding five times the mixture with the guano, laid down in the rules of this treatise, be strictly attended to, by which means the guano compost is de|)osited so much deejjcr, and so much in advance of tlie seed, as to allow a jjortion of the soil to intervene l)etween the .seed and manure below it. It is highly ini])ortant for turnips and rape not to let the seed come in contact with the guano di- rect, as it will ])rcvent tlie seed from germinating. The result of all the experiments with manures is decidedly in favour of guano as a maiuu'e fur growing turnips. So very apparent was its supe- riority in this respect in most of the fields, that we had no difficulty in pointing out the furrows in which it had been used. The general idea of its value in the commencement of the season, when it was a])plied, seems to have been that 1 cwt. of guano was eijual to ,'> yaids of farm-yard mamuT, or G bushels of bones; and it is our iu)|)ression, from tile result of tiie exi)eriments which it has been our ])rivilege to observe, that its \alue as a manure has not been over-estimated. \ gentleman writes — " Four ecpial portions of ground were marked out. about one-third of an acreeadi. on the liiil in the ])ark, a tlijn soil on the limestone. The j)reccding crops was oats. The jilots were all planted the same day with red ring turnips in drills ; — 208 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Cost of Manure Manure. Quantity per Acre. per Acre. 1, Guano. . .. 2 cwt £2 2 0 2, Daniel's Bristol 42 bush 2 2 0 3, Imp. Compost 48 busli 4 16 0 4, Yard Dung 20 loads, say at .5s. 5 0 0 " The result, as stated to me by the bailiff", is, that No. 1 came up sooner and stronger, and always looked better than either of the others. The fly attacked slightly all the plots, but No. 1 appeared the least, and No. 4 the most injured by it. The l)roduce was not weighed ; but No. 1 was by far the lieaviest. No. 4 next, and between Nos. 2 and 3 there was no difference. The plots are now planted to barley without any manure, and Nos. 1 and 4 are decidedly the most promising, there being no dis- cernible difference between them, but Nos. 2 and 3 are not looking near so well." " I sowed the field with oats and seeds in the spring of 1843 ; they were a A'ery heavy crop aU over the field, without any perceptible difference, and the seeds the same ; upon a field of 5 acres, on another farm, in the same j-ear, I manured 3^ acres with v/ell-prepared farm-yard manure, and li acre with G cwt. of guano, all upon the ridge of 2G inches ; the turnij)s sown in June Vv'ere all a good crop, but the li acre manured with guano showed more sui)eriority over that manured from the farm- yard than in the first field ; this field ^^'as sown with barley in the spring of 1843, and at harvest the su- periority of the Ijarley-crop was even more conspi- cuous upon the lA acre than the turnip-crop, as I am coiudnced there were at least G bushels per acre more upon this than the other part of the field ; and the seeds that were sown with the barley are at present far superior, so much so, that you ma)' see to the inch Avhere it is, long before you reach the field ; here is an evident superiority in the three first crops, viz., turnips, bark)', and clover, and I have no doubt of the result of the wheat-crop, as a good clover-croj) insures a good wheat-crop. I have had many other proofs this last season of its superior fertilizing (jualities over every other manure that has been put in competition with it, upon turf of different cpiality and texture, and as a manure for potatoes ; but no doubt )'ou have plenty of testimonials of its utility in these and other things. If you can gather any- thing from the foregoing that you may think deseiT- ing of a place in )'our i)amphlet, it is much at your service and of the public." At the Institution of the Tamworth Farmers' Club, which was celebrated by a public dinner, on the 24th of October, 1843, in the Town Hall, Sir Ro1)ert Peel took the chair, and, in the course of his opening discourse, spoke of guano in the fol- lowing terms : — " You remember. Gentlemen, that I set out by stating that practical observations are much more valuable at meetings of this kind than any elaborate eloquent common-places about the importance of agriculture. I therefore requested a friend of mine — who 1 knew had carefully made an experiment, with respect to the merits of a new manure, the name of which, I ha\-e no doubt, is quite famUiar to you, Guano — I requested him to make an experiment with the greatest care and fair- ness, and to communicate to me the result. Gen- tlemen, he has done so. and I am quite sure you will excuse me if I state to you the particulars of the experiment. My friend took a field of two acres, and j)lanted it with potatoes. The ridges in which tlie potatoes were grown were of the same length, and the potatoes of the same quality ; and the produce of the several ridges having been taken up and measured, the average result of the produce — (the soil being the same, the potatoes the same in cpiality, the manure being ajjplied with perfect fairness, and exactly in the same manner) — the average result of the produce, in i)roportionate re- turns, was this : — The stal:)le manure, 9 bushels of potatoes; Potter's manure, 11 do.; Guano, 15 do. THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE, ON THE HEALTH OF ANIMALS. BY CUTHBERT W. JoHNSON Esa., F.R.S. The influence which the atmosphere exerts, upon the health of domestic animals, is a question seldom considered by the farmer, and still more rarely re- garded in his practice. It is hardly ever indeed, that the keeper of live stock avails himself of the facts which the long continued and laborious efforts of men of science have demonstrated. Yet these great benefactors of the cultivator, have shown very clearly, that the most profitable management of all animals, cannot be attained withour a due regard to the medium in which they are placed — that in fact the temperature, the purity of the air, and even the light in which they are dwelling, must all be carefully regarded by those who would obtain from them the maximum advantage. A few facts in illustration of these truths, therefore may not be unserviceable to the farmer. Of the advantages of pure air to domestic animals, fresh facts are every year produced, tending to show its importance to their health. It is to this source that is attributed ])y medical men the origin of the extensively fatal imlmonary complaints to which stall-fed cows are subject. In the recent " Report of the Poor Law Commissioners on the Sanatory Condition of the Poor, " p. 103, it is remarked : — " The spread of the knowledge of the fact that animals are subject to typhus consumption, and the chief of the train of disorders supposed to be pecu- liarly human, will, it may be exi)ected, more power- fully direct attention to the common means of jire- vention. 'Hie following extract from a rejiort on the labours of the Board of Health at Paris will show the effect of bad ventilation on cattle . — ' The epizootic are in many respects less serious than the epidemics ; nevertheless, as they often aflfect the animals which serve for the nutriment of man, and that apart from this consideration they may have grave consequences for the public health, they have constantly engaged the care of the council. In 1834, an epizootic was reported to the administra- tion which i)revailed among the cows of the com- munes round Paris, and which caused a great mor- tality. The researches of the council estabhshed that this epizootic was only a chronic disease, a true pulmonary phthisis, to which has been given the tHK FAKMEirS MAGAZINE. 209 name of pommeliere, and by whidi the greater part of the cows had been attacked which till the stables of the milkmen of Paris and its enx'irous. Accord- ing to the council, the princii)al cause of tlie evil was attributed to the vicious ret^inien to which this species of animals is subjected. It is known that they i)ass a part of the year in stables ])erfectly closed, in which the space is not jjroportioned to the number of inmates, in which the vitiated air renews itself with extreme ditliculty, and in which the heat is sometimes suflbcating. It is known, also, that they i)ass suddenly from the food of the stable to ])asture, and that in this change they go from the hot and hiunid atmos])here of the stable to a sudden exposure to the continual variations of the external air. This alternation of food and of heat and cold operates as a powerful cause of dis- ease. But as the t\\[ does not announce itself in a violent manner, as its progress is not very raj)id, as there is even a period in the disease in which tlie animal is disposed to get Hesh, the cow-feeder, who knows to what jioint to keej) her, sells her when she is ready to calve. It is in a radius of thirty leagues from the capital that cows of this kind are purchased by the jobbers, who su])i)ly the milkmen of Paris. AVith these last they still hold out a cer- tain number of years, if they are i)roj)erly cared for, l)ut in general they are kcj)! in stables which are neither sufficiently large nor sufficiently airy, where they are cx])osed to the same causes which gave birth to the malady. The phthisis arrives in- sensibly at its last stage, and carries oft' every year from Paris and its neighbourhood a great nuiidjer of these cows." A similar disco\-ery was only lately made as to the effect of defective ventilation on the cavalry horses in some of the go\-ernment l)arracks in England ; and it is stated, that a saving of se- veral thousand ])ounds per annum \\'as eilected by an easy improvement of the ventilation of the bar- racks near tlie metropolis. An agricnUurist had a large number of shee]) housed to feed them on mangel wurzel, but a great mnuber of them sick- ened and died, and he declared that it was the food which had killed them. A veterinary surgeon, however, who hapjjened to be aware of the con- sequences of defective ventilation, pointed out the remedy, — a better ventilation for the sheej), which were overcrowded. The defect was remedied; the shee]) ate well, and throve ujjon the mangel wurzel." The decided ill effect of confined air is more rapid/i/ apparent in the case of the smaller animals, for instance, the fact of the jiernicious effect of offen- sive smells on the small graminivorous birds, and the short duration of tlieir lives in close rooms and densely pojmlated districts is attested by the ])ird- fanciers of London. " It is known," says Dr. Arnot, " that a canary bird, suspended near the toj) of a curtained bedstead in which people have slept, will generally, owing to the impurity of the air, be found dead in the morning ; and small close rooms in the habit.'itions'of the poor are sometimes aii ill-ventilated as the curtained bcadstead." (First Reporl on ly Health of Lari/c Tonus, ]). 01. J In i-esitect of cattle, the "slaughtermen have derided reasons for the conclusion that it is the eflluvium of the place which causes them to lose their ap- petite i. (Rejmt of Interment in Towns, j). 10). The temperature and jiurity of the atmosphere in which horses are kei)t is a (piestion ecjually seldom regarded — or, if considered at all, is generally ar- ranged in a way certain to ])roduce ill eftects. "The tem])erature of the stable," says Professor Youatt, " should, dtu'ing the winter months, never exceed ten degrees above that of the external air, and during the rest of the year should be as similar to it as possible. ' It is not so generally known as it ought to be, that the return to a hot stable is quite as dangerous as the change from a heated at- mosphere to a cold and biting air. Many a horse that has travelled without injury over a bleak coun- try has been suddenly seized with inflammation and fever when he has, immediately at the end of his journey, been surrounded with heated and foul air. It is the sudden change of temperature, whether from heat to cold or from cold to heat, that does the mischief, and yearly destroys a nmltitude of horses. The stable should be as large, compared with the munber of horses which it is destined to contain, as circumstances will allow. .V stable for six horses should not be less than forty feet in length, and thirteen or fourteen feet wide. If there be no loft above, the inside of the roof should al- ways be ])lastered, to prevent direct currents of air and occasional drop])ings from broken tiles ; and the heated and fold air should escape, and cool and pure air be admitted, by elevation of the central tiles ; or by large tubes carried through the roof, with caps a little above them to prevent the beating in of the rain ; or by gratings placed high up in the v\'alls. These latter apertures should be as far above the horses as they can conveniently be jjlaced, by which means all injurious draught will be })revented. If there is a loft abo\-e the stable, the ceiling should be plastered, in order to })rcvent the foul air from penetrating to the hay abov'e, and injuring both its taste and its wholesomeness ; and no openings shoidd be allowed abo\-e the racks, through which the hay may be thrown into the rack, for they also will jiermit the foul air to ascend to the provender, and, in the act of filling the rack, and while the horse is eagerly gazing uinvard for his food, many a grass-seed has fallen into his eye and produced considerable inflammation ; while, at other times, when the careless groom has left open the tra|)-door, a stream of cold air beats down on the head of tlie horse. The stable with a loft over it sliould never be less than twehe feet high, and [)roi)er ventilation should be secured either by tidies carried through the loft to the roof, or by gratings close to the ceiling. These gratings or openings should be enlarged or contracted by means of a covering or shutter, so that during spring, sum- mer, and autumn, the stable should possess nearly the same temperature with the open air, and in ! winter a tem])eraturc not more than ten degrees .ibovc that of the external atmosi)hcre. A hot ! stable has, in the mind of the groom, been long connected with a glossy coat. The lattei-, it is thought, cannot be attained without the former. To this wc should n-\)\y tlial, in winter, a thin, glossy coat is not desirable. Nature gives to every animal a warmer clothing when the cold weather approaches. The Ikusc ac(iuires a thicker and a I lengthened tout, in order to defend him from the •210 tHE J"ARMEll*S MAGAZINE. surrounding cold. Man puts on an additional and a ^A'armer covering, and his comfort is increased and Ins health preserved by it. He who knows anything of the horse, or cares anything for his enjoyment, will not object to a coat a little longer and a httle roughened when the wintry Avind blows bleak. The coat, however, need not be so long as to ])e unsightly ; and warm clothing, even in a cool stable, will, with ])lenty of honest grooming, keep the hair sufficiently smooth and glossy to satisfy the most fatidious. The over-heated air of a close stable saves much of this grooming, and therefore the idle attendant unscrupiilously sacrifices the health and safety of the horse. Of nothing are we more certain than that the majority of the mala- dies of the horse, and those of the worst and most fatal character, are directly or indirectly to be attri- buted to the unnatural heat of the stable, and the sudden change of the animal from a high to a low, or from a low to a high tonperature.' (Youatt''s Horse, p. 346.) The effect of temperatui'e on the wool of sheep is remarkable, when they are re- moved from a warm to a colder climate, the wool produced becomes coarser, imtil at last it degene- rates into hair. The hair of other animals is affect- ed in a similar way. Those which ])roduce in Russia and other northern portions of the world the richest furs are found in the warmer climates with a thin and worthless covering of hair. If, however, the horse is too often subjected to a tem])crature, for the sake of ^s coat, much too ele- vated, the ox and the sheep are as frequently kept in a medium far too low for their most profitable increase in fatness. The cause of cold retarding the fattening of animals is thus explained by Dr. Lyon Playfair fJonr. Rny. A(j. Soc, v. 4, p. 215) — " When the chemical power oxygen succeeds in effecting a waste of the body, it converts it into the elements from whence it s])rung — into carbonic acid, water, and ammonia. There are indeed in- termediate comjjounds formed, but these are the final products of the decay of the body or of its parts ; and they are the very substances upon which plants live; so that decay and death thus become the source of life. It is known that the vital forces decrease when the body is exposed to a certain degree of cold, and when this is sufficiently intense, that thev are either suspended or are alto- gether annihilated. But the chemical force oxygen is condensed or increased in its power by such agencies, and it therefore now reigns triumi)hant. Vitality (the cause of increase and of sustenance^ being removed, chemical affinity (the cause of waste) acts upon those tissues which have been freed from the dominion of vitality, and effects their destruction. Hence it is that cattle do not fatten so well in cold weather as in hot. The chemical ])owers being now in the ascendant, pre- vent the increase of mass. We know, also, that the intervention of cold weather in summer either wholly arrests or greatly retards the fattening of our cattle. But as the decrease of vitality has been occasioned by a diminution of the temperature of the body, it is obvious that, by an elevation of the temperature, ^'itality would be again enabled to re- sume its proper functions. It has been shown that the food of various countries is more or less com- bustible, according to the temperature of the cli- mate ; and proofs were adduced that the amount of the food consumed varied also according to the temperature. The animal body is a furnace which must be kept up to a certain heat in all climates. This furnace must, therefore, ])e supplied with more or less fuel, according to the temperature of the external air. If, then, in winter we wish to re- tain the vital functions of our cattle in a proper degree of activity, we must keep up the heat of their bodies. This we may do in two ways. We may either add more fuel (food) to the furnace, or we may protect their bodies from the cold. Warmth is an equi\'alent for food, which may thus be economised. But I wish to give you facts, not assertions ; and, as a proof of the view I have now given you, I will cite the following experiment which was made by the Earl of Ducie, at Whitfield Farm : " One hundred sheep were folded by tens in pens, each of which was twenty-two feet in length by ten feet in breadth, and possessed a covered shed attached to it of twelve feet in length by ten feet in breadth. They were kept in these from the 10th of October to the 10th of March. Each sheep consumed on an average 20lbs. of Swedes daily. Another hundred were folded in pens of a similar size, but without sheds attached. They were kept during tlie same time, and their daily consumption of Swedes amounted to 25lbs. each. Here the cir- cumstances vv'ere precisely similar with respect to exercise, the only difference being that the first hundred sheep had sheds into which they might retire, and tlius he i)artially protected from the cold. " This ])artial protection was equivalent to a cer- tain amount of food, and consequently we find that the sheep enjoying tliis protection consumed one- fifth less food than those shee]) M'hich were left en- tirely exposed to the cold. In the last case the consumption of the additional food arose wholly from the necessity of adding more fuel (food) to the furnace of the body, in order to keep up its normal temperature. This was proved from the circum- stance, that those sheep which enjoyed the protec- tion had increased 3lbs. each more than those left unprotected, although the latter had consumed one- fifth more food." Even light exerts a very considerable influence upon the health of animals. Every horse-dealer is aware how ra]ndl)' a horse kept quietly in a dark stable gets into condition ; a blind horse generally carries a good coat. From these slight notices of the influence of im- pure air, neglected temperature, and of light upon animals, the accomplished farmer may perhaps be led to still further investigation in a field of research so important, yet so imperfectly explored. And, moreover, he may not perchance feel disinclined to conclude that, as he has long and successfully reaped an abundant reward from paying the most careful attention to the temperature and to the atmosphere in which his field crops are placed, so it is not unlikely that, by only similar care with regard to his domestic animals, an equally profita- ble harvest might be gathered. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ill REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIAL MANURES IN 1S43. BY MR. JOHN DICKSOX, SAUGHTON MAINS, NEAR EDINBURGH. [Premium Seven Sovereigns.] {From the Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society.) In making the followng experiments, I always selected the portion from each field which I con- sidered the most equal in quality of soil, and clear of trees, fences, or any other thing which might affect one part of the crop more than another. 1 had the portions to he experimented on measured and marked oft' hefore applying the sjjccial ma- nures ; and the Avhole process, from the distributing of the manures to the measuring and weighing of the produce, was done vmder my own personal inspec- tion, so that I can vouch for the accuracy of the results. The farm on which the following experiments were tried is situated about 200 feet above the level of the sea, and distant from it about four miles, in a favourable district of the country, with a southern exposure. In making the following trials, I did not fix on a given sum, and give to each portion such quan- tity of each of the manures as such sum would allow ; but, judging from the accounts of experi- ments published by Professor Johnston and others, as well as from my own exi)erience in former years, I selected such quantities of each of the specific manures as I conceived would afford the most profitable result. 1 . — Experiment showing the effect upon Oats sown down with grass seeds. Saltpetre, Salt, and Nitrate of Soda and Salt mixed, 'i'he soil in this field is a light loam on a mixed subsoil, but sufficiently porous to have been thoroughly drained in the autvman of 1839, with stone drains 30 inches in depth, and 32 feet apart. Crop in 1840 potatoes; in 1841 wheat; in 1842 turnips. The oats, of the early Angus variety, were sown on the 20th March with the drill machine, across the ridges, at the rate of 4 bushels per imjjerial acre, and sown down with 10 lbs. red and 2 ll)s. white clover, and 3 i)ecks of rj'e-grass seeds per imjjcrial acre. The quantity in each portion measured off" was a quarter of an imperial acre, and the following special manures were ap- phed on the 10th of \Iay, when the braird was looking well, the weather at the time being showery ; — £. s, d. No. 1, sown with 42 lbs. Saltpetre, at a cost of 0 8 3 2, „ 42 lbs. Common Salt 0 1 IJ 3, „ 21 lbs. Nitrate of Soda and 21 lbs Common Salt mixed 0 4 8J 4, „ Nothing. On the 20th June I examined them minutely, and found then — No. 1 m\ich sujierior to all the others, broader in the leaf, darker in colour, and considerably taller, the young grass and clover also more luxuriant. No. 2 inferior to all the Others, even No, 4, pale in the colour, stinted, and scorched looking; the rye-grass and clovers also appearing less healthy. No. 3 inferior to No. 1, but considerably better than either No. 2 or 4. I could distinguish no difference between the young grass and clovers of Nos. 3 and 4. On the nth of July I found Nos. 1 and 3 equally good, much taller than either Nos. 2 or 4 ; no dif- ference between the rye-grass and clovers of Nos. 1 and 3. No. 2 now looking decidedly better than No. 4, and appeared firmer in the straw than any of the others ; no difference in the apjiearance of the rye-grass and clovers. I cut the whole on the 2nd of September, and found then — No. 1 very much laid down, and a good many after-growths, the yoiuig grass and clovers partially rotted for want of air ; but wherever the oats are not over- luxuriant, the young grass and clovers were very healthy and well planted. No. 2, a fair standing crop, and the grass and clovers looking well. No. 3, a heavy crojt, considerably laid down, but not so close to the ground as No. 1, and the young grass and clovers regular and healthy looking. No. 4, a fair standing crop, but not so heavy as even No 2 ; the grass and clovers also looking well. On the nth of September I had the whole carted home and thrashed. I weighed each of the portions in gross before it was put into the barn, from which I after^vards deducted the weight of the grain, which gave me the weight of the straw and chaff"; and assuming the prices of oats and straw as those I received at the time in the Edin- burgh market, the following is a state of the value and produce of each portion : — No. 1 produced 16 bushels 12 lbs. of good oats, weighing 42] lbs. per bushel, at £. s. d. 2s. 8|d. per bushel 2 3 9 G stones 8 lbs. of light oats, at 8d. per stone 0 4 4y 139 stones 4lbs. of straw and chaff", at 3 J d. per stone 2 0 7] 4 8 9 No. 2 produced 1/ bushels 30 lbs. of good oats, weighing 43} lbs. per bushel at 2s. £. s. d. 9:](1. per bushel 2 9 6 J 3 stones 12 lbs. of hght oats at 8d. per stone 0 2 6j 1 1 9 stones of straw and chaff", at Sid. l)cr stone 1 14 Hi 4 7 1 No. 3 produced 18 bushels 35 lbs. of good oats, weighing 42J lbs. per bushel, at £. s. d. 2s. 8 id. per bushel .. ., 2 11 0 4 stones 4 lbs. light oats, at 8d. per stone 0 2 10^ 1 28 stones 8lbs. of straw, at 3 Id. per St. I 17 6 4 11 4i No. 4 produced 17 bushels 24 lbs. good oats, weighing 43.1 lbs. per bushel, at 2s. £• s. d. 9.{d. i)er bushel 2 8 7f 3 stones 1 1 lbs. of light oats, at 8d. per stone • 0 2 6| 97 stones of straw, at 3id. per stone 1 8 3i 3 19 212 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Residfs. No. 1, at an expense of 8s. 3d., gained, over No. 4, 9s. 3^d., leaving a profit of Is. O^d. No. 2, at an expense of Is. l^d., gained, over No. 4, 7s. 7h^., leaving a profit of 6s. 6d. No. 3, at an expense of 4s. S^d., gained, over No. 4, lis. lOfd., lea\ang a profit of 7s. 25d. II. — Experiment showing the effect upon Oats, up- on newly-ploughed lea, of Ammoniacal Liquor, a mixtiu-e of tiulplwte and Nitrate of Soda, and Bones dissolved in Sulphuric Acid. The soil in this field is a dry loam, rather gravelly, on a gravelly subsoil ; was under hay crop in 1842, and the aftermath pastured wth sheep, and some turnips consumed on it during the win- ter with sheep. The oats, of the Hopetoun variety, were sown on the 15th of March, with the drill machine, across the ridges, at the rate of 4 J bushels per imperial acre ; the quantity of land in each portion measured off was one quarter of an imperial acre, and the follomng special manures were applied on the 10th of May, when the braird was looking well, the weather being showeiy at the time. No. 1. 20 gallons of Ammoniacal Liquor, diluted with 80 gallons of water, at a cost of 6s. 8d. 2. 21 lbs. Sulphate, and 21 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, mixed, at a cost of 5s. 3d. 3. 56 lbs. Bone-dust, 20 lbs. Sulphuric Acid, and 36 lbs. Wood-ashes, mixed, at a cost of 6s. 4. Nothing. I examined them minutely on the 11th of June, and again on the 20th of July, and on both occa- sions Ncs. 1, 2, and 3, showed an e\'ident superi- ority over No. 4, being taUer, and a darker green colour, but No. 2 decidedly best. I cut the whole of them on the 5th of Septem- ber— a fair standing crop — Nos. 1, 2, and 3, all showing more bulk on the ground than No. 4, but could not say which of the three was best. I had them carted home, weighed, and thrashed, on the 12th of September, and, taking the prices as in Ex- periment I., the produce and value of each portion was as foUows : — No. 1 produced 14 bushels 15 lbs. of good oats, weighing 42lbs. per bushel, at £. s. d. 2s. 8d 1 18 3i 5 stones 7lbs. of light oats, at 8d, per stone 0 3 8 99 stones 6 lbs. of straw and chaff. at 3id 1 9 0 3 10 llj No. 2 produced 15 bushels 6 lbs. of good oats, weighing 42^ lbs. per bushel, at £. s. d. 2s. 85 d. per bushel 2 10 42 stones of light oats, at 8d. per stone 0 3 0 98^ stones of straw and chaff, at 3^^ per stone , , , , , , , , , , l 8 8i 3 12 81 No. 3 produced 14 bushels 2 lbs. of good oats, weighing 42^ lbs. per bushel, at £, s. d. 2s. Bid 1 18 0^ 4 stones 8 lbs. of light oats, at 8d. per stone , , 0 3 0^ 99 stones 11 lbs. of straw and chaff, at 3Jd. per stone 1 9 li 3 10 2i No. 4 produced 13 bushels 16 lbs. of good oats, weighing 42^ lbs. per bushel, at £. s. d, 2s. Sid 1 16 2J 4 stones 5 lbs. light oats, at 8d. per stone 0 2 lO'l 85 stones of straw and chaff, at S^d. per stone .,,,,.. 1 4 9^ 3 3 lOf Results. No. 1, at an expense of 6s. 8d,, gained, over No. 4, 7s. O^d., leaving a profit of Is. 4id. No. 2, at an expense of 5s. 3d., gained, over No. 4, 8s. lOd., leaving a profit of 3s. 7d. No. 3, at an expense of 6s., gained, over No. 4, 6s. 3^,, leaving a' profit of 4^d. III. — Experiment showing the effect upon a mLx- ture of Tares and Oats intended to be cut green, of Gypsum, Sulphate of Soda, and a mixture of Sulphate and Nitrate of Soda. The soil in this field is a light loam, on a gravelly subsoil; was under a crop of oats in 1842. The land, haiang been ploughed in the autumn of 1842, was well harrowed on the 2nd of March following, and so\vn broadcast with three bushels per imperial acre, of Scotch tares, which were then ploughed in Avith a furrow of about four inches deep ; and on the 30th of March, there was sown broadcast, at the rate of one and a-half bushel per imperial acre of late Angus oats, which were harrowed in. I had then four portions measured off, containing one quarter of an imperial acre each, to which the following manures were ap- plied on the 11th of May, the weather being showery : — No. 1. 112 lbs. of Gypsum, at a cost of 2s. 6d. No. 2. 56 lbs. of Siilphate of Soda, at 3s. No. 3. 21 lbs. of Sulphate of Soda, and 21 lbs» at a cost of 5s. 3d. No. 4. Nothing. On examining the field frequently during the summer, I could scarcely discern any difference between any of the four portions. No. 3 showing a slight degree of superiority over the others, but not very marked. The whole of the field being luxuriant to a fault, these four portions were cut and weighed in the afternoons, when dry, between the 23th and 27th of August, and the folIo\\ing are the weights of the different lots : — No. 1 weighed 50|- cwt, 2 }) 54 J, 3 „ oog )> 4 „ 5O2 ,} Results, valuing the crop at Is.percivit No. 1, atan expense of 2s. 6d., lost 3d., when compared with No. 4, and incurred an entire loss of 2s, 9d. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 213 No. 2, at an expense of 3s. gained, over No. 4, 3s. 6d., and shomng a profit of 6d. No. 3, at an expense of 5s. 3d.,, gained, over No. 4, 5s., and showing a loss of 3d. Had the soil in this field been poorer, I think the result would have been more in favour of the manures, as the whole of the crop was much too luxuriant, and rotted near the roots for \\'ant of air. IV. — Experiment showing the efiect on the Poiaioe crop of a variety of different manures, applied partly in the drill, vnih. the seed, and partly as a top dressing after the crop was fit for earthing up. This field is a loam of medium quality, neither very light nor veiy clayey, on a mixed subsoil of clay and sand. It was drained in 1838, with drains 30 inches in depth, half filled mth small broken stones, and at 32 feet apart. The field was all manured in the drill with horse and cow manure mixed, at the rate of 24 tons per imperial acre, at an expense of 7s. per ton. ITie manure was apphed, and the potatoes of the Don variety, planted on the 15th and l6th of May. I had twenty-four portions of one quarter of an im- perial acre each measured off, each containing seven drills, and to those portions, from No. 1 to No. 14, I appUed the ex-tra manures, in the drill, before the potatoes wei'e planted, immediately after the horse and cow manure was spread, which I had then shaken up and mixed with the extra manures. And from No. 14 to No. 24 I apphed the extra manures on the 14th of July, immediately before I hoed the potatoes for the last time, and earthed them up. '^The extra manures were applied with the hand around the stem of each plant. The po- tatoes were lifted and carefully weighed on the 9th and 10th of October. The following is a state of the quantities of the extra manures, the cost, and the produce : — cwf. No. 1 . Nothing 24 2. 1 12 lbs. Gypsum, at 2s. 6d 27 3. 168 do. Rape-dust, at 7s. 6d 29 4. 168 do. Bone-dust, at 9s, 3d 28 5. 84 do. Guano, at 8s. 3d 36 6. 56 do. Artificial Guano, from Mr, Baildon, druggist, Edin- biu-gh, at lis. 8d 34 7. 20 bushels of Soot, at 5s 25 8. 21 lbs, of Sulphate of Soda, and 21 lbs. of Nitrate of Sodami.xed, at 5s. 3d 27.1 9. 21 do. of Sulphate of Soda and 21 lbs. of Sulphate of Ammo- nia, mixed, at Os, 4 Jd 291 10. Nothing 26 11. 21 lbs. Nitrate of Soda and 21 lbs. Sulphate of Magnesia, mi.Ked at7s. 7id 2G 12. 21 do. Sulphate of Soda and 2 libs. Nitrate of Potash, dr>', mixed, at 9s. lOld 27i 13. 112 do. Common Salt, at 3s. 4d.., 24 14. Nothing 1 , 1 . 1 1 • I • 1 1 • I t 24 The followng were top-dressed on the 14th JiUy :— cwt. No. 15. 20 bushels of Soot, at 5s 28i 16. 21 lbs. Sulphate of Soda and 2 libs. Nitrate of Soda, mixed, at 5s. 3d 27i 17. 21 do. Sulphate of Soda and 21 lbs. Sulphate of Ammonia, mixed, at 6s. 4|d 28 18. 84 do. Guano, at 8s. 3d 39i 19. 56 do. Artificial Guano, at lis. 8d, 25i 20. 21 do. Sulphate of Soda and 21 lbs. Sulphate of Magnesia, mixed, at 9s. 20id 27 21. 112 do. Gypsum, at 2s, 6d 27i 22. 42 do. Nitrateof Soda, at8s. 3d... 27 23. 21 do. Sulphate of Soda and 21 lbs. Nitrate of Potash, mixed, at 9s. lO^d 28 24. Nothing 25 I may mention here that all the different portions dressed vnih the extra manures turned out very much according to their appearance above ground, except Nos. 7, and 15, dressed with soot, as they showed more improvement above ground than any of the others except No. 5, which all along looked best ; and those portions which were the best crop had fewest small potatoes amongst them. Indeed the whole field, although very regularly planted, showed a tendency to curl, and wanted that broad leaf and vigorous gro\\'th which indicate a full crop. I had the seed brought a distance of twenty miles fi-om a high district of the country, I may here also mention that I had another trial \vith the first thirteen of these extra manures in a field of Biiff potatoes, which was manured on the stubble, in the month of November, at the rate of 30 tons per imperial acre of cow and horse manure mixed, at an expense of 7s. per ton, the extra manures being applied in the drill with the seed. The crop was much superior to that of the field of Dons, the in- creased produce by the apphcation of the extra manures was also much greater ; but as the rela- tive proportionate increase, by the different extra manures, was so very nearly similar to that already stated, I have not recorded it here, as it threw no additional light on tlie subject. V, — Experiment showing the effect upon the Turnip croj) of the application of Bones, Burned Bones, and SulpJnde of Socio, the whole being also similarly manured with farm-yard manure. Tlie soil in this field consists of a deep-blackish loam on a mixed subsoil. It was drained in 1837 wth stone drains 30 inches deep and 32 feet apart, half filled with small broken stones. I selected four portions, of four drills each, containing one quarter of an imperial acre in each i)ortion. 'Hie whole was manured with horse and cow manure at the rate of 20 tons ])cr imperial acre, at 7s. per ton ; the extra manures were sown with the hand in the drill aljove the horse and cow maTuue, which was then shaken U]) and mixed with the extra manures. The turnip seed. l)oing Skirving's red- top yellow, was sown on the 7th of June. T\\e following is a state of the kinds and miantities of the extra manures, and theii" cost, with the weight Q 2 214 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of turnips produced; the turnips were pulled on the igtli October, and the roots and shaws taken o fF before being weighed ; but, as the turnip crop had not arrived at full maturity, I only lifted one drill from each portion, the weight of which I multiplied by four, wliich must be very nearly equal to hfting the whole, as the four drills in each por- tion were treated, in eveiy respect, alike ; besides it will enable me to test again, about the end of November, when the crop is fully ripened, the further comparative increase in weight of the dif- ferent portions : — Tons. Cwl;. No. 1, 112 lbs. of Bone-dust, at 6s. 2d. 5 17 2, 112 do. of Burned Bones, at 5s. 6 6 3, 56 do. of Sulphate of Soda, at 3s. 5 14 4, Nothing 6 15 The whole of the turnips in this field are a very full crop, but I could not distinguish any difference bet^veen the portions dressed \vith the extra manures and those which got nothing at any time during the summer. The same remark ai)phes to the portion of the field which I had dressed, extra, •\vith bones and sulphuric acid mixed, guano, kelp, &c.* I had another small experiment of top-dressing turnips, which was, however, not very minvitely followed out : it was gone into more with the view of turning to a profitable account a quantity of the extra manures which I had been using, which were left ov^r, than making any experiment: they con- sisted of sulphate and nitrate of soda, saltpetre, sulphate of ammonia, and guano ; in all, about 6 c\vt. I had them well mixed tegether, and ap- phed with the hand round the root of the plants, on the 25th July, to about 31 imperial acres of turnips, which were latest and most backward. In about ten days after the apphcation, the turnips in the drill whei'e the top-dressing commenced, and where it stopped, were quite obvious even from a considerable distance, being much darker in colour and stronger in the shaw ; and during the summer they continued to imjjrove more rapidly than the undressed portions of the field ; so that, from being the worst, they are now fully as good as any other part of the field. VI. — Experiment showing the effect upon Grass intended for Hay of Sulphate of Soda, Common Salt, and Nitrate of Soda. The field on which this experiment was made is part of a farm situated about 280 feet above the level of the sea, and distant from it about six miles, \yith a southern exposure. The soil which is a hghtish loam on a mixed subsoil of sand and clay, is wet, not having been drained. It had been iinder * Tlie turnips were weighed on the 28th of November, and gave — Tons. Cwt. No. 1, 6 15^ 2, 7 2" 3, 6 6 4, 6 6^ 5, Manured with Bones and Sulphu- ric Acid, at 6s 6 16 6, ' c%vt. Guano, at 6s. . . 7 8 7, 2 wt .Kelp, at 6s. ... 6 7 Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were not weighed in October, potatoe crop in 1841, and oats, with seeds, in 1842 ; and in the spring of 1843, was well planted with i-ye-grass and red clover. The following manures were apphed to one quarter of an imperial acre each, on the 28th of April, in Showery weather: — Imp. St. No. 1, 56 lbs. Guano, cost 5s. 6d. ; pro- duce in hay 9O4 2, „ Sulphate of Soda, 3s 84| 3, „ Common Salt, Is. 8 d 83^- 4, „ Nitrate of Soda, lis 113 5, Nothing 106f 6, 56 lbs. Common Salt, and 112 lbs. Gypsum, mixed, 4s. 2d. 86J- In the month of May, No. 4 looked decidedly best, and No. 3 worst ; but before being cut. No. 1 looked fully as well as No. 4; and when cut, Nos. 1 and 4 were each of them a more bulky crop than any of the others ; and when the hay was ricked, each of the poitions in a separate rick, the rick of No. 1 was much larger than No. 5, although it weighed lighter. There was no perceptible difference in the ap- pearance of the second crop on the respective por- tions. CORN RENTS. Tliat the adjustment of " rent" on an equitable basis is a most important question both to land- lord and tenant, -will, we think, be readily admitted. Impressed -with this idea, we regarded with much pleasure the commencement of a discussion in our columns upon the subject of " corn rents," hoping that the opinions of practical men would be ehcited on the question of " rent" generally. Hitherto, however, the introducer of the subject has only met a single indi'vidual to combat his views ; and, although several let- ters have been exchanged, we must con- fess that we do not think much additional hght has been thrown upon the subject. It \vill be seen by letters in another part of this paper that two new combatants have entered the lists, which we hope Avill induce others to follow the example. HowcA'er important at aU times the question must be consi- dered, it obtains a double interest at this moment, because not only the opponents of the landed in- terest, but also, in some cases, the tenant farmers themselves, as well as here and there a landlord, have asserted the absolute necessity of a reduction of rents. Instances are daily occurring in which landlords have made returns to their tenants at their late audits, from ten to twenty per cent. This would seem an admission that in those cases the rents were too high ; this ^new will perhaps be met by the reply that in those particular districts the tenantry had suffered severely in consequence of the severe drought of the season. We freely admit that we must take the condition of parties as we find it, and that if the tenant be not in a situa- tion to pay, credit is due to the landlord who thus liberally foregoes a portion of his rightful de- mand. But upon principle we hold the system to be badj affording e\'idence of unsoundness in the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •215 relative position of parties, of landlord and tenant. Either the rent must be actually too high, the tenant deficient in capital, or incapable of culti- vating his land ])roperly. In whatever way land may be let, whether at a money or corn rent, or a mixture of both, the rate should be such, and the tenant himself sliould be so circumstanced as to he enabled to meet the vicissitudes of the season with- out the assistance of his landlord. A series of bad seasons may occur, or a murrain may come amongst his cattle, which no human foresight can foresee or guard against, but in the abstract we maintain the proposition above stated. We would not be sup- posed to counsel landlords to adopt such a course towards their tenantry, because it is impossible to change at once from an unsound to a sound state of things ; and it would not only be harsh, but unjust, to punish the existing tenantry for a defec- tive system to which they are only parties — the landlords themselves being equally culpable. But the parties have the remedy in their own hands : more, however, depends on the landlord than upon the tenant. Justice and prudence on the part of the landlord are alone necessary. Justice, to let his land at a fair rent, and upon equitable con- ditions : prudence, to select a tenant possessing a coiupetent knowledge of business, taking care that the extent of his occupation be not too large for the capital he possesses. Hundreds and thou- sands of industrious, meritorioiis tenants are at this moment struggling on, and barely subsisting, who would become thriving and independent ujjon half the quantity of land they now occupy. AVe make these remarks, not only from a conviction of their soundness, but also in the hope of giving a stimulus to the discussion on " corn rents." The follow- ing extract from Bacon's prize essay " On the Agriculture of Norfolk," will be acceptable to those who take an interest in this subject : — " In treating of Com-Rents, a gentleman who has the management of large properties in this and other counties, on one of which (in Suffolk) it has been fol- lowed to tlje satisfaction of all parties, has favoured me with the following paper : — " ' In the greater tlian usual uncertainty from appre- hended legislative measures, I cannot see how arrange- ments can be made for letting and hiring farms, except upon such a system as may, in some measure, meet the circumstances under which we may possibly be placed. This must be something of a corn-rent, something that will reauce the rent with the decrease of the occupier's ability to pay, and increase it with liis more ample means. There must be a give and take plan, otherwise agreements will never bind but one party, and the party not securely bound will be the more reckless in taking | hold without any, or with but little consideration or cal- culation as to rental value. The plan of a corn-rent is not so simi)le as may be imagined, if it be such as will suit all circumstances. So much corn, such as a coomb of barley per acre, or three bushels of wheat per acre, a])- pears a reasonable plan ; but it by no means settles tlie question on an equitable basis, because, in the case of a coomb of barley per acre as the rent, in one year it might take one-si.\th of my barley crop, and in another one- ninth, or, in one year I should jiay IHs. with a short crop, and seed and horse corn higher for that reason, and in another lis., with the total produce sold realiz- ing more money, and the lowest rent to pay : that is, taking the price to be ruled by the general productive- 1 nessofthe crops. Notwithstanding tliiii, we must, in a great measure, found the system of shifting rents on the price of corn, as we know by experience that when corn has been low, there has been a great pressure for abatements, and that they have been conceded ; and with high prices, from whatever cause, no reduction has been required, and certainly no advance given. If we could take all farm produce into account, and render for rent a certain portion of that produce (one-fourth, or one-fifth, or one-sixth, as the case might be), it might come near the required mark ; but as this would make it necessary to keep and render an account of every thing in every year, to allot the landlord's share, it will never be adopted, and can never be proposed. '* ' In considering the matter for the purpose of strik- ing out some plan likely to be satisfactory to both par- ties interested, I have found it necessary to adopt the price of corn to govern my scale, and at the same time holding to a fixed rent, as far as there is a fair chance of standing by it. The plan which follows will more clearly explain my meaning. The rent to be governed by the price of a coomb of wheat and a coomb of barley together, thus — one coomb of barley 15s., one coomb of wheat 2"s., equal to 42s. The two being 42s., the rental value of a farm is esti- mated at .600/. It shall remain at that rent, except the average of the year ending 1st Oct. shall be less than 39s. or more than 4.5s. for a coomb of each, as shewn in the scale below. The average for the year ending 1st Oct., to govern the rent due the 11th of the same month of October, and to be taken at the local market. Here it would be at Lynn : — " When above 51s £650 When above 48s. and not above 51s. , When above 45s. and not above 48s Wlien above ^9s. and not above 45s., rent to remain as first fixed, say j6500 When below 39s. and not less than SCs... £450 When less than .^Ss. and not less than SSs. £400 When less than 33s £350' — Mark Lane Express. PAPER OR GOLD FOR A CURRENCY ? The advocates of the present monetary system assert that gold is the standard of value, and that during the French war the paper currency of that I)criod was depreciated, because a guinea was worth in the market as bullion five shillings more than its nominal value, and therefore concluded that one- ])oimd bank notes were depreciated in the ratio of that diflerence. The difference arose from its worth as bullion at the market price arising froin a defi- cient supi)ly, and a jeweller of my acquaintance melted several hundreds of guineas in one week to supi)ly his manufactory. Sovereigns now are the legal currency instead of the one-pound notes of the Bank of England. Is a sovereign depreciated in value as ])ai)er would be considered, when wl.eat or any other commodity rises in value from a defi- cient supply? If a sovereign purchases tliico bushels of wheat this week, and next week its coj-t is twenty-four shiUings— is the sovereign depre- ciated 20 i)cr cent. ? if gold bullion rose in tl e market at the same time 20 per cent., the sovereigi.s 216 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. v\'ould be converted into bullion, as the guineas were during the French war; but in that case, to pass them as sovereigns M'ould you say they were depreciated 20 per cent. ? Depreciation in bank notes can only refer generally in the purchase of aU marketable commodities, like assignats in France, and vales reales in Spain; and this delusion of depreciation of bank notes, compared with the variable price of bulhon, was the bhnd guide in passing the mischievous Restriction Act in 1819, and the present despotic system. The follo^ring extracts from past experience places the civiestion in a clear light r yet the ^^Titer of it concluded that bank notes were depreciated by the rise of the price of gold above the mint price ; whether correctly, -niW be seen.* " At the end of 1813, the amount of Bank of England notes in cir- culation was £23,844,050, the price of gold was £5 10s. per ounce, and the depreciation of Bank paper £29 4s. id. per cent. At the end of 1814, the Bank issues were increased to £28,232,730, and the price of gold had fallen to £4 6s. 6d. per ounce, so that the notes were depreciated only to the extent of £9 19s. 5d. per cent. This statement, dra\vn from documents furnished by the Bank Directors to Parhament, makes it even doubtful whether any contraction whatever of their issues was necessary, in order to restore Bank of England notes to their par value. The rise in value which they actually experienced, amounting to £19 4s. 8d. per cent., or nearly two-thirds of their depreciation, was occa- sioned, in the face of an increased issue of more than 1 8 per cent., by the great quantity of gold poured into the country at the re-opening of our commerce." And to this is added — " The Bank Restriction Act was for some time so little needed for the security of that corporation, that its notes, during the first three years of the system, were fully on a pai* mth gold, and sometimes even bore a small premium," If this does not prove that gold, hke all other com- modities, rises and falls in value according to the supply and demand in the market, and not by the amount in the issue of Bank of England notes, I know no e\'idence that will show it. The writer's mind must have been darkened by previous hasty but fashionable conclusions, which banished the evidence of facts, and dispassionate examination, when he \vTote, "This statement, drawn from documents furnished by the Bank Directors to Parhament, makes it even doubtful whether any contraction whatever of their issues was necessary, in order to restore Bank of England notes to their par value." The facts before him were, the increase of the issue of Bank of England notes, amounting to £5,388,680, did not raise the price of gold, but it fell from £5 10s. per ounce to £4 6s. 6d., simply from the greater supply in the market, which re- duced its value, like all other marketable commo- dities. In the report delivered by the Committee of the House of Commons, appointed, in the year 1810, to inquire into the causes of the high price of bullion, and its effects on the circulating medium, the Governor and Deputy Governor of the Bank of England, and others, " Men who, from their station See " Banking."— Pewny Cyclopaedia, and commercial standing, must have had consider- able experience in regard to the working of financial operations, both concurred on that occasion in the opinion that the amount of notes issued by the Bank- could not in any ivay operate upon the price of bul- lion or the state of foreign exchanges, and stated to the Committee that there can be no possible excess of the issue of Bank of England paper, so long as the advances in which it is issued are made upon the principle which at present guides the conduct of the Directors ; that is — so long as the discount of mercantile bills is confined to paper of undoubted solidity, arising out of real commercial transactions, and payable at short and fixed periods." The price of buUion and the amount of notes issued by the Bank of England, compared mth the price of wheat at several periods, proves the cor- rectness of those opinions as practical men of business — namely, that bullion did not rise wth the increase of issue of bank notes, but from the demand of bulhon in the market to purchase wheat abroad in years of scarcity, when it could not be paid for in manufactured goods, in consequence of the continental ports being closed against their introdiiction. The document here^vith appended shows that the amount of Bank notes issued August, 1792, was £11,006,969; the market price of bulUon was £3 17s, 6d. per ounce, and the average price of wheat was 39s. 2d. per quarter. In 1797 the price of bullion was £3 l7s, lOjd. per ounce, the amount of Bank notes in circulation was £10,568,216, and the average price of wheat 49s. 8d. ; so that bullion then rose in price when the issue of bank notes was less than in 1792, yet wheat was higher in ijrice 10s. 6d. per quarter. In 1799 the issue of bank notes was increased to £13,259,873 ; bulhon was £3 l7s, 9d. per oimce, being lower than in 1797, when the issue of bank notes was £10,568,216 ; but the average price of wheat was 64s. 4d. The next years, 1800 and 1801, wheat averaged 134s. 5d. and 129s. 8d, per charter, bullion rose to £4 5s. and £4 6s, per ounce, the amount of bank notes issued was £14,735,378 and £14,970,321, yet the two following years, 1802 and 1803, bulhon fell in price to £4 3s, 6d, and £4 per ounce, but the issue of Bank of England notes was increased to £16,887,113 and £17,035,959, and the price of wheat was 67s, 5d. per quarter. In I8O7 the issue of bank notes was increased to £20,034,112, yet the price of buUion, £4 per ounce, was the same as in 1803 ; but the average price of wheat per quarter was 89s. In I8O9 the issue of bank notes was reduced to £19,357,241, yet the bul- lion rose in price to £4 lis. per ounce, and wheat was 88s. Id. per quarter. In 1810 the issue of bank notes was increased to £24,446,175, bullion fell in price to £4 5s. per ounce, but wheat averaged 113s. 4d. per quarter. In 1812 the issue of bank notes was £23,482,910, wheat averaged 140s. 9d. per quarter, and bulhon rose to £5 5s. per ounce. In 1813 the average price of wheat was 11 6s. 3d. per quarter, the issue of bank notes was £24,024,869, and bullion rose in price to £5 10s. per ounce ! In 1814 the price of bullion feU to £4 lis. per ounce, wheat averaged 67s. 9d, per quarter, yet the issue of bank notes was increased to £28,979,876. In THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 217 1817 the Issue of bank notes was £30,099,908, bul- lion fell to £4 Os. Gd. per ounce, and wheat averaged 94s. per quarter. If bullion were governed in price by the amount of bank notes in circulation, it would have sold at the highest price in this year, yet it was lower by four shillings and sixpence an ounce than in 1800, when the issue of bank notes was £14,735,378, that is, less than half the amount ! This evidence clearly shows that the opinions of the Governor and Deputy Governor of the Bank of England in ISIO, with other gentlemen of high station and commercial standing, were correct in regard to the working of financial operations, namely, that there can be no possible excess of the issue of Bank of England paper, and, I ynW add, the notes of other bankers, if adequate security be given for the payment of such notes, " so long as the discount >of mercantile bills is confined to paper of undoubted solidity, arising out of real commercial transactions, and payable at short and fixed periods." Tlie steady working of a paper cuirency in Scot- land, and the occasional derangement of commerce in this part of the kingdom, partly the mischievous effects of deviating from it, ought to be the future guide, if lessons of experience and the stability of truth be more respected than the delusions of fashionable fancies to legislate.* In a jjrosperous community, generally, there must ever be a great consumption of gold in manufactured articles, and a small consumption in a community of poverty and distress ; in the former case, fluc- tuations in prices must attend the demand for lux- uries arising from general opulence ; but in the latter case it will be nearly stationaiy, in conse- quence of food and clothing only being sought to support life and pro^nde comforts — the comparative baubles of superfluous wants are then disregarded, and the small variation in the price of gold during the ])ast iron ages of ignorance and poverty of the many prove it. But whenever gold bullion shall rise a few per centages above the usual price, and shall continue so from causes over which human efforts have no control, the present system of cur- rency will cease. Experience \vill then show that a paper currency can be safely and most beneficially carried on for the general welfare, under guarantees of local property, in every district, arising from confidence in the known security given. No panics can then ensue, and the interest of bankers will induce them to supply each neighbourhood with the necessary paper currency the general welfare requires ; but so long as commerce is effected by a currency dependent on the uncertain supply of bul- lion, and chiefly confined to the profit of one estab- lishment, a feverish instability must be occasionally looked for. R. * There has been no case of the depreciation of the currency in one-pound notes issued by the Bank of Scotland and Ireland since the passing of the Bank Restriction Act in 1819 ; but that of the so called "invariable standard" of England was depreciated from two to three per cent, last year, and in many cases must be so now, and will be whenever the scales are used to ascertain their va- riable value, arising from temptations of trade to " sweat the sovereigns, " than loss by wear and variation in the price of bullion. Years. Bank of igland Notes 1 Circulation in August. Market Price of Gold in Au- gust, per oz. A\'erage Price of Wheat per Quarter. w- £ £ s. d. s. d. 1792 1100G969 3 17 6 39 2 1793 10838214 3 17 G 51 3 1794 10628220 3 17 G 51 8 1795 11458382 3 17 6 77 2 179G 9531335 3 17 6 81 5 1797 10568216 3 17 lOi 49 8 1798 12191025 3 17 10^ 50 4 1799 13259873 3 17 9 64 4 1800 14735378 4 5 0 134 5 1801 14970321 4 6 0 129 8 1802 16887113 4 3 6 67 5 1803 17035959 4 0 0 GO 4 1804 17323994 4 0 0 52 1 1805 16296118 4 0 0 89 0 180G 19072893 4 0 0 81 10 I8O7 •20034112 4 0 0 73 5 1808 17365266 4 0 0 81 1 1809 19357241 4 11 0 88 1 1810 24446175 4 5 0 113 4 1811 23793115 4 17 G 86 11 1812 23482910 5 5 0 140 9 i813 24024869 5 10 0 116 3 1814 28979876 4 11 0 67 9 1815 27024049 4 10 0 63 8 181G 27075854 3 19 0 76 2 1817 30099908 4 0 6 94 0 1818 26602837 4 1 6 83 S 1819 25335430 3 18 0 72 3 1820 24453380 3 17 10^ 65 10 1821 20327740 3 17 io| 54 5 1822 17464780 3 17 6 43 3 1823 19231230 3 17 G 51 9 1824 20293320 3 17 6 62 0 1825 19290560 3 17 10^ 66 6 1826 21388010 3 17 6 56 11 1827 22OO706O 3 17 6 56 9 1828 21357490 3 17 G 60 5 1829 19523410 3 17 9 66 3 1830 21082310 3 17 lOi 64 3 1831 18465310 3 17 m 66 0 1832 17689500 3 17 9 58 8 1833 18483250 3 17 10* 52 11 THE CANADA PROVISION TRADE.— Tlie trade of Canada suflfered of late years iu common with the distress experienced in the mother country, and the alteration made upon the timber duties by the new tarifl' produced great embarrassment in ISlontreal. It was supposed that a long time must ehipse to allow capital to find employment in new channels, and before the trade and commerce of Montreal and Quebec could re- cover. The year 1843 was one of much deprt-ssion in the province of Canada, but since that period the ex- port trade has improved. The exports in the year 1841 from the two porta before mentioned have been very great, and lead to the inference that the Canada 218 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. trade with the mother country will steadily increase in future years, and that the imports of Canadian produce will lead to a corresponding increase of British exports. The subjoined table of exports from Montreal and Quebec, for the years 1843 and 1844, to the 23rd November of each year inclusive, exhibits a remarkable comparative mcrease for the last-mentioned year on every article of flour, wheat, barley, oats, peas, oat- meal, butter, beef, and pork ; and as the demand in- creases, which it no doubt will do, increased means will be employed to provide the supply, so that the province of Canada must reap much advantage from the opei'a- tion of the Canada Corn Act and the new tariff on pro- visions. Exports from Quebec and Montreal for the Years 1843 and 1844. Barrels of Bushels of Flour. Wheat. 1644 415,487 282,183 J843 172,813 87,712 Increase 242,654 194,471 Kegs of Brls. of Bush, of Butter. Oatmeal. Peas. 1844 7,680 6,725 130,355 1843 2,829 2,777 66,984 Increase 4,851 4,448 63,371 63,135 22,259 The prices at Montreal in November (the shipping season having then closed) were— Flour, 24s. to 25s. 6d. per barrel of 1961bs., according to quality; Wheat, 4s. 9d. to 4s. lOid. per 601bs. ; Peas, 2s. 9d. to 2s. lOd. per bushel ; Butter, Gd. to Gld. per lb. ; Barley, 2s. to 2s. 3d. per bushel; Oats, Is. 3d. to Is. 4d. ditto; Oatmeal, 16s. per 2241bs. — Herald. Barrels of Pork. 11,164 8,208 Barrels of Beef. 5,568 4,545 2,956 Bush, of Barley. 63,755 620 1,023 Bush, of Oats. 24,574 2,315 THE WEATHER OF 1844. The past year, according to the weather prophets, was to have been a remarkably fine year — so fine that, as I mentioned at the end of my report for 1842, we were implored to live till the close of it, that we might have such a treat in the way of fine weather as we had never pre^dously enjoyed. To prove whether such has been the case or not, and also to keep up a regular chain of remarks on the climate of Carlisle, I will proceed to enter into the details of the weather of 1844, and, according to custom, I wll take first the table of Rain. January. February . March . April . . May . . June . . July . . August September October . November December. Quantity fallen. 1843 1844 2.585 1.327 1.151 5.196 3.021 3.266 4.513 1.688 0.618 3.591 2.157 1.183 30.296 2.234 1.414 3.152 1.664 0.369 2.708 4.180 3.647 4.693 2.583 1.356 0.234 28.234 2.503 1.932 2.464 1.600 1.668 2.942 4.250 3.149 3.133 3.138 2.661 2.076 Days' Rain. 1843 1844 31.516 21 19 19 20 22 9 24 17 12 22 21 17 15 25 19 13 9 16 22 23 15 18 18 5 223 198 If we look at the results of the above table, and compare them with the results of former years, we find that there has been less rain in 1844 than in any of the preceding nine years except 1842, when only 21 inches fell. Thus there were two inches less rain in 1844 than in 1843, and three inches and a r]uarter less than the average of the preceding nine years. The months in which there was a de- ficiency as to the preceding year were Januarj^, April, May, June, July, October, November, De- cember ; but the deficiency is only remarkable in April, May, and December. There is a remarkable excess in the months of March, August, and Sep- tember. There have been 25 fewer rainy days in 1844 than in the preceding year, and 22 fewer than the average of the nine preceding years. The only years during the preceding nine when the number of days on which rain fell were fewer than in the past year were 1838, when there were 180 such days, and 1842, when there were 186; but this is not to be wondered at when we remember that from the 21st of November to the 18th of December no rain fell that could be measured in the gauge. The following table will show that, though the days on which snow fell are in the excess when compared Avith former years, yet that this excess is mainly exhibited in two months, viz. February and March, which were indeed remarkable last year for snow showers. It wil! be observed that the num- ber of snowy days in March of the past year ex- ceeds the whole number for the same month of the four preceding years. But if we had many snowy days in the beginning of the year, we have been remarkably free from them at the latter end ; for I do not remember a year in which the mountains were so late in being covered wth snow as in that which is just past. I find, on referring to my jour- nal, that this took place (on Skiddaw) in 1839 on the 23rd Nov., in 1840 on the 13th November, in 1841 on the 21st October, in 1842 on the 24th October, and in 1843 on the 12th October, but in 1844 it did not occur until the day after Christmas day. On the 20th October of this year the top of Crossfell was white, but only, I imagine, with the hail which fell during the preceding night ; while Skiddaw was still without any such symptoms of the approaching \vinter. Snow. Number of Days. 18441843 1 1842 1841 1840 January February 3 17 6 12 8 3 14 6 5 10 March 9 3 1 — 3 April October — 4 1 2 — •— December — — — 1 4 29 25 15 21 22 On looking at the table of Avinds we find that the excess of easterly winds in the latter six months THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 219 of the year is remarkable ; for though there is a deficiency of fourteen days in the first six months, as compared with those months of the preceding year, yet the excess of the year amounts to sixteen days. The most remarl 5 5 16 n 4 6 0 4 6 0 1 10 u 6, Bones, 1 quarter. ,...<... 0 18 0 \ Farm-yard manure 2 0 0/ Expenses of seed and labour 2 18 0 2 13 0 20 0 2 6 0 0 5 11 0 5 11 0 0 9 0 The above experiments strongly verify Mr, Grey's remarks, and reflect great credit on the intelligence and accuracy of the experimenter. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 226 Ex. XIV. by Mr. Carstairs, of Springfield, N. B. On turnips, at an elevation of 800 feet above the level of the sea ; mixed with an equal quantity of sand ; covered on the ridges by the circular harrows. Purchased of Mr. "\V. Thompson, of Leith. Soil — a deep moss, imderdrained. The manure apphed was in quantities to cost 3/. per acre, except the farm-yard manure, which cost 61. Turnips, purple yellow; sown, June 14th; severed, 12th and 13th December. Cost of Manure, £3. Turnips. Produce, Tops, &c. Total. Ammoniacal salts . Bones and sulphuric acid Guano T. cwts. qrs. lbs. 3 19 2 4 10 6 3 14 10 1 1 10 12 0 2 14 17 3 3 0 T. cwts. qrs. lbs. 3 3 3 10 4 3 1 29 4 18 1 6 4 0 3 16 5 3 0 19 T. cwts. qrs. lbs. 7 3 1 14 14 10 1 10 14 19 2 6 18 1 2 2 22 6 3 19 Ammoniacal salts and guano Farm-yard dung, double cost Ex. XV., by the same person, also on turnips; situation and circumstances as before; soil inclined to moss; so^vn, 23rd June; severed, 13th December, 1843. Manure to cost £'3 per acre. Turnips. Produce, Tops ,&c. Total. No manure * . . . Gj'psum T. 4 5 8 12 13 20 cwts. 18 3 6 0 5 12 qrs. 0 0 3 2 0 2 lbs. 24 14 24 14 2 2 T. cwts 1 19 2 4 3 18 3 18 4 13 6 7 qrs. 1 0 2 2 1 2 lbs. 14 22 8 8 6 20 T. 6 7 12 15 17 27 cwts. 17 7 5 19 18 0 qrs. 2 1 2 0 1 0 lbs, 0 8 Bone dust 4 Artificial guano* Guano . . 22 20 Farm-yard dung, double expense .... 22 * The artificial guano was manufactured in Glasgow, and consists of night-soil, with 75 per cent, of foreign giiano, at 8s. per cwt. Ex. XVI., by the same person, on potatoes ; applied at the rate of 10 cwt. per acre ; sets, both cut and whole, came in immediate contact Avith the guano ; soil, flow moss, never before in crop ; moss 20 feet deep ; and situation 800 feet above the level of the sea ; planted in the moss by the spade. Manure. Cost per acre. Quantity. Remarks. Sand £. s. d. 0 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 10 0 0 T. cwts. qrs. lbs. 1 17 0 0 2 19 2 6 2 19 2 6 3 14 1 12 7 16 0 12 8 8 0 0 Very small, not marketable. Very few marketable. Not many marketable. Rather small than othenvise. Burnt bones at 6s. per cwt Ammoniacal salts, at 17s. per cwt. . . Burnt bones, ammoniacal salts, and guano Guano Very good size. Vprv ornnrl Farm-yard dung Ex. XVII. — Same person, on potatoes ; soil inclir led to moss ; late by the plough. Manure. Cost per I ^cre. Quantity of Potatoes. Burnt bones Burnt bones and ammoniacal salts Burnt bones and guano . . . Guano Farm-yard dung £. a. 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 0 d. 0 0 0 0 0 T. c^vts. qrs. lbs. 2 6 0 0 2 16 3 0 3 4 2 0 3 11 0 0 4 2 2 0 These experiments have been very carefully made by Mr. Carstairs, and do him great credit, 226 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ex. XVIII., by Mr. R. Monteith, of Lanark, N. B. ; on turnips ; so\^^l broadcast by the hand along the ridges, and carefully mixed, to prevent contact with the seed; soil — strong clay lately drained, and subsoUed after oats. Purchased of Messrs. Leadbetter and Co., of Glasgow, at 12/. per ton. Season very unfavovu-able ; the turnij) crop generally much lighter than on the average of years. Results : — No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Quan- tity of Land. Acre. 1-16 1-16 1 1 1 1 Description of Manures tried, and Quan- tity of each per imperial Acre. Dung 28 yds. 28 28 28 28 28 28 Guano, 4 cwt Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt. . . Burned bones, 6 c^vt Bone dust, 20 bushels . . . Gypsum, 2 J cwt Guano, 4 cwt Beech ashes, 40 bushels . . . Gyjjsum, G cwt. (a failure) . . Bone dust, 25 bushels. . . . Do., 12 bushels, & 133 lbs. guano Guano, 356 lbs Guano, 267 lbs Cost of Dung per Acre. £. s. d. Cost of other Manures per Acre. £. s. d. 2 8 0 0 4 0 2 2 0 2 6 8 0 0 0 0 8 9 2 8 0 0 12 0 1 1 4 3 2 14 1 18 1 8 Total Cost per Acre. £. s. d. 2 8 0 5 16 0 7 14 0 7 18 8 5 12 0 6 0 9 8 0 0 6 4 0 2 14 1 18 1 8 Produce per Imperial Acre, stored 1 5 th Nov., 1843. T. 11 9 7 7 4 6 7 cwts. 8 8 11 2 19 1 13 12 9 6 11 15 11 0 10 15 Ex. XIX., by the same person, on oats, sown broadcast-; soil, good light; previous crop, grass seeds. 2671bs. guano, at a cost of 31s. per acre, produced 59 bushels. 10 bushels of bone dust, at a cost of 23s. 4d. per acre, produced 43 bushels. Ex. XX., by the same person. Part of a field of grass was manured with guano, at a cost of 31s. per acre, 2671bs. being apphed. It grew 22 cwt. of hay per acre more than when no manure was applied. Mr. C. remarks, that guano should be apphed to pasture during or immediately before rain. Ex. XXL, on the property of W. Rutson, Esq., of Newby Wiske, near Northallerton, communi- cated by his intelligent agent, Mr. Meek ; on tur- nips, at the rates of 2 CAvt. and 4 cwt. per acre, by the drill ; guano sown by the hand, upon the ridges when opened, then closed. Five alternate ridges sown with manure, at the rate of eleven single- horse cart loads ; twelve bushels of bones per acre were then drilled over the whole field ; soil, gravelly. Results : — Ridges with 2 cwt. of guano, one-fourth by weight more turnips per acre than the adjoining ridges with farm-yard mamu-e, and kept growing until the latter end of November. A proportionate increase ^vith an increase of guano. Ex. XXII., by the same gentleman on potatoes ; soil, light; manure was applied at the rate of 15 two-horse loads per acre ; guano at the rate of from 2 to 4 cwt per acre. Mr. Meek considers that the soil was rather against than in favour of guano. Results : — One hundred yards of each ridge were taken up ; the manure gave one bushel more than the ridge done with guano, respectively. The guano ridges produced at the rate of 330 bushels per acre. The land was afterwards sown with wheat. No difference was perceptible in that crop, in the parts manured with guano, from the rest of the field. In 1843, the same gentleman planted three acres of old-going soil wth potatoes, manured with guano, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre. The result was 230 bushels per acre, in a season un- favourable to potatoes. Mr. Meek obsen^es, a complete failure was the effect of drilling turnip seed in immediate contact with guano. Ex. XXIII., by Sir Wilfred Lawson, Bart., of Aspatia, kindly commvmicated by his agent, Mr. Norman ; on wheat, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre, mixed with half a bushel of charcoal ; sown broad- cast, and harrowed in with the seed ; soil, hght ; black, poor soil. Purchased of Routhwaite and Co., of Liverpool, at 13s. per cwt. Season, dry; previous state of the land, fallow. Remainder of the field, manured with 25 single-horse cart loads of farm-yard manure. Produce, equal. Ex. XXIV., same gentleman, on turnips ; quan- tity applied, 3 cwt. mixed with one bushel of char- coal ; guano sown in the open drill, and then closed by the plough, and the seed sown as near the guano as possible, but not in contact ; soil, poor and light; twenty single-horse cart loads of manui'e were applied in comparison. Result : — Turnips * sown with guano fully one-fourth heavier than those sown with farm-yard manure. Ex. XXV., by C.Beauclerk,Esq.,of South-Lodge, near Horsham ; on white stone turnips ; applied 3 cwt per acre alone, by the drill, and in contact with the seed; soil, light and sandy; previous crop, winter tares. Purchased of Mr. John Clarence, 21, CuUum-street, London; price, 11/. 7s. 6d. per ton ; season not very dry, favourable for turnips. Compared with wood ashes and bone dust. Results ; THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 2*27 — ^Turnips, with guano, at least by appearance, one-third more than with bone dust. The exjjense for each, i)er acre, was the same. The part with ashes was best, until thinned ; guano next ; and bone dust worst. After thinning, guano took the lead; bone dust next. Mr. Beauclerk remarks^ " I should recommend 20 bushels of wood ashes to be mixed with the guano or bone dust." * Ex. XXVI., by Thomas Stubbs Walker, Esq., of Maunby Hall, near Thirsk ; on wheat, in three diflerent fields, and in comparison with farm-yard manure and rape dust. One cwt. per acre was apphed in autumn, and 1 cwt. as a top dressing in the s])ring ; used alone ; in some cases sown by hand, previous to the land being harrowed for ribbing or drilling ; and in others, after the field was ribbed ; no difference was perce])tible ; soil, var)'ing from a strong loam to a stiff clay. Purchased of Messrs. Myers and Co., of Liverpool ; price, 11/. per ton. Season, varied. Results : — In field No. 1 — summer-fallow previously — 2 cwt. of guano was tried against rape dust ; and, in another i)art, about 10 tons of farm-yard manure. Cost of guano, 32s. ; of rape dust, 39s. The crop was not kept separate, but the guano was evidently the best ; the manure shghtly inferior; and the rape dust the worst. In field No. 2, which was seeds prexnously, the two manures were ajjplied as in No. 1 . The result was, the guano was much the best — from 4 to 6 bushels per acre (to the eye) above the rape dust, which was about the same quantity above the manured parts. In field No. 3, which had been oats previously, only guano and rape dust were tested ; the former slightly inferior. One part was left unmanured, which was the worst ; but neither of the nianiu'es appeared to have produced an in- crease of bulk equal to the expense. In this field, * This is bad advice ; the potash contained in wood ashes would speedily set free the ammonia on which the fertihzing properties of guano mainly depend. Our object should be to fix the ammonia, not to drive it off. H. S. Tiiomi'sox. Mr. Walker observes, lime never appears to pro- duce any eft'ect, whilst, in the others, it is very beneficial. Ex. XXVII., by the same gentleman ; on pota- toes; aj)plied alone at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre; sown ujjon the planted seed by the hand, before the drills were closed up ; soil as above. Tried in comparison with 15 loads of farm-yard manure. Results : — From the first, the tops of those manured with guano surpassed the others in size and colour, and the produce was equally superior. Ex. XXVIII., by the same gentleman; on tur- nips ; quantity applied, from 2 to 4 cwt. per acre, mixed with coal ashes ; sown by the hand in the Scotch drill rows, before closing; soil as before. Results : — The turnips sown with guano, owing to the dryness of the season, progressed at first very slowly ; whilst those with farm-yard manure were pushed forward by the moisture in the manure ; but after rain had fallen, the reverse was the case : Being all sown late, and the guano losing several weeks' start, the manured part was slightly superior at the last. Mr. W, observes, in one instance, about 1 cwt. of guano was mixed with coal ashes, and a small quantity of pigeon's dung, and was drilled along with the seed; but the crop was nearly lost; the seed did not vegetate for some weeks, and then very imperfectly. Ex. XXIX., by Mr. Godfrey Hirst, of Longdon, Worcestershire ; for turnips, at the rate of 6 cwt. per acre ; drilled upon the ground a week previous to sowing the seed, and well harrowed and mixed with the soil ; soil — clay, furrow-drained ; prenous crop, winter vetches. Price, 12s. per cwt., of Myers and Co., Liverpool. Turnips sown last week in July ; season, rather wet. Tried in com- parison with bones, at the rate of 3 qrs. per acre ; cost, 22s. per acre ; price per acre of the apphcation equal. The whole crop exceedingly good. Ex. XXX., by J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, Herts ; on wheat ; soil, heavy loam ; drilled at the rate of 1 2 cwt. per acre, with the seed, in autumn ; pre\'ious state of the soil, summer fallow. Price, 10s. per cwt. Results : — Produce per Acre. Manure. Grain. Straw. Weight per bush. 2 cwt. super-phosjjhate of lime, jjartially neutralized with gas liquor , . 84 lbs. siUcate of jjotash, soluble in water 1987 2044 1784 1860 1886 1944 1460 1334 IIlO 3192 3300 2640 2916 2SS0 2850 2300 2050 1296 lbs. 62 62 84 lbs. sihcate of potash, insoluble in water 64 56 lbs. soluble siUcate of potash . "1 56 lbs. guano [■ 62 112 lbs. super-phosphate of lime . J 28 lbs. silicate of potash . . . ") 28 lbs. guano I 84 ll)s. super-phosphate of lime . J 3 cwt. super-phosphate of lime 62 61 1 J cwt. guano . . 60 2 cwt. super-])hosi)hate of lime, neutrahzed with potash No manure Co 228 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. L., observes — "Guano, in a dry season, lulls the younj? turnip plant. The year before last, I lost half my crop by the use of guano, by sowing it in immediate contact Avith the seed. On oats and barley, the effect of guano is very superior to that of super-phosphate of Ume. I mention super- phosphate of hme, because I believe it to be the best manure that can be artificially made. Lord D'Arce, of the Hoo', arrived at the same conclu- sions— that super-phosphate of lime will produce a superior crop of turnips to guano, and guano a much superior one of oats and barley. I have used guano on wheat with very good effect, both drilled with the seed in autumn, and broadcast in the spring. On grass, guano is a very valuable substance. I use it in the month of April, sown by the hand, during a heavy rain. I mostly use it mixed \\'ith equal parts of nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia — about U cwt. of the mixture. I beUeve that guano is the finest manure that has ever been introduced." Ex. XXXI., by Mr. Charles Clarence, of Parnden, Essex ; on wheat, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre ; mixed with an equal quantity of salt ; so\vn broad- cast, as a top-dressing, about the middle of April ; soil, a poor white clay; previous crop, beans. Purchased of Mr. Clarence, 21, CuUum- street, London, at 127. per ton; and tried in comparison with an equal cost of nitrate of soda, in alternate lands ; season, wet. Results : — Nitrate of soda ... 6 bushels, 2i pecks. Guano 6 „ 3J ,, Nothmg ..... 4 „ 3 Difference in straw in the same proportion. Mr. C. observes, he also tried the same manures on barley, with equally advantageous results ; but he did not weigh the produce. Ex. XXXII., by Richard Price, Esq., of High- fields Park, Sussex; by his bailiff, Jonathan Brown ; on grass ; poor soil. From Mr. Clarence, 21, Cullum-street, London. One bushel of guano mixed wth two bushels of turf ashes, sown in April, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre. Result : — One load of hay more per acre, than where none was applied. Ex. XXXIII., by Mr. Joseph Johnson, Cleasby, Darlington; on turnips alone, at the rate of 1^ cwt. per acre, purchased of Saunders and Wea- therhill, Stockton, at 12^. per ton. Part of the field manured Avith thirteen loads per acre, of farm-yard manure ; upon the manure in the rows, 1 pint of guano was sown to 30 yards. Three rows were tried with guano alone, at the rate of 1 pint for 25 yards. Turnips on guano alone, better than those sown with both. In another case, it was mixed with gypsum and ashes, and drilled on the land with the turnip seed. It materially damaged the seed. For wheat and oats, ribbed and sown broadcast. Result : — Crop nearly doubled. Experiment by the same gentleman on potatoes, manured with rotten farm-yard manure, at the cost of 40s. per acre, produced 300 bushels per acre. Also with guano, at the cost of 18s. per acre; li cwt. produced 273 bushels per acre. Also with manure and guano, both at the cost of 58s. per acre, produced 342 bushels per acre. The potatoes were what are called the hen-nes potato. Mr. Johnson observes — " I also found 2 cwt. per acre of guano to grow turnips, equal to 10 loads of manure and 1^ cwt. of guano." Ex. XXXIV., by C. Uppleby, Esq., Wootton House, Lincolnshire, on turnips; purchased of Bayle and Graham, brothers, Hull. Price III. per ton ; mixed at the rate of 1^ to 2 cwt. per acre, with 8 bushels of bones and 10 quarters of ashes and compost drilled with the seed. Much of the seed did not germinate ; but the crop was, never- theless, much superior to the generality of the season. The crop was weighed; but Mr. U. thinks an accurate result could not be come to, owing to so many plants being deficient. The guano was used in comparison with phosphate of ammonia. " On grass," he says, " the effect was astonishing." The crop was weighed ; but he has unfortunately lost the account. The quantity ap- plied was 2 cwt. per acre. Ex. XXXV., by Mr. N. Tuckett, of Exeter. I quote Mr. T.'s own letter, as he wrote generally ; and not in answer to my queries. " I had about 14 acres of grass-seeds or second clover sown in April ; I mixed guano Avith some coal-ashes and hand-sowed it over the land, at the rate of 1 i cwt. per acre ; and, as the weather was raining, it soon had a wonderful effect. As the grass fields were only unstocked the 25th of March, the general opinion was that it would not grow half a crop, as second crop. It is not usual, in this neighbour- hood, to mow the second time two years following ; but, to the surprise of all who saw it, the crop was most extraordinary. I was obhged to cut the be- ginning of June, to prevent it rotting at the bot- tom, where the guano was put. I had but little short of 2 tons per acre. The land is red-sandy, but not A'ery light soil. I also put it over wheat, with good effect. I have not yet thrashed it, but I suppose it Avill turn out 40 bushels per acre. 1 had a large quantity of straw, 125 stooks per acre, 10 sheaves per stook. As an experiment, I grew the second crop of wheat on the same land. This practice I do not recommend, unless guano is ap- plied in the drilling in the seed, and about 1 cwt. per acre mixed with ashes or dry earth, and sown over it in March or April. The sooner it is ap- plied before the dry weather sets in, which is usually in March or April, the better it answers ; as I think it has but little effect when so^vn over grass or com, should there be no rain to wash it down to the roots." Ex. XXXVI., by Mr. Thomas Wilson, of Pick- ton, near Yarm, on clover and grass (meadow). ] cwt. per acre, used alone, broadcast ; sown late in May. Soil — strong, poor clay. Purchased of Saunders and Weathenll, Stockton ; 13s. per cwt. Result : The produce was increased on the meadow and clover, but not weighed. Mr. AV. thinks the same money expended in manure would be more beneficial. Ex. XXXVII., by E. P. Pridham, of Exeter. I give it in his own words. " In the spring of this year I planted my usual crop of potatoes, for my own consumption ; and, as my quantity of ground is limited, I felt it to be of importance to isecure, if THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 229 possible, the necessary crop. The potato was this year planted in the usual way, with stable manure ; but the i)lant was weak and sickly, owing to the excessive rains. I then procured from Mr. N. Tuckitt some guano, which I scattered over my potato crop; then hoed it in the usual manner. Within a fortnight the plant was improved in ap- ])earance, the leaf healthy and of a deeper colour. The result has been a croj) rather exceecUng 160 bags of six-score weight each. The quantity used was at the rate of 150lbs. per acre, mixed with some light earth. The queen's noble and the red rough potatoes were the seed used." Ex. XXXVni., by the Earl of Zetland, commu- cated by the kindness of his intelligent agent, H. J. Turner, Esq., on grass, on the 9th of May, 1843. Three plots of ground, containing a quar- ter of an acre each, were staked off in a meadow field belonging to Lord Zetland, at Aske. The fol- lowing statement shows the treatment adopted for each plot, the cost of manures apphed, and the value of the increase in produce by such appUcation ; No. Manures appUed. Cost of Manure. Total weight of Hay. Increase. Value of In- crease. 1. 2. 3. 4 St. Potter's manure "1 2 bush, wood ashes j 4 St. guano "1 2 bush, wood ashes J Xo manure s. d. 7 6 6 0 0 0 cwt. 12 11 St. 10 8 s. d. 5 0 4 0 0 0 Mr. Turner observes, " It is clear that in this experiment the increased value of the produce did not pay for the outlay for the manures applied. I have merely set down the cost of the manures as charged to me in London, without adding the freight and carriage ; and I have counted a high rate (6d. per stone) for the increased produce. The experiment was conducted ^\'^th the greatest care, the maniu-es being apphed, and the whole of the hay gro^vn on each plot weighed under my own inspection. I think it right to add, that in the prex'ious year, in the same field, an experiment of a number of manures, including guano, gave a de- cided superiority to Potter's manure."* The compiler has not suppressed a single return made to him ; and the small amount of failures re- corded, especially as they are nearly entirely refer- able to misconception of the i)Owers, or mistake in application of the manures, only tend to the con- viction that guano is a most valuable auxihary to * Mr. Stickney, of Ridgmont, near Hedon, tried guano on Swedish turnips and other plants, on a very small scale, but it proved a failure, owing to its mixture with sea-salt. He says, " It was found, on examination, to be comi)osed of more than one- half of its weight of salt, which, I suppose, it had obtained from being in a situation exposed to the spray of the sea. The water, I suppose, had evaporated, and left the salt to intermix its crystals with the guano. Tlierefore, I conclude, much de- pends on tlie situation it may be taken from." llie writer found that sheep accustomed to salt eat up the greatest part of the guano applied to a pasture in which they were grazing ; doubtless from its saline properties. our artificial manures; and, from its portability and concentration, will be pecuharly available in some districts, where a long land-carriage renders the purchase of heavy manures, on any extensive scale, almost impracticable. The returns made from quarters so remote, and soils, climate, and circumstances so varying, render the accounts far more worthy of confidence than any experiments, however carefully and accurately made, by any one person, or in one district, and must tend to settle the value of the manure beyond all manner of doubt. Without interfering with the practical deduc- tions which practical men will derive from these experiments, the writer ventures one or two obser- vations, clearly deducible from the reports he has received. 1. The guano should never come [into imme- diate contact with the seed; it should be mixed with ashes or earth, and deposited below the seed, or hghtly incorporated with the soil, before sowing. 2. It appears to be more useful broadcast than sown by drill. 3. It api)ears most useful in a wet season, or during or immediately preceding rain. 4. It seems more adapted for strong lands than light. 5. It is pecuharly calculated to promote the growth of plants in their early stages, and conse- quently is a valuable apphcation for turnips, in conjunction with other manures. G. It appears to answer well for green crops, which arrive at early maturity, when used alone. 7. In ordinary crops it should be combined with other less rapidly decomposing manures. 8. It appeal's to be beneficial to all cultivated crops. 11 2 230 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Xfl P tM a> ^* o ^ cS a> •w 0 0 rt 1 0 0 ■73 O t3 O > >, be 5 o CO ho c t» ctf a, 2 o Tl c bo 0 03 JC c :3 C Vh rQ M 'O s PS CD c s si 05 a 0 •2 u •73 ■73 a U3 - Sh rO «* 3 n3 -a >-< a v^ 0 &< T3 CD CO a > g 5 .s 1 CO a 0 0 s •73 >-. S ;-> 0 CO 0) a 0 e B CO 11 *4H C3 to -. rQ ■T3 •c CD m CO Q 5 Q CO Q Q 3 cr 0 Oh 0 3 3 H > a • • • . • . • • . • . • . • . • . • ID ID ■T3 CO • • . . • • • • • 0 a 0 0 n 0 0 0 0 >^ ^ t^ o 0 3 m Q Q Q Q C Q Q Q Q Q Q P Q Q « Q Q Q Q PLh CB Oh r^ '7' ■* CS CO l-^ C-1 =a n 0 (M Tf ^ 2 01 (0 (M ^o ri? fO CO fO 0 rH ^ rfJ 0 d fO -< 3 T3 C a 4J 0 cS 0 {:u 3 OS 73 • ■k> 13 CD r3 0? ft 05 to •T3 3 CS CO 03 13 CD . s o c t 2 3 2 • •- (D '73 • -H hJ M 0 PQ w hJ >^ 0 M >-i > a w Q J P « u >1 i^ bb • s 0 'El i > •T3 • • • • * • o a CD "C rt o c 0 1^ 03 (P 6 > 13 0 0 Pi i-s ;:» 1 « t-1 6 CJ Tl< vn CO Oi 6 ^ c4 M rr iri «d 06 "A 1-1 r-i M r-i C-1 ital expended on the hind, and the consequent great increase in the amount of the produetion of corn, eounteracted the tendency of taxation, and perhaps the British farmer might be able to compete with the immense burthens which he 248 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. could not sliift from his sliouklcrs, If lie could only procure something like 60s. a quarter for his wheat {hear). Sir Robert Peel had, indeed, admitted the fact ; for he said that 563. per quarter was, he thought, the proper average, and the fair protection point. The farmers wished for that protection, but had they got the protection price of o6s. a quarter ? Did they expect theycouldhaveit with the present protection? (Loud cries of " No no.") It was impossible that, under present circumstances, they could obtain that price; and something, therefore, must be done either to increase prices or diminish the pressure of these burthens {loiul and continued cheering). He would defy Sir Robert Peel's, or any other administration, to raise the taxation of this country from the minimum price of products now established. If they had high taxation they must have corresponding prices ; and if they in- creased the former and diminished the latter, they would soon find the resources dried up from which alone the fund could be raised {hear, hear). It was on this principle, therefore — this one principle out of many, that protection was necessary for the landlord and for the tenant farmer. In another point of view it was equally necessary for the agricultural labourers (cheers). Suppose the League party in this country could have their own way ; suppose it were possible for them to import into this country, in return for their manufactures, all the corn reqiiired for the whole population ; suppose it possible, by means of ma- chinery, to manufacture all the food required by this country, still they would have the labouring classes to maintain, and having deprived these classes of em- ployment, they would, as paupers, demand that sus- tenance which they had previously been enabled to gain by the exertion of their own honest industry (hear, hear). If a further importation of corn were to go on, if the intentions of the Corn-Law League were given effect to, so far as such importation took place, to the same extent would land be thrown out of cultivation in this country. If land were thrown out of cultivation the labourer would be thrown out of employment, and his support would fall upon the pockets of the middling classes; but this burthen the middling classes could not long continue to sustain. They, in their turn, would fall back on the landed proprietary interest, and each would then too forcibly learn that the interest of each was the common in- terest of all {loud cheers). If the principles of free trade were to be carried forward, the first to suffer would be the tenant farmer ; the restriction of his means would bring ruin on the labourer, both would fall, and with them the landlord also must ultimately sink {hear, hear, hear). With these views, and under these circumstances, those with whom he acted came forward to originate the protection societies. It was at a time when the tenant far- mers, goaded on all hands, were anxious to state their own views plainly to the world ; hence they readily found the assistance they calculated upon — hence they at once found a ready assistance from all parts of the kingdom, not only from the landed interest, but also, he was happy to say, from members of every other interest; and hence they had now, in face of the coun- try, established the principle of protection — a principle which all well-thinking men now recognized as neces- sary to the well-being of the State {loud cheers). Every man who exercised the least particle of common sense must see that England was not in a position to compete with foreign nations in the production of corn ; and, consequently, not in a condition to admit a free import of agricultural production from coun- tries not so higlily taxed as this. But what need was there for any to be alanned at this ? England pos- sessed within herself all the resources necessary for the provision of food for her increasing population. Capital she had in abundance, farmers energetic, intelligent, and enterprising, and moreover united amongst them- selves in a determination to develope to the utmost the powers of the soil ; with these advantages let them have but fair play, and the British farmers would undertake to produce corn sufficient for the British people {loud cheers). Nor let it be forgotten that whilst producing this corn they would at the same time give employ- ment to an industrious population — a population al- ways willing to stand forward in defence of the honour of the country and her institutions, and only asking a i-eturn for that employment which every man had a fdlr ri^ht to exi^cct {loud cheers). He would not at that late hour advert to the position in which the League were now placed. He was not one of those who sought to triumph over a fallen enemy, but though the snake had cast his skin, the animal still remained the same ; and with a succession of new schisms, would still spit forth its venom for their destruction. It was requisite, therefore, that they should concentrate their forces, and having well determined what position to take up, lay a foundation wide enough and large enough to permit their raising a fortress sufficieiitly strong to resist all the attacks of their enemies. Let the agriculturists of England and the friends of British industry thus combine, and they would soon hear lit- tle of their enemies, and the League now formed for their destruction would shortly vanish into thin air {great cheering). Mr. Fisher Hobbs, of Marks Hall, Essex, was called upon to propose the next toast, " Success to Agriculture." After apologizing for the diffidence which he felt in addressing such an assembly on such a toast, he said he thought they would all agree with him that on the success of agricultiare the prosperity of the country mainly depended, and that it was, therefore, pre-eminently entitled to the support of the Legisla- ture {loud cheers). The time had now come when those who professed to be the true friends of the farmers must come forward, and prove themselves to be so in truth and honesty {loud cheers). The farmers were now suffering great distress, owing to the influence of the legislative measures which had been recently passed (hear, hear) — and unless those who were their friends would come out from the ranks, and prove themselves to be friends in need, he greatly feared their sufferings would continue for some time to come (hear, hear) . The farmers, however, with whom he had the honour to act, were beginning to think and judge for them- selves ; they were now beginning to look at measures and not at men {loud and reiterated cheering). They were now beginning to find out that the late legislative enactments had reduced their property certainly twenty percent., and therefore it was that in such numbers they had rallied round the provincial protection so- cieties. In these societies they placed their whole con- fidence, and therefore they gave tbem their unquahfied support. He had long been a strong advocate for the improvement of agriculture. Much had already been effected in this respect, and much more would still be effected. The produce of our soil had been greatly in- creased by such improvements, and they were fully of opinion that they were able to grow sufficient corn to supply the increasing population of this country pro- vided adequate and just protection were given to them {hear, hear) — but he was one of those who thought that the improvements which had lately gone on must be checked and considerably damped unless they had the protection to which they were justly entitled (loud cheers). As one of the farmers of Essex, he could only say thatbodv had taken their stand on the question of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 249 protection, and they intended to stand firm, for the longer thev lived the more convinced they were that unless they had protection — aye, and great and ample protection (hear, hear) — quite as much as they now possessed, if not more (loiid cries of" more, more" ) — they could not maintain their presnt position, and the great bulk of the farmers of the country would sink to the grade of labourers {loud cheers). He therefore begged of the true friends of agriculture to weigh the matter well and to standby them iu this their time of need and hour of trial. He had great pleasure in pro- posing the toast, " Success to Agriculture." (The toast was drunk amidst the loudest demonstrations of applause.) Jlr. Buck, M.P. for North Devon, returned thanks. He was sorry that it was not till he entered the room that a card was placed in his hands, informing him that he was to have the honour of responding to that. He could assure them no toast could have been so con- genial to his feelings. For the many years that he re- presented one of the most populous cities in the west of England, and he trusted since he had the honour of representing the county of Devon, he had ever consi- dered, and he trusted had firmly acted up to the prin- ciple that due protection was necessary for the agricul- tural as well as for the other classes of the community. He rejoiced that he was present on that occasion pub- licly in such an assembly to express, on the part of the landholders of England, to the Noble Duke then in the chair, and to them, the worthy representatives of the yeomanry of this kingdom, his warmest acknow- ledgments for the manner in which they had come for- ward at the critical moment when the landed interest of the country was so desperately assailed {loud cheers). In thus coming forward, they, if not altoge- ther overthrown, at least strike a heavy blow at and pave the way for the final overthrow of the most un- constitutional association that ever existed in this country. Men, who under the plea of philanthropy and kindness, were disseminating doctrines that could only tend, in a tenfold degree, to aggravate the evils and misfortunes of the labouring classes of this country — (much cheering) — men who endeavoured to sever the links that bound together the landlord, the tenant, and the labourer. He (Mr. Buck) fully concurred in the sentiments so ably expressed by the gentleman (Mr. Hobbs) who had just sat down. He (Mr. Buck) was not insensible to the evils arising from those im- portant measures that had passed the Legislature during the last two or three years; and for which, he regretted to say, he did not see an easy cure {cheers). He hoped, however, that a cure would be provided, and that those connected with the landed interest, and friendly to protection, would impress the necessity of finding such remedy on the representatives of the country — (vehement cheering) — and also the necessity of adhering to tliose principles which they professed on taking their seats in the House of Commons (cheers). He believed that the landed interest had made extreme sacrifices in permitting the late tarifi' and the Canada Corn Bill to become a law (Hear, hear). He was opposed to those measures. He be- lieved them to be injurious, and nothine on earth could have induced him to take any step which could render the landed interest of the country iu a worse possible condition than it had ever been iu (applause). Tiicse were (he principles which lie had entertained when those injurious measures were brought forward, and the meeting might rest assured that these were the principles on which he should act during the remain- der of his life (protracted cheering). Mr. Wxr. Miles, M.P. for East Somerset, iu pro- posinp " Our Trade and Commerce," regretted that the toast had not been committed to some party better able to expose the fallacies of that party who were en- deavouring to sever the links that bind the plough to the loom and the sail (cheers). Tliat bond of unioa was duly acknowledged by those whom he saw around him (cheers). That bond of union they wished never to be broken. Tliey had inscribed on their banners " Protection to British Agriculture,'' and they would look for that protection (cheers). They had a right to have that protection, and he would say, " We will have that protection" (tremendous cheering)\ No Government should force that protection from them (renewed cheering). He congratulated the society on the progress their principles had made during the past year, and on the determination they manifested to abide by the first principle on which they were or- ganised, namely, that they would not submit to further reduction of the protection which the Legislature had afforded them. (Cheers, and cries of " That icill not do .'") He had heard a voice stating " Tliat will not do" (Hear, hear). But that was the first principle on which they were established. He was one of those who advocated the cause of the farmer. He was aware of the injury done liim (the farmer) by various acts of the Legislature. He had joined this society in the determination to have one bond of union from whence they would not swerve ; that bond of union was, that they would not submit to any reduction whatever of the protection on which they at present subsisted, and sorry he was that one individual could he found in this society who would have taken them aback (enthusiastic and prolonged cheers). The Anti- Corn Law League were holding their weekly meetings, at which, by calumny and misrepresentation, they en- deavoured to delude the agricultural labourer, while this society had it thrown in their teeth that but once in the year did they come forward to the public to answer those calumnies. This was certainly a disadvantageto the society. The League would get rid altogether of the plough and stick to the loom and the sail, but the farmers, while they sought to uphold agriculture, ac- knowledged also the rights of commerce ; while they sought protection for themselves they advocated the same privilege for the manufacturers (a/)plausej. There were, he was glad to see, in this great country a band of men, including agriculturists, manufacturers, and commercial men, who believed that " free- trade" meant " ruin," and who were ready to stand up as one man and say, " We will have none of it" (cheers) ! He congratulated the commercial and manufacturing classes on their returning prosperity, and regretted that the period of depression had not yet passed away from the agricultural districts. The free-trade princi- ple had been carried out in this country to an inju- rious extent, not only for the agriculturists, but also for the mercantile classes. The navigation laws espe- cially had operated very injuriously. By the Recipro- city Acts, passed in 1822 and 1823, our commercial navy (as appeared from the returns moved for by Mr. Colquhoun in 1840) had almost dwindled down to a mere nothing. Whilst the transits in oiirown bottoms greatly diminished, the transits in foreipfu bottoms in- creased three-fold. In 1842 a new tariff, brought for- ward by the Premier— a skilful general — infiieted an injury iipon all classes. That measure was brought forward and passed before the vnriou^ sejiarate interests had time to cousult and uphold the i)rotcctive system (Hear). The agriculturists were no monopolists; they did not forget what was due to the other classes of the community ; on the contrary, tfiey were anxious to obtain for all that protection whicli tliey sought for themselves. He believed the agriculturists were now established on so firm n foundation that fhey could 250 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. show a bold front to any Prime Minister, be he who lie might (cheers). A powerful body was now set in motion, and though it might be difficult to manage it, still the proceedings of their opponents ren- dered its existence necessary. He hoped the i\gricul- tural Protection Society would be circumspect, he hoped they would be prudent, but, above all, he hoped they would be firm {applause). He regretted the unavoidable absence of the member for Birming- ham, who, it was expected, would have responded to the toast. That gentleman had invariably advocated and advanced the protective system, and was returned, even from that manufacturing town, in opposition to free traders and universal suffrage men (c/iecrs) . The Hon. Gentleman having expressed his best wishes for the prosperity, not only of agriculture, but also of trade and commerce, concluded amid loud and prolonged cheering. The Chairman then announced that in consequence of the absence of Mr. Spooner, Mr. Newdigate, M.P., ■would respond to the toast. Mr. Newdigate regretted the necessity that existed for calling upon him, but felt that if he declined the honour he should be wanting to his friend, and not duly representing his constituents. The toast had been received in a kind manner, and he could assure the commercial classes that this expression of the agricul- turists' desire for their welfare, was no rain ebullitionjof good wishes (cheers) . The agriculturists of this coun- try had already given abundant proofs of their patriotic feelings, and of their desire to restore and encourage our commerce and manufactures. If the nature of the great staple manufactures of the nation were con- sidered, it would be found that the men who troubled the country with free-trade doctrines formed a very small class, and were not so much identified with the prosperity of the country as with foreign trade. The people of Birmingham manuftictured for England as well as for the continent ; the people of Coventry were engaged in the silk trade ; and the ribbon trade, in all its ramifications, was carried on in the district which he represented. All these manufactures mainly depend on the home market, and none of these localities was represented by any such faction as the league (cheers). The men of Birmingham bad spoken in a voice not to be mistaken— they fully appreciated the necessity of binding the empire together by a community of interest as well as of affection. The Anti-Corn Law League had lately met and manifested their weakness. The agriculturists, like good generals, might fairly judge of their own position from that of their adversa- ries. 'J bey appear to have left the field of argument, and, no longer studying to convince, they felt satisfied ifthey could compel the people of England to adopt their measures (cheers). This condition of the League had been brought about by the exertions of the Agri- cultural Society, and those able writers who lent their talents to the task. But there were other elements with •which the League found it difficult to cope. The internal state, condition, and necessities of other countries had daily become more apparent. The necessity of self- preservation strongly actuates each country, and you would only have to cast your eyes across the map of Europe to see how few of the European states would gain by a repeal of the corn laws, and therefore how httle ground there is for expecting that such a mea- sure would induce them to yield any further conces- sions to our manufacturers. Many of those countries do not grow more corn than they require. France Spain, Italy, Turkey, Greece, Belgium, Sweden, Den- mark, &c. — countries inhabited by nearly one hundred millions of people, scarcely produce more corn than they require— what would the repeal of the corn laws do for them ? It would not enrich their inhabitants, Russia and Prussia are great corn-growing countries, and they might be expected to reciprocate, but their internal constitution and circumstances are such that, even were their governments willing to reciprocate, it would be to their own detriment and destruction. Look at Russia; her policy was strictly protective. Why was it ? because she understood it to be the great secret of her country's wealth. She knew that internal commerce — the internal icterchange of her various produce was the real source of her wealth. Her government is jealous of her nobles. Her nobles were the landowners. The population that till tbe land were serfs, and if the nobles sent their corn to England, they might enrich themselves, but this would confer no advantage on their serfs. They would not become one whit more our consumers. Besides, the great corn- growing district of that country was Poland, whose loose allegiance needed no proof, and whose probity the Government could scarcely trust. The League were well aware of this, and therefore their thoughts were mainly turned towards America. They pro- claimed her immense powers of agricultural production, and exhorted us to seek her commerce, and be on terms of mutual dependance with that great country. But the A mericans had good reasons for remaining friendly to the protective system, and were not at all likely to reciprocate those concessions which the League would have this country to make in the direction of free trade. After a few other observations not distinctly heard, on the impolicy of any further diminution of the protection afforded to the agriculturists, the Hon. Gentleman resumed his seat amid loud cheers. Mr. S. Mills, of Enford, Wiltshire, in proposing the next toast, observed that the society was called into existence to resist the attacks made on the best interests of the empire, by one of the most unconstitu- tional associations that ever existed (cheers.) The landlords deserved the thanks of this meeting, which was probably the most influential that ever assembled in London or elsewhere, and which he trusted would be productive of beneficial results. A great deal would be expected throughout the country from this noreet- ing, and he hoped there would be no disappointment (hear, hear.) The farmers were at present admitted to be in a greatly depressed state ; their best interests had been assailed, and that not only by their foes, but by tbose who ought to have been their friends (" hear'', and cheers.) It had been said that the League was reduced in strength ; but still they were interfering with the registrations in such a way as would operate to the detriment of the agriculturists at a future elec- tion. But was there no remedy at hand for the dis- tres!ed condition of the agricultural community? Could they be told " We have met nobly ; we have had the support of the first men ofthe nation, and yet we are in the same position in which we started?" Would that satisfy them ? Would they not say " Things cannot remain in the same state ; gentlemen, we do not assent to your legislation." The evil was working insidiously, and it was the duty of the society to come forward boldly and say they were determined to make a stand somewhere. He would say they should com- bine and make a stand on the Canada Corn Bill (reite- rated cheers.) He thought that would tend very much to remedy past injury. The honest and attached oc- cupiers of the soil of England had a right to be heard and their interests regarded by the Legislature before tliose who represented the loom. (Hear, hear). He hoped the members of the legislature in both Houses would do their duty, regardless of ambition or of party, and uphold the agricultural interests. He hoped he might be excused for touching on another topic. Ho THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 251 was aw.ire that the landlords were anxions to promote the welfare of the tenant farmers, and lie would therefore suggest to the landlords, that, in preference of making them a small remittance on rent-day of five or ten per cent., they would spend that amount in per- manently improving their farms {Loud cheers, in which the Duke of Buckingham and the Duke of Richmond especially joined.) The tenantry should be enabled to improve poor and unprofitable pasture — to drain the land, level the ditches, cut down waste timber, and make good roads through the property (cheers.) This was the best annual meeting of the noblemen and gentlemen connected with the soil, and he trusted the next would be increased in numbers and im- portance. Mr. Mills concluded by proposing " The Landlords," which was drunk with much enthusiasm. The Earl of M.\lmesbury having been called on to respond to the toast, regretted that instead of having passed many years in country amusements and pur- suits, he had not been more accustomed to address public assemblies and enter into public discussions, be- cause he might then have done justice to the feelings which animated the hearts of those present (cheers.) The compliment paid to the landlords, and with which the walls were still ringing, was inestimable, because it gave an answer to the calumnies of that League which they had met to disappoint and defeat (cheei's.) Those calumnies had been showered thick and fast upon the landlords. They had been described as ex- tortioners of the tenants, and as grinding even the labourers below them; as persons guilty of every sort of crime which the least Christian man would be ashamed to commit. If such charges were true, they were perfectly unworthy of men of education, such as the landlords of England ; but, before the Almighty God he protested that such charges were false (cheers.) He might be told, perhaps, by the League, that he said this before a partial assembly ; but if those re- presentations of the landlords were not calumnies, that assembly would not be partial (Vehement ripplause.) That was a plain answer, and now he would leave the League to itself. lie was sincerely glad to hear the speech of the gentleman who had preceded him. He agreed not only generally, but in the detail of those recommendations which he had given. He had never heard more common sense expressed in so few minutes, and although he had not had his own property long in his possession, he was glad to be able to say that he had commenced on the same plan (cheers.) He (Mr. Mills) had alluded to the Canada Corn Bill, and, if he (Lord Malmesbury) had not misunderstood him, ex- pressed a hope that it might be repealed (*' hear," and cheers.) He (Lord Malmesbury) had opposed both the Corn Law Bill and the Canada Corn Law Bill, mi their progress through Parliament — he did more, he entered liis protest against them in the House of Lords (cheers), but he should be deceiving the meeting if lie said there was the slightest possibility of their repeal. He meant now, of course. He believed that, at present, they could not be repealed. More years must pass, and more experience of their working must prove to tlie majority of the country that those measures were injurious to the British farmers. This society was only yet in its infancy, but it was strong, and would increase in strength. Let them, then, learn from experience ; follow out their principles, and tell the Premier" You have gone so far, but no farther can you go. We will not allow any diminution in the amount of protection vouchsafed to us now." Having again thanked the assembly for the comjilimcut paid the landlords, the noble lord concluded amid loud burst.s of applause. Mr. SoTUERON, M.P. for North Wiltshire, proposed " The health of the Tenant Farmers," a body from whom the society originated, who were the mainstay of the society, and, what was more, were the marrow and pith of old England (cheers). With them rested, and had rested for the last two hundred years, the management of the great mass of the people. He regretted the present depressed condition of the tenant- farmers. Their distresses came from an unexpected quarter — (hear, hear) — and were not likely to be alleviated by the various nostrums in the shape of advice so copiously administered to them. He knew, from the experience of the last three or lour years, that the tenant farmers of Great Britain were willing to adopt any of those improvements which science, chemistry, or mechanics could offer, but he was well aware that no advances in the scientific cultivation of land could compensate for the loss of the protection they had enjoyed for the last thirty years, and which they thought parliament had guaranteed to them (cheers). He had listened with pride and satisfaction to what had fallen from Mr. Mills, and he (Mr. Sothe- ron) was persuaded that the landlords would adopt that gentleman's recommendation. He trusted that they would fearlessly and honourably meet their tenants in the face and say, " We are all in the same boat — let us share the dangers between us" (cheers). They were all assailed in their respective positions by very powerful combination, and it was hard to say whether the blow fell more hardly on one than on another. If the landlord were attacked, through his body would pass the spear that would enter the heart of the tenant farmer (Cheers). Numerous and in- fluential as this society now was, it was still only the representative of the tenant farmers, by whom it was originated. History showed that all those great revo- lutions and alterations that have taken place in the^ existing state of society, either for the repression of tyranny, or the support of freedom, originated with the middle classes. This had been the case with the Agricultural Protection Society (cheers). The Hon. Gentleman concluded by hoping that a good under- standing might grow up and continue among all classes of agriculturists (cheers). Mr. Jonas (a tenant farmer) also responded to the toast, and spoke to the following effect : — My Lord Duke, my Lords, and Gentlemen— Having been called upon to respond to the toast you have just drunk, I am compelled to rise, and however inadequately I may discharge the duty imposed on me, allow me to say that most sincerely and gratefully do I thank you for the compliment you have paid the tenant farmers of England. You have done well in drinking and wishing prosperity to the tenant farmers, for rest assured, my Lord Duke and gentlemen, that on the prosperity of the tenant farmers depends the employment, and, consequently, the happiness of our labourers — the well being of our landlords— and the general prosperity and happiness of our native land. Much has been said at the various agricultural meetings about the duties of the tenant farmers — much wholesome advice has been given, recommending us strongly to carry out permanent improvement in cultivation. Now, it might jiossibly appear to be implied by this that we(the tenant farmers) were slack at the present moment in carrying on those improvements in agriculture which give so much em- ployment to our people, and add so largely to the general wealth of the country. The cry on one side has been " cultivate, cultivate." My answer, in the name of the tenant farmers of i:ngland is, " Ilemu- nerate, remunerate" (immense cheers). Give us re- muneration and security for the employment of our skill and capital, and you will find the tenant farmers 252 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of England anxious and willing to carry on those im- provements and thus so much increase the demand for labour {renewed applause). Our opponents, the League, will say to the landlords, you must reduce your rents, and you will receive remuneration. But, in answer to this, allow me to say that only Is. per bushel on the price of all our corn produce is created by rent, so that a reduction of 8s. per quarter on our produce will sweej) away all the rent, and I prove it thus : — Supposing land farmed on the four-course system, and wheat, barley, and oats to produce an aggregate average of thirty-five bushels per acre for two crops, the middle crop say half beans, and thus ixteen bushels per acre are eighty-six bushels in four years, or 21s. 6d. per acre. Now it is computed that the individual consumption in this county is one quarter of wheat per annum, and I should feel much obliged if Mr. Cobdcn would inform me how much a reduction of 89. per annum, or 2d. a week on the food of those he employs would enable him to lower the price per yard of the cotton goods he manu- factures {hear). It would not amount to the fraction of a farthing ; and are we, the tenant farmers of Eng- land, to be ruined " To gratify these lords of cotton twist, Who only lower wages cry, Whilst shouting cheaper grist." (cheers nnd laughter). The formation of this society was entirely owing to the exertions of the tenant far- mers {universal plandits), and we feel proud in having been so nobly seconded by our landlords ; and let it be our study, as well as our bounden duty, to preserve that union amongst ns which alone can make us powerful. Let union be our watchword {hear, hear). We, the te- nant-farmers, felt ourselves compelled to form pro- tective societies throughout the country, to give the lie to the assertions of the League, that the tenant-farmers were anxious for a free trade in corn. I hope the results of our exertions in the formation of these societies will prove tliat we feel it a tenant's question {cheers). Aye, and we feel it deeply that it is a labourer's question (" hear, hear," and applause), for we contend that in the highly taxed country native industry is entitled to full and adequate protection (hear, hear). We contend that the importation of every quarter of corn or manufac- 1 ured article into England displaces the quantity of British labour required to produce the same labour {hear, hear). Tlie duty of a wise Government is so to legislate as to give full employment for the labouring classes {loud and continued cheers). Talk notof a want of spirit, skill, or energy, on the part of the tenant farmers — do we not liear of vast amounts of manure, the accumulation of ages, being brought here for our use by hundreds of our vessels from the far distant lands of the Indus and the sultry shores of Africa [hear, 7iear) ? Rest assured, my lord duke, that nothing can induce or enable us to progress in those permanent and expensive improvements in agriculture but our feeling that we have, not only security of tenure by long leases— and no man can farm well without them (hear, hear) — but also that we can with safety and security look to the fiovernmcnt of this country, be they whom they may, not only to continue our present inadequate protection, but also, if necessary, to retrace any false movement they have lately made in declining our pro- tective laws as regards the Canada Bill, the duty on fo- reign barley, and those other duties that are too low to give us safe and fair remuneration. (The burst of overwhelming and enthusiastic acclamation that fol- lowed the expression of this sentiment fairly mocks our powers of description. It was renewed and reiterated several times, and the speaker then proceeded). I have always, in endeavouring to show the importance of agriculture, maintained that what the spring is to the watch — what life blood is to the animal life— so is agriculture to Great Britain ; for when the spring is broke the watch stops, and whenever the pulse ceases to beat life is extinct ; and rest assured, my lord, that whenever agriculture ceases for a length- ened period of time to be a profitable employment for the skill and capital of us (the tenant farmers), that then, if not till then, will the national honour, happi- ness, and prosperity of Great Britain be extinguished {assenting cries of ^' hear"). But I feel confident that this union of our strength will prevent such a calamity {loud cheers). Allow me, my lord duke, in the name of the tenant farmers of England, to tender to you and to the gentlemen who compose this splendid meeting, my thanks for the compliment you have this evening paid us. But I cannot resume my seat without also taking on myself, in the name of my brother farmers, to offer you, my Lord Duke of Richmond, and you, my Lord Duke of ISuckingham, our sincere thanks for the noble and manly manner in which you both come for- ward to defend and uphold the rights, not only of the British farmer, but of the British labourer (Zowdc/iee?'*). Mr. A Stafford O'Brien, M.P., on rising to pro- pose the next toast, " The Labourers," was loudly cheered. The toast which he had been called upon to propose was one which had occupied considerable at- tention at agricultural meetings daring the last year, and he rejoiced that it had done so {cheers). He re- joiced that, whether at their meetings for the encour- agement of agricultural enterprise, or for the mainte- nance of agricultural protection, they had always recognized the rights and claims of a body of men not the least numerous, not the least important, and, let him add, not the least deeply interested In the protec- tion of agriculture {hear, hear). That there were evils existing amongst that body of men ; that they had to encounter difficulties in their method of dealing with them, he did not for one moment deny ; but that was no reason why, when they sat together in council as at present, when the landlord could take counsel with the tenant, that both should not take counsel for the labourer, and give their individual opinions as many had given them that night (and, although varying in views, yet preserving unanimity throughout). There was no reason, he repeated, why he should not fearlessly and boldly broach the question entrusted to his hands (hear, hear). So far from this being mere empty bravado or flattery, he was glad from his heart that in the present year, as in the past, the question of the agricultural labourers was made a prominent point of agricultural consideration. He might add, too, that if the great master mechanics were, in the course of the present year, as boldly and as fearlessly, as the farmers did, to enter into the discussion of the condi- tion of their poor j it would then be seen that, though the difficulties connected with the state of the agricul- tural poor were great, yet a fearless and candid in- quiry, in the spirit of truth, would show that the diffi- culties connected with the manufacturing poor were still deeper, still wider, and still more difficult to eradi- cate {hear, hear, hear). From the publications of the day, and from tlie speeches the manufacturers them- selves made, it was clear that there prevailed amongst the mechanics in the crowded manufacturing districts a strong and lively sense of the wide and gradually in- creasing difierence between the condition of the rich and the condition of the poor; and it was also plainly to be discovered that they considered, that whilst machines were elevated into men, men, by the pres- sure of machinery, were being sunk into mere ma- chines {loud cheers). He said this not to exult over THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 253 the League manufacturers, nor to taunt them with making such enormous fortunes as they did at the ex- pense of these men, but because it was most important that as freely as they discussed tlie evils under which the rural population laboured, as freely and as l)oldly should they also discuss the evils attendant on the state of the i)opulation in the manufacturing towns, evils over which it was carefully attempted to throw a veil, but which, if allowed to go on festering as they were at present, would increase daily in virulence, and ultimately grow to a head which would place them be- yond the reach of cure {loud cries of " Hear hear"). Before the League had entirely given up all hope of winning over the agricultural labourers (and that they did make that attempt was matter of history, though not of present history), for they now found tliat they might as well talk to landlords as farmers — their great augument was that the labourers would be bene- fited by low prices. A'ow, if any of the agricultural labourers should ever have put faith in this doctrine of the League, did they think that the recent experi- ments which had been made in this respect would in- cline the agricultural labourers to maintain this faith {hear, hear)1 Did they think that the commonest mind, or the most degraded intellect — putting present prices and present wages together — would say that low prices tended to increase the comforts of the poor {hear, hear, hear)''. No; for wherever the poorer classes were comfortably off, it could easily be shown that it was not owing to low prices, but to other totally difierent and antagonistic causes. The enemies of the farmers now took upon themselves to lecture the agriculturists, and say, " Why don't you invest your capital in agriculture ? why not lay it out in improv- ing the land?" "Look," said they, "at us, see our chimneys lose themselves in the clouds; our calicoes are measured by the mile ; what have you done ?" Mr. Jonas had given them their answer (cheers). This was their answer, not that the agriculturists of Eng- land feared to compete with the agriculturists of any other country on equal terms, but they said to the Leaguers, " We are the rule, as you are the exception, and the miracles and marvels of the steam-engine cannot apply to us; if, therefore, the contemplation of your mechanical miracles so narrows your minds that you feel yourselves compelled to apply to agri- culture rules which can only apply to machinery, we disclaim such bigotry, and wo fear much tliat, from the narrow spirit you evince, the monster machines liefore which you how down and worship, will, ere long, be in the hands of other nations, prove too powerful even for yonr own welfare {hear, hear). Why do not agricul- turists improve the land ? Why with pleasant consis- tency did that question come from those whose whole eflbrts were directed to the two ol)jects of diminishing the means of the agricultural body, whilst at the same time they increased their expenses (hear, hear )'f They all knew very well, for they had read in a hook, the truth of which they all believed in, that a longtime ago, when the straw was taken from the Israelites, their Kgyptian task masters thought it very hard that the tale of bricks should be diminished, but these mo- dem Pharaohs of the League surjuissed even their Egyptian predecessors, for whilst tliey gave the agri- culturists less straw, tiiey found fault with them for not making more bricks {laughter and cheers). ^Vhy, it was said, did they not invest tlieir capital in land ? Why, tliey had all heard what Mr. .lonas had said. That gentleman, in a fair and jnanly way, had clial- Icnged contradiction. He had fold them, iiiid as ])rac- tical men they knew it to be true, tliat a lartje amnnnt of money had been laid out in tlie improvement of the lanrl of fhig country, nnd that Immense improvements were going on at that moment, but he had also told them that as men of business those who thus invested their capital would look either for a large ultimate return, or forsmaller, but sure andquickreturnsf/feflr); Now, as for getting large returns, were not the jiresent prices ameremockery of such a notion(/oMut at such a meeting as the present, surrounded as I am by an im- mense i»ody of farmers, I feel that the toast will lie re- ceived witii acclamation and applause. (Cheers.) It is, gentlemen, a source of jiride and an hoiinur to my- self to be permitted to rise on tiiis occasion to propose the health of one who, as president of this society, lias won the Iiighest opinion and earned the deep gratitude of the farmers of the United Kingdom. My Lord Duke, you have laiioured long anigh-bred mare cannot Ije used so soon after foaling, unless for the purpose of merely carrying the farmer over his ground, as all quick work would Ite likely to injure the secretion of milk, and should consequently be avoided. Gentle harness-work, however, of a light descri]3ti(m, will not hurt her ; but she must not be coupled with slower horses, or allowed to do too much of the work herself. There is one great advantage gained by early accustoming lirood-mares to do a little work accomj)anied by their foals, \\hich is that the latter very speedily l)e- come familiar with man, and are soon rendered do- cile and tractable by being constantly handled, and therefore seldom j)rove troublesome to Ijreak in. AVitli these few remarks I shall close the subject of breeding, and ])roceed to the consideration of the management and feeding of horses on a farm. Although A\ell aware that there are many points connected v/ith the propagation of the best species of horses of every breed, which might be dwelt upon at much greater length, the main object I have in \'iew is not to fetter down the intelligent farmer by absolute rules, which cannot be a])plica- ble to every case, but to give him an insight into those ])oints ofthehoi'se and those principles of breeding, a due attention to which cannot fail to ensure a projjortionate degree of improvement in his stock. Before, however, I entirely dismiss the sulyect of breeding tlie horse for heavy draught, thei'e is one point to which I should wish to draw attention, since I believe it is one which for some years past has tended not a little to reduce the supe- riority of our breed of cart-horses, and has more- over been lauded l)y some A'eterinary ])ractitioners, receiving from them that degree of authority which sanctions the farmer in continuing a practice not altogether, in my opinion, to l^e recommended. I alhule to crossing our breed of cart-mares with the cum])ersome, ill-proportioned, and slow Fle- mish stalhons that are yearly imported into this country, and the best of which may 1)e seen peram- bulating the streets of London in the drays of certain brewers, who approve of their general ap- pearance. I have many times noticed these horses, and can safely a\'er, not only that I never yet saw a really well-formed one, but that they are decidedly the A'ery -worst ])reed of draught-horses I ever lieheld. 1 never yet saw one whose feet were not flat, and whose fore-legs, below the knee, were not of the worst description, the tendons at the back of the joint tied in, and the whole shank utterly disproportioned to the Inilk of the horse. Indeed, there is scarcely one in twenty whose legs can do much more tlian support his unwieldy carcass; and were it not for the large crests and heavy necks of these horses — points which some people imagine confer a stately appearance on them — there would be very fe^' imported into this country. However, as many farmers are induced to make use of the first showy-looking stalhon that is ])rought to them, I would warn them against ])utting any of their mares to these brutes. Few people can mistake the breed when they ha^e once noticed it, and lest they should never ha^'e met with it, a Flemish stal- lion may ])e recognized by being mare-headed — heavy to excess in the neck and crest — flat-sided, and weak in the loins, cpiarters, and legs. With all these defects, or most of them, his long mane, his bulk (for he is prone to fatten), and his tout en- semble, ciJiqiled witli a few flaunting ribbons about THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2G7 the head, and a be preferred to the pondenms, inactive speci iiifus that I have seen of the Flemish breed (To be coiitiiiuedj THE GRAPE-VINE FOR DOMESTIC VINTAGE. liv J. TowEKS, Memb. of the Lon. IIokt. Soc. Experience has now taught us that the vine, as a fruit-tree, has, even on most favourable aspects, failed to iiring its crop to anything like jierfection of maturity since 183.5. During that beautiful, of his vines by constructing compartments for each warm summer, so consistently genial, the clusters plant, of bricks cemented together, with a flooring on south and south-liy-east walls were finely tinted, of the same material, so as to prevent the yoota duly prepared ; and herein the chief jioints to be attended to are the permanent fruitfulness of the tree, and the rich saccharine quality of the ripe fruit, for these cpialities are ot far more consequence than strong luxuriance of growth and berries of large dimensions. The entire bonier, therefore, should consist of materials which closely represent those that pro- duce the best wine-fruit in the countries fertile in vineyards ; and I shall now cite the directions of Mr. Clement I loare in proof of that gentleman's belief in the jirincijjles now advocated ; to these I will add a few remarks, in order to elucidate the practice adopted by him. Mr. Hoare curtails the space allotted to the roots the berries amply swelled, and the juice became luscious by the middle of Sejitember. I then made several dozens of wine from one tree, which, as to quality, would have improved during seven years, and kept good for twenty. I had also jilenty of fruit remaining for the use of the table till Christ- mas. Sulisequently, although in 1S3G, 1842, and in the last year, 1844, we had pretty good fruit, yet there were always contingencies and defects ; and I ha\'e ever remarked that if July has low temperature, accompanied with cold gloom as well as the usual showers of the season, the remaining months, however sunny (as, for instance, in 1843, even to Get. 1), will fail to redeem the loss of time. The grapes do not tnrn oft' till October; then the cold dews and hoar frosts come on, and the clus- ters being assailed during sunshine l)y large flies, l»ecomc tla\-ourless and mouldy. As, therefore, it is unreasonalde to anticijjate a good fniit season abo\e twice in ten years, it should seem a desirable oflice of sound domestic economy to convert the fruit of that truly grateful tree, the vine, into wine ; and that too of a (juality not much, if at all inferior to many wines of the Rhine, and at a cost so very moderate as e\-en to jirove anything but a recom- mendation to the wealthy purchasers of Johanis- berg. Hock, and Sauteivne. 1 do not now jiropose to speak of the vintage ; from wandering beyond them. These are fdled entirely with ecpial portions of broken bricks, char- coal, lumps of mortar, and bones, well mingled ; the three former in fragments generally about the size of a hen's egg, and well soaked in liquid manure for some time ])revious to use. Smaller or larger i)ieces may be added ; this should be in some measure regulated by tlie size of the coin- ])artment, and it is necessary that the whole be placed \ery compactly together; these compart- ments are finally covered up witli bricks as before, set in cement, \vith the exception of a space where they are left loose, for the insertion of the vine and the admission of liquids. The rich Frow/Zc/^r/c wines of Fiance, particularly those of Cette, in"the south, are produced by vines growing in the fissures of rocks. Now, it is impos- sible more closely to imitate these rocks than by introducing jdenty of brick-bats, lime core, old lumpy mortar, and fragments of lime-stone ; all of these absorb and retain moisture, Avliile they suft'er wet to jiass clear olf. The lime fragments are likewise slightly soluble, sufticiently so to furnish that minute portion of calcarious matter which the sap of the vine exhibits when the tree "bleeds" before the expansion of the leaves. By immersion of the brick-bats, &c., into licjuid manure — and of this none appears more favouralile than cow-wash. lliul belongs to Se])teniber and October; but in | caught in tlie cow-house, the ammonia of which ' has been fixed, or converted into sul]»hate, by a small (piantity of oil of vitriol, suflicient to keep down the ainmoniacal odour, witliout producing acidity— a store of decomposalde matters is laid up which the iilant can duly appropriate. Fnii/meiits of bones do not exist in native nick, but experience instructs that the fibrous roots of many jdants wander freely among them, laying their spongiohe in close contact with tlic lutilow and rough surfaces, to which they adhere with the ])ertinacity of a leach, absorbing juices duly ialioratod by vital agency. Mr. lloare's theory is built_ upon^ this the mean time referring to the faithful and philoso pliic treatise on wines liy the late Mr. Macculloch, 1 shall here confine myself to a few practical iiints upon the culture of three kinds of grajie u]ion the open wall, which, whether they ripen jiroperly or not, will i)n)duce excellent white, ami very fair re' week furnishes us n-ith fresh instances of the importance of tlie in- surance of cattle, and of the great benefits conferred on the general body of cattle ])roprietors by the " Farmers' and (Iraziers' Mutual Cattle Insurance Association." In addition to the numerous cases which we have from time to time recorded, of par- lies sa\-ed from serious loss, by the operations of this society, we may now mention that of Mr. Benjamin King, of Ipswich, whose valuable stock is insured in this oftice ; and one of whose cows died during last month of inflammation of the liver. The claim upon the association was £1G, which was immediately paid. Looking at daily facts such a these, taking into account the extent of mortality amongst cattle from accident and disease, and, abo\'e all, considering the rapid advance which the " epidemic" is making in various parts of the kingdom, extending its ravages through whole herds, is it not wonderful — is it not a s|)ecies of undefinalde infatuation, that so many still neglect to take advantage of the means held out to them by this society, to protect themselves against contin- gencies, and guard themselves from loss ? In Germany a fatal epidemic is making such ravages that the subject has been brought under the consideration of the Govern- ment, and fears are entertained that this disease, which ap])ears to be different in its character from tlie plcuro pneutnonia, and is known by the name of " contagious tyjihus fever," may be introduced amongst us by means of the frequent imjiortations of cattle into tliis kingdom from abroad. We trust that such fears will ]>rove groundless, but with such a prospect before them, in addition to the indigenous diseases from which they are already subject to such hea\y losses, the farmers of this country who do not take timely warning, and place themselves in a jiosition of comparative safety, l)y insuring their stock, can look for no symi)athy should disease })ro\ e fatal amongst them. Prevention is at all times easier than cure, and what is a more imjiortant consideration, it is cheaper. — Mark Lane Express. TITHE COMMUTATION. TO tht: kditor of the morning chronicle. Sir, — As some of the London papers have copied from the Esxex Standard an erroneous account of the averages to Christmas last, and of the rent charge pay- able for the ])rescnt year, I beg to send you the following abstract from the Annual Supplement to the Tithe Commutation Tables, which will be published in a few days. I am. Sir, your most obedient servant, ChaRLKS ^L WlLLlCH. 25, Suffolk-street, Pall-mall, Jan. U. AVKRAGK PRICES FOR SEVEN VEARS. c-l S.-I u _i Viiliit of I'er London - = >.^ &3 Tillip Rent tiuzctte. «B o^a tf) 3 Cli.irKe of 1 i Si 'H .£100. ts e c: s s. A. To Oil S. <1. 8. d. £ s. d. Christmas IS:).'. 9llir)(cl8.3(i 7 04 3 11^ i 0 lUO 0 0 18S6,l-1rli.InnlS.37 i; sLi Hi •2 I) 98 13 OJ 1837 lilli .. 1S3M 0 04 3 \\\-i 8,^ 07 7 11 18.Ss' -Itli .. isaii (5 0|3 1) i S '1 0 3 llj i V\ 05 7 11 lS:)i) 3ra .. 1840 l'8 l.-i Oj 184(1 8lh .. 1841 0 11 j 4 1 l \M 7 3J4 2 J \\\ 102 M t> 1841 "til .. l'-4V lO.'i 8 2 1S4-2 C'ii .. 184:J 7 7| 4 11 J lO.J ; 7j4 o\.i nj loa \i 2 J8i;) Ml .. 1844 10 » 3 .V 1844 MrU .. 1849 7 7 14 Jj 8 0 1(3 17 11 ; 272 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. The Council resumed its sittings after the Christmas recess on the 5th Feh., when a monthly meeting was held, present, His Grace the Duke of Richmond, KG., President, in the chair. Earl of Hardwicke, Viscount Hill, Hon. Robert H. Clive, j\I.P., Thomas Alcock, Esq., R. W. Baker, Esq., Thos. Raymond Barker, Esq., Samuel Bennett, Esq., W. R. Browne, Esq., French Burke, Esq., Colonel Challoner, F. C. Cherry, Esq., John Walbank Childers, Esq., M.P., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., E. Brandreth Gibbs, Esq., W. G. Hayter, Esq., M.P., W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq., John Hudson, Esq., Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., INLP., John Kinder, Esq., Fielder King, Esq., William Miles, Esq., M.P., Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., Francis Pym, Esq., James Allen Ransome, Esq., Professor Se well, Professor Solly, WilUam Shaw, Esq., J. Villiers Shellev, Esq., W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., and Henry" Wilson, Esq. Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance Committee, presented to the Council the Re- port of the Committee on the state of the funds of the Society; from which it a; peared, that on the last day of the month just ended, the amount of permanent capital invested in the names of the Trustees of the Society was 7,700/., and the current cash-balance in the hands of the Bankers 2,014/. Local Societies. — The President called the attention of the Council to the suggestion made by Sir Harry Verney, Bart., at the last December General Meeting, in reference to the formation of a connexion between the Royal Agricultural Society of England and the various Local Societies distributed throughout the kingdom ; when it was resolved — " That it did not appear desirable that the Royal Agricultural Society of England should take the lead in asking other societies to be joined with it." Shreiusbury Meeting On the motion of Mr. Ben- nett, seconded by Mr. Fisher Hobbs, it was resolved — ' ' That one herdsman or shepherd shall be present in the show-yard, having care of the stock of each exhibitor, except durmg the time the Judges are making their award ; providing they have a ticket with their name thereon." On the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, it was resolved — " That the appoi'tionment of the Prizes for Implements be postponed to the next Monthly Council, on the 5th of March, and that special notice to that effect be given by letter to each Member of the Council." Mr. Fisher Hobbs gave notice, that he should move at the next Monthly Council — "That the Judges for Implements be appointed in the same manner as the Judges for Stoek." Mr. Ransome gave notice that he should move at the next Monthly Council — " The consideration of the pro- priety of deferring the award upon the Implements specified on the vSociety's Prize Sheet, until some period after the Annual IMeeting ; in order to afford time for fuller trial under greater variety of circumstances and locality than is attainable under the circumstances of confining the trials which determine the award to the two days before the ^Meeting." Ashes of Plants. — The communications of the Mar- quis of Northampton, Sir John Johnstone, Bart., Pro- fessor Phillips, and Dr. Lyon Playfair, in reference to a suggestion from the Chemical .Section of the British Association at their Annual Meeting, held last year at York, that analysis of the Ashes of Plants, grown under various circumstances of locaUty and soil, should be undertaken by Professor Graham, who had offered his services gratuitously for the superintendence of their execution by his pupils in the Laboratory of University- College, Loudon, having been read, it was moved by Sir John Johnstone, seconded by Mr. Pusey, and carried unanimously — " That the sum of 350/. be devoted to that important object, and tliat Sir John Johnstone, Mr. Pusey, and Mr. Miles, be requested to form a com- mittee for the purpose of carrying out the views of the Council, and communicating with Professor Graham on the subject. Epidemic among Stock. — A letter having been read from the Rev. H. Dampier Phelps, of Suodland Rec- tory, near Maidstone, Kent, suggesting "That the Society might do a most essential service to the country, by procuring an order in council proliibiting the im- portation of any live beast from Holland or the north, as long as the infectious malady they now have amongst their horned-cattle exists' ' — it was resolved by the Coun- cil that their thanks should be given to the Rev. Mr, Phelps for this communication, and that His Grace the Duke of Richmond, as the President of the Society, should be requested to enter into communication with Her Majesty's Government in reference to this subject. Letters were read from Mr. Gordon, Mr. Evan David, M. Pulini, Mr. Wright, Mr. Stant, Mr. Pannell, Mr. Bullen, and Messrs. Cottam and Hallen ; when the numerous communications on topics referring to the dis- cussions of the weekly Councils were reserved for that purpose, and the Council adjourned to Wednesday, the 12th of February. A weekly Council was held at the Society's house in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 12th of Feb., present the Hon. Robert Henry Clive, M.P., hi the chair, David Barclay, Esq., jNI.P., Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., W. R. Browne, Esq., French Burke, Esq., Dr. Calvert, F. C. Cherry, Esq., Brandreth Gibbs, Esq., Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P,, WilHam Miles, Esq., M.P., A. Ogilvie, Esq., Rev. Richard Parker, Josiah Parkes, Esq., CE., John Scales, Esq., Professor Sewell, W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., W. Bruce Stopford, Esq., and J. L. White, Esq. Tussac Grass. — The INIarquis of Downshire com- municated the following result of Mr. Blacker's attempt to introduce the cultivation of the Tussac grass into Ireland : — " Armagh, Jan. 14, 1845. " I think it will be interesting to your lordship, and perhaps to others interested in such matters, to know that I have succeeded in getting about eighteen or twenty plants of the Tussac grass from a very small quantity of the seed given me by the Royal Agricultural Improve- ment Society of Ireland. One might perhaps be de- ceived in regard to the plant, as its appearance is not known ; but, having given a few seeds to different gardeners, and the same plant having made its appear- ance in each case, I think it may confidently be con- sidered to have been produced from the seed. I am not botanist enough to describe it accurately, but it seems to me to divide in the stem something like the grass commonly called Spritt ; but when the leaves part, they seem inclined to grow long, narrow, and pointed, in some degree resembling the leaves of a pink, but in miniature, for none of the plants are above an inch high. Having only ventured a few seeds at the late season I sowed them, I am in hopes to have great success with the remainder, " William Blacker." Mr. B. Gibbs presented, on the part of Messrs, Thomas Gibbs and Co., the seedsmen to the Society, two specimens of Tussac grass they had themselves imported from the Falkland Islands. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •273 Sheep Hurdles. — Mr. Gleucioss, of liU.\stowe, near Liskeard, in Cornwall, transmitted to the Society specimens of the Luxstowe self-supporting hurdle, made of wood and strained wire, and wliich he described as cheap, simple, and convenient, uniting the advantages of great durability with saving of time and labour. Hurdles of this construction, sLx feet long and three feet sL\ inches high, might be made at 2s. 6d. or (if near to wood-works) at 2s. each. The Chairman, at the recpiest of the Council, ex- pressed his willingness to present to the Society a specimen of fence and crib hurdle he had seen, made of withy, and so simple in its construction that any carpenter with a gouge, a hammer, and a few nails could at once prejjare it. Heath Lands. — Mr. OrnisbyGore, M.P.,of Porking- ton Hall, near Oswestry, Salop, communicated to the Council the following statement of the process he had adopted in the winter of 181G-17, to bring his heath lands in that county into cultivation : — " Porkinglon, Jan. 26, 1845. " From the scarcity of employment, the labouring population (more especially from Ireland) were driven to beg through the land. ISIany parties of them, in- creasing in number as the season advanced, daily apj)lied at my residence. I soon discovered I was subject to considerable imposition, which determined me on apply- ing a test. Witli this intention I set out (in adilition to other works) a portion of mountain-land, which yielded me, with the remainder of the hill, a rent of about Gd. per acre, used for the depasturing young stock in the summer. M'henever able-bodied men applied for relief, on the pleaof want of employment, I offered them this resource : thus those who were industrious earned a livelihood, whilst the idle (unless incapacitated by illness or accident) were sent away unrelieved. The re- sult was as follows, taken from my book of daily and weekly payments, commencing Dec. 2, 1816 : — " Expenditure. £ s. d. Ditching, 110 roods at Is. lOd 10 6 3 Clearing heather and gorse, 832 roods at 3Ad. 12 2 8 Stocking the same, 15 inches deep, at 7d. 21 5 4 Stocking 122^ roods at lOd 5 12 3^ Stocking 581 roods at 8d 1 l'> 0 Clearing and stocking G 7 roods at lO^d. .. 2 18 1\ Draining 158 roods in length, at Is. 4d. .. 10 10 8 Day-work, 181^ days at Is. 4d 12 2 0 Lime, 120 bushels per acre 43 10 0 Carriage of ditto 10 17 0 15 acres, being nearly 9/. per acre .. 131 4 4 " N.B. — Tlie rate of wages was calculated 2d. per day under the rate of my regular workmen ; which would have added about ten per cent, per acre. " Residl. Was a wet saason, and the work not having been completed until late, the oats (although a thick crop) never filled well. However, a neighbouring farmer offered 1/. Is. per acre for it, and to him 1 let it. He sowed oats. Produce 20 bush, per acre. Oats and clover. Oats 25 bush, per acre. Grazed it. Manured in 1822 (the best portion of the field with farm-yard muck — this was a loam), and sowed wheat. The remainder, thin, stony soil, sowed with oats. Tiie wheat aheavy crop, the oats light. t\. very heavy crop of potatoes oH' the best side of the tield, and moderate turnips off the remainder. i8i; 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1821 " The tenant continued to hold the land at the same rent till 1834, when he applied for an abatement of four shillings an acre ; at which rent he bus held it ever since. " I have also been furnished with the following report from a tenant who has commenced reclaiming some mountain-land which he holds under me in Denbigh- shire, near Llangollen. He commenced operations in the autumn of 1813, \\\m\\ 17 acres of dry, heatliy land, with a few fern plants scattered through it, and stony. The produce of the first year, it will be seen, was 340 bushels. Report. — " ' Expenses incurred in tlic cultivation of 1 7 acres of common land in the township of Trevorucha, in the parish of Llangollen, county of Denbigh, in the year 184 I. — About nine acres of the above land is of a black, turfy nature, and the other ciglit acres gravelly. The surface being nearly covered with tumblers of stones, several hundred loads of which having been removed some distance of!', and a large portion thereof having been conveyed to a certain spot, which still remain to be cleared off. The following is a statement of the ex- penses : — " ' GO days' work in raising the stones ready X' s. d. for carriage at Is. 8d. per day 5 0 0 25 days for a team of two horses in clearing the stones, at 7s. per day 8 15 0 17 acres of push-ploughing and burning, at 20s 17 0 0 68 loads of lime, at 5s 17 0 0 Carriage of G8 loads of lime, at 3s 10 4 0 Ploughing 17 acres, at 10s... 8 10 0 Harrowing ditto, at 2s ... 114 0 Rolling ditto, at Is 0 17 0 Seed, G8 bushels of oats, at 3s. 3d 11 1 U Rental, 17 acres, at 2s 1 14 0 Total 81 15 0 Produce of 17 acres, 340 bushels, at 3s. . 51 0 0 30 15 0' " My tenant adds : ' In regard to the cost of lime per load, I beg to state, that we have the opportunity of making our own lime, otherwise it would have amounted to a considerably larger sum.' " Wm. Ormsry Gore.'' Fork Husbandry. — Mr. Henry Dixon, of Witham, in Essex, favoured the council with the following commu- nication in reference to the employment of agricultural digging forks :— "Witham, Dec. 12, 1844. " My experience in the use of agricultural forks, which are very much used here, leads me to believe that, if the apj)lication of this implement was more generally known, it would become extensively and jnofilably ap- plied to agricultural purposes; and, as it is a substitu- tion of horse-labour for that of man, it is of no common importance. I am indebted to Mr. Mitchell, of Wymondham, for its introduction here ; and Inst year as well ns this fifty or sixty of our men have been engaged in the work who otherwise would have been for the major part unemployed. The foi'k 1 send you is intended for the first operation upon the soil : for subsequent forking and for seeding the land they may be made lighter and shorter, and used with a propor- tionate diminution of expense. We use it in two ways (thinking it necessary to preserve the cultivated soil uppermost). Take a wheat stubble, for example : the plough opens the furrow, and the Corker follows ; and when he has forked up the subsoil (turning it over as in spade work), the ])lough succeeds and covers it over — succeeded as begun by the forker. Tlie depth wc re- quire under the furrow-slice is from ten to twelve inches. About 9i.\teen men are required to keep a 274 THE FARMER'S MAtJAZINE. plough in constant use ; and tliey will ibik an acre per diem, if it be a tolerably free soil. We give the men from 2Ul. to 3d. per rod for this work. I have this year practised another jjian, which I very much prefer, as any number of men may be kept at work without any inconvenience as to the plough. Take the example of my field wheat-stubble, five acres. I had the Innd ])loughed tolerably deep into ridges (two furrow-slices meeting each other) about twenty-four inches wide. 1 set foiu- men to work in this field, to fork the furrow- opened by the plough, and then the plough followed, splitting the ridge, which left the remaining portion ready for the completion of the work. 1 had not quite finished this field when the frost set in, and suspended the work. This method is equally efficient with the former, and the labour is easier to the workmen. These four yo«/?(7 men will earn 12s. per week, at 2.\d. per rod. This labour is severe, and requires strong young men. It may be necessary m all cases to open the soil by the plough ; for, if the staple be good, to the depth of the fork, it may be done from the surface ; at all events, a second forking will require no plough. It is not necessary for me to trouble you with the theory which indicates the advantage of deepening soils, nor to state that the land must first (where required) be properly underdrained, as these matters are sufficiently obvious. Our experience during the last four or five years has fully tested the value of the process, especially upon thin soils, resting upon a hard gravel pan ; but j)erhaps not more so than upon one of good deep rich staple, although they were productive before. We commonly begin this character of cultivation for carrots, turnips, or other root-crops. In the late dry summer, the carrot and turnip crops by Mr. Hutley and Mr. Beadel, of this place, were doubly remunerative for the extra expence. To return to the 5 acres of ray own. The method of farming which I intend to follow is — to harrow down the ridges, use the cultivator to move the soil, and in no way again to use the plough, except to form ridges and cover in manure for Mangel Wurtzel, Swedes, or Pota- toes, as the case may be. The root crop will be followed by Wheat. For Wheat I shall probably not plouffh the land at all. Our smiths make these forks for -Is. Gd. to 5s. each, and they may be made by any w-orkman, having a specimen before him. Should, however, any doubt occur, I shall readily attend to the inquiries of any of our ^Members who may wish to apply to me on the subject. " Henry Dixon." Mr. Westbrook Baker, of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, also presented a Fork to the Society, along with the following communication : — " Cottesmore, near Oakham, Feb. 10, 1845. " In many districts the agricultural labourer has difficulty in finding employment, therefore it is advisable to attempt many experiments, with a view to ascertain how far that object can be accomplished ; and I am of opinion that in some cases digging with a proper tool can be brought into use so as to afford profitable em- ployment. The fork sent to the ."^ociety has been ap- proved of for this purpose ; and I subjoin the terms of a premium offered in the bill of our Cottesmore Plough- ing Meeting, namely — ' A Premium cf 5 sovereigns will be given for the most approved statement on the com- parative merits between ploughing and digging. Ex- periments to extend over not less than 4 acres of land ; 2 acres to be dug, and 2 ploughed ; competitors being expected to state full particulars as to their mode and cost of management throughout, together with the na- ture, quantity, and relative value of their crops, and the description of soil.' " Ric}i.\RD Wksthrook B.^kkr." Mr. Dixon's fork was found to weigh Slbs. 2oz., and Mr. Baker's 91bs. I\Ir. Parkks, the consulti?ig engineer to the Society, favoured the Council with the following observations in reference to the operation of the sub -pulverizer as an implement of tillage. Mr. Parkes concurred with several of the members present in their opinion that the forks exhibited were very heavy, and would require a very strong man to use them ; he observed, however, that the o])eration described was one that demanded the use of a strong tocl. It appeared to hrm that the cost of the work, as stated by Mr. Dixon, was fully double that eflected by the sub- pulverizer of Mr. Read, of No. 35, Regent Circus, Piccadilly, to which a prire had been awarded at the Southamj)ton Meeting ; a decision in favour of that efiective implement which had been amply confirmed and justified by subsequent experience. From what he had himself witnessed and heard from farmers who had used it, he considered the quality of the work done by this implement to be fully equal to forking. It was, he observed, so handy and manageable as scarcely to require holding or guiding ; and he had recently been informed by a farmer, that he had found three horses, drawing in line, quite able to follow the Kentish turnwrest plough with this implement, sub- working each furrow sLx or eight inches deep (after draining), and comj)leting an acre per diem. The same party had stated to him that far more harm than good would have been done to his land (the Wealden clay) by the trampling of the six horses on it, which would be necessary to drag the common subsoil ))lough. Mr. Read's jilough so effectually shivered and lightened up the subsoil as to elevate the furrow-bottom from three to four inches ; so that when the next slice of eight inches deep was laid upon it, in the manner peculiar to the Kentish plough, the whole bed lay light and open to atmospheric influence, and without the impress of a horse's foot upon it. While another gentleman, who had extensively used the implement in a compact gravelly subsoil, using four horses in line to avoid surface-poach- ing, also expressed his entire satisfaction with its per- foimance. Mr. Parkes further stated, that in order to obviate the evil arising from the treading of a power, ful team of horses in subsoiling clays, and to obtain more complete pulverization than is eflected by the common subsoil plough, a friendof his, the mauagerof a large estate in Scotland, near Hamilton, informed him that the prac- tice was in vogue there of digging with the spade 10 inches deep ; then following with forks of 14 inches length of tines. The top-soil was kept uppermost, the forks merely loosening and breaking up the subsoil. The cost was stated to be 41. per Scotch, or 3/. Cs. 8d. per statute acre. It appeared that Mr. Dixon's plan of forking the furrow after the plough, required " IG men in a tolerably free soil to keep the plough going, and do an acre per diem," the cost of which was at least 32s. per acre. This plan was therefore cheaper than the foregoing, but not nearly so cheap as by using INIr. Read's implement, which enabled the agriculturist to avail himself of horses' pow-er, and without injury from their tread in plastic soils. Mr. Miles, M.P., confirmed Mr. Parkes's statement of the easy manageableness of Mr. Read's implement, from his own use of it. The only difficulty he had found was to prevent the ploughman from weighing on the handles, and to induce him to leave it alone. Being car- ried on 4 wheels, it was subject to very trifling irregu- larity of action, and but little guidance was required. The Chairman observed, that in order to use the common subsoil jilough on his land, he had been obliged to apply a pair of wheels to the beam-end, as described in the Journal of the Society. This he found iu some tim FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 'J75 measure remedied the defects of that implement, and I plants, that are, I believe, almost unknown to the enabled him to use it. I world at large ; and, amongst others, the Grass that Drain-/et:el. — INIr. S. II. C. Payne, of Llanelly ' stands highest in the estimation of the natives, and House, Carmarthcnsliire, transmitted to the Council a which, from my own experience, I liave observed to be drawing and descrijition of his new drain-lcvt-l, wliicli | most palatable to the different animals, at the same time e.xcited much interest among the members present. Mr. ] evincing the most nourishing cpialities, is that which the I'arkes, on examining the sketch, and ascertaining the j ^lexicans liave named IMuscjuite Grass. There are said j)rinciples on which Mr. Payne had been led to tlie con- to be three descriptions of Musquite Grass, of whicli struction of his level, thought it one of the best designed only two have come u)ider my notice ; the one is of a instruments of the kind he had seen for putting into a diminutive and silky nature, and the other of a more drainer's hands : he attributed, however, but little practical value to such instruments, excejiting under very peculiar and rarely occurring circiunstances. lie had always found that a good workman, with a good eye in his head, had no need of a level when the work was set out for him. The Council ordered thanks for the various commu- nications laid before them, and adjourned to Wednesday the 19th instant. A weekly council was held at the Society's house in llanover-square, on Wednesday, the 19th of Feb- ruary; present: T. R. Barker, Esq., in the chair ; the Hon. Robert H. Clive, M.P. ; T. Alcock, Esq. ; T. W. Bramston, Esq., M.P. ; F. IJurke, Esq. ; E. Buller, Esq., M.P. ; Dr. Calvert; F. C. Cherry, Esq.; H. Colman, Esq. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; Brandreth Gibbs, Esq.; J. H. Grieve, Esq.; Col. Hall; E. Holland, Esq.; A. Ogilvie, Esq.; E. Parkins, Esq.; II. Price, Esq.; Prof. Sewell ; T. Tweed, Esq.; and G. Wilbra- ham, Esq., M.P. Epidemic among CalUe. — The Duke of Richmond transmitted to the Council the t'oll.)wing reply, received by his Grace from the Board of Trade, in reference to tlie application he had made, as President of the So- ciety, to II. M.'s Government, in pursuance of the re- solution of the Council at their last monthly meeting on the 5th of February : — " Office of Committee of Privy Council for " Trade, Whitehall, 1 1th Feb., 1845. "My Lord Duke, — The Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade have had under their considera- tion your Grace's letter of the 7th instant, requesting, as President of the Royal Agricultural Society, that measures may be taken to prevent the im})ortation of cattle infected with a certain epidemic disease now raging among cattle on the Continent ; and I am directed to acquaint you that the subject on which your Grace has addressed my I;ords is under the consideration of Her Majesty's Government, and that my Lords will com- municate to tiie Royal Agricultural Society any infor- mation which may reach them in reply to the instruc- tions which have been sent to Her Majesty's Ministers at several foreign courts. " I have the honour to be, my Lord Duke, " Your Grace's obedient servant, " (Signed) John LkfI'-VRE. " To his Grace the Duke of Richmond, " K.G., &c." Texan Grouses. — Mr. J. H. Grieve favoured the Council with the following communication : — "3, Kinjr's-road, Feb, 18, 1845. " Having observed in the Report of the proceedings of the C'ouncil, at its last meeting, a notice on the sub- ject of the Tussac Grass, I thought it might not be un- iuterestiu'? for yon to know, that in my late rambles in Texas I frequt'ntly nut with a sjiecics of (Jrass strongly resembling the specimens of Tussac fJrass hiid before th(; Council on that occasion. The (Jrass to which 1 allude si'emcd to confine itself to low swamjjy s])()ts, and where the soil was evidently impregnated with salt. Texas contains a variety of Grasses, us well as other vigorous, but at the same time of a coarse growth. The conformation of the seed of the first description offers an almost insurmountable obstacle to its ever becoming a cultivated plant. Its form is that of a cylinder, of about half an inch long, and ^'.^ of an inch in diameter, firmly adhering to an awn of nearly the same thickness, and of an incli in length, which is furnished at the end with three collateral awns or branches. This appendage being of a tough nature, it is easy to conceive the diffi- culty there would be in equally disentangling and dis- tributing so light a seed. The second or coarse Grass bears an Oat-shaped seed, containing a considerable por- tion of farinaceous matter, and is also furnished with a spiral awn, of a thick and fragile nature, and susceptible of being detached from the seed. This Grass grows with a thick sward, and rises to the height of about 2 feet. I observed some German emigrants cutting it for hay, which was of an excellent quality. So far as my ob- servation led me to judge, those Grasses are confined to a range of country in Western Texas, bounded on the east by the Guadaloupe river; but as this may be attributed to the fact that this district is of diluvial formation, it may be inferred that these Grasses abound in many parts of the interior of the country. In the extensive prairies where those Grasses are to be found, they almost ex- clude all other growth ; and the numbers of cattle and wild horses that range upon them, and their sleek skins and tine condition, bear ample testimony to the nutri- tive qualities of the pasture. It may also be observed, that even the deer were fatter, and offered a richer veni- son than those in the eastern districts of Texas. It will give me much pleasure if these remarks should give the Council satisfaction, and I shall at any time be happy to afford you any further information that may be in my power. (Signed) " J. H. Grieve." In reply to inquiries made of Mr. Grieve by the Chairman, after the reading of this communication, he stated, that tlie temperature of Texas ranged in winter from 35'"' to 5C of Fahrenheit, and in summer from 75'' to 95'^ ; that the soils of that country, on which the Grasses referred to were fouiul most luxuriant, were either a good black alluvial soil termed " mulatto," or the red-loam ; that the Grasses preferred low grounds of tracts of land at an elevation of 200 or 300 feet above the level of the sea ; and that a strong wind blew during the whole season from the south-west, across the coun- tries to which he had alluded. The CuAiiiMAN then returned to ^Ir. Grieve the best thanks of the Ct)uncil for the communications with whii;h he had favoured them, aiul for his kindness in attending the meeting of that day personally, for the purpose of affording any further intbrmation to the members. Sea-mud. — Captain F. D. Watkins, late of the Bom- bay Artillery, having communicated a paper to the Society, on the subject of sea-mud as a fertilizer, at the Southampton Meeting, tlu- considrratiou of which the pressure of bu.-iness at that ])eriod occasioned to be postponed, it was read to the Council -at the present meeting. " 37, Mnddov-strcct, .July 25, 18 1 1. — South- ampton is partially surroumled by the waters of the rivers Itchen and Andur, which uniting in one large sheet or expanse, rcsem'ding an immense inland lake, re The FARMER'S MAGAZINE. have received from the neighbouring town the name of the Southampton Water. At high tide, the eye is de- lighted by the beauty and variety of the surrounding scene ; when the tide is low, the eye of the spectator be- holds with disgust a vast surface of dark, filtliy mud. extending for miles in every direction, and exceedingly offensive to the sense of smelling, as the weather in- creases in heat. In the physical world, the things which most offend the senses are frequently the most beneficial and necessary for the use of man. In the cultivation of the soil, the farmer well knows that tlie more offensive the manure which he puts into the ground, the larger will be the produce of his crops. The sea-mud, which the tides leave daily in the inlets and estuaries, and tide- rivers of our sea-coast, is a vast deposit of native manure, inexhaustible in cjuantity, and containing all the elements of fertility, ready prepared by the chemistry of Nature, in the form best adapted for the use of man ; nothing is required but mere human labour to render the gift available to the cultivator of the land — labourers, spades, and carts will do the rest. Of all our southern counties Hampshire has been the most favoured in the abundance of tliis rich tidal deposit. The Southampton Water alone covers an area of nearly 20 square miles, and running inland in the direction of its narrowest part, nearly divides tliis fine county into two. Its flat sliores and numerous wharfs afford unequalled facility for carriage of the dry mud into the interior. Within a few miles of Southampton, we find the whole coast intersected by numerous creeks and inlets, communicating with the large harbours of Portsmouth and Emswovtli, each of which terminates in an extensive back-water, well fur- nished with jetties and landing-places, to which the farmer sends his produce from the interior, and from which he receives in return his annual supplies. The adjacent county of Sussex has an extent of sea-coast of seventy miles, divided into four parts by the rivers Arun, Addur, Ouse, and Cuckmere, whicli run througli the four valleys that separate the cliain of tlie Southdown Hills, namely, those of Arundel, Shoreham, Lewes, and Seaford. These rivers have wide estuaries, abounding in deposit of sea-mud, are navigable for many miles, and run through a long tract of alluvial land, extending the entire length between the South Downs and the sea. Mr. Marshall, in his work on the southern counties (vol. ii., p. 218), estimated the extent of tlie low and rich tract of land on the sea-coast of Sussex, between Emsworth and Brighton, at not less than 100 square miles. If we add, on one side, the much wider alluvial district extending from Emsworth to the town of Christchureh, in Hamp- shire, and, in the opposite direction, the low land be- tween Brighton and Seaford, we may calculate the area at another 100 square miles. Hence it appears, that in this long extent of sea-coast, between Christchureh and Seaford, there is avast area of 200 square miles of low and well-soiled land, which, by the easy and convenient water-carriage, and the great facility of land-carriage, may be enriched and pennancntly improved by the ap- plication of sea-sludge used as a manure. The warping of low flat lands, which can be flooded by high spring tides, is a description of improvement in agriculture the most certain and valuable. In carrying out this process on a large scale, the county of York has long since set an example to the whole kingdom. For many mUes of its course from York to Hull, the river Ouse on one side presents a continued line of embankment, pierced at in- tervals with cuts or openings, closed by strong flood- gates set in masonry. Through these, the rising tide flows over the flat land ; and having left its deposit of mud, the water flows out a^ i, at low-tide. The sea- coast of the southern count ; - , indented by numei'ous creeks and tide-ways, present facilities for warping to a vast extent. At Lewes, in bussex, the water of the ri- ver Ouse has been long used on a small scale to flood the pastures near the town. Bemg nearer to the chalk hills and to the sea, the sludge of this river is richer in salt and lime — two great elements of fertility — than the Yorkshire Ouse. Tlie late proprietor of Mailing Deanery, Lewes, by means of a cut and sluice in the river bank, was enabled to admit the tide-water into a reservoir within his grounds. The mud deposited by the retiring water was tiien collected on the sloping sides in order to dry. It was afterwards dropped small with spades, and carefully mixed with farm -yard dung. The dry mud cut stiff like marl, and required at least a year before it had become thoroughly rotted in the compost ; it was then put upon the land. The following is a state- ment of his crops : — 1st, Whe»t, 5 to G qrs. the acre; 2nd, Barley, 6 to 7 qrs. the acre, followed by a heavy green crop. The soil, a good loam upon chalk. The number of cart-loads of dressing per acre, not stated. Every farmer who is within five or six miles of a tide- way or creek, would do well to fetch the dry mud in carts ; he would find ui its use a powerful aid to his ma- nure, and a permanent benefit to his soil. (Signed) F. D. Watkins." The Council ordered their best thanks to be given to Captain Watkins for this communication. Potato Disease. — Mr. Colman, agricultural commis- sioner from the state of Massachusetts, favoured the Council with the following communication he had just received from the United States: — "Boston, Feb. 1, 1845. I believe I wrote to you that T had been makuig various experiments on the potato disease, chiefly under the microscope ; and that I had come to the conclusion that it was a fungus, resembUng smut on com ; and also that lime, common salt, and various other salts (as arse- niate of soda, &c.), were complete remedies ; and that T had agitated the subject here in various ways. This has produced much evidence confirming my conclusions ; such as, that in fields where potatoes were planted be- tween rows of Indian com (a common practice here), wherever there was smut on the corn, there the potatoes were diseased ; but in contiguous places, with the same seed potato, where there was no smut, there was no dis- ease. Instances of accidental application of salt for other purposes preventing the disease, when adjoining places without salt had it, are rather numerous ; and in one case, where a farmer had manured half his field with a compost containing much sea-weed, and had not enough to put on the other half, using therfore other manure, the half w-ith sea-weed was free from disease, while the other half had it badly. (Signed) J, E. Tes- CHKMACHER." The Committee return to Mr. Colman their best thanks for the favour of this commimication. Italian Rye-Grass. — Mr. Rodwell, of Alderton Hall, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, presented to the Council a specimen of the growth of his " brown," or dark- coloured Italian rye-grass, along with a bag containing lOlbs. of the seed, for distribution among such of the members present as felt an interest in the cultivation of that variety of the grass in question. Mr. Rodwell called the attention of the Council to the statement he had communicated in the Society's Journal (Vol. v. page 284), of the superiority of the dark over the light- coloured variety of Italian rye-grass. He had found, from the experience of every successive year, not only the usefulness and productive qualities of the Italian rye- grass in genei-al, beyond those of any other rye-grass with which he had been able to compare it ; but that, as a preparation for wheat or any other successive crop, its properties were not liable to the objections that had been so unjustly made against it. Hitherto, Mr. Rod- well observed, no other kind of Italian rye-grass had been considered genuine, but that which in its growth was pale-coloured, upright in its stem, and the produce i of seeds with long awns, or tails ; he was, however, ftir* THE FARMEirS MAGAZINE. 277 nished with indispvitable proofs that sucli characteristics I — that sow what quantity you will of the pale grass, you were not descriptive of the best kind of Italian rye- cannot get a good bottom without some of the brown grass. He had found, that the most productive and [ with it. There is sufficient evidence in our layers them- most nutritive plant was that which had a fibrous root, producing a dark-coloured, spreading stem, the result of seed which had a sliort awn, or tail. lie had arrived at that conviction from very close attention to the growth and application of the grass in question, during three years, and against his strong predilections, fostered as they Iiad been by the public taste, in favour of the light selves to confirm what I have said on the two points, namely, of the cattle eating them where wc have fed, and likewise of the beautiful bottom which the brown grass forms, botli where wc liavc fed and where we have not fed." The Council ordered their best thanks to be re- turned to ;Mr. Rodwcll for the letter, specimen, and sujiply with which he had favoured the Society. The coloured and long-awned variety, which had uniformly Council then adjourned to Wednesday next, the 2Gthof been considered the only genuine stock, and conse- February. quently the only marketable commodity in every seed-market in England. Having observed in the growth of his crop, reported in tlie Journal for 1811 (vol. ii. page 214), some plants that were, as he supposed, not NEW MEMBERS. Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, Bart., genuine, that is, not of the pale colour or producing seed | ^-^^.^,^ ^^.^,^,^_ .^_^^^ p^i^,^^,^^^ Milward, 1 with long awns, he determined upon a fresh importation of seed direct from Italy, and from this he had been enabled to test the properties of the two varieties, Ijoth of wliich he had since cultivated with great care and at- tention. He was fully convinced, from every compa- rison he had made, not only of the difl'erent kinds of plants in different fields, but of both kinds in the same fields, that the best grass, namely, that which is the most productive and the most nutritive for all cattle, is the plant which spreads upon the ground, is dark- colourcd, and the produce of seed with short awn or tail : a conclusion confirmed by testing the two varieties, botli in weight and bulk, and finding as a result, that the dark- coloured plants from the seed of the short- awned grass of \\'ynnstay, , of Thurgar- ton Priory, Southwell, Notts., were elected Governors, and the following gentlemen Members of the Society : — Ainslie, Wood Hill, Ripley, Surrey Anstruther, T. H. Lloyd, Hintlesham Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk Arnctt, Henry, Ifield, Crawley, Sussex Barton, Humfrey C, Hastings, Sussex Baugh, W. H., the Cottage, Overton, Flintshire Beck, Peter, Shrewsbury Beddoe, Thomas, Curdale, Cleobury Mortimer, Salop Benbow, .Tames, Sowdley Park, ^larkct Drayton, Salop Blacker Murray, Old Abbey House, Saxmundhani, Suffolk exceeded in both those points the pale-coloured plants by j Bodenham, Francis Lewis, Hereford more than 30 per cent. He had found, that whether intended as a biennial or perennial grass, the dark- coloured was much preferable to the pale-coloured va- riety— the former branching and becoming thicker, while the latter spindled up and became thinner in plant every Bourn, John, Hard-st., Neweastle-on-Tyne Bradshaw, John, Weasle House, Eccles, Manchester Broadmead, Nicholas, Langport, Somerset Bros, Thomas, 10, St. James's Place, London Burnham, William Booth, St. Alban's, Herts succeeding year. The following results were furnished Burton, Rev. H. T., Atcham Bridge, Shrewsbury to Mr. Rodwell by his farm-bailiff. He selected 10 plants or entire roots of each variety in each of two dif- ferent fields, and obtained by weight the following com- jiarison : — Ten plants of (liu yuli- grass (pulled and dirl l>eaten out or roots) Ti-n plants of Uic brown grass (do.) Pale grass (roots cut off J utt iibovc tjiound) . Bi-own grass (do.) .1st field. 2d field lbs. 0/.. 0 14 1 4 0 10 0 14 lbs. oz 1 8 2 0 1 1 1 7 llie BaililT (Mr. Scotchmer) remarks: " The pale grass is produced by the seed with a long tail : the seed of the brown gross has but a very short tail, and is much the heaviest seed. 1 did for some time advocate the pale grass, but I am brought by experience to become an advocate for the brown, which everything tells me is quite superior. First, I believe that 1 i)eck of the brown grass, sown on 1 acre, will produce a bottom equal to 3 pecks of tlie pale grass; secondly, in point of qua- lity, the cattle will soon decide that, for feed what kind of cattle you choose with it, they will very carefully select the brown from the pale, whether green or in hay : if in hay, the pale is so very coarse, that they will select the brown from it ; and if fed on the layer green, the pale is always the last that is eaten ; thirdly — and what I think is of great importance — I am persuaded the brown is the best preparation for wheat, on account of its not growing in .-uch large, rough, hollow bunches. Tlie pale, by growing all in bunches, never forms on the face of the land (what we call ) a tough flag ; while the Bythell, T. W., Shrewsbury Carter, Thomas Shaw, Watlington Park, Tetsworth, Oxon Conroy, Sir John, Bart., K.C.H., Arborfield Hall, Reading, Berks. Cornwallis, Earl of, Linton Place, Maidstone, Kent Cotton, W. A., Ellesmere, Salop Cranstow, Thomas, Upper Lyde, Hereford Croggon, Thomas J., 2, Ingram-court, Fenchureh-st., London I Croose, George, the Burcotts, Hereford j Damer, Hon. Dawson, M.P., Tilney-street, Mayfdir, I .ondou Davidson, fieorge, Pcnningtons-Priesl-Gatc, Darling- ton, Durham De Lisle and Dudley, Lord, Penshursl, Kent Dent, William, Brampton, Huntingdon Dickson, Robert, oM.D., 5, Curzou-street, London Dodds, Ralph, Newcastlc-on-Tyne, Northumberland Downing, John Cole, Leigh Hill, Earl Soham, Suflblk Evans, John, Mayor of Aberystwith, Cardiganshire Fenwick, Andrew Robert, Morpeth, Northumberland Fowler, Captain Robert Merrick, R.N., Walliscot House, Whitchurch, Reading, Berks Goodc, Edward, Aston Court, Tenbury, Wore. Gower, John Leveson, Bill Hill, Wokingham, Berks Mall, William, Ashton, Leominster, Hereford Hanmcr, Colonel, Bear I'lacc, Maidenhead, Berks Hart, Thomas Parker, Housham liall. Matching, Ilulow, Essex Hci.'y, Robert, Chichester, Sussex Hi'r;i.ison, ICdmund, Saltm.irsh, F?roniyard, Hen ford brown, on the contrarv, by spreading on the surface, I Hirst, Godfrey, Longdon Hall, Knowle. \\ arwit k.^hire forms a face equal, if not superior, to any grass I have ' Hnggup, James, Siiieldykes. Abiwick, Northumberland ever seen : and 1 quite believe— in fact, 1 am quite sure | Jackson, George Xaiighan, Carrumorc, Palhna, Ireland 273 fllE f^AI^iMER'S MAGAZINE. Guilsfield, Welshpool, HoUywick, Hartfield, Jeyes, J. \V., Uppingham, Rutland Jones, Edward, Church Court, Clement's Lane, London Langlands, Charles, Bewick, Alnwick, Northumberland Langford, George, Henfron, Newtown, Montgomeryshire Laycock, Joseph, Lintz Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne Lord, John, Standish Hall, Wigan, Lane. Lea, John, Ellesmere, Salop Luxmoore, Rev. C. T. C, Montgomeryshire Maitland, General Frederic, Sussex Mally, Thomas Watkins, Sutton Court, Hereford Marchant, George, Titsey Com-t, Godstone, Surrey Marsland, Rev. George, Beckingham Rectory, Newark, Notts Meredith, Lewis, Shrewsbury Middleton, Richard, Broomtiekl, Shrewsbury Morris, George Byng, Skitty Park, Swansea, Glamor- ganshire Moore, Rev. William, Brimpsfield, Cirencester, Glou- cester Moore, James, Shrewsbury Morland, William Courtenay, Pickhurst, Bromley, Kent Newman, John, Brandsfee House, High Wycombe, Bucks Nicholls, George, 17, Hyde Park Street, London Nightingale, John, Faceby Lodge, Stokesley, Yorkshire Parkinson, John, jun,, Hexgreave Park, Southwell, Notts. Parry, Evan, Cwmdei, Crickhowell, Brecon Payne, William, Willcott, Salop Pinkard, Thomas, Dderw House, Rhayadu, Radnor- sliire Pulini, Ilario (Civil Engineer and Director-general of Public Works to the Republic of Chili, 39, Brewer- st.. Golden-square, London. Reeve, J.Iajor-General, Leadenham, Grantham, Line. Relf, Samuel, Reigate, Surrey Roberts, William, Hemel Hempsted, Herts Savage, Thomas, Dunsley, Stourbridge, M^orc. Scott, George G., Edenham, Bourne, Lincolnshire Slaney, William Henry, Hatton Grange, Shiffnal, Salop Snowball, Joseph, Netherwitton, Morpeth, Northumber- land Spencer, John, Wrotham, Kent Stokes, Samuel Calcott, Kinton Hall, Chirbury, Salop Story, William, Shrewsbury Stuttield, William, Hildersham, Cambridge Thompson, James, Kirkhouse, Brampton, Cumberland Thornton, J. L., Market Rasen, Lincolnshire Toswill, James H., Pitt, Chudleigh, Devon Walker, George Puchard, Heathfield House Oxford Ward, John, 70, Bi.^hopsgate-street- Within, London AVarner, Frederick, 28, Cornhill, London Watson, AVilliam Conolly, 4, Albany-terrace, Regent's Park Weeks, Richard, Ryton, Newcastle-on-Tyne, North- umberland Weckes, Frederick, Hurst Pierrepoint, Brighton Wei's, Charles, Ware, Herts Wemyss, Major- General, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor Park Wilberforce, The Vea. Archdeacon, Alverstoke, Gos- port, Hants. Worthington, Archibald, Whitchurch, Salop Wright, Edmond, Udders, Wimborne, Dorset The Royal and Central Agricultural Society of France has offered a j)rize of 60/. for the best trea- tise on the ei)idemic diseases now affecting cattle on the Continent, FARMERS' CLUB-llOUSE. XEW BRIDGE-STREET, BLACKFRIARS, LONDOX. SUBJECTS FOR THE MONTH- LY DISCUSSIONS. ruorosED by MarcJi 3, 1845. — Architecture — On the Importance and Advantage of an Improved Style, as applied to Farm Buildings, both in con- venience and economy Mr. Wm. Cheffins. April 7. — Subsoil Ploughixg.. ..Mr. James Smith. May 5. — Hedge-row Timi!i:r — Disadvantages to Landlord and Tenant Mr. T. Knight. June 2. — Geology— As connected with Agriculture Mr. R. Baker. July 7. — Tenants' Rights — As be- tween Landlord and Tenant Mr. W. Shaw. POOR AND COUNTY RATES. A Return, moved for by Sir James Graham, to an order of the House of Commons, showing the total amount of money levied for poor-rate and county- rate in England and Wales, and the amount expended thereout for the relief and maintenance of the poor, for the years ended Lady-day, 1813 to 1844, both inclusive. Years ended Ladv-dar 1813 1814. ISl.-J. 181G. 1817. 1818. 1819. 1820. 3821. 1822. 1823. 1824. 1825. 1826. 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1834. 1835. 183G. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. Total Money Jeviedj ^^l'^"^';? ,"'f^°"t lor Poor-rates and \^{°' "« R'^'i'^f and Countv-rates. 5I'">"""=i"« "f "^e Poor. £ 8,646,841 8,388,974 7,457,676 6,937,425 8,128,418 9,320,440 8,932,185 3,719,655 8,411,893 7,761,441 6,898,153 6,8.36,505 6,072,323 6,065,051 7,784,352 7,715,055 7,642,171 8,111,422 8,279,218 8,622,920 8,606,501 8,338,079 7,373,807 6,354,538 5,294,566 5,186,389 5,613,938 6,014,605 6,351,828 6,552,890 7,085,595 6,848,717 Total ^'238,153,571 £ 6,656,106 6,294,581 5,418,846 5,724,839 6,910,925 7,870,801 7,516,704 7,330,254 6,059,251 6,358,704 5,772,962 5,736,900 5,786,980 5,928,502 6,441,088 6,298,000 6,332,410 6,829,042 6,798,889 7,036,969 6,790,800 6,317,255 5,526,418 4,717,630 4^044,741 4,123,604 4,406,907 4,576,065 4,760,029 4,911.498 5,208,027 4,982,096 ^,190,369,632 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 279 DISEASE AMONG HORSES. TO THE EDITOR. Sir, — I beg to request the insertion in your journal of a few remarlvs on the subject of a disease which is making ravages among horses. A neighbour of mine lost three of his horses last week by the malady, and has now three or fourali'ected by it. It has also ajjpeared in the stables of another neiglibour. The ignorance which ajjjiears to prevail of the disease, and conse- (juently of any efficient mode of cure, renders the sub- ject of medical treatment one of very serious import to the owners of those valuable animals. From the little 1 have seen of tiie disease, its distin- guishing feature ajijiears to be iniflammation somewliere, which, if not speedily checked by promj)! aiul active means, soon terminates fatally ; my neighbour's horses liaving died in from two to four days from the com- mencement of the attack. lam further confirmed in my opinion of the inllammatory nature of the disease, from two facts, viz., that some horses that were seized by it were early bled, and soon recovered; and those that died had not been bled at all. In making this communication, I am influenced only by a desire to excite the attention of those who are most interested and most competent to treat the matter pro- jierly. I cannot, however, conclude without a word or two on stable management. We all know that j)ure air is essential to the health of every animal ; and it is quite obvious that close, dirty, and ill-ventilated stables must be injurious to the health of tlie inmates. The filthy jiractice of heaping wet and foul litter under the manger, where it is all- day beating and fermenting, and, when scattered under the horse at night, sends out a most noxious vapour, cannot be too severely repro- bated. Medicus. Hoaton, Feb. 11, 1815. It mil be seen 1)y the rejiort of the })r()ceed- in£(s at the meeting of the Royal Agriciil- liu-al Society, on Wednesday, I'elj. 10, that a reply to th.c letter of his Grace the Duke of Richmond, on the subject of the cattle e])idemic, has ])een recei\ed by his (irace from the Hoard of Trade, in which it is stated that the sultject is under llie consideration of her Majesty's Government, and that any information w'nidi may Ije recei\'ed in rejjly to the instructions which have lieen sent to her Majesty's ministers at several foreign courts, will l)e communicated to the Royal Agricultural Society. We regret to state that diu-ing the jiast montli the losses Ijy the catth; epidemic liave l)een very hea\y in the comities of Cheshire, l)erl)yshire, and Staii'ordshire ; and that it has made its a])- pearance in Essex and in Ayrshire, thus showing that the north and soutli are ecjually exjjoscd to its visitations. The Agricidttu'al Socicl}' of Moscow has remitted to the Royal and (Central Agricultm-al Society of I'rance a smn of 45/., as a subscription to the mo- nument about to Ite erected to M. l)(milKisle, to wluuu agricidture in France is so much indebted. These Muscovites are setting the more civihzcd na- tions of Europe a good example. INFLLTCNZA AM()N(i IIOR.SE.'^.— An epidemic has heen, for the last two or three weeks, very i)revulent among horses. The leading symjitoms of tlie disorder are swelling and inflammation of the throat, discharge from the mucous membrane of the nose, and lassitude and want of strength. Messrs. Piokford, the carriers, have uj)wards of one hundred hor>es now suft'ering from this com})laint, and it is very jirevaUnt aud fatal amongst dray horses. The I'addington Omnibus Con- veyance Company have been great sufferers, having los-t nearly fifty horses within the last month, and they had no less tluui one hundred and hvc laid up at orie time. EPIDICMIC AMONG CATTLE.— (From a Cor- ie>poiident.) - The mortality which has for the last fort- night pervaded tiie various dairies throughout the me- tropolis and its en\ irons, assumes a very serious aspect ; and tlie Ios.ncs sustained in con.-equence thereof, by the different cowkeepers, has been very severe. A dairyman named Guyner, re.-iding in Cross-street, Hatton-garden, during the last week lost four milch cows out of his stock by the above incurable disease ; and during the past year his losses in cattle of a similar class, and of the same disease, amounted to no h'ss than thirty-four. These animals were jiurchased of country salesmen out of ."smithtieUl market, who brought their cattle priiici- jjally from the counties of Derby and \\'arwick. Mr. Guyner observes that when one cow becomes affected, the contagion spreads itself almost simultaneously throughout the whole dairy. Mr. Cox, Mr. Weaver, and other cowkeepers in Lambeth, have suffered very severely within the last fortnight, in consequence of this vaccine malady. A Mr. I'ope, an extensive and an old experienced farmer, living near ^Market Deeping, in the county of Lincoln, pronounces the disease under consi- deration no less than tlie natural cow-pox in its most virulent and frightful shajie. The whole system of the suffering beast, from the mouth to tlie very hoofs, is malignantly affected ; tlie latter ultimately droj) off, and the bones at the joints become rotten, the carcass of the beast after death ju'escnting to the eye one complete mass of corruption. Mr. Pope considers that cattle, wlien in health, if vaccinated with healthy " pus" might be benefited, if not etlectually secured, against the con- tagious infection of the disease in its natural form. This valuable suggestion is surely worth an experiment. FLAX SEED A.S FOOD FOR RIDING llOU.'«;E.S. — A surgeon at Liverpool has kept his saddle-horse for the last 12 weeks on 71bs. of linseed, lOlbs. of bran, lOlbs. of hay, and I'iOlbs. of wheat-straw, per week, in- ckuling the litter. The linseed is ground and boiled, .'lb. to a gallon of water, with a little salt; it is then poure.l on cut chaff of hay and straw, mixed with the jiroportion of bran. The horse is in excellent condition, with a good coat, iiotwiihstaiiding much exposure to the severe weather. The total cost is only 5s. 'Jd. per week, reckoning the linseed at 28s. per cwt., hay at 6/., and straw at 21. KJs. per ton. CAUTION TO FARMERS.— About a fortnight since, Mr. .-Vlfrcark, gloomy, frost. 31. — A httle snow. Feb. 1. — Scuds of snow: se- vere early. 2. — Calm, sunny. 3. — Change of wind: rain. 3. — Rain, 4. — Clears to frost, 5. — Most beautiful. 6. — Fine, and veiy keen. 7, — Wind severe : frosty. 8. — Cloudy till night. 10. Three inches of snoAv : brisk wind at night : snow. 1 1 . — Fine : frost becomes severe. 1 2 . — The coldest since 1838 — zero near us. 13. — Ameliorated : changeable: rain, 14. — Strong wind from west : a thaw by day. 15. — Changeable: freezes after sunset. 16. — The same : a fine, keen, but calm night. 17. — ^'pry fine, and again frosty. 13. — ITiaw by sun, and again frost at night. i Lunations. — Full moon, January' 23 day, 2 h. : 20 min. aftern. Last quarter, 31 day, 1 h. 56 min, j morn. New moon, Feb. 6 day, G h. 35 min. aftern. 1 First quarter, 14 day, 5 h. morn. I Remarks referring to Agriculture. — j Of the effects of the late weather on the M'heat, &c., it is impossible to write positively. The period has been very cold ; but there has been a good coating of snow, and so fai' as the alternations of , thaw and frost permits, it should appear that the ' plant emerges safe, and with good promise. There has been httle of true February rains; Init in 1843 the fall was profuse, yet March was anything but : faA-oiu"a])le, therefore nothing can be concluded till j we see what the Equinox may predict. We now j want rain till the end of the first week of March : ' but thence dry v/eather till April. All is well at present. John Towers, Mouknhehd Thicket. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— MARCH. Retrospect. — Januaiy, from the i)eriod when we last went to ])ress — became much cohler : the rains had l)een abundant, and then frost ap- jiroached. February came in cohl, and there was no one day to the 9tli without frost, either early or late : thus, work was retarded, especially as the heat of mid-day thawed the surface, and made it worse than useless to walk upon the fjround. It is astonisliinjj; how much a ffardener may be de- luded b}- a week or two of fine, ojien weather early in January : it seems as if s])rinij were at hand; and so we and miudiers else were led on, and bejjjan to woric — sowinf^-, ])lantinfj-, and finishing otl'. Yet wlien we reHect that peas sown in the first days of December have not yet a]i]ieared, that sul)se- 'quently there were nearl)- twenty days of stronjjr frost in that month, that, with the excejjtion of one week in Jamiary there have been either swani])- ing rains or successive frosty nights, we cannot Init sus])ect that our sowinf>fs are at least in jeo- pard)', especially as snow fell in abumlance between the 9th and 14th days of February. Durintf tliat period oiu- thermometers rej^islered from 'i/"" to 21" Fahrenheit, and on the 12th the merciu'y receded to .'}''. A f^ardener assured the Avriter that his glass marked zero — a dejj^ree of cold not recorded since 1838. 'I'hen, however, there was no snow — now, while we write, it covers tlje ground five inches dee|), and rain falls, with a brisk south by west current. Here we must (]uit meteorology and its concomitants, till we can report its phenomena and results to the latest i)eriod at command. Prosi'ects. — The winter has been cold and very gloomy ; but llie tem])erature. at inter\als, suf- ficiently mild to bring some ])lants rather forward : l>eaches, nectarines, &c., began to show their Idos- yom-])uds on very favouralde walls, and goose- berries required the knife. The frost, therefore, ))ro\ed a ^^alutary check, and no injur}' was sus- tained till tiie rith. Those extrenu' frosts, how- e\-er, are very a|)t to occasion serious damage to all tiie best broccoli, celery-jjlants in ridges, and un])rotecte(l lettuces. In forcing-houses, we per- ceix'e \ery gi'atifjing resvdts from the steady heat of those deep, wide water-channels, which com- mand two feet of radiating u])per surface, and nine inches lateral surface on each side, all round the house. In houses so finnished. Go or more degrees can be maintained, e(|ually thnjughout a windy night, with twenty degrees of frost in the open air. Well-constructed roller-coverings, jiroperly secured over sashes accm-ately ghr/ed with Drake's sheet glass, are capital adjuncts. I'ersons pay dearly for their fragile crown (juarries, witli open laps, which let in air at every i)art, and are also lialde to crack with a very trifling degree of frost. Veo Kr.\ n I. !•: ( I a un en . Open Air Di-prni incut. — March is the busy month, and admits of an almost general cropping. We have so repeatedly particularised, that it will now f-.ufl'ice to say that, at two or three diHen nt limes, seeds of all vegetables most in reipiesl may be sown, excepting the kidney-beans. But we say, 'use dispatch,' for if again, dry, parching weather come on quickly, the greater part of our most useful \'egetables will be retarded, per- haps fatally. We shall have much to say hereafter on the operation of maniu-e within the soil ; now be it noted that every jjarticle of stable or spit dung should lie deep in the soil; and depth in- cludes a thorough comminution of the ground to the extent of all the good earth, and the loosening, by means of a stout three-tined fork, of the inferior subsoil. This loosening, over a chalky or porou.s bottom, acts as draining ; yet if there be a springy and wet base, which retains stagnant water, drains made according to the most a])])roved method will be the only remedy for a defect which must be the cause of failure and disease. The manure (which in our o])inion ought always to contain a quantity of half-decayed tree-leaves), by being ])laced low in the ground, is gradually acted on by tlie descending roots of ])lants : it comprises a great bulk of carbon, the elements of water — which imite when extricated in the due ])roportions to form water — and some nitrogen. Now. according to the constitution of each in- di\idual \ egetal)le will be its definite action upon the manure, that is, first upon its organi'zable con- stituents, and then upon the silex, aluminc, ox- ide of inm, and salts of potassa and soda, the bases of which are tracea1)le in \-egetable and ani- mal ashes. If spring crops of carrots, parsnii)s, onions, peas, beans, lettuces, salads, &c., &c., be so\ni earl}', so as to vegetate in due time, before the. drought sets in, the hoe liberally used will prevent almost all the efliects of a parching season ; for therel)y the ground is more amply su])plied by the dews, while the extrication of the water of the ma- nures is more al)undant]y efl'ected. These facts were borne out by the crops of 1844, many of which jirogressed beautifidly when hoed ; while others, on an undisturbed surface, dwindled from lack of moisture. For these and other reasons, drill-sowings are earnestly recounnended. Arti- choke-beds that have been jjrotected by tree-leaves should now be forked, removing every dead and deca}ed meml)er. New ground, deeply enriched, should be ])re])ared for fresh suckers ; also for rhubarb, seakale, and asjiaragus. Fork asj)aragus rows, rake ofl" a little of the loosened earth into the alleys, and dig the latter, to turn and blend the manure with whicli they were filled in the autunmal dressing. Before the i)lant begins to a])pear after forking, it would be advisable to cover the whole surface of the rows or beds with screenings of decayed leaves (not actual leaf-moultU, combined with l)one-du.st and either sulphate of auunonia, or nitrate of soda —both azotised salts. Thus, take one full barrow of the screenings, and thoroughly mix with them a gallon of fiiu' bone-dust, and about half a jjound of either of the salts. Rains will gradually carry down the soluble matters, and in a jjroportion which cannot injure vegetation, while the earth will be supplied with phosphates and ammonia. ' 28^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. We know too little, as yet, of the real consti- tuents of vegetables ; but when anal3'ses of the ashes of all shall have been faithfully reported, it AV'ill 1)ecome more easy to ajiply appropriate ma- nures, and science wll thus be justified. Forcing Department. Cucumbers in pits or frames for a successional crop must be kept at full growing heat, excited by linings or dung-bed ; Init the ammoniacal steam from manure is dangerous. Melon-seed may Ije safely sown at the end of the month. The hot water tank system secures due moisture, prevents the attack of s])ider acarus, and oljviates entirely the danger of foul air. "When once we obtain a truly economical furnace to ])ropel a proportionate volume of water (say 500 gallons for a house 30 feet long), the system may be deemed all but per- fect. Then, also, cucumbers, melons in pots, and pine-apple (growing) ])lants, plunged into a whole- some and incorruptible bed of sand, charcoal-dust, or both, will, we opine, exhibit plant \\'hich at pre- sent we rarely, if ever, can Ijehold. Grapes, at the close of the month, may be started for a me- dium late croj), by raising a good dung-bed in front of a south wall, where there is alreadj' a good Hamburgh or Muscadine vine. Into a three-light frame some comi)act fruitful shoots are admitted, to be trained on a trellis imder the lights. It M'ould l)e as well to co\'er the dung within the frame with common planetiles, to ser\-e as a clean iloor, and to add reflected sun-heat. We have seen the ]ilant adopted years ago ; and now, the sub- ject has been revived by a gentleman who has for years raised grapes, finer, he asserts, than any grown by fire-heat, and to the extent of 100 lbs., from one such frame. They are ripe in Jul}-. AVe shall obser\'e, and report. Fruit Department. Open Air. — If any gooseberry, currant, and rasp- berry bushes remain unpruned, let them be finished oft" without delay : then fork the jjluts, working in any horse-droppings, or other mulch which was laid round the roots during winter. Prune all the wall-trees, bearing in mind that a constant succession of the last year's Ijearing-wood must always be retained and laid in, so as to keej) the walls ' green' close home. Many trees were injured, and lost wood, by the drought of last summer. A good mulching of littery manure, soon after pruning, is a capital i)reventive of aridity. A])]jle and pear-trees on esi)aliers must be care- fully pruned back to short compact sinirs. If mossy, wash the trees with. lime-M'ater. Strawberry beds are prepared by deep trenching, incorporating rot- ten manure and some bone-dust with the earth. Plant in rows of two feet apart, each individual about a foot or eighteen inches from its neighbour. The ])ine, the British Queen, and Knight's Elton, are excellent : so is Keen's seedling as an early bearer. The early ^-inery should kept at 70^ by day and 03° at night. The berries to be thinned out regu- larly, avoiding injury to those left, either by con- tract of the fingers or scissors. Fruiting pine-stove, keep at full heat, SO" by sun, and 70° by fire or hot water. Green-house and Conservatory. Attend to air, and moderate but timely watering. Plants growing in the bed of the latter, if the soil be good, ])rove how great is the advantage of free- dom to the roots : the blossoms of camellia in l)articular are comparati\-ely super-excellent and perfect. The plant-house, heated by water-channels to 45° and 55°, is one of the best adjuncts to a good floral establishment ; for in it all plants that ha\'e flowered now perfect their spring growth ad- miral)ly, and many others, called stove-] )lants, %\ill thrive very well : even the cactus-tribe is surpassing. Geraniums, ])otted occasionally as the roots ad- vance, do well in moderately increasing heat. Ca- mellias also complete their growth, and set new bloom freely. Shrubbery and Plantations. Prune, as required to give figure, every tree or shrub, not hacking or clipping ^vith hook or shears, but nicely cutting back at a shoot all the misplaced or su})erfluous tv/igs and spray : thus, bloom will not be removed, the habits of the plant are pre- served, and an airiness communicated. 'I'hen fork in the fallen leaves, and make the surface neat and e\-en. Sweep lawns, roll them well : clean or turn gravel ^^'alks, filhng them ^\'ith fresh gravel close u]) to the edges of grass lawns. Manure the flower-clumps, beds, and borders ; dig them care- fully, avoiding bidbs or herbaceous ])lants, and ])repare to sovv' every kind of animal. But flowers are most safely raised, as we have frequently stated, by sowing in pots or pans, under . cover, \vith a gentle heat. So protected, the seed- lings are safe, and may be duly thinned out, and timely transplanted. Auricvdas in pots require either top dressing or re-j)otting : the soil good, soft loam, heath mould, white sand, and two-year-old cow manure. Give plenty of air, moderate \A'atering, and an eastern aspect. Plant anemone and ranunculus early in the month. Transplant perennials and biennials in open wea- ther, and gi\'e a little water if the weather p]"o\-e dry. After so sevei^e a fit of winter, with abundance of snow, melting and freezing again, till the day we close this article (the 15th), more genial spring than usual may perhaps be anticipated ; and March, with its dust, after the equally desirable February rains — still to come, we hope — will be welcomed as a harbinger of beauty and abundance. THE AGRICULTURE OF NORFOLK. We inad\'ertently omitted to acknowledge an ar- ticle with the abo\'e heading, u'hich aj)peared in our January number. Our attention having been called to the suljject, we embrace the earliest opi)ortunity of stating "that it was taken from Mr. Bacon's essay on Norfolk agriculture — the only essay which OBT.viNRD the PRIZE of the Royal Agricultural Society. The privilege of publishing it was con- ceded to Mr. Bacon, it being considered too long to appear in the Journal of the Society, and that an abridgment would have been [prejudicial to the subject. THE TARMER'S MAGAZINE. 283 AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMEu's MAGAZINE. Sir, — Will you allow me to inquire, throuffhthe medium of your useful publication, the Fanner's MiKjdzlne, ^\■hat proportion, //( weicjht, of good sound harlej' is equal to one jjound of oilcake, as an auxiliary to turnijis in feeding stock ; and, also, if the increased value of the manure made fnnn the consunq)fi(m of the barley would be equal to that from oilcake. I am at i)resent inclined to think barley may be substituted for oilcake, in feeding sheep and cattle on turnips, M'ith the greatest advantage to the farmer, providing as much fat and manure, of ('(pial quality, can he procured from the former at the same e.\])ense as the latter. I consider it very important to the farmer that this question should be correvtlij decided, antl I ho])e some of your corres])ondents who under- stand chemistry will connnunicate their ojjinions on the subject in a future number of yom- magazine. Perhaps the subject may be considered worthy the notice of some of the professors in chemistry who are lending their aid to the advancement of agriculture. I remain, sir, yours, ver)' respectfully, Feb. 13, 1S45. A SuuscRiuEK. Sir, — Having seen in your niagazlne of August last, an account of the beneficial effects ])roduceil in various crops, particularly on potatoes, by the application of a mixture of sulphate of soda and nitrate of soda, I shall be nuKth obliged to any of your correspondents who will inform me either in your next number, or through the Mark Lane Express-, how and tv/ien this mixture ought to be applied to potatoes, wlieat, grass, or beans : whether spread broadcast over the croy), or between the ridges, or with the seed. Information on these points will greatly oblige, yours, A Constant IIkaukr. Jan. 31. Sir, — Will you have the kindness to submit the following queries for the consideration of your l)ractical readers and corres])ondents : Would an ap|)lication of soot, as a top dressing to wheat, be likely to j)rove profit able to the pocket, on a mode- rately strong hazel loam, of sound quality, the wheat drilled in the middle of November, on clover ley, without maniu'e ? The soot costs something less than Gd. jjcr bushel, exclusive of five miles' carriage. What would be the jjroper quantity, and the right period (jf application ? and would it not be an inq)rovement to the dressing to mix a portion of manure and salt with the soot? if so, in what ])roportion should the condnned mixtures lie administered ? We hear salt and lime recom- mended. Ijut the latter, at 7d. i)er bushel, appears to be too expensive for general use in qualities ad- vised. I shouhl also be glad to be informed if " Ducie's drag" can be a])j)lied to five-bout stetches, the width about half a perch ? I am doubtful wliethcr it can be set to work lerel in going one " bout" (Ml a land, as cme wheel must be in the furrow, and consecjuently lower than the other. I believe tlie small-sized scarifier or cultivator will cover the Ineadth I mentioned above. I beg to subscribe myself yours obediently. An OccLi'viNt; Tenant. Vale of the Kennet, Jitn. 15. THRASHING MACHINES. TO TIIK EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXl'RES.*. Sir, — Can you or any of your readers inform me whether horse or steam power is the more economical for a thrashing machine on a farm employing four or five pair of horses, where coals can be bought and carted for 3s. 5d. per ton ? And, likewise, whether more power is lost in working the machinery by spur-gear than by sheaves and belts ? What is the best material for belts, and the cost thereof? How many revolutions the drum, and also the rake or straw wheel, ouglit to make in a minute ? witli any other remarks. What is the title of the best work on agricultural implements ? Answers to the above will be thankfully receive i by /rt«.28. A SUUSCRIBKR. GAME. " Who is entitled to the game on a farm held under a lease, having no covenants in regard to the game ?" I know less of law than of practice and of what is cus- tomary ; and from these I infer that when a |)roprictor lets a farm on lease for a term and conditions, he lets everything upon tlie land that he does not secure by stipulations to the contrary. Hence the clauses — the tenant is not to cut timber or timber-like trees, samples, &c. ; is not to sj>ort, or shoot, or destroy game ; is to allow landlord and friends and servants to enter on said pre- mises for that purpose, and also to carry away timber and woods ; also to view state of repairs, !kc. !^iew- ing that u-ithout such clauses he could not enter on a farmer's land without trespass. In the case of a tenant at will, perhaps custom would entitle landlord to the usual j)rivilege of entry. " .\ Young Farmer" inquires whether any of our readers ever grew the Egyptian beans — and if so, whe- ther they think them so good for a crop as the common English horse bean ? Sir, — In consequence of the scarcity of hay, turnips, &c., I cannot exjiect my cows to give much milk, but am anxious to take in my rearing of s|)ring calves ; I therefore shall be very thank- ful it you, or some of your correspondents, will in- lorm me, through your magazine, of a (jood and cheap substitute for milk for the rearing of them. W. C. Sir, — The Corn Law and Tarift" have been injurious (o the farmer. So far as beef is concerned, it appears as. Od, per st. is not easily exceeded. Can any of your readers favour us with the particulars of the breeding and rearing of an ox, whioli can at our present outgoings lie profitably ]u-()duccd at that jirice ? The time of birth I fancy will make some difference, and, theiefore, sliould lie stated. The cost of all food to be fairly stated; hay, not at town price, but -fOs. j)er ton, which is probably as little as any one can grow and cure it for. I am, sir, yours, &;c., Feb. 12. i'l.oconsnARE. Sir, — I shall feel obliged if you or any of your cor- respondents acipuiinted with the breed of liorses will inform me, tlirough the nuHhum of your journal, what efl'ect railways have had upon them, and how the introduction of so many new lines are likely still more to utfcct them ? 284 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Whether they have Improved the breed of horses ? Whether they have increased or lessened the breeding of them ? Whether they have increased or lessened the value of the same ? It is well known that there were many horses em- ployed in carrying traffic where now railways supply the place ; and it is also well known that there are horses employed now in carrying the same, where be- fore railways were formed there were none, and where, perhaps, had not railways been formed there would still have been none. Whether, then, tl'.e decrease of employment for horses in the former case, or the increase in the latter, is at present, or is likely to be more beneficial to the English agriculturist ? I am, sir, yours truly, Liverpool, Feb. 18. A Constant Reader. Sir, — Seeing a paragraph in your paper the 17th inst., " Important to farmers — exemption from toll?," will you, in next week's paper, answer me the following question ? I have been in the habit for some time of supplying a gentleman with straw (we live in the same parish) for his stables, and receiving tlie manure in re- turn. Am I liable to pay the toll for taking the straw for the purpose of having it made into manure ? I am, sir, A Constant Reader of your Paper. Feb. 20. Sir, — You or any of your correspondents will oblige tue by stating the best method of destroying tintel grass in bottoms carted from the borders of fields, with the intention of putting muck on for turnips. Whetiier it is better to foik it over, and have the grass picked, or to apply anything, and what proportion to the load of border carted for destroying it, and whether that appli- cation will act as a fertilizer by the time the mixen is applied ? An early answer will oblige, yours, &c., Jan. 30. A Voung Farmer. Sir, — In perusing your valuable journal of this week, I observed a letter addressed to you by''J.A. B.," Hethersett, near Wymondham, Norfolk, on " Home Compound for Fattening Cattle ;" and on reading the recipe given, it appeared to me a very good substitute for oil-cake, and I have no doubt but it may answer very well ; at least, I feel very anxious to make trial of it, if " J. A. B." would be so kind as to favour me — through the medium of your valuable journal — with tlie quantity he allows each beast of the compound per day; and, also, if he uses cut hay or chaff mixed with it, when given to the beast. In making my wishes known on the subject, you would very much oblige, sir, A Constant Subscriber. Sjjehlhnrst, Kent, Feb. Tj. ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. TO THE KDITOK OF THE 1 ARMEr's MAGAZINE. Sir, — A corresponflent enquires, in your maga- zine for last month, whether he can safely graze his store ewes on rotten land during the jieriod of lactation r Let me assure him that such an expe- riment cannot be tried without the greatest risk ; as I rotted the whole of my ewe liock, with lambs by their side, on a piece of low land in the months of March and A])ril, 1840. The mischief could not have been done previously, as my ewes were upon sound grass land and Swedes up to grazing time ; nor could it ha-ve happened after, because I removed them before the lambs began to pick at anything. Consequently, my lambs were neA'er affected in the least ; but my ewes were all rotten. I am, sir, yom-s trul)'. A Lowland Farmer. Glumorgansliire, Feb. 24. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — In reply to the queries of " A Subscriber," I would refer him to the county of Lincoln for attaining the best practical information on portable steam thrash- ing machines, which appears to be the kind he inquires after ; in that county, where the average price of coals is about IGs. or 18s. per ton, many of the leading agricul- turists prefer hiring a steam machine to employing their own horses for thrashing. Where the teeth of wheels are properly suited to each other, scientific mechanics demonstrate that there is less loss from friction by gear, than by straps or belts. The portable steam machines sent out by Messrs. Tuxford and Sons, engineers, of Boston, which are considered standards for eftectiveness, are, I believe, all driven by gear. The drums revolve abont 1000 times per minute. The " Farmers' Almanac," since its commencement, contains a very numerous yearly list, with a great num- ber of engravings, of general agricultural implements in common use, and a reference to the makers. Hoping that " A Subscriber" will consider these answers to his queries satisfactory, I am, yours, &c., A Constant Reader. Sir, — In reference to the queries by " W. C," the N. W. of Devon (in the Farmers' Magazine for Feb., 1815), I beg to inform him, through the medium of your excellent journal, that about 1 peck of chaff to 4 pecks of reduced furze, in which a man's handful of salt is added, is the usual practice where furze is consumed as a substitute for hay in this neighbourhood by store qr other cattle; but the allowance of corn to working horses is continued. I should like to be informed by what operation " W. C." ])repares furze for consumption, if he will take the trouble, through the Mark Lane Express. I am, sir, yours very respectfully, Bnrtonvpon Trent, Feb. \2th. Wm. Daniel. Sir, — In reply to an inquiry of " A Young Fanner" respecting planting Egyptian beans, instead of horse beans, I shall recommend him most strongly not to forsake the old while eyed horse bean (as it is called in Gloucestershire) for Egyptian, as I can safely state they are a considerable loss in almost any season. I speak from experience. They are very susceptible of blight. A Gloucestershire Farmer. — Feb. 18. Sir, — In reference to the query of "A Constant Subscriber" in jour journal of the 17th inst.. I have the pleasure to inform him that I allow each bullock about 14 lbs. of the compound daily, without anything being mixed with it when given. I form the comjiound into cakes the size of a common brick, by means of a mould open top and bottom, partitioned so as to make six cakes at a time, lifting the mould and dropping them through on a board beneath as soon as filled above ; in a short time they assume a considerable degree of firmness, and may be broken and used as foreign oil-cake. I am, sir, yours, &c., Wet/ierselt, near Wymondham, J. A. B. Norfolk, Feb. 19. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 285 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Notwithstanding the numerous changes which have taken place in the weather of this month, it has proved, on the whole, ver\' seasonable. The absence of snow, to which we alluded in our last report, has not been experienced since our last, for a most abundant quantity has fallen in every ])art of England, and which has unquestionably been productive of a great amount of benefit not only to the young wheat plants, but it has materially as- sisted to l)ring the land into a fine state of culture for the now rajiidly-apiiroaching seed-time, for which every preparation has been made. As yet very little jn'ogress in this particular has been made in the fields, though we find that in some of our most forward districts, a few patches of l)arlcy and oats ha\-e been sown under somewhat fa\'oarablc auspices. As to the general appearance of the winter-wheats, our correspondents are agreed, one and all, that they were never looking finer, or in a more jn-omising c'ondition, at any previous cor- responding period of the year than at ])resent. In this particular, therefore, the prosjiect of the fann is cheering. We wish we could say as much in other res])ects I Notwithstanding the large con- sumption which api^ears to have l)een going on in the metropolis as well as the large manufacturing districts, the supplies of wheat of last year's growth in the hands of the agricultural body, except, in- deed, in the western counties, where a scarcity appears to have existed for some time past, is a full average for the time of year. The lambing season has hitherto gone on re- markably well, and we ha\-e heard of very few losses caused liy the inclemency of the weather. Although \'ery few cases of epidemic amongst beasts have come under our notice during tlie month, we regret to observe that the foot rot and other diseases, caused no doubt by the i)re- sence of considerable humidity towards the close of last year, have manifested themselves aniongst the sheep. Our readers will, no doubt, recollect the position we have all along assumed as to the probable iin- jjortations of foreign stock under tlie new taiitl'. In 'spite of assertions to the contrary, we have main- tained that we shall have large and increasing arri- vals of both beasts and shcej) for our markets in the course of the ])resent year. So far as we have experienced, our assertions have l)et'n more than verified, as ice find tlie imports in t/ie nionl/i just concluded to have considerably exceeded those of any previous period since the measure has Ijeen in operation. For instance, we find, from the ofiicial ri'turns, they have amounted to four hundred and sevenfy-eiylit oxen and cows, lo(jelh( r with fire hun- dred and eir/hty-one sheep. 'Jlie wliole of the above were derived from Holland, and, with tlie exception of 50 beasts and TO shee)), came into l^ondon. To the many anxious inquiries which have been made respecting the (piality of this stock, we may ob- sen'e that it is gradually improving; indeed, a large portion of it has come to hand in very excel- lent condition, and ])rodiiccd proportionably high rates. For example, the beasts have readily found buyers at prices varying from 14/. to 20/.; the sheep 32s. to 43s, i)er head — a con\incing proof that we have not hazarded opinions withoiU proof. Most of the beasts have been about six years, the sheep three years old, while we have adAices from the various Dutch ports, to the effect that up- wards of 7,000 beasts are actually feeding by the distillers for shi|)ment to our markets ; while the gi-aziers are making extraordinary efforts in this res])ect. Althotigh the quantity of hay of last year's growth is very small, the demand for that article has been in a sluggish state, and juices have not been su])ported. Our advices from Ireland and Scotland state that farm lal)ours are all well in tlieir place; but the prices of agricultural produce still continue ex- tremely low. The shipments of grain for our markets ha\e been increasing. The following is our us\ial statement of the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield Cattle Market : the former have been as under : — Beasts 13,879 Cows .... 527 Sheep 119,950 Calves .... Gj9 Pigs 2,159 Compared with the supplies brought forward in Januan', the abo^'e shews a slight increase, the followino- being the niunbers in the latter month • — Beasts .... 13,80-2 Cows .... (J27 Shee]) 112,090 Calves 783 Figs .... 2,704 The Juices during February h&xe ruled thu=. ; — Per Slbs. to sink the offals : Beef 2s. (id. to 4s. -^d. Mutton 2 8 „ 4 4 Veal .... 4 0 „ 5 4 Pork 3 0 „ 4 4 Generally speaking, the trade has been in a very sluggish state, and prices, ])articularly those of veal, have had a downward tendency. 'Fhe quality of both beasts and sheep has been exceedingly good ; in fact, we never recollect to ha\e seen finer animals for a very lengthened period. The bullock supplies have been thus derived ; — Head. Lincolnshire, &c 1,050 Norfolk, Suffolk, ike. . . 5,900 Western Counties .... 2,450 Other parts of England 2,000 Scotland 1,130 Foreigners 478 Ireland 210 Up to Newgate and Leadenhall Market, exten- sive supplies of country killed meat ha\ e again come to hand, and which l)a\ e tended materially to depress the trade. Still, however, the quotations have ruled tolerably steady, as imder: — Per slbs. by the carcass : Beef 2s. t3d. to 3s. 6d. Mutton 2 8 „ 3 8 Veal 3 10 „ 5 2 Fork 2 10 „ 4 4 Feb. 2S. 286 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF FEBRUARY. The exertions which have for some months been making to obtain a re])eal or modification of the inalt tax liave a])parently failed to imjiress on tlie Premier the necessity of the measnre ; and in the speech from the throne, on the ojjcning of parlia- ment, no mention was made of the sulyect. We trust that this proceedure on the ])art of the go- vernment ma)' not have the etl'ect of causing any relaxation in the endeavours of the agricultural body generally to oljtain what is sought for ; oj)- position must be expected, but so desirable an o!j- ject is surely worthy of continued and great exer- tions. Some one will undoubtedly bring the matter before the House ; it ought to be the busi- ness of the constituents returning members fen* agricultural counties to watch well the course of their representatives on that occasion. Perse- verance and unity may yet do much, l)ut ^^'ithout these nothing can be expected. That farmers must depend on themsel\-es becomes each day more ob- A'ious ; for though the parties now in jjower are mainly indebted to the agricultural interest for that power, they have hitherto shown very little disposi- tion to employ it for the interest of those who carried them into parliament on their shoulders. We must, however, leave this subject to abler pens, and commence to deal with those atiairs which be- long more legitimately to our pro\-ince. As the weather is always the mainspringby which the course of the trade in grain is regulated, that requires our first consideration. The winter has been characterized by frequent changes from sharp frost to mild weather, and though these variations in the temperature must ha^'e been xevy tr)'ing to the young wheat plant, no actual mischief a])pears to have been caused thereby ; indeed, we rarely recol- lect a time when the reports resjjecting the asjject of the country were more generally favoura])le. The early and very severe frosts in December gave a wholesome check to vegetation, and rendered the l)lant better fitted to withstand the subsequent atmospherical vicissitudes ; notwithstanding which, however, wc are inclined to doubt wdiether it would have escaped Ijeing injured by the intensity of the frost experienced on the 11th and 12th of Feb., had it not fortunately been covered to the depth of several inches by snow : this covering protected it eftectually, and the jjrospects in regard to the future aie, up to the jjresent period, satisfactory. During the greater part of the past month it has been impossible to make much progress with field- labours ; the only kind of out-door work ])rac- ticable having Ijeen the carting of manure ; still we do not regard the season as by any means backward, and douljt not the Lenten crops will be got in quite as early as is requisite. The land is likely to work well, the pre\-alence of frost and the quantity of sncnv which has fallen being calculated to render the soil very friable, and a few mild days would suffice to bring the jjlough into active opera- tion. The difficulty of finding employment for the labourers in the fields, and the improvement wrought in the condition of all sorts of grain in stack, have caused thrashing to be very freely pro- ceeded \\dth, and until the frost breaks up, this occupation will ])rol)ably be continued. Subse- (juentlv, however, great efi^brts will have to l^e made to .bring uj) the arrears, and the preparation of the land for the reception of the seed will re- quire immediate attention. The greater part of March is likely to be consumed in ploughing and sowing, and during the next month or six weeks short supplies must therefore be calculated on ; besides the falling off in the deliveries, an im- j)roved demand for spring corn and pulse for seed may be expected ; it is therefore jjrobable that ])rices will hereafter undergo a small improvement, or, at all events, not fall jjelow the point at which they now stand. Since our last, business ingrain has remained in a very dull state, and the value of most articles has tended do\vnwards. In the price of wheat the variation has not been very important, but a general unwillingness on the part of purchasers to buy more than the)' ha^e required for immediate use has imparted an extremely languid tone to the trade. Notwithstanding the improved condition in which the samples have come to hand, the utmost difficulty has been experienced in effecting sales, and so far from any advance having occurred in consequence of the amendment in quality, buyers have in most instances had the turn in their favour. This will be best illustrated by referring to the quotations as they were in the beginning of the month, and are at present, at some of those places from ^vhich London and several of the other large consuming towns have drawn a considerable pro- portion of their supplies. Referring to Boston, Spalding, and Lynn, three ports which h&ve all along shipi)ed largely of wheat both to the south and north, we find that the top price of red \\heat averaged, at these places, 45s. to 46s. per cjr. early in Feb., whilst on Tuesday last the highest cjuotation at the two latter was 44s., and at the former, on Wed- nesday, 43s. jjerqr. This fall is greater than it appears at first sight ; as the intrinsic value of the article has, within the same time impro^-ed at least Is. per qr. Whether i)rices are even now at the lowest seems questionaljle ; but it is almost certain that no ma- terial rise can occur unless brought about by re- ports of an unfavourable nature respecting the crop on the ground. Under the existing corn laws high ])rices are scarcely possible, excei)t in a case of ge- neral scarcity all o\-er the world. The maximum rate of duty {20s. per qr.) is evidently too low to afford adequate ])rotection to the British farmer. AMieat can be grown abroad, in moderately good years, with a fair jn-ofit to the producer, conside- rably below the point at which it is now procu- rable ; for, whilst the wheat harvest was abundant in this country last year, the yield was very de- THE FARMER'S MaGA2IN15. '2^^ ficient in many parts of the north of Euro])c. i Even under these circumstances, excellent qualities of wheat may be bouficht at Rostock, Stettin, and ' that neitjhbourhood at 23s. per qr. free on ])oard ; I and in reall\- aljimdant years we doubt not that the , ])rice M'ould fall to -iOs., or even below. Is it pos- sible, then, for our farmers, with their present rents and other heavy charjres on land, to com])ete | with the continental growers ? The question must | be ansA\'ere(l in the ne<;ative ; still ministers will 1 not see the error they have committed, but con- | tinue to legislate on free trade princii>les. Amonir ; the 430 articles which Sir Robert Peel has inti- ! mated his intention of a(huittinrofit when the price at the ports of shij)ment ranges between 20s. to 2'is. per qr., it Ijccomes ob- vious that whenever 45s. or 50s. can l)e obtained by consigning to Great Britain, we shall be inun- dated with sujiplies from abroad ; it follows, there- fore, that from henceforth the ]irice fixed as that likely to jirevail, when the corn-laws of 1842 were introduced — viz., 56s. per qr. — will seldom be re- alized. The downA\-ard movement in the value of l)arley has continued throughout the month. That tlie deficiency in tlie yield of this cro]) was exaggerated at the time of haiTest is now generally conceded ; the shortness of the produce in the south and west having, in a great measure, been made good by the more favouraI)le result in the eastern and northern counties ; still, as a whole, the crop was undoulitedly short of an average ; and tlie primary cause of tlic imjiortant fall in the value of this grain must be admitted to have been the very large imjior- tations from abroad during the summer andautumn. At the time when these supplies arrived, the effect was scarcely felt : the greater ])art went direct to the distillers, and it \\as not until later in the season, wlien the demand is usually at its height, that the real state of the case was discovered. Tlie malt- sters and distillers having, in a great measure, |)rovided for their wants by buying foreign barley, had, in some degree, rendered tliemsclves inde- j pendent of the home supply ; and when the latter began to increase, there was no corres])ondiiig im- I provemcnt in tlie in(|uirv, a fall in prices naturally ■ followed, and this grain has lately been selling, at ' the principal markets in the barley-growing coun- ties, about 5s. per (^r, below the extreme rates current in the commencement of the winter. The value of the article seems now, however, to have touched the lowest point; and judging from the quantity sold since the commencement of the year at the towns from which the returns for compiling the averages are collected, it would ajipear that the deliveries from the growers have fallen off con- siderably. The following table of the sales from 4th Jan. to 8th Feb., in 1845, shows a decrease when compared with the sales of the coiTesjiond- ing six weeks, in 1844, of 51,800 qrs. ; but this can scarcely l)e regarded as actual proof of (U- ininished supplies, inasmuch as larger quantities may have been brought forward than it has been possible to dispose of: — 1845. 1844. Week ending Qrs. Qrs. Jan. 4, 111,671 111.25.3 „ II, 114,435 121,612 „ 18, 110,756 110,902 „ 25, 108,113 116,921 Feb. 1, 95,956 106,808 „ 8, 94,7.j9 111,002 635,690 687,498 The duty on ])arley advanced to 5s. per qr. on the 21st. inst., and as the averages are still receding, it may be expected to rise another step before the close of March, previous to which time no arrivals of foreign of importance can Avell take ])lace, in consequence of the Baltic ports being still closed by ice. ^^'hether importers will pay a 6s. duty is questionable ; and the prospects, on the whole, are therefore rather in favour of a small improvement in the value of English. During the first fortnight in February very moderate sujijilies of oats came forward at the leading jiorts on the west coast from Ireland, and as the deliveries from our own farmers were, meanwhile, on a moderate scale, a jiortion of the depression occasioned by large receipts of Irish about the close of the preceding month M'as re- covered. Since then, however, a reaction has again, occurred in consequence of increased arrivals from Scotland and Ireland. \\ \t\\ the exception of some of the northern and eastern counties, the produce of oats in all jiarts of England was un- doulitedly very deficient last year ; liut we arc in- clined to think that the yield, taking the United Kingdom collectively, will not jirove mucli less than usual, the Irish and Scotch harvests having turned out more productix'c than was at one time believed to lie the case. Higher jnices than those now current cannot, therefore, be exjiected, par- ticularly as a foreign imjiortation, to some extent, is sure to take place during the summer. In the value of beans no material variation has occurred since our last; on the whole, the tendency has been downwards ; and as the time when tlie consumption is usually the greatest is now past, an advance cannot l)c safely reckoned on. On the other hand, tlierc is not much prospect of a decline, stocks of both English and foreign lieing liglit in most parts of the country. Tiiese remarks wi . also aj^jly to peas, but on the whole we are dis- posed to believe that there is a larger quantity of thg 288 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. latter than the former article remaining on hand, of home gro\vth. The foregoing observations on the trade gene- rally would scarcely be sufficient to give a clear idea of the operations at Mark-lane, which, though under existing circumstances sufficiently \min- teresting, still claim a separate notice. The arrivals of wheat coastwise into London have not been particularly large, Mdiilst the quan- tity exhibited by land-carriage samples from the home counties has been A'ery small. The practice of making purchases free on board at Lincolnshire ports, and elsewhere (to which we referred in our last), becomes daily more general, and the business of the London corn factors is curtailed in propor- tion. The actual transactions at Mark-lane have been fjuite unimportant during the month, the millers having drawn the greater part of their supplies dii-ect from the east coast ; most of the cargoes from that quarter ]la^•e been bought pre- vious to shipment by manufacturers of flour here, and have gone to the mills without ha^'ing appeared at market for sale. Unimportant, tlierefore, as have been the receipts from Essex, Kent, and Suffolk, the trifling quantities brought forward from these counties have been disposed of.wth difficulty. Until the iTth inst. sellers remained firm, but on that day an abatement of Is. per qr. had to be submitted to, which has not since been recovered ; indeed the languor has increased, and within tlie last few days prices have been accepted at v/hich purchases could at no previous period of the year have been made. The very best qualities of white wheat are not at present (the close of February) wortli more than 54s. to 55s., and excellent jjarcels of red have recently been selling at Mark-lane at 47s. to -ISs. per qr. Tlie improvement which has taken place in the condition of the wheat of our own gro^vth since the frost, has natui'ally occasioned a falhng off in the demand for free foreign, tlie necessity to employ the latter for inixing having in a great degree been obnated. The trifling nature of the stocks of old foreign has hitherto sustained the confidence of holders, and the value of the finer sorts, such as high-mixed Danzig and superior Ros- tock, has not given way ; for the ordinary de- scriptions, however, somewhat reduced prices ha^e in partial instances l)een accepted, and an increased anxiety to realize has l)een very apparent. This has, no doubt, been })artly caused by the fear of holders of bonded entering for home consumption. To a limited extent this has already been com- menced, between 5,000 and (5,000 qrs. lia\ang paid the 20s. duty at this port since the commencement of the month. Should this plan be more generally adopted, prices of foreign wheat would soon fall to the level of English; there are at present 3-14,576 qrs, under lock in the kingdom, of which there are 127,916 in the London warehouses — no very considerable quantity, but nevertheless quite suffi- cient, in the existing dull state of the trade, to give a dowmvard tendency to the value of the article. The mode hitherto pursued has been to offer the wheat free previous to paying the duty, and only releasing such quantities as the parties have sue- [ ceeded in selling : by these means the capital requi- site for holding is much diminished, whilst holders, by leaving what they cannot dispose of under lock, are in a position to profit by anything which might hereafter occur. The demand for flour has throughout the month been excessively slow, the drooping state of the v/heat market having led the metropolitan bakers to expect a fall in the price of the manufactured article which millers have not hitherto acceded to. The nominal top quotation has for some months remained stationary, but secondary descriptions of town-made Hour have been selling at irregular rates, which has also been the case in regard to ship samples. Norfolk households have recently been offering at very low terms, viz., 31s, 6d. to 32s, per sack in large parcels from on board ship ; prices not much above those the article is held at in the Norfolk markets, allowing nothing for the expenses of shipping round. In foreign flour there has been scarcely anything doing, but the quantity here being unimportant, former rates have been steadily supported. Among the arrivals of the month we have had several hundred sacks of flour from Australia ; the quality is not at all approved of by our millers, though the wheat grown in that part of the world is very fine and much liked by the English millers ; the fault, therefore, must be in the manufacture. The duty on wheat from Britiyh possessions is at present 5s. per qr., and that on flour Is. 8d. per cwt. The late arri^-als of the R rmer article from Van Diemen's Land must have realized a hand- some profit, and are likely to encourage further sliipments — no pleasant prospect to our agricultu- rists. With barley we have continued to be well sup- plied. There was a temporary appearance of firm- ness about the market in the middle of the month, which gave rise to expectations of higher prices but as yet no advance has been estabhshed. The highest quotation in the I^ondon market has for some weeks been 35s. per qr., Avhilst fair distilling qualities have been selling at 30s. to 32s., and in- ferior grinding sorts at 25s. to 27s. per qr. There are still large stocks of foreign on hand, and, so soon as the frost shall have broken up in the north of Europe, the purchases made on English account in the earl}' part of the Vvdnter will find their way to this country. Malt has, as usual, been greatly influenced by the position of the barley trade ; the actual value of the article has scarcely altered. At one period of the month the demand became rather active ; the animation did not continue long, however, and latterly business has again relapsed into a very dul state. During the first fortnight in February, the ar- rivals of Enghsh and Irish oats into London were small, and the receipts from Scotland only mode- rate ; even under these circumstances the dealers acted with the utmost caution, and factors found it altogether impossible to esta])lish any advance on previous prices. Subsequently the supplies in- creased considerably, and parties, anxious to eflfect sales from on board ship were comjtelled to accept reduced terms. Good English and Scotch feed THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. '289 have lately been selling at ^.Is. to 248., and Irish at 22s. per qr., without inducing buyers to come for- ward freely, and at the close of the month the ten- dency was still downwards. The disposition to buy oats for spring shipment on the continent has greatly fallen off since the commencement of the year, but in the early part of the winter some not unimportant contracts were closed, The j)ur- chases made at the near ports may be expected to arrive here in April or May; from Archangel, Riga, and other distant places they cannot come for- ward much before June. The knowledge that a foreign imj)ortation will take place is, however, likely to have a depressing inlliience on business, and we see no prospect of prices rising sufficiently to re- duce the duty. 'i'he yield of beans appears to ha\-e been better in Essex and Kent last har^■est than in some other parts of the kingdom. These counties have, up to the present time, kept the London market well supplied, and for some time past the quantities brought forward ha\e jiroved rather more than sufficient to satisfy tlic demand. Since our last, prices of the article have tended downwards at Mark Lane, and the sales made at the close have not realized within Is. to -Is. per (|r. of the rates current in the commencement of the month. Tiie only kind of foreign beans of wliich we have had any arrivals have been Egyptian, and of tliese not more than a few thousand (juarters have come to hand. There is evidently an increasing consump- tion of this species of bean, and its present value is relatively higher, considering the lightness of weiglit, than that of English. Good j)arcels have commanded 34s. per quarter, duty })aid, whilst fair ticks of our own growth have scarcely realized that price. Notwithstand- ing the severe character of the winter, the con- sumption of peas has been small ; and with mo- derate sui)])lies from the home counties, and very small stocks of old foreign in granary, much diffi- culty has been experienced in eHecting sales. Englisli white boiling peas have Ijcen freely ottering throughout the month at .37s., and good foreign at 3(3s. j)er (juarter, being a fidl of Is. j)cr quarter on previous sales. Cirey and maple jieas have re- ceded to about the same extent ; the former having been sold at 32s, to 33s.. and the latter at 33s. to 34s. per ([uarter. Whether any improvement will be caused in the inquiry for tliis article by tlie seed demar.d which must now almost immediately commence, still remains to be seen ; but we are certainly inclined to think that (piotations cannot well go lower, 'lliere are very few j)eas in l)ond in the kingdom, nor are any supplies that we know of expected from abroad, j)rices being higher in jn'oportion on the continent than in this country. In taking our usual retrospect of the position of the grain trade at the jn-incipal foreij,m markets, the most novel feature is the very little inlhience which has hitherto been jirodmed on prices abroad by the continued dull accounts from this country. 'ITie foreign merchants ha\p for some years been so accustomed to obtain hi^li rates for their corn, that they have become \ery imwilling to accept the terms which the altered state of att'airs on this side has brought about, and as yet quotations of wheat arc relatively higher in the Baltic than with us. Sooner or later this must, however, meet its level, and should nothing occur to give rise to apprehen- sions relative to the crop on the ground, and en- courage s])eculators to send out orders, the value of wheat must come down abroad materially, (ireat Britain is the only country which can take their suri)lus stocks, and ultimately all they have to s])are u'ill find its way here, whether we require it or not. There can be no doubt that the last harvest was deficient in some parts of Poland, Russia, and Germany; ])ut there were considerable stocks of old wheat remaining on liand, and notuTithstanding the shortness of the yield, very little encourage- ment would suttice to draw a supply from the north of Europe alone of a million of quarters. At Danzig the stock on hand amounts to nearly 500,000 qrs., and large quantities are held at Ros- tock, Wismar, and Stettin ; in the neighbourhood of which places the haiTcst seems to have turned out much more favourably than in the districts fur- ther north. 'I'he most recent advices from Danzig are of 12th Feb.; the common kinds of wheat, the growth of 1843 (of last year's crop little had yet come forward), were then obtainable at prices varying from 23s. to 28s. ])ei- (\r. ; the former being for light inferior sorts, weighing 56 to 58 lbs. per bushel, and the latter for fiiir ((ualities of about (JO lbs. weight. Really fine samj)les, the growth of 1842, were still held at 3-2s. per qr., and the quan- tity of this description remaining on hand being comparatively small, holders were sanguine in re- spect to that i)rice being maintained. In the im- mediate \-icinity of Danzig, Konigsberg, and the surrounding co\mtry for some distance, the last harvest has undoid)tedly been dcfecti\-e as well in quantity as in (piality, and the same is reported to be the case in I'oland. Respecting the latter, how- ever, the accounts are too vague to be much rehed on, and we doubt not that when the proper time arrives, the suj)plies down the Vistula will be nearly as great as in average years. In Pomerania, Uckermark, Silesia, and Meck- lcnl)urg, the wheat-croj) yielded well, and those districts will have a considerable smplus for ship- ment. The latest quotations from Rostock were 25s. to 2(3s. ; from Stettin, 24s. to 26s. ; and from Wismar, 24s. to 25s. i)er quarter free on board in spring. Sup])lies from the growers were then freely coming to hand, and the granaries were abeady so full that it had become difficvdt to find store-room. Letters from Hamburg, of the Hth Februaiy, state that the river Elbe was then still chased Ijy ice, and that little or nothing had there- fore l)een done in wheat for ex|)ort. Tiiere were plenty of otters from out-ports to shi]) at first open water, at 24s. to 2Gs. jjcr (juarter free on board, according to (jualit}- ; and contracts for good Waren to be sliipj)ed from Ihunburg (from which port the freight to London is lower than from many of tlie ports on oiu" own coast), at 28s. per quarter. 'I'he demand for barley and onts had in a great measure subsided, tiie IJritish advices being deemed discourajjing. Good 50 to 50 lbs. Saale barley had been last sold at 24s. Od. ))er (juarter, being 2s. per quarter below the rates current in January. Priceij £90 tHte FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of oats had not given way; but there had been much less inchnation to buy. From the Mediterranean ports there is no news requiring particular notice ; the value of all kinds of grain keeps so higli in tliat quarter, that no competition from thence need be a])prehended. From the Black Sea ports we are likely, however, to receive sui)i)hes of wheat. At Odessa, on the 31st January, fair qualities were quoted ISs. to 19s. per quarter free on board, and it was not ex- pected that those rates would be supported unless large orders were received from Great Britain. From the other side of the Atlantic, more particu- larly from Canada, tlie home producer must also calculate on an injurious competition. Great ef- forts have ])een made there to reap the full benefit of the new Canada Corn Bill, and large as the shipments of flour were from Montreal last season, they are lil'\att, of Ilamvell Park, Banbiu-y, Oxfordshire, and wa-^ exhibited by Mr. W. Brine, of Tolpuddle, near Dorchester, who obtained a prize of Thirty Sovereigns, at the Meeting of tlie Royal Agricultural Society held at Southampton, in Julvlast. PLATE II. II E T M A N P L A T O V F. ENGRAVED BY E. HACKER, KROM A PAINTING BY HERRING, SEN. Pedigree. — Hetman Platoft", a bay hor.se, was bred by .Tohn Bowes, Esq., in 1836, and is by Brutandorf, dam by Comus, lier dam Marciana by Stamford, out of Marcia Ity Coriander — Kaitli, by Pocolet — Atalanta. by Matclvem. This Comus mare, bred by Mr. Garforth in 1820 or '-il, is also the dam of Lord Chesterfield's Don .John, whmer of the St. Leger in 1838; the remainder of her family (a numerous one, liaving been in the stud since 18-2.)) have not particularly distinguished themselves. Brutandorf, bred by Mr. Watt in 1821, was by Blacklock, out of Mondane (the dam of Lottery and Manuella) by Pot-8-o's, her dam Young Camilla by Woodpecker. As well as claiming the paternal honours of the Hetman, he is known as the sire of that good race-horse Phy- sician, that game old cocktail Arctic, and that stcople-diase star Gaylad. witli many other winners. Summary of IIkt.man Pi,.\toi'k"s PicKiomrANCKs. In 1839 he started three times and won two: — i The Liverpool St. Leger, ^alue clear 380 Stakes at "^'ork, August 130 In 1840 he started seven times and won four: — Tlie Swinley at Ascot 9 J 'I'lie Nortluimljerland Plate at Newcastle i>9''> Tlie Wolverham])ton Stakes 640 The Cleveland Cup at A\'olverliainpton 170 £2.010 In 1841 Hetman Platoft' stood at Mr. Kirby's stud-farm, Murton. at liftoon guineas a maro ; in 1842. at Lord Exeter's, Burghley, at twenty sovereigns; in 1813, at Tickhill Castle Farm, Rotherham, at fifteen sovereigns, and wiiere he will be this season ; while of him we may say outright, without one particle of the putV about it, that we know <>f no initried horse in England more worthy of the public patronage. OLD SERIES.] X l^'o. i.— WL. XXII. 292 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REMARKS OX PLOUGHING. BY T. SULLIVAX, ESa, (Continued.) In the preceding part of this article I divided all the varieties of ploughs generally used in this country, into three classes, viz. — wheel, swing, and turn-wrest ploughs; the first behig characterized by the appendage of one or more wheels ; the se- cond by the entire absence of wheels; and the third by the possession of two mould-boards, so attached to the body, and connected together, that when one is in operation the other is elevated clear of the ground. The impro^■ed Scotch swing plough is adapted to every soil, situation, and country, and is universally regarded as the most simple and efficient tillage-implement which British agri- culture can boast of. I am willing to admit that the addition of wheels may, in some districts, bring the instrument wthin the management of comparatively unskilful workmen ; but even with this advantage, it is highly questionable whether the employment of wheel-ploughs, in any locality is commendable. They uncjuestionably tend to perpetuate the evil which they are intended to remedy. In Scotland, the swing-plough has di- verged into three leading varieties, possessing dis- tinct characteristic features, viz. — Small's, Wilkie's, and the Currie-plough, each of which is held in the highest estimation in the respecti\'e districts in which it is used. Tlie two first have, as we have already seen, undergone numerous slight alterations forming sub-\'ai'ieties, but retaining the respective leading features of the concave and convex mould- boards. It may be worthy of remark, that although Small's plough was originally produced in Ber- wickshire, the implement that seems most to retain the pecuharities of his mould-board is now almost entirely confined to East Lothian, and diflfers very essentially from the plough generally used at pre- sent in the former country. Wilkie's is frequently denominated the Lanarkshire plough, from the rircvimstance of its being made near Glasgow ; and the Currie is generally distinguished by the appel- lation of the Mid-Lothian plough, as being chiefly confined to that county. These three ploughs being considered as the existing types of all the varieties of ploughs nov/ used or manufactm-ed in Scotland, a brief description of their general qualities and characteristics, in addition to what has been already given, mil not, it is hoped, be unacceptable to the reader. In the East Lothian ])]ough, which retain the leading features of Small's implement, the proper lines of the body on the land- side lie all in one plane, which, in working, should be held in the vertical position, or very slightly inclining to the left ; the coulter is slightly oblique to the land-side plane, the point standing towards the unploughed land. The inchnation of the coulter to the plane of the sole-line varies from 55'*to65*'. In the mould-board the vertical sectional lines approximate to straight lines, giving it the character of apparent conca^'ity, and it is truncated forward ; the share pointed, with a feather projecting to the right, of five or six inches in width, the outer edge of which lying nearly as low as the plane of the sole. The neck of the share is prolonged backward, joining and coinciding Avith the curve of the mould-board, which curvature is also carried forward on the back of the feather. The character of this plough is to take a furrow of about ten inclies in lireadth by se^'en inches in depth, cutting the furrow-slice square cornered. The resistance of draught is ge- nerally below the average of ploughs ; and the beam and handles are invariably made of malleable iron. The entire length of the plough, measured on the base-hne, is 10 feet 9 inches ; but, following the sinuosities of the beam and handle, the whole length is about 11 feet 3 inches. In Wilkie's plough, the proper lines of the land- side lie in different planes ; thus, when the fore part of the landside of the body, taken at the junction of the breast with the beam is vertical, the hind-part, taken at the heel, overhangs the sole-line f inch, and the beam at the coulter-box lies to the right of a vertical line from the land- side of the sole about an inch, the point of the beam being recurved towards the land-side. In working, the fore-part of the body is held in the vertical line, or sUghtly inclined to the left ; the coulter, on account of the bend in the beam to the right, and the point being to the left of the land- side stands very oblique, but nearly coinciding with the land-side, at the height of seven inches from the sole. The vertical sectional lines of the mould-board are all convex to\A'ards the furrow, giving the mould-board the character of convexity, and it is prolonged forward co-\'ering the neck of the share. Tire share is chisel-pointed, with the feather seldom exceeding 5^ inches in breadth, the cutting-edge rising from the point of an angle of 8'^ till it is one inch abo\'e the plane of the sole, when it falls into the curve of the mould-board, while the neck passes under the latter. The cha- racter of this plough is to take a furrow-slice whose section is a trapezoid, its breadth from 7i to 9 inches, and greatest depth 6^ inches. The finished ploughing exhibits an acute and high-raised fur- row, esjjecially observable in lea-ploughing. Re- sistance to the draught about the average of ploughs. The extreme length of this ])lough, measured on the base line, is 9 feet 10 inches ; but following the sinuosities of the beam and handles, the entire length is about 10 feet 6 inches. In construction the Mid-Lothian plough stands intermediate to the two former. The proper lines of the land-side lie in different planes ; thus, when the fore-part of the land-side, taken as in the former case, is ATrtical, the hind-part, taken at the heel, overhangs the sole-line f- inch, but the beam is continued straight. In working, the land- side is held vertical, or slightly inclined to the left. This plough is always worked Ijy a chain-l)ar under the beam : the coulter stands rather oblique, and the point about li to 2 inches abo^e the point of the share. The vertical sectional lines of tiie mould-board approximate to straight lines, giving the character of concavity, and the mould-board is prolonged fonvard, covering the neck of the share. The share is chisel-pointed, with feather seldom exceeding five inches broad, and, when THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 293 trimmed for lea-ploughiiig, the culting-edgc rises from the point at an angle of IC^ to a height of 1^ inch above the plane of the sole, when it falls into tlie cun-e of the mould-board, while the neck passes under it. The character of tliis plough is to talce a fiurow-slice whose transverse section is a trapezoid, with the breadth 8i to 9 inches, and usually from 6 to (ij inches in deptli. The finished ploughing exhibits an acute and high-raised fur- row-slice in lea, to \A'hich tliis ])loiigh is considered pecuharl)' apjilicaljle. The extreme length on the base line is 10 feet 6 inches; but measuring along the sinuosities of the beam and handles, the entire length is about 11 feet 6 inches.* Although I have in these remarks candidly avowed my decided preference for the Scotch swing plough under all circumstances, and con- fined my obser\ations exclusively to it, yet I have no hesitation in expressing my belief that some of the Enghsh i)loughmakers have produced numerous vai'ieties of this implement, possess- ing a considerable degree of excellence. The Messrs. Ransome, of Ips\\'ich, in iiarticular, have, through their vmceasing exertions, succeeded in raising the character of the English ploughs to a high degree of usefuhiess. Many of the very nivmerous implements manufactured by these cele- brated mechanists, are, unquestionably, well calcu- lated in the hands of skilful ploughmen to perform unexceptionable work. Ransome's F. F., or Bed- fordshire plough, has attained a high character for its general usefulness, and deservedly so ; generally it is regarded as the most efficient of the English wheel- ploughs. But, it is to be observed, that these ploughs appear to be principally adapted to the soil of England, and to the practice of shallow ploughing, which her agriculturists so generally countenance. When describing the beam, an allusion was made to the line of draught of the plough, which may be defined as a line passing directly from the point of attachment of the draught-chains on the collars of the working animals to the centre of the resistance met with Ijy the ]jlough at work. In a well-constructed implement, this line intersects the sole of the plough a little behind the setting on of the share ; and the centre of resistance may be as- sumed as a jjoint situated about two inches above the plough's sole, though it is hai)lc to change within short limits. The inclination of the line of draught to the plane of the sole, varies wth cir- cumstances to be afterwards mentioned; but the average angle in the ordinary practice of ploughing is held to l)e 20''. If the ])lough were of a (juite perfect construction, and the soil everywhere to present the same unifomi resistance to its ])rogress, a cord attached to the centre of resistance, and drawn in the usual oblique directir)n of the line of draught, would so pull fonvard the ))lough that the share would neither ])oint ujiwards nor down- wards. Imt move horizontally forward, liut I need ••rarcely observe, that it is very dithcult to find a jiloiigh that will be (piitc jierfect in the form and combination of its parts ; and any considerable 40:: See " Book of the Fai-m," Vol, !.. p.p. -108, extent of soil presenting a uniform resist- ance in ploughing is seldom to be found. It will appear obvious from what has been already said, that the bridle at the extremity of the beam, to which the swing-trees and draught-chains are attached, must terminate in some part of the line in question : so that whatever may be the length of the beam, or however high it may be raised, the draught-bolt will always be found in this line. We have seen on a former occasion that the beam may be curved to any height above the surface-line, without altering the working-principle of the plough, provided that the part to which the draught is attached be brought down to certain height above the sole-hne. The direction of the line of draught, or its in* chnation to the plane of the sole, is subject to constant fluctuation. The length of the draught- chains, or the distance of the working-animals from the plough ; the height of the horses' shoul- ders, or of the point on the collar to which the traces are attached; the great diversity in the texture of various soils, from extreme tenacity to extreme porosity, and the different depths to which it is necessary to plough on particular occasions, all produce variations in the angle of draught. If the land to be ploughed offered a uniform resistance to the motive force, the dimensions of the furrow-slice to be fixed, and the instrument itself so complete in its construction, and so well adapted to the nature of the soil and work as to move horizontally forward in such a steady manner that the cutting-irons should not deviate from the exact dimensions of the furrow-shce, then the angle of draught would not be subject to any variation except what may Ije caused by the distance and different heights of the animals. But such equally constituted soils, and such well-fonned ploughs as are here referred to, are rarely indeed to be met with ; and hence the bridle seems to be an indis- pensable appendage to the beam, inasmuch as it enables the ploughman, in a great measure, to ada})t his implement to the nature of the soil and the dimensions to which he is required to plough it. By means of the bridle the ])lough is thus made to suit itself to the nature of the soil and work, as the line of draught can be readily ])laced in a position to counteract any tendency of the share to sink too deep into the ground, or to rise to the surface. Tlie angle which the line of draught makes with the plane of the plough's sole has some effect upon the force recjuired to draw the implement. "When the angle of uiclination is about •20'-\ which is the usual direction of the draught, it is estimated that, in an average of cases, the draught required to im- pel the plough is 24 stones, or 3361bs. ; and the necessary force diminishes as the line of draught ajjproaches the horizontal line. If the motive l)ower could be apphed in the horizontal instead of the oblique direction, it is dcn\onstral)lo that we should have the jjlough drawn by the minimum of force. "'I'his position, liowever, is iuipr.icticable, as the line of draught would in such a case pa.s!j through the solid land of the furrow about to be raised ; but it is within the limits of practicability to draw the plough at an anglf of 12'-% and the V 2 294 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. motive force required at this angle would be 1 stone, or 14lbs. less than is required by drawing at the angle of 20°, which may be held as the average in the ordinary practice of ploughing. A plough drawTi at tliis low angle, namely. 12^, would have Its beam (if of the ordinar}- length) so low that the draught-bolt would be only 10 inches abo^•e tlie base line ; and this is not an impracticable height, though the traces might be required inconveniently long. On the same principle, the angle of draught might be elevated to 60° or 70", provided a motive power could be applied at such high angles. In this, as before, the beam and draught-bolt would have to fall into the line of draught, as emanating from the centre of resistance. The whole jilough also, under this supposition, would require an almost indefinite increase of weight; and the motive force required to draw the plough at an angle of 60°, would be nearly t^nce that required in the horizontal direction, or 1 16-1 8th of that of the present practice, exclusive of what might arise from increased weight."* It is evident from the foregoing extract that it is ahogether impracticable to draw the plough at a much higher angle than at present ; and even if it were possible, no advantage could be gained by the change. Neither can we ado])t a much lower angle; for by doing so we vv'ould necessarily re- qiiire to place the animals at a very inconvenient distance from the instrument. The i)ractical ploughman lias several means at his comm.and for altenng the direction of the line of draught in order to get his implement to move steadily fonA-ard, so as to require httle exertion on his part to adhere to the exact width and depth de- termined on for the furrow-slice, lluis should the plough have a constant tendency to sink deeper into the soil than the required depth (which is, in most cases, a commendable feult), the line of draught can be altered, and the tendency rectified. First by depressing the point of attachment of the draught-chains on the bridle ; and, secondlj-, by diminishing the length of the traces, and shifting the leather strap that supports them backwards on the horse's back. By either of these means the angle of draught is increased, and consequently the ten- dency of the plough to penetrate deeper than is re- quired is counteracted. The same effect is pro- duced by the ploughman pressing more forcibly than usual on the handles, and by their power, as levers, indining the point of the share upwards ; or, by diminishing the A-eitical distance between the coulter and share, and turning the point of the latter upwards with a hammer or othenvise. Should the plough have the contrary tendency, nam.ely, that of rising to the surface, the error may be corrected, first, by elevating the draught-bolt on the bridle ; and, secondly, by increasing the length of the traces, and moving the back-band for- ward towards the horse's .shoulders ; by either of v/hich means the angle of draught is diminished, and the plough induced to penetrate deeper into the soil. This can also be effected, in some mea- sure, by increasing the vertical distance between the coulter and share, and giving the point of the * " Book of the Farm," vol, i., p. 459. latter an inclination downwards. Again, should the plough manifest any undue tendency to incUne to the unploughed land, or take a broader furrow- shce than is reqviired, the ploughman moves the draught-bolt a little to the left of the centre liole in the horizontal part of the bridle, and thereby coun- teracts that tendency. The same effect is produced, though in a less degree, by setting the point of the coidter o\'er that of the share (that is, diminishing their lateral distance apart), and inchning the latter from the land. In like manner, the opposite ten- dency which the plough may have of inclining too much towards the furrow-side, or taking too nar- row a furrow-slice, is rectified by means the I'everse of those last mentioned. It is to be observed that the plough is of the most perfect form, and requires less exertion on the part of the workman in directing, and of the liorses in drawing it, when the line of draught is made to pass through the centre of the bridle ; and that any considerable deviation from that direction must have the effect of augmenting the force re- quired to impel the implement, besides rendering it unsteady in its motion. To avoid these positive e^•ils the careful and intelligent ploughman will endeavour to have his irons always in good working order. When the soil is very loose and free fi'om stones, the relative positions of the coulter and share, have but httle effect on the steadiness of the plough or the form of the furrow-slice ; but strong, adhesive soils and grass-lands require the ii'ons to be carefully tempered and maintained in proper repair. Whatever may be the nature of the land, or the condition in which it is at the time of ploughing, the ploughman will find it of some advantage to set his irons in such a manner as to impart a tendency to the in- strument of cutting the slice a little deeper and mder than is required, as he Avill find it much easier to counteract these tendencies than those of an opposite character; indeed, the degree of pressure which he must necessarily lean upon the handles, is generally sufficient to answer this purpose. When the plough-irons are not regularly kept in a proper state of repair, the ploughman cannot possibly per- form as good work as he would otherwise be enabled to do ; and the labour of draught is evi- dently increased when the cutting parts are not kept duly sharpened and of sufficient length. This is a point of considerable importance, espe- cially in lea-ploughing, where the defective work of the neglected irons becomes most apparent. The manner of attaching the working cattle to the plough may seem to require no illustration, but it is certainly a point of no trivial imjwrtance to know when an animal is yoked either to the i)lough or cart in such a manner as to exert his 2)ower to the best advantage. One of the most essential pro- perties of a well-made plough — indeed, one of the chief difficulties attending its construction — is to have its princijjal parts so formed and combined j that the implement may be enabled to preserve a ' steady, onward motion in the ground during the 1 operation of ploughing. But the motion of the jilough is knoM'n to be affected not only by the form and connection of its parts, but also by the j manner in which the animals of draught are at- tached to it. We have, therefore, a double induce.^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 295 ment to pay the utmost atLeutluu to the iJioper into disrepute, and fast hastening to entire ex- mode of yoking the working animals to the plough, tinction, a consummation which no intelhgent mail This will of course depend, in some measure, upon I will feel constrained to deplore. In Scotland, the nunilier of horses emj)loyed in the team. In where the economizing of animal ])ower is perhaps Scotland, where the swing plougli is almost in- | more carefully attended to than in any other coun- variably drawni Jjy two horses yoked abreast, the | try in the world, almost every description of arable following is tlie simple and efficient method of i land is jiloughed l)y two horses, and those are uni- yoking generally adopted : — A set of su-iiuj-lrees, or swiiif/le-lrees, is attached to the bridle of the plough by means of a draught-swivel hooked to the centre of the main or middle-tree; and the horses are yoked to their respective trees by draught chains or traces, which are linked on one end to the hooks of the hames, and hooked at the other into the eyes of the swing-trees. The traces are upheld by a broad belt of leather, called a baek-bdiid, passing over the back of each horse, on which are hooks fastened to the traces on each side. The horses are kept together I)y a small rope attached to the inner ring of each bridle, and to the trace of the opposite horse, near \\'here the ])ack-band joins it, which prevents either horse jiuUing his end of the double tree l)efore the other. In many places the heads of the animals are con- nected together by a leather straj), buckled at each end to the bridle-ring, which prevents the horses separating beyond its length, l)ut allows their heads to move about loosely. By these means the horses are kept together, made to pull e(juall)', and can be turned quickly and simultaneously at the head-lands. The ploughman directs the horses, and, when necessary, urges them forward with the reins, which extend from each jilough-handle, through rings in the back-ljands, to the outer ring of each bridle. The horses should be yoked as near to the plough as ])ossil)le, without too much confining or i)re- venting them stepping out freely ; and the drauglit- chains sliould extend from the swing-trees to the hames, so as to form a right angle with the ])lane of the collar-bone. It is hkewise evident that the traces should jjroceed in a direct line from the point of attachment on the collar to the swing- trees ; for if the line be in any way bent, a jjortion of the power will be necessarily lost. Hence the importance of allowing the traces to hang freely, the back-])ands merely keeping them in a proper position, and close to the horse's sides. Iiut,it is argued by some writers on this subject, that tlie back-band, besiiles supporting the traces, has also the efl'ect of dividing the draught between the shoidder.s and l)ack of tlu^ animal. When the back-band is short on each side, and the traces thereby bent out of the direct line, the nniscles of the back, it is said, are brought into action, and the capability of the animal increased. The strain u])on the shoulder is not so great it is alleged when the back-band is thus at work as if the draught-chains were ])erfectly straight. Mucii diversity of o])inion and ])ractice exists among English agriculturists in reference to the number of horses required to jjlough particular kinds of land, as well as the manner of yoking tliem, whether abreast or in single fde, so as to exert their power to the best advantage. A good deal has been written and said upon both sides of this sul)- ject ; but the single-file system seems to be fulling formly yoked abreast by means of a simple appa- ratus (jf swing-trees. E\-en in the Lothians, where the soil is for the most part of a very stiff, adhesive character, a pair of stout horses is deemed amply sufficient for ordinary ploughing, averaging about seven inches in depth. There are some cases, how- ever, in which it becomes necessary to employ three horses, as in breaking up tough, heath- lands, or ])loughing strong, stifi' clays so mtich be- yond the ordinary de])th as to interfere with the in- durated stibscjil. It is not uncommon in England to see as many as five horses yoked to the plough, sometimes two and two with one in front, l)ut as frequently all arranged in single-file. But so many conclusive arguments ha\e been already adduced by diilerent ])arties, with the view of dissuading English farmers from a practice which occasions so paljjable a waste of animal power, that it is un- necessary for me to occupy much sjjace in illus- trating the great loss of power caused by tliis anti- quated and absurd method of yoking the horses to the jjlough. It is certainly impracticable to attach four or five horses abreast, although it is not diffi- cult to understand that in that way tliey would be enaJjled to exert their power to the best advantage, as the force of each animal goes directly to the resisting object ; whereas in almost every case where four or five horses are yoked either two and two M-ith one in front, or all in single- file, the power of the foremost animals is par- tially thrown away, or probably distresses the hindmost horses. It is ascertained from expe- rience that two horses \nll, in general cases, accom- jilish more \vork yoked abreast to a plough than four yoked before each other in single-file ; because much, jirobably all, the power of the foremost ones is lost in passing along the sides of the hind horses ; and in turning at the headlands, the whole draught is imposed upon the hindmost in the row, I have already endeavoured to show that the animals of draught exert their power to the Ijest advantage when the draught-traces extend in a direct line from their shotddcrs to the resisting oljject ; and if this be correct, it will not be very difficult to comprehend how the power of the foremost horses, in a })rocession of four or fi\'e, may be entirely ex- jx'nded l,)efore it reaches the i)lough. Wherever, therefore, the practice of yoking so many horses in a fine still exists, and I l)elieve it is by no ineans uncommon, I earnestly recommend it to l)e imme- diately discontinued as a waste of animal i)ower, and in its stead to try the more simple and econo- mical plan of drawing the i)lough l)y only tvyo^ horses joked abreast. Unless on very stiff' clay soils, or where a greater dejith than usual is recpiired, two stout horses with a well-constructed swing plough will be found amply sufficient for every kind of work. The swing-trees, by which two horses are yoked to the plough in the manner here recommended. 290 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, consist of a main-tree or foot-tree, as it is also sometimes termed, and two smaller ones. The for- mer is attached immediately to the bridle of the plough by means of a draught- swivel, and the draught-chains are hooked into the ends of the shoi-ter trees. The length of the main tree is ge- nerally 3i feet, and that of the smaller ones three feet, it is a manifest error to make them much longer than these dimensions. They are, for the most i)art, composed of wood, oak or ash being generally preferred ; but malleable iron has been latterly proposed and tried with some ad- vantage for this i)m*pose. TMien it becomes necessary to employ three horses on any particular occasion, they may be yoked two aljreast, mth one in front walking in the furrow; or, what is decidedly more advan- tageous, they may be all three yoked abreast, two going on the unploughed land and the third in the furrow last made, Numerous methods ha^-e been proposed from time to thne for ajjplying the draught of three horses in the most ad\antageous manner to the plough ; but perhaps the most per- fect mode yet discovered for eflecting that pur- pose is by means of the three-horse yoke in general use in several parts of the north of Scotland, which is certainly M-ell calculated to equalize the draug-ht of the animals. It consists of an appara- tus of swing-trees, and a combination of compen- sating levers ; the main swing-tree is usually 5 feet in length, and of sufficient strength to \nthstand the strain of three stout horses ; and the animals are attached by draught-chains in the usual man- ner to three common trees of the ordinary size. The compensating apparatus, consisting of three iron levers veiy ingeniously connected, are placed between the main swing-tree and the smaller ones. Besides this mode of yoking a three-horse team, there are several others upon the same principle, but of far more complicated forms, a circumstance which effectually prevents their introduction into general use. When four horses are employed, as in drawing the subsoil-plough, they should be yoked two and two abreast by sets of common swing-trees ; and the draught of the foremost pair should proceed by means of a strong soam-chain from their middle ewng-tree to the main tree of the hindmost pair. The draught of the leading horses thus passes between the hind pair in a direct hne to the plough ; and by this means the power of both pairs goes un- impaired to the resisting object : the chain is gene- rally supported by a leather strap passing round the necks of the hind horses, or suspended from their collars. There have been also several other methods recently brought into notice for equahzing the draught of four or more horses ; they are all, hov/ever, foi-med on the same general principle. When two horses are used, and yoked, as they in- variably ought to be, abreast, the hveher and more forward of the pair should be placed in the furrow or right-hand side, and tied back to the other, as it is of considerable importance to have the steadiest animal on the land or left-hand side. I may also observe that, where there is any difference in re- gard to size or strength, the taller and more power- ful horse should be placed in the fxu'row or right- hand side. Some time must necessarily elapse before young horses are taught to move steadily at the plough ; and the ploughman entrusted M-ith the charge of young animals should careftdly avoid having re- course to harsh treatment in order to enforce im- mediate obedience. The same remark applies to the cart-horse when first i)ut to the plough, as it is \-ery evident that the physical acting powers of the animal are quite different in the cart from what they are in the act of ploughing. In the latter operation, the animal intuitively learns that the resistance to be overcome is always in one invariable direction; and from this he is taught what weight is necessary from the gravity of his own body, without much muscular exertion, in or- dinary ploughing. On level ground veiy httle muscidar power is necessary with common-sized horses, when the dead draught of the plough does not exceed 28 stones. The cart-horse, on the other hand, finds resistance from everj^ direction, and his muscles become trained to act in every direction to meet this resistance. The high- spirited cart-horse, when first put to the plough, generally becomes c[uite restive, for he has not yet learned w\mt use he can make of his o^^^l weight by leaning steadily on his collar ; but this he will soon learn when he finds that he is not shaken from side to side, or pushed forward by the mo- tion of the cart — when he feels these things do not anno)' him in the plough, the energ}' of his muscles in meeting them will be relaxed, and will, there- fore, be directed to the one forward motion of drawing the implement. From the same physical causes does the saddle-horse feel awkward when first put to the yoke ; his muscidar powers, instead of being used in can-ying, have now to be exerted in pulhng ; and it cannot be supposed that the animal will make an immediate transition of his powers to serve such a different purpose. Some time must be allowed both the cart and saddle horse until their muscles have arranged themselves for the continu- ous fonvard draught.* The comparative value of horses and oxen, as beasts of labour, has been frequently discussed, and is still a fertile subject of controversy between practical and theoretical men. Niunerous calcula- tions and experiments have been instituted from time to lime, by different parties, for the purpose of illustrating the advantages and disadvantages on either side; but the question is still far from being satisfactorily settled. Although the horse is, doubtless, better adapted than the ox to the diversity of labours required of working cattle in this country as well as to that degree of dis- patch which the farmer deems it indispensable to use in the performance of his varied operations, yet the ox may be, and undoubtedly is in many dis- tricts, very profitably employed in drawng the plough. Oxen, it is admitted, are by no means remarkable for the celerity of their motion, or their activity in the yoke ; but this circumstance, though always laid hold on as an argument against their employment, is, beyond a doubt, almost entirely * See Hunter, on the " Scotch Swng Plough." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 297 the result of inis-management ; for oxen may be trained to go at as rapid a pace at the plough as can well be desired. They are, it is aUou'ed, incapable of continued hard labour like horses; but tlien they are much more cheaply maintained, they cause no expense for shoeing, and, \\'hen arrived at a certain age they can be fattened and sold to the butcher. Where oxen are em- ployed to any considerable extent for ploughing, it is customary to keep two sets, the one to relieve the other ; where this s)stem is pursued, the working oxen are found to fatten almost as quickly, and be ready for the butcher nearly as soon as the animals which are constantly tied u[) in their stalls. It is well known, too, that properly trained oxen are j^referable to horses for Ijreaking up tough heath-land, containing many stones, as they draw more patiently and uniformly. In many of the small holdings in t^ie north of Scotland, it is not uncommon to see a horse and an ox going to- gether at the plough; and a more steady or agreeable pair could not be desired than what they generally make. The small farmers in that locali- ty, who cannot afford to keep more than one horse, ])urchase a draught ox aljout the month of October, and, as he is generally required to work only five or six hours a daj' during the winter season, he is sold at a good profit after the labours of the spring are over. There is every reason to believe that, at an early period, oxen were generally emploj'ed at farm-labour throughout the whole of Scotland ; but it is worthy of remark that, in those districts of that county in which the practice of agi'iculture is allowed to be in the most advanced state, oxen, as beasts of labour, have gradually fallen into disuse. In the Lothians, for example, an ox is never seen yoked to a plough or cart ; and notwithstanding all that has been advanced in other quarters in their favour, the Lothian farmers cannot be convinced that the employment of oxen would be for their interest. Whatever of prejudice there may be in this predilection for liorses over oxen, it is certainly a strong, though not a conclu- sive argument, against the latter, that they have been gradually laid aside as modern improvements in agriculture ha\e advanced. To execute the art of ploughing in a correct and judicious manner, it is evident that much will depend upon the skill of the ploughman in temper- ing or setting his irons, to suit the different soils and the state in which they may be at the time of ploughing ; and hence a facility of accurately ad- justing the plough-irons, that the instrument may have no undue tendency to work too deep or too shal- low in the ground, or to take too wde or too nan-ow a furrow-slice, is of much importance. Indeed, an indispensable qualification of a good ploughman is a facihty of adapting his implement to every soil and situation in which lie may l)e placed. The form of the mould-board has certainly a great influence in giving a good api)earance to the furrow- slice, and in turning it over into a pro))er position ; but it is also evident that unless the slice has been rightly cut by the coulter and share, it is impossi- ble for the mould-board to rectify the defect, or give the furrow-slice that peculiar form which is found to answer best. The relative positions of the j coulter and share must vary according to the tex- ture and condition of the soil, and other circum- I stances ; thus the particular set found most suitable I for stubble or half-pulverized land \\\\\ not answer I for lea-ploughing, and vice versa ; and the proper [ set of the plough-irons for light friable soils will j not do for ploughing such as are of a strong adhe- sive character. Experience will be the safest guide to direct the ploughman how to act under these circumstances. In lea-ploughing the great object I aimed at is to turn up as high-raised and square- [ cornered a furrow-slice as possible. This certainly depends in a great measure upon the constructing of the plough ; but unless the irons are ])roperly ad- justed, and in a suitable state of rejjair, the sod cannot be cut in that clean, unbroken manner which distin- guishes good ploughing. In adjusting the share, the proper position is determined by the application of a straight-edge, first to the land-side of the plough and extending along the left side of the share, and next along the sole-plate. The land-side of the share, when new or newly repaired, should have a shglit inclination landward, as the friction of the soil will soon wear it dowTi to coincide A\'ith the line of the side plates. In setting the coidter with the share, the former may be about one-fourth of an inch to the left of the latter at the ])oint. This is the general allow- ance by good ploughmen, but it is subject to much variation. When the land-side of the share is exactly in a hne with the side-plates of the plough, the lateral distance between the irons may vary to a-half an inch ; but the cutting-edge of the coulter should never exceed that distance from the hne of the land-side. The height of the point of the coulter above the share will be regulated by circumstances ; 1 j inch is the standard for ordinary ploughing in stubble lands ; but in ploughing lea, the vertical distance of the irons may be reduced to half an inch. This tempering of the irons must however, be regulated by cir- cumstances ; and nothing like a system of rules can be laid do^\Ti for the purpose. The objects always to be aimed at are to cut a clean and well- formed furrow-slice, and to render the plough as steady and agreeable in its motion as possible, nie careful ploughman will study to have his plough and plough-irons always in a proper state of repair, and will never suffer the latter to become worn down too much below their necessary dimensions. {To be continued.) BRINE A POISON FOR PIGS,— At the monthly meeting of the Norton Farmers' Club, W. J. Bagshawe, Esq., in the chair, a paper on the diseases of horses, cattle, &c., was read by Mr. Nelson ; and in concluding his remarks, he referred to several cases where pigs had been poisoned by the incautious mixture of the brine used in curing bacon with their swill. The reader re- marked, that only a few weeks ago, he had attended three different cases of this kind. In the lirst, three pigs had died ; in the second, two out of four, owing to half a bucket of brine having been put into the swill ; and in the third, two very fine jiigs were poisoned in the same way. At the conclusion of the lecture the 298 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. chairman remarked, that until then he had been unac- quainted with tlie fact, that brine was poisonous to pigs, and he hoped the circumstance M-ould be made generally known to parties who kept anunals of the kind, so that they might be cautioned against making similar fatal mistakes. — Derby Courier. REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS ON SPECIAL MANURES IN 1S43. BY MR, ROBERT RUS.SELL, RASTER KILWHISS, BY AUCHTERMUCIITY, FIFESHIRE. {From the Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society.) [Premium — Seven Sovereigns.] the last somi with a mixture of red and white elo^'ers, with })erennial rye-grass, which held pretty well, considering the nature of the ground. The plots were dressed with the substances on the 11th April, and hay was cut on the 5th of July, and weighed on the 1st August. I. — Clover Hay. Soil inferior in quahty, sand}', with a mixture of moss; surface soil, 1^ foot in thickness, resting upon marly clay; drained in summer 1S42. The rotation for the last four years was as follows : — 1st, old pasture; ■2d, oats; 3d, turnips; 4th, barley, 1 u >> vw JT ji c X 1 w No. ! Descrijition of Mamu'es. bcc e a? lb St of catio Acre (U g OJ ition er A 21 ^ ■see •C5 = 5^ rodi e in Stf r— ^ ^ ^ Co ditic cri -J', P-( 3 'T^ 's a. ! •Xj^ < < 1 i lbs. lbs. s. d. St. St. s. d. 1. 1 Nitrate of Soda 40 693 28 6 198 34 0 10 j ^ Guano 56 56 1,008 31 0 288 124 2. ! I Gypsum 0 3 :l. Sulphate of Soda (Crj-s.^l . 83 576 24 0 164.8 S 4. Nothing 574 164 , . .'5. Common Salt 84 612 6 0 174 10 0 7 6. Guano 56 1,013 25 0 289.6 125.6 0 2A The weather was dry at the time the different substances Avere apphed. On the 25th April, No. 1 was assuming a dark green colour; Nos. 2 and 6 were improving ; No. 5, of a lighter green colour tlian the others. 10th Ma}-, Nos. I. 2, 6, were obsen'aljle a good distance away, by the rapid pro- gress they were making ; little difference on Nos. 3 and 5. Throughout .lune, Nos. 2 and 6 took the lead ; and it may be worthy of notice that No. 1 was a little eat with game, although there are comparatively few on the grounds, whilst the others were untouched. The stubble was pastured in autumn; Nos. 2 and 6 were much thicker in the sole than No. 4 ; Nos. 1 and 5 ^^'ere also unproved a little. II. — Clover Hay. Soil good quality, loam lying upon trap rock ; surface-soil about two feet thick, dry, vni\\ south exposure. The i-otation for the last six years as follows: — 1st, grass; 2d, barley; 3d, oats; 4th, turnips ; 5th, wheat ; 6th, barley — the last souti out M'ith a mixture of clovers and lye-grass. On the 20th April, when the substances were applied, the grass was thin. It was cut on 19th July, and the hay weighed on the 11th August. ^6 ^»2 No. Description of Manure. Weight Substance plied on 1- Acre. 5 S i« — < c o Cost 0 Applicati per Acr Produce Acre o Imperial S Additional per Acr Cost 0 Additional per Imp. S lbs. lbs. s. d. St. lbs. St. lbs. 1. Sulphate of Soda 21 192 17 6 164 8 loss 2. Common Salt 28 221 6 0 189 6 loss 3 Nothino" 15 224 268 20 0 192 0 229 10 37 10 4. Guano 6id. 5. Nitrate of Soda 10 335 21 6 287 0 95 2 2id. THE far:\ier's magazine. 209 By the 3d Mav, Nos. 4 and 5 were .shootiiij^ ovit very vijforously, of a dark green colour. None of the other ajiplications seemed to be attended with any etl'ect. No. 5 latterly took the lead of No. 4, and continued to do so to the time they were cut. III.— Tares and Oafs. Ground very inferior ; sandy-surface soil ; with marly subsoil, incumbent upon gravel; rather wet, and not in good condition; oats last year, after several years' pasture. The land was ploughed and pressed-rolled for seed on the ^Gth April, and sown on the 1st May with 2 bushels of tares and 2 bushels of oats per acre ; Nos. 2 and :i put in along with the seed ; Nos. 1 and 5 on the 9th June, when the ])lants were about three inches above the ground. A shower of rain fell imme- diately after the latter plots were dressed. No. l^escription of Manures. Weight of Substances api)lied on ', Acre. Sulphate of Soda (dry) (iyi)suni Bones, 20ll)F., and Sulphuric Acid, 20lbs Nothing Nitrated 20 lbs., Sulphate of Soda, 2Jlbs. lbs. 45 60 40 45 Cost per Acre of Application. 11 8 10 0 Weight of Tares and Oats on 1 .Vcre, per Stone of 22 lbs. St. lbs. 03 18 58 0 144 0 I'nweighed ditto On the 9th June, when the plots Nos. 1 and 5 , were dressed. No. 3 was much improved through- 1 out its whole length ; the plants were assuming a i fine hght-green colour and broader leaf; there was i no difference whatever on No. 2 during the sum- \ mer. No. 3 kept a marked superiority over the : others, which were never perceptibly affected. On the 19th September, \\'hen Nos. 1, 2, and 3, were cut and weighed. No. 3 might l)e oljserved from a consideraljle chstance across the field, being much j taller than the surroimding plots, and the oats ! rising aljove the tares rij)e and well filled, while on | the others they were (juite green. Nos. 1, 2, 3, ; were only weighed as a sample of the others ; but J even these results do not give a just estimate of] the value of the crops, as there was a good deal more grass and \\'ee(ls among Nos. 1 and 2, than \ No. 3, and a better idea is thus formed of the com- ' parative merits of the applications than can be given by inspecting any specimen ()f tares and oats j from No. 3 and 5, taken where the land was, as \ nearly as possible, equal in quality, and which cir- i cumstance clearly shows the direction im])rovement ' niu.-l take on this soil, as all the other substances ; were entirely thrown away. j lY.—Sandy Oats. Soil of a loamy moss, occupying an extensive depression in the surrounding gravel, vaiying from 30 to 40 feet in thickness. It is rather wet, as draining is very imjiracticable for want of level ; however, it dries raj)idly during the spring and summer, as there is no s])ring water, on accotmt of the unusual dei)th of the moss. There is a pecu- liarity in the ai)pearance of the oats and barley that grow upon it in its natural state ; although the oats get quite ripe in the ear, they never do so at the bottom of the stalk, but continue green till cut; the same is the case with the barley, which is green lioth in the straw and ear. A remarkable differ- ence is observed on the latter crop when the land is covered with a coating of gravelly sand, which is much esteemed for builcUng purposes ; it is ten days sooner ready to cut, and the straw is white and hard. These apjiearances are not dependant on the want of drainage, as they are obser\-ed where the land is quite (Iry. Bone manure has a very i)ermanent effect on this land. On an adjoiii- ing field of the same lacustrine dejjosit that was dressed thirteen years ago with 25 bushels of bone- dust j)er acre, every alternate 24 yards, the old-boned portions are distinctly seen at the present day, the cattle always])referringthe grass growing u])on them. oi 1^ ■r. e: ^ ■y: 0) c 2-1 i 3 C3 2 No It Description "^ ^ of '■« - 0 •^ 0 QJ c C lu ^3 rv^ ditional !; re. at 2d. of 14 lb Vm >-' -< -CJS u. .— i •_r 0 -a 0 ^ Manure. be £ ■53 IS 0 2 c 0 be Cm tie < u 4-> « § 0 ■ lbs. S. d. lbs. bus. lbs. lbs. bus. lbs. St. lbs. s. d. s. d. 1. Bone-dust. . 112 22 G 1289 IS 5 52 72 20 3GS 40 1 0.1 15 8 -{ Sulphuric acid Bones . . . 26 20 j 10 0 1055 15 18 G4 Gl 30 301 41? 0 10} 4 G M Nit. & Sulph. of Soda . . 20 20 J 19 0 901 12 22 70 50 G 274 41 .. .. .. 4, Nothing , , .. • . .. .. 1 1 • . ;• • 1 • > .. II • i 300 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The fiekl upon which the before-mentioned experiments have been made has never been ma- nured, but repeatedly i)ared and burned. It was ploughed up last autumn, after lying a number of years in meadow jiasture, much o\'ergrown with rushes. Xo. 1 was sown along with the oats on the 8th April. No. 2 top-dressed on the 6th May; and No. 3 on the 3d June. 'Hie crop was cut on the '20th September, stacked on the '28th, and ihrashed on the 18th October. On the 9th Jmie, No. 1 was thicker than the surrounding crop, No. 3 was improved a little. 1st August, No. ] still the best, veiy close on the ground, and all of one length. No. 2 not so equal. No. 3 taller than any of the rest, and darker co loured, but unequal in length. By the 1st Sep- tember, Nos. 1 and 2 were much laid ; Nos. 3 and 4 standing. By accident, No. 4 got wet before it was thrashed, and as its weight could not be de- pended on, No. 3 is taken as the basis of calcula- tion, . as there was little apparent difference, when stacked, between Nos. 3 and 4. V. — HopetouH Oats. Soil blackish loam, (1 foot thick resting upon gravel,) of good quahty; a fine turnip and clover soil, but rather too di-}' ; south exposure ; the rota- tion for the last five years was, 1st, pasture; 2nd, barley ; 3rd, potatoes ; 4th, wheat ; 5th, hay ; the lea was ploughed in autumn, and the oats sown on 30th March. No. 2 was dressed on the 28th April, during wet weather, and Nos. 1 and 3 on the 30th May, and a good deal of rain fell immediately after they were dressed. The oats were cut on 9th September, and weighed and thrashed on 22nd. p.. c ^ CO U o . ^ . .« No. Deacription Manure. Weight of Substances a plied per l-4th Acre. C U (LI •-at! as '^ i ^^ <4-i r— 1 O o ^ Is O I O r! o -J go % Si (U •< •" >-, a ^ rt O S to 1° 2 i a ^ O P^ o . s.d. 1« O S3 JJ 1 galls. S. d. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. S.d. r 1 2 Galls. Gas- > water, at 3s. . 12 1. Sulph. of Ammo- i 22 8 487 686 42 18 46 16 *8 4 1 9 2 10 nia 14 lbs. M Vitriol .... Bones 20 20 I 10 0 3G6 551 42 24 34 36 t3 18 .0 3, I Sulph. of Soda Nit. of Soda . . 20 20 \ 19 3 435 663 42 30 41 18 *3 6 0 3 6 I 4 Nothing . . . .. .. 402 662 42 40 38 12 * * ' Tlie gas-water was applied to No. 1 on 30th May, diluted vnth. five times its bulk of water. It was very impure, and the plants sufiered a little afterwards, but they rapidly recovered, and kept a darker colour throughout the summer. 1 0th June, No. 3 improved A'ery much ; broader in the leaf and darker in the colour than No. 4 or any of the others. The severe drought in the end of June checked it as Avell as the other jAots, and it never regained its relative superiority. I have no doubt it might be used %A'ith advantage on this soil were the season more favourable. No. 2 never improved, and latterly got a lighter colour than any of the other numbers. There might be a little difference in the quality of the soil in this case to accoimt for the result. Vl.—Barlei/. Soil dry " deaf' loam ujjou gravel ; bad turnip land naturally. This field had lieen lying in old pasture previous to 1839, when a crop of oats was taken, and turnips, rye, turnips, and barley, in succession — the last sown on the 13th April, along with a mixture of rye-grass and clovers, and the following dressing on the 23d May: — 1st, nitre, 128 lbs. per acre, value £2 ; 2d, common salt and nitrate of soda (72 lbs. and 68 respectively), value £1 ; and, 3d, common salt, at the rate of 160 lbs., value 3s. ])er acre. The weather was wet at the time they were dressed, and some of the plots were attacked and injured with wire-worm. For this reason the crop was not weighed, as the results could not have been satisfactory. No difference was apparent on any of the plots during the sum- mer. "Wlien cut, on the 4th September, No. 1 was a little taller than the surroimding crop, but hardly so ripe; No. 2 also a little taller — the ear of a reddish coloiir, and the straw bluish ; and No. 3 had the same appearance, although it was no taller than the others. The latter numbers rather seemed to be forced into an unnatural condition. The sole of gi-ass was not good, and did not appear to have been improved by any of the applications. VII . — Turn ips — (Green -top Yello w) . On a field adjoining the barley (Experiment VI.), of same character and quality, fixe drills were se- lected for each plot, measuring one quarter of an acre; but as the rotation on the one end of the drills on which the experiments were made had been difl^erent from the other end, and the I'esults she\vn a corresponding difference, I have given them sepa- rately as well as together, as they illustrate a most important principle; the whole of the ground was THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 301 manured with six loads of farm-yard dung, well pre- 1 2d, oats ; 3d, pease {manured idth ten loada of pared, jier acre ; the substances were sown above the straw-yurd duny) ; 4th, barley. The tiu'nips were dung. 'J "he seed was sown on the 2 1st June; the , singled out on 29th July. No. 1 was the best weather dry and \\arm at the time, but the ground braird ; y^o. G very little Ijehind, more equal than moist, and a beautiful braird was obtained. The Nos. 3 or 2; Nos. 4, 5, and 7, bad. — Voth August. rotation on Experiment Vll. with tiuiiips, for the No. 1 still best; No. G falhng behind No. 2 ; No. last four years, was — 1st, old pasture; 2d, oats; 3 was later than No. 2, and darker coloured. Tliese 3d, turnips (manured with ten husliel.f of ludf-inch ajijiearances were somewhat common to both the bones, und ten loads of straw-yurd manure); 4th, i ends of the drills. 'J'he turnips were topped and barley : and on Experiment IX — l.st, old pasture ; i tailedon the 14th October, and weighed on the iGth. VIII. — Turnips — {l-Qth of an Acre Imperial.) No. Description of Manure. Weight of Produce of Turni]is on Turnips per l-9th Acre. Acre. Additional Cost of Addi- Turnips per tional Turnips Acre. per Ton. 1. (juano . cwt. 18 14 14 8 7 11 5 lbs. G2 no 29 3 18 100 46 tons. 8 G 6 3 3 5 2 c^^'t. G 15 8 12 4 7 8 tons. 5 4 4 1 0 2 CM't. 18 0 4 1 IG 19 s. G G 8 18 34 1 d. 4 2. Bone-dust . 10 3. Bone-dust, and of Soda . Nit. and Sulph. 0 4. 5. 6. Nit. and Sulj)!! ( Suljjhate of Am Bones dissolved l)ones J acre) Dung alone )f Soda monia . in Vitriol (13 lbs. 4 4 6 7. The south end of the drills in Ejperiment VIII. — By the 7th September, No. 1, best crop; No. 2, the second ; No. 3, keeping a fine dark colour, and improving very much. No. G was superior to Nos. 4, 5, and 7, which were very irregular ; but some good turnips to be found in the drills, evidently where they had come in contact with the pieces of half-inch bones applied two years ago. IX.- —Turnips —0 -7th of an Acre Imperial.) No. 1 Description of Manure. i Weight of ! Turnips on i l-7thAcre. Produce of Turnips per Acre. Additional Turnips per Acre. Cost of Addi- tional Turnips per Ton. 1. Guano cwt. lbs. 18 27 19 14 13 4G 1 105 0 77 10 52 1 97 tons, cwt, G 7 G 13 G 8 0 13 0 4 3 13 0 13 tons, c^^t. 5 14 6 0 5 15 3 0 s. d. 6 6 2. 3. Bone-dust Bone-dust, and Nit. and of Soda Sulph. 5 0 5 0 4, 5. n Nit. and Sulph. of Soda Sulphate of Ammonia . Dissolved Bones . • • • loss loss 1 6 7. Dung alone .... ... T/ie north end of drills in Experiment IX. — On 7th September there hardly was a turnip worth the palling on Nos. 4, 5, and ". Tliey had the most X. — Turnips, adding Experiments VIII. and IX. together, amounting to \-Ath Acre each Plot. miserable appearance that could be conceived. No. G was inferior to Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and not thrivinar well. No. Description of Manure. i Weight of Substances apphed on l-4th Acre. Cost of Substances applied j)er Acre. Produce on l-4th Acre. Produce on Imp. Acre. Additional Turnips per Acre. ('ost of Additional Turnips per Ton. s. d. cwt. 11)S. tons. cwt. tons, cwt i s. d. 1. Guano 84 lbs. 37 G 36 89 7 7 5 IS ' 6 4 2. Bone-dust 3 bus. 30 0 34 12 0 16 5 7 : 5 7 3. Bone-dust "1 I bus. 10 <^ 1 ,?; 22 0! ^ 32 75 Nitrate (17 lbs.), and Sulphate I 57 lbs. 6 11 5 2 ! G 3 of Soda (40 lbs.) dry . . . J 1 4. Nitrate and Sidphate of Soda 57 lbs. 22 0 9 108 2 0 0 11 1 5. Sulph. of Ainnionia 35 lbs. 27 G '7 95 1 11 0 2 G. Dissolved Bones \ 13 bones Q sid, ac. J 1 5 4s. Gd.| 22 40 4 9 3 0 1 1 G 7. Dung alone •• 7 31 1 9 .. 302 THE far:mer's magazine. XI. — Turnips — (Green-top Yellow.) i tuinn. Ou 15lh June, the drills on all the plots Surface-soil dry sandy loam, close texture, about were dressed at the rate of 12 loads of farm-yard 1 J foot in thickness, incumbent upon sandy gravel It Ues flat, and is rather exposed. The rotation for the last four years was — Lst, old pasture; 2d, cats; 3d, potatoes ; and 4th, wheat. The ground was ploughed to the depth of 14 inches last au- manure per acre, and after being spread, the various substances were sown amongst it. The turnip seed (green-top yellow) was sown the same daj-. The turnips were topped and tailed on the I4th October, and the crop was weighed on that day. No. 6. Description of Manure. ^ S o £i ' r! ra — ■ --. Burned Bones Bone-dust . . . f Bone-dust . . . L Sulphate of Soda Sulphate of Soda Dung alone Guano . . . . lbs. ;i 160 160 50 84 s. d. 2 1 0 29 0 a ^ t attention on the j)art of the landlord to the execution of all necessary improvements. On the important operation of draining, now attracting almost universal attention, thousands have already been ex{)ended by individual ])roj)rietors ; the tenants holding imder existing leases, ])aying a proportion of the outlay. The cost of tlie tiles, which is the usual material for filling drains, as well as the expense of opening them, is usually defrayed by the i)roprietor ; but in most cases the i)recise jjroportion of the out- lay borne by each of the parties is matter of jirevious special agreement between them, and depending on the individual interest of each in the land. The tenant in this case, it is manifest, is quite indepen- dent of his landlord ; having incurred no exjjendi- ture of which his tenure will not secure him the benefits, and at its expiration he surrenders his farm without either disap])ointment or regret, pro- vided he cannot effect another arrangement on sufficiently advantageous terms, ("hanges are not, however, so fretjuent as might thus be sup|)osed. It is frequently the case that several succeeding generations occupy the same farm : and, es]iecially on some estates, such a thing as a change of tenant is scarcely known. From acts of mutual kiiulru'ss, the feeling of confidence is often such between the parties that an instrument of agreement is never required. 308 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Those who are accustomed to consider the re- lation existing between landlord and tenant as one of absolute domination on one hand, and of total dependance on the other, mil thus see that such is not a natural result of the relative situations of these parties. The tenant may, in a certain sense, be a more independent man than his landlord, in- asmuch as his expenditure may much less nearly approximate to his income ; and his perfect readi- ness to leave his farm at the expiration of his term, and ability to meet his engagements during its ex- istence, makes him, in a degree, regardless alike of the smiles or the frowns of the proprietor ; and it IS not less the advantage of the one than the other that a good understanding should be maintained. Could this relationship between these parties be introduced into Ireland it would do more for its prosperity than any legislative enactments could effect. It is to be feared, however, that such a consummation is not likely soon to be realized. That feehng of mutual confidence, between land- lord and tenant, so necessary, as a primary step, in bringing aljout that result, does not there exist ; and, at the present day, it is much more the fashion to widen the breach already so great than to attem])t effecting a reconciliation. This feeling has frustrated the intentions of many benevolent proprietors in their endeavours to impro^'e their properties and increase the comforts of their tenantry, who, finding their every act to be viewed with sus- picion and distrust, and tlieir personal safety, per- haps endangered by their interference, give up the whole in disgust, and satisfy themselves with the exaction of their rents, leaving their tenants to the uninterrupted ])ossession of their ancient prac- tices. .Such a feeling is deeply to be dejilored; but until the occupiers of the soil look upon the landed proprietors with a more favourable eye there is little probabiUty of its being soon subdued. The Irish i)easantry are more attached to their native places than those of any other country. ITie small patch which has been occupied by the same family for generations, is regarded with a sort of religious veneration, in which the occujiier has ac- quired a right, in virtue of his occupancy, no less sacred than that by which the proprietor claims his annual rent. The subdivision of holdings, origin- ally too small, has, in many cases, reduced these small farms to the smallest extent on which a bare subsistence can be procured. The usual provision for the male 1>ranches of a family is a portion of the farm on which they have been reared; and this system being acted on for generations has tended to the reduction of the size of the holdings to their present extent. The occupiers of many of them is but a slight remove from the labourer. His daily fare is certainly no better, and his labour and anxiety are much greater, as having incurred a greater responsibility. The avidity with which small patches of land are sought after is, notwith- standing, surprising. No sooner is one of these farms to be vacated (rather an unusual circum- stance) either by the inability of the occupier to maintain his ground, or other causes, than a nu- merous host of applicants are in the field, many of whom are satisfied to give almost their last farthing to obtain possession, without leaving anything be- hind to carry on the farm afterwards, until some return is obtained from its produce. The posses- sion of a piece of land is, in most cases, the only available expedient to raise the occupier from the labouring class ; and whatever may be the diffi- culty of proceeding in this new sphere, it is en- countered, mthout hesitation, to obtain such a purjiose. Though failure may be almost inevitable, and poverty and hard laliour certain, yet the con- solation is entertained that, in such an event, a similar sum can ])e obtained from some other ad- venturer to that which has been paid for the good- will of the farm, as it is termed, by the present occupant. Though the system of sub-division, above de- scribed, has been long carried on without any at- tempt on the part of the proprietors to discontinue it, nay, it is believed, in times past, it was actually encouraged by them, chiefly on account of the ex- tended political influence which it thereby secured ; the consolidation of farms is now much in A'Ogue, if the means to ett'ect it could be carried into opera- tion ; but, unless through circumstances over which he has no control, the Irish small fanner is ex- ceedingly averse to removal from his holding, even should a better one be placed within his reach ; and hence the attempts which have hitherto been made to increase the size of farms, by joining two or more into one, has often been followed by such disastrous results as to hold out small inducement to a perseverance in such a course of proceeding. 'Hie foregoing remarks have reference exclu- sively to the small farms of the country. Ireland, though essentially a country of small farms is not, however, absolutely such. Wherever large farms are to be found the system of management is dif- ferent, as in such cases the superior education of their occupants and the possession of adequate capital enable them to obtain those advantageous terms, in regard to their holdings, possessed by the Scotch and English farmers. Even in this case, it is true, permanent improvements are seldom made by the proprietors, but, then, where such are acquired, the tenant obtains his holding on such advantageous terms as to enable him to make them himself. In a country of small farms and defective tillage, the permanent improvements likely to be effected in any case cannot be sujiposed to be very con- siderable ; nor is the Irish peasant, in particular, remarkable for his appreciation of those comforts or luxuries, if the term may be allowed, which can be secured only by the jwssession of im- proved cottages and other suitable appendages. An improved taste must, indeed, be gradually cultivated before habitations of a better class can be appreciated ; and, in some cases in which be- ne^^olent proprietors have attempted to introduce a superior class, they have met with little encourage- ment, the new habitations being often rendered, if possiljle, through neglect, still more uncomfortable than the old. Tliis has tended to confirm and con- tinue the system of causing the occupier to make, at his own expense, whatever permanent improve- ments he may consider necessary ; and the pre- valence of this system has mainly created the feel- ing so universally entertained of the value of mere THE FAHMER'S MAGAZINE. 309 tenant right, in virtue of occupation, which is al- together unknown on the other side of the chan- nel— a right, further, which the Irish small farmer is not slow in demonstrating, must not be disre- garded with impunity. This tenant right has been said to be a matter of bargain and sale, and its violation by eviction or other means, is therefore regarded with extreme jealousy. In many cases the proprietors do not take cognizance of it, allowing the tenants to dis- pose of this supposed interest in whatever manner they [)lease, so as they can approve of the in-com- ing ones. In other cases it is, however, directly recognized, the })roprietor, or his nominee, de- termining the precise amount which such sui)iiosed right should bring, and this interference generally takes place on the ground that it is ttnld ton liirjh without it, thereby de]n-iving the in-coming tenant of his capital, and rendering him less able to suc- cessfully cultivate his farm. When a tenant, through mismanagement, or some vmfortunatc cir- cumstance, is unable to pay his rent, such recog- nition is often of advantage to the landlord, tlie tenant being thus allowed or compelled to sell his right in the farm, and out of the jiaymcnt which is to be thcrel)y made to him, all arrears must l)e paid. But the tenant may be obstinate, and while he cannot pay his rent he will not sell liis farm ; when, as a matter of course, summary eviction en- sues, which is often, unfortunately, followed by those disastrous results of so frequent occurrence in certain parts of Ireland. 'iliere is, at the jiresent time, and has been for some time past, a great disinclination on the part of proprietors, in Ireland, to grant leases to their tenantry ; and interested parties have availed them- selves of this circumstance to widen the breach between these parties, already too formidable, on the grounds that, in such a course, they are ac- tuated by ])ohtical considerations — the possession of the elective franchise dejiending \\\mn freehold or leasehold interest; and that, by such means, the landed proprietors seek to diminish the political influence which they have too much reason to know would be exercised against themselves when a fitting opjtortunity occiured. Whether such considerations have any weight in inducing land- lords so to act, it is not our present purpose to inquire ; we are only interested in the consideration of how far tlie practice is calculated to promote or retard the progress of agricultural improvement. That leases are essential to the execution of really j)crmanent improvements, by an occupying tenant, is admitted by 'every one ; but, that such improvements will follow the granting of leases (unless in particular cases), experience, in Ireland at least, has shown not to be the fact. Tiie grant- ing of a lease gives the tenant a more valuable in- terest in his holding, and is, thus far, an individual advantage to himself in the event of his wishing to dispose of the farm ; but, if this does not ojicrate as an inducement with him to cultivate his farm better, the advantages of his lease in a national point of view, are extremely questionable. Having no inclination jjiobably, himself, to wander from the Ijcaten track, liis lease guards him from any intrusion on the part of hi-: landlord to which he may be averse ; and it thus eflfectually protects the cultivators of the soil from any innovations of established practice, however imperfect, and jjer- petuates their miserable system of cultivation, which is, unquestionably, the chief cause of the imfortunate condition in which a large majority of them are jilaced. On these grounds, then, we are decidedly of opinion, that the indiscriminate posses- sion of leases would do more to retard the i)rogress of imjirovcment in Ireland than the combined etForts of after generations could counteract. In the case of a pauper tenant, which is by no means of rare occiurence there, a lease is binding only on the landlord. Penal clauses are of no avail where the amount of the ordinary rent can seldom be levied by distress, and ejection is obviously impolitic, as, in many cases it would be followed by the for- feiture of the life of the ejector. This is a melan- choly state of things, but it is not the less true ; and the extent of agrarian outrage consequent on the interference of projirietors in the management of their properties, has, no doubt, taught them a very important lesson for their guidance in future. In the case of an intelligent and respecta- ble tenantry, we have seen that the jiarties are in- dependent of each other, but it is quite the reverse when the tenantry ajiproach to the condition of paupers. Then, indeed, they are dependant on the landlord, in many cases not being able jjunctually to fulfil their obhgations, and, therefore, obliged to crave indulgence ; but this dependance need not; be so great an evil when kindly feelings are culti- vated between the jiarties. It is no less the inter- est than the duty of proprietors to treat their tenantry with kindness and indulgence, and no doubt can be entertained that, in many cases, when such is not practised, the tenants have only themselves to blame. That the indiscriminate granting of leases would be either an act of justice to themselves, or kindness to their tenantry, we are by no means prepared to admit ; and all refer- ence to the exjierience of the past tends to the con- firmation of this opinion. On such properties as interminable leases have been largely given, at former jieriods, and often at a merely nominal rent, in consideration of i)ersonal or other services, a more miserable class of the pojtulation does not exist than the petty freeholders, as they are called, which arc thus created. Being discharged from the obligation of the ])ayment of an adequate rent for their land, these i)etty lords are confirmed in their habits of indolence, and the payment of the nominal rent to which they may be subject is fre- quently productive of more inconvenience to them than that of an adequate rent is to an industrious tenant. Unless, therefore, in the case of a tenantry ])ossesscd of capital, and of intelligence and enter- prise to make this capital available in tiie im])rove- ment of their farms, wc have only to repeat our conviction tliat a lease is to be viewed ratiier as an obstacle than as an inducement to improvement. But, while wc have thus expressed our untpiali- ficd ojjinion in reference to tlic inexpediency of leases in certain cases, we are perfectly .sensible of their importance in others. Unless the landlord is jireparcd to execute all impro\emcnts at iiis own expense, it cannot reasonably be supposed that a Y 2 310 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tenant will invest his capital for that purpose, with- out some guarantee as to the certainty of reaping the fruits of his labours. Whenever the Irish landlord is fortunate enough to have a respectable tenantry he should most unequivocally show his appreciation of them by the most substantial favour which he has in his power to confer on them — the granting of leases at equitable rents, and for terms sufficient to repay any contemjjlated outlay which may be necessar)- ; and this they have reason to expect, not as a matter of favour, but as one of mutual interest, as well on the part of the landlord as their own. It may be said that such a conclusion is more severe than is called for, under the circumstances, to the poor man, and is inflicting a punishment on him for his situation in life. Were it not that such a remark is so frequently made use of, we should scarcely have felt it necessary to advert to it here. If It can be shewn that the possession of a lease will operate as an inducement to exertion for bet- tering his situation in life, then we should, in the strongest manner, urge his claim for that security in the possession of his improvements to which he would, in such a case, be so justly entitled. But, when all experience has decidedly shewn that such a result is by no means i)robalile, nay, that the very reverse will be the consequence of this so much prized acquisition, M-e cannot join in the ciy of injustice now so unjustly raised against land- lords on account of "their not indiscriminately granting leases to their tenantiy. Indeed, much of the idle cant now so liberally indulged in, is we fear induced by political considerations rather than by any sincere wish to benefit the class thus loudly called on to resent the injuries to which they are said to be subjected. Did this idle declamation end here, we should not consider it deser\-ing of serious notice; but it, unfortunately, is cal- culated to ferment and extend those feehngs of jealousy which have been already deprecated. The determined hostility, on the jjart of a large majority of the people to all innovation of the practices of their ancestors, and the so general prevalence of outrages against landed proprietors and those in their employment, as a sort of retalia- tion for any interference on their part, has had the effect of banishing them from their properties, as It were, in times jjast. Loud cries are raised against absentee jiroprietors, and none can be more sensible of the benefits arising from the countenance and expenditure of resident land landlords than we are, still we consider the cessa- tion of outrages among their tenantry as the most jiotential call M'hich can be raised to induce pro- prietors to reside on their projierties. In numer- ous cases, great efibrts have been made for the in- troduction of an imjiroved system of management on individual estates, and the benevolent intentions of their owners have not, we are sorry to say, met with a suitable sjnrit of co-ojjeration on the part of their tenantry, without which they are, to a certain extent, unavailing. Whatever acts of omission may be charged to landlords in times j)ast, there seems, at jjresent, to be an earnest wish on their part generally to encourage imin'ovements : and Avere one half the pains taken to counsel the tenantrj' to co-operate with them for this purpose that there is to arouse feelings of hostility towards them, more would be done, in a short time, to- wards the improvement of the country than by calling out for the interference of the legislature for centuries. It is only by the combined efforts of proj)rietors and occupiers that the intended object can be effected, and not by appeals to the legisla- ture, most of the grievances complained of not ad- mitting of legislative relief. The introduction, generally, of an improved sys- tem of husbandry into a country thus situated must be a work of time, patience, and perseverance. Wherever the tenantry are persons of intelligence and capital, the effects of such a combination are at once ajiparent in the different aspect which everything is made to assume ; but a large j)ro- portion of the Irish landholders possess neither the one or the other. While, further, our meed of approbation has been cordially awarded to the landlords, as a body, yet, on many estates, the management pursued, it cannot be doubted, is such as to deserve the most severe reprehension. In the cases to which allusion is now made, the granting of leases is general, but as a necessary condition a fine must be paid at the perfecting of the same, the rent being supposed to be reduced in proportion to the amount thus paid. Among the class of small farmers in Ireland, from the })re- ceding observations it wiU lie seen that the tenant has seldom the power of acting as an indei)endent party, his attachment to his native spot causing him to adhere to it so long as a living can pos- sibly be made from it ; and this is the circumstance of all others which contributes most to retain him in his unfortunate position. On the estates to which these observations refer, the amount de- manded as a fine depends, in each case, on the sujiposed ability of the tenant to pay, and he is too well aware of the effect of his non-compliance to hesitate about performing the part required of him. Such estates, too, are chiefly those of absentee proprietors, and, it need scarcely be added, they are situated in those ])arts of the country in which agrarian outrages are unknown, otherwise a A'ery summary retaliation would be attempted, and that successfully, against those who practice such a system. It would, at present, be premature to fonn an opinion as to the result of the labours of the Com- mission now, and for some time past, prose- cuting its enquiries as to the operation of these laws, Anth a view to the introduction of such changes in them as circumstances may render ex- pedient. It is well known that the intentions of the legislature may be in a great measure counter- acted by the manner in which the laws are ad- ministered ; besides, it is our firm conviction that for few of those evils of which the Irish farmer has to complain, can any adequate legislative relief be afl'orded. One beneficial result may, however, be expected to follow the labours of the Commission- ers, inasmuch as the cases of mismanagement to which allusion has been made will thereby be placed before the jniblic, and this of itself vnW go far to ett'ect a cure. Before bringing our remarks on this subject to a, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 311 close, we cannot omit the op])ortiinity of l)rinfifing under the notice of the hinded ])iopriet()rs of the country jrenerally, and of Irelancl in ])articular, the importance of their hecoming practicidly (ic(ju(iinti'd with (he maniKjemeiit of their properties. It is, we are sorry to say, too much the fashion of the ])re- sent day to leave the mana^i;ement uf estates alto- gether to accents or factors, many of whom are also non-resident and entirely nniHHjuuinted with the details of agriculture. Too many of the latter, also, belong to the legal profession, and if the improve- ments of the farms and the comforts of their oc- cu])iers he regarded as imjjortant ohjects, a more unfortunate selection could not he made to ellect them. The very nature of their profession dis- poses such persons to carping at quihhles and liti- giousness, ever heing on the watch for some jjctty infringement, real or sui)i)Osed, of the rights of their i)rincii)als, the detection of which shows the jealousy with which they are guarded, and often forms the suhject of commendation instead of the most deserved censure. Such conduct seldom fails to make the tenantry withdraw all confidence from the landlord or his agent, and make them averse to follow any instructions laid down for their guidance, even when such are really for their own benefit. The cases are very iew indeed in which such agents understand anything whatever of the practice of husbandry ; and they attempt to make up for their deficiency, in this resjject, by their over attention to the technicalities of their own profession. It is not intended, by these remarks, to under- value the possession of legal knowledge in the management of an estate, a certain ])roficiency in which is desirable, if not essential ; but matters in- volving i)urely legal proceedings may well he left to l)ersons of that jjrofession, without entrusting them with others for which their education, to a certain extent, imfits them. What we insist on is the pos- session of a practical knowledge of the details of husbandry as an absolutely indisi)ensal)le (pialifi- cation, for the a])sence of which nothing can com- pensate. The proprietors of extensive machinery would never think of ajjjjointing a manager to su- ])erinten(l its operations who nas ignorant of even the slightest combination of the meciianical powers, however intelligent he might be in other respects, although the case of a novice in agricidtural opera- tions Ijeing api)ointed to suj)erintend landed j)ro- perty is not in any degree dissimilar, or scarcely less impolitic. 'Ihe knowledge here contended for, and that alone, will enable the i)roprietor or his agent to look upon arrangements between them and their tenants in the iirojjer light. It will enable tiiem to distinguish what really should be done for the im])rovement of the ])ro|)erlies commit- ted to their charge, and what indulgences the tenants really require. They will easily ascertain wlu-ther the j)rogressiou or retrogade condition of llie tenant proceeds from his own management, or arises from circumstances over whicli lie has no control ; and they will regulate their conduct accordingly- — by rejjroving the indolent ; by encouraging, by re- wards or otherwise, the e.\erti(ms of the industrious as inducements to further and extended exertions ; and by euabhng such as uje labouring imder ob- stacles which, unaided, they cannot overcome, to surmoimt them by the use of proper exertion. A continued i)erseverance in such acts and conduct will not fail to imi)art a tone and feeling of coin- ];etition throughout those who may be fortunate enough to be within its reach, and be ])rodnctive of the most salutary improvements ; and feelings of kindness and confidence will be engendered, which the greatest efforts of idle dedaimers \vill be unable to remove. One of the good effects of the Commission, al- ready noticed, will be the exjiosure of cases in which a contrary course to that here enjoined is followed. Not unfrequently both landlord and agent are non-resident, the former not having, per- haps, even seen the property from which he may derive many thousands sterling per annum; and the knowledge of it ])ossessed by the latter being acquired during his periodical visits to re- cei\'e the rents. Wlien such a course is adopted it cannot be doubted that much oppression is prac- tised by the underlings of those in authority, who are always prone to act thus unless v,-hen under proper restraint, and that many grievances remain unredressed, which under proper management would ne\er exist. It is absurd to talk of com- [lelling the absentee to spend a certain jiortion of his time on his j)roperty, as this would be imposing a restraint on personal liberty, which, in a free country, is not to be endured ; but it is to be hoped that public opinion will, in time, effect this very desirable circumstance, which is lieyond the power of the law. J. .Si'Kollk. WIXCHCOMB FARMERS' CLUB. This club was established in 1840 by the jn'oposition of a public-spirited gentleman of the neighbourhood, who, both in the official cajjacities of acting magis- trate and chairman of the board of guardians, anil in his ])rivate capacity as resident lamllord and country gentleman, is efpially respected and Ije- loved ; indeed, the popularity of the projjoser was the iirincipal magnet by whicli sufficient members were at first attracted to form a club, as consiroken, there has been no meeting witliout an essay being ready for the consideration and discussion of the club. .\mongst the collateral advantages springing tlicrelrom, the most prominent arc — the 313 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. formation of a permanent library, the establishment of an annual ploughing match in October, and the friendly rivalry of a show of grain, roots, fruit, &c., for sweepstakes of small sums, at the November meeting. The easy annual subscription of 5s., mth a few handsome donations, enable the honorary secretary and treasurer to meet current expenses, purchase all the best standard works and periodi- cals on agriculture, and with the balance in hand during the last year, to add many of the cheap publications of Chambers of Edinburgh, and others, which although not strictly agricultural, tend to convey useful general knowledge, and blend amusement with instruction : indeed, the library has now assumed so bulky and respectable an ap- pearance, that a resolution has been unanimously agreed to, to give the neighbourhood an oppor- tunity of participating in the advantages of cheap reading, by admitting a new class of members to the hbrary alone, at the low subscription of 2^. Gd. per annum. Prizes to the amount of more than £10 ha^-e been divided each year amongst the win- ners in the different classes of ploughmen, and tlie improvement in the work, not only in the field where the match is held, but throughout the neighbour- hood generally, since the first trial of skill, is one proof of the practical good arising from the farmers' club. The November show of i-oots, &c., has pro- duced some excellent specimens of Swedish turnips, mangold wurzel, and carrots ; and a premium given by the president, Edward Holland, Esq. of Dum- bleton, has each year been keenly contested for. It is a sweepstakes of 5s. each, to which Mr. Hol- land adds a premium of £3, for the best four acres of Swedes. A splendid crop was shown by Mr. H„ grown on light hill land, and to him the premium was this year awarded by the judges ; but it was handsomely handed to the member showing second best (Mr. Walker, of Washborne), a first rate far- mer, who also took the sweepstakes for the 12 best Swedes, A beautiful show of dessert and cider apples was exhibited, and the sweepstakes awarded to Mr. J. F. Peacey, the secretary, who afterwards read the following essay on the management of or- chards, CULTIVATION OF THE APPLE, This being the season in which the apple can be best exhibited, and the tree itself pruned or t»-ans- planted, I have chosen the above subject as likely to be interesting, and — also, from the discussion that may probably follow my remarks — useful. The apple amongst fruits ajipears to hold the rame rank as wheat among corealia, or potatoes among roots. It is not a luxury only : from habit, it has almost become one of tlie necessaries of life, and so deserves our attention. The apple is re- corded to have been first introduced into England by Leonard Mascall, in the reign of Henry the Eighth. The only fruits indigenous to Britain, were, we are told, the acorn, the sloe, the hazel nut, and the crab : and although cultivation and skill have produced an almost unlimited number of va- rieties of them, yet the seeds or kernels of our Ijest apples, when sown, naturally re-produce the origi- nal patent fruit — the crab or ^\^lding, as the filbert also does the common hazel nut. I say this is naturally and usually the result of planting kernels of apples ; probably not more than one in a thousand proves worth notice as an apple ; they require grafting before being worthy of admit- tance to an orchard, CROSSING, Botany, however, teaches us that we can propagate apples from the blossoms of any sorts we choose to inoculate together, with almost the same certainty as to the result, as in crossing the breed of horses, sheep, or cattle. The late Mr. Knight, of Downton Castle, in Here- fordshire, takes the lead in having introduced the ])est fruits of the present day ; many of these are crosses between selected sorts of apples and the Siberian crab. The Siberian Hervey was raised from the seed of the yellow Siberian crab, inocu- lated with the pollen of the golden HeiTey. The Downton pippin is also evidently a cross from the yellow Siberian crab, probably with the old orange pippin. The Downton pippin is said not to make good cider. The Siberian Hervey has not, to my knowledge, been tried unmixed ; my own opinion of it is favourable, and 1 have several young trees grafted with it ; my reasons for doing so are — the hardy constitution and capability to bear the east- erly winds and spring frosts it inherits from the Siberian crab, and also the rich flavour and abun- dance of kernel it aftbrds. The mode of inocula- tion is simple. Having fixed on the varieties you intend to cross, select a healthy bunch of blossoms, before quite open, and carefully opening the buds, cut off the stamens, and close the buds again ; which must then be inclosed in a bag of fine muslin or gauze that will admit the sun and air, but prevent bees or flies from touching them. In a few days the buds will open with the pistil or female organs only. Some healthy blossoms must then be selected from the tree intended for the male parent, and the tips or stigma of the prepared blossom touched with the pollen or farina from the anthers or ends of the male blossoms ; the covering must then be replaced and all other blossoms cut oft" the branch. The kernels of the apples aftenvards so produced must be carefully taken from the fruit, kept in dry sand during the winter, and sown in fine rich mould in February (if on a hot-bed the better), and if trans- ])lanted and kept well manured, they will probably bear fruit in six or seven years. If, however, a more general and extensive cpiantity of seedlings are required, the plan I have adopted is to select a few bushels of the finest fruit at the cider mill, and when half ground and the kernels not crushed, fill a hair-cloth M'ith the pulp, which, when pressed dry and broken up fine, is jnit in a moderately dry place, secure from mice, and drilled with the ker- nels it contains in the s])ring, in February or March. For a few weeks the young plants have many enemies. Birds must be scared, mice caught in traps, and worms and snails dressed occasionally with lime or wood ashes, or they will destroy numbers of the young seedlings ; lint in a short time wood is formed, and the only thing then necessary is to keep them hoed clean and well supplied with water or liquid manure, I have had plants three or four THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 313 feet high the first year. In November or Felnuary, the seedhng plants shouhl l)e transplanted into rows, one foot Ijetween each plant, and two feet or a yard between the rows, ancl liere they may remain for two years. AVhen three years old, the freest grow- ing trees, with huge broad lea\es, and smooth dark colonred bark may be i)lanted out by themselves to remain till tlu)' bear fruit, as they are most likely to i)roduce new varieties. The remaining ]ilants should lie removed again into rows, two feet by three feet asunder ; antl if this is done early in the autumn, they may be grafted the next spring, or budded the jireceding or succeeding Midsummer till Michaelmas. C; RAFTING 1 prefer to be done while the stock is young and in the nursery, as the graft being jmt into the stock, about one foot from the earth, becomes in fact the stem of the futiue tree, and is not liable to be bro- ken oft' by high winds, or split by a heavy crop of fruit, as is sometimes the case in cleft-grafting, vv'hen the stock is older. Splice-grafting on small trees is also more certain ; not one graft in twenty ought to fail ; and if the land is kept as it should be, in high condition, they will shoot from two to fi\'e feet, and in two, or at most in three, years be fit for the orchard. I exhibit a young tree, grafted the 10th of Ajtril last, now five feel high, and three quarters of an inch in circumference. Grafts may be sent any distance by the simjile jilan of inserting the lower end in a potato. In 183(3, I brought home ajjple and crab grafts from the farthest set- tled j)art of Canada. I was two months traveling home ; they came perfectly fresh, and have since borne fruit. The jiotatoes I exhibit to-day are descended from those I brought home with the grafts stuck in them eight years since. BUDDING Is an 0])pration that may be j^erformed even earlier than splice-grafting, and has the advantage of not materially injuring the stock, shoidd it fail, which, if done in proper season (August or >Sei)tembcr), will scarcely be the case to the amoimt of one per cent. There appears to exist an analogy in animal and \egetable life in many things ; thus the natural decay of individual families, not only of man but of inferior animals, has its parallel in the history of the ai)))le. There are some kinds of old fruit that cannot be kept long in a healthy state : they strike readily from the graft, flourish for a few years, and then begin to canker and die back one year what they grew the preceding. (Jf these I will mention the russet, orange ])ipi)in, orange ])carmain, and golden pipi)in ; and there are symptoms of decline in young trees grafted with that very generally use- ful ajiple, the IJroniley. I have tried most of these old s(irts on the most vigorous young stocks, both by budding and grafting ; but tlie .seeds of degene- racy and decay are transuiilted from the parent tree, KO that jn'emature decline and disajjpointment is the consecjuence. This i)redisposition to decay also appears to invite that pest to nurseries and or- chards, the aphis or American blight. The best remedy 1 know of is simply to cut out the infected part with a keen knife, and afterwards wash the stem or bough with strong soap-suds, applied with a brush and well rubbed in. SITE OF THE ORCH.\RD. 'Hie site of an orchard should be near the dwell- ing house, on good (piality of soil, and rich deep lanil, with a subsoil either naturally diy, or that can be made so by draining. Soil on which the elm grows freely is, we may be sure, fit for the growth of the apple or pear. No foot-path or other road should cross the orchard, and an impenetrable fence of hedge and ditch, or better still, a strong stone wall should surround it. LINF.AU ARRANGEMENT OF THE TREES. Previous to planting, the distances between the trees should \)e fixed on, and the whole field laid out in right-angled lines, a straight stake being placed at each intersection. Thus only can the trees l)e planted in lines so as to be perfectly straight when viewed in any direction ; and while the jjlant- ing is i)roceeding, a jjcrson whose eye can be de- pended on should superintend it from various parts of the field, ])revious to the earth being filled in — as a single mistake of a few inches will throw all out of s(|uare. This is seldom attended to in this district, and I never noticed so much the crooked straggling ajjpearance of our orchards until 1 had an opportunity of contrasting them with some that I saw in the far western States of America, in Indiana, at a place called New Harmony, the proi)erty of the well-known Robert Owen, the Socialist, but originally settled and planted by a colony of Ger- mans. The.se orchards were laid out with the nicest precision, which in a field I ha\'e latel)' jdanted at Prescott I have endeavoured to copy. By this method the greatest number of trees can be jjlanted in a given space, so as to afford to each an equal area to occupy with roots and branches, besides the advantage of passing with carts or waggons to carry hay or collect fruit ; or if the field be arable, the plough can thus cross in any direction, so as to leave but a narrow jjortion untilled. DISTAXCE.S OF TREES. As regard.s distance, some persons who have written on ])lanting orchards recommend the trees to stand -2 2 yards from each other ; but from my own observation and experience, I think half that distance (that is 33 feet) will, on the average of land and seasons, jjroduce more fruit, and the trees will come early into bearing. An orchard on ])astuie land (and there are few arable in (iloucestershire) should be api)ro])riated to the s])ecific purpose of a fruit manufactory, the under croj) of grass being quite a secondary consideration. The best orchard I know, as a constant bearer, is one where the branches of the trees meet each other in every direc- tion, and shade the whole ground. I account for this by considering that there are no entervals for the keen winds of spring to find a current through, so as to check the sap ; ami, |)rovided the orchard is exposed to the full influence of the sun, and on the south side, I do not think it cm be too much sheltered from every oilier ipiarler. A friend of I mine, living at Uisiiop's Gleeve, has an orchard . with every other advantage, but situated in an ex- 314 THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE, posed situation on the eastern side of the village. It happens, year after year, that his orchard pro- duces abundance of blossom ; but when the fruit should be forming, each bud covers a grub, and of course the blossom perishes ; and as his neigh- bours have generally abundance of fioiit, he declares, somewhat ])ettishl)', that his orchard is " filterer- general " to the whole ^-illage. A probable reason for earlier bearing in an or- chard thickly planted would be that the trees have less space for their roots to extend ; and as a tree seldom produces much new wood and fruit at the same time, it seems a reasonable conclusion, that as there is not much surplus sap to form new shoots, blossom-buds will be formed instead ; and as nurserymen teU us, that if by any means we can once cause a tree to produce fruit, it will after con- tinue the habit, and as we do not require apple trees for timber, a diameter of 33 feet is large enough for the head of a fruit tree, PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. Having determined to plant an orchard, the first thing to be prepared ready for transjilanting is a heap of compost formed of old turf, slaked lime, and farm yard manure ; these should be well turned and mixed together during the spring and summer preceding, so as to form a mass of material resembhng the mole-casts on deep good land — in- deed, could a sufficient quantity of this be obtained, it would at once form the material required. The holes should be dug in the winter, so as to ex])ose the soil to the action of the frost. If the subsoil be clay, the earth should be cast in three divisions round the hole, so as to place separately the turf, the second quahty of soil, and the subsoil clay — the latter to be spread or carted ofF. The second quality should then be returned into the holes, the turf chopped fine and levelled on it, and it will then be fit for the reception of the roots of the trees — about a wheelbarrow of the compost to each tree being mthin reach of the planters, PLANTING. Far too little ])ains are generally taken in the im- portant operation of planting. To do this well three persons should always be employed — a lad to hold the tree upright ; a man kneeling, to manage the roots, spreading them with the ends inchning a little upward, while the third levels the prepared soil underneath them, so tiiat when loosed they may / e nearly horizontal, and radiating evenly on all sides from the stem, hke tlie sjjokes of a wheel ; more soil should then be levelled amongst them with the hand, wliile the tree is slightly shaken, taking care that the crown of the roots shall not be below the level of the surface of the ground. The roots will at length be covered with mould, and the man who had the care of them, ])est knowing their position, should tread the mould over them. The treading should be firmly, not violently done — the heel of the shoe first coming in'' contact with the soil on the outside of the hole, and the toe will then gradually press the earth to the centre of the roots. This is very different to the usual method of throw- ing in coarse clods, and stamping on them so as to form a puddle of clay impenetrable to water, as I have often seen done in planting. I am aware that trees so planted will, if the roots are good and the stock healtliy, after a struggle for a year or two, overcome these impediments; but by following the rules I have laid down, there wU be scarcely a check to their growth. Last year was jieculiarly try- ing to trees newly planted, and many perished in the drought of summer ; yet in an orchard I planted in February, I only lost three or four trees out of eight or ten dozen, CARE OF THE YOUNG TREES, The planting being completed, the tree should be defended from cattle, high winds, and other casual- ties, by two posts, one on each side, with two cross bars at top and two at bottom ; a piece of tar twine passing across them and round the tree prevents the wind from moving it out of place, until the roots are well established. On pasture land it will be necessary to have uprigiit paling nailed to the bars, reaching from the root to the head, which, if of a proper height (that is about six feet), is thus securely protected. The cost of workmanship to this fencing will be about 5s. or Gs. per dozen. A simple and efficient defence against sheep, when the tree is not otherwise fenced, will be obtained by twisting a rough hip briar round the stock till above their reach ; and this will last several years. The prime cost of these is nothing, as they are nui- sance in hedges or woods, and an active man would finish 50 or (50 in one day. Neither of these plans are so aj)t to gall and injure the tree as the common fence of stakes and blackthorns ; neither do they encourage docks, nettles, and other rubbish, as the other method does. I prefer February as the time for planting. Mild, serene weather, if possible, is to be chosen, and all the necessary operations should be going on at the same time, under the personal superintendence of the master. One trusty person should prune the injured parts of the tree, and cut off all broken I'oots, and such as are inclined to become tap or perpendicular ones, fonning at the same time with his knife a fair balance in propor- tion of root and top, the former rather prepon- derating, and the tree should pass at once out of his hands into those of the three planters ; these should be followed the same day by the persons em- ployed to fence the trees (the materials for which should be ready prepared), so as to leave all finished and secure at night. Should this be neglected, and a wet windy night succeed, injury will be done that cannot be remedied. HELECTION OF TREES. The trees, if ])urchased of a nurseryman, should be selected in September, and marked with the buyer's name on ]^archment shreds. A liberal pi-ice being paid, few nurserymen would object to their stock being jjicked out, and the best plants of the season are thus secured with more certainty as to sorts. The day for planting being fixed, an order for the trees to be ready one day before will bring them fresh to hand, and the neglect of this j)roduces more failure than any other cause. If the stocks are reared at home, they should be taken up and replanted the same day. To give a list of fruits would be an endless task, and produce, I think, THE FAnMEll'S MAGAZINE. 315 little practical good — the same aj)ple in different ' localities bearing frequently different names. The freest bearers in my own orchard are^the llissing- ton redstreak. Captain Hussey's kernel, a kernel fruit I call the Prescott seedling, the Bachelor's crab or New Bromley, and the Blenheim orange. This last kind being now in the full vigo\n- of its growth, is, 1 think, a ])roi)er sort for outside rows of the orchard, as it will huxe more room to extend itself, and being full of sap, is better calculated to bear the chances incident to such exposure. I have a Blenheim tree 60 yards in circumference, and have jjicked fruit from it weighing IS oz. As a dessert fruit the nonpareil russet is a general fa\()urite, and fast grower, as the grafts of one year \ 1 have to day exhibited will \n-oye. The selection of table fruit, however, depends entirely on the taste of the individual, influenced perhaps by the changing fashion of the day. CIDER. The subject of cider making is in itself of suffi- cient importance to fonn an essay for some future evening; and as I hope the gentleman who has favoured us once with a i)aper on this subject will be induced next year to giA-e us the results of liis late experiments, I will not enter into it now. Opinions differ also as to what constitute the de- sired quahties of the article ; and habit woiUd, in this neighbouihood, frequently give the preference to that description of rough, strong hquor, which a Londoner or Devonshire man would, with wry faces, l)ronounce to be (/ouc/ vinegar. More cider has, however, been made of late years than formerly, and many young orchards are now coming into bearing ; but there are still many farms imjjrovided with an orchard. In most comjjanies I have fre- quented, I find the majority prefer cider to beer ; it is, in fact, the native wine of England ; and one of the good effects of leases would be that of in- ducing the tenant to join the landlord in the exj)ense of planting and protecting an orchard, where there is none ; thus making the country richer, more beautiful, and, by producing more cider, leaving more barley to be converted into beef and bacon. — J. J. Peacey, Prescot, Nov. 23. BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES ON A FARM. By John Blkkk, Jux. (From the Journal of the Roi/al Aijriculturol Society.) (Concluded.) Now for the consideration of the management, feeding, and general treatment of horses on a farm. If the mare from which a foal is bred be put to horse again a few weeks after foaling, she should not l)c allowed to suckle longer than five months. I'rovided she have conceived, she will then be about four months gone with foal, and as at that period the fu'tus will i)robably have (piickened, if she still continue to suckle her cult, lier frame will liuve to afford nourishment to herself, the foal at her foot, and the animal of which she is pregnant. The drain thus caused to the system is not only too great for the mare herself, but every drop of milk that her foal sucks from her vnW deprive the fuetus of a certain degree of nourishment. Her milk should therefore be dried up, by removing her foal and giving her a gentle dose of jjhysic once or twice (such as half a pint of cold-drawn lins^eed oil and a couple of bran mashes), in order that those efforts of nature heretofore directed to the snp[)ly of the lacteal ^■essels may be more completely concentra- ted upon the development of the icptns. The yoxmg colt or filly, when first taken from the dam, should, if ])0ssible, be turned out with one or two other young horses, in order that it may the sooner forget its loss. A large ])iece of pasture, where such is to be had, should be selected for it, and as the autinnn M'ill be a])proaching, the grasses will neither be so succulent nor so luxuriant as to afford too abundant feed without the trouble of seeking for it. Thus a certain degree of exercise must be taken by the young animal while seeking its food, and exercise is the fountain of health and vigour. Few things, indeed, are moie detrimental to horses, either young or old, but jjarticularly to the former, than deep pastures that contain a superabundance of grass. Here the horse, if greedy, fills his stomach to repletion, without the slightest exertion ; and then lies down, to recover from the effects of his gluttony, AN'hen his meal is perhaps half digested, he begins to feed anew, and loading his stomach at night, when he recpiires most rest, lies down when the dews of evening are faUing, and the dank mist, ])articularly in low meadows, is covering the groimd, and which in a short period completely envelops him. During digestion, the stomach and upper portion of the bowels receive a much greater ])r()])ortion of l)lood than at other periods ; and as the same quantity is circulating through the body general!}', the skin at this particular time is less fully supjilied than at others ; and it is just at this moment that the damj) fog of an autumnal night jjroduces constricti(m of the cutaneous vessels, and compels the greater portion of the blood that should circulate through them to take another covu'se. Hence arise, first, congestion; and, secondly, inflammatiim of some in- ternal organ, either acute or chronic, according to the state of the system and the activity of the cause producing it. ()nc horse, either from hereditary predisposition or some other exciting cause, may have weak bowels, and inflammation speedily attacks them ; the organs of respiration in another may be weak, and sore throat, or inflammation of the lungs, or of the pleura, is the conse(pience, ])ossibly termi- nating in broken wind, chronic cough, or roaring, the latter from constriction of the wind-pipe, which is the natural eflect of the thickening of the i)art consequent upon inflanunatory action. When horses, or indeed any other animals, are exposed to the depressing iiiflueiu'c of cold while their stomachs are unduly distended with food, there is likewise anotlier cause in operation whicli, in conjimction with chill) lU'ss of the surface of the body, tenils to induce congestion of one or more internal organs, it is this ;-™-The stomach lies in 316 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. contact with a large muscle, termed the diaphragm, or midriff, which separates the cavity of the chest from that of the ahdomen, and consequently, when much distended, not only pushes tlvis muscle towards tlie tliorax, but hkewise in a great measure impedes that natural motion by which at every ins))iration it enlarges the cavity of the chest. The form of the diaphragm is that of a vault, whose uj)per portion is in contact with the cliest ; and the expansion of the ribs, on air being inhaled, by drawing its edges outwards, tends, to a ceitain extent, to draw down the superior part of the arch, and to reduce it to a more plain surface. This action must necessarily increase the dimen- sions of the chest, and is one of the means by which a vacuum is formed in the lungs, which become immediately fdled by atmospheric air. Now, as the chest contains the heart and lungs, it must be manifest that repletion of the stomach, by cramping the motions of the diaphragm, and thereby diminishing the area of the cliest, must im- pede their natural and healtliy functions ; and thus not only is the blood, by its languid circulation through the former, imperfectly, or but slowlj', arterialized (as 1 shall hereafter explain), but the heart, in some measure overpowered and weakened by the quantity of its contents, is unable to combat successfully with the resistance offered to its action, and, contracting but feebly, cannot propel the blood with sufficient i)ower through every part of the frame. These parts most remote from it are, of coiirse, those which jjrimarily suffer the most, and hence the circulation through the cutaneous ^'essels is first rendered sluggish and imperfect by over-dis- tention of the stomach, and is subsequently still further enfeebled by the action of a cold and moist atmosphere. From these causes, when frequently repeated, may very readily be induced a morbid state of one or more parts of the body, slowly but surely assuming the form of chronic disease, and possibly resulting in a disorganized state of some internal organ which no future attention or skill can remedy or nuich impro\-e. The diseases to which the horse, while at grass, is most obnoxious are \'ery generally confined to the respiratory organs; and if turned out at an improper season of the year, or when imjjerfectly prepared for the sudden change from a warm stable to the o])en air, he will very frequently, when taken up, be found to be a roarer; or to have chronic cough, or some other disease of the lungs, which will render him of little A-alue. Many horses, too, of a greedy disposition, when turned into dee]), succulent, and luxuriant pastures, are subject to congestion of the brain, causing the disease termed " staggers," which in some instances superinduces actual infiammationof the organ affec- ted, and then it is named " mad staggers." This malady, to which many horses that are prone to become fat and pursy aie extremely liable, is in some measure accelerated by the i)osition of the head while grazing, in addition to the jjlethora oc- casioned by over-feeding. A minor species of staggers, known as " megrims," if not the actual disease itself, may also be at any time brought on by improper and too high feeding in the stable, if continued for any length of time ; but there the horse being constantly under the eye of the master, such a state can only be induced by persistence in a system of bad management, which is the offspring of ignorance or inattention. From the time the young colt is taken from the dam, if the season of the year be jjropitious, he should be turned into a large piece of sound, dry, upland pasture, where, to obtain his living, he will have to take considerable exercise, by which his growth, vigour, and stamina will be materially accelerated and improved ; and should the grass be insufticient either in quantity or quality to afford a proper degree of nourishment, one or two quar- terns of old oats, weighing at least forty pounds to the bushel, should be allowed him daily. The farmer, who seeks to rear a first-rate species of young horse of any breed, cannot be too deeply impressed with the conviction that a sufficiency of good and nutritious food throughout every season of the year is absolutely essential to obtain this end. The idea of suffering young stock of any kind to shift for themselves throughout the winter, and merely to subsist ujjon straw and a little hay, under the sujjposition that the flesh they pick up in the summer will compensate for the previous stint they have endured, is absolutely preposterous ; and however good they may turn out when full grown, there can be no question that with more nutriment they would have been Ijetter. With res- pect to horses, let the farmer scan carefully the proportions of our racers at three years old, and then ask himself by what means such a develop- ment of their frames and muscular powers has been brought about. If he sui)])ose that they have not had corn from the age at which they were able to eat it, he deceives himself egregiously ; and if he wish to rear similar stock, he m.ay be assured that a liberal allov.'ance of good food is, in one parti- cular and a most important one, the jjrincipal means to attain his object. At the age of two years, or a little more, the young colt should be handled and accustomed to the control of man. For this purpose it is a good plan to make him wear a headstall while at grass, by which he may the more easily be caught and held while he is patted and caressed, has his feet raised, is gently rubbed with a wisp of soft hay, and in other resjjccts habituated to the man who looks after him. On no occasion should he be in the sliirhiest degree frightened or coerced, such treatment being tlie surest way to spoil his temper or render him timid or fractious. The man who has the care of him shoidd therefore Ije of a kind disposition, well accustomed to the charge of horses, and one whose temper is not easily ruffled. The first lesson a young colt should receive should be simply that of suffering liimself to be led about with a long rein attached to the headstall, so that, if at all ungovernable, or given to start at difierent objects, he may have plenty of room to throw him- self about ; which can never be the case when led by a halter, to which the man who leads him is obliged to hang when he shows temper or fright, in order to jjrevent his escape. After a few days, he may gradually be taught some of his paces by being lounged in a circle with great care and gen- tleness, being ever and anon coaxed and patted, so that he may acquire confidence in his master. The THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 817 object at this period being more to accustom the young colt to obedience than absolutely to break him in, his lessons should never be very long nor at all fa- tiguing : and when he is once rendered thoroughly docile, he may be again turned out, and occasion- ally taken up for a few hours during the day for the purpose of rejjeating his lessons, lest he should forget what he has learned, and become wild and ungo\ernable. At three years old the business of breaking-in should commence in good earnest, and he should then be accustomed to the dumb - jockey, and be otherwise thoroughly taught his paces in the usual way, npon which it is nnneces- sary here to dilate. I'here is, however, one prac- tice common to all horse-breakers, to which I shall advert as being botli cruel and unnecessary. It is that of tightly reining uj) the head of a young colt to the duudj-jockey, and in this state turning hiin into a loose bo.v for many hours during the day. This is by these gentry facetiously termed" giving the horse a good mouth ;" but in my opinion, it has a directly opposite tendency ; a good mouth and a good bearing being best acquired by the able handling of a judicions horseman. During the ]jrocess of l)reaking-in a young horse intended for tbe field, he should be constantly led over small jumps and blind ditches, not too wide, in order that he may be gradually habituated to every spe- cies of fence, and rendered confident in his own powers — a jiractice that will sulisequently save him and his rider from many a fall. At four years of age, or probably sooner, if he be of good shajie and promising apjjcarance, and his action be clean and good, the farmer will find that there is no lack of purcliasers who will be glad to buy him at such a ])rice as will certainly leave a good profit, after deducting all expenses of breeding and rearing, and |)ossibly a smart sum by way of remunerat- ing the judgment displayed in breeding him. The al>ove remarks apply inimMi)ally to the hunter. The cart-horse will not reipiire to be lounged or handled with such precautions ; but at the age of two years autl a half, being generally of a docile and quiet nature, he may be made to do a little work on the farm, more for the purpose, how- ever, of accustoming him to his subse(pu>nt duties, than for that of exacting from him any great degree of labour, for which he will clearly be unfitted. Almost the first lessons received l)y the cart horse, after he has been used to bear his harness, and to allow it to be i)ut on and taken off (piietly, may be given inthe team, where he should be placed be- tween two steady horses, and tiever lu'ged to draw an ounce except cd' his own accord. Should he be restive or given to kick, he may be harnessed by himself to a light log of wood, with long trace.s attached, that lie may have jilenty of room for the exercise of his heels without tlie chance of doing iiiniseif injury, and led gently al)out, care being taken not to force him to do much work, and to coax rather than eom])el him to it. A medium ))lan must be adopted with the car- riage horse, lie is not only recpiired to have some- what showy action, but likewise to be steady in draught. He must, therefore, be lounged like the hunter, and taught to raise his knee and deliver his leg with freedom ; motions which can never be ac- quired without the good exercise of the hands and legs of a ])erfect horseman. Pre\ious to being made to draw, it is a good ])ractice to drive such horses with long reins, but unattached to any vehicle the man who drives them running behind, and be- ing furnished with a whip to keej) them iqi to the jirojjer jiace. By this means, being guided in every direction, made to turn, back, &c., they will, when harnessed, be much less raw and unhandy lluui when sinq)ly broken in to draw by ploughing and harro\ving, to which work they may be put upon light soils when a!)out three years old. And here let me remark that, if the farmer exact but gentle work from his young stock, and can manage to ein- jdoy them u])on soft ground, the longer he can avoid having them shod the better ; shoeing at an early age being the bane of young horses, and fre- (|uently crippling their feet so as to render them almost worthless. Many peojde ha\'e an idea that the hoof of the horse, from its ajjijarent strength and solidity, is a part incapable of motion, and are totally unaware of the internal structure of the fool and of the change of position which its component parts undergo when a h(n'se is in action. 1 shall not here dilate upon the dirterent substances, as bones, ligaments, &c. &c., of which the internal parts of a horse's foot are composed, and which may be found elaborately described in many treatises upon the horse, but shall sim])ly content myself with noticing the fact that during jirogression, the foot of the horse, in its natural state, when unfettered by any shoe, not only expands laterally at the quarters and heel, but likewise that the sole of the hoof, which in the sound and healthy state is concave, causes this e.v- jiansion by being ])ressed downwards and somewhat ilattened by the weight of the animal being thrown upon the coflin-bone, which lies within the hoof. This lateral ex|)ansion being necessary to admit of the natural action of the dillerent ])arts contained within the crust of the fool, and likewise of their growth while the horse is young, must to a certain extent be cranqjed and confined by the api)lir;ition of a shoe at any time, and more particularly at an early age, when it not only restricts the functions, but also the proper development of the foot. The ])art immediately under the horny sole is a soft body, calli'd " the sensitive sole," and the frog of the foot likewise covers a substance of a similar nature. Were the external portions of the horse's foot, therefore, totally incapable of motion, it is ma- nifest that the weight of the body, when thrown upon the foot, would bruise the internal ])arts by com])ressing them against a hard and unyielding substance, and by so doing would s])eedily cause inflammation and lameness ; a result whieh very fre- quently occurs from continui'd bad shoeing, by which the motions of the more expansive portions of the fo(jt, the (piarters and heel, are im|)roperlv reslrieted. lleiue also the reason why horses with flat feet are to a certain extent unsound ; the sole being incaiiable of being ])ushed downwards by tlie descent of the coflin bone, when the weight of the liody is thrown upon the foot, without coming in contact, or very nearly so, with the ground, and thereby giving to it a convex surface by which the due expansion of the fool cannot be obtained. S18 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Being on the subject of the foot, I may as well re- mark in this place that for the purpose of restrain- ing as little as possible the motions of the sole, heel, and quarters, the nails of the shoe should be as few in number as are consistent with keeping it in its proj)er situation, and should always be driven as far from the heel as possible, in order that the ex- pansion of that important part may be restricted to the least possible extent ; and inasnnich as the in- ner quarter is weaker and more pliable than the outer, the shoe on that side should be held by one nail less than on the other, in order that its motion during progression may be free and unfettered. It is likewise most important that the sole of the foot be occasionally pared down, until it will bend some- what imder strong pressure of the thumb ; for without this care it will in a few weeks become thickened and inelastic from the constant growth of the horn, and consequently incapable of yielding sufficiently to the ))ressure from abo\'e, from which state the internal soft parts will not fail to suffer to a certain extent, enduring, as they must, constant concussion from the hard substance of the coffin bone pressing them against the inelastic sole. These precautions with respect to the feet, which are some among many others equally necessary to their i)re- servation, are always to be sedvdously attended to from the first moment the young horse is made to wear shoes. While at grass, and unshod, the natural wear and tear of the feet will generally i)re- vent any undue or redundant growth of the horn ; but in the stable there are few more vicious species of economy than putting heavy and long-lasting shoes upon any horse, especially if he be valuable, as in no instance shoidd they be left upon the feet more than three Aveeks without being removed, and the sole pared to a proper consistence. The space between the bars and the frog, which is naturally filled up by a substance whose function is to keejj up a proper degree of expansion of the heel, should on no account be pared away— a practice common to all country blacksmiths, and which they erro- neously term " opening the heels," but which in reality lays the foundation of their gradual contrac- tion. For further information upon the important subject of the feet, upon whose perfectly sound and healthy state mainly depends the action of the horse, I must refer the farmer who desires to be made ac- quainted with their natural structui'e and functions to those veterinary works which have received the stamp of ]nibhc ajjprobation, my present object be- ing merely to warn him against destroying, or if possible limiting, those motions which Nature has assigned to them, and which, when once lost, are seldom if ever regained. For the ])urpose of pre- serving as long as possible the pliable state of the hoofs, and preventing them from cracking, they should be brushed over every second or third day with a mixture of equal weights of tar and tallow melted together, and the soles should be stojjped every night with soft cow-dung, which should be picked out when dry. Farm-sen'ants will never pay this attention to their horses without the sujjer- intendence of the master, and it is very rarely that a cart-horse has his feet cleaned, except when he goes to be shod. With him the stop])ing of the feet is not a matter in general of such importance as with the hunter or road-horse, as nineteen sta- bles out of twenty that are allotted to the teams are neither very frecjuently nor very sedulously cleaned out, and the horses are therefore at most times standing upon wet litter of some kind, which serves to keep the feet moist. This, however, is an erro- neous system of management, as I shall presently explain, and is frequently a fruitful source of disease among horses, the amount of litter converted into manure by being suffered to remain long in the stable in no wise compensating for the injurious effects produced by the effluvia arising from it. A reformation in this system of neglect would no doubt tend to the ad\-antage of the farmer in the long run, but, except in some instances, is scarcely to be expected, both from the disinclination of car- ters to take what they consider unnecessary care of their teams, and from the habit that farmers in gen- eral have acquired of giving themselves as little trouble with respect to them as may be. From the age of three to four years the cart and carriage colts bred upon a farm may generally do most of the light work of the farmer's business, care being taken that the latter, as they apjjroach the period when they are to be sent to some horse- fair for sale, be neither worked too hard nor allowed from any other cause to fall off in condition. The large breeder of horses will find his advantage in procuring, if possible, a man to look after them who has been accustomed in some measure to the craft of a dealer's stable. Such a man will well know the usual means adopted for improving the appear- ance of the animals entrusted to him, by trimming, singeing, pulling the manes and tails, &c. ; and the extra exj)ense, if any, of his wages will generally be compensated by the additional sum which a horse properly prepared for the eye of the dealer will gene- rally bring. I shall now proceed to notice those points of sta- ble management, from the period when the young horse is first permanently taken up from grass, which are essentially necessary to his health and well-being, and explain in as familiar a manner as I am able those physiological facts upon which they should be based, a want of attention to and know- ledge of which may frequently retard improvement, if not actually engender disease. It must be remembered that a young animal of any kind that has been accustomed for the greater portion of his existence to live in the open air and to breathe a pure atmosphere, taking daily a suffi- ciency of exercise to keep him in good health and vigour, must of necessity experience an extraor- dinary change in his state and habits when first confined to the stable. For this reason, when first taken up from grass, he need not, for a few days, be confined to his stall, but suffered to roam about a yard where there are one or more loose sheds, under which he may shelter himself from the sun and rain, and only stabled at night when he will wish to rest. While kept in this manner, he should be fed on soft bran mashes and hay, the former of which will frequently be sufficient to rid his bowels of any rubbish he may have picked up at grass, without , which operation he will not subsequently thrive upon hard meat. If physic be necessary j)rior to feeding him with corn, the dose must be carefully THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 319 apportioned to his age, form, and constitution — a j close, round-barrelled horse being generally better { able to bear the operation of purgatives than one of narrower and lengthier formation. All pro])er j)re- cautions being taken to ])ut him in a fit condition for thriving \ipon the diet that will sub-sequently be allotted him, he should be allowed corn in pro})or- tion to his size, hardiness, and work. Most people are in the habit of feeding their horses by measure with respect to oats and beans, which, without knowing their weight, is a most a])surd jiractice. A growing young horse, if he be put to a moderate share of work from the age of three to four years, should not certainly haA-e less than three quarterns of oats ])er diem, and if he be large and thriving, will ])robal)ly require four ; and they should never weigh less than forty ])ounds to the bushel, which will be a daily allowance of from eight to ten pounds : if they Ije heavier, a smaller proportion may be given, according to their \^■eight. The hea- \ier the oat the greater will be the (|uantity of nou- rishment contained within a small compass — a mat- ter of considerable consequence to the horse, which of all animals, possesses the smallest stomach in proportion to his size. To this allowance of corn ma)' be added from eight to twelve i)o\mds of hay daily, or from a truss to a truss and a half ]wr week : if the farmer be a careful man, and \\-ish to save his expenditure of oats and hay, he will find that a smaller quantity ^A'ill suffice while but little labour is required from his young horses, if he take care to have a good suj)i)ly of carrots ( which when mixed with bran, are excellent food ), or of Swede turnips, which are still more nutritious, although generally not so well liked by horses. The quantity and quality of food allotted to any horse shoidd in all cases be sufficient to keej) him in a thriving condition, especially while growing; for stint in tlie article of food is quite a.s bad as giving too much, with a view to urge nature to her greatest exertions — a species of mismanagement to which I shall ])resently advert, and which is fre- quently the foimdation of many dangerous inflam- matory diseases. In most farm stables that 1 have e\er seen, no attention whatever seems to be j)aid to the quantity of hay allowed to each horse, but the carters are allowed to take as much from the rick-yard as they please, and to give it to their teams nd libit inn. 'i"he least trouble being to fill the racks as full as they can stufl' them, they are, consequently, generally crammed with hay to their fullest extent, so as to be ready for the horses at any and every jieriod of the day at which they may reach their stable. .\ great quantity is of course ])ulled down or blown u])on, and comparatively wasted, which is the only species of damage that ever strikes the farmer as occurring from this sys- tem, as he never takes into consideration, or possi- bly understands, that a constant supjjly of food cannot fail to detciioratc the good condition of his horses, and, in stead of strengthening, only tends to enfeeble them. I shall now explain the reason why a suj)er- abimdance of food is injurious instead of beneficial to tlie horse. I'nlike those animals that are des- tined for tlie butcher, we do not wish him to be- come extremely fat, but rather desire to keep him in that state which is termed " condition," and which imjjlies the i)Ossession of the greatest possible health and vigour, coupled with a certain acqiiisition of tiesh or muscle, but not of fat, ex- cept to such an extent as will preser^'e the round- ness of the different parts of the body and conduce to beauty of appearance, which the horse intended for s.ile should possess to the greatest extent that his form is capable of attaining. The ox, the sheep, and the hog — animals that are fattened for the })urpose of being converted into food — acquire, both from feeding to repletion and from the en- joyment of jjerfect re])ose, a certain w^eight within a given time, but cannot be considered during the process of fattening in a healthy condition, the cir- cvdation of the l)lood being sluggish, and their nervous energy almost extinct, from the torpor j)roduced from eating to excess. How is this tor- l)()r induced? I have already shown that the stomach, when extremely full, by pressing upon the diaj)hragm diminishes the area of the chest, thus ofiering an impediment both to respiration and to the circulation of the blood through the lungs and heart, which actions are in fact depend- ent one upon the other, resjnration being more freqtient in i)ro])ortion as the circulation is more hiu-ried, a familiar example of which may be noticed in the panting of any animal after severe exertion. Now, in order that any animal should continue to exist, it is necessary that the blood in its passage through some portion of the body should be ex- l)osed to the action of the atmosjiheric air, by which a chemical change is effected, turning the venous or dark-coloui-ed blood into arteiial or fiorid blood, which alone is capable of carrying on life and supplying the different organs of the body with the stimulus necessary to their different ac- tions. This change is effected in the lungs, where the blood is exj)osed to the operation of the air that is inhaled into them, and which fills the air-cells, in the delicate membrane of M'hieh the blood circu- lates. The arterial blood, in its transit through all jiarts of the body, is deprived of those vital pro- ])erties which it has accpiired from contact with the atmosphere, and becomes venous l)lood again, until it is once more pro])elled through the lungs and again arterialized. ^'eno^ls blood contains a great quantity of carbon, and, when from any cause (as, for instance, from the inhalation of charcoal) the chemical change in the blood so necessary to life does not take place, is fo\md incapable of sustain- ing life even for a very short ])eriod. Its first ert'ects are upon the brain, which being dejjrived of the usual stimulus of arterial blood, becomes tor- pid; and thus the fountain-head of sensation being destroyed, voluntary motion is lost, the animal drops, and, if not sjicedily relieved, will die. If such be the effects of venous blood alone circulating for a very short time tlirougli the brain, we may very readily imagine that they will be per- cejttible in a minor degree when any circumstance tends to limit the supi)ly of arterial blood to that organ. As the loaded slomacli, by inqieding the action of the heart, depri\ es it of the power of pro- pelling the blood with sufficient velocity anersonally to superintend the care of his horses, and to insist upon his stable being daily cleaned out ; an opera- tion which, if regularly performed, will in the end occasion far less trouble than when filth of every kind is allowed to accumulate for days, to say no- thing of the beneficial effect of cleanliness upon the team. The breeder of valuable horses will, no doubt, be more alive to the necessity of attention to his young stock than the man who has an occa- sional colt or filly, the goodness of which he leaves j>retty much to chance ; but the principle of ob- taining for every horse a due sup])ly of fresh air, and of kee])ing him in an atmos])here unimpreg- nated with noxious vapours of any kind, is the same, as far as regards the pur]>oscs of health, whether a horse be worth ten ]»ounds or a hun- dred. During the act of rcs|)iration one of the compo- nent parts of atmospheric air becomes destroyed by coming in contact witli the carbon of the blood; and hence the air that is expired from the lungs, if inhaled again without admixtinr with fresh air, is deficient in those ])articles which should eflcct that chemical change in the blood, so necessary to life, of which I have already spoken. l''or this reason closely-shut stables are liighly injurious to horses, although the plan of stopping up every aperture at 32-3 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. njght and excludinfj the air is one whicli is very generally adopted by great numbers of j)eople, 'ilike ignorant of the injur)' they thus inflict upon their horses, and of the mode in which their sujier- abundant and ill-directed care operates prejudicially upon animal life. Many men, while endeavouring to put valuable horses in condition prior to offering them for sale, are in the habit of thus coddling them up, with a ^•iew to impro^-e the appearance of the coat, an advantage which is frequently not gained save at the risk of exciting inflammatory disease, and always with the loss of some jiortion of that sprightliness of movement and general viva- city so indicative of health and vigour. The true method of imjjroving the condition of every horse consists in giving him regular exercise proportioned to his strength, allowing him such a cjuantity of wholesome and nutritious food as he is capable of jierfectly digesting, and of paying vsuch attention to him in the stable by good grooming, sufficient clothing to keep up the circulation in the skin, if he require it, and a proper supply of imcontaminated air at all times and in all seasons. There are very many minor points respecting condition, to which I shall forbear any allusion, inasmuch as the word in its strict sense implies the highest degree of health and muscular power which any horse is capable of acquiring, and which can only be ob- tained by a system of training to which no yovmg horse, merely bred for jjrofit, need ])e subjected, as he will jjrobably sell for more money when in somewhat high condition than when trained down to mere muscle and sinew. From some of the above obsen-ations, it is almost unnecessary to observe that to keep horses in good health air should not only be freely admitted at all times into the stable, in quantity according to the season, but there should likewise be some internal aperture, by means of which the air may be made to circulate, and perfect ventilation be ensured. It may be expected that, before I conclude this paper, 1 should say something respecting the profit attached to breeding the various sorts of horses, of which I have taken notice. This is a point of some difficulty, inasmuch as the breeder has many risks to run in rearing his young stock, and may also breed several colts before he succeeds in obtaining one which shall sell for a very high price. Never- theless, I shall essay something like a tolerable cal- culation of the average value of the cart and carriage horse and of the hunter, after deducting the neces- sary expenses the farmer will incur in rearing them and making them fit for the horse fair ; and shall then consider, as far as I am able, which of these different breeds is most likely to yield the farmer the greatest profit in the long run. To begin with the cart-horse. Excepting in those districts where very large and showy looking cart- horses are bred for the brewers, distillers, and others in London, a cart-colt, when four years old, must be a very good-looking animal to fetch £40 at a fair ; but supposing the breeder to be a man of sound discernment and knowledge in horse-flesh, and to be successful in the sort of mare and stalhon he select to breed from, I am still making a com- ])utation somewhat in his favour when I value the four-year-old colt at this price. As he will not be fit to do anything like M'ork before he is three years old, we will sui)pose that after that period he shall earn his keep, and will proceed to make a cal- culation of his expenses uj) to that age. They will be somewhat upon the following scale : — £ s. d. Stallion 220 Keep of mare (say for one month) prior to and after foaling ... 0140 Keep of colt at grass and straw- yard at 3s. per week after the first six months 19 10 0 Allowance for corn during three months, while being broken-in (two quarterns per diem) . . 1 16 0 Man's wages for breaking ... 080 24 10 0 As the calculation I am making is on a rough scale, I do not take into account the blacksmith's expenses, if any, from two years and a half to three years old; the wear and tear of harness, and other trifling sums, for which I shall presume that the little assistance a A'ery young colt can be of in the team will be sufficient payment. I have likewise considered that the cart-colt is easily broken, and have, therefore, simply charged to his account the wages of a man for a few days while receiving his first lessons ; and if I add to these sums the ex- penses of a horse fair, and the extra quantity of food necessary to jnit the colt in good case prior to sending him there, I shall not be estimating his expenses at too much, under all favouralde circum- stances, if I put them down at £26, which will leave a profit of £14 at the expiration of four years. In this estimate I have likewise not made any allowance for corn at those periods of the year when green food is scarce, although, as I have already stated, the man Avho wishes to rear a fine colt of any breed will never succeed in doing so by parsimonious means. The expense of breeding and rearing fine carriage colts must necessarily be greater than that of breed- ing for the team only, inasmuch as the stalhon, in the first instance, will cost more ; the colt must be allowed corn from an earlj' age, or he wnW never attain the size and stature requisite for his work ; and, moreover, he should not be broken-in before he be full three years old, and for some period after should only be put to the gentlest work. His expenses will probably stand thus : — £ s. d. Stallion , 3 3 0 Keep of mare for one month. . 0 14 0 Do. of colt for two j-ears and a half, with corn during six month of each year 30 0 0 Breaking-in 2 2 0 £35 19 0 The additional care and attention that these ani- mals will require ; the expenses of clothing, Avages, horse-fair, &c., &c , will, on a rough calculation, taken at least 40/. out of the farmer's pocket at four years old ; and at that age a handsome and powerful colt, fit for the London market, may fetch THE TARMER'S MAGAZINE. 323 on an average 60/., although many of them do \ realize a much larger sum from the first-rate Lon- ' don dealers. To do so, however, they must not only be of a very good quality, and have showy action, but must likewise l)e five years old, as they j are not fit for town-M'ork much before tliat age. The average i)rofit, therefore, of a gf)od carriage colt at four yeai's old may lie from 20/. to 2')/. 'ITie expense of breeding and rearing the hunter will be greater than that of either of tl)e former breeds, from various causes. The cost of the stal- ; lion \v\\[ be greater ; he mil jjrobably ncA'^er do any — or, at all events, very little — harness work ; and must likewise, to fetch his full value, l)e kej)t until five years old, at least, before he is sold. Ad(hng, therefore, two guineas, at the ^■ery lowest comi)Uta- tion, for a stallion of cliaracter, and at least 20<. for keep from the age of foin* to five years, a hunter will not cost the farmer less than sixty guineas when fit for sale, and, independent of these ex- penses, the prime cost of tlie dam may have l)een considerable, and she may not be powerful enough to do much hard work upon the farm. Now, at fi\e years old, a horse should have some character in the field as a hunter to realize the sum of 80/., although, if he be a horse ])ossessed of considerable speed and power, he may fetch a good deal more The farmer consequently ])refers keep- ing him at all risks until five or six years old. with a chance of obtaining a hundred or a hundred and twenty guineas for him, to selling him at four years old without a character, and only realizing half that sum . To say the real truth, in most instances Ijreeding hunters is something like buying tickets in a lot- tery, and is a business that requires the exercise -of a far greater degree of thought and judgment than most people suppose, to be made profital^le in the highest degree. Any man, witli a fair knowledge of horses, and toleral)Ie discrimination, may breed a horse that, being taken out with hounds, may lie called a hunter, and may be worth from 50/. to 60/. ; but to breed an animal of superior qualifica- tions— one that can live with a fast ])ack of hounds in some of our crack counties, and subsecjuently stand a good chance of carrying off' one or more hunter-stakes at the end of the season — is a different matter altogether, and, excepting tlirougli sheer luck, is not to be done by the man ignorant of the most important points of tlie horse, and of the pedi- gree, jierformances, and general character of the lirst mares and stallions of the day. Nevertheless, let me ask, who is tliere wlu) is not fond of a lottery-ticket ? and \\'here is tlie young farmer who objects to jjossess one in the shajjc of a hunter ? If he chance to breed a good one, and be a bold rider in the field, since he will, no doubt, keep a horse of some kind for his own use. he may as well keej) his colt from four years old till six as any other, and make a hunter of hitn, as, when perfect at his fences, he will find plenty of admirers in every hunting country. This choice, however, it must be admitted, is matter of fancy. The plodding farmer, who breeds a hunter for which he has no use, sells him so soon as he can make a jjrofit of 1.')/. or 20/. by him, whether he be three or four years old ; \\'hereas the young man, who does not make the most rigid calcxdations of expense, and who is, moreover, a sportsman, and jjcrhaps fancies himself a bit of a jockey, keejis his horse from year to year, in the hojte of at last obtaining for him a considerable sum, which it is not impossible that he may eventually do, but not certainly without incurring considerable risk. The above calculations, I must remark, have been made under ( ircumstanccs the most favourable to the farmer; and I believe that, in the long run, were every item of the expenses of breeding and rearing horses taken into consideration, and placed against the average sxiins they realize, the balance would be but very httle, if anything, in favour of the breeder. ^Yhen we consider the nmnerous diseases and accidents to which horses are subject, and that to pay a remunerating price they must, at all e\ents, be sound, we cannot be surprised at the losses that many men incur by ])reeding them, more especially as the greater pro})ortion of farmers are ignorant of the principles of breeding, and are incapable of forming a correct judgment iq)on the most impor- tant points of the sire and dam they may select, both with regard to their formation and their blood. The real fact, however, is this : a farmer breeds a colt, and at five years old the exj)ense of rearing him may be .50/. But this sum not ha^■ing come out of his pocket at once, but having gradually and insensibly melted away in the shape of grass, oat- straw, and now and then a few (piarters of corn, it has not at any one particular time made any great inroad upon his pocket, and consequently, if he want to pay his rent, or to make any purchase which is likely to be beneficial to him. he takes perhajis 40/. for the colt that has cost him 50/., and thinks himself both lucky to get that sum, and likewise a })rovident man. to have kej)t that by him that has been so valuable in a time of need. Now close calculators, writing iq)on farming matters generally, would greatly blame the farmer for a yearly exjjenditure in grass, &c., which, in the aggregate, amounts to a greater smn than the animal on which it has been expended will eventu- ally realize ; and would proceed, no doubt, to de- monstrate, most satisfactorily to themsehes, that, had the same amount of food been applied to the fattening of a few sheep, and to keeping a cow, the mutton, butter, and milk would have returned a better profit than the horse. All this maj/, ])Ossi- bly, be true ; but we must remember that a first- rate horse of any breed may ])ut a large sum. by way of profit, into his owner's pocket ; that most men are fond of horses, and will breefl them when they have an opportunity of doing so : and that, with respect to the profit and loss, human nature is prone to disregard small outlays for any particu- lar purpose, although when summed u|) they may amount to more than the object they have been lavished on be worth. Such being the feeling im- planted in the nature of nine-tentlis of tlie human race, when live stock of any kind tliri\e, jirovided the farmer can rub on without being obliged to sell them at ;ui improjier time, they may be looked upon in the light of u hvc savings' bank, in which 324 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. he weekly hoards up a certain sum which, under different circumstances, he would probably think nothing of spending. Under this A'iew, the bi'eed- ing of horses may be considered advantageous to the fanner, even if his knowledge of the subject be but imperfect ; but the man of judgment and science may render it a lucrative pursuit, -without incurring a great deal of risk. Of the three different breeds of horses of which I have made mention, I should say that, upon moderately light soils, the carriage-horse is by far the most hkely to be useful and profitable to the farmer. If any accident happen to a fine carriage- colt, he is stUl fit for the work of the farm, unless greatly injured ; an advantage that is not to be derived from the horse of better blood and smaller bone. And, if he do well, the sum he may realize from the London dealer may be quite equal to that brought by the hunter (unless he be a very superior animal), besides the gain derived from his being able to do some farm work, at least at an early age. The profit derivable from the cart-colt must, on the average, in most cases, be moderate ; and wth respect to the hunter, is a speculation, agreeable, perhaps, but doubtful. Considering the first ex- pense of the mare, and the subsequent outlay of from five to ten guineas for a staUion of some re- pute, added to keep for one or two years, I would strenuously recommend those farmers who are within a moderate distance of the metropolis, who are good judges of a horse, and who wish to rear hunters, to buy them at the hammer at Tattersall's, at one or two years old, or even later, rather than breed them. In the latter case you cannot possi- bly tell what sort of foal your mare may throw, or whether some accident may not happen to her in foahng ; whereas by buying colts when young, you may form a tolerably correct estimate of v/hat sort of horses they will make, and save the breeding expenses into the bargain ; young colts being fre- quently knocked down at the hammer for less money than they cost their owner on the day they were foaled. I have now taken a cursory view of the princi- ples on which the breeding of good horses should be based, and have likewise shown the best method of rearing them, in accordance wth the laws of physiology. I might, it is true, have entered into a much more minute detail of the treatment and general management of the horse, but so many works upon this subject are extant, that it is un- necessary to do more than to allude to them.* There is one remark, however, which I \vill run the risk of repeating, as a warning to all breeders ; and that is, never to be smitten v/ith the general appearance of either a stalhon or mare, if the more important points of the frame will not bear minute investigation. It is in vain that a horse possess a a showy crest, or a weU-carried taU, or have a general bearing that may captivate a novice ; if his shoulders, carcass, quarters, joints, and feet be not well shaped, well proportioned, and sound, be as- sured he is not the animal hkely to beget good stock, let his spirit and tout ensemble be what they may. Lastly, the farmer desirous of breeding valuable hunters cannot be too intimately acquainted with the "Racing Calender" and " Stud-book," which are the fountains of all knowledge relating to the propaga- tion of our best breed of horses, a large proportion of whose blood must enter into the composition of the first-rate hunter of the present day. The calculations of profit in breeding horses are hable to many deductions. Amongst cart-horse dealers mares are not in request for the higher markets ; but in the carriage-horse trade they are inadmissible, nor will they as hunters command an equal price in the fair, whatever they may do in the field, and yet the chances as to sex may be consi- dered equal. Next to sex in importance is colour, over which the breeder has no control. In car- riage-horses it most materially effects price, and has a certain influence on every description of horse. ITie author admits that his calculations are m the rough, and favourable to the breeder. The very moderate profits which even under these cir- cumstances he holds out, would be greatly de- creased if average provision were made for mares missing foal, accidents in foahng, expense and risk in castration, the unavoidable series of diseases to which young horses are subject, accidental blem- ishes, and above all, in carriage-coUs, the galled shoulders, chafings, kicks, blows, &c., leavmg blemishes to which those broken-in or worked in the fann teams are so invariably subject. The circumstance, also, that the spring fairs are usually those selected for the purchase of draught and car- riage-horses, entails a very increased expense m getting them into condition, beyond the summer and autumn fairs, when grass has for the most part sufliiciently prepared them. ^ H. Handley. * The reader curious in all that relates to horses may consult " Percival's Hippo-pathology," " Youatt on the Horse," " Bracey Clarke on the Foot of the Horse," Spooner on the same subject, " White's Veterinary Farriery," and " How to buy a Horse," in which everything connected with the purchase, sovmdness, and improvement of the horse by stable-management is considered. BURTON-ON-TRENT FARMERS' CLUB. At the meeting held on February the 23rd— Mr. Daniel, the treasurer, in the chair — Mr. John Greaves, the secretary of the club, opened the dis- cussion of the evening by reading the following paper " On the Use and the Abuse of Fallows" : — " As I have never, in the course of my practice as a farmer, had occasion to make a bare fallow, it may be thought that I am, on that account, ill qualified for the task which I ha\'e presumed to undertake. But, though I cannot hope to treat the sul)ject otherwise than very imperfectly, I am not sure that my not having any practical experience in the making of fallows does not give me some ad- vantage, since I am perhaps less likely to have con- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 325 tractecl any prejudices with respect to their employ- ment. In farming?, as in many other affairs of life, the old adage, * The looker-on sees most of the game,' holds good ; and, if a man has opportuni- ties of oljservation, and has been attentive to the operations of others, he is full as likely to form a just opinion as those who are immediately engaged in them; and, as I have long fanned land wthout resorting to a bare fallow, I can at least declare, from experience, that the ])ractice is unnecessary on the description of soil which I farm. My farm is not a hea\'y soil ; nevertiieless, I frequently see a bare fallow on land less tenacious than my own. I need not, however, detain you with reasons for or against my fitness to treat the subject, but will at once proceed to examine, as well as I am al)le, when fallows are necessary and rightly used, and, on tlie contraiy, when they are unnecessar)', and conse- quently the practice is abused. I propose to con- fine myself wholly to this question, and not to touch on the questions relating to the best way of making a fallow. " The tendency of the system of farming now generally recommended by the best authorities is to abolish the practice of bare fallows wherever it is possible ; and, when it is considered what a serious expense they entail on the farmer, and what a great loss of prcjcluce is caused to the country by their use, we have need of some very strong reasons for continuing them : they are an evil which necessity only can warrant us in submitting to; nevertheless, among many of the farmers who adopt the regular practice of fallowing, it is common to suppose that the land in some way has its fertility increased by the rest, and, l)y exposure to the influence of the sun and air. 1 do not, however, think it neces- sary at this ])eriod to take much pains to show that a bare fallow does not in any material degree repair the exhausted fertile jiroperties of the soil. 'Iliere is no doubt that, if a jiiece of land has been cropped for four or five years, and has in each year, along with the cultivated crop, borne also a pretty j)lentiful crop of weeds, there will (if the soil be of a tenacious or wet character) have accu- mulated a very considerable quantity of vegetable matter in it. The fallowing such a piece of land \v\]\ cause the decay of a great portion of such matter, and by its decay a supply of food will l)e provided for the ensuing crop. But then all this substance was already in the soil, and was not added by the process of fallowing — it was only prepared into a form in which plants could con- sume it. ITiere is, however, one way in which exj)osure to the sun and air may, and. according to the opinion of Professor Lieljig, does, increase the amount of food for plants in the soil. A solid rock crumbles to dust under the influence of air ; and, when air is admitted into the Ijody of the soil, the small particles of rock of wliich it is composed are jnilverized, and saline substances necessary to the life of jilants — such as ])otass, the pliosjjhates, Krc. — are thus set at liberty. Tliis disintegration and mouldering of the soil is, according to the same high authority, much assisted bj the chemical agency of caustic lime, when apjilied to fallowed land. I do not profess to understand the chemical action of either air or lime on the soil ; and Pro- fessor Liebig, whose opinions I quote, does not afford us any means of judging what degree of benefit is derived from their joint operation during the process of fallowing. I cannot, however, sup- pose it is very great ; and, even should it be grant- ed that the cpiantity of salines released in this way is considerable, I scarcely think the fact would sup- ply a soimd practical argument in favoiu- of fallows, for precisely the same effects may be produced on the soil without fallowing, by ajiplying lime in the intervals of crojjs, and, by a diligent and deep-stir- ring of the soil, both during the growth and the intervals between crops. In support of the opinion that no fertile properties can be added to the soil, except in the way just adverted to, and by carrying to it manures, 1 am tempted to adduce the authority of Professor Liebig. During his visit to Burton, a friend of mine inquired of him what he considered the most imjjortant result of the late discoveries in science as relating to ])ractical agriculture, and he answered — ' I think it is this : agriculturists now know that manures are identical with the ashes of plants. The farmer is like the manufacturer — no raw material, no fabric. The presence in the soil of the saline and earthy constituents of plants is the essential condition of their growth. Land is fertile in proportion to the al)undance of its stock of these materials. You cannot increase the stock but by carrying them from other places to the land, for the land has no power of i)roducing them. It was formerly thought that land had a power of enriching itself ; now we have proved that nothing comes of nothing.' But it was inquired of him — Does not the growth of a forest enrich the surface of a barren soil ? and do not deep-rooting grasses and other ])lants bring uj) fertilizing materials from below ? And he said — ' This is the same case : these j)lants carry the salines and earths from be- low to the surface ; but, if the farmer cannot wait for this slow, natural process, he must fetch his manures from a distance, unless the soil be already sufificiently filled with them.' " I need not, jierhaps, argue further that the practice of fallowing cannot be justified on account of its fertihzing influence on the soil ; and I will pass on to the other reasons by which it is usually sought to defend the ])ractice. On looking into a book — of some authority, now-a-days, in practical agriculture — ' Stephens's Book of the Farm,' fal- lowing is, I observe, there held to be necessaiy, for two reasons ; first, because on strf)ng lands green crops cannot be grown ; and, secondly, because when fallow cro]is cannot be cultivated, a sufficient su])ply of manure cannot be ])rocured to rcjiair the waste of the corn crops. I can scarcely admit the force of those arguments for fallows. There is no land caj)able of growing corn which will not grow clover and grass, at least, if not other kinds of green croj). If want of manure were the only cause of the necessity of fallows, this cause might, therefore, ahvays be obviated by kecj)ing strong lands longer in grass, and a shorter time under tillage. " But the chief and only reason assigned by the best practical fanners for the use of fallows is, that a certain kind of land cannot be kept clean on any other plan. 1 admit that the destruction of weeds z 2 o2'3 THE rAllMER-S MAGAZINE. is essential to all profitable farming ; and, if other methods fail to effect this, we must stili continue to employ a whole summer's tillage for the purpose. On this view of the question, the only thing to be considered is, what kind of land is it which cannot be kept clean \vithout a bare fallow ? It seems to me that this is really the only question that needs to be examined. To kill weeds is the only diffi- culty ; for I do not at all doubt it is easy enough to make all land on which we can destroy weeds without fallowing grow crops for cattle food, so as to supply the quantity of manure necessary for the sustenance of all the crops of the course. If there existed any sufficient reason for fallowing beyond that of the destruction of weeds, it would hold equally in the case of light land as of heavy ; and we who pursue another system on our friable soils ought to return once more to the old fashion of bare fallows, instead of the horse-hoed fallow-crops. " Now, when once a heavy and tenacious soil is full of weeds, it is not, perhaps, practicable to at- tempt to clean it by any other plan than a bare summer fallow. But, when once the land is clean, I scarcely think there is any soil, of good staple and in good condition, which, when well managed, under a proper course of husbandry, may not be kept free from weeds without having recourse to so ex- pensive an operation : I say, any soil of good staple ; that is, possessing depth and natural fer- tility, that is, full of manure and free from excess of wet. On soils which are at once tenacious and shallow, or on those which, though deep are wet, or on any heavy soils out of condition, I do not see how it is possible to avoid summer fallowing ; for, if we examine into the other means we possess of destroying or of preventing the growth of weeds, we shall, I think, find that they cannot profitably be employed except on soils which are capable of growing a fuU crop of whatever kind of plant it is sown with ; and this a shallow, or wet, or poor soil cannot do. Four-fifths, perhaps, of all the land which is now cultivated under the system of summer fallowing is either fertile or only impove- rished by bad farming. On such land, so far as I have observed, the necessity for fallows is altogether owing to the neglect of the weeds in all the crops of the course, and might be entirely prevented by attention to the condition of the land, and more careful cultivation. The system usually adopted on hght lands has been in many districts extended to the strong ; and I am convinced such a change will ere long be general. " The chief difference in the management of hght and heavy soils consists in the different manner of destroying weeds. While on hght lands it is easy, at almost all seasons of the year, to pulverize the soil, and clear it thoroughly of weeds by means of the harrows and rake, it is generally contended by the advocates of fallomng that weeds cannot be eradicated on tenacious land, but must be killed in the soil by exposure to the sun. But, though I admit that there is more difficulty in getting weeds out of strong land, I feel sure that, on most of the land now subjected to the process of fallowing, the weeds might easily be gathered in a single month of good weather, either in spring or summer, pro- vided they were not more abundant than they would be if every crop were carefully treated, as is the practice on the best managed hght soils. " If we attend minutely to the manner in which weeds are usually destroyed by a summer fallow, we shall perhaps see reason to believe that it is one and the same with what happens when a crop is repeatedly and carefully hoed. The common no- tion about the matter is, that the repeated plough- ings, by turning over and changing the surface exposed to the sun, dries and destroys the hving principle of the roots. It is believed that the sun's heat is the sole agent in the work of destruction. I apprehend that there is much error in this opinion. The action of the sun's heat certainly assists much in robbing the roots of hfe ; but the main effect is, perhaps, owing to the fact that the roots are not permitted to grow during the whole year. Almost every root-weed which infests our crops will be thoroughly destroyed if care be taken never to suffer leaves to be formed from them for a whole year. And, if the process by which the roots are formed be observed, the reason of this becomes plain. Before the roots of a plant can grow, there must be a gro^vth of leaves; for in the leaves the juices of the plant must undergo changes previous to their becoming a part of the structure of the plant. The roots themselves have no power of growth, without the simultaneous growth of the upper part of the plants. If, as soon as the leaves appear, they are cut off, the root cannot increase, and its life will be exhausted by the repeated loss it sustains in form- ing the first leaves. It is owing to this cause that the frequent repetition of superficial hoeing has such great effect in quelling all kinds of root weeds, as well as annuals. If weeds are prevented from growing, I do not see how they can accumu- late to an extent to render a bare fallow necessary. " I think then, if the practice of hoeing every crop be diligently pursued, as on light lands, that recourse need seldom be had to fallows, even on the strongest soils. But in order to make this system of culture profitable, I am more convinced every year that the condition of the land must be raised far beyond the usual point of fertihty. At last, the cheapest and easiest way of destroying weeds is to prevent their growth; and this can only be effected by always having the whole soil occupied by something else to supplant them. If a piece of pasture-land be over-mowed, and its condition lowered, we see a growth of weeds of various kinds take the place of the good and nu- tritious herbage. By grazing and top-dressing, the weeds may again be destroyed, and the good grasses restored. The case is precisely the same with a tillage crop. "When the soil is rich enough to bear a generous plant, the weeds wiU make room for the sown crop ; but when the soil is poor, the weeds, which can flourish on a more meagre diet than the cuhivated plants, thrive vigorously, while their opponents languish. A good crop of vetches on land in good condition will as effectually quell the growth of weeds as a frequently stirred fallow : and if a white crop is kept well hoed in the inter- vals of the rows during the early stages of its growth, few weeds will aftenvards appear, and those which do grow will not attain any large THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. n27 size, or spread their roots far through the soil. To ha\'e the whole soil thoroughly occupied with vigorous cultivated plants, would never fail to secure the land from weeds during tillage, precisely as it does in pasture lands. But this cannot be done, for seasons are not always favourable ; crops cannot always be well put in ; some plants niust be grown at wide intervals, and a dry or wet time may favour the weeds more than the crop. There are therefore required means of catting up and des- troying or eradicating the weed, which will accu- mulate in the ground. The intervals of the corn crops will not allow sufficient opportunity for this work ; and e\-ery three or four years, there must be some other expedient to resort to. This leads me to another principle relating to the method of checking weeds, which is not enough attended to in practice. " In order to kill weeds effectually while the crop is still growing, the intervals of the plants must be very wide. Now unless the laind be in perfect condition, a good crop at wide intervals cannot be expected ; for the size and vigour of each plant will always be in proportion to the degree of fer- tility of the soil ; its roots wU spread further as the soil is richer, so that much fewer plants will occupy the whole ground, and collect all the nutriment it is capable of yielding. Hence, while in a rich soil the largest crop can be grown at uade intervals, only half as large a crop can be grown on jjoor land at the same wide interA'al, as can be grown at intervals half as wide. Thus, though on good land in good condition, the expense of thorough horse-hoeing is repaid in a large produce, the case is very different on poor land, on which l)ut a scanty crop is yielded when the intervals are wide enough to permit of a thorough cleaning of the land between the rows. As a horse-hoed fallow crop is usually the expedient we must resort to, in order to do the work which must other\A'ise require a bare fallow, it is therefore especially required to ensure good condition in the land. "I am well aware that there are many soils which cannot be managed \vithout a summer fallow. These are such as are at once tenacious and wet, and for which fallowing is necessary for two reasons : first, because unless the soil be exposed in its whole depth to the action of air, light, and warmth, the decomposition of vegetable matters cannot be accomplished ; and secondly, such soils are by their nature infertile, and therefore lialilc to great accumulation of weeds. On these soils the use of fallows can only be dispensed with after they have been ameliorated by drainage. Shallow tenacious soils also will frequently require a system of fallowing, l)ecause as they Avill not grow a full crop of tillage i)lants, the growth of weeds is not kept in check by the natural process, nor will they bear the expensive plan of culture which is neccs- sarj' to keep them clean in every crop. Soils do also, I admit, require fallows merely on account of their extreme tenacity, because they are wet during great part of the year, and it is difhcult to cultivate them on the row system. On these last, however, it is usually practicable to take a half-green cro]j previous to the fallow. " But, I repeat what I have before said, that on all soils, whether friable or tenacious, which are deep and dry, either naturally or by artificial drain- age, fallows need seldom or never be resorted to, if they be farmed liberally. I venture to give the opinion that the necessity for fallows is, as a general rule, more owing to overcropping than to all other causes put together, and that by gro\nng a larger proportion of crops for cattle food, and thus increasing the quantity of manure, fallows may be avoided on at least four-fifths of all the lands on which they are commonly used. "The opinion, that strong land cannot be made to grow tillage crops of cattle food alternately with corn, is every year weakened Ijy our witnessing new examples of the successful practice of such a mode of culture. Even turnips are introduced as a common crop on lands which were wont to be treated on the system of bare fallows. "Without, however, going so far as to recommend the growth of the plant most difficult to manage on strong lands, there are other crops to which the nature of strong land is suited which will supply as much manure to fertilize the land, and afford as great facility as the turnip for cleaning it. We have winter and spring vetches, rye, cole, clover, and of late has been added another plant — the Itahan rj'e- grass, which seems likely to supply a very useful change of crop for strong lands. There is the mangold wau-tzel too. It matters nothing to the farmer whether he get a good cattle crop early in the year, or late. When he has arranged his plan beforehand, it is just the same thing to him to have his land occupied by a full crop of vetches until the end of June, and to use the next two months to make a clean fallow, as it is to let the land remain fallow till May, and grow a fallow crop of turnips afterwards. Now I feel sure, that when the soil is as full of manure for vetches as is required for a good crop of turnips, as large a crop can be grown of the first as of the last ; and if cleared off by the first of July, with as perfect a cleaning of the land as a turnip fallow effects. But a better plan than making a half fallow with vetches is perhaps to make beans, sown at intervals wide enough to allow of the free use of the horse-hoe tlu'ough the summer, the cleaning croj) ; and in the year when green crop is grown, to occup)' the soil witli it through the whole year. By this plan the land will be as thoroughly cleaned, and much more manure will be gained. " I have omitted to notice many expedients by which fallows may be abolished, or rendered less frequent ; such are, a clean autumn tillage instead of suffering the land to lie in stubble, and thus fostering and presemng the hfe of all kinds of weeds ; the sowing on a stale furrow whenever spring corn is sown ; the use of such iini)loments as Biddle's or the Uley cuUi\'ator, in jjlace of the less efficient means of cleaning the land commonly emj)loyed ; these are all points of great importance, which I have only passed by in order that I might dwell more at length on that which is, I think, of the most consequence. I have occupied so much of your time in endeavouring to show the direct and indirect manner in which an improvement in the fertile condition of land operates to render the raw culture profitable, and thereby to obviate the 828 TFIE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. necessity for fallows, that I should rather apologize for trespassing so long on your attention, than for refraining from more extended remarks on any part of the subject. " However imperfectly I may have argued in favour of the opinion I entertain, I yet hope you will agree mth me, that the fewer fallows we make the better both for the profit of the farmer and for the good of the community ; and that I have pointed out the one great and important change, without which, whatever other expedients be adopted, we can never expect to be successful in a contest \vith weeds, without the waste of a year's rent and a year's crop." The club was weU attended on this occasion, and in the discussion which followed the reading of Mr. Greaves's paper, most of the members present concurred in his opinions. A strong pro- test was, however, made by some of the farmers, of hea\y land against the general disuse of fallows, though they also admitted that a large proportion of the soils now cultivated under the system of fallows might more profitably be managed on the row system of culture, \nth alternate crops of com and cattle food. YOXFORD FARMERS' CLUB. SEVENTH REPORT, PRESENTED TO THE ANNUAL MEETING, OCTOBER 28TH, 1844. In an age which the human mind has rendered remarkable for invention and innovation, and in many instances illustrious for improvement ; when a restless spirit of inquiry is abroad, and agitating the long-admitted o])inions of our forefathers, with- out regard to custom or reverence for age ; when the theories of antiquity are turned upside down, and their arguments inside out ; when, both in matters of faith and in matters of fact, every rank of society seems to have struck into a fresh path, and commenced a revolution of unknown extent and tendency round the centre of an imtried sys- tem, it has happened, as a matter of course, that the impetus which the concurrent circumstances of the times have given to eveiy other art, science, and vocation of tlie state, has eventually extended to agriculture. Indeed, the soil may be said to have first felt the effects of this change and pro- gression of the public mind ; for, owing to a ra- pidly-augmenting population, and the consequent necessity for an increased production of food at a diminished cost, either at home or abroad, it is no wonder that the land should have been amongst the foremost called upon to exert all her latent energies to meet the exigencies of the community. Necessity has no law; and the consequence has been that, from one end of the country to the other, an unprecedented anxiety has been mani- fested to attain, if possible, to a more productive mode of cultivation. To the furtherance of this desirable object, men of every denomination seem to have devoted their time, toil, and talents. Science has bent her mighty mind to a careful, patient, and laborious study of geology; diving into the bowels of the earth after that information not to be found on its surface ; analyzing, vnXh. an eye only intent on the discovery of truth, all their component particles, in order to arrive at the grand cause and organ of vegetation ; calling in the aid of fire, air, and water, to see what is and can be pro- duced by the action and combination of the ele- ments ; thus displajdng, in the limited work-room of her experiments those effects which are conti- nually transpiring in the magnificent laboratory of nature. But, while agriculture has to be thankful for the light Avhich sound practical science has afforded and is affording her, she has also to beware of follomng the false glare of those " ignes fatui" which are daily issuing from the press, and to deprecate, most deservedlj', the mercenary motives of those who, availing themselves of the general demand for all useful information on the tillage of the ground, are foisting upon the public the productions of vision- ary theorists and hnpudent quacks, "Born in a garret, in a kitchen bred." Against all such pubhcations your committee ap- pointed for drawing up this report beg to put in their strongest protest, and conceive that the now verj' general establishment of farmers' clubs will act very materially as an antidote against their ill effects; for, as nothing is supposed to emanate from such societies but what experiment has tried and subsequent practice approved, a tolerable safe- guard against impositions may be raised by the practical records annually published of the farmers' clubs tliroughout the empire. We want truth — evident and available truth — and truth as cheap as we can ha\'e it, and are so far willing to pay for it ; but as for those false, although flattering, schemes held out by hungry authors and avaricious pub- lishers— those golden El Dorados which lead us astray out of the paths of sober judgment — we look upon them not only as dear at a gift, but dan- gerous to be disseminated gratis amongst the com- munity. It is, therefore, with a thorough conviction of the necessity of making our fields yield all the in- crease of which, by the aid of nature and art, they are capable, and with as thorough a persuasion of the soundness of the policy of deviating no further from the path of established custom and personal experience than prudence or a probable remuneration might warrant, that your committee call upon their brother farmers to support their clubs by their full and regular attendance and interchange of know- ledge at the monthly meetings, no less than by their yearly subscription and presence at the an- nual dinner ; that, by a constant and unequivocal proof of union amongst themselves, they may indi- \ndually receive that benefit from the discussion of agricultural subjects which collectively they are the more able to impart, and, at the same time, re- fute the charges of their adversaries of their being a divided body, and unable to be drawn together even for the promotion of their own interests. They now beg leave to lay before you the report of the past year, the resolutions of which are for you either to amend or to adopt by the expression of your opinion. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 329 The first meeting of our club after the last an- nual dinner was held on the 4th of December. General errors in farming were then discussed, and the manner considered by which they were likely to be avoided ; but, as the suggestions arising out of this subject were of course desultory from their nature, diversified in their character, and divided in their sentiment, being more useful as hints than available as rules, nothing definite could be deter- mined concerning them — at least, nothing suffi- ciently tangible for embodjing in a resolution. The rest of this evening was de\'Oted to a selec- tion of subjects for the following year, of members to introduce the same, and an appointment of the days of meeting. AVith reference to the prizes offered to garden and cottage allotments, it was thought desirable, from the numerous and excellent specimens of ve- getables exhibited as candidates for reward last year, to increase the numl)er of prizes in each class, if they could not much augment the aggre- gate svun distributed ; thus aSbrding, in the ten classes, twenty additional chances to those com- petitors whose productions did not, by the decision of the judges, come under the denomination of first, second, and third-best, limited to which gra- dations the prizes were awarded last year. This, it was conceived, would tend to encourage the in- dustrious labourer to come forward with his little j)roduce, and to evince to him that there was a desire on the part of the fanners to make the numl)er of re- cipients of their liberality as com])rehensive as was compatible with the funds they had to appropriate to the purpose and consistent towards keeping alive a necessary spirit of emulation amongst the cottage gardeners themselves. In aid of the above laudable object, your committee have great gratification in making known to the members that, in addition to the annual donation of the club, they have this year been assisted by a subscription from Sir Charles Blois, and a renewal of an annual donation individually from Messrs. Crabtree, Re\'ans, Ran- some, Garrett, and Smyth, who, it will be recol- lected, have from the commencement uniformly aided the club in this most praiseworthy design, and to which gentlemen the committee consider the members particularly indebted. To those who have more recently contributed their assistance they beg to offer their liest acknowledgments, with the hope that in the wake of so goodly a number of patrons many more may be induced to follow. On the 8th of January the meeting took into consideration "'llie best method of bringing old pasture land into cultivation. In discussing this subject, the memljers present were of opinion that, in making old pasture land immediately i)ro- ductive, paring and burning was the most effectual method ; about two-thirds of the turf to be burnt on small beai)s, and the remainder carted oft' and applied to manuring the old jjloughed land on the farm. The ashes arising from paring and burning to be spread, and Swedish turnij)s sown. The first corn crop to be oats ; then jieas, followed by a wheat crop : it might then fall into the general routine of cropping on the farm. If wet land, under-draining will be required, and as early after the turnip croji as convenient : the bottom spade taken out in draining to be spread on the land. "Tlie most advantageous mode of managing farm-yard maniue in the yards and on the heap" occupied the attention of the meeting on the 5th of February, when it was deemed highly important that the following i)oints should be attended to : 1 . That in the horse-yard all the manure made in the stable should be mixed with that pro- duced in the yard, in order that the mass altoge- ther may be as equal in quality as possible. •2. With respect to the manure made in the stock-yard when removed to the heap, great care should be taken that thai made in the yard where the cattle are fattened (and where the best quality of food is consequently consumed) be mixed with that made from store-stock, which is generally in- ferior; in order that the above object may be secured, viz., that of obtaining as equal a quality as practicable. 3. When carted on the heap, sufldcient bottom should be made, either of mould or some other available matter, to absorb all the drain from the mass aboA-e it ; the top of the heap should in all cases be closely covered, to prevent the escape of the gaseous qualities of the manure, and in turning over the heaps, the greatest possible care should be taken to amalgamate the component particles of the muck into an even average quality, this being in all cases alwa)'s to be aimed at as a most desir- able olyect. In order to increase the quantity of the manure, it was recommended that as little straw as possible be consumed by cattle, but as much as can be con- verted into muck by the tathe of the stock ; to effect which object, as great a quantity of hay and root should be secured as the pecuhar circumstances of every farmer would admit. The subject Ijrought before the meeting on the 4th of March was, " Tlie expenses attendant upon raising and securing a root crop upon heavy land," and the followhig resolution was the result of the evening's discussion. " ITie cost incurred in making a good fallow for a beet crop, including the expense of securing the same l)eyond the outlay in making a throughout fallow, aj)pears to be 4/. per acre, and that of com- mon turnips 3/. per acre; the same quantity of manure being carted in each case, and half the value thereof charged to the respective root-crops ; rent, tithe, and all parochial charges being excluded in both cases." At the meeting on the 1st of April, the members present took into consideration " The best substi- tute for the purpose of fattening stock in case of a failure in a crop of root." and were imanimous in adopting this resolution : "The subject above noticed having Ijeen duly entertained by this meeting, the i)arty introducing it was strongly impressed with the conviction, based upon his own experience, that a composition ofgrcmnd or crushed linseed, mixed with either barley, beans, or peas, was tlie most eligible food to answer the purpose intended, as being more economical than that of linseed cake." On the Gth day of May, Mr. Garrett, of Leiston, gave a lecture " On the merits of agricul- 330 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tural carnages in general use in Suffolk, as com- pared wnih those of other counties," illustrating his remarks on the theory of draught, friction, &c., by the introduction of ingenious and appropriate models, thus affording to the members assembled much useful information. The follo\ving extract from a practical essay on the subject alluded to, written Ijy that gentleman, will enable the club to form some idea of what he conceived to be the principal faidts in the waggons and agricultural carriages of Suffolk ; \,'hiist the improvements capaljle of being made in them would naturall)- suggest themselves to the reflecting reader by a consideration of the three divisions into which the lecture branches at the end of the extract :— "The writer of this is strongly impressed with the idea that very considerable improvements may be made in agricultural carriages. From the ob- servations he has had the opportunity of making, Suffolk vv-aggons and carts are very far behind those of many other counties, and bear no propor- tion to the skill and ingenuity which have been dis- played in the improvement of other agricultural machinery. The most convincing proof of this opinion will be to expose the faults of our present home-made heavy carriages, which are these : A very unnecessary quantity of material is used in a most injudicious and unprofitable manner, without adding to the strength of the vehicle, but consider- ably to the labour of the horses ; clumsy wooden axle-trees, plated with iron, producing much un- necessary friction and a further increase to the draught— the floors of the carriages much too high, causing extra labour in loading, making them much more hable to overturn, and adding to the lateral pressure in going up or down hill. The method of yoking four horses out at full length, losing thereby a portion of their strength, is also decidedly wrong ; rendering it thus neces- sary for two men to take charge of them, occasion- ing extra expense, and, not unfrequently, drunken- ness and danger. Having briefly enumerated the most palpable faults in our waggons and carts now in common use, I mil endeavour to point out the principles of amendment, which may be brought under consideration in the following order : — "1. Lightness of the carriage consistent with strength. " 2. Reduction of friction in the wheels and axle- tress. " 3. The advantages arising from the use of one- horse carts over waggons for home work, the ne- cessity of building them with low floors, and the most judicious method of attaching horses to car- riages." We regret that the hmits of a report will not allow of our laying before the members more copiously those mechanical truths which form the ground work of Mr. Garrett's admiraljle essay. '" The most effectual method of ]jreventing the destruction of the plant of wheat by slugs" and wire-worms" came under the notice of the meeting on the 3rd of June, and the following obser\'ations may be said to convey the opinion of the inem])ers present on the occasion : — In order to prevent the ravages of the slug, it was strongly recommended to harrow the clover stubbles before sunrise (with the harrows bushed), and immediately afterwards to roll them previous to jiloughing ; both operations being performed simultaneously crossways of the stetch, and to be rejjeated if found necessary. In cases where the slug had attacked the growing croj), it was advised by a member who had proved its efficacy to apply with the drill, with the coul- ters out, 4 bushels iter acre of slacked lime ; this likewise to he performed early in the morning, and harrowed afterwards as in the former instance. The members present were not aware of any method of effectually destroying the ravages of the wire-worm, although compression of the land by early and repeated rollings wovild, in some measure, check their destructive progress. The intervention of harvest was considered a sufficient objection to any meetings being held in July and August, and accordingly the next dis- cussion took place on the 23rd of September, the subject being, " The most eligible mode of working the horses on a farm, whether by j'early servants or l^y horse-men." " With respect to the above subject, it was the opinion of this meeting that the horses of a farm could be worked with less expense by in-door than o?//-door servants, provided strict economy were used in the housekeeping department, and the per- sonal attention of the master and mistress exer- cised over their general conduct." The adoption of the last resolution completed our seventh annual round of business, and al- though the now \'ery general establishment of far- mers' clubs has of necessity somewhat decreased the number of our members, it has only tended to diffuse more widely, and thereby more efficiently, through many channels, that information amongst the agricultural body which at first Vv-as confined to one, just as a river breaking into different streams, increases its sphere of usefulness in proportion as it multiphes the branches of its fertilizing course. (For the Committee,) Robert Hughm.\n, Sec. FRAMLINGHAM FARMERS' CLUB. FIFTH REPORT, PRESENTED AT THE GENERAL MEETING, 26th NOVEMBER, 1844. The first subject standing on the list, viz, " The circumstunces tvhich ought to guide the farmer in his selections of the different varieties of wheat for seed," came on for discussion on the 5th Decem- ber, 1843, The results which ha^•e followed the culti\'ation of the different \'arieties of wheat, by the memliers pre- sent, were so various and contradicting, that, so far as mere varieties are concerned, it is difficult to say whether any particular motive has led to the pre- ference given, jjeyond the hope of obtaining a bet- ter yield at harvest. The circumstances which were chiefly alluded to, as guiding the farmer of this district, were the character of the soil, the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 331 kind of crop which proceeds, the necessity of| change, the convenience of having a portion of the I crop ripen sooner than the rest, and the compara- tively superior price which white wheat fetches at market. I In considering the first i)oint, all seem agreed that red wheats are l)est adapted for this \icinity, and if we may rely upon the little experience which the majority of our memliers ha\e had of light land farming, and of tilling poor thin soils, we shoidd pronounce them hest in t! ese cases also. White wheat, and particularly t hose with long straw, will reach perfection only on good mixed soil ; hut, as we have stated, these generally fetch a higher price : the question is, does this comjien- sate for the hazard which attends growing them on heavy land farms ? The memhers were decidedly of opinion that it does, provided that the hest jjor- tions of the farm only are selected for the purjiose, as they come in course, and that they are })lanted only after clover. The third point has reference to the supj)osed ad\'antages of frequently changing the stock of wheat sown ; and this question was dwelt upon as highly important. Any one kind of wheat continually repeated was helieved to degene- rate. One memher said he was sd fully impressed witli the truth of degeneracy heing the consequence of repetition, that he was constantly in the habit of fetching his seed wheat from soils of a totally op- posite character to his own ; and he stated his con- viction that the new varieties that have been from time to time introduced owe their superiority to this fact alone. In proof of the effect of change of soil uj)on \'egetables, it was said that peas grown upon light land break by boihng, but that they lose this quality when changed to heavy lands. A meml)er likewise stated, that he had observed a marked difference in barley brought off light land to heavy. Tunstal wheat was reported to huve stood the test of many years' experience ; but some members said they coidd not succeed with it, it is so liable to mildew ; and others declared their opinion that the golden dro]), which has been so much esteemed, is now failing from continued repetition ; some persons, it seems, ha\'e a piactice of mi.xing different sorts of wheat together, and it appears to answer \ery well. The advantages of being able to begin har\'est early are so many, that it was thought advisable to grow some white wheat on this account, 'i'lie long- strawed white varieties were reported to be subject to falling from the root. This was attributed by some to i)lanting it too thick. Another gentleman stated that he had examined many roots, and found them partially eaten through by an insect resem- bling a wire-worm. A third said he had not noticed this, but had found the top of the root in a decayed state. A long C(mversation afterwards ensued, on the advantages of being allowed to grow wheat, in- stead of barley, after beet. It was said that beet land, generally, is not kindly for barley; wheat succeeds much better, and, if the farmer be alloweil the hberty, it induces him to keep more stock, which cannot be otherwise than beneficial to the rest of the land. 2nd January, 1844. — "The crops in our rotation, to which' farm yard manure can be most beneficially applied." The members ])resent being unanimously of opinion that farm j'ard manure, well prepared, and well taken care of in the heap, is decidedly the best of all manures, tliouglit it desirable to determine to what crojjs it can be most usefully applied. 'llie member who introduced this subject ex- l)ressed a decided opinion in favour of manurmg beans and young layers instead of wheat, and also of manuring well for the root crops. He said, " You never di\ided the distances of time, in ma- nuring, so well. Manure for roots," said he, ''and )'oti get a cro]) of beans, or clo\'er and wheat ; and, on that part of your land which may require a long fallow, you get your two crops from the manure before the land has rested ; and you avoid carting muck at Michaelmas time, which, in a wet season, often does much injury and creates delay." If the land is light enough to feed with sheep, one good manuring for the wheat is best. On mixed soil, where peas are often grown, he would not manure for these, as it forces the straw too much, and, in many cases, injures the crop. If it was thought by the farmer that his roots, in tliis case, would not be sufficiently good for sheep-folding, he could not find a better opportunity to resort to some artifi- cial manure. One member stated that, although he approA-ed, generally, of the foregoing observations, still he en- deavoured to muck for that piece of wheat \Ahich was to be followed b)' tares, and which he always takes after clover-land wheat. Another member said that, as he had but a small proportion of j)asture, he always manured his young clovers in preference to beans, and thought there was an ob- jection to mucking for s])ring crojis, as it must be done with over-year muck. This objection was re- plied to by others, who argued that, if you ma- nure for young clovers soon after Michaelmas, you will be sure of a gcjod croj), biU that they also carted muck for beans at the same time. There were others who thought mucking young layers before .lanuary or I'Vbruary not desirable. After a lengthened conversation, tiie following was agreed to by a majority of the members present : — that manure should be ajjplied for roots, and, if possi- ble, also for both beans and clover; if not stiffi- cient for both, for beans in preference to clover. No manure for peas, l>ut in that case immediately before wheat. February 6th. — " The best .substitutes to be used for stnck-feediufj in case of a deficient roof crop." In taking tliis subject into consideration, it was su]»posed tliat a deficiency of roots might arise from a misplant in the field, or, after being stored for the winter, be entirely destroyed either by heat or frost. It was also understood that the sub- ject should embrace cows and breeding sheep, which a jierson must almost of necessity keep through the winter, as well as stock purchased for grazing. The first speaker suggested millers' offal and cut chaff for the winter feed of cows, and cake 332 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and pollard after calving ; he believed they do as well as with roots. This gentleman said he had been told that if he i)urchased stock at £10, and spent £10 more in artificial keep, and afterwards sold them for £18, he woidd be a gainer by not gromng roots on his heavy land. It was the opinion of the next person who addressed the meet- ing that bullocks, forward in condition, ought to be sold if there were no roots to put them to ; but that, if lean, cut straw chaff and linseed com])ound, soaked together, might be used with ad\'antage. Cake he thought far superior to corn for sheep ; but he would sell out all but his breeding sheep, for which corn must be resorted to, to keep them on till spring. A third party considered it necessary to take into account the relative value of different kinds of fodder : but he did not beheve he could graze pro- fitably without roots. Cake would not supply the deficiency. He thought a great deal might be done by taking care to have an early supply of green feed. For cows, which came in early, he would resort to bean or pea meal, a quart per head, night and morning, with half a peck of bran ; he doubted whether cake answered for cows even to the extent of one per head per day. His opinion was, that grazing stock must either be sold or be provided with early green food ; he would sell out rather than buy artificial keep, and trust to his horses to coiiA'ert his straw into manure. The next gentleman said he would not part with his stock on account of a deficient root crop. He had a high opinion of malt coombs for cows, and considered cake too expensive. For sheep, he would recommend bean or pea meal, with hay, but preferred the former even for cows. He, with some others, objected to forcing green crops on our soil. " We haA'e corn, straw, hay, and poUard, bran, cake, malt coombs. &c.," said he. " I would buy and use anything rather than part with my stock, because mthout stock I cannot make ma- nure." Another person stated it would 1)e better to sell out grazing stock, and buy again in spring for sum- mer stall feeding, than to keep them through the winter on bought food. 'ITiis farmer was very fa- ^'0urable to the use of cake for cows ; he found tliat when accompanied liy hay, they economized his roots. He recommended cake for breeding sheep also, when suckling lambs. The character of the soil was alluded to by one gentleman as having much to do -with the manner of meeting the diffi- culty ; he could not agree to forcing green crops on heavy lands. Many other observations of simi- lar ])urport were addressed to the meeting, but no resolution was passed. March 5th. — " The best constructed carr'uujes to be used on our farms ; also the proprieti/ of thrash- ing our corn by machine or flail."' It seems that our neighbours are tolerably well satisfied with the make of their carriages. Full load tumbrils were objected to, as being unwieldly, and beyond the management of boys — 'f-load with broad raves being considered far Ijetter, It was suggested that road waggons might be made fighter than they commonly are, now that roads are so much improved, and that the iron side supporters should be on the outside, and so fastened that the bottom can be removed without destroying the frame-work; it was also considered advisable to have double shafts for road waggons, as horses draw much better in ]3airs, and the down hill la- bour is shared by two horses instead of bearing all upon one. Some members expressed their dislike of narrow buck, d waggons as being bad for har- ^'est work, and recommended low waggons with broad raves. In considering the question of machine thrashing, it was not the business of the club to inquire into the i)olitical causes which may affect the market va- lue of farm produce ; so far as this discussion was concerned, it was enough for the farmer to know that the present ruling prices make it expedient that every means should be adopted for increasing the amount, and for lessening the cost of produc- tion. In this position of aftairs, therefore, the sim- ple question to be determined was — Is anything saved by thrashing with a machine ? It was stated that hand labour equal to eight men, wiU thrash on an average with a machine of four-horse power, 40 coombs of reaped wheat per day — that is to say, the manual laljour required is equivalent to one man for eight days, and the total cost is £1 19s. To do it with the flad, it takes one man about 28 days, and costs £2 13s.; hence there is a pecuniaiy saving of 14s., and of labour equal to the work of a man for 20 days, whilst the work, as every member admitted, is equally well done ; but, said some of them, we like the flail best — it gives emplojTnent to the labourer. It is true, said another party, it keeps your labourer in work, but cannot you find him more profitable employment ? We think his time would be more profitably employed in making improvements upon the farm ; a good farmer does not employ the less number of hands, because he uses a machine for thrashing his wheat. It is, moreover, sometimes of importance to get your wheat knocked out quickly to save the advantage of a favourable market, or to have your men at liberty for other purposes. We admit, replied some other members, that employment may be fovmd at almost any time on the light land farm, but this is not the case on heavy land ; here it is not possible to find out-door employment during a long conti- nuance of wet weather : this being the case, it is a good thing to ha\-e barn work for the men ; we therefore think that neither wheat nor any other corn crop should be thrashed by horse power except in case of emergency. A majority, however, decided, " that considering the cost, dispatch, and saving of labour, wheat should be thrashed with a machine." Mr. Warnes, of Trimingham, having kindly ex- pressed his willingness to come and address the club, on the subjects of cultivating flax, summer grazing, box feeding, &c., a numerous company of members, with their friends, assembled this evening to meet him. Mr. Warnes's address was of course a digest of the views set forth in his pamphlets ; it is, there- fore, not necessary that his arguments should form a part of our report ; suffice it to say, these were in many points fully corroborated by our respected - THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 333 chairman ; this gentleman announced his determi- nation to test them rigidly and impartially, and so far as this determination has at present been acted upon, we are bound (in justice to Mr. Warnes) to acknowledge that we believe that gentleman is con- ferring benefits upon the farmer, and upon the pub- lic generally, which time only can show the extent of, April 2nd. — " The best description of root to culti- vate ; the best mode of cultivation j and the mem- bers' experience of white carrots during the past year." " Roots," obserA'ed one gentleman, " are the mainstay of good husbandly; it is by the cultiva- tion of these that the Norfolk farmer has spread his fame throughout the world, and jn'oduces more corn and meat than any other covmty of the same extent. Will not this fact be a sufficient apology for again bringing the suljject of roots under dis- cussion ? Let us endeavour to imitate their exam- ple, and learn to estimate the true value of the beet croj). For my own part. I am inclined to regard it as the first and most im])ortant of all roots. It keeps good till the following June or July, and it enables us to clear the land in October, so that it may be ])loughed to receive the winter frost. I think, however, it ought not to be given to cattle till after Christmas. We must, therefore, try for a few Swedes and common turnips to carry us through the months of November and December. I am so satisfied with the produce, weight, and qua- lity of yellow globe beet, that I shall this year grow an extended breadth of them ; still, although 1 am so strong an advocate for beet root, yet I would ad- vise you to grow no more than you can supply with 20 loads i)er acre of good farm-yard manure, and if none remains for turnips, clod burn for them. I would likewise recommend you to use the double tommy jilough, with breasts and hoes alternately for beet and Swedes, to begin the use of it early, and rejieat it often ; it promotes their growth, and you will have the satisfaction of showing your field of roots from harvest to October without a weed. But when we have learned to grow a good clean cro]) of roots, let us not imagine that we have reached the summit of agricultural impro\'ement ; the Norfolk farmer does not rest here; he finds that he cannot fatten his cattle on roots alone, and accordingly we see him trying to meet the difficulty by setting aj)art a jjortion of his root land for grow- ing flax, thus olitaining the double ad\antage of finishing his cattle for market, from tlie produce of his own farm, at the same time that he improves the quality of his manure." Other members fol- lowed this gentleman, and stated that beet in mo- deration are advantageously gi\cn to fatten beasts, cows, sheep, swine, cart horses, and colts, but that they purge if given in excessive quantity fresh from the clamp ; that cattle ])refer the u])per jiart of the root, the tails and lower jjart being more beneficially ap])lied to young stock ; that roots to keep should be ripe and diy when clamjjcd ; and that air holes should be left in the clamps ; that barley does badly after beet ; clover and wheat better ; that if a soil is too strong for beet, it is equally so for other roots, and tiie carting of turnips oH" such land is e.xceed- ingly hurtful ; that land intended for beet should ha\-e one or two earths after har\'est ; this greatly facilitates the destruction of weeds, and there is less necessity for working it much in the spring, which heavy land ought not to be ; that beet will allow of being hoed nearer to them than turnips, and give a chance of making a cleaner fallow after them; that ridge work is best for carting and keeping the field clean, and drilling more certain than broadcast sowing, but that the balk is best kept uj) by setting ; that the earth should be cleaned away from the root, because that portion exi)osed to the air is always best ; that there is very bad management when beet require a fork to get them up ; and that late com- mon red produces more than any other kind, but that there is less waste with yellow, and stock pre- fer them. One party objected to give many beet to cart horses, and did not think them sufficiently nutritious without corn and hay ; he observed, also, that milch cows will not no well upon them ; the butter requires nuich churning, and is not good when obtained. For sheep he found them too re- laxing ; some of his sheep had had all they chose with chaff, and others turnips and chaff; the first lot scoured and made no progress ; he then gave a pint of salt per day to 40 sheep ; they were less relaxed, but did not then get on equal to the others. Young calves, he said, they suited well, but not young pigs ; given with a few peas, older pigs will thrive very well; colts, he also said, did well upon them. On the whole, however, he did not think it answered to cart so much muck for this root ; his barley invariably suffered after beet. He preferred long yellow ; it does not grow so deep as red, and he believed stock like them better ; and that he gets more barley after them, and recommended dibbling, as the beet grow faster. A strong conviction was expressed, that this root disagrees from excessive richness, and if given in such quantities as to disagree, it is a waste of food, for the cattle then cease to reap benefit from it. One member said, he could make the I)est fallow with turnips. White carrots appear to have succeeded well with some members, and every one spoke of the avidity with which they are eaten by all kinds of stock, and of their nutritious properties : they were especially commended for horses and milcli cows. It was stated by several persons, that ma- nure actually seems to act injuriously, as it occa- sions the root to get worm-eaten, and to throw out fibres in search of it : it should therefore be saved for the barley crop, llie general ]>lan appears to be, to doul)le plough for them, and to drill on ridges about 4lbs. i)er acre with sand, first ruljbing; the seeds between rough boards, to get off the husk. 'Hie clamj), it was suggested, should no' be more than a yard wide, and the same in height, covered with straw. Where sand is jilontiful, it was thought it might do to ])ack them in. The discussion closed by passing the following resolu- tion : — "That, taking everything into ct)nsidera- tion, beet is the best description of root to cultivate as a main crop, l)ut not to the total exclusion of other roots ; and tliat white carrots deserve a further and fair trial, especially as to their fat- tening properties, as comi)ared witli mange \nirzel, &c. 334 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. May 7th.'—" On the best means of eradicating the most prevailing hurtful tveeds." To every farmer who desires to secure for his own profit and advantage the full productive powers of the soil, this is a subject of paramount importance. Weeds not only usurp space which ought to be oc- cupied by corn, but rob the land of those principles which nature designs for future crops; it is, there- fore, matter for regret that some more effective means cannot be devised for their total extermina- tion. Many of them, indeed, a good farmer may keep under, except in very wet seasons, by his or- dinary course of cultivation ; and some, such as cohsfoot, birdweed, gentian, groundsel, nettles, &c., will be subdued b)' deep ploughing, and a diligent use of the hoe : there are others, however, amongst which may be named couch, spear and black grass, thistles, clover and flax dodder, charlocks, red and white poppies, mayweed, catstails, docks, darnel, drauk, &c., which almost defy our most industrious efforts. A good cloddy fallow, with heat and drought, is regarded as the best remedy, but it is one which cannot always be commanded. As a general recommendation, early hoeing was insisted iipon, even though it might require frequent repe- tition ; to prevent their seeding about, it was Uke- vnse thought advisable to remove by hand all seed- ing weeds from stubbles after harvest, and particu- larly from those of beans and peas ; but when grass and other root weeds prevail, it is an excellent plan, as a preparation for wheat, to skim plough, or to use Riddle's scarifiers; and when weeds abound in pastures, close sheep feeding, not later than March, may be resorted to with great advantage. In speaking of the necessity of removing docks from the field, it ^\'as well observed, that we some- times do not carry these and other weeds far enough away to prevent their taking root in some dry ditch or hedgerow, from whence their seeds are again scattered over the fields from which thej' were taken. The club expressed a decided opinion that our fences and pastures are too much neglected : pounds are spent in hoeing and weeding a few acres of land, whilst weeds enow are allowed to exist in the surrounding meadows and hedges, to stock the whole parish. It was deemed important to ascer- tain the seeding time of Aveeds, that means may be employed soon enough to stop this mode of propa- gation. Many remarks fell in regard to individual weeds, which cannot l)e here particularized. Sum- merland wheats were reported to ])e real nurseries for black grass. Many members beheved that this- tles are best let alone, until they get large enough to pull ; the majority, howe\-er, decided, that they should be cut down when young. To guard against dodder, the farmer is advised to sift his flax seed with a clover sieve, and his clover seed with a white suckling sieve. June 25//;. — " The amount of labour necessary to good cidtivation on a farm of \00 acres, one-fourth being pasture, the arable cultivated on the present four-coiirse shift, the land an averageofthe Fram- linghurn district." Several of our friends came prepared with well- considered statements, shewing not only the gross necessary outlay, but particularizing the amount and cost of labour required for the due perform- ance of every operation of tillage, occurring through- out the year. Others had drawn their con elusions by consulting their account books, and it seemed that every member who entered into the question had pursued a different method of calculation ; some surprise was, therefore, expressed that the result should have so nearly corresponded. Every state- ment agreed in appropriating labour equal to five able-bodied men, and the total cost in every case amounted to very little over or under £150 ; i. e., £1 10s. per acre, and 20 acres to each man. One dissentient only appeared among the company pre- sent. This member was disposed to allow labour equal to 4i men only, but it afterwards appeared he had made his calculations upon the whole of his farm extending over 300 acres, and upwards. July 30th. — " On the merits of stall-feeding, as compared ivith being loose in the yard; with members' trials of compound as recently recom- mended." Stall feeding has hitherto met with but little at- tention in this district ; there was, consequently, no difference of opinion as to the most practicable mode of carrying the system into effect. Mr. Warnes's method has been impartially tried upon several lots of lieasts, side by side, with others grazed upon the usual plan, and we are enabled to make the follo\ving report of the result, viz. : — That 2 pecks of linseed, ground or crushed, 4 pecks of bean meal, and 8 pails (24 gallons) of water, boiled into a pulp, make 20 stone of com- pound, costing 7s., or less than 5d. per stone, in- cluding grinding, firing, labour, &c., and that each stone possesses fattening properties fully equal to 3 of the best cakes, which cost 9d. ; and makes manure of very superior quality. The trial also corroborates the assertion that beasts fatten faster in a confined space than when loose ; that there is no objection to putting a pair of polled beasts in each stall, 10 ft. by 8 ft. provided they agree; and that friendly pairs may generally be found by in- terchanging them ; that regularity of feeding, both as to time and quantity, and a warm equable tem- l)erature, shaded from the summer sun, greatly faci- litates the fattening process ; and that the bean meal should be diminished, and the linseed in- creased, as the animal gets forward in condition ; that three returns may be made in a j'ear, and as the grazing is always going on, it is presumed that as much straw is trodden down as would be well done in an open yard ; that those which are tied require cleaning out every day, but those which are in loose boxes, provided they have fresh litter every second day, only when a fresh lot of bullocks is put in; and that ten bullocks make about nine score of excellent and equally made manure, in the course of a year. A member who had found some diflficulty in getting his miller to grind the lin- seed, said he now steeps them for 24 hours in cold water, and then proceeds to boil the mixture in the usual way, and they come out reduced to a pulp, in all respects the same as if the seeds had been ground or crushed. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 335 September 2\th. — " On liquid manures, with the members' experience during the past year." ^^^len tins subject was discussed last year, we had occasion to comment upon the perfect indif- ference with which many of our neighbours allowed the drainage of their cattle yards, and other feiti- hzing Uquids, to run to waste. We shall not assert that those remarks had any share in reforming this wdde-spread evil, but we will ask how is it that we see one man forming tanks, another troughing his buildings, and levelling and making firm and solid his cattle yards, and a third keeping his stock as much as possible under cover, in order to jireserve, entire and undiluted, this essential part of all ani- mal manures ? Has he not been led to adopt these and many other improvements, in consequence of their importance being continually pressed upon his notice by societies of this kind ? Why is he only now beginning to think differently on these matters, and why does agricultural knowledge spread mth such great rapidity now as compared with former times ? Shall we not say, because men possessing practical experience and patriotic spirits, make snch associations as these the channel for communicating their ideas to their fellow men ? When we turn to remarks made at this meeting, we find it is no longer a question with the intelli- gent farmer, whether or not he shall use means to seciu"e the drainage of his manure. He now asks in what state can it be most advantageously ap- plied ? In regard to its direct application in a fluid state, we had reports of its effects on grass, which was made perceptibly stouter ; on wheat, produc- ing some increase of corn, %vithout altering the quantity of straw ; and on potatoes, which were said to be remarkably large, in comparison with others not so treated. On the whole, however, the results do not appear to be of that decisive character which would be likely to induce the majority of far- mers to incur unhesitatingly the trouble and expense attending it. General opinion seems in favom- of suf- fering it to remain with the dung and Utter, taking care only that it shall not escape, or l;e too much di- luted— thus sa\ing the expense of collecting and se- parate application. A very little reflection tells us that vegetation, like animal life, must require nutriment to be suppUed constantly; it may be a question therefore worthy of consideration, whether this end is best obtained by the gradual decomposition, and constant disengagement of nutrient i)rinciples, during the decay of solid manures within the soil, or by an occasional application of the same prin- ciples in a state ready to be received into the i)lant. It is the practice of one member to throw his liquid from time to time uj)on the earth intended for bottoms — this not only enriches this material, but makes it friable, so that it can be easily and more intimately mixed with the yard muck ; this plan was thought highly of for arable land, but the liquid form was recommended as very convenient for pastures. October, 22nd. — " On the advantage of keeping farm .servants (horse men) in the house, instead of on out-door wages. Members were requested at this meeting to make a statement of their trials of growing flax during the past gear." The wages of a head man boarding in the house were stated to vary from £8 to £lO and even to £12 ; but in consequence of the comparatively low price of manufactured goods, £s is now thought equi^'alent to the £10 which used to be given; the average was accordingly struck at £9. His main- tenance was variously estimated at 5s. 6d., 6s., and 7s. per week, doubhng it for the har\'est month : the meeting decided for 7s. His year's board utII therefore stand at £19 r2s., and his total cost at £28 12s. Young growing men were declared to cost as much to board as adults ; but the wages of a second man was said to be £6 only, and that of a third man, or lad, from fourteen to sixteen years of age, but £3 or £4 ; a second man will thus cost £25 12s., and a youth £22 12s. On the other hand, a principal out-door servant or horse driver, was reported to get 10s. per week, standing wages, for 48 weeks, and a pound a week during harvest, which amounts to £28 lOs. per annum ; an un- married horse driver was put down at 8s. 6d. per week, and doubhng it for harvest, together £23 l6s. — the one ])elow him at 7s. per week, also doubling the sum for harvest, this makes £19 12s. per annum. These figures show an apparent saving of £l l6s. in the case of a second place out-door servant, and of £3 in the younger one ; but as the followers of both systems were alike agreed in opinion that there is little or no difference in a pecuniary ])oiut of view, these calculations may admit of question. On some other points members differed more widely : the advocates for boarding said — it is certainly the interest, if not the duty of the farmer, to watch over the conduct and domes- tic habits, as well as over the industrial training of the youthful labourer, and this cannot be so satis- factorily effected in any way as by making him a member of your own household ; he thus of neces- sity becomes subject to the restraining rules wliich regulate the estabhshment, and learns his duty to himself, and proper respect for the laws which govern society, whilst he is placed in the most convenient position for serving you ; whereas, a young man emjjloyed as a horse driver is often under the necessity of lodging with those who have no interest in his well doing — perhaps with young fellows of dissolute character ; or may be, he takes uj) his abode where males and females are crowded together indiscriminately, or at a beer shop ; he considers himself exempt from all authority as soon as his work is done, and also on Sunday ; and no matter when, or how much he may be wanted, he is not to be foimd. A young man thus situated has no chance of getting up beyond the position of second man ; hence, if steadily inclined, he marries, that he may obtain a head horseman's place, and a liome of his own. This is not the case with a boarder : whether early or late, in the day or in the night, he is always at hand, and always at com- mand ; beginning as a plough boy, his highest ambition is to become head man, and he seldom fails in accomi)lishing his desire. On the other side of the question, we were told that men servants occasion a deal of trouble and disorder in a house, and tliat extra fomale assistances required to provide for thoni, and to preserve things in order ; that a boy reared as a horsedrivcr, and lodging with his parents, is not exposed to more 336 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. demoralizing influences than other members of the family ; that the present habits of emj^loyers are so altered, that few cases remain where the sen-ants are domesticated vnih the family, but males and females are throAvn together by them- selves. "We think also," say they, "our married horsedri^•ers or workmen quite as much at com- mand, and more desirous of serving us than yearly servants, because they regard their situation as more permanent, and have wives, and perhaps fami- lies, depending upon their exertions and good beha- viour." Other reasons were adduced in support of boarding young men ; but however desirable it might be to revert to the practice, the state of society is so changed that it was believed to be scarcely practicable. A division being called for, it proved to be two to one in favour of keeping men servants on out- door wages. In respect to flax, the club is not yet prepared to offer an opinion beyond the fact, that no difficulty was found in harvesting the crop, notwithstanding the wetness of the weather. Having now brought our report to a close, we would call upon our brother members to bear in mind the well established axiom on which all societies of this kind are based, viz., " that mutual interchange of ideas tends to mutual increase of knowledge." It is upon this principle that all our proceedings have been conducted ; we flatter our- selves, therefore, that the monthly discussions of the past year have not been altogether unprofitable ; we are bound to remark, however, that the value of our decisions must at all times be proportioned to the amount of experience brought to bear thereon ; hence, while we cannot but express our regret at the apathetic feeling which has begun to manifest itself on the part of some of our friends, we indulge a hope that they will henceforth be in- duced to attach more importance to punctuahty of attendance. WRENTHAM FARMERS' CLUB. SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. In presenting this, their sixth report, the com- mittee would advert wth satisfaction to the support which the club has received during the past year, by the attendance given at many of its monthly meetings. They will not attribute this to any pecu- liar feature in the proceedings, so much as to the desire thereby evinced to uphold the character, as well as to acknowledge the usefiUness of such in- stitutions. The subjects canvassed, although few in number, are by no means devoid of interest ; and, in proceeding to notice them on the present occasion as briefly as their nature and the svdjstance of the discussions will admit, it has been the aim of the committee to adhere to such recorded statements as shall ha^•e come under personal observation, or resulted from practical experience. ITie first question entered upon, was " The most effective means of preventing the destruction of the wheat plant by slugs and wireworms." "With regard to the former of these, several reme- dial measures were stated to have been pursued : soot, lime, and common salt, applied in small pro- portions, had each, in difterent cases, been attended with some degree of success. It would appear ne- cessary that the application of any of these sub- stances should be in the night only ; for, unless the slugs are exposed at the time of sowing, such mea- sures would prove ineflfectual. Another plan pur- sued was that of slicing turnips about the land (on which they were frequently to be found collected in large quantities) ; but the most beneficial effects were experienced by strewing the land -with the tops of turnips only, and in sufficient quantities so as to afford ample food for these molusca. Where this latter system has been adopted, it has generally re- sulted in the plant of wheat being preserved, whUe the leaves of the tops have been almost entirely consumed. In most cases, the injuries done by slugs are pi-incipally confined to an early stage of the wheat croji, while the ravages of the wireworm frequently extend over a length of time, and affect the crop at different periods of its gro^vth. In reference to the latter, earl)' jjloughing, and after^vards obtain- ing a sufficient degree of solidity, may be consi- dered as practically amongst the best means to be taken as a preventive. The effects of such a system have also frequently been apparent, not only as a protection from wireworm, but vnth reference to the ultimate value of the crop. The mreworm is generally observed to be most destruc- tive on lands which ha-\'e l^een fed through the summer, and also on others where the previous layer was not good. In these cases, shallow plough- ing, as well as an additional quantity of seed, were recommended. Treading the land by sheep after the seed is deposited had also been practised with a view of obtaining more solidity, and considered beneficial. When, however, the crop is aflfected in the spring, as (notwithstanding these precautions) is too frequently the case, the greatest benefit appears to have arisen from hghtly breaking the soil, either by light harrows, or even raking, as early as circumstances may render it practicable. In accordance ^vith these observations, the following resolution was adopted ; — " Tliat the destructive effects occasioned in par- ticular seasons to the plant of wheat by slugs have been the most effectually prevented by strewing the land thickly with the tops of turnips, and repeating the process if necessary; although, in many in- stances, the application of soot, lime, or common salt, if sown in the night, ha-\'e been attended \vith useful results. 'Hiat as a means of protection from wireworm, lightly stirring the soil, either by raking or by harrows adapted to the purpose, has proved the most beneficial method. In all cases, as a pre- cautionary measure, early ploughing, succeeded by heavy rolling, api)ear highly desirable." The subject of " underdraining land" next oc- cupied the attention of the club. It was well ob- served, in the course of the discussion, that, if there be one question of greater importance than another, both to the proprietor and occupier of land requiring the operation, it is that we have now before us. That different descriptions of land will THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. 037 be most benefited by adopting a difterent, as well as a particular process, there can exist no doubt ; and as the benefit arising from draining, when effi- ciently done, may be considered to a certain extent permanent, it was the prevailing opinion that the expenses attending it should be mutually borne by the parties interested. The first operation (after having thoroughly cleansed the ditches) of deeply ploughing out the drains, was recommended to be done diagonally, or, at least endeavouring to avoid furrow draininaying too much soil above the spring was not deemed advisable — a sufficient quantity only, so as to render the bank substantial, without o\-er- weighting the roots was necessary. About fifty ])lants of strong s])ring to a rod, was considered a fair quantity. New fences are generally found to succeed best when raised u])on a flag, which, when decomposed, acts as a manure. But although the ])rf)per method of raising fences is in itself an important subject, their subsequent management was allowed to be ecpially so. It was recommended as advisable, that the spring ia new fences should be cut off at the end of three or four years, as it most frequently occurs that they exhibit signs of a less vigorous growth, or an unhealthy appearance during that period. In the ordinary course of management afterwards, fences generally will reciuire cutting down and ditching about once in eight years. On these occasions, the diOerent methods of buck-heading the thorns, and cutting off close to the bank, were recommended by some to be i)ractised alternately, on the principle that fences would be foimd to last longer than when constantly severed close to the roots. Others re- ])robated the former system at any time, believing it to be the cause of nuich dead wood often found in fences after having been thus treated. But as regards durability, neatness of apjicar- ance, and, in the end, economy, clii)ping fences was almost miiversally api)roved of. The principal ob- jection urged, was the loss of bushes sometimes re- (juired for draining and domestic uses. To tliis it was observed that high fences, in many instances, occasion more injury to corn fields, than it would often cost to buy materials for the above ])urposes. This is more particidarly tbe case on heavy lands, in fences running east and west, and it was believed that the small comparative yearly expense of keep- ing up such fences, would not in the end amount to more tlian the ]icrio(hcal cost of cutting do-.vn and ditdiing. Where fences are intended to be thus treated, it is necessary they should be severed A A 310 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. closely to the bank, in order to shoot the more thickly at the roots. Old and weak fences were stated to be often ca- pable of improvement, by inlaying, without cutting oflt, some of the adjoining spring, or other materials of which the hedge is composed. The practice of raising trees in hedge-i-ows was reprobated, not only on account of the injury to corn immediately around them, but as robbing the thorns of some of their nourishment. The next question was, " the most eligible sys- tem of working horses on a farm, whether by yearly in-door servants, or by week-men." The peculiar province of a team-man was allowed to be one of much importance on a farm, and the present question was therefore viewed, not solely with reference to the working of horses, but as re- garded a combination of the quahfications almost indispensable for such a post, including amongst others, a degree of intelligence in the servant, and of confidence on the part of the employer. On the score of economy, the comparative difference be- tween hired servants and week-men was inconside- rable, although slightly in favour of the former, it was therefore considered more as a question of ex- pediency, and which could only be cletermined by reference to pecuharity of situation, or other local circumstances. Frequent changes being at all times undesirable, the advocates for week-men as horse-drivers were of opinion that when married men living contiguously were employed in that capacity, their services were likely to be more permanent ; and, consequently, the interest in promoting their employers' welfare, being that of securing their own continuance, was greater. Yearly servants, on the contrary, were not usually to be depended upon beyond their term of sernce ; and as team-men generally obtain an in- creased rate of wages, it is desirable on this head that the preference should be given to married men. On the other hand, it was believed that horses received better treatment when attended to by hired seiTants and single men ; and it was also considered questionable whether the practice of ex- clusively employing week-men, and particularly married men, for this branch of husbandry, did not induce improvident manages, under the idea of obtaining better places, thus operating not unfre- quently to the injury of a parish. In remote situa- tions, in-door serv^ants are decidedly to be preferred, as a matter of convenience. It was also urged that the system of keeping liired servants tended mate- T-ially in the end to their becoming better acquainted with many of the most important husbandry opera- tions on a farm. As no rule could, however, be laid down applicable in all cases, the following resolution was subsequently agreed to : — " That where a surplus of labourers exist, and cottages are conveniently situated, the advantage upon the whole appears in favour of employing week-men for the purpose of working horses on a far;n ; Ijut imder other circumstances, yearly ser- vants are to be preferred ; although a mixture of both appears in some measure desirable, as tend- ing to the better instruction of young servants, and to their ultimately becoming more generally useful labourers." At the last meeting of the club, Mr. Garrett, of Leiston, offered some interesting and useful obser- vations on many of the agricultural implements and machines principally used in Suffolk, with refer- ence to their improvements and defects, as applied to practical purposes. A cursory glance at a few of these Avill suffice. The ill-construction of Suffolk carriages gene- rally formed a prominent subject of remark, with regard to which this county is decidedly in the back ground. Too much material is used, and the wheels are usually made too low. This latter defect was very accurately illustrated, and the advantage pos- sessed by carriages having wheels of greater cir- cumference, in surmounting obstacles on the road with much less force than smaller ones, was very apparent. Bent axletrees, also constructed of iron, with a lesser grating surface for the wheels to pass o^'er, were recommended as having a tendency to correct the inclination of the carriage in ascending or descending hilly ground. It would thus appear that bent axletrees with larger wheels are to a cer- tain extent desirable, although it should be borne in mind that the strength of the wheel is in some measure chminished in proportion to its dimensions. The application of one-horse carts to general pur- poses of husbandry, although little adopted here, was also noticed, and the preference given to their use in distant counties pointed out. Drilling ma- chines claimed some attention, more particularly with reference to the recent improvements of drop- ping the seed and manure at stated distances, in i the working of which a degree of effectiveness has j been obtained. The substitution of this for the i more usual method was considered desirable in the use of expensive manures, where it is necessary to economise, but in other respects it is a question in connection with drilling, whether it is not better that the manure should be distributed about the land, in preference to being all deposited in one place. The benefit, however, resulting from the use of the drop driU was stated to have been most satis- factory. An improvement was noticed, as ha^'ing been effected in the manufacture of subsoil ploughs, by the introduction of wheels before and behind, four in number, rendering them more easy of ma- nagement, and performing the work effectively, with less labour. Its application to ploughs in general was thought desirable. Several other im- plements and machines were alluded to, which it is not necessary further to particularize. Mr, Garrett afterwards received the thanks of the meeting for his observations. Having thus noticed the principal topics which have formed the subjects of discussion, your com- mittee would briefly offer a few passing remarks in conclusion. While the importance of more ex- tensive information on many points is acknow- ledged, it has been deemed advisable to abstain from entering on the wide field of theory, noticing principally such as are of practical adaptation to the immediate neighbourhood ; for it is necessary to be borne in mind that many of the operations in farm- ing apply to a particidar locality, and the same me- thod of proceeding which is found beneficial to some soils, not unfrequently ]>roves injurious to THE rAUMEll'S IMAGAZINE. 341 others. In these reports it aiipcavs more desirable to deal in generalities ; it is, however, especially worthy of observation, that the expenditure and return, consequent upon the adoption of a particu- lar system, are the material points at issue ; for that can only actually be considered an imjjrove- ment which tends eventually to increase the profits of the farm, as well as promote the j)roductivcness of the soil; although it is an undisguished truth, that there is with agriculturists generally, too great a i)redilccti()n to adhere to old-established customs and pre-conceived opinions, in oi)])osition to the modern investigations of practical men. With re- gard to the present rather altered circumstances attending the culti^•ation of the soil, it has not been inaptly observed that "farmers must look to the means which modern science affords for lessening their expenditure and increasing their returns." It remains to be seen how far the tnith of this remark is appreciated, by the future assistance rendered to the club, and the amount of information obtained ; for, as has been observed in a previous report, "the success or usefulness of all such societies must principally depend iqion the personal and active support they receive from the members composing them." Jas. Hingeston, Chairman. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's house in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 26th of February; present: — P. Pusey, Esq., M.P., in the chair ; t. R. Barker, Esq. ; F. Burke, Esq. ; Dr. Cal- vert ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; J. Croome, Esq. ; H. Col- man, Esq.; J. Dean, Esq.; Dr. Robert Dickson; A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; B. Gibbs, Esq. ; H. I. Grant, Esq. ; W. G. Hayter, Esq., M.P. ; E. B. Ilippisley, Esq.; J. H. Langstou, Esq., M.P. ; W. Miles, Esq.,M.P. ; A. Ogilvie, Esq.; J. Parkes, Esq., C.E.; E. Parkins, Esq.; E. W. W. Pendarves, Esq., M.P. ; F. Pym, Esq.; Prof. Sewell ; W. Shaw, Esq. ; S. Solly, Esq. ; S. R. SoUy, Esq. ; T. Tweed, Esq. ; and G. Wilbraham, Esq., M.P. Epidemic among Cattle. — The Duke of Richmond transmitted to the Council seven communieations on the subject of the " Epidemic among cattle on the Continent," forwarded to him by the Board of Trade, for the information of the Society. These papers re- lated chiefly to the regulations adopted in this country as well as abroad to prevent the communication and extension of the malady by the transfer or importation of diseased slock. The Treasury, it ajtpearcd, had " instructed the Commissioners of Customs to direct their officers carefully to examine any cattle imported into this country, and in the event of their appearing to be infected with any disorder, not to permit them to be landed without^ inspection, and report as to their soundness by some competent ]>crson, and to report forthwith the circumstances to their Board ;" while in Austria and other parts of the Continent, the authorities were instructed to institute strict examinations into the condition of tiie stock. The following is the translation of part of a dispatch from Baron O'llillioun de Grasse, Belgian envoy at Vienna, dated the (Ith of January last : — " The malady termed Peste Bovine' made its appearance first in Russia and Beaarabia ; then it extended itself successively in Moravia, in Ui>per and Lower Austria, in Bohemia, in Poland, and in Gallicia. It has been in these two latter countries that it has committed the greatest ravages ; but less, however, than asserted in the public papers. Thus, for example, in Bohemia, not more than 1,200 head of stock had died of it up to the 20th of December. As soon as the epidemic manifested itself in any province of the Austrian dominions, that province was imme- diately placed in a state of suspension and quarantine, so that no horned cattle were allowed to be removed from it into any other; nor could sheeji, pigs, wool, pigs' bristles, raw hides, hoofs, unpurified lard, be allowed to be exported. In pursuance of this regulation, all com- munication wath other parts of the empire, in reference to such commodities, was interdicted in Gallicia, Bohe- mia, Moravia, and Upper and Lower Austria ; but such interdiction no longer remains in force, excepting in the cases of GalUcia and Bohemia. Besides these precautions, the Austrian Government has established a quarantine against Russia, Besarabia, and Moldavia. Notwithstand- ing the amelioration of the disease in the Austrian States, the Governments of Bavaria, Saxony, and Prussia, have each established a quarantine against the whole of the Austrian provinces in which theepidemic had been declared to prevail. Within these few days, however, these three States have permitted the importation of wool, on the condition that it shall be always packed in bags her- metically closed, and intended for transit, or rather for direct transportation to its destined factory. The sus- pected articles already mentioned are principally sent into Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria for the purpose of being forwarded thence into the Rhenish provinces and Belgium, as well as in less quantity into Holland. At present no means of purification have been employed in reference to the articles of merchandize under suspicion ; for if any such means of an efficient nature existed, their employment has been retarded in consequence of the difficulty anticipated in putting them in practice on a great scale ; and also because all sus- pected animals are immediately slaughtered. As soon as a case of epidemic occurs in any part whatever of the Austrian dominions, every animal of the same establish- ment is required to be immediately killed, and buried whole without being cutup. Before such step, however, is taken, the proprietor of the stock is held bound to communicate the fact of the appearance of the epidemic among them to the knowledge of the Sanatory Commis- sion, which at once delegates a vetei-inarian, accompanied by the local authority and an appraising commissioner. These delegates divide the stock into three classes, 1st — Diseased animals ; 2d — Suspected animals ; and 3d — Healthy animals. The appraising commissioner esti- mates the value of the stock in the two latter classes, and the proprietor of tliem is indemnified solely on account of the suspected and the healthy animals. For the former of these, the suspected, he receives one-third, one-half, or two thirds of the estimated value; for the latter, the healthy, he is paid the whole value. It is only after such an inquiry and decision that the whole stock of any given establishment is put to death. Tliis slaugh- tering takes place without any escape of tlie blood of the animals. In spite of these positive prescriptions of the Government, it is astonishing to find announcements in the public papers of cases of restoration to health in the animals which have been attacked by the disease — cir- cumstances which would lead to the suiiposition that the regulations were eillicr not general and uniform, or that they were not duly enforced. The greatest possible cleanliness is enjoined by the Sanatory Commission, in the places where the stock is kept ; and it has been re- marked that the cold weather has had a favourable in- fluence on the health of the animals. It has been A A 2 3i2 THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. asserted, tliat in Austria a disease of the same nature as that affecting cattle, had attacked the hares and foxes of that country ; the Government denies this circumstance in the most formal manner." His Excellency Sir George H. Seymour, G.C.H., in his despatch of the 1st inst., from Brussels, to the Earl of Aberdeen, says :—" 1 beg to transmit copies of the Report of the Committee upon the Bill presented to the Lower Chamber respecting the precautionary mea- sures to which it may be necessary to resort, and of the Bill as amended in its progress through the Chamber, and now about to be submitted to the consideration of the Senate. The Government, as your Lordship V7ill observe, contents itself with demanding of the Legisla- tiire such extraordinary powers as may enable it to prescribe by arrete the sanatory measures which circum- stances may call for, in case of a near approach of the disorder. About a month since, considerable appre- hension prevailed here with regard to this murrain (Epizootic) ; since then these feelings have, in great measure, subsided, the disease being understood to advance by slow degrees, and to decrease in intensity in the course of its western progress." The Duke of Richmond informed the Council that be had written to the Belgian Minister to procure for t'le Society the Report of the Committee of the Cham- bus at Brussels, referred to in Sir George Seymour's despatch. Profes&or Sewell remarked that the cause of epidemics in any form or in any country attacking animals in the first instance proceeded from malarious emanations from the grouud on which they gathered their food and on which they slept — that at such time it w as inhaled undiluted with common atmospheric air, and was also received by cutaneous absorption, espe- cially during the night. He considered that the house stock were more affected by modifications of the symp- toms, the disorder in some assuming the character of scarletina, typhus, and other fevers of the human species, the result of a combmation of the gaseous exhalations from the lungs and skin of the animals, the fccces and urine, and the saturated state of the floors of the sheds or houses. It was found that low, damp situations were the most productive of these diseases, the vitiated atmosphere being condensed and not so readily dispersed and diluted by currents of air and winds ; and it was, therefore, advisable that immediate removal of the diseased animals should take place from the immediate spot, and if possible, to a drier situation ; and that if rendered still more so by litter of any kind, the symptoms would be mitigated, and medical treatment more likely to avail. He also considered that a change of diet would be desirable, it being probable that the vegetable food, especially that eaten in the early part of the morning, might retain the terrestrial exhalations, and thus also convey the miasma into the system. With respect to treatment, he had nothing to add to the remarks he had communicated to the members on a former occasion, excepting to recommend more urgently the closest ex- amination of the stock, at least two or three times a day, and the immediate bleeding of the animals on the slightest indication of disease. He added that inflam- matory action was so violent and rapid in its progress, and so general in its attack, that disorganization of some of the most important vital organs speedily ensued ; or effusion into the cavities of the chest, abdomen, or brain supenened, and rendered medical treatment then seldom available. Braining Tools. — Mr. Pusey produced to the Coun- cil three different kinds of draining-tools used in dif- ferent districts for taking out the lowest or narrow por- tion of drains, on the plan which has prevailed for a hun- dred years in the eastern counties, and nearly as long in the South of England, this plan being suited to the most recent improvement in tile-making, the inch-tile, which ]\Ir. Pusey had laid down in this manner on some very strong clay land. He recommended the lance-headed Suffolk tool for strong clay (Journal, vol. iv. p. 29) ; and for strong clay, perfectly free from stones or shells, the bitting-tool, described by Mr. Arkell in his Prize Essay on Draining (Journal, vol. iv., p. 327). Speci- mens of these two tools were presented by Mr. Pusey to the Society. — Mr. Tweed said there was no doubt of the excellence of the lance-headed Suffolk tool for heavy clays ; he could bear his testimony to its value from the experience of a long series of years. — On the motion of Mr. Raymond Barker, the best thanks of the Council were returned to Mr. Pusey for the favour of these pre- sents. Cabbage and Bean Crop. — Mr. Pusey reported to the Council, that Lord Lovelace's plan of growing the thousand-headed Cabbage as a crop, intermixed with the Bean-crop, which is described in the Journal of last year (vol. v. page 112), had been tried by one of his tenants in Berkshire, Mr. Brooks, of Lyford, and found to answer so well, that Mr. Brooks intends to grow five acres in this way in the present year. The Beans are set in close double rows, with wide intervals between each pair of rows, in which the cabbages are planted in May, and afford a most luxuriant crop of green food upon heavy land during the present month. Mr. Pusey considered this method of Lord Lovelace's one of the best plans which had been devised for en- abling the farmer to grow green food on very heavy land. — Mr. Hayter fully concurred in the value of this arrangement, which he had himself adopted with great success, and obtained a magnificent field of Cabbages for his young lambs. Communications were read from Mr. Munn, of Throwley House, near Feversham, Kent, on the con- struction of self-supporting hurdles, made of wood and strained wire, which he had had in use with great ad- vantage, both upon pasture and arable land, during the two last seasons ; from Mr. Mechi, of Leadenhall- street, London, on the question whether the effect of sulphuric acid and bones, as a manure, is coun- teracted or weakened in those cases where common salt has been recently applied to the land ; from Messrs. Pettitt and Ridgway, of 11, Union-row, New Kent-road, announcing the invention of a cheap and efficient plough- ing machine ; from Sir Charles Burrell, on the advan- tages that would arise from the successful growth of the Italian Rye-grass on the clay-land districts of the Weald of Sussex, so well known as being imkind for pastures, and still more so for conversion from arable to grass land, the want of which on farms generally of that character caused the occupiers to keep an inadequate number of stock for well-manuring their land from the farm yards ; from Mr. Babington, of St. John's College, Cambridge, on the botanical character of the Italian Rye-grass, which he stated was the Lolium Italicum of some botanical systematists, and the Lolium multiflorum of others, but that experiment seemed to show that it was only a variety of the common Rye-grass, and should therefore be denominated by the botanist as the Lolium perenne, variety Italicum ; from Dr. Robert Dickson, of Curzon-street, requesting the Society's acceptance of a French iFork, by M. Boitard, on Ancient and Modern Implements of Tillage, illustrated by numerous engrav- ings ; and from Signor Pulini, thanking the Council for his election into the Society, and expressing his intention of forwarding to the Council, from Chili, the most de- tailed particulars of every fact in that part of the worl4 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 343 connected with agricultural improvement ; for whidi the Council ordered their thanks to be returni-d. juneu oruerea tneir tnanKs to De reiiuiu-a. The ('ounoil then adjourned to Wednesday next, the , h of March. i 5tl A ^Monthly Couneil was licld at the Society's house in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the ."ith of March ; present — His Grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G., Pre- sident, in the chair; Earl Spencer; Viscount Hill; Lord Camovs ; Hon. Robert H. Clive, M. V. ; T. Alcock, Esq.; U. Barclay, Esq., M.P. ; T. R. Barker, Esq. ; S. Bennett, Esq.; T. W. Bramston, Esq., M.P. ; F. Burke, Esq.; Col. Challoner; F. C. Cherry, Esq.; J. E. Denison, Esq., M.P. ; C. G. Du Pre, Esq., M.P. ; A. E. Fuller, E.sq., M.P. ; B. Gibbs, Esq. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; W. Ormsby Gore, Esq., M.P. ; W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq.; W. H. Hyett, Esq.; J. Kinder, Esq.; Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ; J. Parkes, Esq.; C.E. ; Sir R. Price, Bart. ; P. Pusey, Esq., M.P. ; F. Pym, Esq.; J. A. Ransome, Esq.; Prof. Sevvell ; W. Shaw, Esq. ; J. V. Shelley, Esq. ; Prof. Spooner ; and T. H. S. Escourt Sotheron, Esq., M.P. Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance Committee, presented to the Council the monthly report on the state of the funds of the society, from which it appeared that on the last day of the month just ended, the amount of invested capital was 7,700/., and the current cash-balance in the hands of the bankers l,29G/. On the recommendation of the committee, the council ordered that a further invest- ment of capital should be made by the purchase of 500/. stock in the j)ublic funds. Collection of Subscriptionn. — Mr. Pym, Chairman of the Collection of Subscriptions' Committee, laid be- fore the Council the first Report of the proceedings of that Committee, in which were detailed the progress of their inquiries into the circumstances and amount of the arrears, and their statistical occurrence in those central counties to which at present the Committee were con- fining their operations. The committee had agreed that district collectors would be preferable to county ones, and they accordingly proposed that, in order to try the e.vperiment of this systematic collection fairly, the fol- lowing counties, in the first instance, should be divided into districts : — Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Cam- biidgeshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, and Northamptonshire ; 5 per cent, being the rate at which it was suggested that tiie collectors to be appointed should be paid on the amount of subscriptions actually collected by them, and remitted to the Society's office. The Council gave leave to the Committee to proceed in thi-ir operations agreeably with the arrangements pro- posed. Prize Enmys. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., Chairman of the Journal Committee, reported to the Council the number of Essays received by the first of March, in con)))etition for the various prices offered by the Society, for the best County Report of the Farming of Nottinghamsiiire, Cornwall, and Kent ; and the best Essays, respe-ecution of new and imi)ortant experiments in agri- culture : for which Prizes the Society had appro- priated the sum of n20/., independently of the 20/. oflVred individ\ially by Lord Kenyon for the best Essay on Gorse, to be sent in by the first of May, and an- no\mccd ut the Shrewsbury Meeting. Mr. Pusey con- cluded by congratulating the Society on the satisfactory receipt of the Essays of this year, written on every subject ))roposed in the prize-sheet, and amounting to no less than 8.') in number. Veterinari/ Science, — Mr. Evelyn Denison, ^L P., having called the attention of the Council to the circum- stances under which one of the chartered oljjeets of the Society was likely to be frustrated, should no alteration take place in tiie restrictions aftecting the course of education to be followed out by pupils for examination under the powers granted recently by charter to the Veterinary Surgeons, by which their proficiency in a knowledge of cattle pathology and practice was not sufficiently provided for, the Duke of Richmond was requested by the Council to communicate with Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department on the subject, and represent the impor- tance of a due regard being had, in any arrangenients aftecting the course of study prescribed for \ elerinary Pupils, to their instruction and examination in the treatment of diseases artecting cattle, sheep, and do- mestic annuals. Prizes for Implements. — Mr. Pusey, at the request of the President, having taken (the Chair, the Council proceeded to the spei-ial business of deciding finally on the particular prizes for Implements to be ofiered tor the Shrewsbury Meeting, when the following arrange- ments were made : — I. — Prizes Renewed. £• For the Plough best adapted to heavy land 10 For the Plough best adapted to light land 10 For the best Drill for general purposes L» For the best Turnip-drill on the flat 10 For the best Turnip-drill on the ridge 10 For the best Scarifier 10 For the best Chaff-cutter 10 For the best Tile-machine 20 For the best Harrow 5 For the best Drill-presser, depositing manure and seed 10 For the best Churn ^ n. — Neiv Prizes. For the best Weighing-machine for live cattle and farm produce generally 10 For the best Steaming Apparatus for roots 5 For the best One-way Plough 5 For the best Skim or Paring Plough 5 For the best Subsoil Pulverizer 10 For the best Clod-crusher 10 For the best Horse .Seed-dibbler L' For the best Hand Seed-dibbler r> For the best Linseed Crusher 10 For the best Moveable Sheei)-fold .... 10 111. — Residuary Amount, left at the disposal of the judges 100 .£;}00 The Council then gave special instructions respecting the terms, conditions, and regulations under which the Prizes should be drawn out and published by advertise- ment and i)rize-sheet in the usual manner, Judyes. — On the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, it was resolved, that in future the judges for implements shall be appointed in the same manner as the judges for stock. Trial of Implements. — Mr. Ransome jmstponed his nu)tiononthe period at which the trial of implements should take jjlace to the next monthly Council. Communicatiuns were received from Mr. Panncll, .Mr. Rigg, and .Mr. Fraser. Till- Council then adjourned to Wednesday next, the r2th of March. 344 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. A \\eekly Council was held at the Society's House, in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 12th of March; present, P. Pusey, Esq., M. P., in the Chair ; Hon. R. H. Clive, M.P. ; J. I. Briscoe, Esq. ; F. Burke, Esq. ; Dr. Calvert ; H. Colman, Esq. , C. Cure, Esq. ; J. Dean, Esq. ; A. E. Fuller, Esq.; M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; B. Gibbs, Esq. ; W. O. Gore, Esq., M.P. ; W. L. Gower, Esq. ; W. H. Hyett, Esq. ; Sir J. Y. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; Rev. C. E. Keeue ; J. H. Langston, Esq., M.P. ; A. Ogilvie, Esq. ; Prof. Sewell ; W. Shaw, Esq. ; S. SoUy, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; T. Tweed, Esq. ; and H. Wilson, Esq. Prize Essays. — ^Nlr. Pusey reported from the Journal Committee the decision of the Judges of Essays in three of the classes ; and the sealed motto-papers of these essays being opened in the presence of the Council, the following result was announced : — I. The Prize of 50 sovereigns for the best Report on the Farming of Cornwall, awarded to Mr. W. F. Kar- keek, veterinary surgeon, and Secretary of the Cornwall Agricultural Association, Truro. II. The Prize of 50 sovereigns for the best Report on the Farming of Kent, awarded to Mr. George Buckland, Ramsden Farm, Benenden, near Cranbrook, Kent. III. The Prize of 20 sovereigns for an account of the best experiment in Agriculture, awarded to Mr. John Hannam, of North Deighton, near Wetherby, York- shire, for his Essay entitled, " An Experimental In- quiry into the Theory of the Action, and the Practical Application of Bones as a manure for the Turnip crop." Fertility of Land. — Mr. G. S. Barber, Secretary of the Stalham Farmers' Club, in Norfolk, having at a former meeting of the Council transmitted a state- ment of the extraordinary crop of Wheat obtained from a field in that county, communicated on the present oc- casion a reply to the various inquiries made of him by the Council in reference to the circumstance of this heavy yield. In his first letter, Dec. 28, 1844, Mr. Barber gives the following account of this crop, and concludes with proposalson the part of the Stalham Farmers' Club : — "A field, belonging to a gentleman not a member of our Club, by its luxuriant appearance before the last harvest, attracted the attention of many persons in its neighbour- hood, and several bets were made respecting the amount of its produce, which at harvest was cut and placed in a barn by itself. This amount, when threshed, was ascer- tained to be a fraction over 22 coombs, or 11 quarters per acre, of Wheat ; and, in order that this might be placed beyond a doubt, the field has been twice measured since harvest. The same field is said to have produced, some years since, 17 coombs per acre of Wheat, and another field in its neighbourhood 20 coombs per acre. The Stalham Farmers' Club, believing that a thorough ex- amination into all the circumstances connected with the growth of so large a crop may prove of national benefit, proposes to make such examination, and to furnish the Royal Agricultural Society with the result. It also pro- poses to send, at its own cost, a portion of the soil (and if required, of the subsoil) of the field, to the Royal Agricultural Society, to be analyzed by the Society at its own cost, provided the Society will kindly furnish the Club with such analysis, either by private communica- tion, or by publishing it in their Journal, which is always read by the Club." The Council decided that it should be recommended to the next monthly Council, that an analysis of 12 inches of the soil, and 12 inches of the subsoil of the field in question, should be made by Dr. Playfair at the expense of the Society ; and that Mr. Barber, in the mean time, should be requested to fur- nish an estimate of the amount of the produce, under the difterent heads of clean corn, seconds, and tail. Benenden Tile Works. — Mr. Law Hodges informed the Council, that since the publication- of his paper in the Society's Journal, the death of Mr. John Hatcher, the ingenious inventor of the cheap earthen kiln and tile- machine mentioned in that communication had taken jilace — a circumstance which deprived the agricultural community of that personal progress it was his intention to have made this year through many of the counties of England, Scotland, and Ireland, for the purpose of ex- plaining in detail to parties interested in the subject the method of erecting the kilns and working the machine, as well as of giving information on the subject of drain- ing-tile manufacture on that system. Mr. Hodges re- marked that such information could now only be obtained by the trouble of a personal visit to the Be- nenden Brick and Tile Yard, under the management of Mr. John Hatcher, the son and successor of the in- ventor, and where the earthern kiln and the tile-making machine would be in full work from the middle of April next until November, 8 miles from the Staplehurst sta- tion of the Dover Railway. Mr. Pusey thought it right to mention that, as he understood, the earth-kiln was suited only for the use of faggots, and that coals, according to Mr. Parkes, would require an additional outlay on the kiln amounting to 25/. for iron-work and fire-bricks. Mr. Parkes, how- ever, was prepared to form even a permanent tile- yard for 165/., exclusive of timber, but including a. pipe -machine. Mr. Pusey had gone into the esti- mates with Mr. Parkes for draining a large pro- perty, which was now being drained on the modern sys- tem of broken stones, at an expense, including cartage, of G/. an acre. If the draining were done on the old plan of Essex, Suffolk, and the Southern counties — that is, with a deep narrow slit, as in bush, wedge, or turf- draining, Mr. Pusey had found that a solid clay could be thus drained permanently by placing in the bottom of the drain an inch-pipe, which Mr. Parkes would supply from a landowner's own yard at a prime cost of ()S. per thousand, exclusive of the cost of the tile-yard. Mr. Parkes had undertaken thus to drain that property and another at the very low prices of 30s., 2 guineas, or at most 50s. per acre, according to the variation of soils. While Belgian Carrot. — Sir Charles Burrell, Bart., M.P., of Knepp Castle, near Horsham, Sussex, in- formed the Council that he attributed his growth of 1,000 bushels of White Carrots per acre last season (without including the green tops previously to carting away being severed from the Carrots, for feeding cows, &c.) principally in so dry a season as last year, to the effect of previous Pearson-plough drainage, as recom- mended by Mr. Hodges, and to the circumstance of the ground having been well prepared by spade husbandry. Sir Charles had always found the latter practice prefer- able to double-ploughing or subsoiling on heavy soils ; for, in addition to an increase of crop, amounting by estimate to 300 bushels per acre, great benefit arose, in his opinion, to subsequent crops, by the good effect pro- duced by that operation on the land. The Nature of Warp. — Mr. Charnock, of Holmefield House, near Ferrybridge, Yorkshire, communicated to the Council the result of his inquiries into the nature of the deposit of rivers, by means of the microscope, and his deductions from these investigations as to the cause of the great fertility of warped land, which he conceived to arise from the presence of those infusorial animacules and their remains, so well known to exist in the deposit of all rivers flowing in a long and slow course through flat, alluvial districts, and whose character, through the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ul labours of Dr. Ehrenbergh, of Berlin, has been so dis- tinctly traced, and made known to the scientiric world. Bean and Tin-nip Crops. — Lord St. John, of Melchbourne, near Kimbolton, favoured the Council with the following communication: — "In consequence of the remarks made to the Council at their last weekly meeting, on the subject of growing Beans and Cabbages together, I beg to inform you that for the last four years I have grown the double-crop of Beans and Swede Tur- nips on clay-land with the most complete success. The Turnips last season were particularly good, in many instances measuring 26 inches round ; the Beans, for the season, were also a good crop ; and not wishingto see the ground idle, as they were ripe rather early, I sowed alternate rows of Coleseed and white Turnips where the Beans had been. If rain liad come on in time, I have no doubt I should have succeeded in this experiment also, for when it did come the plants grew famously. I am so satisfied of the advantage of this system of cropping, that I intend adopting it again this year, and am now dibbling the Beans in close double rows, leaving a yard at least between these rows for the Turnips. The field (14 acres) has been worked with forks to the depth of 12 inches, and has not had a plough upon it, neither do I intend to let a horse go on it this season." Tlie Coun- cil having ordered their thanks for this communication, directed inquiry to be made of Lord St. John as to the details of weight and measure of Lord St. John's crops. The chairman remarked, that however advantageous the proposed arrangement might prove, the peculiar value of Lord Lovelace's plan consisted in the growth which it enabled a farmer to have of a winter green crop, namely, of the thousand -headed Cabbage, on strong land which would not grow Turnips. Ashes of Plants.— Mr. W. P. Taunton, of Ashley, near Stockbridge, Hampshire, suggested to the Council that in the proposed analysis of the ashes of corn and roots, those of the different Grasses should also be included. Norman Clover. — Mr. Hyett informed the Council that Messrs. Thomas Gibbs and Co., the Seedsmen to the Society, had undertaken to supply him with such seed of the Norman Clovers as they might think proper to select and import for him for the purpose of some trials he intended to make in reference to the value ge- nerally of those Clovers, as well as in proof of their identity or difference in comparison with the different varieties of Clover at present cultivated in England ; the result of which he hoped at a future time to be enabled to report to the Council. Ayricultural Fork. — Mr. R. S. Graburn, of Walton- in-Gordano, near Bristol, transmitted to the Council a spade-fork, which he had found superior to any other implement of the kind he had yet met with for the dig ging of Grass as well as of cultivated land ; a superiority arising both from its judicious formation generally, and its spade-cutting edges inserted below the transverse upper portion of the fork and between the prongs. Mr. Hyett bore testimony to the excellence of the fork then presented by Mr. Graburn, which was brought under his notice by Mr. Law Hodges, and was, he believed, known as the Kentish fork. He had found it an excel- lent implement for working in plantations and forking below hard rocky soil. Destruction of Moss. — The Chairman read a letter he had received from Mr. Newberry, of Hook Norton, Oxfordshire, the inventor of tiic dibbling machine de- scribed in the Society's Journal, on the subject of pre- venting the growth of Moss in grass land by dibbling Vetches by means of his machine, and after\vards feeding them otfon the ground. Mr. Langstou stated that he had first dibbled the sward, and then (as sugguested to hlra by ?klr. Pusey) closed the holes by means of the clod-crusher. Mr. Ogilvie had never found any difficulty in prevent- ing the accumulation of Moss ; he gave the land, every three or four years, a two-inch scarifying, followed by a bush-harrowing ; and in the case of imperfect success from a single trial, he repeated the operation in a cross direction, and then never found it fail. Trial of Barley. — Mr. B. Gibbs informed the Coun- cil that the time was then come when it would be neces- sary to place the Barley selected for trial at the South- ampton Meeting into the hands of such parties as it was intended should cultivate it in comparison with other varieties grown in their respective neighbourhoods ; when the Council decided that Lord Spencer, Mr. Pusey, and Mr. Taylor, of Shrewsbury, should be re- quested to undertake the trial. :Mr. W. Pole Tliornhill, of Stanton, near Bake- well, Derbysliire, favoured the Council with original documents connected with the fatal distemper among cattle in 1746, and the precautions then taken to arrest its progress. Mr. Kimberley, of Virginia Water, Eg- ham, transmitted specimens of soils from Kent and Surrey, indicative of the importance of employing the signs furnished by external vegetation, for ascertaining the nature of soils as well as their adaptation to parti- cular purposes of cultivation. Mr. G. E. Frere and Mr. Apsley Pellatt, addressed letters to the Council on the manufacture of transparent flint-glass milk-pans, which Mr. Pellatt stated he should be enabled, after the 5th of April, to manufacture (at the Falcon Glass-works, Holland-street, Blackfriars) at a charge reduced from 7s. 6d., as stated by Mr. Frere, to 4s. each, under the remission of duty which would come into operation at that date. Mr. Mechi, of Leadenhall-street, submitted to the notice of the Council a painting of the trench - plough made for him in the neighbourhood of his farm in Essex for 30s., and which he had found to answer re- markably well. Mr. Joyner, of Aveley Hall, near Rom- ford, Essex, announced the invention of a chaff-cutter ; and Sir T. D. Acland, Bart., communicated the request made by the Agricultural Society of Munich, through General Washington, for an exchange of their transac- tions for a copy of the Society's Journal ; which was acceded to by the Council : for all which communica- tions the Council ordered their thanks to be returned. Mr. Mayer, of Newcastle, Staffordshire, addressed a letter to the Council on the subject of the course of study enjoined by the Royal College of Veterinary Sur- geons in reference to cattle pathology and practice. Tlie following presents were laid on the table : — Tlie Duke of Richmond : Mr. Griftitli's Further Report on the King William's To«ti iiuproveuients in Irelmid. Tliu I'^ast India Company : Supply of Seeds of tlic Piuus deo- dara and Cupressus tondosa, as both calcidated, iu tlie opuiion of Dr. Royle, to produce valuable timber trees ui England. Mr. Nicliolls : Complete set of the Poor-I.aw Reports, witli an intimation that tlie future Reports woidd be forwiirded to the Society in like manner, as published. Mr. Nicliolls : Reports of the Rt)yal Agricultural Iiiiprovcment Society of Ireland, and of the Bidliiiaslfjo, Rosconnnon, Portarliiigtoii, and Naas Societies, with hsts of (heir pre- miums. Mr. BniUiere (219, Regent Street") : Boussingnnlt's Rural Economy, translated from the Frcuch, l)y George Law, and ilcdicated by peniiission to Karl Spencer. Mr. E. Murphy (Dublin) : Irisli Fanners' Almanac for 1S45 ; aiui a Treatise on the .Vgricultiiral (Jrasses. Mr. (;. Cox (Newgate Street): Manual of .\gricvdt\iral Che- mistry. Society of Arts : Transactions, vol. 55. Statistical Society- : Journal, Dec. 1844. S46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Yorkshire A.^-Icultnval Society : Transactions for 1S44, an'l Prize-Sheet for 1845. IMr. Fule.v : Re^iliitions, Prizes, &c., of the Stewponey Agi-i- ciiltnral Society ; Report of the Stew^poney Beaclier Chib ; and Rnles, Subjects for Discnssion, iSrc, of the Stewponey Fanners' Chih. Nortli Staffordshire Ag^-icnltiu-al Society : Report of Res'ula- tions, Prizes, &c. Franilinjjliani Farmers' Chib : Report, 1844. Hig-liland and At;Ticnltnral Society of Scothind : Ginarterly Jonrnal, in continnation. Roval Ayi-icnltnral Improvement Society of Ireland : Annnal Report, 1843. "VVestmeath Farmintc Society : Annnal Report, 1844 Mr. Dalgairns : Annual Report of the Guernsey Royal Society of Agricidtme, 1844. Royal A;iTicidtural Society of Jamaica : Half-yearly Volumes of Report of Proceedings, 1844, with a copy of the Act of Incorporation and Bye-laws. I\Ir. Shaw : Farmer's Magazine, in continnation. Mr. Scripps : Agricultural Magazine, IMarch, 1843. Mr. Youatt : Veterinarian, in contmnation. Mr. Dean: On the Beneficial Employment of the Surplus Laboiuruig Classes ; and on the Ganlen Allotment System. Mr. Nowell (Farnley-wood, Hudderstield) : Manual of Field- g-ardening ; or Belgian Agi-iculture made easy. [The writer, m presenting this work to the Society, describes it as a " little publication written with a view to assist the small farmer and allotment tenant ; detaiUng the routine of field- garden operations upon the estates of Mrs. Davies Gilbert, and attempting at the same time to introduce deductions of science with as little as possible of its technicahty."] Mr. Hume : Lithographic Portrait of " Sally," the winner of the yearling heifer prize in the class of the Channel Islands' breed at Southampton, 1844. JMr. Jabez Hare: Copy of the Illustrated Engineers' Alma- nac, 1845. j\Ir. CrosskiU : Catalogue of Implements. Mr. Bencraft : A set of his Improved Patent Hames. Mr. Onusby Gore, M.P. : Average Specimen of a field of Oats (upwards of six feet in height), grown on land in Shropshire, that had been peat-pared and burned, and the ashes spread. Mr. II. Saunders (Cork) : Ix-tters on Rural Affairs. Mr. C. M. Willich : Annual Supplement to liis 'I'ithe Commu- tation Tables, 1845. Canadian Agricultural Journal, American Agi-icnlturist, Al- bany Cultivator, Reports of the AgTicultural Society of Caen, and various periodical Papers presented by their respec- tive Editors. The Council ordered their thanks to be returned to the respective correspondents and donors of these several communications and presents. Mr. Shaw took that opportunity of submitting to the Council a model (3-8ths of an inch to the foot) of the double-cottage for labourers, built on the estate of Col. Palliser, of Coraragh, co. Waterford, in Ireland, and by him presented to tiie Society for Improving the Con- dition of the Labouring Classes. It was intended to show by this model in what manner a numerous family may be separately lodged. The Council then adjourned over the Easter Recess to the first Wednesday in April. NEW MEMBERS. Atcherley, Thomas Cureton, The Hurst, Westbury, Salop Baddely, Thomas, Wellington, Salop Baker, Thomas, Rock House, Newtown, Montgomery- shire Bloxam, Henry, Shrewsbury Boughton, Sir William Rouse, Bart., Downton Hall, Salop. Brown, William, New Court, Ross, Herefordshire Cartwright, John, Shrewsbury Cureton, John, Hordley, Ellesmere, Salop Cureton, George, Westbury, Salop Denston, Stephen, Stanwardine Hall, Ellesmere, Salop Denston, William Stephen, Grafton Lodge, Shrewsbury Eddowes, John, Grimmer, Shrewsbury Garhett, Richard, Lawley, Wellington, Salop Gibb, John, Old Weston Cirangc, Huntingdon Gordon, Alexander, Linley Hall, Broseley, Salop Groom, John, Hordley, Ellesmere, Salop Guthrie, Rev. John, Vicarage, Calne, Wilts Hassall, William, Hadley, Whitchurch, Salop Henning, W. Lewis, Frome House, Dorchester, Dorset Hilder, John, Sandhurst, Kent Instone, Thomas, Calaughton, Wenlock, Salop Jones, Richard Parry, The Hermitage, Whitchurch, Salop Kempson, John, Birchyfields, Bromyard, Hereford Lee, Charles, Ellington-Masham, Bedale, Yorkshire Leech, John, Wall Hill, Leek, Stallbrdshire Legh, Samuel, Ellesmere, Salop Leir, the Rev. W. M., Ditcheet, Castle Carry, Somer- set Lewis, Robert, Bagley, Ellesmere, Salop Lowe, William, The Lea, Cleobury-Mortimer, Salop Macdonald, George, Ellesmere, Salop Maybery, Walter, Brecon Minor, John Bishton, Astley House, Shrewsbury Newill, Thomas, Spring Bank, Welshpool, Montgom. OsweU, Tliomas S., Ellesmere, Salop Paine, John Mainwaring, Farnham, Surrey Pearce, William, 10, Whitehall-place, London Phillips, John, Winsley Hall, Westbury, Salop Pbilipps, Courtenay, ^wansea, Glamorganshire Pitt, George, Stocks House, Wellington, Herefordshire Pitt, Tliomas, Posenall, Broseley, Salop Redhead, John, Walker, Newcastle-on-Tyne Rentow, John, Orchard Cottage, Shotley, Newcastle-on- Tyne Smith, John Samuel, Stockton, Shiffnall, Salop Stammers, J. B., Holywell Cottage, St. Albans, Herts. Stant, Joseph, Shrewsbury Steedman, Edward, High Ercal, Wellington, Salop Tancred, Sir Thomas, Bart., Belford, Northumberland Thomas, F. H., Much Cowarne, Hereford Trotter, Thomas, Bywell, Newcastle-on-Tyne Wace, Thomas Henry, College Hill, Shrewsbury Wagstaff, G., Gordon Castle, Fochabars, N.B. Ward, Thomas Henry, The Lodge, Chirk, Denbigh- shire Woodward, Robert, Wortham, Shrewsbury Wyndham, J. E. Corton, Sherborne, Dorset. THE DYNAMOMETER. Correct data to the practical farmer, for deter- mining certain points in the economy of farm ma- nagement, is at all times a desideratum. One of the great items of expense in the cultivation of the soil, is that of horse-laljour; and to have a means at command by which the actual amount of such lal)our, with the ^'arious descrijjtions of farming implements, can be clearly defined, is of no little moment to every agriculturist. The plough, in all its varied forms, is, of itself, one of the most important subjects for the consi- deration of the farming community, not merely as regards its adaptation to every kind of soil, but also in regard to its shape, size, and power of draught. Mr. Pusey, and other experimental agriculturists, have shown that there is a difference, amounting in THE FAUiMER'S MAGAZINE. 047 some cases to an increase of one-thinl. in the power required for the working of ditierenl descriptions of i)loiiQ;hs. The Dynamometer is the instrument used for ascertaiiiing amounts of (h'aught ; and its true \'ahie is dis])laycd to the aifriculturist more l)y the ph)u^h than ])y any other implement of husljanchy- By the use of tliis instrument can he determined the amount of resistance experienced in ditt'erent soils hy any })articular kind of jAough, and also the ad- vantages in regard to draught of difterent kinds of ploughs in the same soils ; it will indicate from what ])art of the jdough is produced the chief amount of friction, whether from the action of the share and coulter in cutting the sod, or from the moidd-hoard in turning it; and hy it may he judged the ertect that the weight of ploughs have u]ion the draught — wliat the eiFect of velocity — what the depth of ])loughing, as well as the etteet of wheels in supi)orting the beam, &c. The imjHJrtance of this instiTiment has led us to pay considerable attention to the construction and etiectiveness of the ditterent kinds of Dynamome- ters, which have at times been before the jnxblic, and in jjronouncing upon them, we nuist acknow- ledge, that although C'ottam's Dynamometer was a great imi)rovement upon the connnon kind, yet it was far from being a perfect instrument. The subjoined sketch will give the reader a good idea of its form and arrangement — its greatest defect being that, like all kinds which had preceded it, an attendant was required for noting down the va- riations of the hand upon the index. COTTAM S DYNAMOMETER. To obviate the difficulty of having an attendant than the judgment, induced Mr. Clyhurn to invent constantly upon the watch during experimental '. a self-recordiuy Dynamometer, which is the most trials, and the uncertainty that would frequently ' perfect instnnnent of the kind that has yet been occur from incorrect notes, or jjerhaps wilful * brought out. omissions, where the prejudice might be stronger CLVnURN S SKI.l'-UKCORDTNG DYNAMO>ir.TF.R. Tlic appearance of Clyl)urn's Dynamometer, as ' simngs are compressed : whilst being compressed, our engraving shows, is that of a small box on i motion is given to a rack and pinion ; and, l»y a wheels. Within the box are a right and left hand : simjtle mechanical connection, motion from the spiral spring, placed within each other for econo- rack and pinion is eonnnunicated to a traversing raising ^J)ace. When the power is ajjphed, the ' pencil upon tlic top of the box ; the pencil there 348 THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE. acts upon a roll of paper, marked with lineal divi- sions, both lengthways and crossways, each di\-i- sion in the length of the paper indicating a distance of twenty-five yards of ground passed over, and each division of the width 1 1 2 pounds of force appUed to the instrument. Motion is given to the ])aper by the pair of wheels which travel over the ground, whilst the jjencil is moved backwards and ibnvards according to the amount of power applied, and thus a drawing is made upon the paper, show- ing the draught, and the distance travelled over. The subjoined diagram will describe the nature of the drawing made by the pencil. !i .4... L..^.±J L^-_^L m['\f^ The figures down the side, from 0 to 7, repre- sent cwts. ; those on the top, distances of twenty- five yards ; from which it w\\\ l)e seen that, according to the drawing, the force aj)plied in draught during the fifty yards, averaged rather more than 4 cwt. ; 1)ecause the intersecting line from 4 shows more of the drawing towards the line 5, than it does towards that of the line 3. From our remarks, assisted by the explanatory engravings which we have given, we have little doubt but that our readers will compreliend the simplicity and practical value of Clyburn's self- recording Dynamometer, wherever such an instru- ment may be recjuired, for indicating amounts of power, either in resjject to the ^\'orking of ploughs, or the draught of any other implement. SINGULAR DISEASE OF CATTLE.— A corres- pondent informs us that Mr. James Stephens, farmer, of Charter-house, Mendip, has lost no fewer than seven horses and two steers, under the following extraordinary circumstances, thereby sustaining detriment to the amount of 150/. It appears that about the middle of January his servant, John Phippen, took a valuable horse to water at a pond, early in the morning, and, after drinking, the animal ran away and fell backwards. It performed its work during the day as usual, and the next morning fell backwards in the stable and continued rising on its legs and falling (not having the least use of his hind legs) the whole of the day, until it was thought needful to kill it. Two other horses, a hackney mare and cart mare, in the same stable, were taken in a similar way. The hackney maro was ultimately killed, having no use of her legs ; and the cart mare recovered in a fortnight. A farrier, of Bristol, opened the hackney mare, and pronounced her perfectly sound, and could not detect poison, or even inflammation sufficient to cause death. The rest of the horses which died were colts on an adjoining farm, having entirely lost the use of their limbs, and lying trembling on the ground, without being able to get up. They could eat, and were all in good condition, but it was at last considered advisable to kill them. The steers were affected in the head, rubbing the right side of their faces, until they dropped, and the skin was broken oft\ They did not eat after they were taken ill, and both died within twelve hours. Many other cattle and horses were with the colts and steers that died, but were not at all affected by the cause, whatever it was, which led to the death of the other animals. Various farriers were called in, but none of them could throw any light on the disease. — Devizes Gazette. ITALIAN RYE GRASS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Permit me to present to your readers the follow- ing particulars of a most interesting and successful ex- periment with the Italian rye grass, conducted by Mr. Longland Ekins, of Woodhurst— one of our best prac- tical " fen" farmers. Wishing to procure a stock of genuine seed, he selected from a Highland pasture, sown with the Italian rye grass, the finest and most forward bunches, and transplanted them to a perfectly clean fal- lowed piece of fen land — the quantity about half a rood. This was done in the beginning of April, 1843 ; in the latter end of June it was cut for seed — thrashed, and sown immediately on a piece of fallowed land pre- pared on purpose. In the month of September it was cut for seed a second time, and the produce sown by the side of the first sown piece. But, from the lateness of the sowing, or more probably from not having anything sown with it to shelter it through the winter, the latter did not make quite so good a plant as the early sown. Still it made a good sward, and during the summer of 1844, Mr. Ekins has mown it twice for seed. This expe- riment not only shows the rapid growth and prolific properties of the genuine Italian rye grass, but it goes to show also the extreme lateness in the season at which it may with safety be sown. And thus it may be made a most excellent use of, for fiUing up after Jiarvest, young seeds that may be defective either from drought or hea- viness of the wheat crop. The genuineness of the seed with which the above experiment was made, is reduced to a certainty, because at the time when this was pulled up from the pasture (in the beginning of April), no other grasses were more than a few inches high, whereas this was six to eight inches ; this being one of the peculiar advantages of the Itahan grass, that it grows so much earlier at spring than any other. Another great advan- tage is, that it will mow twice in a season, when other rye grass will mow but once. Having witnessed the whole of the above experiment, I have great pleasure in sending you an account of it, hoping it may induce others to imitate the enterprising gentleman who has so successfully conducted it. I am, sir, yours, &c., A Fenman. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 349 EXPORTS OF GRAIN FROM THE DANUBE. We have been furnished with a long but a very inte- resting statement, dated from Galatz, Jan. 30, 1815, of the quantities of grain grown in some of the most im- portant corn-jnoducing districts on the banks of the Danube, with the exports, ^:c., during the last eight years. Its statistical information is valuable chiefly as it shows the vast capabilities of production and the large increase, year by year, in the returns from some of the districts. The exports from the port of Ibraila, for example, have trebled within the time comprehended by the re- turn ; and, from the extended frontier which ^Vallachia presents to the Danube, it is fair to expect that the exports from that quarter svill go on increasing for many years to come. At Matchln, the principal port of exportation from Bulgaria, the reports state that not one-third was ex- pected of what might have been obtained had there been a demand. For want of warehouse -room at JNIatchin, no corn is brought there for sale ; there being no con- veniences for storing it in case of not finding an imme- diate purchaser. .Some few warehouses have, however, been lately built, which will probably lead to larger supplies from the neighbourhood. Bulgaria exhibits a striking instance of w'hat may be done by a removal of restrictions, at the same time that it proves the vast fertility of its soil. Until the year 1838, when the British government made a commercial treaty with the Forte, the exportation of grain from Turkey was altogether prohibited ; it was only in 1841 that foreign shij)inents commenced. Already there are large supplies for exportation, and the rapid increase still going on in })roduction warrants the assumption that in ten years it will furnish for export as much as is now shipped from Wallachia and Moldavia together. Be- sides the advantageous position of Bulgaria, the peasants or cultivators pay no rent, except to the .Sultan ; and as all they gain is their own, they have sufficient induce- ments to be laborious. The whole quantity of wheat exported from the Da- nube in 1841 may be stated at 740,071 qrs., of which 347,888 qrs. were shipped at Ibraila, ]()C,.")35 at Galatz, Gl,248 at Matchin, 20,000 at Tulcha, and 14ri,000 at Reni and Ismail (Bessarabia). Tulcha is situate on the Turkish side of the river, about half-way between Galatz and the sea. It has only just begun to export. The quantity shijiped last year was about 20,000 quarters of wheat, chiefly hard, and 15,000 (juarters of barley. It is represented as pos- sessing considerable advantages as a shipping port for the whole plain of Bessarabia, which is thinly iniuibited at present, but a number of families settling there yearly promises a rapid increase to its production. Reni stands at the confluence of the Pruth and the Danube. A quarantine regulation has for some time been kept up here by the Russians, which, however, was removed about the middle of .lainiary, so that a mer- chant established at Galatz may now superintend the shipment of any purchases he may make there. For some ye'irs, in consequence of tiie failure of the crops in Bessarabia, only about six or twelve vessels have loaded there ; but last autumn about 55 vessels loaded with 45,000 quarters of wheat, 5,000 of barley, and 5,000 Indian corn, and about as much more remained for shipment in the spring of this year. Ismail is about 50 miles from Galatz, and therefore not so favourable for mer- chants established at the latter port. It, however, ex- ported last year about double as much as Reni. The stock in warehouse at Galatz, at the date of our letter, was about 20,000 qrs., of which not above 5,000 qrs. could be sent to ICngland. From various causes it appears that it would be late in the season before sup- plies from the interior could arrive at Galatz. The ex- ports of grain from that port were expected to be veiy trifling down to the end of jNIay. The best wheat at market was worth P 100 to 105 ; P 71 J had been offered for 2,500 qrs. of the best Romano, and refused, holders demanding 75. A parcel of 1,000 qrs. of new Indian, deliverable in Ajjril, had been bought at P 68, the whole amount paid in advance ; P 72 had been offered for 1,500 kilo., deliverable in all April (O.S.), but had been refused. For delivery in May (O.S.) there were buyers at P 00, but no sellers. The quantity of grain in warehouse at Ibraila was about the same as at Galatz ; but there were about 300 000 qrs. yet to arrive, a large quantity of which was expected about the end of March, the ice having broken up in the Danube. A considerable quantity of Indian corn, of the crop of 18(4, might be sliipped from Ibraila in April. Barley had been nearly all ship- ped off, and but little more was expected, the quality not very good. Wheat (Indian com of crop 1843) and barley may all be obtained from Bulgaria when wanted, but timely notice jnust be given to have it brought forward. There is no difficulty in effecting purchases in Ibraila, as there are many merchants there trading with these provinces who are always ready to sell. An advance of one-half is generally expected, and as these merchants are solid, there is little or no risk. Purchases can also be made without giving an advance ; in which case, however, the price is considerably higher. These purchases are made on samjde, and the grain may be expected in Ibraila in about six weeks after the contract is made. It is neces- sary to have a vessel ready to receive the grain on arrival, that is, in course of ten days, which is the de- murrage the Kerlatz allow, because there are no ware- houses on the Turkish side to store the grain, and it is not admitted into the provinces. Prices of Bulgarian grain cannot be quoted at present, but generally it could be put on board 10 per cent, cheaper than a corresponding quality of Wallachian. 1,000 qrs. of Indian corn of Bulgaria has just been purchased at P 07 i per kilo., duty paid, money and measure of Galatz, deliverable at Galatz in Ajiril next, three-fourths paid in advance. Wheat of Bulgaria is seldom so heavy as the best wheat of Wallachia, but it is as well liked in England, perhaps preferred. The ice on the Danube became fixed on the 23rd of January. There is only 500 cwt. of tallow at Ibraila, for which 92 panas per oke is asked, and some may be obtained from the interior. The ))roduction of the article is likely to fall off in the autumn, owing to a mortality among the cattle, which extends to southern Russia. The exports to Fngland in 1814 had been from Galatz, 1,320 qrs. of wheat, 4,724 of Indian corn, 7,033 cwt. of tallow, and 157 tons of bones — number of vessels 10; from Ibraila, 18,007 qrs. of wheat, 098 of Indian corn, 338 of barley, 9,398 cwt. of tallow, and 218 bales of wool — number of vessels 10. — Journal of Commerce. NEW DRAINING TILE MACHINE. A new hand draining tile machine has been constructed by Mr. Frederick Snowdon, of Diamond Hall Tilery, near Sunderland, by which draining tiles and ])ipes are munnfaclured of highly improved (piality and mould, and better adapted for did'errnt kinds of dr.iining work than any similar articles that have liitherto been in use. The n\achine is easily turned, very jiortable, and moves on wheels to allow it to pass tlnough the alleys for the convenience of placing the work ou the drying shelves, 350 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and it only requires a man and two boys to wovk it. The process is very quick and certain, and the work of the most complete description, the tiles having a sole, or flat, of considerable breadth and substance. The pipes made by this machine are of any size not exceed- ing 5 inches bore, and 900 feet per hour can be made. The tiles are 15 inches long, and any size, not exceed- ing 4i by 3 inches bore. It also makes equally perfect flats, used for draining swampy soils and bogs. Tlie improvement this machine is calculated to effect, in the rapid and cheap production of superior draining ma- terials, is said to be very great ; and it is described as the most economical and complete machine of the kind that has yet been brought into operation. — A Corre- spondent, ECCLESFIELD FARMERS' CLUB. ON THE SMUT IN WHEAT, BY MR. WINKS, The monthly meeting of the abo^'e Society was held on Wednesday, Jan. 22, the Rev. Alfred Gatty, the Vicar, in the chair, when Mr. Winks read the follomng paper " On the Smut in Wheat : " — Gentlemen, — It will be found necessary as we proceed in our inquiries, some time to handle topics of a simpler nature than others. But if such be the case, I conceive that the less room for minute and extended investigation will not be accomi)anied with a diminution of the practical value belonging alike to any subject of examination. There are some matters connected with agricul- ture which open an extensive field of observation, and are capable of a great variety of research and elu- cidation. There are others where, from the nature of the subject, little more can be done than to luring for ward a plain statement of different opinions of ascer- tained facts, and practical information grounded upon them. In the following paper I have selected this course, confining myself merely to a statement of its subject, and throwing out a few practical hints, connected with it, to your consideration. Tlie paper which I purpose reading to you is on the Smut in Wheat. It is well known that smutty corn is a loss to those who unfortunately happen to grow it, and a mortification to the grower, when he stands in the market, for the purchaser to say — This is smutty wheat : I will give you but so and so for it ; you know it is smutted. Now to such farmers as are so unfortunate, it is very desirable that they should know from whence it jjroceeds, and its cure. Smut, as is well known, is a black substance en- closed by a tough skin. When broken, it falls to powder ; and though many and \'arious are the opinions on this subject, yet I humldy conceive that most have dropped short of ascertaining its real cause. I have turned over some authors on this subject, and find several have stumbled on part of a cure, though none have hit upon the whole of it. The strength of every argument is kno«'n by the reasons tjuoted therein ; neither can any argument be good or well grounded that will not bear sifting or trying to the bottom. In order to explain my views as much as possible to you, I shall gi\'e them, together Avith a few quo- tations. In 1764, a paragraph appeared in the Dublin Journal of a farmer in Cheshire, who sowed a field with wheat, one half of ^vhich was marled, and the other dunged. The dunged part was smutty, but that which was marled was not ; the said paragraph also desired an answer from any one who could solve this mysterious point, but was not answered. " In the summer of the year 1769," the same writer says, and I will quote the Avhole paragraph, " I saw a piece of wheat belonging to one Mr. Clarke, a farmer, near Bungay, in Suffolk, which contained about seven acres, four of which were the smuttiest I had ever seen : upon an average, it was comjjuted that the third part was smutty, but the remaining three acres were \'ei-y clear of smut. This was a cu- riosity which brought many people to see it, and staggered many who pretended to be connoisseurs on the general cause. I told Clarke, that I belie\'ed I could guess the reason. ' So can I,' says a l)ystanding farmer, 'which is, he did not pickle his seed; for I always steep mine in strong salt and water, and lime it, by which means I never am troubled with this malady.' 'Yes,' answered Clarke, ' I pickle the seed all alike in salt and water strong enough to swim an egg, and limed it till I brought it to a consistence proper for sowing, and sowed it all within the space of three days, which proved diy weather ; the field, likewise, was summer fallowed, and all got j)loughing alike.' I told him that I imagined he threw the disease into the ground Ijy his manure, for that I apprehended he dunged the smutty part, and either left the other undunged, or manured it with some sort of comi)Ost. 'Upon my word,' answered Clarke, ' that is just the case ; for I dunged the smutty part, but the other I manured with a black mud or sludge I raised out of the bot- tom of a pond and other ditches.' U})on this, we went to look at the wheat, and, by pullmg up many roots of the smutty corn, found innumerable worm- holes in them ; but as the weather was very hot, and the ground dry and sandy, the worms had retired deeper into the ground for moisture, there- fore could not come at them, having no spade in the field. I must observe that Clarke told me he laid the dung on when in a state of fermentation, smoking hot out of the fold-yard, at which period the flies or insects were in their greatest vigour, and their eggs most likely to come to perfection." Well, Gentlemen, on reading this account some years ago, and many years have elapsed since the occurence, it struck me to be the most forcible reasoning of any that I had met with, since it was evident that the disease came into the ground by way of the dung, as both the land seeds and ma- nagement were alike ; it was also evident that the pickle of salt and water (though strong enough to bear an egg, m which the seed was steeped a winter's night) had not efficacy enough to prevent the ver- min Ijrought in by the dung, from preying ujion the roots of the corn. I think there is a great mistake when farmers do not lay their dung in heaps, giving it time to ferment, rot, and cool, before they spread it on the land, that these vermin may be smothered in their infancy, and not taken out in the dung to ])rey upon the fruits of their labour. Some farmers assert that smvit proceeds from the ground being wet; but the case of Mr Clarke's destroys such an argument, as it was dry ground. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 351 A similar case happened to myself this last har- vest. In the summer, cUiring the growth of the corn several of my neighbours and friends were intjuir- ing of me, " How is your wlieat for being smutted ?" I oidy laughed at thein, rejjlying 'I never have any smuts ;■ hut in one field 1 was deceived. Tlie size of the field is eight acres, four acres of which were sumuier fallowed and limed ; being rather strong land, the remaining four acres were sown witli tur- nips, with the exception of about half an acre that was set ^v^th potatoes. You will obser\e tlie sum- mer of 1843 was the fallowing and manuring; the harvest came, and on reaping the half acre that liad been set with i)otat()es, we could find smuts, and the remainder of tlie field was perfectly clear. This naturally led me at once to the cause — the land for the potatoes had been tilled with the dung out of the farm yard before having been thrown up into a heap for fermentation. This naturally led me to try to be further satisfied ; and in examining and pull- ing up the stubble, &c., I found the ground par- ticularly full of grubs or worms of several sha])es and sorts, ^\■hich, 1 make no doubt, where the ofi- spring of the usual inhabitants of dung-hills, such as flies or insects of divers sorts, whirli drop their eggs therein, and by the heat, fermentation, and l)utrefaction of the dung, are Ijrought to life and mischief. There are several other concurrent cir- cumstances in our own neighbourhood which I could have troubled your attention with, but. from what I have already quoted, leave me no room to doubt but smut jiroceeds from a worm or grub ; and if it be not the red or cut worm, it is of that na- ture. I have taken a small grub of that likeness out of a root of smutty wheat, and have very often found rusty, cankered traces of worms in the roots of corn. Generally in Jime, wheat is shooting into ear ; and the ear is no sooner out of the stem or straw, but the skin of the grain is formed, and filled with a soft, pulj)y, milky substance : at this crisis the worm or grub seizes ui)on the root of the j)lant, and feeds ujjon the fine particles or juices of it, wliicli ought to ascend to nourish or feed the grain; and though so small a worm may not take in all the juices belonging to an ear of wheat, yet, by making an orifice to feed out of, it wounds the plant, and gi\'es vent to the sap, so that it bleed« (as it were) itself to death. A root of corn (by branching (»r stooling) may produce thirty or forty stalks or ears, and each ear takes in its nourishment from the main root by a \'ein or leader jturposcly lilaced to feed through. Now, if the worm or grub should seize upon the said vein and feed upon what should supply nature, doubtless the milky sul)stance already inclosed in the skin would dry up and be- come a Idack powder, or dead substance, for want of further nourishment ; nay I l)elievc it very pos- sible for one grain in the middle of an ear to be smutty and the rest not hurt ; as, doubtless, each grain as a vein leading from tlic root i)eculiar to itself, through which it takes in its nourishment. But I believe it impossible to account for this in any other way than by a worm or some such insect seizing the vein jjcculiar or belonging to each grain. 1 look upon it tliat there are three stages or ])e- fiods in which corn may be spoiled by these vermin : First, when they prey upon it, after it is in the ear, but before the grain is formed. ^Vhen it is catched in this state, all the ear or chaft" strips or falls otl", and leaves standing a naked stalk : this we have often seen haiii)cn in all sorts of grain. The second stage is, when the skin or bran ))art of the grain is formed, and tough eninigh to hold the soft milky substance, before it is formed into a solid Ijody ; then the vein is wounded, and nature stopped from fulfilling her office : hence, what was already in the skin, for want of fuither supply, dries, and Ijecomes a black, light, and lifeless powder, much like lamp-black ; ])ut as the skin or bran is tough, it is confined therein like or in the form of a Ijall, and when it comes under the flail, it is burst and loose among the corn, hangs at the downy end of it, so that when it comes to be ground, the flour and bread is made black, and disagreeable to the eye, but I believe not to the taste, as the palate can- not perceive any disagreeable taste in it ; and if the wheat could be thrashed or got out without burst- ing these balls, it would not l)e of much ill conse- quence, as the balls are so light that they might be easily sejiarated from the hca\'y corn by se\'eral methods. The third stage in winch wheat is seized or obstructed in its feeding or filling is when the grain is about half rii)e; then the worm seizes it, and being deprived of further noiu'ishment, it dries and shrivels up to a small M-issened flinty grain, and though it is small, yet, l»y its firm texture, one might expect it to produce a little meal, but upon inspection it is foimd to be almost as hard as a Hint, andof no use; this is called by most farmers "flints," and by others "truck". I think, then, that there can be no doul)t, that a worm or grul) is the cause of smut. Very many farmers will tell you that pickling wheat will prevent smut, 'i'his I readily admit, but, however, bclie-\-e that some pickles commonly made use of will scarcely prevent it, and as firmly believe some others to be efiectual. But gi\e me leave to ask siu'h as l^elieve that smut is produced by a Idast whether jjickle could pre- vent the wind from having any power over the plant, and whether both jjickle and Mind were impartial that would not prevent my half acre from being smutty. Again, those who place the reason of smut to the accoimt of not changing the seed, believe that if the pickle had j)ower to prevent the seed bought three or four miles otl' fnnn being smutty, that it should not ha\'e the same power over seed grown on his own land ; or does any such farmer really think, that it is any more jmssi- l»le for smut to grow and taint any other corn than lamp-black, seeing it as utterly divested of every vegetating (pi.ality. I ha\e sown wheat often with- out pickling. l>y way of trial, but never saw that it was attended with any bad conse(pienccs. where the laiul was free from worm or grub ; and if I liked the seed of smutty wheat. 1 should not 1)0 deterred fronr sowing it, as it is clear to me smut is not the occasion of smut, it being as possible for a bit of dry i)owder out of a rotten stick to grow or taint others as smut. If you start the sui)ject of smut amongst a company of fanners, yim will find as many opinions as jjeople in the company-— one as- serting that steeping in saU water would prevent smut} another objecting to itj u third insisting 352 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that smut grows smut ; a fourth contradicting it, and so on. But if we turn oiu- eyes on the worms, we shall find it as clear as the noon day where the pickles operate to prevent them feeding upon, or wounding the plant as I before stated ; we shall also find that the more nauseous or poisonous the pickle is made, the more likely is it to be eftectual in its purpose. Wheat being put into a tub of pickle, the skin or bran is the first that imbibes the hquor, and the thick glutinous ])art thereof sticks or gathers to the skin ; and when the lime comes to 1)e added, it incloses or candies the grain, by which there remains a kind of a crust, which retains its nau- seous quahty for a long time. Now, we are to con- sider, that the skin or bran never grows or leaves the ground, but remains encii'cled with the root, ■which grows and spreads round it, which may lie proved by pulling up a root of stubble, and upon examination, it will be found that the husk is quite uniform, and merely resembles a blown egg, having a hole at each end, one to let out the root, and the other the top ; and though the grain be buried deep, yet, in a general way, it will rise near the surface, and usually stands perpendicular, the in- side, or flowery part of the wheat, being all fled or grown into root and branch. We might expect, that as the bran is left a dead lifeless body, it would putrefy, rot, and fall to dust ; but on the contrary, it will, if the stubble be not trod or molested, pre- serve its i)erfect shape for several years. This is easily accounted for, as it is the pickle which pre- serves it, and the stronger the pickle, the longer it will maintain its strength, both of smell, taste, and texture ; which stinking quality, no doubt, is per- ceptible to these delicate diminutive creatures, whose sense of smell must be the main quick they are possessed of, to conduct them to their food. And I apprehend it wovild be impossible for one of these worms to live in and feed u])on a root of wheat containing so pungently pickled bran or husk. Now, land that is often dunged and become very rich is the most hable to be crowded with many sorts of worms ; it is very rare that you will find that land which has been some time luider plough to have much smut, unless, as before stated, lodged there by the dung you may put on ; for the plough coming so often in a place disturbs and breaks up their nests or dens, so that they are prevented from breeding, and the old ones being exposed to the fowls of the air soon become extinct. It is well kno^v^l to most fanners, that red worms are most predominant in fresh or new land, that is, such as has lain a long time in grass, which has given time for these vennin of the soil to breed; but upon the ground being turned, and the grass which used to be their food being destroyed, and corn substituted in its place, they feed greedily upon it, and destroy many a good crop of com. As I stated at the commencement of the paper, that I seldom before this year or e^-er met with a smut in the farm, and the half acre was not bad. My course of husban- dry is that of summer fallow. On the stronger part of the land under plough with wheat the first year, clover or seeds alternately the second year, then the following year wheat, and next fallow. What I would wish to remark is, that I differ Avith my friend Mr, Hinde, when he observes by drain- ing on strong lands you do away with the loss of one year's crop on fallow. No\v, if the grovind be sterile and strong,* by summer fallowing you bring that land by the often ploughings, and the exposure to the winter frost and summer sun and air, to such a state of enrichment as insures )^ou safe crops, which crops will be fuller than by any pos- sibility you could get them from what is called crab fallowing. If on some seasons you were to trust to Spring or Michaelmas fallowing on strong lands, you would be in a bad state with your land ; it is on some land managed in such Avay that the smut will show itself, because the land gets but few ploughings ; consequently, the worms lie nearly un- disturbed. In proof of summer fallowing, there are probably gentlemen ])resent who know a field belonging to Mr. Stenton, of Grange lane, the same field in which they have commenced a Colliery; last year it was summer fallow wheat, with the ex- ception of a portion that had, in the Spring of 1843, a crop of tares upon it. They were mown off, and aftenvards it was fallowed with the remaining part of the field, and, I believe, was limed equally alike with Derbyshire lime. In the spring of 1844 it was sown with seeds, in the part of the field which was summer fallow : the seeds have grown tolerably well ; while that part which had the tares upon it, and only received part fallowing, has scarce a root of seeds upon it. There were some smuts in the field I believe, but whether they prevailed more in one part than the other, I have not been able to ascertain. I hope that I have fully shown, that when you have proper regard to good fallowing with proper tillage, and proper pickle, that smut will be prevented. I can recommend to such as are much troubled with smut the following pickle : Let into the ground, with its top even with the sm-- face, m some bye place, a hogshead, Avith a cover in it ; keep chamber-lye from one seed-time to another, the older it is the better, and in this throw all the bidlock's, sheep's, hog's, or any other sort of galls you can get, the more the better. In each hogshead full of liquor put two gallons of train oil, a great many heads of garlick bruised, one pound of cop- peras, one pound of nitre, and one stone of bay-salt; steep the seed eight hours, and skim off all the light seed that SAvims at the top ; then take it out, and on a floor mix it with lime and soot equally, tiU it be of consistence jjroper for soA^Ting. In handling this really important matter to the growers of corn, I have thrown together those ob- servations of mine, which appear to me the most satisfactory ; and I firmly believe that the proper pickling of the seed, attention to manuring, and frequent ploughings of the soil when in fallow, A\'ill be found the best preserv^ative against the immense mischief occasioned! by the smut in wheat. After the reading of the paper a discussion took I)lace, in the course of which Mr. Fisher said, he was of opinion that every one of the black balls referred to by Mr. Winks, would if minutely ex- amined, be found to contain eggs that were the cause of smut. In all smutted wheats was an orifice, in which, after exposure to heat, and with the assist- ance of a microscope, animalculae Avould appear in life and motion. For saying that smut was caused THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 353 by animalciiLTe, he had the authority of Mr. Somer- ville, who had made a num1)cr of experiments, and communicated tlieir residt to the Board of Agricul- ture. He agreed, liowe\'er, with the reader of the paper as to the utihty of piclding wheat l)eforc it was sown, as the process destroyed the animalculap, which attacli themselves to the down of sound wheat wlien placed in contact with such as is smutted. — Mr. Wm. Greaves was of opinion that smut was frequently produced by sowing the same seed too often. He moreover thought, in opposi- tion to Mr. Winks, that where smut was sown smut would be inevitably produced. — Mr. Wood said, that smut appeared to be greatly on the in- crease ; but he thought, with reference to pickling, that much mischief was done by using strong i)oi- sonous ingredients too freely. — Mr. Winks said, that undoubtedly mineral compositions had a strong effect. — Mr. Fisher observed, that some i)crsons of eminence, as farmers, used a solution of blue vitriol. He recommended the xise of salt with ma- nure in growing wheat. — Mr. Wood moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Winks, for his pai)er He ap- proved of many of the ideas of Mr. Winks, wlio he thought took a common sense view of the subject ; but after all, he considered there was some degree of mystery about it, which generations yet unborn might not be able to unravel. Mr. Greaves se- conded the motion, which was carried imanimously. — Mr. Winks, in acknowledging the vote of thanks, said that lie should be highly 'gratified if his paper — in which he had, to the best of his ability, stated the views of other persons, together with his own, upon the important subject of which he had treated — should be of any sendee. — The rules, as revised and amended by the Committee appointed for the purpose, were read ])y Mr. Bright, the hon secre- tary, and after some little discussion, adopted. — It was resolved, that the next meeting shall be held on Wednesday, the 19th of February, and that Mr. Steade should be requested then to read his promised paper on " Dibbling." — Thanks were then voted to the Rev. Chairman for his kindness in presiding on the occasion, and the meeting broke up. OX THE ACTION AND APPLICATION OF DISSOLVED BONES. By John Hannam. (From the Journal nf the Royal Agricultural Society.) The results of several cx])eriments with bones dissolved in acid have been lately published. To these the attention of the public has been called, through the pages of the Journal, as affording good hope that the a])i)lication will 1)e found to be one of the most important savings which was ever held out in use of manure, and one which is hkely to be generally \iseful. When now it is considered how extensively bones are employed in the production of the turni]) crop, that any improvement in their economy must l)e as extensively felt, and that we are indebted to science for this suggestion, it cannot be uninter- esting to inquire how far these anticipations ar^ likely to be realized. Our object, therefore, is to learn upon what grounds these exi)ectations are based ; for which jiurpose it will be necessary to examine the action and application of the tillage as laid down by theory or developed by practice. The theory of the action of dissolved bones has been thus put by Mr. Pusey {Journal, vol. iv., p. 408) :— " Bones may be roughly stated to consist of fat, of jelly, and of an earthy matter called phosphate of lime. When they were first employed as ma- nure, it was doiditful, of course, to which of these sid:)stances they owed their beneficial effect, and many persons were unwilling to ])urchase bones which had been boiled, and had consequently lost their grease. It was soon found, however, that boiled bones were as good manure as those that M'ere unljoiled. There still remained in the boiled bones two substances, either of which might be their active principle. But Sprengel states that he found bones which had been Ijurnt still act as manure ; and Mr. Hannam has tried the same experiment with the same residt. Now, as fire drives out of the bone the solid jelly which holds it together, there remains only the earthy matter behind, thus proved to lie the manuring substance. This being phosphate of lime, chemistry suggested that, since lime was in so small a quantity, the phosphoric acid united with it must be the true manure con- tained in bones, and that if tliat hme was taken from it by sulphuric acid, the phosphoric aci(l thus set free would be greatly strengthened in its imme- diate activitjr." This view of the theory of the application should be taken with certain limitations ; in fact, it only refers to a solution of burnt bones, as it depends on the assumption that the earthy part of bones is their only manuring substance. This, it is true, is asserted by Sprengel, and followed by Liebig, and certain of my own experiments seem to bear out the assumption. Thus in one case I found 16 bushels of bones burnt to whiteness give a better crop than 16 bushels of fresh bones. In two other cases, where the tillage was assisted l)y a half-dress- ing of farm-manure, burnt bones did not act so be- neficially ; and in one, upon very poor soil, they completely failed. In all cases, however, l)urnt bones acted more quickly than the fresh ones, and fresh bones the more efficiently when reduced to a fine powder. From which facts we may infer that the superiority of burnt over fresh bones, in certain cases, is owing to the former being more accessible to the plant. And other evidence sanc- tions this. Thus we know that burnt bones absorb large quantities of water, by which means the or- ganic acids in the soil the more easily act upon the ])hosphates and render them soluble ; that, in fact, they si)eedily decompose, while frosli bones, if not they s))eedily -- ^ ground very small, are very slowly acted upon by any acid, and remain for a length of time in the soil imchanged. In tlie al)Ove trials, too, it will be seen that wliere the land was jiartially manured, so as to give the young i)lant a start, the fresh bones were, if anything, superior to ihc calcined ones, and 854 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that, when the land was A'ery poor, though the burnt bones took the lead, they could not maintain it ; a proof that thoiigh the phosphate of the bone may be the c/;/p/'fertihzing element, it cannot of it- self su])ply all the wants of the croj). llie only conclusion which facts warrant is that the phosphates are the chief fertilizers in bones ; that they are more accessible to the plant when the fat is removed from the bone ; and hence, in many cases, where the soil is not deficient in organic food, such is the necessity of a supply of these i)hos- phates, that the removal of the animal matter from the bone has a beneficial efl'ect. Upon this ground — that the removal of tlie fat and gelatine facilitates the assimilation of the phos- phate of the bone by the plant — alone can we ex- plain the fact that dry bones can in any case be su- perior to fresh ones : for nothing can attbrd us a shadow of a reason for saying that the animal mat- ter of the bone is of no use to vegetation ; on the contrary, we know that fat and oil, if extracted from the bone, and apphed to the soil, act as potent manures, and that the gelatine is, in composition and effect, analogous to skin, wool, horn, &c. — substances which contain a greater sup])ly of ni- trogen, which they afffjid the plant in the shape of ammonia, than any other animal manures with which we are acquainted.* At the same time it is possible that, by being apj)lied together, the fat may retard the decomposition of the gelatine, and render the phosphate less soluble, and thus, in some cases, injure the efficacy of the apphcation for the turnip-crop, which is of a quick growth, and requires a ready food in its early stages. The whole case then stands thus : — Bones con- sist of two i)arts ; one of animal matter, and one of earthy. Each of these, used separately, is a po- tent manure ; yet when both are used together the effect is in some cases less, in many not greater, than when the earthy part only is used ; in fact, the part is equal to the whole. It is, however, known that when the two i)arts are com])ined, as in fresh bones, the earthy jjortion is very slow of decomjiosition or change of form, and that the more this power of decomposition is encouraged by reducing the bone to powder, so as to admit moisture and those acids which dissolve the earthy jiart and make it ready for absorj)tion by the roots of the plant, the more efficacious is its action as a manure; hence the conclusion is apparent, that the facility of decomposition is of great importance, and that, as the earthy part when applied singly ab- sorbs water freely and is easily soluble, it is this facility of decomposition and the ready supply of phosphates which it gives the plant that renders it capable of acting more efficaciously than when combined with a large amount of fertihzing animal matter, which matter has a tendency to diminish, or at least to retard, the supply of phosphates. Upon similar grounds we may exjilain the fact * AA'^ool, hair, and horn contain 16 per cent, of nitrogen, while farm-manure does not aA-erage more than one-half. The animal matter of bones con- tains more water than these suljstances, and it therefore decomposes more readily, and is more im- jnediate in its effects, that boiled bones are so very generally preferred to the fresh ones by the large turnip-growers, as they do not contain that fat which retards the decom- jiosition. At the same time they still retain the ge- latine which is so jiowerful an animal manure. So that while their phosphates are rendered accessible to the plant by the fat being extracted — for boiled bones al)sorb water and speedily decompose — they have in the gelatine an immediate supply of ammo- nia and other organic food. Upon no tenable grounds, then, can it be main- tained that the animal matter which exists in bones has no fertilizing influence, or that tlieir earthy or inorganic constituents are the sole manuring agents. On the contrary, it will be seen that in the case of fjreen or fresh bones the animal matter is that which almost entirely nourishes the crop, the phosphates in this case scarcely coming into action at all during the first crop, and that it is owing to this deficient action of the phosphates from causes already explained that fresh bones are not as active in their effects ujwn the turni])-crop as their elements would allow them to be if placed under more favourable circumstances. On the other hand, it is evident that when calcined bones are used, their sole beneficial action arises from their inorganic matter ; and, as this action is equal and often superior to that of the fresh bones, it cannot be denied that the ])hosphates alone have an extra- ordinary effect, and that to them we are indebted as the cA^e/ mamiring element of bones. The con- clusion therefore is, that each constituent used singly is a manure, and that when combined their defects are diminished by the animal portion pre- venting the earthy from coming into action. Upon these principles, then. Science builds her theory of the ap])lication of dissolved bones. " It is evident," says she, " that the phosphates are essential to vegetable nutrition, and that they cannot be too accessible to the roots of the plant ; also, that, after the animal matter in bones is re- moved by fire, these phosphates, through the action of the organic acids and water in the soil, are most easily assimilated by the vegetable ; it is, therefore, in my ])ower to suggest means by which you will imitate the process of nature, hasten on the disin- tegration of the bone, and, by ])resenting it to the plant in a form ready for use, economize that ])ortion of the tillage, which, owing to its being un- fit for the use of the growing vegetable, remains in the soil at the expense of our fixed cajjital, until it wastes or is required by another crop." This it will be seen is the ground-work and ob- ject of the theory, as detailed at the commencement of this paper— a theory which has but a limited aj)- plication, and referring merely to the action of calcined bones. Science, however, does not con- fine herself to this. "It has been granted," says she, "not merely that the earthy matter of bones is an essential food of the plant, and that the presence of the animal matter retards its action, but that the animal matter is of ?Y.sT//"a potent fertibzer ; hence, in dispelling it for the j)urpose of facilitating the decomposition of the earthy part, we destroy an agent which is valuable. Thus, in order to get a ready supply of phosphates, we, in the case of burnt hones, wast§ THE I'ARMER'S MAGAZINJE. 355 both the fat and gelatine — while, even in boiled | bones, the oil is for the same j)ur})ose extracted ; in this case, lio\v'e\-er, we get a tillage suj)erior to j burnt bones, inasmuch as, while its phosphates are { obtainable by the vegetable, it has also a fund of animal manure, and superior to green bones, inas- much as, while it has a good share of the organic, its inorganic elements are not inactive." " Would it not, therefore," adds she, " be desirable to devise a means by which both the animal and the earthy part of bone manure may each be made to serve its own peculiar ])urpose in the vegetable economy without injury to the otlier ; so as to prevent the waste of the animal i)art in order to prepare it for the crop, or of the phosjjhates by their not being ready for the roots ? If so, it is in my power to suggest means by which bones may be reduced to the finest state of division, and used in such a form that the earthy jmrts may be readily assimilated, and the animal matter set at liberty to mingle in the soil and to perform its ])art in j)romoting vegetation, so that a great saving may be efiected in the quantity used, o\\'ing to the nature of the mixture rendering it not necessary to apply more than the plant re- quires— which is but a small proportion of the quantity api)lied in their crude state"* Tiie means proposed to carry out these aims, need I add, were those to which our attention is now drawn, viz., to reduce the bones by the action of sul])huric or muriatic acid and water to the finest state of division, and to add water so as to l)e able to api)ly the manure in the form of a solution. In this process with suljjhuric acid the earthy i)art is extracted from the animal, the acid combines with a portion of the lime (forming gypsum), while the remainder of the acid and the remainder of the lime originally composing the phosi)hate are dissolved, and form a double phosphate. This solution there- fore contains a biphosphate of lime, in Avhich the phosphoric acid exists in a much greater quantity than in the ordinary phosphate of lime which exists in bone, f "NVith muriatic acid, a muriate of lime and a biphosphate are formed in a similar manner. 'Iliis muriate of lime is a salt which attracts moisture greatly. By this process the bone earth is rendered in a fine state of division ; the free acids unite with the bases contained in the earth, and form other salts beneficial to vegetation ; and the icholc of the fer- tiUzing constituents of the bone are reduced to a state best adai)ted to afford the turnij) an immediate sujiply of food — by which reason less than one- half the quantity used in their ordinary condition will suflice to supply all the wants of the crop. Such, then, are the ground-works and the de- tails of the theory of the action of dissolved bones. Practice has already tested that theory, and careful exjjeriments fully developed the peculiar action and eH'ects of tlie application. These experiments are not very numerous ; nevertheless, they will, I think, be found sufficient to carry out the truth of the theory which their results corroborate, as they bear on themselves evident marks of the care and cor- rect observation which has attended their execu- tion ; thus, though carried on at one time and in various i)laces, it will be found that each exjieri- ment was observed to develop one certain pecidiar eftect. The experiments which I have met ^nth, having special reference to the question, are those made by Mr. M. Williams, Mr. (ieddes, and Dr. Monson, and reported to the Morayshire Farmers' Club ; those of the Duke of Richmond, communi- cated to the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land ; of Mr. Fleming, of Barochan, Paisley, pub- lished in the Appendix to Professor Johnston's " Lectures ;" and those of Mr. Finnic, of Swan- ston, communicated to the Highland and Agricul- tural Society of Scotland. My own experiments on the same subject were reported to the same Society in my Prize Report " On the effects of Special Manures." — {Vide Transactions, March, 1844.) The following is a summary of the i^articulars and peculiarities of the action of the dissolved bones as exhibited in the trials alluded to : — Mr. M, ll'ilUams's Experiments. No. 1. Date. Manures and Quantity, Application. Produce per Acre. Cost per Scotdi Acre. 1842. Bones — 20 bush. . . Bones — 4 bush Sul. Acid— 11 Gibs. Water— 224lbs Bones 20 bush. . . Sul. Acid— 7Glbs. . . Water— r2Glbs tons. 12 Drilled 1 In G,400lbs.or 640"^ . gallons of water, ;■ 1/ > in furrow. Ditto. s 13 cwt. 4 .f. 3 3 12 Peculiarities. — Difference between the applications and bone-dust applied in the usual way " was * " The whole of the phos])hatps required by three crops, is contained," says I/iebig, "in GGlbs. of bone dust most marked" — " the sulpluuic solution brought the turni])s to the hoe 10 days earlier than the bones alone, and four days before the bones 71 i percent, of i)hosi)horic acid, and 28^ of lime; while the bone-earth i)hosphate consists of 4H\ per t The biphosphate, free from water, contains 'tent, of phosj)horic acid, and 51 1 of lime. Ji U 356 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sprinkled mth acid." " Came earlier also to I maturity." " The early season against them, as | No. 2. it checked their growth sooner than an ordinary Date. Manures & Quantity 1843. Bone-dust— 2 bush. . . SiU. Acid — 461bs. . . Water— 112lbs Nothing Peculiarities — Turnips on the solution " came ra- pidly on for the hoe." Mr. Williams made a numerous series of trials during 1813; as, however, the application of the Application. Produce. Diluted with water^ " Gave a good crop for quality 100 times weight > of the ground — poor thin of the acid. J land." " Very inferior." solution was principally in conjunction with other manures, and on diH'erent varieties of turnips, it will be unnecessary to (piote from them further than to say that they corroljorate his former trials. Mr, Geddes' Experiments. Date. Manures and Quantity. Application. Produce per Acre. Cost per Acre. 1842. Manure — 15 loads Bones — 15 bush Bone-dust — 1 bush Acid — 67.Ubs S 1 In 6,600lbs., or 660 1 tons. cwt. lbs. 13 19 21 13 10 21 £. s. d. 3 12 6 • 0 17 0 Water— 26uibs Bones — 12 bush 1 gallons of water. [ Dibbled .' 11 9 21 1 18 0 Peculiarities. — " Sulphuric acid turnijis made ap- pearance first" — " the rapidity of growth conti- nued to he maintained, and they came to hoeing 10 days before the dibbled bones, and 7 before the dung and bohes." "The superiority of the sulphuric acid was visible at a great distance." " The wai'm season ijushed all the sorts too ra- pidly to maturity, and they came to premature ripeness for want of moisture — especially the sul- Dr, Monson's Experiments Date. 18i3. Peculiarities. — " Plants from the acid keeping the lead, and are a heavier crop to-day (Oct. 20th), phuric acid turnips, which were too far gone to be benefited when rain did come — which tells in an unfavourable manner against their weight as compared with the others." Mr. Geddes also " tried drills here and there throughout the field, with the same proportion of bones and acid as above, and the results were, in all cases, similar to those detailed." Manures and Quantities Application. Produce per Cost per per Acre. Acre. Acre. tons. cwt. lbs. £. s. d. 5 r Bones — 4 bush "i with 50 times 1 b aciesma-l g^jj ^ .^ gj^ 1 j, ^ nured with \ Water-384lbs J watfr. I 12 5 80 1 0 0 L3 acres, ^vith court-manure, 20 loads per acre 10 17 104 2 10 0 though not looking quite so healthy in the blade, having come earlier to maturity," The Duke of Richmond's Experiments. Date. Manures and Quantity. Application. Produce per Acre. Cost per Acre. 1843. Bones .... ■ ■ . • . 1 16 bush. Tons. 11 12 11 cwt. lbs. 0 0 4 0 0 0 £ s. d. 1 16 0 Bones .... Sul. Acid . . Bones .... 2 bush. 83 lbs. 8 bush. } With 400 gallons of } S water i } Acid spread over } S Bones, and sown S 0 116 Sid. Acid . . 83 lbs. 15 0 Peculiarities. — " The turnips came into rough leaf sooner on that (the sulphuric acid) acre than on * The remarks on the peculiarities resulting fi'om the application are in all cases extracted from pubhshed Reports. , any of the other" (Letter of the Duke of Rich- mond, " Roy. Journ. Agr.," vol. iv., p. 408). " Turnips taken up and weighed, Nov. 3rd, be- fore they came to full matiuity, as it was wished to ascertain the result whilst the duke was at the castle" (Farm-steward's Report to Royal Soc. of Agr.). THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 357 ]^r. Fleming's Experiments. Date. Manures and Quantity. Application. Produce per Acre. •• Tons. cwt. lbs. 1843. Bone-dust 10 cwt 11 \7 28 Do in .,v. ^ Dissolved in Muri- ^ 10 cwt. ( atic Acid J IS 11 81 Cost per Acre. £ s. d. 5 10 0 3 0 0 The same application Mr.^ Fleming tried n[)on\ Peculiarities. — None noted, except that ''the potatoes; and tlie result was also, in the language crops brairded well," and that the api)lication.s of Professor Johnston, " greatly in favour of dis- "which show the greatest weight ke|)t the lead solved bones" (Appendix to Lectures on Agr. of the others all the season" (Appendix to John- Chem., p. 81). ston's Lectures, p. 55). Mr. Finnie's Experiments. The only particulars given in the report yet jjublished are the follo\ving :— 1843. Bone-dust, with 12 loads of Manure, gave £ s. d. " a loss of 1 9 1 li Do., dissolved in Sulpluu'ic Acid, with 12 loads of Manure, a yain of 0 18 0.1. as compared with the produce obtained from IG tons of farm-manure. yijj own Experiments shew the fnllomnrj particulars : — Date. Manures and Quantity, Ai^plication. Produce per Acre,! Cost per Acre. 1843. ■^ Bone-dust '5 a o u •S Bone-dust g 8ul. Acid, . ftWatcr , . . , a a equal to 50 times the weiglit of the acid, and a])plied ^ in the furrow- ridge, jjloughed up, and then seed drilled - Diluted and ap- \ l)lied as above. . j 8 bush, 84 lbs. 252 lbs. Diluted and ap plied as abo\ ap- -) ,-e . . J Tons. cwt. lbs. 15 3 4 17 17 13 1 7 6 7 0 6 £ s. d. 1 13 0 1 15 0 1 19 6 1 6 0 Pcctiliari/ies. — The sulphuric acid ])lots "started ott' with the lead, which they continued to in- crease, being at hoeing time full a week in ad- vance of every other, exeejjt the muriatic acid, which followed them u]) very closely. They al- most touched each other on the ridges, while the plants on the plot with no manure could scarcely be seen." At hoeing time "the most remarkable feature was the decided lead taken by the dis- solved bones." In " Sei)tember the ])larts on the dissolved bones appeared to sto]) growing in the top, and to form a (piieker bulb than the other lots." October 12th. — The following notes were takcii (ride Trans. Highland Soe., ]>. 177): — "Bones and Sulphuric Acid, — Bulbs equal to lot 1st (there were twenty applications made in the ex- l)eriment) ; top small ami light coloiu'. Bones and Muriatic Acid. — Ditto, ditto ; toj) a shade darker in colour. Bone-dust. — Bulbs not so large. Burnt Bones and Sulphuric Acid. — Not so good in ai)i)earancc as they were a month since" (ride Prize Report on Special Manures, Trans. High. Soc, March, 1844, vol. i., p. 178). From these results the conclusion I then deduced was — "That bones dissolved in sulpluu-ie or muriatic acid have an extraordinary l)eneiicial efVeot on the turni]) croj) ; hastening the early growth, encou- raging the formation of the bulb in the early sea- son, and increasing tiic gross ])ro(lucc," This conclusion the practice of the above authori- u li 2 358 THE i?"ARMER'S MAGAZINE. ties* confirms in every particular, and also shows that these advantages may be secured at a less cost of application than by the ordinary method. ITius from the foregoing trials we see — 1st, That a moderate quantity of bones weU dissolved acts as a tillage for the turnip crop ; and that a small quan- tity, even two bushels, of bones per acre, thoroughly dissoh'ed, vAW produce a crop superior in weight to the usual quantity applied in their ordinar)' con- dition. 2nd, That a large quantity of bones very j^artially sprinkled with acid exhibits greatly aug- mented fertihzing influence ; so that even the direct adraiitage or saving which we may receive is a double one, viz., a saving in the quantity and the cost of manure, and a saving or gain in the quantity of produce ; for both of which advantages a pound- shilling-and-pence estimate is in the preceding cases supphed. There are, however, other or indirect advantages attendant on the application of bones in a state of solution, to which a monetary value cannot be assigned ; they are, however, not the less important or unworthy of our attention. Thus, in the first ])lace, we have a quick growth of plant in the earlier stages of the season — a point which is universally allowed to be the grand deside- ratum in the cultivation of the turnip ; since, by being pushed on, its infancy is shortened, and the many dangers of that period lessened, and the plant is enabled to defy the ravages of the fly, and to spread at an earlier period its green leaf to the atmosphere ; for the turnip derives a large share of its sustenance by the absorption through its leaves of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. In the next place, we have a continued quick growth and a tendency to form bulbs — advantages which may be turned to account. Thus, say that we care nothing for the chance of greater produce at a less cost — nothing for the almost certainty of conquering the fly and the other enemies of the turniji's infancy, there are many circumstances under which the power to grow a crop speedily is pecuharly valuable. For instance, it will enable us to grow a crop of turnips often, instead of rape, for autumn food, or when we wish to sow wheat upon the turnip fallow — a practice which is now far from being unfrequent, and which the increasing demand for wheat it is probable will render still more com- mon. Again, a season may be imfavourable, and the soil unfit, or other circumstances may interfere so as to retard the time of sowing. In either case the quick growth of the plant, by the use of the application, is an object of importance, as it in fact gives us the power of having a good early crop, or a good late sow7i crop. Such, then, is the action of dissolved bones upon the turnip crop, as laid down by science, and as developed by })ractice, the particulars of which aftbrd us good and sufficient cause for asserting that we are indebted to science for a discovery of " one of the most important savings which was ever held out in the use of manure." How far that discover}' may be made generally useful will be seen from the following inquiry into its application. The application of dissolved bones, a tillage which has been shown in the foregoing pages to be attended with so many peculiar results, and, I may add, so many direct and indirect advantages, is a subject worthy of particular investigation, not merely because the public use of the advantages arising from this, or from any discovery, greatly depends upon its applicability to public and general purposes, but because that investigation, should difl^culties exist, \n[\ give us an opportunity of removing them ; or, should they not exist, of cor- recting an idea or impression which is generally made a handle o/" against anything that is new — the idea of the impracticabiUty of the discover)' — a peg upon which many who will not venture to question the theory, or to deny the facts stated, will in this case hang an excuse for condemning the application be- fore they test it. " Its effects may be good, but it is not calculated for general use ; its application is a matter not adapted for the farmer. The lancet, which in the hands of the surgeon is a simple and useful instniment, if used by a novice is a dangerous weapon," is the purport of the popular argument, and which is taken up by many practical men to whom the words sul])huric and muriatic acids sug- gest \'isions of murky laboratories and mystic opera- tions which the farmer has no cognizance of, forgetful that these wonderful acids are nothing more than oil of vitriol and spirits of salt, and that the same skill which is required to mix an eflfervescing draught is all that is required to make ready a * Since this was written, the following trials by Mr. Gardiner have been pubhshed in his " Report on Special Manures," to which the Royal Highland Agriculture Society awarded the second prize of 30/. POTATOES, 1843. Top-dressed vpon farm danr/. Bones dissolved in suliihuric acid and i ^ , , carljonate of magnesia gave J ^* ^«^^ "^ '^^^ • • • ' • ^^ tons o cwt. per acre. Ko dressing gave H ,, ig „ OATS, 1842. ^""'' '-dlssS."?'.'^.'! ] 8^'-' 15 bush. 38 lbs. per rood \ "^"^^^ t ^^.!: l^^i^"^^^^^' ^' ^ a top-flressmg No top-dressing \ cost of 7s. per rood, gave 11 „ 11 „ „ weighing 39 lbs. per bushel. Soil — partly moss and partly gravel. OATS, 1843, Bones and sulphuric acid gave 18 bush. 38 lbs. per rood, weighing 39^ lbs, per bush, cost 8s, 4d. per rood, No top-drejsing 15 „ 15 „ „ weighing 39 lbs. Soil — stifi" alluvial loam. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 359 preparation of dissolved bones. This will be seen from the following detail of the particulars con- nected with the application. The points to be considered in the jireparation and application of the tillage are — 1st. The bones, sort, quantity, and condition of. ind, The acid, sort and quantity of. 3rd, The water, sort and quantity of. 4th, The method of prejjaration and use. 1. 'l"he bones to be employed may be burnt, boiled, or fresh. If burnt, they contain nothing but the earthy constituents ; if boiled, they hold also their gelatine ; and if fresh, they retain the whole of their animal matter (both fat and gelatine) as well as their earthy matter. The animal substance being a rich manure, it would appear that these fresh bones ought to be preferred in all cases as a manure ; it has, however, been shown that this is not the fact, as the oil they contain ])revents the plant, in such cases, from making full use of the other matters, the phosphates, &c., in the bone, which are of still more essential use. For the pur- pose, however, of this apj)lication, I should recom- mend the use of bones which contain as much of their animal matter as possible, as the acid acts upon the earthy part, frees it from the animal gela- tine and oil, and prejiares it for the plant at the same time that that animal part is set at liberty to serve its purpose ; so that it would be bad economy either to destroy the animal portion of the bone by fire, or to give the same price for such as for fresh ones for the purjjose of this apphcation. It is true that calcined bones are more easily dissolved ; if, how- ever, either l)oiled or raw bones be ground fine, the acid will cat ujion them powerfully. But even should there be a few small portions of the bone imper- fectly dissolved, I consider this no disadvantage, as they will act at the latter periods of the growth of the crop ; for it will I)e seen, from the foregoing experiments, that the effect of the prejjaration is to make the plants grow quickly^a proof that they find i)lenty of accessible food ; and that, in one or two cases they aj)peared to fail in their vigour to- wards the end of the season — a circumstance pro- bably arising from the too fine state of division in which the bone was. And this takes place, it will be seen by a reference to my experiment, most especially where burnt bones are dissolved. There is no necessity therefore to waste the organic por- tion of the })one, in order to be able to bring it into a state of division which is really not so useful as that into which we can bring it without the loss of the animal portion. AVhether this reasoning be corrector not, facts (as my detailed expeiiinents show) prove the conclusion, that the unl)urnt bones are preferable to use in this form. The (juantity of dissolved l)ones most piojier to be apjjlied i)er acre is, practically sj)eaking, an un- solved ])rol)U'm. Tlieory, however, says tiiat, as the whole of the ])h()sj)hatps re(|uirod for three crops is not more than (iCilbs. of bone-dust con- tains, it is fair to ])rcsuuu> that, by giving tlicplanta chance, as we do l>y dissolving the Ijoius, of making use of nearly all the tillage that we i)ut in the soil, a very small quantity will suffice for the turnip crop ; and, having found theory correct in the j)rincij>/e of the applicaticm, I do not see wliy we sliould douljt that practice will not also confirm it in detail. Indeed, the quantity used by the Duke of Richmond and by Mr. (ieddes was only two bushels i)er acre. At the i)resent time four bushels, however, may be said to be a safe mean (piantity (my own trials were with eiglit Inishels) and an economical one. A few years, however, will midoubtedly i)Ut us in possession of the par- ticular quantity which it is best to use. I have in execution at the present time an experiment which will, 1 hope, throw some light on what is the l)cst quantity of each of the ingredients— bones, acid, and water — to use. •2. The acid emjdoyed maybe either sulphuric or muriatic. The only trials with the latter upon turnips which I have met \\\x\\ are my own and Mr. Fleming's ; in both of which, so far as final re- sult goes, it stands well. In my case sulphuric acid appeared to be quicker in its ettects, and at the latter i)eriod of the season the muriatic had the advantage. The muriatic acid, however, costs al)out one farthing per ])ound more than the sulphuric ; I am disposed, however, to think that upon high and dry limestone soils this extra i)rice may be aftbrded for the muriatic, as when it is ai)])lied along with the bones, the free acid will combine with the lime in the soil, and form a muriate of lime, which is a salt that has a great tendency to attract and absorl) moisture. The experience which we have had with the sulphuric acid must, however, compel us to give it the preference, ex- cept in the case referred to above, until the muriatic has been more generally used. The proportion of the acid is as much unsettled as the quantity of bones. The condition of the mixture must guide us, if we require the bones to be well dissolved. The Duke of Richmond used the same weight of acid as of bone in one case ; on the other hand, half that weight in several cases has acted well, and it may yet be found that a still less projiortion of acid may be eflectual ; for it is not yet evident that the most perfect division of the bones is requisite, or that, by having such, we may not run the risk of encouraging growth of plant too much at first. The Duke of Richmond used :ilb. of acid to 1 of bone, and Mr. M. Williams a much less quantity with success. Another year, however, will, I hope, ailbrd us experience suffi- cient to warrant a definite opinion being gi\-en. Till then, half weight of the bones is a medium (piantity of acid, which mi/ own experience allows me to reconunend. 3. The water employed in diffusing the dissolved bones over the soil ^\'ill in all cases, for the sake of economy of carriage, l)c that which is nearest the field where it is required ; at the same time there are cases in wliich it will be jiossiljle to use the licpiid from the tank which contains the urine and drainings from the cattle sheds. I would, con- seipu^ntly, strenuously lu-ge that this phu\ sliould be adopted wlienever local circumstances will \wr- mit. 1 ha\e no doubt that such will be found the most beneficial application which can be made of the licpiid, as the free acid in the solution will com- bine with the anunonia in the TKpiid, and form solu- ble salts of anunonia ; which, while they materially assist vegetation, will not waste, as the carbonate of ammonia which exists in the liquid is apt to do ; 360 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nor, indeed, will 600 or 800 gallons of liquid manure be a trifling addition to the fertilizing in- fluence of the bones. The quantity of water hitherto used has varied from 50 to 100 times the weight of the acid, but in all cases it is the rule to mix the acid with only twice or thrice its weight of A^'ater until the bone is dissolved ; the use of the larger quantity being merely to diffuse the preparation more thoroughly in the soil, and to prevent any injurious effect upon the seed or ])lant from the strength of the acid. As, llOwe^•er, the free acid which is in the mixture when spread upon the land soon combines with the alka- lies in the soil, and forms various salts, the smallest quantity of water that will serve to diffuse the mix- ture eA'enly, I ha\'e no doubt, may be used safely ; the effect of such an application has not yet been tried. Should the result, however, of such trial answer my expectations, the use of the preparation •svill be greatly facilitated, as the quantity of water which has to be procured is an obstacle of conse- quence to many. The difference in the quantity required vnll be seen from the number of gallons of water required for 4 bushels of bones, and 2 bushels of bones, diluted with water : — 4 bush, bones 12 St. of Acid 2 bush. Bones 6 St. of Acid Water 100 fold weight of Acid. Water 50 fold weiffht of Acid. 1G80 galls. 840 S40 galls. 420 Water 25 fold weight of Acid. 420 galls. 210 Water 10 fold weight of Acid. 168 galls. 84 4. — llie mode of pi-eparing the mixture is very simple. The general rule is to put the bones into a wooden vessel, and to pour upon them twice their weight of water and half their weight of acid. The bones, if imburnt, require to be finely powdered. After the acid has been added, the mixture is covered up, and allowed to stand two or three days. In this time nearly all the bones will be dissolved, or, at least, reduced to a fine powder ; if so, it is fit for use, and the proper quantity of water may be added to dilute it. Thus, in one bushel of bones we shall have — 42 lbs. of Bones 1 .^, , ^^^n ,^„ n r ^ 21 lbs of Acid I 1,000 lbs. or 100 gallons of water. 63 lbs. of Water if 50 fold the acid be used. The mixture may be prepared as easily on a large scale. To do this, it will be necessarj', in the first place, to provide several large casks — say each to hold from 60 to 70 gallons. Into each of these, in the first place, we put 4 bushels of bone-dust, weighing l68lbs. We then weigh out 84lbs. of acid (half the weight of the bones), and immediately pour it and three times its weight of water (252lbs., or about 25 gallons) into one of the casks. The same being done to all the casks, each will contain (at 4 bushels per acre) manure for an acre of land. When this is wanted for use, for which in the course of two or three days it will be ready, the casks may be taken to the field, and a certain part or proportion of the mixture taken out, and the proper quantity of water (at the rate of fifty times the weight of the acid) added. In order to do this conveniently, a rod, marked so that when inserted in the mixtiu-e it should show the quantity in the cask, should be procured. AVhen, therefore, a quantity was required, we can, by the aid of the rod, take out one-tenth or one-twentieth of the mixture at convenience ; thus, say the quantity for the acre in one of these casks should be 50 gallons, and we take out sufficient for one-twentieth of an acre — this is 2^ gallons. Now, the whole cask requires diluting with fifty times the weight of the acid of water — i. e., with fifty times 84lbs., or 4,200ll)S., or 420 gallons — before it is applied to the soil ; hence one-twentieth of 420 gallons, or 21 gallons of water, must he added to the 2^ gallons when it is put into the vessel by which it is spread. This calculation once made, we should know for the futin-e that each cask required diluting \^ith 420 gallons of water, and each gallon of the mix- ture (if there were 50 gallons in each cask) with rather more than 8 gallons of water. The method of using this liquid is by some con- sidered a gi'eat obstacle to the general application of the tillage ; one cause of which objection is said to be the inconvenience of having the manure in a liquid form. In reply to which it may be urged, that as plants require their food to be in a state of solution, any extra trouble from such an application is repaid by the exti'a benefit to the crop ; that as the quantity of water used is not necessarily very great, it is probable that a much less quantity, even, than has yet been ventured upon vn\\ serve our purpose, and that mechanical arrangements may be made so as to apply the mixture to the soil with uniformity and ease. The fact, however, that as yet there has been no machine brought out for the special purpose of effecting the distribution of tlie dissolved bones, is the ground-work, in most cases, of the impression that the process is a difl^i- cult one, for the indisposition to use our ingenuity in a matter of the sort is pretty general. It was, however, always so. The jjrogress of agricultural mechanism was slow while it depended chiefly upon the suggestions of the farmer, who, though he had the best opportunity of designing that which was most useful, did not make use;of it. The encourage- ment afforded by our agricultural societies to talent and enterprise has brought out the exertions of our THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 301 engineers and mechanics, who have, in a short space of time, effected many great improvements and removed many obstacles which we had ac- customed ourselves, from long habitude, to con- sider as immovalde. In this case, therefore, I have no doubt l)ut that tlie engineer will come to our aid, and put us in possession of a simple agent by whidi so valuable an application may l)e made use of without inconvenience. Indeed I have good grounds for this hope. AVithin the last few weeks I have drawn the attention of Mr. Crosskill, of Beverley, to the subject, and he in- forms me of his readiness to give it his best con- sideration, and hopes to be able to make such ad- ditions to his liquid manure cart as will enable it to deposit the solution in the ridges, and to act as an efficient drill for tlie purj)ose. There was a very clever drill for liquid maiuire and seed, made l)y Mr. Iluckvale, shown at the Royal Meeting at Derljy last year, which 1 have no doubt would an- swer our purpose. The main objection to such an implement is on the score of economy. It cannot l)e expected that the farmer shoidd procure a fresli drill, es])ecially one for depositing seed and tillage at one time, for every variety of fertilizer which he may use. Any arrangement which may be made to act with the common water-cart, or with a manure-cart so much used as Mr. Crosskill's, is likely to be a great acquisition to the puldic, as the seed does not require to be drilled at the same time as the liquid, but can be more con^'eniently applied with the ordinary small drill ujjon the ridges, after the manure has been covered up. A light and economical liquid drill-cart may be made of a common barrel that will hold about 30 gallons. This should be fixed to shafts, and have a tul;e through which tlie liquid luay run into the ridge. The sjiced of the horse will regulate the quantity of liquid ajijjlied. It may, however, also l)c well to have two or three uni/.zles of various diameters, which will screw upon the end of the tube, and regulate the flow of liquid. The Ijarrel should be placed below the axle, as it would allow a stirrer to be easily in- serted so as to keep the liquid in agitation, l)y which means a sediment would not fall to the bot- tom, and the even distril)ution of the mixttu'e woidd be facilitated. With such an implement it will only be necessary to ridge the land, as for farm-manure ; brush ofl" the tops of the ridges, so that a little loose soil may fall into the furrow; put such (|uantity of the strong mixture from the cask as will serve for one or two rows, at the rate i)er acre we have determined upon, into the drill-cart ; add the proper quantity of water, for dilution, to it when put into the drill (say S or 10 gallons of water to 1 of mixture, or otherwise, as we may caleidate tin; pro|)er pro])ortion to be), and to jiass along the line of ridges, di-o]ipiiig the iicpiid upon the loose soil in the furrow. After this the riilges should be l)loughed u]>, and the seed drilled on the tO]), so as to lay just above the liquid. In this manner, after the li(|uid had been deposited by baud, the seed was ])ut in, in most of the foregoing ex])eriments. It has been suggested that the lifpiid shouhl be '• mixed with dry earth or ashes, so as to be used by the ordinary method of driUing." However de- sirable this may be to do, it is not easily practi- cable. My own attempts have been imsuccessful. Wet lumj)s are formed which it is impossible to separate, and such a large quantity of dry earth is required to make the compost " run through the drill," that so small a weight of bones cannot be e\'enly incorporated with it — a matter of vital im- portance to the crop which depends upon the ap- ])lication. Where calcined bones arc used, owing to their containing merely the earthy part of the bone, and to their being so easily dissolved, a dry superphos})hate of lime may be fonued. For ef- fecting this, Mr. Lawes, of St. Albans (whose ex- periments, along with those of Mr. Purchas, which were reported to the Monmouth Farmers' Club, I have not met with), gives the following excellent and simjile directions for making tliis superphos- l)hate : — " Calcined l)ones are to be reduced by grinding to a very fine powder, and placed in an iron pan u'ith an equal weight of water (a cast-iron trough, such as are sold for holding water for cattle, ^vill do); a man with a spade must mix the bone with the \\'aler until every portion is wet: while the man is stirring, an assistant emjjties at once into tlie pan sulphuric acid, GO jjarts by weight to every 100 i)arts of bone; the acid is poured in at once, and not in a thin stream, as commonly recom- mended; the stirring is continued for about three minutes, and the material is then thrown out. With four common farm laboin-ers and two jians, I have mixed two tons in one day. The larger the heap that is made, the more perfect the decompo- sition, as the heap remains intensely hot for a long time. It is necessary to spread the superphosphate out to the air for a few days, that it may become dry." These, then, are the ]iarticulars to be regarded in the ap])lication of dissolved bones, none of which, it will 1)6 seen, offer any real obstacle to the use, by an intelligent farmer, of a system of economy which theory and practice have alike shown to be advantageous. We may, therefore, I think, safely say that the preamble of our case is proved, and that we have, indeed, every reason to believe that the ajiplication of dissolved bones, as a manure for the turnip-cro]), offers us " one of the most important savings which was ever held out in the use of manure;" one, too, which " affords good hojie of being generally apjilicable." EXTRAORDINARY SHEEP.— A ram, as stated to us by a correspondent, was sent l>y Mr. Terrill, of Edg, near Oakham, into Northamptonsldre, wliicli was considered the finest animal of its kind that has been seen for many years in that neigldjour- hood. It had the frame of a Leicester, the size of a Cottswold, the lean of a Down, and the skin of a Lin- coln, with a fine long head and ears ; he was hired for the last season by Mr. Clark, Itiiiliir for the Manjuis of Exeter, and has been used by an eminent ram breeder, Mr. Ivens, of llayden, near Banbury. 309 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. RETURN RELATIVE TO REAL A Return showing the Total Annual Value of Real Property in each County in England and Walks on Land, Houses, Tithes, Manors, Fines, Quarries, Counties. England. Bedford .... Berks Bucks Cambridge . . Chester .... Cornwall . . . Cumberland . Derby Devon Dorset Durham .... Essex Gloucester . . Hereford . .. Herts Hunts Kent Lancaster. .. Leicester . . . Lincoln . , . , Monmouth . . Norfolk .... Northampton Northumber- land Notts .■ Oxford Rutland .... Salop Somerset . . . Southampton Stafford .... Suffolk Surrey , . . , , Sussex Warwick . . . W^estmorland WUts Worcester . . York Wales. Anglesea . . . Carnarvon . . Denbigh Fhnt Merioneth . . Montgomery. Brecon .... Cardigan . . . Carmarthen . Glamorgan . . Pembroke . . Radnor .... London.. .. Inns of Court Westminster. Middlesex . . England &"1 Wales.. J Scotland .... Great Britain Lands. £ 377994 594903 597736 774657 962857 774692 603724 845681 1556160 613507 538781 1289645 1121124 629981 438225 312082 1.327490 1636416 899063 2340624 290334 1644993 973144 835856 707756 602395 130935 1050131 1715497 777636 1104150 1147535 433504 855373 905868 269417 1021706 716497 3989936 s. d, 19 5 6 5 8 11 10 9 5 9 9 1 15 11 3 lOi 15 3i 8 0 2 3 6 5 12 3i 4 9 12 9 12 0 9 3^ 9 Of 9 1 12 11 6 5 9 6 3 8 5 4 0 2 19 10 2 5 11 10 8 11 1 5J Houses. 0 7^ 10 8 15 8 3 7 17 8 10 1 129063 8 150046 18 284345 12 193505 0 108237 1 258067 16 139224 18 10 159948 11 7 315761 6 9 258470 0 0 266864 14 8 107647 17 7 925 0 0 386936 1 8 40167088 5 7J 5586527 13 3 45753615 18 lOi £ 132296 310104 211580 267273 7S0102 277108 220549 328488 766745 231204 429287 517446 839689 128572 340267 71852 1372881 4777536 314966 420978 158420 589768 263516 431877 380744 285849 21632 254353 1025297 730959 818993 479407 2158725 697771 1122126 52056 291185 514734 2707513 s. d. 9 9 14 8 8 6 15 0 9 11 6 4 16 11 14 3; 6 2 17 8 5 1 4 8 14 3 15 3i 4 9 17 9 14 5 10 9 19 0 4 3i 10 OJ 18 5 15 10 18 5 6 4 7 11 4 11 18 3 14 8 18 6| 15231 16 32979 12 53936 18 27617 6 31231 1 54091 13 31401 18 23081 16 37720 10 219165 0 57731 14 14803 14 10 1369515 0 107572 0 2176516 8 5579872 14 35556399 17 3^ 2919339 15 9> 38475738 13 Of Tithes. £ 7182 29866 16807 27144 25561 74971 10265 16896 115509 56971 34262 106793 39990 32306 56136 7842 114349 39728 19474 44877 18103 70417 10879 58866 12469 22193 3518 31366 59812 114169 33074 65714 43692 88509 32261 4999 78830 28934 77491 s. d 12 11 19 4i 1 11 15 3 12 10 14 8. 17 11 7 4; 6 11 0 2 13 11 15 11 9 7; 16 9 0 9 12 10 15 4i 3 6 9 4: 5 2 5 10 15 5; 9 15114 7 12318 15 8 17966 9 4 9835 3 5 3188 19 7 20313 7 2 12558 3 10 13086 7 9 26177 8 0 12351 0 0 24438 0 11 6039 14 6 32788 19 9 'i78'7" 1 8 20122 10 0 1960330 18 10^ 1960330 18 m Manors. £ s. d. 191 137 3999 577 1334 11637 1092 4420 1529 731 15600 1900 990 6695 3733 420 4364 706 3665 730 11561 1491 227 58 2134 364 2173 1825 4849 2137 12563 7172 6778 313 729 147 1869 10493 18 10 12 5 18 0 19 lU 9 6 17 4 3 11 6 2 0 5 18 13 16 8 15 14 7 10 2 4 0 4 14 0 0 0 13 8 3 1 14 10 10 H 19 1 2 0 18 3i 80 0 0 6969 17 4 6161 15 6 8 15 0 325 0 0 "21" o"o 105 4 10 234 0 0 119 17 1 40 0 0 6796 12 6 Fines. £ s. d 14163 " 9 10 27406 2770 5336 3708 712 9425 891 53382 65 2962 4617 80 258 17465 4641 26 5814 275 33 6 2: 10 0 15 11 10 10 4 4 5 4 5 8 12 8 16 4 14 9 1 2 19 11 19 0 5 8 19 4 8 0 8 3 11 10 13 0 117 16 1937 19 52333 12 28510 2 2848 5 5564 18 96 9 7193 16 3419 11 74 0 9540 10 10459 15 15118 16 1016 0 0 7 0 0 1016 0 0 7164 0 0 16695 14* 6 1977 8 8 Quarries. s. d. 3765 8 11 10964 12 0 1816 11 0 6221 11 8 20049 13 0 3918 0 0 4393 5 0 1232 0 0 2317 10 7 656 12 0 200 0 0 4028 17*0 21038 0 8 4190 814 602 185 732 3409 15 0 213 0 0 502 5 0 2180 18 10 2712 7 5 785 9 11 5571 1 8 123 12 3 501 5 6 296 10 0 3705 11 8 362 14 0: 1376 4 4 331 4 0 27638 18 3: 80 0 0 51735 9 8 1714 18 0 289 9 0 9728 13 9 412 11 0 3187 0 0 255 15 0 999 0 0 1690 4 10 79 0 0 152216 11 3^319140 15 8f 207009 8 84*- , 901 16 2 33474 0 10 152216 11 3^320042 11 lOf 240483 9 6J THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PROPERTY (ENGLAND AND WALES). assessed to the Property and Income Tax for the Year 1842, ending on the 5th April, 1843 ; dist Mines, Iron-works, Fisheries, Canals, Railways, &c. 863 inguishing that Mines. £ s. d. 2 0 2 9 8 '7 4 0 10 "7 '3 6 5 8 'g 7 5 0 9] 9 10 G 1 8 0 Troll AA m-ks Fisheries Ciniuls. Railways. Other Property not conipriseil in tlu' Fori*i;oiii_i;. Total Aiimml Value of Real I'ropprty As.uric acid. Tlie following is its composition : — Carl)on GO. 7 Hydrogen 5.0 Oxygen 2G.3 Azote 8.0 100.0 Uric acid has not yet been met with in the urine of mammiferous herbivora; but it exists in that of man, having l)een first discovered in calculi from the liladder, wlience it received the name of lilhic acid. Lieljig's analysis shows it to l)c composed of Carbon .30. 1 Hydrogen 2.4 Oxygen 28.2 Azote .33.4 100.0 Tlie litter most commonly used to absorb the urine of stall-kej)t animals is wheat-straw, which consists in jjrincipal ))arts of lignine or woody fibre; lilared, ap|)lied upon meadow lands, ])roduced very great efiects. Such, to the best of my knowledge, are the prac- tical facts which establish the useful influence of ammonia on the growth of ])lants far better than the experiments of the laboratory could have done. Nevertheless it must be acknowledged that, long liefore the dates above quoted. Davy had shown that water containing |i',-,th of carbonate of ammonia, is singularly favomable to the irrowth of wlu'al, far more so, under circumstances exactly simihir, than the hydrochlorate and the nitrate of the same base; and this inlluence, it is imi)ortant to observe, Davy ascribed to the fact that carbonate of ammonia con- * Annales de Chunie, t. Lxv. 2 Serie, p. 301. 366 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote; in a word, all the elements that are essential to the organization of jjlants. The illustrious Enghsh chemist concluded from his experiments that the well-knoM'n efficacy of soot, as a manure, is due in part to the volatile alkali which it contains. Pro- fessor Liebig, in ado])ting these opinions, has sought to generahze them ; he has attempted to show, by very dehcate experiments, that the air which lies immediately over the surface of the ground always contains carbonate of ammonia, and that the same salt can he detected in rain and snow, and in spring water. 'I'he ammonia of the atmosphere, according to Liebig, concurs with that which is developed in manures, in the formation of the azotized principles proper to vegetables. These ingenious ideas cor- respond exactly wth those ^^'hich M. de Saussure made public in 1802, when he ascertained that the gaseous azote of the air is not directly absorbed by plants. " If azote be a simple substance, and not an element of water," says this celebrated observer, "'we must admit that plants do not assimilate it, save in vegetable and animal extracts, and in the ammoniacal vapours, or other compounds soluble in water, which they absorb from the soil or from the atmosphere. It is impossible," he continues, "to doubt the presence of ammoniacal vapours in the atmosphere when we see that the pure sulphate of alumina, exposed to the air, ends by becoming changed into the ammoniacal sulphate of alu- mina." * THE WATER CONTAINED IN MANURES. BY CUTHBERT W, JOHNSON, ESO., F.R.S. The proportion of water contained in the various fertihzers employed l)y the Enghsh farmer, is a question well worthy of his attention. The mois- ture in these is, indeed, very commonly much greater in amount than he is inclined to believe ; it often varies, too, in ditferent specimens to a very considerable extent. A correct knowledge of the results of many experimental researches on this question can hardly fail to be attended with ad- vantage, since by this means the cultivator may readily save his teams much unnecessary labour, and avoid, in the case of purchased artificial ma- nures, groundless suspicions and unnecessary disputes. In this paper, therefore, I will briefly examine the merely aqueous proportions of not only the most common liquid manures of these islands, but those of the organic and earthy classes. Of liquid manures, the chief are urine, and the water em])loyed in irrigation. The urine of a man commonly contains in 100 ])arts about 96 ])arts of water. Of a sheep, about 96 ditto. Of a horse, ,, 94 „ Of a cow, „ 93 „ Of a i)ig, „ 92 „ It is remarkable that when the urine of a cow is suffered to putrefy (and the same remark there is Recherches Chimiques, p. 207. no reason to doubt applies to the urine of other animals), the proportion of water is not in- creased ; but if the urine is previously mixed with an equal Ijulk of water, that then, accord- ing to the experiments of Sprengel {Johnson and Shaiv's Farmers' Almanac, Vol. 2. p. 31J, the solid matters are materially increased in amount. This is shown by the folloMdng analysis of 100 parts of the urine of a cow in three different states : 1. Fresh — 2. Putrefied, by itself — 3. \\''hen putrefied, with its own bulk of water. Fresh. Urea 4.000 Albumen 10 Mucus 190 Benzoic acid 90 Lactic acid 516 Carbonic acid 256 Ammonia 205 Potash 664 Soda 554 Silica 36 Alumina 2 Oxide of iron 4 Oxide of manganese . . 1 Magnesia 36 Chlorine 272 Sulphuric acid 405 Phosphoric acid 70 Acetic acid Sulphureted hydrogen Insoluble earthy phos- } phates and carbonates S ' ' Water 92.624 Putrid. 1.000 40 250 500 165 487 664 554 22 272 338 26 1 1 Watered. 600 30 120 500 1.533 1.622 664 554 8 30 272 332 46 20 30 180 150 95.442 95.481 100-000 100-000 100-000 These facts serve to explain (and this is not the only advantage obtained by this plan) why the Continental farmers, who use so skilfully and so extensively liquid manure, in preparing it are very careful, not only to intimately mix the excrements of their cattle with a considerable proportion of water (one part excrement to four or five parts of water), but they invariably allow it to ferment and putrefy for some days before it is carried on to their fields. The watering matters, to which in England the name of liquid-manure is very often erroneously applied, consists of hardly anything else but a little discoloured water, containing, perhaps, not one part in the hundred of organic matters. It is but seldom that any attempt is made to add to that proportion, either by the ad- dition of more easily decomposing organic mat- ters, or by subjecting it to fermentation. Of the class of weaker liquid manures are those used in irrigation. The clear waters of the Enghsh rivers do not contain more than from one to two per cent, of solid matter in 10,000 ])arts. That of the river Itchen, about 2^ parts in 10,000; that of the Clyde 1^ parts; that of the Thames If parts. These results, however, were obtained from an ex- amination of the water when in a tolerably clear state ; when they are affected by floods, or the tide, as in the case of the Thames, the H umber, &c., the projjortion of mechanically suspended matters are most materially increased; it is from a knowledge THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 367 of these facts, that the Yorkshire fanners derive such excellent results in reclaiming land from the sea, by the process of warping — an excellent plan of recovering land from the waters, wliich might he materially extended on the shores of Essex, Hamjishire, and other English counties. The large proportion of mechanically-suspended matters which river-water contains at certain sea- sons, is much larger than is commonly supposed. These are usually much greater in the winter months than in sunnner, and are in excess when tlie waters are out. I am not aware of any very exact examinations having Ijeen made with regard to the proportion in which these insolul)le matters are contained in English river-waters. The waters of the Nile, the Granges, and the Mississijjpi have been examined, however, with some care. In these, at some jieriods, the amount of foreign matters which they contain is very great ; they are des- cril)ed, indeed, as being nearer in ajipearance from this cause, at some seasons of the year, to treacle than to river-water. The mass of earthy matters which are by these gigantic rivers poured into the sea, and from whose deposit, arises the Deltas of Egypt, Bengal, and the (iulph of Mexico, is most enormous. It has been calculated that the Nile carries into, and deposits in the Mediterranean, 14,784,000 cubic feet of solid matters \)ev hour; that the Mississippi deposits in the Gulph of Mexico 8,000,000 solid feet per hour ; and the Ganges, according to Mr. Everest, discharges into the Bay of Bengal, annually, 6,368,077,440 cubic feet. — (Westminster Reciew, v. 30, p. 1.) Mr. Everest found in the waters of the Ganges, at Ghazepoore, in the Province of Benares, the following variations at different seasons in the insoluble matters of the waters of the Ganges. Grains. July 3. In a wine quart 1 ., 7. ditto ., 23. ditto Aug. 8. ditto „ 13. ditto „ 22. ditto Sept. 6. ditto „ 24. ditto Oct. S. ditto 8 10 .58-10 37 26 17 8 6 'Iliis insoluble portion of the water of the Ganges has been examined by Mr. I'iddington, who found in 200 parts tlie following substance; Silt from Hansborrin. Water Vegetable matters Saline matters, chiefly mu- riate of potash Carbonate of lime (chalk) Phosphate of hme Oxide of iron Hilex Alumina Loss 4 J -200 6Vt from Mountpre. 2 5i Oi I6i 1 12 139 14J «•; 200 From an examination of this analysis, wc should be quite prepared for the rcjiort of Mr. Piddington, that, while the lands within the reach of these flood-waters j)reserve their original fertility, the soils placed at greater elevations are generally and rapidly impoverishing. — {Trans. Ayr ic. and Hort. Soc. of India, c. u. p. 40-1.) The watery portion of the excrements of cattle varies with the food on which the animal is fed. It forms always, however, the largest jjortion of their weight. Thus, the fsecal excrement of cattle fed on turnij)s usually contains about 72 j)arts in the 100 of water. The solid and liquid excretions of a horse fed on hay and oats contain about 67 per cent, of water. Those of a cow, fed on jiotatoes and after-grass, yield about 85 per cent, of water. — (Johnson on the Fertilizers, p. 79-) Night-soil contains from 70 to 80 jjarts in 1(30 of water. The crushed bones of animals, in their green or fresh state, contain about 85 i)er cent, of cartilage, water, &c., a great portion of which is speedily eva])orated or dissipated in the gases of the ])utre- factive fermentation. Hence have arisen many dis- putes, ^vith carriers, and others, about diminished weights, in the bones committed to their care. The fresh,' or green bones, as they are called in Cheshire, when exposed to the atmosphere for some time, lose from one-fifth to one-fourth of their weight ; and boiled bones, under similar cir- cumstances, are reduced one-third in weight. A bushel of crushed green bones, of the three-quar- ter inch size, weighs about forty-five lbs. — the same bulk of bone-dust, fifty-four lbs. Seventy-five l)ushels of crushed green bones weigh about one ton and a half — the same bulk of boiled bones about two tons. The average weight of the bones of an ox is about two hundred weight, or al)out one-fourth of the carcass free from offal ; tlie bones of a sheep, a])out twenty-one lbs., supposing the carcass to average eighty-four lljs. So that, ac- cording to this calculation, allowing twenty bushels of crushed l)ones to manure an acre, the bones of fi^•e bullocks or horses, or of fifty sheep, are re- quisite to supply the necessary dressing. Rape cake contains, according to Dr. Madden, about 10 per cent, of water. — [Trans, High. Soc, o. xiv, p. 529.) The last class of fertilizers which I shall notice in this paper are those whose action upon the soil is permanent — these are the earthy manures. The weight of water contained in tlie various manures of this kind is very considerable. This has been ascertained by M. Schubler — (Jour, Roy. Ayric, Soc. r. I. J). 184) — who found, when various earths were completely saturated with moisture, in a cubic foot of Calcareous sand 31.8 lbs. of water. Silicious sand 27.3 „ (iyi)suin ])ovvder 27.4 ,, Sandy clay 38.8 „ Loamy clay . , 4 1 .4 „ Stiff clay, or brick earth . . 45.4 „ Pure grey clay 48.3 „ Pipe clay 4 7.4 „ Fine carbonate of lime .... 47..'> ,, Fine carl)onate of magnesia 62.6 „ (Jarden mould 48.4 ,, Arable soil 40.8 „ Fine slaty marl 35.6 ,, The.sc cxpcrimentsj these results, all lend to jirove 368 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the truth of what has been often and unanswerably asserted, that there is no portion of the science of agriculture which -will not amjily repay the farmer for its often and repeated examination ; and it is a haj)py result, perhaps, that it is so ; for had there been no advantages o1:)tainaljle in the tillage of the earth Ijy those who practically labour to combine with their practice the results obtained from scien- tific investigation, the cultivation of the earth might have remained in the hands of serfs, such as those of the olden time ; but we should have searched in ^•ain for any traces of such men as those who now abound amid the excellent holders of the increasingly productive lands of our country. THE ANCHOLME DRAINAGE. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. March IS. — The president, Sir John Rennie, in the chair. A paper on the drainage of the Alcholme level, Lincolnshire, by Sir John Rennie, president, was read. It commenced by describing the position of the Alcholme level, which consists of a low tract of land of about 200,000 acres in extent, situated on the south side of the river Humber, about ten miles below its junction with the river Trent. The river Ancholme runs through the centre of this level, and with its tributary streams empties itself into the Humber at the village of Ferraby. The alluA'ial matter Ijrought down by these streams formed a bar at the junction of the Ancholme wth the Humber, which, by preventing the discharge of the drainage waters, caused the level to be inun- dated with water, rendering this tract of land totally unfit for tillage, lire paper then, after enter- ing into great historical detail as to the works which were executed at various periods, from the time of the Romans, to render this tract of land available for agricultural purposes, stated that, in the year 1801, the lute Mr. Rennie, being applied to for his opinion as to the best plan for impro^^ng and completing the drainage and navigation of the level, reported that he attributed its defective drainage to the deficient capacity of the Ancholme and the subsidiary drains to carry off the floods, to the cill of the old Ferraby sluice having been laid too high, and to there not being any catchwater drains to i)revent the floods from the adjacent high lands descending into the level. As a remedy for these evils he recom- mended that the main river, Ancholme, should be still further improved, by straightening, deepening, and enlarging its channel ; and that two new locks should be i3laced upon it. Also, with a view to preventing the floods from the highlands inundating the level, two catchwater drains should be made, one on the east side, and the other on the west side of the river Ancholme, with separate and inde- pendent sluices at their junction with the Humber, by which means all the highland and lowland waters would be separated, and each body of water would thus be eflectually discharged into the Humber \vithout interfering with the other. The catchwater cbains involved an important and novel principle, for, in his opinion, by the old Dutch me- thod of simply cutting a series of straight drains to some convenient point for discharging their water, the highland and lowland waters were mixed to- gether, and the highland waters coming from a higher level with a greater velocity down upon the lowlands' forced their way first to the outfall. The less rapid waters of the lowlands were thus kept back and were left to stagnate, the sluices being unable to discharge the whole body of water during the time when the tide with the Humber permitted the sluice doors to be opened, and it was thus impossible that the level could be drained; but by separating the highland from the lowland waters, each body of water could be effectually dis- charged by an independent sluice. These catch- water drains would answer, also, the important purposes of irrigation during dry seasons and for navigation. The plans which were also, at the same period, being beneficially carried into effect by Mr. Rennie, and on a more extensive scale in the east and west, and Wildmore Fens, near Boston, and also on the Witham, near Lincoln, were par- tially executed; but the Avorks not being com- pleted, and, for want of funds, not being subse- quently kept in repair, the drainage was found very insufl[icient, and, at length. Sir John Rennie was called in to complete the system. He pro- posed that the plans of his father should be carried out; that the Ancholme should be further im- proved, and a new sluice made at Ferraby, %vith a cill placed at a lower level, and new bridges made throughout the line ; also, that an overfall and weir should be constructed, with a large reservoir to catch the sand, which was brought by floods from the surrounding hills, and had previously blocked up the main and lateral drains. Minor weirs and reservoirs were also recommended for the smaller drains and brooks where they united with the level. Tliese works having been executed, the effect was that the drainage was rendered complete and eflfective, and the district was converted into a tract of fine arable land. Subsequently, another sluice was constructed below Ferraby, Avith its cill two feet below the low-water mark of extra spring tides in the Humber. This sluice, which had three openings of 18 feet each in width, Avith draw-doors and self-acting gates, was perfect in its effect, dis- charging above four times the quantity of water in the same time that had been previously accom- plished. The whole of these works were completed by Sir John Rennie 43 years after Mr. Rennie's report, 556 years after a regidar system of drainage had commenced, and the district was freed from water without the aid of mechanical power; thus estab- lishing what was contended to be the surest princi- ple of drainage — the separating of the highland from the lowland waters by catchwater drains, and discharging them, independently of each other, by their several outfalls. In an interesting discussion which ensued, the correctness of the principle was fully admitted, and it was shown that by selecting proper localities for the outfalls, and by placing the cills of the sluices below low-water mark of spring tides, there were not any fen districts in the kingdom that could not be drained without mechanical aid, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 369 IMPROVEMENT IN THE FARM. BY J. TOWERS. (Member of the Royal Agricultural Society, and Horticultural Society of London.) It has long been my earnest desire to imjjrove the condition of the agricultural body, by inducing a spirit of independence of all adventitious aid, and a fixed resolution to conquer difficulties by exertion, and a steadfast reliance ujion its own exertions. "With this view, I have investigated every authority at my command, and still make it my daily study to collect evidences, literary and practical, from books, i)amphlets, or actual observations. After much consideration, I have felt impelled to seize this early opportunity, by the perusal of Article 24 of the second part of vol. 5. of the Royal Agri- cultural Journal, just pubhshed, headed — "A few remarks on the larrje Hedges and small Enclosures of Devonshire, and the adjoininrj Counties." Mr. Grant, the author, has made out so clear, so true, and so lamentable a case of the wretched system pursued in that most beautiful county, that it ap- peared a crime to delay, for one month, a disclosure which might widely diffuse a knowledge of the ignorance and miscluef-working arrangements that are but too prevalent there and in many other dis- tricts of the kingdom. A few lines will explain the object of Mr. Grant's article, and serve as an introduction to my own remarks. Commencing with the evident natural fertility of the soil, and the genial climate of the county, he expresses the sur])rise of the agricultural visitor, who is astonished at the small quantity of the pro- duce per acre, compared with that of districts "im- measurably behind Devon in natural advantages" — who, however, " is not long in discerning that to the baneful effect of the high hedge-rows, and small inclosures is to be traced much of the existing evil. And he adds : — " At the present thne there is a strong tendency towards imjirovement in fanning ; the general ojji- nion being that none of the sciences is in so back- ward a state. Hut no very great ad\'ance can be made in this and a great ])art of the adjoining coun- ties, so long as the inclosures are so small, and the hedges so many and so large, that upwards of 7 ])er cent, of the land is occupied, besides that which is otherwise injured by them. ' What, ' it has been asked by more than one intelligent and extensive farmer, 'is the use of our being told that we should study practical chemistrj', and cojiy the example of farmers in better cultivated districts, if we are not allowed to enlarge our fields by taking down those immense l)anks, or even to cut down the wood growing on them but once in seven years, and then only that which has been previously marked for rearing ? Look at what I lose from the shade of these hedges and trees, besides what they actually occupy ; for nearly a ridge wide on each side the corn is hardly worth reaping," The necessity of making extensive alteration in this respect will, 1 tnist, he evident l)y consulting Mr. Grant's table, whitli "gives the total number of acres in each of ten ])arishes, all mthiu a circuit of 15 miles of Exeter, extenchng over a district of 20 miles, and amoimting to nearly 37,000 acres, of which about 2,612 acres, or 1651 miles in length, are occupied ])y hedges ! " I, for one, can testify that a single elm hedge-row did, in the last summer, 1844, so impoverish a i)lot of si)ring ^\'heat, upon an average 20 or more feet broad along its whole extent, that only here and there could a solitary spike appear, arising from a root without tiller or braird. I occupy land, an or- chard meadow, wherein, to borrow Mr. Grant's words, " the roots of the trees cross each other, and pass to the opjjosite side of the field : " they are elms ; and although a ditch intervenes, there are clusters of young root plantlets, which emerge at ten, twenty, forty yards distance from the hedge- row, among the meadow grass. Is this system to be endured — to be tolerated in the richest and most productive soils of South Britain r As to the growth of timber, Mr. Pusey and Mr. Mechi have clearly shown — the former, that even as respects beauty, both Devon and Somerset might be improved by a removal of a large part of the fences ; and the latter, that little ])roi\t can 1)e de- rived from timber, under the present condition of colonial commerce. Having thus referred to the authority of these able \\Titers, I must come at once to the direct object of this article. If it be true that the removal of all M'ater by draininfj, that is or may become stagnant below the surface soil of aral)le land, is of primary importance, we may safely claim as second to it the abstraction of all intruders on land under crop, and the more thorough ventilation of those crops, by the destruc- tion of useless obstacles to the free admission of air and light. It was stated by Sir John Sinclair, above 30 years ago, from the almost consentient evidence of num- bers of the best farmers in North Britain, that small fields are liable to many objections besides the first expense of inclosurc and their future keep- ing up. Hedges give shelter to multitudes of birds; they also, by their 'situation, with their attendant ditches, and the uncultivated shps of land on both sides, rob the farm of a much greater (piantity of land, in proportion, than when the farm is dixidcd into large fields. The crops, infields thus sheltered, are more liable to disease, to rust, mildew, the growtl) of fungi, and the like : even for grass mea- dows, small inclosiu-es are injurious, by jirevcnting the circulation of air for drying and making the hay. But, besides the loss of land, irregularity of figure, deviating in all sorts of angles and i)roiui- nences, causes much loss of time and labour, by short turnings, &c.; for, " if fields are of a regidar shape, and the ridges of proper length, five ploughs will do as much as six in fields of small size and of irregular figures ; and every other part of the business to be performed, as dunging, sowing, harrowing, reaping, and leading, will be executed in nearly the same ])roportion." We look too much to scenerv; yet, how is pic- turesrpie beauty assisted by the jiocket-handker- chief and ribbon system of incloMire.^' Let us take fertility and aljundance as the cliief desiderata, blending with these a purk-likc order of decoration, 370 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. by the occasional introtluction of a few noble trees, which would confer grandeur, rather than frippery, on an agricultural district. At the same time we might profit by the suggestion of Sir John Sinclair, and make the size of fields vary with the size of the farm, more especially when there is diversity of soil. Thus, for example, in a farm of 200 acres, there might be 8 inclosures of 20 acres each, and 4 of 10. In a farm of 300 acres, 8 inclosures of 30 acres, and 4 of 13 : and, in a fann of 700 acres, 8 inclosures of 50 acres each, and 12 of 25. It has long been deemed most important, by Scotch farmers, to enlarge the size of their fields, to reduce their numbers, and to bring them into as regular a shape, as circumstances will j)ermit, for it was practically demonstrated that "where inclo- sures are made by hedge and ditch, the quantity of ground lost upon ten acres amounts to not less than one-tenth ; or, in other Avords, that a ten-acre field is reduced to the size of nine acres, which is a strong argument against small inclosures." The annexed plan of foiu- fields — part of a stitt' land, and turnip fann — will convey some idea of what was considered a judicious application of li\'e fences, tending to add greatly to the beauty of a country, and to improve the temperature of the at- mosphere. It is taken from a wood-cut, facing page 45 of Sir J. Sinclair's " Systems of Husbandry," and may be considered a fair example of the form, and laying out of four fields of 20 acres each, which are sup])osed to belong to a farm of 200 acres. The fields are fenced with hawthorn, Avhich Sir John says " is considered to be })referable to eA'ery other i)lant for a fence, being, when placed in a proper soil, a quick grower, becoming strong by age and attention, not running at the root as the black-thorn does, and having prickles for its de- fence." PLAN OF INCLOSURES WITH CLUMPS OF PLANTING AND PONDS FOR CATTLE. B A A Represent the four watering places for the contiguous fields supplied by ditches. B B The six gates to the fields. I perfectly agree with these remarks, in cases where no better plant than black-thorn offers it- self as a substitute ; but wherever it is practicable, I would recommend the holly, as combining all the advantages of beauty, shelter, shade, and defence. Tlie hoUy (Ilex aquifolium) is a slow grower, perfectly hardy, fills up to perfection at bottom, and when rendered comjiact by timely and proper trimming, forms an impenetrable fence. In some counties hollies abound in woods ; the berries fall and produce plants, and the lowest shoots also trail on the ground and take root among masses of leaves. In Buckinghamshire, not remote from my residence, young plants are bought by thousands and ten thousands, and transfered to fences. The natural rooting in the woods clearly proves that leaves are the bed the holly affects ; hence, in planting, a trench should i be opened and abundance of leaves incorporated j with the soil that is returned into the trench ; or a I broad bank might be raised Avith the same en- 1 richment, and the young hoUies planted at its summit. I Loudon says — " It thri\'es best in a free deep I loam, rather light, as in Needwood Forest, Staf- fordshire, and the fir-forest of Black-haU, near Aberdeen. It is the best of all hedge plants, j thri^-es well in cold loamy soils, and rather shel- tered situations." Too much pains cannot be taken to plant well (avoiding damage to the root), without loss of time after raising the hollies from the Avoods, or nurse- ries. 'ITie distances, plant from plant, may be ex- actly the same as the haAvthorn ; but the two best seasons are Ai)ril and September. The holhes are to be cut over pretty close to the ground, not in THE FAllMEll'S iMAGAZINE. 371 the first year after planting, hut wIku tlu'y are well e.stcil)lishecl — about the second sjjrinjr. Nothing can l)c more elegant or protective than such a fence for all fields, where the soil is appro- priate ; because the lateral s])ace occupied would be trifling, aflbrding no harboiu- for insect, or ani- mal vermin. Some prejudices woidd remain to be overcome, and much care is at first required ; but these are all, and the hedge would remain a verdant M'all for perhajis half a century. I do not jirctend to arjrue for small quadrangular clumps of trees at each corner of a field : though, as the sai7ic soil would suit, there could be no gi'eat disa(hantage in a few firs, holly standards, or evergreen oaks (none of which send forth extensi\e roots), and these angles, moreover, tend to round ofl the corners of a large field, giving freedom to the course of the ])loughs. But the situation cho- sen for the central water ponds is admirable ; one pond, properly placed, ])eing sufficient for fourfields. "NAliatever be the form of fence — whether ever- green or deciduous — hedge-row trees, ought to be rehgiously shunned ; for (as obser\ed in a note, by a con-es])on(lent, at ])age 48 of Sinclair's work), " the influence of roots in attracting moisture and fertihty may be seen in a circidar form on every arable s])ot in their immediate neighbourhood. The are, in fact, the landlords' thieves, who steal from the tenant's croj), every year, ten times the value of their own improvement." I reside in a neighbourhood wherein one entire parish — at least the farms upon it — feel the baneful concomitants of jjlantatlons and hedge-rows ; for, not only is the land im])overished and shaded, but hordes of rabbits and thousands of birds invade the fields. Game jjreserves, jiarticularly of phea- sants and hares, are quite grievance enough ; ])ut the mischief is greatly aggravated where small and irregularly formed fields are shrouded on every side by tall hedges growing u])on broad banks, covered with every sjiecies of weed, In-amble, low bush, &c., that can ofi'er a secure resting jjlace to reptiles. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. DRAIXIXG. TO THK KUITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — Do me the favour to inquire of Mr. Smith, when he lectures again upon draining, what depth the first and second spade take out, and the dc])th the furrow is before the digging is begun. Process : — The drainer begins in a furrow, l)lougiied ( wiiat depth, six or more inches ?), by digginjj twTlve or fourteen inches wide (what depth?), followed by another digging, which is done with a tapering; spade (what deptii is the spit, and what is the length of the spade, and width of it, toj) and bottom ? ) ; and the earth shovelled out with a large scoop shovel, followed by a smaller shovel to take out the small moulds, leaving the bottom of the ditch four inches wide for the stones, whicli are the size of an egg, and which are covered wth a thin turf (grass ?), and that with clay, six inches or more thick, and l)0th of thein well trod- den down, Are the stones put in promiscuouiilj-, thrown in as out of a half-bushel skij) ? and what is done with the refuse stones in breaking them lo the size of an egg? In putting them in, does the drainer stand in the ditch, and there receive them for the purpose and level them, walking backwards, beginning the drains at the upper end, and when completed delivers its water upou , and not into the main drain; which I sujjpose to be stones, nine inches deep, upon tiles ? Suppose the stones laid in nine inches deep, and the ditch there six inches vnde, and four at the Ijotlom, bow many rods in length will a cubic yard of broken stones do ? When the ditch is thirty inches deep, and four inches the width at the bottom, what is the M'idth upon the surface ? I imagine it to be not less than eighteen inches wide ; and that the contrac- tion of the clay is multiphed by the depth of the drain. If Mr. Smith, who I am sure is ready and wiUing at all times to confer a favour upon any one, wovdd do me the favour to answer these interrogations, and you the kindness to insert our letters in the Fai-mrrs' l\I(i(jazine, others, I believe, as well as myself, will be benefited by the inquiry. I beg to remain, yours very tiidy, "W. Walford. Stoke Halstead, Essex, March 11. Sir, — I should be glad to know if any of your readers can inform nie of any remedy I have, and what, where a large tree staiuls on the boundary of my farm, over- hanging my land at least ten yards, consequently de- stroying entirely every crop sown beneath. Repeated notice has been given to the proprietor, of which he takes no notice. I am anxious to ascertain if I should be incurring any liability, and what, by lopping the same without further noticing it. Some law there must be on the subject, and I shall feel much obliged if, through your journal, it can be arrived at. Yours, &c., Farringdon, Hants, A Subscriber. March 2, " A Young Warwickshire Farmer" inquires the best way to cultivate Lucerne, on a sandy soil, subsoil gravel ; what depth the land to be jiloughed— depth the seed to be put in, ([uantity, and what (piantity of manure to the acre — the best way to ap)>ly the manure, and what age the plant to be cut. ANSWER TO AGRICULTURAL QUERY. rabbits. TO THK KDirOR OF THK MARK I.ANK EXPRKSS, .S[R, — A correspondent in your paper some three or four weeks ago incpiired how he could prevent the rab- bits from frequenting his land, or bow he could stop them from burrowing, ^cc. Lastautunm I planted, that is dibbled, a field of wheat. After it canu^ up, I found the rabbits had eaten off the greater part of the out • side land. Wishing to stop them, I bought some soot, and had it thinly sowed over those outsidos where the rabbits came, and some refuse linn- from the gas works over some of the adjoining lands ; and I don't think the rabbits have ever touched it since. Some gas tar i)oured into their holes I have no doubt would compel them to forsake the same. Yours, respectfully, Toivcesier, February 28//;, 1845. J. Simco. O C »72 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MARCH. For a series of years past, we have not had occa- sion to notice such a continuance of extremely cold weather as has been that experienced during the past season. From the 1st until the 21st of this month, there occurred almost daily falls of snow in nearly every part of England, and which were accompanied by cold and piercingly cold easterly winds. Lender these circumstances, the progress of all out-door farm labours, from the land being frozen too hard to admit the ploughshare, was completely suspended ; yet, on the breaking up of the frost on the 22nd, they were considered, from much of the manure being carted out, and many fur- rows throwTi in February, by no means so backward as many persons seemed to imagine. Since the date last mentioned, all has been bustle and activity in the fields, though, of course, no great amount of labour has yet been accomphshed. Still, however, it is placed beyond a doubt, should the present mild atmosphere continue, that a large portion of the barley and oats, as well as the other Lenten crops, will be somi by the middle of April. Notwithstanding the fearful forebodings indulged in at the month's commencement, respecting the fate of the young wheat plants, arising from their long exposure to the cutting -ivinds, without an adequate covering of snow to protect them, we are most happy in being enabled to assert that, ^vith some few exceptions, the crops on the ground, though much stunted in growth, appear both strong and healthy, and give an earnest of future abundance. Even in the most exposed situations, the loss of plant has been trifling in the extreme. So far, therefore, the farmers' prospects are cheer- ing. We wish we could say as much in other respects. But, alas ! matters (whether we look at the ruhng value of corn or cattle, or indeed that of any other kind of agricultural produce, arising from a concurrence of causes, to some of which we shall presently allude), instead of ha\'ing a tendency to improve, seem likely to act most prejudicially to the interests of the British yeomen. WTiatever may be advanced to the contrar)-, we feel bound, in common fairness, to consider the new Tariff— not only that portion of it admitting live stock for our markets, but likewise salted and other provisions— in effect one of the most des- tructive measures to the farming body ever passed by the Legislature. The advocates for the Tariff have put this question to us — What now becomes of the large importations of live stock under this measure ? and where are they ? Then the returns of such imports for the past three years ending on the 31st of December (which shew an arrival, in 1842, of 5,348— in 1843, of 2,107— and, in 1844, of 8,008 head of the various discriptions of hve- stock, being a total supply of 15,463 head) are adduced to shew that an adequate number of stock has not been imported into the United Kingdom, sufficient to form a single Monday's market supply. This, however, is wholly beside I the general question, as to the working of the whole ' machinerj' of the tariff laws. Those laws have the 1 two-fold effect not only of reducing present value — from the um\illingness on the part of speculators and dealers to get into stock, with the prospect before them of increased supplies — but, also, of rendering it next to an impossibility to produce a further pennanent increase in the quotations. For what large dealer would, we ask, be found wilhng to purchase largely during any particular period, Avhen, by waiting for any specified time, he ^^'ill almost to a certainty have the chance of buying at reduced rates ? This, then, is exactly the feeling which has been predominant in almost every branch of trade connected wth the produce of the land, during the past month, and which has, we need scarcely intimate, tended, and most seriously too, to embarrass and perplex the farmers of the country. We have here generahsed matters ; is it necessary for us to go into detail ? if so, we will at once do it. From the tone assumed by the free trade party, one would imagine — without the aid of due reflection — that farming has undergone little or no change since the passing of this destructive measure ; but we would ask them in what respect has it flourished ? Without hesita- tion, ^\'e throw out the challenge — if they dare accept it — to prove otherwise than that, m every particular, it has fallen into decay; into a condition, indeed, out of which the tiUers of our soil will never be extricated without a severe struggle. But let us now look closely into the minutiae of the' prevailing system produced by the new tariff, as an illustration of these remarks. We require no far-fetched ideas to " trim our matter with;" our argument shall be based simply on matter-of-fact occurrences. It is quite true that the imports of live stock have not been to say alarmingly extensive ; but thej^ have, in very many instances, become great favourites with the butch- ers, arising from the largest portion of the beasts carrying a good quantity of internal fat. This will be fully apparent to our readers, when we assert that but few, if any, have been as yet received under five years old, ^\-hiIe the largest portion have averaged six years. Four years' grazing vnW surely add something to the flesh and make of the animal, and a few months in the stall must have the effect of adding to the touch. Need, therefore, surprise be expressed — looking at the system pursued by the Dvitch graziers, as we have here detailed, in respect to the past aiTivals — that the lyitchers have purchased foreign stock somewhat readily in our markets ? Though the condition of the sheep has not been quite equal to that of the beasts, a decided improvement has taken place in it during this month, and which, from advices which have come to hand, will in all probability continue. In 1842 and 1843 numerous experiments were tried in England, by placing the lean stock in stalls, and feeding them upon distillers' grains — upwards of 200 head of beasts being at one time at Messrs. Booths' distillery, at Brentford — as well as by sending them into the marshes in Lincolnshire, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 373 and on the light soils iii parts of Norfolk and Suf- folk j but those experiments were comj)lete failures, and a heavy loss, arising from the animals' losing flesh very fast, and becoming most sei'iously affected with the then pre^■aihng epidemic, was the result. Enghsh capitalists invested large sums in the purchase of botli beasts and sheeji in Germany and Holland, but, during the i)ast eight or nine months, the trade, from its uncertainty, has almost whoUy been conducted by foreigners themselves, who have, we find, entered into contracts with the numerous distillers in Holland to stall-feed the beasts and sheep, for about two months pre- vious to their shipment hither, at a most trifling cost. Looking at the actual condition in which the stock has been received into London during the present year, and the prices obtained in Smithfield, we unhesitatingly give it as our opinion that the owners are deriving great advantages from the trade, to the decided injuiy of our own graziers. Some discrepancies having lately appeared in some publications relative to these importations, it may be proper for us to state that our returns are taken from the ships' manifests, and not from garbled statements put forth by a certain clique. According to accurate returns, therefore, the ai-rivals of beasts into London, in the course of tlie month just con- cluded, have amounted to 257 ; and of sheep, to 161 head; or a total supply of 418. These im- ports, it mustbeobsei'ved, have been derivedatape- riod of the year when the various Dutch ports have been closed with ice — a striking proof of the exer- tions making abroad to supply our markets. Hence it is fully apparent, as the season advances, a very large inci-ease mil be apparent in them. Apart from this important matter for consideration, we find it asserted that the trade in the various other articles admitted for consumption can never prove an ex- tensive or lucrative one to those engaged in it, from the inferiority of quality which must continue to be apparent in them, compared mth our ownx produce. These theoretical notions may suit the views of some; but let them not delude themselves into the beUef that the foreigners have not the same appli- ances, the same means of improving their produce as we have in this country. If prices be the stan- dard of value — those now obtained for the American provisions in the metropohs — the assumption as to inferiority must prove utterly useless. For in- stance, we find American butter seUing at 65s. to 863. ; lard, 34s. to 37s. ; cheese, 44s. to 56s. ; hams, 50s. to 65s. per cwt. free of duty ; while India beef in bond is producing pOs. to 100s. ; prime mess beef, 65s. to 70s. ; and India pork, 95s. to 100s. per tierce ; prime mess pork being 50s. to 60s. per ban-el. AH these articles — the imports of which have been liberal — have been in active request, at improving quotations. "Would it be necessary for us to refer to all the other articles of consumiition allowed to be imported, to prove that the general bearing of the Tariff', exclusive of the Canada Corn Bill, is inimical to the fanners of England > We think not; for facts speak for themselves. It is with much regret we are compelled to no stance was never more apparent than we witnessed in Smithfield Market on the •24th of the month, on which occasion a very considerable number of Scots, shorthorns, llerefords, and Devons were suffering severely from that disease ; and we lament to obsene that very severe losses have been sus- tained along the roads. The sheep, however, do not ajjpear to be suffering from its influence to any extent. This leads us to the consideration — accounts being rife of the prevalence of tlie disease in various parts of the Continent— of the propriety of admitting foreign stock, with the apparent dan- ger of increasing the epidemic amongst our native breeds. We have been assured that due caution will be exercised at the various Custom-houses to prevent the landing of stock so affected : but really we have very great doubts whether any Custom- house officer is so far skilled in grazing to be enabled to form a correct opinion whether the ani- mals are diseased or not. From personal observa- tion, we feel confident that many of the beasts brought into Smithfield in this month have been so affected. We trust, therefore, that this important matter will not be overlooked in future by those in power. It would, we are sure, be quite unnecessary for us to dweU upon the advantages resulting to the graz- ing and other communities by the estabhshment of our various hues of railway. Still, where those advantages are misapplied, as has been the case since our last months' report, an inquiry into them becomes necessary. On very many occasions, then — we are not here alluding to alty particular line — the luggage trains, which are advertised to ar- rive in London very early in the morning, have not, from some neglect or other, reached the va- rious termini several hours after their proper, and, we had thought, Jixed time— at least, according to the time-bills, as issued by the various companies. Now, we need scarcely say (for it must be borne in mind that the luggage trains convey the live stock and dead meat for Smithfield, and Newgate and Leadenhall markets) that such apparent ne- glect entails, not unfrequently, great losses upon the o\\Tiers of the stock, as well as the carriers of the slaughtered meat, who are liable to others for its safe conveyance, from their arriving too late for our markets; the trade being often closed, or nearly so, when the suppUes have come to hand. We have deemed it necessary to refer to this sub- ject, from a sense of its importance to tlie agri- culturists, and for the purpose of drawing the attention of the various directors to it, in the hopes [that matters will go on more smoothly in future. The motion made by Mr. Miles, in the House of Commons, on the 17th, on the subject of rehef to the agricultural interest, appears— as well it might from its importance— to have created more than usual inquiry out of doors, especially amongst those more immediately interested. The various points argued by the hon. mover were full of sound reasoning, and bore directly upon the whole question desired to be brought under discussion. That portion of tlie argument, however, in which tice the recommencement of the epidemic amongst I reference was made to the dechne m the ^"'l"e of cattle, not only in i)arts of Norfolk, but in several j hve stock, was by no means clear ; mdeed, the of our western and midland counties. This circum- |hon. member appears— madvertently, we have not C C 2 374 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the slightest doubt — to have fallen into several most remarkable errors, and which errors have tended to mystify the matter under consideration. To make it, therefore, as intelligible as possible to our readers, we shall briefly analyze the figures given by Mr. Miles in the course of his speech : — "ITie average prices in Smithfield market, in 1840," said that gentleman, "were — beef, 3s. llfd.; mutton, 4s. 5g:d. In 1841 — beef, 4s. Id. ; mutton, 4s. 7d. In 1842, being the year the Tariff was passed — beef was 3s. lOjd. ; mutton, 4s. l^d. In 1843 — beef, 3s. 7d. : mutton, 3s. 8|d. In 1844 — beef, 3s. 7d. ; mutton, 4s. 1 id. per 8 lbs." That these statements are A^ide of the mark, we are prepared to prove; and, moreover, they tend to shew that our graziers have received a much higher rate of value for their stock than has been actually paid them. We give Mr. Miles eveiy credit for the best intentions ; but we think that the pubhc mind ought to be disabused on so vital a question. There is not, we are sure, a grazier in the country who can understand why fractional parts are introduced in the statement referred to; the butcher never buys on such terms, and the salesmen never calcu- late upon such uncertainties. We ourselves have attended Smithfield on everj' market day for upwards of the last fifteen years, for the purpose of reporting suppUes, prices, and demand to the public ; hence have had the best opportunities of forming a most correct judgment upon the trade in all its bearings. Our returns, then, of the average price of beef in 1840 — taking, of course, the lowest and highest figures — are 3s. 6d. ; mutton, 4s.; for 1841, beef, 3s. 7d.; mutton, 4s. Id.; for 1842, beef, 3s. 5d. ; mutton, 3s. lOd; for 1843, beef, 3s. 4d. ; mutton, 3s. 6d. ; for 1844, beef, 3s. 4d. ; mutton, 3s. 5d. per 8 lbs., to sink the offals. If, therefore, our subscribers will compare the two statements, they will at once agree witli us that ours carry with them the stamp of truth, and that Mr. Miles has fallen into error in many parti- culars as to the value of stock in the years re- ferred to. The corn trade, as a wliole — though the finest quahties of wheat have mostly sold at full prices — has been in a very sluggish state. The supphes offering in London, as well as at the large markets of consumption in the provinces, have been by no means large, but fully adequate to meet the wants of the dealers, vv'ho have purchased with extreme caution; while the prices have undergone no change worthy of notice. The advices received from the Baltic and other parts of the continent are to the effect that very httle business has been doing in corn on English account. The lambing season has gone on remarkably well, it having been productive of a good fall of strong and healthy lambs ; yet farm stock has fired by no means well, arising from the great deficiency of fodder. This has been fully exemplified in the arrivals of stock up to Smithfield — they shewing a great disparity of quality, yet we may observe, both the beasts and sheep have come to hand from Norfolk in much better condition than we had been led to expect. The great deficiency in the crops of hay last season in those counties situate near London was expected to produce unusually high rates about this period. This expectation has not, however, been realized, owing to immense supplies of both hay and straw having been received per railway and other modes of conveyance. Meadow hay has been, therefore, selling at from £3 10s. to £5 10s.; clover, £4 10s. to £*6; and straw, £l 18s. to £'2 2s. per load. Our letters from Scotland and Ireland state that the weather has been equally severe as with us : yet farm labours are represented as tolerably forward. With the exception of the best wheats being in steady request, at full prices, the corn trade has been in a verj' sluggish state, at previous figiu'es. The supplies of stock exhibited in Smithfield have been as under : Beasts 13,400 Sheep and Lambs 122,400 Calves 396 Pigs 2,041 While the prices have ruled thus : Per Slbs. to sink the offal. s. d. s. d. Beef from 2 4 to 4 0 Mutton 2 8 ,, 4 6 Lamb 5 0 „ 6 0 Veal 3 10 „ .5 0 Pork 3 0 „ 4 4 Prime mutton and lamb have been in steady demand, at full quotations. With all other kinds of stock the trade has ruled heavy, and prices have had a downward tendency. The numbers of foreign on sale have embraced the whole of the importations which we have given in a previous portion of this report. The bullock supplies from our own grazing dis- tricts, including Scotland and Ireland, have been thus derived : Head. Norfolk, Suffolk, &c (i,700 fiincolnshire 600 AVestern Counties 2,200 Other parts of England .... 2,350 Scotland 980 Ireland 300 13,130 Rather extensive arrivals of slaughtered meat, considering the season of Lent, have been received up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, and which have had a depressing influence upon the trade. Prices have not, therefore, been supported ; yet they have ruled as follow : Per Slbs. l)y the carcass. s. d. s. d. Beef from 2 6 to 3 G Mutton 2 8 „ 3 10 Lamb 4 10,, 6 0 Veal 3 10 „ 5 0 Pork 2 10 „ 4 4 March 27. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. LEICESTERSHIRE. In my last report, transmitted to you at the latter end of January, from the mild and jjleasant state of the weather 1 anticipated an early seed time. The land was then in a fine state to receive the pulse crops, and I mentioned that, should such weather continue, all would be f?ot in very early. Nothirg is more liable to disa])pointnient than the fond hopes of man, and esjjecially the husbandman — such was the case in this instance ; for on the night of the 29th January we had a severe frost, and this, with an interval of a day or two, has continued up to the 2 1st instant, when the wind changed to the south-west, and the temperature has since been much higher. I never remember such severe frosts so late in March ; all ojjerations as to stirring the soil, till the 21st of this month, has been quite out of the question, and instead of the first leaves of beans and peas being visible above ground, the seed is not yet sown. The eftect of this unexampled severity of the season has been the retarding of all seeding operations in the field, and has driven all the work of this description full a month later than in ordinary springs. The farmer, therefore, ^\^ll experience a time when eveiy physical exertion, both of man and horse, will be required to get his seed into the ground in the proper season. A large breadth will be sown in a few days, as generally the ground is ready (and if a short time of fine dry weather follows, much will be done), and in excellent order; and, though late, perhaps the produce at harvest may not be less on this account. The turnips are nearly all consumed, and the land is ready to be sown mth the following crop ; so bean, oat, and barley seed time is upon us all at once, and require the most active exertion that these operations may be com- pleted in as short a time as possible. The severity of the last two months has been severely felt by sheep and cattle ; and, from the grass being eaten down to the roots during the summer's drought, there was little or nothing on the ground, and consequently they must be fed on artificial food. This has been a pinching time, not only for the flocks and herds, but also for their masters ; and the farmer was never more put to his wits' end to keep his stock even alive, much more to have them in fair condition. With a failing crop of turnijjs, no hay of last )'ear's growth, his corn all gone to market, and with very little cash to spare to buy these articles, or cake, his situation has been far from a desirable one ; and with all these kinds of food consumed, with the prospect of no grass of any amount for six weeks to come, he is still in a terrible fix ! No wonder that he looks around him in dismay, and trembles at the thought of the ap- pearance of the tax-gatherer and the rate-collector ; and if his rent l)e £300 a-year, or above that sum, grumbles at his hard task-masters not even allow- ing him the privilege, wliich all other of her Ma- jesty's subjects enjoy, of ])roving, that instead of profit, he has actually sutlercd a loss to a great extent. No ! he has an income made for him by Act of Parliament, on which he must pay a tux, and no one cares whether he realizes it or not. This is as bad as Egyptian bondage — " he must make bricks without straw" — all these jiayments must be paid on demand ; and, in many cases, for the rent now due; the landlord will come, and, '• at one fell swoop," clean him out, " horse and pots," and he may go and break stones on the road, or in the workhouse. I beg pardon for this digression : the scourges of the Almighty it is the duty of all to recei^'e with calm resignation ; but when smarting also under the injustice of man, no wonder that these feelings thrust themselves upon the mind. There is one event which has not been retarded beyond its usual time by the severity of the weather — the lambing season ; and it is won- derful how the young lambs have endured the frost and snow. The fall has been prolific, and less loss experienced than in many milder seasons ; but the dams must l)e well sujjplied with turnips, corn, or cake, or their oflsjiring would perish tor want of nourishment. Many persons express great fears as to the ill effects of the late frosts ujjon the wheat crops. I hope, and I believe, they ! are nearly groundless ; for though it must be admitted that they never cut so Avretched an ap- pearance at this time of the year, still they may recover. The plant of wheat is ver}' seldom killed by frost, except there lies upon the land, at the time of freezing, water ; fortunately, this has been a dry frost, therefore it is less hkely that the plant has suffered to any extent. I have heard it as- serted, that on very light land the soil has been so loosened around the roots, that if dry weather con- tinued, it would be blown out of the ground ; but as we have already had a fine rain since the frost, I hope this will be prevented. Upon the whole it is impossible, at present, to fonn an opinion as to the effects of the severe frost upon this important crop of grain. In consequence of the scarcity of hay and turnips, recourse has been had to straw ; and a larger quantity of corn than usual at this time of the year has been thrashed, and the mar- kets largely supplied \v\i\\ corn of all descriptions. The prices have not varied much since my last report, but have had a downward tendency. ^Yheat, from 42s. to 40s. ; but on the last market day, it might be quoted 2s. higher for fine quality ; barley, 30s. to 35s.; oats, 24s. to 28s.; beans, new, 33s. to 36s. ; old, 42s. to 45s. Mutton, the best, Gd. in the wool. Hay is selling at from £5 to £7 per ton. Oil cake is dearer, being worth £l 1 per ton. The wool market is firm, without much alteration in price ; ranging from 30s. to 32s. per tod. Our labourers are tolerably well employed, at from 10s. to 12s. per week. — March 27th. CAMBRIDGESHIRE. The weather has been for a long time past of so truly \\'interly a character that all spring so\\'ing has been entirely suspended; indeed, so severe has ]}een the frost that scarcely any land has been ])loughed for nearly two months, consequently tlie time for spring sowing all kinds of corn and grain must be the latest that has ever been remem- bered, however favourable the weather may now prove to commence and finish in, as it must be many days before it will be i)ossible to get upon most descriptions of land, either to harrow or drill 376 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. it, should it continue fine, as, since the frost broke up on Friday last, the quantity of snow ^\'hich has dissolved, combined with the very heavy fall of rain with which we were ■visited on Saturday and Sun- day, has so saturated the land that it will be impossible to to get upon it to advantage. We never remember to have seen such a flood as on Monday last, except when the progress of the Stream has been materially impeded by ice, which was not then the case ; still the heavy rain after the first frost left was a faA'ourable circumstance to assist in settling the ground to the wheat plants where they had been lifted up by the constant suc- cession of frost and thaw, especially upon the poorest hght soils, where exposed to the cutting winds, there being generally but Httle snow to pro- tect the plants on such soils and situations. We have carefully examined many different pieces, and are quite persuaded that at least half the plants are destroyed, and on some pieces even more; and those which are left are very sickly and unhealthy. The greatest deficiency of plant is where the seeds had failed the year previously: we are happy to State, where they have been more sheltered upon the same description of land, they are looking Strong and healthy, and continue a good plant ; the 8an)e may be said upon the stifl^er and better description of soils. Stock of all kinds has done well through the frost where it has been well kept, but which has not been general, far from it ! Keep- ing of all kinds, except corn, has been verj' scarce throughout the \nnter, although during that time the substitutes for the failure of the hay and turnip crops have however not exceeded elevenpence or a shilling a stone of 14lbs., viz., oats and beans ; still many farmers are sufFering their stock to be sold in Uttle more than a half-fat state, whilst others are allowing them to be reduced to the lowest state to v/hich they can be to keep them in existence, and many will have their constitutions so impaired by it that it will be impossible ever to recover them : sheep which are suckling lambs and which are so impoverished v,ill have them stunted and spoiled, and many of the former will lose their wool and die when they ha^^e better keep. We scarcely know whether to pity or blame i)ersons so situated, but must strongly suspect that poverty is the cause of it : they will, however, find out to then- cost, if it is otherwise, that they have been "penny-udse and pound-fooUsh," the general impression being that all fresh things and fat stock will soon command better prices. Nothing appears to raise the piice of wheat J We are infonned that at the last recent contract of the Linton Union, for bread for the next three months is at 4^d. the 4lb. loaf of the finest quahty, and that seventy-seven able-bodied men were in the union house on Wednesday last. This is a frightful state of things ! "NVliat then wU it be, if the new law of settlement should be en- forced ? The able-bodied men spoken of are nearly all sent from three or four parishes, who ha^■e now to support them entirely at their own cost ; what will they do if all the other parishes in the union have to contribute towards their maintenance? They will then certainly discharge more labourers if ivhecit should continue at its present ruinously low price : and the consequences will not stop here, as all the other parishes m the union, which are now making great efforts to employ all their labourers, will then be compelled to adoi)t the same course in self defence; which %vill bring ruin upon the labourers, and still further assist in ruining the tenantry, and dissever the congenial feehng which ought to exist between the labourers and their ena- ployers, as all would then be union men, and forfeit particular claims upon particular masters, as they would be called upon not openly to employ all their labourers who used to belong to their own parishes, but to assist in maintaining them and other paupers throughoxit the union ; this would ultimately bring ruin also upon landlords, many of whom have looked quietly on whilst the late ruinous measures of the present Government have been carried on, against what was then supposed, and what has in reality been the case up to this time, viz., ruin in effect to thousands of occupiers of that soil from which England used to look for its greatness ; we allude to the alteration of the corn bill, the tariff, and the Canadian corn-bill, by which, in conse- quence of a reduction of about twenty per cent, on agricultural produce, it is clearly proved that con- siderably more than all the property and income- tax raised throughout the kingdom has been in reality paid by the occupiers of the land. On.e nineteenth part of the whole consumption of these kingdoms was last year imported into this country from Canada. What xoonderful crops these Canadians must have had, to have spared so much for the mother countr}' ! and how have these crops robbed the English labourers of employment ! Can it be supposed that the three thousand quarters of foreign wheat which paid the 20s. per qr. duty a short time since, would have paid 31s., which is the duty it must have paid imder the late law at the present price of home-gi'own wheat? We are, however, happy to state, that even landlords are beginning to see and feel that all the measures of the present Government are not quite what they could msh ; consequently, a requisition has been signed and forwarded to the High Sheriff to call a meeting of the rate-payers, to determine upon the expediency of petitioning Parliament against the substitutions of unions, instead of parishes, for the purpose of settlement ; the requisition was signed by the Earl of Hard\\acke (the Lord Lieutenant), Baron Godolphin, Henrj' John Adeane, Esq., and other landlords, and many tenant farmers ; and in compliance with the requisition, the High SheriflF, John Bonfoy Rooper, Esq., has appointed Thursday next, the 27th inst., at 12 o'clock at noon, for the meeting to take place at the County Court, in Cambridge, and it is expected to be most nume- rously attended. — March 25. BERKSHIRE. After our third winter, according to the French papers, which, by the bye, make it appear, as do our own private letters, that the season has been much more sno'vvy and severe on the Continent than we have found it on this side the channel : after the late third access of vigorous frost, the weather and the wind changed on the first day of spring, the 20th inst. And here we must solicit THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 377 the attention of our meteorolojjicsil friends to two extraordinar}' phenomena, indicators, perhaps, of the coming agi'icultural period. Every one knows that from the 20th of February to the 20th of March, the frost was of daily occun'ence ; and on several occasions its intensity (10 to 18 degrees of actual frost) was much greater than exi^erience re- traces, although in the year 1814 there were then ten weeks of positive winter subsequent to the 27th of December preceding. On the 20th, the last day of winter so-called, the sun entered the spring sign : it was the most beautiful day of the year, glorious in splendour, without cloud, and with a rising barometer — the mercury having then reached the mark of "set fair.*' Now, as a prognostic, we should have said, that every individual circum- stance gave assurance of continued dry weather, and of a splendid magnificent summer. But, at the very period — that is, about six o'clock of the same evening — a change occurred; and, by the morning of the 21st, the wind was confirmed south- west : soon after, thin clouds formed, and mild weather has since prevailed. Thus, then, we learn, first, that the equinox may not only fix, but occasionally change the character of the weather ; and this is not to be wondered at when we see the sun traversing the central zone of the earth, at which is the great electrized belt or stream, occasioned by the revolution of the earth on its axis. Second, the height of the merciuy, and great pressure of the atmosphere, are thus shown to be very fallible indicators of fine weather ; and, therefore, a good hygrometer and electrometer would be a much surer guide to the agriculturist in his attempt to ascertain the proximate indications of weather. The efl'ects of the late change begin to be already felt and seen on the grass. A week since, all bore the appearance of scorching aridity ; now, we per- ceive a tint of verdure; and if the frost do not leturn, vegetation will proceed with rapidity. The young iv/ieat appears redish and backward, but the plant is looking thick (far too thick) as before the winter : not a sign of loss or destruction is visible in the south-east of the country. Oat- sowing we find is proceeding in ground as fine as ashes, and the land is prepared for barley. Our fanners, we hope, will be in time this year ; for at the corresponding period of 1844, the drought of spring had begun, and baked vast breadths of ploughed land close to us, till the clods became hard as brick clay ; and these were never sid)dued. Now, the severe frosts, followed by the late genial rain, have prej)ared a bed fitted to insure a perfect seed-time : we trust the oi»i)ortunities will be seized in time. Soils differ amazingly. Some of a light, sandy texture, can be tilled in almost any weather ; others, which we see around us, are arbitrary in the ex- treme ; and an oi)])ortunity once lost, but too often terminates in a failure or an imjKJverished " twy- ripe" crop. There were thousands of acres in this condition last season. If we mistake not, the spring will be showery, with splendid interv'als ; and if so, the produce will be great. Wereadof Mr. Bickesand his " no-manure" pro- ject. Facts must decide or repudiate his preten- sions; in the meanwhile, we urge every one to husband every bit and drop of manure — to hoard, and blend with earth, all the hquid and solid human excretions, and purify them by adding quantities of earth. Population increases pro- digiously; and if fecal products be the pabulum of vegetation, then we are in duty bound to return all such products of human and animal digestion and secretion, as a debt due to the bountiful soil, waich is the matrix of fertility, the laboratory wherein the primary sap is compounded. — March 26th. MALT TO FEED CAITLE. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' MAGAZINE. Sir, — In page 175 of John Bull of the 22d inst., I understand the following to be the substance of an important part of Sir James Graham's reply to Mr. Miles, on the subject of agriculture : — " The making of malt, for the purpose of feeding cattle, was at present allowed by the Excise regulations ; and the Chancellor of the Exchequer would afford all additional facihties practicable without the danger of fraud on the revenue." This is entirely new to me, and probably to a large proportion of your readers ; may 1 therefore hope that your able pen, or that of one of your practical correspondents, may clearly and fully explain the means to be adopted in order to accora- phsh this very desirable object. I have long fed both milking and feeding cattle with barley — boiled by steam, until the grain is perfectly soft and the water glutinous — and I be- lieve with considerable advantage ; but if, instead of boiling the barley, I may be allowed to bring into action the saccharine matter and sjnrit by the simple process of malting, I have i-eason to believ that the nutritious effect of the barley will be more than doubled. I am, sir. Your old obUged correspondent, 2.51// March, 1845. Cixcinnatus. [This statement is incorrect. The steeping of barley in water as food for cattle is allowed by an order of the Commissioners of Excise, issued April 2, 1835. This is the only licence given ; and any person who should malt the barley, when steeped, would render himself liable to heavy penalties. — Ed. Far. Mag.] Influenza among Cattle. — The ravages of this pestilence have extended to the neighbourhood of Gainsboro'. A few nights ago, two valuable short-horn beasts, the property of Mr. H. Watson, of Walkeringham, died from the effects of the e]iidemic : one \\'as a fine cow, which, with her calf, was valued at more than 150 guii\eas. Mr. W. is a gentleman of extensive practical knowledge in the management of his latid, and celebrated as a breeder of stock ; and it is expected that at his intended stock-sale next autumn, as much as £3,000 will be realized.— .b7«//(/orf/ Mercury. [This valuable cow might have been insured for a small premium, and the owner would have saved his £150. 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S o • a rt « — ^ — Eri^i ^ ^ c a £ S-l 2 2 saa nnuBn 1^1 CO CO CO (AM |t| lllll 5jx: oe«>(DO 380 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— APRIL. Retrospect. — Since our last there has been nothing but cold — it has proved a bitter season ; so much so that some meteorologists assert that the entire average of February has been at the freezing- point, and from six to eight degrees below that of the same month during a course of twelve years. March also commenced mildly frosty, and to the 14th there has been only one morning of thaw : we have marked 7 to 8 degrees of frost repeatedly, and, on two occasions, 12° {i. e. 20° Fahrenheit). Some snow fell, but nothing in quantity sufficient to protect vegetables — the brassicas have suifered much, and young cabbage plants are looking wretchedh', which in December, cold as it was, were in fine condition. The current was generally fresh from the north east — very keen and parching ; so that there have been few opportunities for open- air operations since the first week of Januar}'. There are examples of rather similar retardations, as in 1813, 1S20, 1837, 1838; but few, indeed, wherein the alternations have been so perplexing. As to rain, if we except the showers of January (which month was mild), there has been no com- pensation whatever for the drought of 1844, and that of the late Februaiy. Prospect. — As we write, the weather is colder, and the -v^dnds more boisterous than we ever recollect them to have been : no rain, and the equinox ap- proaching; on the 20th, at oh. 45m. p. m., the sun in the first .spring sign (Aries), the most important day of the year ; since experience justifies the be- lief that, in nineteen years of twenty, the weather then, and within a day or two before and after it, may be taken as the tj'pe of the next summer. The forcing departments ha^•e been, and are, no sinecures ; heat, constant and unremitting, has been called foi*, and he is fortunate who possesses machinery which can render the temperature equable at every part of the house. An example is before us, where two powerful ranges of M'ater- channels, before described, maintain the water, through a course of above 90 feet, at wonderful equability ; yet the grapes, at one end of the ^'inery near the back wall, evince, by their superior for- wardness, how much they profit from the proximity of the small flue which ascends obliquely from the coke furnace in its passage through about ten feet of the house. Still there is nothing equal to solar light of which, till mthin a short period, we have been lamentably deficient. Light contains all the elements of excitation, and the heat it communicates is not partial. The great art is to guard against its burning power, and, at times, to diffiise and soften it by the timely intervention of ^\•hite screens. He who could render those appliances in texture and colour durable would confer the iitmost benefit on horticulture under-glass. Electricifj/, as one of the primary elements of the solar ray, begins, and only begins, to assume its proper character. We now percei^-e that an im- pression has been made, and, at this moment, a prize of 30 sovereigns is pending, oflTered by the Highland Society of Scotland, for the best practical essay on the subject. This has been suggested by the experiments so candidly announced by Mr. Forster, and to which we shall occasionally refer. We ha\'e ourselves placed an arrangement of wires around a plot of ground which comprises two rows of onions and three of dibbled wheat : and we recommend our curious readers to try the experi- ment, comparatively, on plots of onions, lettuces, early potatoes, and other A-egetables which do not taj) deeply into the earth. All vegetable green jioints are among the first-rate electric conductors ; and, if we can collect a stream of the atmospheric fluid and transfer it into a circuit ivithin the soil, we may confer a decomposing and attractive ener- g)' to the roots of plants, which will induce a cor- responding intercourse with the electrized gases of the air. These, at all events, appear to be princi- ples which have guided Mr. Forster, and led to the constinaction of his electric circuits. The expense is the merest trifle. Vegetable Garden. The month of April is, or ought to be, a period of vigilant activity, especially in a year like the pre- sent, when it is but too probable the greater part of March has been lost by the unjmraUeled severity of the frost. 1st Week. Potatoes. — Seize the first moment to plant all the early and medium varieties. This root does best in an open sandy soil, that has been properly manured in the previous autumn; and then it matters not how soon the sets are in the ground — some before, and others speedily after Lady-day. Two eyes are sufticient, unless it so happen that a May frost should cut the shoots down to the soil ; and this can be guarded against by planting in trenches 6 inches deep, covering the sets first with three inches of soil, and then \rith litter, or lea^^s, or any dry mulch, till the plants sprout ; M'hen remonng the top covering, earth should be brought up to the summits of the shoots, from time to time, as they advance. Bone dust, or acidulated bones, appear to be most con- genial, mixed up ttith all the soil around and above the sets. If potatoes should be blackened by frost, there vnW be no fear of a good yield, provided any eyes or vTital germs remain : they have been retarded, and nothing more, as experience has fully proved. The potato foliage contains nitre, therefore, in lieu of nitrate of soda, a slight sprinkling of salt- petre, powdered, say a pound to the square pole, mLxed vnih. a peck or two of ashes, would be a good top dress after planting, just before a shower, ITie compost called Potter's guano, which com- prises l)one-dust, and azotised salt, and some cre- taceous earth, is certainly a good auxiliaiy, as it is also to brassicas and the onion tribe. Spindle-rooted plants. — Carrot, parsnip, beet, skirrets, should be early so^vn, first opening a trench twelve inches deep, to receiA'e a layer of good dung or road-droppings. These plants ought to seek their food below and in so doing, they would tap right down ; therefore, the earth put into the trench over the dung need not be rich. Cabbage, borecole, true Brussels sprouts, are to be sowm about the second wfek ; and successive THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 381 rows of peas and beans. These vegetables like chalk ; but in garden tillage we would introduce it in the form of powdery fresh-slaked lime, dusted freely over the surface, even of the seedlings. It would destroy every slug it touched, and rain, or even dew, would cany it rapidly or gradually into the earth. Sea-kale is sown very early, in beds deeply pre- pared beforehand. Saline manure, such as gyp- sum mixed ^ith common salt, would be favourable if added to the dung, and placed deep in the beds. In dressing sea-kale in the spring, a sprinkling of common salt, at the rate of an ounce to a plant, with sand, and, if i)rocurable, decayed sea-weed, would benefit the growth of the plants. Lettuces, all the small salads, radislies, spinach, are sown occasionally. Artichoke beds are to be cleared of decaying leaves or stalks, and then forked over, incorporating any tree-leaves, or other mulch that had been laid around the plants duiing winter. If the weather prove genial and the ground moist, the strongest and rooted suckers should be removed, and planted in rows, for succession. Asparagus. — New plots must be deeply enriched, and two years old plants set in single rows, six or eight feet asunder. Fourth week. — Kidney-brans of both sorts, dwarf and runners, are now safely sowed for first crops ; the exposure cannot be too sunny, nor the ground too warm. It is gtated that if the seed be soaked for 24 hours in a weak solution of sulphate of am- monia (that is, 1 part of the salt to 20 parts of cold water, both by weight), the growth and verdure be- come manifestly richer. If so, it would be advis- able, during the early growth of the vegetable, es- pecially in dry weather after a shower, to give each row three gallons of pond water, holding one ounce of sulphate of ammonia in solution. The moist state of tlie land, so wetted by fresh-fallen rain, would cause the equal distrilnition of the sulphate around the fibrous roots. All saline fluids should be so supplied ; and the nde applies to yuano. Mushrooms. — The open meadow ])roduces the finest mushrooms during a warm September, after copious showers. It is not evident then, that the plant aftects exposure to %/// rather than darkness ? Yet all our writers and cultivators have, till within a few weeks, preferred darkness to light. We ob- served a notice on this subject by some one whose name we cannot recall, and now offer to our friends a few paragraphs from the pen of the Rev. Mr. Williamson, \mtten many years ago. He appeared to be a man of close observation ; and if bis sug- gestions lie adopted, the practice of growing tlie mushroom to the test, mushroom in the light tlie prac maybe v erj' speedily l)rought At the usual period (.\i)ril will do well) a melon bed was prepared, and when the strong heat of the dung-l)ed was subsided, the s])awn was placed on the sides of the hills or ridges, and on the surface of the l)ed, then covered witli a fresh comjiact loam in the same manner as if the spawn were not there, and even trodden firm ; as it was found that a bed of this description was more congenial to the mush- room than the light compost of a cucinnber bed. The subsequent treatment of the melon-* was exactly the same as if no spa\vi\ had been present yet it became evident that the spawn extended it- self throughout the warm manure. In September and October, when the melon bine decayed, the bed was cleaned, the glasses put on and ke])t close, and when the mould became dr)', it was frequently — yet moderately— watered ; for a wet soil woidd prove injurious : gentle showers were likewise admitted for the object. Ihat which follows is in Mr. WiUiamson's own words : — " The moisture coming upon the dry earth pro- duces a moderate heat, which soon causes the mush- rooms to appear in e\Qxy part of the bed in such abundance as even to prevent each other's growth. I have frequently, at one time, gathered two bushels from a frame ten feet by six, and individual mush- rooms of nearly two pounds' weight. The mould being kept warm by the glasses, and properly wa- tered, the mushrooms will continue till the frost of ^\^nter pre^•ents their further growth. Should it be thought advisable to have a supply of mushroomg during winter, I am confident (though I have not tried the experiment) that they might be obtained at a trifling expense, by lining the bed with hot dung, and using other preca\itions to keep out the cold air."— -(Abbrev. from " Hort. Trans.," vol. iii.) We need scarcely add that the tank system could be brought to bear'upon the plan suggested. By attending to the directions at p. 282 of the last number, the operations of the forcing and fruit de- partments may be still regulated. "Whatever be the state of the open temperature (for our present severe frost leads us to suspect anything), be it recollected that light increases, and therefore that heat by flues, tanks, or hot-beds must be maintained in proportion. It is full time to plant out the early melons in the first week, and by the end of the second^ to com- mence the excitement of the true West's St. Peter's vine. Water the house floors from time to time, wash the rods with weak soap-suds, and close the lights ; but aj^ply no fires unless the night air be frosty. This is a thoroughly late grape : we want it m December, and therefore all the aid it requires is a soft, growing moisture, within a close house. Give air to all the glass departments, and regulate waterings by the state of the weather and the visible progress of the shoots. Flower Garden. The utmost neatness in all the ornamental com- partments ought to be preserved. The flower-beds, borders, and parterres are now to receive manv of their summer tenants ; therefore the soil should be brought to fine texture by hand-forking and the rake. Sow the annual seeds where the plants are to remain, and cover the seeds with light, good earth. Plants raised in i)ots should be carefully raised, so as to preseiwe some mould about the fibres, and set in tlieir alloted situations. \ Flowers, in masses, make a fine figure ; such are the verbenas and other scmi-liardy plants which are ] continually brought to our gardens. It will not, however, be safe to bed out geraniums and soft- ' wooded shrubs for a month to come, because we j have to recollect the devastation of Maj- frost— a phenomenon of no rare occurrence. Fuchias in 382 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. beds are beautiful, and are to be trimmed of last ] snow lay on the ground at sun-rise. We recall year's wood, quite closehome, so soon as any green [ 1814, when it froze from January 1 to March 25. bud shall appear. Fitchia corymbiflora is a beauti- i Then, as now, the gardens were bare, and the cold ful object in broad borders, backed by evergreens ; continued till June. Still we did well, and so we its tassels of crimson, produced from shrubs eight shall again ; but as few recollect what occurred and ten feet high, are magnificent. ! thirty-one years ago, the public are apt to be March 20. — We close on this day of the vernal ' alarmed, and to consider certain circumstances as equinox ; 7° of frost were registered last night, and : unheard-of phenomena. — March, 20. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF MARCH. The extreme severity of the weather during the greater part of March has thrown back all species of out-door labour, and we have not had so back- ward a spring for some years. Up to the 20th instant the frost was intense, and the night of the 13th was probably the coldest experienced the whole winter, the thermometer having on that occa- sion indicated 20 degrees of frost. Besides the de- lay occasioned by this state of the weather— it ha\-ing been impossible to use the plough during first two-thirds of the month — some vmeasiness has naturally been created respecting the eftects so pro- tracted a winter may have had on the autumn-so\vn wheat. As far as outward appearances go, there is certainly some reason for apprehension on this sub- ject, the biting north-east Minds which haA-e pre- vailed hanng in many districts sadly cut up the blade : we trust, howe\'er, that the root may have escaped, in which case the mischief might speedily be remedied, should the spring prove genial; still, as before remarked, public opinion leans to the supposition that more or less injury has been done, and \rithin the last few weeks less anxiety has been manifested, by parties holding wheat, to realize, than at any previous period. It wiU re- quire a month to set doubt on the matter at rest, as it will be impossible to ascertain, previous to that time, with any degree of accuracy, whether any real harm has been done or not. Con- sidering that the stocks of wheat in the hands of merchants and millers are moderate in all parts of the kingdom, and that the deliveries from the growers have hitherto been on an unusually liberal scale, there is more reason to expect a slight advance on, than a decline from, present rates. The following table of the sales of wheat, made at the towns from which the returns are collected for compiling the averages, from the beginning of September to the close of March, being the seven months succeeding the two last harvests, will att"(jrd useful information on this subject : — 1844. 1843. 94,309 . . 54,682 114,316 .. 69,213 104,511 .. 88,349 110,154 .. 111,007 120,548 .. 138,257 130,968 .. 154,649 143,874 .. 138,815 143,862 .. 120,634 Weeks ending — Sept. 6 }> 13 5> 20 J> 27 Oct. 4 j> 11 j> 18 » 25 Weeks ending — 1844. 1843. Nov. 1 122,078 117,310 ,, 8 120,282 111,949 ,, 15 124,231 110,378 ?5 22 123,655 107,095 )> 29 .. 123,504 108,812 Dec. 6 128,622 109,573 ,, 13 131,862 109,119 J) 20 133.250 110,293 ,, 27 .. 147.166 . 114,850 1845. 1844. Jan. 3 136,897 99,643 >' 10 124,742 94,244 17 .. 125,054 101,759 ,, 24 .. 137,439 ] 07,005 „ 31 130,145 11,042 Feb. 7 .. 131,577 108,578 '5 14 136,670 114,920 ., 21 133,712 103,870 ,, 28 137,516 116,076 ^larch 7 129,956 98,830 ,, 14 146,882 104,694 J' 21 146,827 1 14,290 » 28 151,231 102,032 Totals.. 3,897,440 3,103,580 From this statement, it appears that 733,800 qrs. more have been sold at these places alone, within the seven months terminating the 28th instant, than during the corresponding pei'iod, ending March, 1844 ; and as it is fair to suppose that the increase in the deliveries has been equally great at other places where no oflScial accounts are taken, we are inclined to think that the quantity remaining in the hands of fanners cannot much exceed that usually held at this period, not- withstanding the acknowledged productiveness of the harvest of 1844. We do not wish it to be inferred, from the fore- going observations, that we deem a material rise in the value of wheat probable ; for such is by no means our belief. Tlie existing corn laws must, in our opinion, keep prices low under almost any circumstances ; but from the extraordinaiy severity of the weather the Baltic ports are this spring likely to remain closed to a later period than usual, whilst our own growers must, in the first instance, give their undivided attention to preparing the soil and getting their spring crops soAvn; it is therefore verj' probable that for a limited period THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 383 supplies may fall short of demand, and a temporal") adA'ance take place in the \'alue of A\'heat. When the seeding of the land shall have been completed, tlie time will ha^■e arrived at which something like a judgment of the eft'ects of the frost on the wheat plant may be formed, and according to the aspect it may then wear quotations will either tend upwards or slightly retrograde. Should appearances be considered unfavoural)le, those still having wheat would naturally raise tlieir ]ireten- sions ; indeed the mere jiossibility of injury having been sustained l)y the frost has already had this effect, and tlie value of the article advanced about the middle of the month Is. to •2s. i)er qr. at all the principal markets of the kingdom. Whilst prices of wheat have lieen monng upwards, those of most other species of grain ha\-e l)een gradually reced- ing ; this may at first sight appear inconsistent, as there can be no doubt that the yield of spring corn and pulse, taken as a whole, was short all over the kingdom last harv-est, whilst that of wheat was as unquestionaldy al)undant. The deficiency of the barley crop is now, however, admitted to have been more or less exaggerated, and as about a million of quarters of foreign were imported during the sum- mer and autumn, whilst consumjjtion was con- tracted in consequence of the comparatively high prices of this article, it is not surprising that when it was found that the maltsters and distillers had provided for their wants l)y imi)orting largely from abroad, a retrograde movement should have oc- curred. Within the last month httle actual varia- tion has taken place in quotations of this grain, and we are induced to think that the lowest point has been touched, and are more inclined to expect a slight rise than any further fall in prices. In many of the i)rincipal barley-jjroducing counties very good malting samples have latterly been selling at 32s. to 33s. per qr., being at least 5s. to 6s. per qr. below the rates current some few months ago. The duty on this grain is now Gs. per qr., hanng risen a step on the 13th March; for some weeks to come it will prol)ably remain sta- tionary, and there is not the slightest prosj)ect of its again receding for a lengthened period. The purchases made abroad on British account, during the Avinter months (mostly at high prices), will therefore, in all jirobability, ])rove anything ])ut profitable to the buyers, and the imports will he much less extensi\e than they would have ])een under more encouraging circumstances. The rather important fall which has occurred in the vnhxe of Oats since our last is difficult to account for. In no part of England have the de- liveries from the growers ])een large ; indeed far- mers seem in most instances to have ])roduced very little more of tins corn than what they have, in consequence of the protracted winter, required for their owti consum})tion : still prices have receded. In looking for the cause of this somewhat unusual state of things, we are dis- posed to think that pxd)lic o})inion has over- rated the probable importation of foreign oats. The effect of this has Ijeen to occasion tlic Scotch and Irish growers to manifest an anxiety to be first in the field ; and what with actual receipts at the different Enghsh markets from Scotland and i Ireland, and forward contracts to ship further quantities, prices have been reduced Is. to 2s. per quarter in most parts of the United Kingdom. Whether any rally is to take place, will de{)end on the future su])plies from Ireland ; and as our ad- vices from thence admit that rather important shipments were still being made daily, we are not sanguine of an)' immediate or material improvement. The quantity of oats bought abroad, on British account, is variously estimated, and the truth is not very easily arrived at. As already remarked, we are inclined to believe that erroneous estimates have l)een circulated ; and with a view of correct- ing mistakes, we have been at some pains to col- lect information on the subject. From what we have been enabled to learn, we are disposed to think that, independent of the usual annual con- tracts entered into for Riga and Archangel oats, about 200,000 to 300,000 quarters have been bought in Holland, Hamburg, and the near Baltic ports ; besides which quantity, we may probably receive a few consignments ; the total import is not likely, therefore, to be very considerable. From present appearances, there is little chance of a lower duty than (5s. per quarter ; and as nearly the whole of the purchases on the other side have been made at high rates, loss will attend the speculation. In (piotations of beans scarcely any alteration has taken place within the last month or two, the supply demand of the article having about kept pace with each other. At many of the ship- ping ports on the east coast, ver)- handsome sam- ples may at present be bought at 35s. per quarter, a price which is likely to be maintained. Of foreign there have been no im})ortations, beyond a few cargoes from Alexandria, arrived at some of the outports ; nor are we hkely to receive many from the Baltic during the summer, the article being scarce and dear at most of the continental ports. Egyptian Beans have been selling at Li- pool, duty paid, at 32s. to 33s. per 480 lbs., whilst at Birmingham, where the consumption of this article is large, 14s. to lOs. per 196 lbs. has been obtained. Notwithstanding the extreme severity of the frost, and the consequent increased demand for boiling ])eas, the vnhie. of this article has remained nearly stationaiy at all the leading markets of tlie kingdom. Latterly, really fine qualities of white, as well as grey and maple peas, have met some at- tention for seed ; but the inquiiy has not been sufficiently acti\-e to enal)le sellers to realize en- hanced terms. Since the breaking up of the frost, we liave not had a great deal of rain ; and excepting the heavy clay lands, which have scarcely yet be- come sufficiently dry to admit of ploughing being carried on successfully, a fair exent of work has Ijeen done in other descrijjtions of soil. So anxious are farmers to get in their Lenten crojis, that each hour of favourable weather is taken advantage of; biU all oiU-door occupations are, nevertheless, decidetlly in ar- rears, and the S])ring must be considered as ^•ery backward in ever)' respect. Let us hojje that a genial summer may comj)ensate for this disad- vantage ; and we have the more reason for so 384 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, doing, as past experience has proved that a back- ward spring is often succeeded by very favourable weather in this chmate ; indeed it has become pro- verbial that a long Avinter is the forerunner of a fruitful year. The same influences which have caused the demand for Wheat to improve in other parts of the kingdom, have also been in operation at Mark- Lane ; and though there has been nothing like ex- citementjthe tradeassumed for a time a tone of firm- ness, to which it had previously been long a stranger. The arrivals of wheat coastmse into London have been smaller this than the preceding month ; the supplies from Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk having at length, in some measure, fallen off. L'ntil Monday, the I7th, business re- mained in a decidedly dull state ; and, even then, the improvement in the demand was not sufficient to enable factors to do more than establish an advance of Is. per qr. on the best-conditioned qualities. They were in no small degree assisted in realizing this enhancement by the imjirovement wi'ought in the condition of the wheat ; the drying east wnds, which had for some time previously prcA'ailed, having had the effect of materially hardening and Otherwise improving the samples. The subsecpient change to a damp atmosphere has, consequently, tended to check the upward movement; and on Monday last, wdth a small show by land-carriage from Essex, Kent, and Suffolk, and not much from more remote counties, business again relapsed into an inactive state ; and at the close of the month, prices at Mark-Lane have again receded to about the same point at which they stood in the com- mencement of March. The top quotation of red Essex and Kent wheat, in the metropolitan market, cannot at present be estimated higher than 48s. to 493. ', and the best runs of white have lately been selling at about 54s. per pr. At one period there was some disposition to buy the better descriptions of free foreign wheat rather freely, but the inclina- tion to make speculative purchases was not of long continuance, the auspicious change in the weather, which occurred on the 21st inst., having been im- mediately followed by a falling off in the inquiry. As regards quotations, very little if any change has occurred since our last ; a shade more may at one time have been obtained for superior parcels of Danzig and Rostock, but the rise was not of sufficient importance to require particular notice. Small quantities have been released weekly out of bond at the existing rate of duty, and the stocks of free in granaiy have therefore decreased but slowly ; still they are very circumscribed — a circumstance which has prevented holders losing confidence. Beyond the trifling purchases made with a view of entering for home consumption, nothing of interest has transpired in lock wheat on the spot; but offers free on board at continental ports have met with some attention. Several cargoes, to be shipped at Danzig at first open water, have been contracted for, at what we consider high rates ; as much as 33s. per qr. free on board having, we believe, in one instance been paid for fine high mixed, the produce of 1842; whilst the finest Pomeranean, to be shipped at Rostock, has in many instances commanded 26s. per qr. It is perfectly true that the parties paying these terms are running some risk ; but a very small rise on oui- present prices would enable importers to reaUze a profit, after paying all expenses and the 20s. duty ; proving, if any proof were necessary, that the maximum protection affoi'ded to the British grower under the present laws is by far too low. The slight advance which occurred in the value of English wheat, about the middle of the month, induced the London millers to endeavour to put up the nominal top price of flour from 44s. to 47s. per sack, and during the s])ace of nearly a week quo- tations -were unsettled ; subsequently the effort was abandoned, and the only effect it has produced has been that of enabling sellers of country flour to realize Is. to 2s. per sack more for their best marks; Norfolk households, which were at one pei-iod sold as low as 31s. per sack in the river, having recently brought 32s. to 33s. The facili- ties afforded by the railways for transporting goods from different points to the metropolis have intro- duced a new feature in the flour trade, scarcely a week now passing without our receiAang supplies from some of the midland and eastern counties by this mode of conveyance. The additional competi- tion which this has given rise to, may be regarded as highly advantageous to the consumer, but has been seriously felt by the large London millers. We have had no receipts of flour from abroad since our last, and there is now but little remaining in warehouse, either free or bonded, of last summer's importation from the United States and Canada; holders of the little left on hand have, therefore, displayed great firmness. Though the arrivals of barley into London have fallen off materially, this grain has in no degree recovered from the previous depression, the large quantity of foreign stiU in the market having inter- fered most injuriously Avith the sale of that of home growth. The former being mostly of secondary and ordinary quality, reaUy fine malting samples have been less affected than the common nms ; but even on the former it has been impossible to estab- hsh any adi^ance, the very highest price realized having in no instance exceeded 35s., whilst very good parcels have been freely offered at 32s. and 33s. per qr. Independent of the quantity still left in the hands of distillers and merchants, a further im- portation (though perhaps not on a very extensive scale) must be expected so soon as the navigation of the Ellje and other continental rivers shall have been set free from ice. This prospect has unquestionably had some influence on business, by inducing buyers to confine their operations to a narrow compass ; our own opinion is, however, that prices of this article cannot well fall below their present le^'el, as in many parts of the kingdom the farmers have already delivered all they had to spare. ^riie variation which has taken place in the value of malt has been so extremely trifling as scarcely to require notice. In the early part of the month, there were symptoms of a slight improvement in the demand, Avithout, however, leading to much actual business ; and latterly, the inquirj' for the article has again become very slow. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 385 With English oats we have been sparingly sup- plied, but having had hberal arrivals from Scotland in the early jiart, and abundant receipts of Irisli towards the close of the month, the sup])Ues of this grain have more than kept })ace Mith the wants of the dealers. Without any very important dechne, the tendency of prices has been decidedly down- wards ; and at the time we are writinjr, good English and Scotch feed oats are procurable at Mark-lane at 22s. to 23s., and Irish at 21s. to 22s., being at least Is. per quarter lower than the rates current at this period last month. The jirincipal dealers expect to see prices still lower, and with this view they have, during the last week or two, confined their operations to as narrow a compass as has been consistent with their immediate wants ; and should they continue to ptirsue the same course, they may probably succeed, when the lay days of some of the vessels shall have expired, in buying at less money, as factors will most likely prefer giving way a trifle to incurring landing ex- penses. We have heard of no free on board sales of foreign oats since our last, and the position of affairs is certainly not very encouraging to enter into this species of investment. Prices in the Baltic vary from lis. to 12s. per quarter; add to this freight, insurance, and 6s. duty, and it wiW be seen that there is not much chance of a profitable result. The value of English beans has remained very nearly stationaiy at Mark-lane throughout the montn, the fluctuation having barely amoimted to Is. per quarter. A rise to that extent was in partial instances reahzed on the 10th inst., but it has since been again lost. In foreign beans the transactions have been confined to a few retail sales of Egyptian at the old price, viz., 33s. to 34s. per quarter, duty paid. The rise of Is. per quarter in the duty on this article has naturally diminished the desire to buy bonded, and we have heard of no speculative purchases, either on the spotor of parcels to arrive. Xotwithstandmg the unusual severity of the weather, and the protracted nature of winter, peas have not risen in value ; on the contrary, con- siderable difficulty has been experienced in rea- lizing former rates for even the best English boilers ; and though the stocks of free foreign are by no means large at this port, whilst no arrivals from abroad arc expected, luiyers have generally managed to have the turn in their favour ; 36s. has become an extreme quotation for white peas, though warranted to break well, and latterly grey and maple have been selling at 32s. to 34s. per quarter, according to quality. In noticing the position of the corn trade abroad, the subject requiring the first attention is im- doubtediy the weather. So intense has been the frost over the whole of Northern Europe, that far advanced as the s])ring now is, all the principal rivers and harbours were still frozen up in the middle of March, and the finnness and thickness of the ice would, it was thought, ])revent the na^i- gation re-opening for several weeks. On the continent, as in this countiy, uneasiness appears to be felt in regard to the future wheat crop, it being considered more than probable that the vitality of a portion of the seed in the ground may have been destroyed by the extraordinarily low temperature. Partly on this account, and partly in consequence of a reported deficiency in the pro- duce of 1844 in Poland and some districts in Germany, wheat has, considering the little en- couragement held out by the advices from Great Britain, maintained its ))revious position with won- derful firmness, and so far from any decline having taken j)lace, prices have rather tended upwards at some of the principal ports. Letters from Danzig, of the 18th March, state that for really fine quali- ties of higli-mixed wheat, the growth of 1842, weighing aI)out 62lbs. per bushel, 33s. per qr. free on board had been demanded, and at that high jjrice several parcels had, it seems, changed hands on si)eculation. Comparatively little had been bought on English account, the business having been chiefly of a speculative and local character. The ordinary sorts of high-mixed weighing 60lba. per bushel had reaUzed equal to 27s. to 28s. per qr., and low descriptions of 57lbs. to oSlbs. weight 2os. per qr. Stocks had neither increased nor accumulated, being then estimated in round numbers at 450,000 qrs. To give some idea of the intensity of the frost in that neighbourhood, it is only necessary to mention that on the night of the 15th of March the thermometer fell one degree below zero — a depression almost unprecedented at so advanced a i)eriod of the year. From Memel, Konigsberg, and that neighbour- hood, v'ery deplorable accounts continue to be received in regard to the distress prevaiUng among the poorer classes, in consequence of the scarcity of provisions. A letter from the first-named place, dated 13tli March, states that the government had deemed it right to interfere, with a view of relieving the wants pressing heavily on a large portion of the people ; but even with this assistance much misery })revailed. Of grain there were scarcely any stocks at that port, and at Konigsberg the quantity of corn in warehouse is also represented as extremely small. Accounts from Stettin, of the 17th March, state that considerable apprehension was felt there as to the future, for though the ground had been covered during the greater part of the winter M'ith snow, it was feared that the autumn-sown crops had been injured : this convic- tion, and the receipts of a few Enghsh orders, had imparted a lively tone to business, and several con- tracts for wheat had been closed at equal to 26s. per qr. for good 61 to 62lbs. quality. From Rostock we have also letters of recent dates. There, as at most of the other places in the Baltic, the value of wheat had been firmly main- tained, and it was thouglit that the slightest encou- ragement from England would have the etYect of advancing jn-ices several shilUngs jier qr. At Hamburg, a fair extent of business appears to have been done in Wheat, orders having been re- ceived there from Holland and Belgium : the best qualities of red had realized equal to 31s., and very good samples from 27s. to 28s. 6d. per qr. free on l)oard. Scarcely any business appears to have been done 3S6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in barley during the month at those ports u'here this article had previously excited so much atten- tion. At Rostock and Stettin prices had become almost nominal, and at about 18s. to 19s. per qr. there would have been no difficulty in securing good samples of 50 to 52lbs. \veight per bushel. At Hamburg the article had also been neglected; and superior Saale — a quaUty not disliked by our maltsters — had been selhng slowly at 23s. 6d. per qr. free on board at first open water. In Holland, Belgium, and some parts of France, the winter has been nearly as severe as in Germany and Russia ; and a letter from Dunkirk states that farmers were buying spring wheat to resow the land, under the impression that the seed committed to the soil in the autumn had been destroyed by the frost. From the south of Em'ope the advices are wholly without interest, scarcely a sale having, it would appear, been made of wheat for export to Great Britain at any of the leading ports in the Mediter- ranean, At Odessa the value of the article has re- ceded to a trifling extent since the commencement of the year, and a further decline was exjiected, un- less orders were speedily received. The last sale reported was 1,600 chets. fine yellow Polish wheat, weighing 6 libs, per bushel, at IQs. per qr. free on on board. Freight to London was then nominally 7s. 9d., but shipments had not yet commenced. From the other side of the Atlantic we have ac- counts of recent dates. In the markets of the United States the value of flour had, it seems, re- mained stationary ; and at Montreal business had not commenced, nor was it expected that anything would be done there for export until the inland na\'igation had been set free from ice. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. March Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red Old, red .48 Rye, old Babluy, Griudiiig, 2" 30 Miilliiii; Irish Malt, Suffolk and Xoriolk Kingston and Ware Oats, Yorksh. & Liiioolnsliire, feed YouEiliall and Cork, black.. Dublin Waterford, white 20 Newry Galway 1 9 Scotch, feed ... Clonmel Londonderry Beans, Tick, new Peas, Grey White Seed, Rape 27/. 28?. Linseed, Baltic..30 38 Mustard, wliite 12 1.5 Flour, Town-made 42 Suffolk Stockton and Xorfolk 32 22 21 23 23 93 36 3i; 3.j Irish . . Odessa White 46 50 Do 52 New. ... S6 Chevalier 3') Bere ... 29 Browni . . 0(1 Chevalier 05 Potato.. 23 Cork,white2I Westport 21 Black .. 20 Potato . . 23 L)merick22 23 Sligo .... 21 Old, small 38 Maple . . 35 Boilers.. 30 22<. Q6t. per last, 43 brown 10 li per bush. 32 34 per sk. of 280 lbs. 34 Irish 34 3G IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Weekending I Wheat. Barley.: Oats, i Rye. Beans.. Peas. I'eb. 8th 4o 5 35 0 21 0 RO 1 35 8 35 7 15t,h 45 4 32 3 21 7 2S) R 35 0 85 0 22nd 45 •f 82 4 21 7 30 2 85 0 35 3 March 1st 45 0 32 3 21 7 32 fi 34 9 35 7 8th 45 0 32 2 21 7 30 5 34 8 35 5 15th 45 1 82 2 21 4 SI 1 34 7 35 8 Aijffre^ftte averaj^^e of reg-ulates the duty. 45 2 3i 4 21 6 30 8 34 10 35 5 D'ltirs pavable in London till Wed- nraday next inclu- sive, imd at tbe Out- ports till the arrival of the mail of that day from Lond.iu . . 20 0 6 0 t) 0 10 a 8 ii 7 6 Do. oa grain from British posst'Ssions out of Europe .. . 4 0 0 (i 2 0 I 6 2 0 2 0 PRICES OF SEEDS. March 24. English Cloverseed, red, 50s. to 58s., extra, 60s. to 663. ; white, 65s. to 66s., extra, up to 70s.; Foreign, red, 458. to 558., extra, 60s.; white, 55s. to 65s., exira, 78s. per cwt. Linseed, English, sowing 52 58 Baltic — — crushing 40 Linseed Cakes, English.. 11?. Os.to lU. 5< So 3, for suljihate of soda, lliis theory has also been fully extended by Professor Graham, who has taught us the true position of water and bases in inorganic salts, and has termed sulphuric acid, sulphate of water, just as green vitriol is termed sulphate of the oxide of iron. The first is So 3 ^ H 0 ; the second, So 3 ^ Fe 0 ; the iron in one takes the place of the hydrogen in the other. But this subject is not one hkely to be of much prac- tical use at j)resent. ITie substitution of the al- kahes is of more interest. An idea prevails among us that Liebig is a farming chemist only, that liis greatest pleasure is to see beautiful fields manured in a chemical man- ner, and growing wheat and turnips according to the exact metliods which he has laid down. In this we are mistaken : Professor Liebig is a philosopher, or, according to the German expression, a searcher of nature; and the great experience which many years devoted to organic chemistry had given him in the modes of operation of such bodies, whilst it peculiarly fitted him for investigating agricultural and physiological subjects naturally also led him into them. At the earlier part of this century the laws of combination were developed. The chief workers in this field are still living, numerous com- pounds were formed and obtained formed in nature ; but inorganic chemistry was chicfiy studied, and the most highly organised substances were treated in the same manner as compounds of sulphuric acid and iron, or any other mineral substance. Boyle, or rather the chemists of his time, analysed a piece of green wood by putting it up the chimney, when it burnt, and they perceived four elements — fire, air, earth, and water — which we are ajjt to say were combined by a vital vegetable principle ; one of these facts is as near the truth as the other, for facts we may call them, as, however unperfectly expressed, they fall within the borders of received truth. If we analyse organic compounds, and obtain from them instead of fire a ceitain amount of specific heat ; instead of air, a certain amount of nitrogen ; and, instead of earth and water, a certain amount of phosphates, sihcates, oxygen, and hy- drogen : we express the true compositions of the body more accurately than the friends of Boyle, but we are no wiser as to the laws of growth and decay, no nearer to the principles which vitality employs to exhibit its various appearances ; because, \-itahty itself has ceased prior to the \'iew which we have obtained of the elements employed in its sen'ice. If, however, having collected these facts, having obtained a knowledge of the complex organic com- pounds which are used for the phenomena of life, we begin to observe their action towards each other, we have ascended into a region as far above the fonuer, as the comphcated machinery of kingdoms, such as England, France, or Germany, is above the simple relations of unsocial, independent, and walled villages of earlier times. The physiology of plants and animals is then a step in advance of the usually termed organic chemistry, and when we are taught the parts albumen or sugar play in the system, we have more knowledge and more power than when we can merely tell their composition. It is well known that this field has received from Professor Liebig the first cultivation — that the first regular crop was so\vn and reaped by his hands. It is vain for us to say that others before him saw as far ; it is not unfrequently the case, that the end is seen long before any of the intermediate stations. Absolute certainty often arrives before clear rea- soning, and it is often hard for us to prove the mostunquestional)letruths. It is from this cause that many discoveries have been claimed for men, who named them only, but could not prosecute them, that the dark hints given in ancient volumes have seemed to some men to indicate a superior know- ledge to our days, that a metai)hysical enquirer has ])een honoured as the discoverer of tlie atomic theory, although ignorant of chemical combination ; and Eg)-ptians l)een made tlie discoverers of the laws of acoustics, because they had an image which emitted sounds, by laws which we have not yet learned to ])Ut in motion. Davy said, " The laws of mind are probably not far different from the laws of corpuscular motion, every change in our sensations must be accom- panied by a corresjionding change in the organic motion of the body." D D 2 390 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. This he said when but a youth, and it is a -veiy good instance of the mode in which immense series of discoveries are often anticipated by speculative men. It not only may be said to include what has been discovered, but grasps at much that we may safely expect some day to be known. It anticipates the time when the action of our feelings on the system shall be perfectly known, and almost leaves as an insignificant thing the action of the food, of the air, and of exercise. To teach us how to find some of this knowledge, and to give us the first fruits, has been the task of Professor Liebig ; and already has the ^\'hole of this country, with many others, arisen unanimously, to express by the most energetic action the lively impression of truth, which the principles taught by him have made upon them. The farmer no longer supposes that barren land can become fertile by dipping the seed to be sown in a solution of a salt, and the physician no' longer expects that he can feed a child, without disastrous consequences, on mere starch, or arrow- root. 'Hie fact is now established, that land without the elements of fertilitj', must have them given to it, before it can be fertile ; and that to form nerve or muscle in the body, food containing their elements must l)e taken. If it be said that to the study of physiology a knowledge of the composition of organic bodies was an important i)reparation, it may also be added that a knowledge of the elementary' composition of bodies was much more readily obtained by the facilities of analysis introduced by Liebig. Many persons may have seen attached to one of his best portraits, which was lithographed at Frankfort five years ago, a small crooked looking apparatus on one side of him, in which five globes with white spots on them are the principal things seen : this is the potash apparatus ; a series of bulbs in which caustic potash is put to coUect the carbonic acid passing from the decomposing or- ganic matter undergoing analysis. It is scarcely right to connect his name in such a marked manner, with an invention so much inferior to his many other labours, but that also speaks a truth not to be forgotten easily, and makes us believe that the gratitude of one who had laboured ^vith little profit at less elegant ai)paratus had otiered this to him, although on an unlucky part of the sacred niche. As a life spent like that of Professor Liebig can oflfer little for the -writer, unless what is either directly or indirectly connected with science, it will 1)6 better for us to look over that which he has done, and to give the true reasons of the great name he has acquired. The chemical section of the British Association desired him to prepare a report on the state of organic chemistry. If we look at the work which re- sulted, well known under the title of " Chemistry in its apj)lications to Agriculture and Physiology," -sve jierceive, that in considering the state of organic che- mistry, and collecting the information on the various bi anches it includes, he was led to generalize ; and by embracing many phenomena as he did in a few simple ideas, he has gi^'en us a resting jdace hitherto imforseen; and although the vanguard only may have arrived in cpiarters, and room lie not feady for every arrival, it is no more than we must always expect, as another march must sooner or later be made. " He has endeavoured to develops in a manner corresponding to the present state of science, the fimdamental principles of chemistry in general, and the laws of organic chemistry in par- ticular, in their applications to agriculture and phy- siology, to the causes of fermentation, decay, and putrefaction, to the vinous and acetous fermenta- tions, and to nitrification. llie conversion of woody fibre into wood and mineral coal, the nature of poisons, contagions, and miasmas, and the causes of their action on the living organism, have been elucidated in their chemical relations." This is somewhat more than the association expected of him, an analysis of the existing theories and facts would have satisfied them. It may be useful to repeat some of the more striking parts of it : — Plants are formed of carbon, hydrogen, pxj^gen, and nitrogen, phos])horus, sulphur, and several m.etallic oxides, such as those that occur in soil. Carbon and hydrogen are never absent from plants, they are found in every portion of the plant, and increase together; oxygen is present almost as generally, and constitutes a large ]iortion of the fibre of wood, and of the nutritive portion of the plant. The oxygen contained in Avoody fibre, sugar, gum, and starch, that is in the much larger portion of the vegetable world, is in the same pro- portion to the hydrogen contained, as in water ; that is to say, if we take the hydrogen and oxygen from them, the compound obtained will be simply water, and carbon will be left; they may then be said to be compounds of carbon with water, although there are many objections to viewing them in this light. Nitrogen is a constituent of all gluten, albumen, and casein, substances essential to our food ; along Avith it sulphur and phos- l)horous are always found, and several metallic oxides, such as lime, magnesia, iron oxide, soda, and potash, are never absent. Whence do all these substances come, may now be asked ? First, the carbon : it was long supposed to be given to the plant by means of humus ; humic acid, or ulmic acid, a known matter to be seen in mould, and to be obtained in large quantities from decayed woods, and other vegetable matter. Rich mould was gene- rally seen to contain a great deal of this; and it was supposed that the plants imbibed it merely, and digested it ; that this could not possibly be the case, is shown from its almost insolubility in water. Humus has been analysed by various persons ; none, howe\-er, have come to certain results ; the differences amount to as much as twenty per cent, of carbon ; but they all agree in giA'ing it a large portion. We can form it artificially in various ways; that is, by various decompositions of organic matter, by treating woody fibre with alkalies, or sugar and starch with acids. It is organic matter apjiroaching an inorganic state, and in which we may consider vegetable life to be entirely extinct. Vegetables, when they die, undergo decomjjosition; by means of the oxygen of the air they are gra- dually burnt, the carbon unites wnih the oxygen, the hydrogen and oxygen assume the usual form in which they exist, imcombined with carbon, viz. water ; and as this takes place, the remaining masg THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. / o- approaches more and more an iinorjianizcd char- coal merely. Such a condition is highly favourable to its further imion with oxygen, the bond which held it together, its vegetable life, being now gone, it naturally returns to the state in which only it can be useful to other plants, viz., carbonic acid. It is a destruction of our analogies to sup])ose that a vegetable can live on the decayed matter of ano- ther; the true position of the plant seems to be to form from the mineral world organized matter. (ilauljer, an old chemist, if not alchemist, of the seventeenth century, was the first to observe that j)lants fed on any of the gases or earths. It is remarkable that no one has attended to his disco- veries ; he placed a plant in a jar of carbonic acid gas, and found, after a time, that the gas had be- come oxygen. It is right that in mentioning the works of the present day, we should not forget the labours of the past. The time will come when two centuries will be a distance too small to be regarded, and (ilaul)er, Saussxu'e, and Liebig will be men- tioned more as co-workers, than as a series of workers. I'he same chemist also taught the value of several mineral salts in growing plants. But after the composition of carbonic acid was known, Saussure, -Davy, and others, have shown that car- bonic acid is converted by plants into oxygen gas, a sufficient ])roof that they have formed their struc- ture from it. Saussure showed that the ujjper strata of the air contained more carbonic acid than the lower, a fact, the contrary of which is generally believed ; also, that by night there is more carbonic acid in the atmosphere than by day. Now, plants in the absence of hght, are incapable of converting the carbon of carbonic acid to their own use, or at least in very small quantities, so that what they do absorb, or have obsorbed, is given out at night unchanged. Of the sources of oxygen and hydro- gen in ])lants, not much need be said here. The fact of the decomi)osition of water, in order to ob- tain a suri)lus of hydrogen for certain compounds, such as the oily, resinous, &c., seems beyond doubt, and the presence of oxygen in the ]dant, can be accounted for in several ways. The assimilation of both of these substances jiresents phenomena very instructive ; but that of nitrogen being somewhat more so, and having given rise to the most original theories and extensive discussion, may with advan- tage be looked to for a moment. It is well known that Davy considered ammonia as of great import- ance in manures, and proposed ])lans for preserv- ing it ; but having given him his due, and not forgetting our friend Glauber, who saw this thing as clearly as any man could, unacquainted with modern analysis, we must now give the rest of the ])raise to Professor Liebig, who showed that it is the inorganic state into which azotised organic matter enters to render it capable of a second or- ganization ; and that whilst nature uses the atmos- ])here as a reservoir of the decomposed, she likewise uses it as a reservoir of food fushels of oats and a hen, and by working for the lord from Michaelmas to Lammas Day. every other day except Saturday, viz., at mowing, as long as that season lasted, for which he was to have as much grass as he could carry away with his scythe, and at the end of hay harvest he and the rest of his fel- low mowers were to have the lord's best mutton, except one, or sLxteen-pence in money, with the best cheese, save one, or sixpence in money, and the cheese vat full of salt. From Lammas to Michael- mas he was to work two days in the week, and that he should come to his lord's reaping, with all his household, except his wife and his shepherd, and cut down one land of corn ; and in case the lord kept his Christmas at his manor of lirayles, lic should find three of his horses meat for three nights ; that he should carry 2 i loads of the lord's hay, and 7 loads of stone for three days, and gather nuts for tliree days ; that he should plough thrice a year also for the lord six selions (lands or stitches), and make three quarters of malt, and ])ay for every hog he kept above a year old id., and for every one under a year old id. ; and, lastly, that he, and the rest of the tenants of the manor, should give 12 marks yearly to the lord at Michaelmas, by way of aid, and not marry their daughters, nor make their sons priests, without license from the lord (Blount, p. 21). Thomas Engaine held lands in Pythdey in Northam])tonshirc. Ity the tenure of finding certain dogs for the destniction of wolves, foxes, cats, and other \ermin. Lands in (>)omb, in Surrey, were held on condition of gathering wool, for the <|ueen, amongs tthorns and l)riars. As judge Lyttleton remarks, sec. 119, vassals by soccage paid, originallv, the actual service of tlie l)lough, in lieu of any other rent, and that from hence they got tlie name of soccomen. But after- wards, it appears that they came to pay a certain rent, in corn and cattle. According to Sir Henry Spelman (Tenures, cap, /"), the word farm, or feome, which in his time (a.d. 1640), was some- times used to signify rent, signified, anciently, com and cattle ; and Gervas of Till)ury relates, that he had seen, in the reign of Henry 1 (a.u. 1117), several of the king's vassals dridng their rent of corn and cattle to the king's court, but that the same prince going aljroad, and having occasion for money, sent jieople through the kingdom to value tlie rents, and that in each earldom a vicarius was placed to bring those rents, converted into money, into the exchequer. The alteration made by this prince was made by a great many other superiors, who not residing on their estates, as superiors had done in the severe ages of the feudal system, were glad to exchange the original duty of military ser\-ice for the sen'ice of agriculture ; and that afterwards for the payment of corn and cattle ; and that at last for a stated sum of money, {Dalrymple's Tenures, 27). {To be continued.) EFFECT OF DIFFERENT MANURES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SWEDISH TURNIP. [From the Journal of the Hif/liland and Af/ricultural Society of Scotland J It is a fact, in regard to which little doubt can now be entertained, that the chemical composition of a crop depends, among other causes, in a consi- derable degree upon the kind of soil on which it is grown and the kind of manure by which its growth has been promoted. Many experiments in the field, however, and many careful analyses in the labora- tory are required before we can exactly understand and appreciate the kind and extent of the influence which soil and manure respectively exercise. It is of much consequence to practical agriculture that sucli experiments and analyses should be extensively made and recorded. Ivirly in the past year, (1S44,) two samples of Swedish turnips, grown by the aid respectively of farm-yard dung and of guano, were transmitted to me from Lennox-love for analysis, at the request of Lord Blantyre, with the view chiefly of ascertain- ing how far the proportions of sugar and other organic ingredients difiered in the too. The in- quiry l>eing one of general and scientific interest, as well as of immediate importance in regard to the value of this protracted crop, I caused my assistant, Mr. Fromberg, to submit the turnips to a more detailed examination than would otherwise have been considered necessary. Tlic two tiu"nii)S examined were large, and nearly of equal size ; but wliether they were of equal degrees of ripeness or maturity, 1 had no means of ascertaining. They were grown upon the same soil, and difl'ered only in the one being manured wholly M'ith farm-yard dung, the other wholly witli guano. (1.) — Of the Org .\ NIC Part. I*'. Per-centage of Water. — In both tm-nips the quantity of water present was very nearly the same 398 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. — the loss of the dung turnips by drying being 88, and of the guano turnips 87.9 per cent. In both, therefore, every ten tons contained about one ton of dry food ; and this is very nearly the average quantity present in most of our sohd yellow turnips. 2°. Quantity of Oil or Fat. — The quantity of fatty matter contained in turnips and other similar roots is known to be comparatively small. By some writers, as by Boussingault, it is said to be so small as to contribute scarcely in any degree to the increase of fat uj^on animals which are fed with them. And as every skilful and economical fat- tener of stock gives chopped straw, hay, bran, or some other dry food along with turnips, potatoes, or mangel-Avurzel — which straw and hay contain often a very considerable per-centage of oily matter — these writers ascribe the origin of the fat acquired by the animals to this dry food they have con- sumed along with the turnips. The pubhcation of such o])inions is valuable, whei-e it leads to experi- ments for the purpose of clearly making out what the truth really is ; for on whiche\-er side the truth may be found to lie, it must obviously be of much econo- mical value to the practical man that it should be ascertained. The two turnips under examination gave per cent, of oil in their recent and in their dry states res- pectively— Dung Turnips. Guano Turnips. Undried. Dried Undried. Dried. 0.25 2.09 O.lG 1.26 That is to say, every 100 lbs. of fresh dung turnips contain 4 ounces, and of the guano turnips 2§ ounces of fat. The former, therefore, are capable of sup- plying much more fat to the animal fed upon them than the latter. And if the quantity of fat contained in the increase of an animal during fatten- ing be taken at one-sixth of the whole live weight, than 100 lbs. of the dung turnips would supply fat enough to lay on 1^ lbs. of live weight, while the same weight of the guano turnips woxdd add to the living weight only lib. — or one-third less. The practical man will understand the value of this difference in the constitution of the two tur- nips, if he recollects that a heavy ox put up to fatten will consume nearly 200lbs. (14 stones) of turnips in a day, and, consequently, may o1)tain from the one variety as much oily matter as wiU lay on 8 ounces of fat — sufficient for 3 lbs. of hve weight per day — while from his daily ration of the other, he A\'ill obtain only b\ ounces, which wiU lay on only 2 lbs. of live weight. These differences not only throw light upon the relative values of the tu-o turnips under considera- tion, but shew also one source of the discrepancies which exist among the A^arious results which have from time to time been pubbshed in regard to the quantity of turnips consumed by cattle of different kinds and ages, and the very different proportions of beef or mutton into which they can be con- verted.* It is of comparatively little use indeed to make experiments upon the feeding properties of turnips, unless the different samples employed be prcAaously subjected to a rigorous chemical analysis. * For some of these, see Stephens's Book of the Farm, vol. ii., p. 122. I have already alluded to the opinions of Bous-> singaidt and Dumas, that potatoes, mangel-^\a^rsel, and carrots only fatten in so far as they are con- joined with straw, grain, bran, or oilcake, in which fatty matter is present. They have made no pub- lished experiments upon turnips, but they are in- clined tp regard all roots as very much alike in this i-espect. Experiments upon ])otatoes have been made in this laboratorj', to which I shall ad\'ert on a subsequent occasion. At present it is sufficient to observe that the quantity of fatty matter found in these turnips does not permit the opinion of the French chemists to be apjjlied to them, lliose raised by dung contain fat enough to supply as much as is necessary for laying on 3 lbs. of live weight a day, ^-ery much more than is usually acquired by fattening cattle. Although, therefore, an ox may fatten quicker when, in addition to tur- nips, other food fitted to quahfy their watery and opening nature, or, like oil-cake, actually containing more fatty matter, is given long with them, we must, nevertheless, allow to the turnips their fair share of fattening property, and ascribe to their constituents a portion of the fat contained in the Hesh of the animals we feed upon them. Other turnips also may be richer in oil, even than these dung turnips, and thus may be more valuable to the stock fanner. It is very desirable, therefore, that numerous other carefully-made determinations of this ingredient should be made in turnij^s of dif- ferent kinds, grown upon different soils, and by the aid of different means, in order that their theoretical and practical value as futteners may be more fully ascertained. 3'='. Quantity of Sugar and Gum. — Tire two vari- eties differ remarkably in the proportions of sugar and gum they respectively contain. Thus there were found per cent, in each — Dung Turnips. Guano Turnips. Undried. Dried. Undried. Dried Gum 0.27 2.27 0.19 1.57 Sugar 5.37 44.82 1.64 13.59 Sum 5.64 47.09 1.83 15.16 AVhateA'er may be the immediate value of the gum and sugar, therefore, or the purpose they serve in the feeding of animals, it is obvious that the guano turnip is much less rich in these ingredients, and would by many be pronounced to be much less nourishing as food for cattle. And for this opinion there would, indeed, be very strong grounds, were it not that the turnip contains certain other sub- stances not present in grain or straw, or even in potatoes, which may serve the same purpose in the economy of the animal as the gum and sugar do, and may thus supply their place. These sub- stances are known at present by the names of the Pectic and the Meta-pectic acids. They exist in the turnip, the carrot, and the beet, and in the apple, the plum, and nearly all similar fruits. 4°. Pectic and Meta-pectic Acids. — Under these names I have included the several substances ex- tracted by a solution of carbonate of soda from the rasped and well washed substance (mark) of the turnip. These two substances also exist in the two turnips in very different proportions. The per- centage of each was as foUows : — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Dung Turnips. 399 Guano Turnips. Undried. Dried. Undried. Dried. Pectic acid, and a little albumen Meta-pectic acid .... 1.24 3.00 10.35 35.04 0.71 6.77 5.88 Sfi.DO Sum 4.24 5.64 45.39 47.09 7.48 1.83 61.97 Add the sugar and gum . . 15.16 Total sum . . 9.88 92.48 9.31 7r. 13 The difference between 9.S and 9.3, the total sum of all these substances contained in the \mdried turnips, is only one-half of a i)er cent., or half a pound in the hundred jiounds, in favour of the dung tiu-nips. If, therefore, the pectic and meta- pectic acids serve the same purpose in the animal economy as the sugar and gum do, the relative values of the two turnips, in respect of these con- stituents, is very nearly the same. The mere determination of the sugar and gum in a turnip also gives little satisfactory information in regard to their real feeding values. I shall take a future o])portu- nity of explaining in what way all these suljstances act in the animal economy, and, as they have a slight difference in economic value, what is the na- ture and extent of tliat difference. 5°. Alhiimen. — The albuminous substances are those which serve to lay on muscle. By an over- sight, the albumen in these analyses was not sejia- rated from the jjectic acid. It is, however, very small in quantity, tliough the i)roportion varies very much in different turnips, and it would ha\'e been interesting to know what proportion these turnips contained respectively. In other turnips, now un- der examination, it has been found to vary between one-fourth and three-fourths of a pound in a hundred j)ounds of the fresh root. The exact re- sults will be given in a future paper. In the comjjosition of the organic part there i.s little else that recpiires special explanation. I shall here, therefore, apjjcnd the ta])ular result of the en- tire analysis of this part of the turnij) : — Dung Undried. Guano Undried. Dung Dried. Guano Dried. Water Oil Gum Sugar Pectic acid and albumen Meta-])ectic acid (?) Cellular or woody filire Sahnc matter ana ash . 88.02 0.25 0.27 5.37 1.24 3.00 1.22 0.68 87.93 0.16 0.19 1.64 0.71 6.77 1.81 0.70 2.09 2.27 44.82 10.35 25.04 10.18 5.68 1.26 1.57 13.59 5.88 56.09 15.00 5.80 100,05 99.91 100.43 90.19 (2.) — Of the Inorganic Part. [ \° . Proportion of Saline Matter. — The ])ropor- ! tion of ash left by both turnips was very nearly the | same, l)eing about seven-tenths of a pound from each himdred ])ounds of the fresh root, or 5ilbs. from loolljs. of the dry. The exact iunnl)ers are . given in the al)ove table. The ej)idermis, or skin, ' in its recent state, left as much as 2 jier cent, of ash. ^ 2". Soluble Matter in the Ash. — The tpiantity of soluble matter contained in the ash was very nearly the same in both. Thus of 100 j)arts of the ash, j water dissoh'ed — i From the Dung Turnips. . .. 69.8 percent. ! (lUano do 68.72 ('onsiderablc differences, however, were observed in the jiroporticm of soluble matter in the ash of different parts of the same tiu'nip, u])on which I do not insist at present. They will form the subject of future research. :V'. ('(imposition of the Ash. — Hut themost striking j differences were found in the relative i)roportions of i tlie more valuable constituents of the ash. It is un- ' necessary to insert the entire analysis, which might only ])erplex many readers, since the j)roportions of tlie following ingredients sufficiently show the most im]K)rtant differences : — Dung. Guano. Chloride of potassiiun . . . 9.72 6.45 Potash and soda 45.49 36.29 Magnesia 1.23 0.30 Lime 10.17 11.56 Sulphuric acid 17.86 16.86 Pliosphoric acid 7.73 19.39 'J'lie most striking differences in the above num- bers— which have l)een o1)taincd ])y my assistant, Mr. Fromberg — are op])osite to the i)otas]i and soda and tlie pliosphoric acid. The former are in larger projiortion in the dung turnips, the latter in the guano turnips. The former difference is less in quantity, and is, jierhajjs. also of less consefpience ; the latter is coin|)aratively great, and refers tt) a sul)stance wliicli is confessedly of great imi)ortance in tlie feeding of animals. Witliout ])hosphoric acid llie bodies of animals could not be formed, and their lives cotUd not be 400 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sustained. Eveiy hundred pounds of the flesh of annuals contain about one-third of a pound, while fresh bones contain al)out one-fourth of their whole weight of this phosphoric acid. It is, therefore, a very interesting circumstance that one of these tur- nips should contain so much more of this impor- tant substance than the other, and one which can- not fail to affect their respective values in the feed- ing of stock. The difference in the quantity of phosphoric acid is one for which we can readily account by the larger proportion of this substance M'hich is con- tained in the guano than in fai'm-yard manure. The roots have consequently absorbed it in lai'ger quan- tity, and deposited it in the ])ulbs in greater abun- dance. The present state of our knowledge entitles us to expect that the manvu'e should exercise some influence of this kind upon the composition of the inorganic matter taken up by our cultivated crops ; but I confess I am not prepared, from this one ex- ample, to infer that differences so great as the pre- sent are likely to be the unifoi-m result of the use of unhke mamu-es. It is of great consequence, I think, that this research should be continued, and that, by repeated analyses, the truth should be sa- tisfactorily ascertained. We can also readily point out the kind of stock to which turnips, containing these different propor- tions of the phosphoric acid, may be most econo- mically given. Growing animals, which are in- creasing their weight of bone, require more phos- phoric acid than those in which the bones are al- ready fully formed. The dung turnips, therefore, by theory, should be more profitably given to full- grown and fattening stock, the guano turnips to young animals which are still grooving. I may here introduce the result of the only other analytical examination which has yet been ])ul>- lished of the effect of guano upon the nature of the ash of plants manured by it, though it has reference to a plant which is of no vakie in an economical point of \ne\v. Vogel selected two plants of FuscMa fidgens in a garden, planted them in pots in two portions of the same soil, and manured the one wth guano, while he added nothing to the other. At the end of the season he took both plants, dried and burned them, and analyzed the ash. His results were as fol- low:— a. ITie manured plant lost by dr>'ing 86 J per cent, of water, the unmanured only 81 per cent. That is, the former, from having grown more ra- ]ndly, was more vascular, and had not made so much wood in proportion to its bulk. b. llie diy manured plant left 6.2 per cent, of ash, while the imraanured left 7.5 per cent. Vogel considers this difference to be of some importance. I do not think, however, that any stress is to be laid upon it, for reasons which I shall have an op- portunity of stating hereafter. c. Of the ash from the manured plant, however, 4l| per cent, was soluble in water; from the un- manured, only 22 per cent. This soluble part con- sisted of common salt, sulphate of potash, and the carbonates of potash and soda. This was a very striking difference, and showed that the saline matter of the guano had been taken up in consi- derable quantity by the manured plant, no doubt to the promotion of its gro^vth. d. On the other hand, the insoluble carbonates of hme and magnesia were present in the following proportions in the ash : — Manm-ed. Unmanured. Carbonate of lime .... 25.4 40.2 Carbonate of magnesia 27.1 23.7 The proportions of phosphoric acid in the two were almost identical. It will he recollected, how- ever, that it is in the seed, and not in the stem of a plant, that this acid exists in large proportion. This experiment of Vogel, therefore, merely shows j that ])lants in general, when manured wth guano, take up and retain a larger proportion of saline matter; but it throws no further light upon the question how far plants which are cultivated for food — seeds and roots especially — are likely to ap- propriate a larger proportion of the phosphates when they are more largely applied to their roots in the form of manure. J. OF THE RELATIVE FEEDING PROPER- TIES OF THE ABOVE SWEDISH TUR- NIPS, GROWN BY MEANS OF FARM- YARD DUNG AND OF GUANO. " The following experiment was undertaken at Lennox-love, by Mr. William Goodlet, xmder the directions of Lord Blantyre, with a A-iew to test the feeding qualities of Swedish turnips grown with farm-3'ard manure, as compared with those grown with guano. From the turnips being long stored, and other substances used in the feeding of the cattle, the experiment may not of itself be held sufficient to establish the fact to which its results would seem to point ; but these are, nevertheless, very interesting, and such as to render a farther in- vestigation of the subject desirable. " The cattle were of the Angus breed, three-year- olds, part of a lot bought in at the September Falkirk Tryst last year (1843). After a month's grass, they were put into a feeding-court on full turnips, besides an allowance of SHbs. of oil-cake each beast per day. On the 22nd Januaiy they were divided into two equal lots, weighed, and put into separate courts. For six weeks both lots were fed on turnips grown with half dung half guano, and their usual allowance of oil-cake. At the ex- })iry of that period they were again weighed, and lot 1 put on turnii)s grown with guano, and lot 2 on turnips grov/n vnih farm-yard dung. Along with their turnips they received the usual allowance of oil-cake, and on the 18th March a like weight of bean-meal in seeds was also given, and continued throughout the experiment. In this respect both lots were treated exactly alike. " The turnips were lifted from the field in the beginning of December, and stored in pits covered with straw in the usual way. Those ymwn with dung did not keep so well as those grown loith guano; many of the former being spoiled and throAvn aside, while the latter were generally sound and well preserved to the last. The produce of each is given in a table below. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 401 " The following table exhibits the lioe weight of the cattle at the periods mentioned : — Weight Weight We ght 22nd January. 6th March. 19th April. Lot 1. Lot 2. Lot 1. Lot 2. Lot 1. Lot 2. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1206 1375 1288 1493 1296 1546 1306 1190 1395 1251 1400 1283 1043 1214 1079 1252 1182 1 1298 1157 1102 1249 1171 1328 • 1313 1272 1115 1312 1143 1342 1212 59S4 5996 6323 ' 6310 6548 6652 ''Throughout the experiment, lot 1 ate rather more turnips than lot 2 ; the former having con- sumed, during the first period of six weeks, at the rate of 110 lbs. each beast ]ier day, and during the second ])eriod of six weeks at the rate of 105 lbs. each beast per day ; while the latter lot, during the same period, consumed only at the rate of loO lbs. and 95 lbs. each beast i)cr day, respectively. During the first period, therefore, lot 1 consumed 10.803 tons of turni])s, and increased in weight 339 lbs., or for each ton about Mh lbs. ; and lot 2 consumed 9.820 tons, and increased in weight 314 ll)s., or for each ton 31 J lbs. Again, during the second period, lot 1 consumed 10.312 tons of turnips, and increased in weight 225 lbs., or for each ton about 2lf lbs.; and lot 2 consumed 9.330 tons, and increased in weight 342 lbs. or for each ton about 36^ lbs. j " For easier comparison, these results are given ' in a tabidar form thus — During Frist Period. During Second Period. Lot 1. Lot 2. Lot 1. Lot 2. 10.803 tons. 339 lbs. 31i lbs. 9.120 tons. 314 lbs. 31| lbs. 10.312 tons. 225 lbs. 21 J lbs. 9.330 tons. Increase of live weight 342 lbs. Increase of do. for eachton of turnips consumed 36^ lbs. " It hence appears that, during the first period of six weeks, when both lots were fed on the same description of turnips, (namely, those grouni ^^■ith dung and guano,) they increased in almost the same ratio ; but during the second period, when No, 1 was put on turnips grown with guano, and No. 2 on turnips gro\^'n with dung, the latter gained over the former in weight 117 lbs., or, if the quantities of the turnii)s consumed be taken into the calcula- tion, the gain is in the proportion of 36 A to 21:}. " The turnips used in the above experiment were from the same seed, sown the same day, and grown in adjoining plots of the same field. The produce, with the quantities and cost of manures, is given in the following table, to which are appended columns showing the value of the crops, calculated accord- ing to their feeding qualities as ascertained by the above experiment. Manures. Quantity i)er imperial Acre. Cost. Appear- ance of Turnips. Produce of Bulbs. Increased live ^A'eight of Cattle for each Ton of Turnips con- sumed. Value of Crop, (exclu- sive of the Dung made from it in FeerUng,) estimating increased live ^\'eight of Cattle at 3d. per lb. Guano 6h cwt. 24 cart loads. 16 cwt. 12 carts. 1 3} cwt. J £. s. d. 4 4 6 5 5 0 4 0 0 4 16 3 Coarse. Fine. Fine. Fine. tons. 17.500 17.142 16.830 14.907 lbs. 2U 36 i 3lJ f. s. d. 4 15 6 Dune 7 16 5 Rape-Dust Guano and dung . . 5 18 10 " Tliis table exhibits guano in no very favourable light; but it would be rash, from a single cx])eri- ment, to conclude that its qualities as a manure have been over-estimated. In this experiment it is pos- sible that some undetected element of error may have cre])t in to aft'ect the results. From other substances having been used in the feeding of the cattle, ///(' pnssilnliljj of their tliririnrj bcttei' at one period of the experiment than (it another, and from other circumstances which need not be eniunerated, it is by no means imjjrobable that the results ob- tained may be fallacious. They are such, however, as deser\'e the attention of practical agriculturists, involving, as they do, a ])oint of so much im- portance with reference to the value of guano as a manure, and oufrUt to induce some of their num- ber to repeat the experiment, in order to determine, by a comparison of sevenil trials, whether the feed- ing qualities of turnij)s grown udth that manure are really so inferior to those growni w'\i\\ dung as the present experiment would seem to indicate." W. GOODLET. Grunt's Braes, \Oth May, 1844. Remarks. — This experiment of Mr. Goodlet's is remarkably well made and clearly described. The rcsidt is very striking; but I quite aj^ree with Mr. Goodlet that the result of a single experiment is not sufficient to settle a question of so grave and economical a character. It is, however, sufficient to stimulate to further in(juir)', and 1 hope will be the means of inducing many to make similarly ac- curate experiments upon the feeding properties of the jiroduce they raise. Such experiments are desirable, not only because they are likely to lead to immediate economical results, but because of their connexion with uaosl imporlant theoretical 402 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. questions, the true decision of which can only be arrived at by munerous and carefully reported prac- tical inquiries of this kind. I have been favoured with a practical obsen'a- tion by Mr. Campljell, of Craigie, Ayrshire, in reference to the value of guano turnips, which appears to me to be of great importance. He says — " I M'as considerably alarmed when I compared your analysis ^^^th the fact that both my cattle and my sheep had come to a stand still when fed iipon one lot of my guano-grown turnips. I have, how- ever, got quit of my fears for the use of guano as a turnip-gro^^ing manure, by further inquiry, which has satisfied me that the cause of the difference in my case is in the different state of growth of the two lots grown by dung and by guano. My guano turnips (.Swedes) which \^'ere first used were sowti early, and grew ver}' rapidly, being on fine land, and were string)', and did not feed well ; while those grown with guano on bad land, and just used (May, 1S44), after coming to their bulk, did not grow in the stem, as the others had done, and fed ivell. None of my neighbours (in Ayrshire) had any fault to find ^^^th their guano turnips." There can be little doubt, I think, from this re- mark of Mr. Campbell's, that the period of ma- turity at which two lots of turnips have respec- tively arri^'ed, materially affects their value in adding weight to the stock that may be fed upon them. Mr. Aitchison, of Drummore, near Musselburgh, whose practical skill and zeal in agricultural im- provement are so well known, informs me that not only has guano gi^'en him this season the largest I crop of turnips he ever saw, but that the turnips themselves are causing his cattle to thrive in a very remarkable manner. Though these observations tend to remove the apprehensions M'hich might naturally be entertained by feeders of stock in consequence of the result of Mr. Goodlet's ex])eriment, and to prevent the value of guano as a manure from sinking in general esti- mation, that experiment is still of great interest and importance. Those who have the opportunity during the ]n-esent winter, wll confer a benefit upon the agricultural community by carefully re- l)eating these ex])eriments, with turnips of different kinds, and at difiFerent stages of their growth. Such experiments are also to be desired mtli turnips raised by other portable manures as well as with guano. Mr. Mylne, of Bolton, near Had- dington, who has long been in the habit of using rape-dust very extensively for his turnip crop, informs me that he is satisfied such turnips do not feed so well as those raised by dung. How valu- able would precise experiments be ! Before concluding, I would draw the attention of the reader to a physiological fact of some interest, which may be extracted from Mr. Goodlet's results. Each of his lots contained five beasts, and he has in his calculations taken into account only the general increase of each lot at the end of each period. His first table, however, enables us to determine the increase of weight of each beast at the end of each period, and the comparison of the numbers thus obtained is very curious. Thus, taking the two sets of beasts in the order he has represented them, we have the increase in pounds : During First Period, During Second Period. Total Increase. Lot 1, Lot 2, Lot. 1. Lot. 2. Lot 1. Lot 2. Half Dung and Half Guano. Guano. Dung. 82 89 36 92 40 lis 61 38 69 28 8 .5 103 79 30 53 32 46 142 69 90 94 139 171 70 171 93 84 211 97 338 314 125 342 564 656 This table shows remarkable diff"erences in the rate and time of growth of the several beasts. Thus, the first two in lot 1 did little else than ma- nufacture dung during the second period, Avhen fed upon the guano turnips, while the third beast in that lot increased three times as much upon the guano turnips as it had done upon those grown with half dung and half guano. Then of the second lot the first beast grew amazingly upon the half guano turnips, but fell off" in its ■gro^\'lh very much when put upon the dung turnips, while No. 4, in the same lot, added 142 lbs. to its weight v.'hile fed upon these turnips. These differences are the result of age, constitution, health, previous feeding, and perhaps also of the quantity of food taken by each during the experiment. To make a fair experiment, therefore, it is not enough that the animals shovdd be nearly of the same weight ; they should be also as nearly as possible of the same habit of body, in the same state of health, of the same age and stage of gro\vth, and have been, for a length of time, subjected to nearly similar treat- ment; or, when these things cannot be obtained, a larger number of beasts must be put up together, so that, from diflferences of all kinds existing among them, an average result may be obtained which shall approximate to the truth. The greater the number, the less the risk of erroneous conclu- sions. Could the quantity of food consumed by each animal in the several lots be also determined, it would throw much new light ujion this imi)ortant subject of inquiry. THE FAUMEU'S MAGAZINE. 403 CHEMISTRY FOR FARMERS. BY JOHN SI'KOULE. AUTHOR Of A " TREATISE ON AGRICULTl KE," AND OF PRIZE ESSAYS ON " FLAX," " MANURES," &C. &e. H. General Puoperties am> Arrangement OF Matter. It is not necessary further to enter into the apiiHcation of chemistry to afrriculture, or the numerous other arts of civihzcd Hfe. As its es- ])ecial oliject is the iUustration of the pro])erties of matter, tliere are few hranches of art to which it is not ca])al)le of cxtcnchnfr its aid. It exj)lains the mutual coml)inations of the elementary or simj)le substances of which all matter is comjjosed, and inquires into the laws which affect and the jiowers which preside over their union. It examines the ])roportions in which they combine, and the modes of se])aratin{if them when combined; and, further, it endeavours to apply such knowledge to the ex- planation of the natural phenomena which every- where surroimd us. It may also be observed, that as an art chemistry has made very considera- ble progress. The methods of separating the constituents of l)odies from each other, aiul of de- termining tlieir proi)erties, lun-e been in\-estigated wath very great success ; l)ut as a science it is still in Its infancy, ^■ery little being kno\\'n of the laws which regulate the comliinations and separations of siin])le substances. The numerous forms of matter \\\\h. which we are surrounded, in whatever state they exist — whe- ther forming the solid matter of the globe which we inhabit, forming our own bodies or those of the numerous animal and vegetal)le forms in ex- istence, the air which we breathe, or the waters which cover such a considerable portion of the earth — are conveniently divided into two great groups or classes of organic and inorganic matters. This classification is founded on laws api)arent to everj' one. Under the term oryanic matter are included all such substances as either form or have formed part of a li\ing structure, ^\•hetller animal or vegetable, and, ])eing composed of A'cssels or organs, are said to be organized, and liencc the origin of the term by which this class of sid)Btances is distinguished. Many organic substances, it must however be observed, do not show any visible signs of their organization as denoted by the jire- sencc of organs, such as starch, sugar, and many other animal and vegetable compoimds ; l)ut this is owing to certain mechanical or chemical changes which they have been made to undergo sid)se(pient to their sejjaration from the structiu'c of which they originally formed a i)art. Being j)roduced in the first place by the agency of living organs, the term organic is afterwards projierly ai)j)lied, what- ever may be the form which they are aftenvards made to assume. There is in general little di/Ticulty in distinguish- ing these classes of substances from each other. Organic matters, of whatever kind, are all easily decomposed or destroyed l)y a moderately high temperature— a characteristic of itself usually suf- ficient to distinguish them from the dead or iii- orgmiic matters of the globe. If wood or straw be heated in air, it sjieedily becomes charred, burns, and is soon in a great measure dissijiated or de- stroyed. So sugar, starch, gum, or tlcsh, treated in like manner, darken in colour, and, by a con- tinuance of heat, at last take fire, and are consumed. The same holds good of all animal and vegetal )le substances. The bones of animals seem an ex- ception to this law, ])reserving their form even \yhcn subjected to a very high temperature ; but it is to be observed that the solid jjart of bones is com- ])osed of inorganic matters, and it is these which resist the action of fire, the organic ])art being soon dissii)ated and driven off. Most organic substances after combustion leave a small residuum or ash l)ehind; but this is also of inorganic origin. Sugar, starch, and gum leave no such ash behind, and in them, accordingly, no inorganic remains are found to exist. Another distinguishing property of organic sub- stances is, that artificial means are necessarj' for their preservation when deprived of the influence of the vital principle. All animal and vegetable forms, acted on by natural causes, are ra])idly sub- jected to decomjiosition and decay ;. and, therefore, it is only by artificial means that they can be pre- served. The conditions imder which this decom- ))osition actively takes place are exjjosure to the atmospliere, and subjection to the action of moistiu-e and to a certain degree of heat ; and any of them being withdrawn, the power of decomjiosition is at once retarded. By the agency of this process such substances eventually altogether disapi)ear. Inorganic substances are not, however, subject to its influence. The hardest rocks may and indeed do crumble into powder, and their jiarticles become washed away by rains ; but they never putrefy or wholly disappear, existing then merely in a more minute state of division. Organic are further distinguished from inorganic matters in tlie important i)articular that they cannot be formed by art. Many of the inorganic compoimds existing in nature are formed with facility in the laboratory of the chemist, by the comliination merely of the elements of which they are found, by analysis, to consist. They may, when thus formed, exist in a difl'erent state of division ; but still they will be identical in com])osition, and jiossessed of similar properties in every other res])ect. But in regard to organic substances, whether of animal or vegetable origin, the chemist is perfectly unable to form the most simi)le substance by any combi- nation of its elements ; being not less at faidt with those ajiparently simple sul)stanccs in whicli all vi- sible trace of organization is lost, than witli tlie most highly organized forms in nature. Analysis easily indicates the elementary substances forming woody or muscular fibre, sugar or starch, with (iu; l)recise projmrtions in which each exists ; but by no means yet discovered can these sid)stances agiiin be formed by a coud)inati()n of the elements of which they are com|)osed. Science, indeed, pos- sesses a certain degree of power to transform one of these substances into another. — lly a simple process starch can be transformed into sugar, and the same holds good with some other substances j 404 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Init this is diflerent from forming either starch or sugar ])y a junction of their comjK)nent elements. In considering the jiroperties of matter, an im- portant characteristic to bear in mind as ap])licable to it, in whatever form it may exist, is its absolute indestructibility, no power within the reach of man being able to destroy a single particle. "Water may be boiled until it wholly disappears ; organic sub- stances, as already stated, may be dissipated, so that nothing, or, at most, only a small quantity of ash, shall remain ; by femientation, the quality and characters of such matters may further be so greatly changed as not in any sensible degree to re- semble the original substances whence they were produced, being perhaps not less changed in ap- pearance than diminished in quantity ; but in all these cases it is necessarj'- to obsene that it is the form only of the respective substances which has been destroyed : the ])articles composing them have entered into new combinations,but not a single particle has been annihilated or lost. In the fer- mentation of manures, the quantity is found gra- dually to dimJnish vmtil the })rocess is completed ; but by attentive observation it vnll be perceived that, while this decrease in bulk is taking place, certain gaseous matters are evolved and dissipated in the atmosphere, the quantity of which exactly corresponds with the subsidence in the heap by which its abstraction is accom])anied. In the burning of coal, the black matter which disappears unites \nth one of the ingredients of the atmos- phere, and becomes a clear, transparent, and colourless gas ; but by certain chemical operations it can be shown that the gas contains those par- ticles which were solid and ])lack in the coal — in fact, that in this gaseous state they merely exist in a dift'erent form. In like manner, coal gas, from which such a brilliant light is obtained, contains in the colourless and invisiltle state a number of the particles which v/ere solid and black in the coal, and these can be recovered from the gas by similar processes. This apparent loss or destruc- tion of matter arises from the particles assuming a fonn in which they cannot be detected by the eye, and flying away at the same time from the spot in which the change was effected. Dried or- ganic matters are sohd, coloured, and opacjue ; but in burning, they disappear by becoming aerial, transparent, and colourless, mixing as an invisible gas with the surrounding air. It is, however, a fallacy to suppose that in consequence of such changes a single atom is ever annihilated or lost. A large proportion of the matters by which we are surrounded is constantly in a state of change, un- dergoing new forms, and entering into new states of combination necessary for the maintenance of animal and vegetable life. Not a motion of our own bodies can take place without such changes being effected. In the process of respiration one of the ingredients of the atmosphere is disengaged from the other, and enters into combination with an ingredient previously existing in the system, but then to be given off, the compound thus formed (carbonic acid gas^, being exhaled. These are cu- rious and interesting phenomena, the investigation of which shall occupy our attention in a subsequent part of these papers. The term simple or elementury substance, as dis- tinguished from compound substances, has been used; and it is necessary, before proceeding further, that its signification should be explained. The distinction of organic and inoryunic is in fact not more important than that of simple and compound, as a])plied to e\'er}' variety of existing matter. Though the numerous bodies existing in nature are exceedingly diversified in their forms and i)roper- ties, they are all resoh'able into a comi)aratively small number of elementary ingredients. Under the term elementarij or simple substance, we in- clude all those bodies which have hitherto resisted decomposition or resolution into simple forms of matter : thus the well-known metal lead is con- sidered to be an element, being, so far as we know, a simple substance. We cannot extract from it any substance different from itself. We cannot transform it into any matter different from lead, except by adding some different kind of matter to it. Red lead, the well-known pigment so exten- sively used in the arts, is, however, a compound substance, consisting of two simple bodies, each when separated very different from itself. These are lead and oxygen, either of which can be ex- tracted from the pigment ; and it can, in fact, again be formed by the combination of these elementary ingredients. In the same manner, iron is a simple substance ; but the rust fonned on iron, when acted on by a damp atmosphere, is a compound, again formed of two substances, iron and oxygen ; and either iron or oxygen can be separated from the rust thus formed, as in the fonner case. The number of these elementary substances, as at present established, is fifty-five ; though it may be presumed that some of them will still be found to be compound substances, as the knowledge of the means of investigating their natures advances ; they are rather, therefore, to be regarded as un- decomi)osed than as absolutely undecomposable. Science may indeed yet show that the number of elementary substances existing in nature is much smaller than is at present supposed. It may not be uninteresting to the general reader to append a list of these substances. Potassium Rhodium Selenium Silicium Silver Sodium Strontium Sulphur Tellurium Thorium Tin Titanium Tungsten Vanadium Uraniiun Yttrium Zinc Zirconimn. It is not a little remarkable to consider that all the varied fonns of which the earth is composed, Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Hydrogen Iodine Iridium Barium Iron Bismuth Lantanum Boron Lead Bromine Lithium Cadmium Calcium Carbon Cerium Chlorine Magnesium Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Chromium Cobalt Nitrogen Osmium Columbium Copper Fluorine Glucinum Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Gold THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 406 or which are displayed on its surface, are formed of either one or more of the elementary substances above enumerated ; but it is still more surprising to find that only four of these — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen — enter into the composition of all organic substances, whether of animal or vegetable origin. The consideration of the i)ro- perties of them is therefore of peculiar importance in acquiring a knowledge of the phenomena of ve- getable life, as well as that of animal nutrition. As the space devoted to the subject of chemistry in such a Magazine as this must necessarily be limited, a more cursory sketch of these elementary substances must be given than would otherwise be desiral)le. All notice of many of them must in- deed, therefore, be omitted ; and of those recpiiring notice, the space devoted to a consideration of their projjerties shall altogether depend on their imj)or- tance in the animal and vegetable economy. Before entering on this subject, it will be well, however, to convey to the reader a general idea of the ])rincii)lcs on which the nomenclature of the science is found- ed, as this Anil enable him to surmount many dif- ficulties in understanding the meaning of terms which occasionally must occur in the following papers on the subject. III. Ox Chemical Nomenclature. The names of the elementary substances already given are not formed according to any system, though a uniformity of termination has in many cases been given to them. Some are named from a leading property, as chlorine, from its colour being derived from a Greek word signifying green, and o.xygen from a word in the same language signify- ing sour, in consideration of its acidifying pro- perties ; some retain the names they previously had and still have in common language, as most of the metals ; and some are named from some im- portant compound of which they form an ingredient. Tlie names tipj)lied to com])ounds are, however, formed according to a uniform plan, and are con- stituted so as to express two circumstances ; — 1. the ingredients which the compound contains ; and 2, the class or kind of body to which it belongs. This latter circumstance shows how important it is to possess a correct knowledge of chemical nomenclature. It may be further observed that chemical nomenclature is so devised as to exjjress not only the ingredients of a compound, but also the jjrecise proportions of each. Oxygen, chlorine, iodine, bromine, and fluorine, form certain compounds AA-ith metals and inflam- mable substances not acid, which are called oxides, chlorides, iodides, &c. ; thus, oxide of iron, iodide of potassium. The combination of the inflamma- ble elementary substances with tlie metals and with each other is indicated by the termination uref, as sulphuret of antimony, a combination of antimony and sulphur; carburet of iron, or steel, a well- known sul)stance composed of carbon and iron. 'ITic proportion of oxygen in the oxides is further known by the use of a jireflx ; thus protoxide, dev- toxide, tritoxidc ; for tiie first, second, and third stages in which oxidation is foimd to exist, the highest degree of oxidation being termed a per- oxide, The proportion between the metalUc sub- stance and the oxygen may be as two of the former to one of the latter, in \Ahich case the term sub- oxide is employed. It may be further remarked that the same distinctive nomenclature is appUed to iodides, chlorides, &c. The acid compounds of oxygen are denoted by the termination ic being added to their bases, thus sii/phuric, carbonic, and nitric acids are formed respectively of suli)hur, carbon, and nitrogen, in combination with, oxygen. The relative quantity of oxygen, when the same substance can form dirt'erent acid compounds with that element, is indicated by changing ic into ous j that containing the largest quantity of oxygen terminating in ic, and the other in ous. Thus there are sulphuric and sidphurous acids, and nitric and nitrous acids ; the former of each containing the largest quantity of oxygen. Occasionally more than two compounds are formed in this manner, when a more comi)licated nomenclature must be employed. The prefix hypo indicates a still smaller quantity of oxygen than that of the compound before which it is placed, as hiipo-nitrous acid, containing even less oxygen than the nitrous acid itself. The jirefix per or hyper de- notes a still larger quantity of oxygen than the acid before which it is placed, as hyper-chloric, hyper- iodic, which contains more oxygen than chloric and iodic acids. There are other combinations than those already alluded to, to which the term salts is usually ap- plied. Carbonate of lime, for exami)le, is a ternary compoimd, consisting of carbonic acid and lime, each of these svibstanccs themselves being binary compounds. This class of substances is composed of some acid in union with a base, as it is termed, and this base is the oxide of some metal : thus, the salts of iron, the salts of lime. In naming these bodies, the termination ic of the acid is changed into ate, and the termination ous into itej and the compound, or salt, is termed the nitrate or nitrite, according as the acid jiroducing it was the nitric or nitrous. Nitrate of potassa, for exam])le, or saltpetre as it is commonly called, is composed of nitric acid and potassa in certain given proj>or- tions ; the suli)hate of iron or copjieras is composed of sul])huric acid and iron similarly constituted. The terms super and sub are also occasionally em- ployed, as indicating more or less at-id than that \nthout any such prefixture ; but those have not a reference to any precise quantities. Thus the sub- carbonate of soda is understood to contain a smaller, and the super-carbonate a larger quantity than the carbonate of soda itself. The foregoing outline of chemical nomenclature is easily understood, and may be recollected with- out any great eflTort of the memory. It will greatly facilitate the reading of chemical l)ooks l)y the \m- initiated in that science, as aflbrding a key to the signification of the terms which are of constant occurrence. It will also be essential to the projicr understanding of the brief outline gi\-en in the follomng ])ages. IV. Chemic.vl Combination and Dkco.m- I'OSITION. Before proceeding to a description of such of the sunple bodies of chemistry as enter into the or* E K 2 406 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ganization of jjlants and animals, it will be neces- sary to give a brief account of the nature of chemical action. This is more especially necessary in this place, as no previous knowledj^e of the elements of that science is assume'] in the readers of these papers. Chemical action consists in most cases of one or other or l)oth of two changes termed comhinatifjn and decomposition ; and in the event of either of these taking place, a permanent change is produced on some of the sul)stances employed. Oatmeal, or bran, and water may be mingled together, so that there is no i)art of the former which is not in con- tact with the latter ; but the application of a slight heat will drive ofl' the water, and the oatmeal or bran, will be ol)tained in the same state as before it was mingled ^^'itll the water. Here, however, no chemical action took ])lace, the combination being merely mechanical. In like manner, salt may be added to water, and entirely disajjjjear, forming a still more intimate combination than in the case just mentioned ; but the apphcation of heat will here also dri^•e off the water when the salt is ol> tained by itself, unchanged in any of its properties, and undiminished in quantity ; so that in this case neither has any chemical action taken place. If a few drops of sulphuric acid, however, be added to a solution of carbonate of soda, both decom])osition and combination are produced. The carbonic acid, previously in combination with the soda to form the carbonate, is driven off by the acid added to the solution, which affords an example of chemical decomposition ; and no sooner has that acid been disengaged, than the sulphuric acid enters into combination with the soda, forming sulphate of soda instead of carbonate, in which process che- mical combination has been exhibited. The burning of limestone for agricultural purposes affords a fa- mihar instance of decomposition. That substance is formed of hme in combination with carbonic acid, thence termed carbonate of lime; but by the action of heat the acid is disengaged, and quick- lime remains. As the carbonic acid exists only in the gaseous state, uncombined, it is not appreciable to our senses, and hence we do not perceive its escajje taking place from the hme-kiln ; but after burning, it is well known that the stones are much diminished in weight, and this diminution is pre- cisely in proportion to the quantity of carbonic acid gas ex])elled. But it is scarcely necessarj^ to multiply examples of chemical action, as when the nature of that process is understood, innumerable instances will present themselves to the notice of every one. It may, however, be obsen-ed, that when two sub- stances unite chemically, the bulk of the compound is seldom exactly the same as that of its consti- tuents. In most cases the bulk diminishes; but in a few cases it increases, and in some rare in- stances no alteration in bulk whatever takes jilace. And further, when bodies are combined chemically with each otlier, they cannot be separated again by filtration, or by any mechanical means. Heat some- times produces a separation ; but in the greater number of cases this expedient is quite unsuccess- ful. It is foiuid also that the imion thus jiroduced is much moi-e intimate in certain cases than in others ; or in other words, that the a.ttract,ion be-* tween different substances, in virtue of which they enter into chemical coml)ination, is much stronger in some cases than it is in others. In the example before-mentioned, of the decomposition of the car- bonate of soda by the addition of sulphuric acid, it is seen that the soda has a much greater attrac- tion for that acid, than for the one with whicli it was formerly combined, and hence the latter was driven off to be replaced by the former. It is thus apparent, that however ditlicult it may l)e to sepa- rate by mechanical means, or by heat, substances which have entered into a chemical combination with each other, the addition of a third substance to the com})ound may effect the object at once. This third body will, in that case, unite with one of the constituents of the compound, at the same time setting the other at liberty. In all compounds thus formed, the constituent bodies unite together only in constant and definite proportions. In the composition of limestone, for exam})le, the ])ropertion existing between the car- bonic acid and the lime never varies under any circumstances. Carbon and oxj'gen, in like manner, only vmite in certain proportions to form the car- })onic acid. This is a most curious and important law in chemical science, being the foundation of the system of erjuivtilents, of so much importance in chemical manipulation, and in the arts depend- ing on that science; but as this is a part of the subject not much required in the course of inves- tigation proposed to be pursued in these pages, it need not be more particularly alluded to in this place. V. Organic Constituents of Plants, and THEIR Compounds. The organic constituents of all animals and ve- getables have been stated to consist exclusively of only four elementaiy substances — carbon, hydro- gen, ox3'gen, and nitrogen. The consideration of the nature and properties of these substances is therefore peculiarly important to the student of organic chemistrj', and they shall accordingly in the first ])lace engage our attention. Carbon. — This substance exists in immense quantities in the vegetable kingdom, and is easily obtained by heating wood to redness in close ves- sels, so as not to be subject to the action of the atmosphere. In this manner it may be obtained in a state of tolerable purity ; but as the inorganic or mineral matters contained in the wood are not acted on by fire, they may be su])posed to be pre. sent. It exists in a perfectly pure state in thg diamond, which is altogether composed of carbon , Of all j)lants in a dried state it forms from 40 to 50 per cent. Charcoal possesses several interesting and im- portant properties. From its very porous nature, it is capable of absorbing and retaining gaseous exhalations to a great extent ; that formed of porous wood, according to Professor Johnson, absorbing no less than ninety-five times its own bulk of am- monia, and of aqueous ^•apour, so much as to in- crease its weight from 10 to 20 j)er cent. It is also cajiable of destroying the smell and taste of a variety of vegetable and animal substances, and of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 407 abstracting certain substances dissolved in Huid.s. The use of of cliarrinjjf piles, of throwing charcoal into putrid water, and of wrai»i)ing it in matters which have ac(iuired a bad smell, dejicnds on these properties. Carbon enters with j^reat facility into combina- tion with other substances. AVhen burned in the atmos])here or in oxygen gas, it gradually disap- pears, entering into combination with the latter substance, and forming carbonic acid gas — the choke-damp of the miners, which shall be after- wards more specially noticed. Ili/i/roi/en, unlike carbon, exists only in the gaseous state, and by the unaided senses it canncjt be distinguished from conunon air, being perfectly destitute of smell and colour. It is never found in nature in an isolated condition. It is the lightest l)ody with which we are acquainted, its specific gravity being '0604 ; tliat of the atmosphere" being 1. In consequence of this lightness, it is employed to fdl balloons, which it causes rajndly to ascend in the atmos])here. It forms a small proportion of all animal and vegetable substances, and constitutes one-ninth of the weight of water. Hydrogen is in- flammable, though it extinguishes flame. When I)ure, it burns gently, with a lambent blue flame at the surface, in contact with the atmosphere ; but if mixed with thrice its volume of air, it Ijurns rapidly and with detonation. H)'drogen gas is obtained by the decomj)osition of water by red hot iron, and by galvanic action ; but the simplest method of jirocuring it is from water, by the aid of the action of dilute acid on a metal. Thus, if a (juantity of strong sulphuric acid is diluted with five or six times its bulk of water, and poured over some fragments of iron or of zinc in a glass vessel, hydrogen is at once ob- tained. The gas thus generated is not, however, perfectly pure. That formed when iron is used contains a volatile oily matter, arising from the union of some of the hydrogen with a little of the carbon which is usually present in iron. It is not of coiu'se visible at its liberation ; and when it is to be collected, it must be conveyed by a tube from the vessel in which it is generated, to another ])re- viously filled with water, and jjlaced in an inverted position in that substance. The tube extending to the neck or opening of this inverted vessel carries the gas to it, and as it ascends it disj)laces the water, so that when the vessel is filled in this man- ner, it may be corked up, and tlie hydrogen gas preserved. It is necessary, howeA'er, that the cork should fit closely, and that it should be introduced while the mouth of the vessel is still in the water, before being remo\ed. Oxyijeii, like hydrogen, is a coloiuless ])erina- nent gas, and possesses all the mechanical ])roper- ties of atmospheric air, of which it is the princi])al ingredient. It is a powerful supporter of respiration, and has thence been called ritiil air; but from this it is not to be concluded that in a jjure state it would be suitable for the continuous support of life ; on the contrary, an animal made to breathe oxygen for any length of time, falls a sacrifice to an excess of arterial action ; and after death tlie blood in the veins is as florid as that in the arteries. Oxygen eminently supports combustion, A lighletl tajjcr introduced into this gas is very rajjidly con- sumed with intense ignition and enlargement of the flame. Oxygen has the property of c(jmbining with every other simiile body. In the atmosjjhere it exists in about the jjroportion of one-fifth of its bulk, and it is besides a comj)onent of all the earths and minerals on the sm-face of the glob^. Nearly one half of the weight of the solid rocks is composed of oxygen, these being the o.xides of metals. It forms a princijjal ingredient of all or- ganic substances; but plants rapidly i)erish if placed in an atmos])here of jjure oxygen, though it sup- ports animal life. Being so largely consumed in several natural operations constantly going forward, a source of sujjply must exist to make uj) for the waste thus occasioned ; but though so abundant in the mineral kingdoms, as already stated, it is never naturally disengaged from these bodies, the chief source being the numerous classes of vegetables which cover the surface of the globe. The manner in which it is produced b)' them shall be afterwards exj)lained. Nitroyen. — This, the only remaining constituent (jf organic matter, is also a gaseous element, po.- - sessing all the mechanical ])ropertics of the atmo- sphere, and, like it, destitute of colour, taste, or smell. Its jjrincipal characteristic is an indifl'erence to all other substances, whether simple or com- pound, and an a])i)arent reluctance to enter into combination with them, there being no one with which it combines by mere mixture, or by the action of heat under conunon circumstances. It is not a suj)])orter of combustion ; but on the con- trary extinguishes all burning bodies that are im- mersed in it. No animal can live in it ; but yet it exerts no injurious action on the lungs or on the system at large, the ])rivation of oxygen gas being the sole cause of death. In combination with oxygen it forms the atinosj)here, and serves to moderate the action of that substance during com- bustion, and the too great excitement which that gas resjjired luunixed would jiroduce on the animal system. It forms a part of most animal and vege- table substances ; but it is not known to enter into the composition of any of the great mineral masses which constitute the crust or ujiper covering of the globe, and is therefore nuu-h less abundant in nature than any of the other elementary substances noticed. It is sparingly soluble in water, about twenty volumes of which absorb one of nitrogen. It is to the presence of nitrogen that decomposi- tion so soon sets in in, animal and vegetable sub- stances, after life is extinct. In consequence of its want of affinity for the substances with which it may have been |)reviously combined, it endeavours to escape so soon as released from tlie inMuence ot the mysterious jjrinciple of life, and new coinbina- tions l)eing therelty produced, decomposition at once si'ts in. As nitrogen is a non-supporter of combustion, it may be procured from atmospheric air by that process, the oxygen with which it is combined being thereby absorbed. For this purpose a piece ot phosphorus may be ignited in ajar of air inverletl over water, the iih()s])liorus being placed on a stand out of Iha water. As the combustion goes forward, 408 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the oxygen ^nll be absorbed, and the water A\'ill consequently ascend in the jar, and occupy its place. The remaining gas, after the process has ceased, is nitrogen, containing also a small quantity of carbonic acid gas, which previously existed in the atmosphere j but this is removed with facihty by lime-water, or by a solution of caustic potash. These, then, are the only elementaiy bodies of which organic matter is composed. With only one exception, that of carbon, they are known to us only in the gaseous form ; and that substance, too, has been seen to be easily made to assume the gaseous state ; hence the facility with which these substances, when combined, again resume their aerial form when uncontrolled by the li\'ing agency. Tm'o of the most abundant substances in nature — water and the atmosphere — are entirely also composed of these substances ; and as these compoiinds exercise an important influence on animal and vegetable life, it is necessary that they should undergo an especial notice before proceeding farther with our subject. The atmosphere has been already stated to con- sist of oxygen and nitrogen ; the precise propor- tion of these ingredients being about 21 of the former and 79 of the latter in every 1 00 parts ; these gases being merely in a state of mechanical mixture, not of chemical combination as might be supposed. Though these are what are termed the essential components of the atmosphere, it contains other substances, which to a certain extent may be regarded as adventitious, and the quantity of wliich is often variable ; of these, carbonic acid gas and watery \-apour may be regarded as the most im- portant and constant. The former is an important constituent as regarding the maintenance of vege- table life ; and being a ])roduct of respiration of animals, it is always present in greater or less quan- tity, the usual proportion being about .01 per cent. On the shores of the sea, or of great lakes, this proportion is much diminished, the causes by which it is produced not being there in operation ; and it is also less by day than by night, and over a moist than over a dry soil, when moisture is present that gas being absorbed to a certain extent. The proportion of moisture or aqueous vapour present in the atmosphere is usually much more variable than that of carbonic acid gas, as it varies with the season of the year, with the climate, vAxh the nature of the locality, with its altitude, and with its position on the globe as regards it prox- imity to the equator or the polar regions. It is least in winter and greatest in summer ; hence the copious dews so characteristic of warm Aveather. A high temperature is necessary for the mainte- nance of water in a state of vapour, which speedily becomes condensed on the application of cold. This circumstance causes the copious rains of the winter season. In addition to the substances already mentioned as the constant components of the atmosphere, it contains, in certain situations, minute quantities of what may be termed accidental ingredients, the nature and properties of which depend upon a variety of causes ; and as, to use the words of a celebrated chemist, " the sea contains a little of eveiything which is soluble in water, so the atmo- sphere may be conceived to contain a little of every thing which is capable of assuming the gaseous form." It has been supposed that all substances may in this way impart portions of foreign matter. Thus, notwithstanding the agitation of the atmo- sphere ])y winds, which imparts a tendency to pre- serve, a uniformity of composition, yet in the at- mosphere of larger cities and manufactiiring towns traces of sulphurous and sulphuric acid are observ- able, and also of sulphate of ammonia, which salt may occasionally be seen deposited in crevices and situations not affected by rains. These, as well as finely-divided carbonaceous matters, may be sup- posed to be derived from coal-smoke. The atmosphere is supposed to extend round the globe to the height of several miles ; its specific gravity decreasing as it ascends, owing to the su- perincumbent weight being thereby lessened. The idea of its being a ponderous body is not usually entertained by the uneducated, in consequence of that property not being apparent to the senses only under given conditions. Every one is familiar with the force exerted by storms of ^nnd ; which, how- ever, are nothing more than the air being rapidly put in motion. In passing rapidly through the atmosphere also, every one is aware of the very consideral)le resistance thereby encountered. But with all this evidence, it is somewhat difficult to understand that on every square inch of the surface of the glo'oe it exerts a pressure 14j lbs. As it presses equally in all directions, this pressure is not felt ; but the remoA'al of it from any substance mil clearly show it. Thus, by the action of the air- pump, it may to a certain extent be Vvithdrawn from a vessel ; and then so great is the pressure on the outside of it, without any corresponding pressure to counterbalance it within, that vmless the vessel be strong it will be crashed to pieces. It is the weight of the atmosphere which causes the mer- cury to rise in the tube of the barometer, and water in the common pump. In each of these cases there is known to be a limit bej'ond which the respective substances cannot be raised : — in the common pump, water cannot be raised higher than about thirty-three feet above the level of the sui'- face on which the atmosphere acts ; and in the case of the barometer, it is well known that the range is about thirty inches high, varying, however, with the state of the atmosphere at the time ; hence the action of the barometer as an indicator of the state of the weather — the greater the density of the air, it is so much the less |likely to rain ; and this in- crease of density, being of course followed by an increase of weight, causes an increase in the height of the mercurial column, and accordingly the glass ' is said to rise. It is this ponderosity of the atmosphere, com- bined with its extreme subtilty, which ensures its vmiversal diffusion. We have no idea of space without the presence of the atmosphere. A canty is no sooner formed, however small, or the opening to which however slight, than it is immediately filled with air, the exclusion of which can only be effected by means of the air-pump, or by causing a fluid of greater specific gravity to occupy its place. If a bottle be immersed in water, with the neck downwards, the effect of the air is at once seen, as it prevents the water from entering the THE l-AllMEll'S MAGAZINE. 400 bottle ; and if the position of the bottle be in\erte(l the admission of tlie water takes place concurrently with the expulsion of the air, which is acconij)anied with a gurglinj; noise. The air thus pervades every pore of the soil, and cominjr into contact wth the roots of j)lants in growing, imjjarts to them a proportion of their food. The portion which remains, being thus changed in its ijroperties by the abstraction of certain of its constituents, is afterwards cxi)elled l)y the ne.\t shower of rain which falls ; the water, owing to its greater density, occupying the place of the air so driven out. The water thus carried to the roots of the growing plants is again in its turn to be replaced by fresh air to perform similar offices. The influence of the sun in exj)anding the air is very considerable. This is familiarly seen by l)lacing a 1)ladder jjartially filled with it 1)efore tlic fire, when, if the neck l)e i)roperly secured, it will gradually increase in size until quite distended by the rarefaction of the air inside ; and on its with- drawal from the heat, it will subside, and regain its former size. The influence of the sun, although not so aj)i)arent as in the case just mentioned, is yet very considerable. It warms the soil, and ex- ])ands the aeriform matters which it contains ; and then in this manner jjartially escapes, fresh air being absorbed as the reduction of temjierature takes jjlace when evening a])proaches. in this manner a constant circulation is kei)t up between the air on the siu-face and that ramified through the pores of the soil ; and the aeriform matters essential to the growth of plants, are thus alternately placed in contact with the roots by a beautiful and wonder- ful provision of nature. Oxygen has already Ijeen seen to be the great supporter of life and combustion ; but as it forms little more than one-fifth of the entire volume of tlie atmos])here, and as its consumjition for the jjurposes just named almost exceeds calculation, it may excite some surprise hov/ the luiiform consti- tution of the air is ])reserved. In the jjrocess of resj)iration each individual is suj)])osed, on an average, to breathe about twenty times ever)' minute — to take in about IG cubic inches of air every ins])iration {:i of oxygen and 1:5 of nitrogen) — to return nearly the whole of the nitrogen, and 4-5ths of the oxygen, and to replace the remaining fifth by an equal Noluinc of carbonic acid gas, which is comjjosed of its own bulk of oxygen, combined with carljon ; so that the main diiierence l)etween the inspired and the expired air is, tliat the latter contains a certain ])ro])ortiou of carlionic acid gas in lieu of the oxygen withdrawn. By coml)nstion a similar result is produced. The continuance of these ])rocesses, therefore, without any counter- acting influence would, in time, so chiuige the constitution of tlie atmospluTC as to render it alto- gether imiitted for the numerous and im])ortant functions wliich it now fulfils. 'I'he atmospliere is, however, known to l)e the duef source of carbon in plants, which they derive from the decomposition of carbonic acid gas, thereby setting the oxygen at liberty. 'l"hc former gas is of considcraldy greater specific gravity than atmospheric air, so tliat it is always chiefly on or near the surface of the ground, to be available for that purpose — one of the beautiful i)rovisions of nature, showing the perfect adaj)tation of means to the end. Carbon is a co})ious product of animal life, and of combustion; l)ut it is also the most abundant com])onent of vegetables, and is in this manner sujiplied for their use. The oxygen, with which it is coml)ined when entering into the vegetable structure, is given oft' by the leaves to maintain the constitution of the atmosphere unchanged. Tlie other gaseous sub- stances present in the air, which owe their origin to the decomposition of organic matters, are also in this manner abstracted from it, and thus sers's as food for other races of vegetables. Wafer is one of the most generally diffiised and important substances in nature. It is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportion of eight of the former to (me of the latter, by weight ; or by measure, of one volume of oxygen to two of hydrogen. Water is known to exist in three different states, in each of which it fulfils important functions. At a temperature of 32'^ it is converted into ice, and at 2 1 2- it is converted into steam, an increase in bulk taliing place in both cases. In freezing, the water ex])ands with such force as to burst very thick and strong vessels ; and in this manner it exercises a very jiowerful influence in effecting the disintegration and decay of rocks, and the conse- (pient production of soils. Owing to this expan- sive property, the frosts of winter often materially assist the cultivator in causing an increased degree of pulverization in the soil. But in the state of vapour water exercises a still more important office in the economy of nature. In this state it has been seen to pervade the atmosphere, e\'erywhere main- taining the requisite degree of moisture and flexi- bility, so essential to both animal and vegetable existence. It is to this vaj)our tluit we are in- debted for the rains and dews so serviceable to the cultivator of the soil. The quantity of vapour which the atmosphere can retain evidently dei)ends on its temperature. In warni weather it can sus- tain more, and in cold weather less. Hence, when a current of comparatively warm air, loaded with moisture, ascends to, or comes in contact with, a cold mountain to]), it is cooled down — is rendered incai)al)le of holding the whole of tiie va])our in suspension, and therefore leaves behiiul, in the form of a mist or cloud, a portion of its watery burden. In rills subsequently, or sjjrings, the arieily introducing himself to the meeting, the Lecturer proceeded as follo\\'s :— The cultivation of the soil is not only the oldest, l)ut the most important, of the arts of life. On it a thousand millions of men arc dependant for their very sustenance; in the prosecution of it, nine- tcnths of the fixed capital of all civilized nations is embarked, and probably two hundred millions of men sjjcnd their daily toil. Agriculture, then, must be admitted by all to be of the first im- portance to man. In every country the study of the principles of agriculture ought to have occiqncd the greatest minds, but this has not been the case ; and while the energies of the man of science have been de- voted to the im])rovements of our manufactures and our arts, but little has been done \)y him for agriculture ; and at the commencement of the pre- sent century, tlie system of cultiwiting tiie land was found but little advanced on that adopted by the Romans some two thousand years since. But in every country a period must arrive when the study of agriculture becomes more urgent than before. In all newly-settled districts, such as North America, New Zealand, or New Holland, the land under a A-ery imperfect system of culture will produce enough food for the scanty population, and often leave a surjilus for exportation. But, as the popu- lation increases, we have an increasing demand for food : and the same imjjerfect system of culture will no longer sujjpiy the demands upon the soil ; the land must be better tilled, its special qualities and defects studied, and means must be adopted to extract a maximum produce from every acre susceptible of cultivation. Great Britain, at the present period, is in the latter situation. We inhabit a densely-peo])led country, with an an- nuaUy-increasing population of no less than 230,000 souls, requiring an annually-increasing produce of 105,000 qrs. of wheat, equal to the produce of 28,058 acres of land, at 30 bushels per acre. Besides this, they would consume the produce of S 1 ,000 acres of pasture land in the shape of cattle, and require 59,000 new tenements. With this certainty before us as a stimulus to exertion, a knowledge of the fact that the present population, amounting to 15,000,000, is better sup- plied with bread than 2,000,000 were in the year lOOO, is a proof of what the soil is capable of producing under imprcjved management; and when the practical man has ])ecome conversant with, and applies the true principles of farming as indicated by chemistry and geology, who shall say where this increasing jjroductiveness will cease ? But you will ask. Are we all to become chemists and geologists before we can plough, and sow, and reap r Certainly not ; but before a sensible man enters into any i)articular business, he first makes himself acquainted with the jn-inciples on which that business is conducted, or he cannot expect to carry it on successfully. Chemistry and geology extend over a very wide field ; and a jjortion of each of these sciences is api)licable to agriculture, the principles of which they explain in a rational manner. With these principles the farmer who wishes for success ought to become acquainted ; or, if he neglect them, he will find himself in a few years far behind the world of agriculture. My object this morning will be to ex])lain the origin, composition, and improvement of soils. On removing the surface soil, at a greater or less depth we arrive at the solid rock. These rocks arc found to be more or less crystalline and hard, or soft and earthy, in their structure ; and they are either disjjosed in beds or strata, or they exist in masses which are unstratified, and are sui)])Osed to have been of volcanic origin. The former of these rocks are called stratified, from their being disposed in layers or i)lates as the leaves in a book ; and they are found to vary in their direction from nearly parallel with tlie plane of the horizon to i)erpendicular. In some situations they are much broken up, forming irregular and shaiieless masses ; while in others they lie in regular order. These stratified rocks have been formed from dei)0sits of sand, mud, and other materials, in the beds of ancient 414 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. seas ; and they ha\'e been elevated above the level of the water by the agency of subterranean volcanic force. [The Lecturer here illustrated this portion of his subject by a geological section, shewing the relative position occujjied by the different forma- tions in the primary, transition, secondary, and tertiaiy series ; giving a famihar explanation of the same.] Resuming, he observed : — At one period of the earth's history these rocks formed the sur- face of the land, and the soil which now covers them has been formed by the action of the elements on their earthy constituents. One great cause in constant operation is the change of temperature to which they are exposed ; and when to this we add the gigantic force of water in becoming ice ; we have a power almost resistless. The fissures which occur between the blocks and masses of rocks become filled with water, which, in the act of freezing, expands, so as slowly to remove them from each other, their edges become open to the attacks of the weather, and thus a soil is sooner or later formed which is capable of sup- porting some of the lower orders of the vegetable creation, such as the lichens and mosses, plants which require little else than moisture, light, and air, for their development and growth ; the death and decay of these jjlants add organic matter to the soil, and render it fit for the support of plants of a higher order in the vegetable world ; these in their turn give way to shrubs and trees, until, in the course of ages, the once naked rock becomes covered with woods and forests ! Rocks are found by geologists to consist either of sandstones, limestones, or indurated clays, known as slates, or a mixture of two or more of these, and generally coloured by oxide of iron ; thus, on re- ferring to the geological map of the kingdom, we find in the eastern portion tracts of chalk and limestone ; in the centre a breadth of sandstone, and in wales the slate formations, the soils lying on these partaking of the character of the rocks from which they have been derived, and constituting either sandy, clayey, or limestone soil, or one of an intermediate character, as a loam or a marl, from an admixture of two or more of these ingredients. All fertile soils contain a due mixture of sand, clay, and lime ; and where either of these greatly predominate, the land is less productive ; thus, the London and plastic clays are cold, stiff, and wet, and are chiefly in pastures with extensive heaths and wastes, and when cultivated the crops are barely sufficient to pay the expenses of cultivation. The lias formation, which extends across the king- dom from the Tees in Yorkshire to Lyme Regis in Dorset, is another instance of a cold, wet, blue clay, which is difficult to work, and seldom pays the labour bestowed on its cultivation, and on this account much of it is in old pastvn-e ; yet, if this land were well drained and properly cultivated, there is little doubt of its being capable of produc- ing remarkably fine crops. When two soils na- rally unproductive in themselves, as a sand and a stiff" clay, are incorjiorated, they mutually improve each other, and a highly fertile soil is frequently the result; this we observe to be the case where two strata of opposite characters, by their disinte- gation, have formed a soil, as for instance, at the junction of the ]}lastic clay and green sand, and also at the union of the plastic clay and chalk formations, the soil on either formation being un- productive, yet at their union producing a soil capable of yielding fine crops of corn and roots. This improvement in their fertility depends upon an alteration of their mechanical texture, and will be explained hereafter. Now, although an admixture of sand, clay, and lime is necessary to constitute a soil fit for the growth of plants, they are not sufficient in them- selves to form a fertile soil ; indeed, a mixture of these ingredients, if pure, would be absolutely barren. In what then consists a fertile soil ? If we burn a portion of hay, wood, or corn, a certain quantity of ash is left behind, varying in quantity with the vegetable matter consumed. The ash thus left, after the burning away of .the organic part of tlie plant, is called the inorganic portion, and was at one time thought to be accidental and of no importance in vegetation; the part dispersed by fire being the organic jjortion, and usually con- stituting from eighty to ninety-five per cent, of the whole plant. Mr. Gyde called attention to the following tabular statement, which he exhibited, showing the amount of ash or inorganic matter yielded by dif- ferent plants : — By lOOOlbs. of Meadow hay. Clo\-er hay Potatoes . , Turni2)s . . Wheat Barley Oats . . Peas . . Elm .... Poplar . . Beech . . lbs. 19 20 4 60lbs. to 8lbs. „ 8lbs. „ Grain. 22lbs. 20lbs. SSlbs. 28lbs. Birch Pine Oak 1 OOlbs. 90lbs. lOlbs. lOlbs. Straw. 50lbs. 50lbs. GOlbs. 50lbs. lbs. .. 3i .. 3 .. 2 He then continued : — When the ash left after the combustion of any vegetable matter — as, for instance, hay — is submitted to chemical analysis, it is found of the same com- position, although grown on different soils, and is made up of eight different kinds of matter. The ash left by one class of plants is found to differ in chemical composition from the ash of plants of a different natural order, although both may have been grown on the same soil : thus, we find that some plants — as the grasses, and the straw of wheat, barley, and oats — contain a large quantity of silica, or the earth of flints, in their composition ; while others — as the pea, bean, and vetch — are nearly destitute of silica, but abound in lime. Some plants contain large quantities of potash and soda, or phosphoric and sulphuric acids — these acids generally being combined with lime. A knowledge of these facts leads to tlie conclu- sion that certain inorganic substances are necessary to the healthy growth of plants, since they are always found in their texture, and that different classes of plants have the power of selecting and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 415 ajjpropriatinff to themselve.s those inorganic siilj- stanccs necessary to their healtliy growtli. Now we well know that jilants are inca])al)le of forming these inorganic substances of tlicinsclves ; hence we naturally conclude that the soil must have been tlie source from M'hence they were obtained. Xow the rigid chemical analysis of all soils known to be fertile without manure provcvs such to be the fact, and that a soil capable of proaucing vigorous plants must contain, in addition to sand, clay, and lime, of which its bulk is composed, certain (pian- tities of at least six different ingredients, these consisting of potash, soda, magnesia, suljjhuric and i)hosphoric acids, and chlorine, besides a certain quantity of organic matter in a state of decomposi- tion; and when any of these constituents are deficient, they must be added, or the soil will be less fertile : this addition is made in the shape of manure. Some soils jjossess all the external appearances of being good, yet they arc notoriously barren. This may arise from the soil containing some ingredient injurious to plants, but by far the most common cause of barrenness in such soils is the deficiency of those earthy and saline ingredients rccpiired by plants, and without which no plant can ])erfect its seed. The following table, sliowing the composition of three soils, was then exhibited and exj)lained : — COMPOSITION OF SOIL.S. Organic matter . . . . Silica Alumina Lime Magnesia Oxide of iron Oxide of manganese Potash and soda Chlorine Sulphuric acid . . . . Phosphoric acid . . . . Carbonic acid Loss Fertile. 3 S o a ■5 5 >^ 97 G48 57 59 Si 61 1 6 2 2 4J 40 14 50 833 51 18 • 8 30 3 trace 40 778 91 4 ] 81 OK Oi — n — 44 - — 4i- 1000 1000 1000 Soils, naturally fertile, may lie, and often are, rendered barren by improper management. We have seen that the fertility of a soil depends uj)on the i)otash, soda, phosj)horic acid, and other inorganic matters which exist in it, in very small (|uantities. Xow, as the plants grown on the soil rccpiire and take up certain quantities of these inorg.anic matters, it is only necessary to carry to market year by year the produce of the land, and neglect to return to it, in the shape of manure, any earthy and saline matter in lieu of those contained in the produce disposed of, to effectually reduce the land so treated to a slate of barrenness. This result will be brought about in a much shorter time under constant cropjjing with one class of jilants, such as corn, than when a variety are grown in succession, as in a rotation of crops; and the longer the interval of the rotation, the greater time will elajise before the soil shows sym])toms of exhaustion ; but this result will sooner or later certainly arrive, and ultimately the soil will cease to return a sufficient croj) to pay the expenses of culture. [This portion of the subject was familiarly illus- trated by the annexed tal)ular statement of the inorganic matter carried off" in a four years' rotation of crops : — ] CROPS. Inorganic matter carried off' in a foiu' years' rotation of Potash . . . Soda . . . . , Lime Magnesia . Alumina. . . Sihca Sulphuric Acid . . . Phosphoric Acid .., Chlorine. . "c3 '"T •a . .£ — , Turnips, (roots.) — - ti art of these countries. 'Ilie dunghill is often arranged as if it were a matter of moment that it should be exposed to the water collected from every roof in the vicinity, as if the business were to take advan- tage of every shower f)f rain to wasli and cleanse it from all it contains that is really valuable. The 418 THE i'^AKMER'S MAGAZlNfi. main secret of the acliiiiialjle and successful hus- Ijandry of Frencli Flanders may perhaps lie in the extreme care that is taken in that countiy to collect everything that can contrihute to the fertility of the soil. Our Agricultuarl Societies, ^^'hich are now so universally established, would confer one of the greatest services on the community if they would encourage, Ijy every means at their command, economy of manure : premiums awarded to those farmers who should preserve their dunghills in the most rational and advantageous manner, would \nove of more real service than i)remivims in many other and more popular directions. The ])lace where the dung of a farm is laid ought to be rather near to the stables and cow-houses. The arrangements may be varied to infinity, but they ought all to combine the following conditions : First, that the drippings from the heap should not run away, but should be collected in a tank or cistern, vmder ground. Second, that no water, excej)t the rain which falls on the dungheap, or any water that may be thrown upon it on purpose, should be allowed to drain into this reservoir. Third, that the place for the dunghill be of size enough to avoid the necessity of heajjing the ma- nure to too great a height. The ground upon which the dung is piled ought to slope gently one way or another — from each side towards the centre is best — so that the drippings may be collected in the tank or cistern. It is also desirable that the soil underneath should be clayey and impermeable ; where it is not so, it becomes necessary to puddle, to cement, or to pave the bottom of the dunghill stand, as well as the bottom and sides of the tank or cistern. The water which runs from the heap should be thrown back u]5on it occasionally, by means of a pump and hose, so as to presen-e it in a state of constant moistness. ITie opening into the tank, which is best placed immediately under the centre of the dungheap is closed by means of a strong grating in wood or iron, the bars being sufficiently close to prevent the solid matters from passing througli. One very important arrange- ment, one which, in fact, must on no account be overlooked, is that the drains from the stables and cow-houses ])e so contrived that they all run to the dunghill. The litter, however abundant, never absorbs the Avhole of the urine, especially at the time when the cattle are upon green food ; and it would be quite impardonable in the husbandman did he not take measures to secure this the most valuable portion of the manure at his disposal. The litter mLxed with the dropi)ings of the ani- mals, and soaked with their luune, ought to be carried from the stables to the dunghill upon a light barrow. The practice of dragging out the manure with dunghooks, which is often permitted when the field upon which it is to l)e spread is at no great distance, ought on no account to be allowed ; the loss from the practice is always con- siderable. Materials ought not to be thrown on the dunghill at random or hap-hazard ; they should be evenly spread and divided ; an uneven heap gives rise to vacancies, which l)y and bye become mouldy, to the great detriment of the manure. It is of much importance that the heap be pretty solid, in order to prevent too great a rise of temperature and too rapid a fermentation, which are -always injurious. Particular care must also be taken that the heap preserves a sufficient degree of moistness, not only of its surface, but of its entire mass, which is effected by watering it frecjuently. At Bechel- bronn, our dungheap is so firmly trodden down, in the course of its accumulation, by the feet of the workmen, that a loaded waggon drawn by four horses can be taken across it without very great difficulty. The thickness of the heap is not a matter of indifference : besides the convenience of loading, which must not be forgotten, any great thickness may become injurious by causing the temperature to rise too high ; circumstances occur- ring which should compel us to keep a mass in this state for any length of time, the decomposition would make such progress as to occasion very great loss. Experience has shown, that the tliick- ness of a dungheap ought not to exceed from al)out four feet and a half to six feet and a half; it ought certainly never to exceed the latter amount. ^Yith a view to prevent the drying of the dunglieap, and its consequences, too great a rise in tempera- ture and destruction of marmre, it is the practice in some places to arrange the dungheap on the north side of a building which ; is undoul)tedly advan- tageous, but not always to be realized, especially in connexion with a farm of some magnitude, where the immediate vicinity of a large mass of matter in a state of putrid fermentation is not only unpleasant, but may be unwholesome. In the north of France, the dungheap is sometimes shaded from the sun by means of a row of elms, and the shelter thus secured is vastly preferable to that which it has been proposed to obtain by means of a roof or shed, which besides other inconveniences, would be found costly at first, liable to speedy decay, &c. If circumstances, such as the smallness of the farm, the permeable nature of the soil, &c., prevent the construction of a reservoir, there is risk of the dimg-water being quite lost ; but such waste may be prevented by covering the bottom of the j)it or stand for the dungheap with a bed of sand, peat, marl, or any other dry and porous substance capable of absorbing liquids. This practice is often followed l)y the farmers of Alsace. In some farms, the different kinds of clung are piled apart from one another in particular heaps ; that of the stable being put by itself, as well as that of the cow-house, that of the hog-stye, and that of the sheep-pen. In great establishments, such a separation is often one of necessity; but the advantages which are ascribed to it are question- able at least, and the remarks that have been made upon it by writers do not appear founded on any accurate observation. Without denying that certain crops answer better when special manures are em- j)loyed, it still seems to me more advantageous to pile every kind of manure together, when the diffi- culties of the situation are not such as to make this either particularly inconvenient or expensive. In this way, indeed, a dung-heap of medium constitu- tion is obtained, which is regarded with reason as that the ai)plication of which to the soil is attended with the greatest advantages in the majority of instances. The chstinction which some have sought to make between the relative qualities of manures THE FARMeIi'S MAGAZtNfi. 4io of (lift'erent origins is far too absolute ; and this is the reason, without doubt, which renders it so difficult to bring the observations of different agriculturists to agree. Thus, according to Sin- clair, the dung of the hog-stye is the most active of all, the richest in fertilizing i)rincii)lcs; according to Schwcrtz, on the contrary, it is the most indiffer- ent manure of the farm-yard. The fact is, that manures T^'hich are the j)roduce of the same animals, often present greater differ- ences in regard to quality, than manures which proceed from ditterent sources. I shall show, by and by, that the value of manure de])ends especially upon the feeding, the age. and the condition in which the animal is placed that produces it. It is well known that the dung of cattle, fed during winter upon straw, is greatly inferior to that which they yield when consuming food of a more nu- tritious quality. When the litter mixed with animal excrements is accumulated in sufficient quantity in the pit or the dung-stand, fermentation sj)ccdily sets in, and abundance of vapour is disengaged. As carbonate of ammonia is among the volatile ])roducts of this decomposition, it is of importance to hohl it imder control ; this is done by keejnng the heap in a state of i)roper moistnes.5, and in excluding as much as l)ossible the access of air. The daily addition of fresh quantities of litter from the stables and stalls contributes jiowerfully to imi)ede the dis- persion of the volatile elements, which it is so important to preserve in manure; duly spread upon the heap, each addition becomes, in fact, a fresh obstacle to evaporation ; it forms a covering which plays the })art of a condenser, at the same time that it protects the inferior layers from the direct contact of the air. So long as the dung- heaj) is kejit uj) and attended to in this way, the fermentation is limited to the inferior layers of the mass. Thaer e\-en satisfied himself that air col- lected from the surface of a dung-heap undergoing moderate fermentation, does not contain much more carl}onic acid than that wliich is taken from the mass of the atniosi)here. Neither does a vessel containing nitric acid, when })laced ujion the fer- menting mass, jiroduce those dense white vapours which are a certain indication of the j)rcsence of ammonia. The slow dec()m])osition which it is of so nuich importance to effect is not readily secured, save in masses sutHciently trodden down, and in which the litter of different kinds has been spiead as evenly as possible. It is an important ])oint, that the maniu'e should be carried out to the field before the u])per ])ortions recently added begin to undergo a change, other- wise the whole mass enters into full fermentation, and the volatile elements, being no hmger arrested by the upjjcr layer, escape lbs. of the following mixture : — lbs. 10 Bushels cut straw 90 (3 Bushels bruised oats 174 1 Bushel bruised beans 59 323 Or of— lbs. Oats 8 Beans 2 J Straw 4| 15 lbs. to each horse. And at night, in addition to the above, about 25 lbs. of the following mixture : — lbs, 1 Boll of ])otatocs at 7s. Gd. 5 cwt. (steamed) 5G() Fine barley-dust, lOd. per stone 3(3 Cut straw, at Gd. i)er stone 40 Salt, ai 3s. per cwt G From this it aj)pears, that the " cost for each horse was about i^>d. for sui)])er, and about Is. for daily forage and cookery — in all, about Is. .'j.^d." In Mr. CVoal's estabhshment, "a man is constantly employed in i)reparing the food and serving it out, whose wages and the expense of fire are included in all the above expense of feeding. With such feeding most ])eoj)le would have suijjjosed that the horses would have been unable to do fast or se\'ei-e work. It would have ])een exjjected that they would not have run a stage without being fatigued ; the)-, however, have kept their condition, and have im- proved by the feeding ; and although, when Ca])- tain Cheyne proposed first to try tlie experiment, the post lads insisted the horses would not l>e able to do their work on such soft feeding, and thought they would jjurge and become washy. They soon found their fears were imaginary, and experience has now so fully convinced them of the advantage of such feeding that their only anxiety now is, to obtain a greater quantity of the mash at night." There is here then a striking fact, which goes far to disprove the correctness of the notions which so generally prevail regarding html keep'uKj l)eing rc- (piisite to good condition. 1 might, wiiii grout ad\-antagc to your readers, (piote nuuh more inter- esting matter from this valuable paper. l)iit I fear I have already gone l)eyond the limits which you devote to such subjects. Eno\igh, I hojje. however, has been stated to enable persons who take interest in the business, to operate, or, at all events, to stimulate them to impiire for themselves, I am, sir, &c., W.M. DvcK (iL-riiKiio. 424 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. EAST CORNWALL EXPERIMENTAL CLUB. The members of this Club dined together at the White Hart, Launceston, on Tuesday, March 4th, Goldsworthy Gurney, Esq., the President, in the chair. An interesting discussion took place on reports of experiments made with organic and inorganic manures. The question of the action of some of the elements of animal manures, while m the nascent state, was gone into with much earnestness : the importance of azote, or nitrogen, the basis of ammonia, appeared to be fully established. The following results of experiments, made and communicated by Francis Rodd, Esq., the High SheriflFof the county, may be relied on as coming from a gentleman bo well known for the zeal and accuracy with which he conducts agricultural experiments. EXPERIMENTS MADE IN A FIELD OF FIVE ACRES, AT TREBARTIIA, ON DALe's HYBRID TURNIPS, WITH DIFFERENT MANURES, 1844. Subsoil— Spar and Slate. Value— 25s. an acre. Aspect— North AVest, facing the Moors.* State of field— Three years Ley. Treatment — Ploughed January, 1844, and manured throughout with a compost of liquid manure and earth. Field further manured ui tlie following manner, and turnip seed sown by drill, Jvly 9th. Turaipa appeared above groiuid July 13th. In rough leaf about the 26th. Taken up and weighed in December following. No. Manures. Peru\ian Guano. Old Duna Bones .... Peruvian Guano. Bones Vitriol Water Bones (only) New Dung . . Peruvian Guano. Vitriol .... Water .... Quantity per Acre. 2i cwt. at 12s. 25 cartloads at Ss. Uqr.at 24s ) 1 nvt. at 12s i 2 qrs. at 24s 301bs. atl^d 10 times the quantity of vitriol 2^ qrs. at 24s.. . . . 25 cartloads at 2s. . . 2 cwt. at 12s 301bs. at l^d 10 times the quantity of vitriol Cost per Acre, exclusive of Labour. £. s. d. 1 10 0 3 U 8 0 2 11 0 0 2 10 0 Weight of Turnips; C Turnips only . » . . J Tops only J Turnips with tops and ( without roots . . . iTiunips oidy .... Tops only Turnips with tops and without roots . . . {Turnips only .... Tops only Turnips with tops and without roots . . . ^ Turnips only .... * Tops only ^ Turnips with tops and • without roots . . . C Turnips only .... 1 Tops only J Tiu'uips with tops and ( without roots . . . f Turnips only .... J Tops only j l\irnips with tops and ( without roots . . . {Turnips only .... Tops only Turnips with tops and without roots . . . 83 per Pole. per Acre 302 90 ts. 21 6 cwt. 11 8 qrs. 1 2 11)S. 20 8 392 28 0 0 0 247 83 17 5 12 18 S 2 12 8 330 23 11 1 20 221 75 15 5 15 7 2 0 24 16 296 21 2 3 12 224 62 16 4 0 8 0 2 0 8 236 20 8 2 8 186 60 13 4 5 5 2 2 24 24 246 17 11 1 20 114 69 8 4 2 18 3 2 12 8 183 13 1 1 20 51 32 3 2 12 5 3 2 12 24 5 18 * A tract of unruUivated land, of a mountainous character, extending from Kingston Down, near Callington, to the sea, near Boscastlc, and occupying a considerable portion of tlie north-eastern part of the county. IS THE POTATO AN EXHAUSTING CROP? Strong oLjections are entertained by many against the extended cultivation of potatoes, on the ground that this croj) l)eing carried off" the farm exhausts the staple of the land, without making any corres- ponding return of manure. If it can be shown that the advantages attending its cultivation enable the farmer to counterljalance this disadvantage, I hope I shall remove the jjrejudices of landlords against a crop otherwise so useful to the country at large. The advantages of this crop to the farmer are these, that being less influenced by the season than any other cro]), it has been for many years the most regu- larly productive, and from its extensive application, either in a raw or manufactured state, it has main- tained, and is likely to maintain, a remunerating price, while its great bulk, and consequent expense of transportation, will prevent a depreciation by foreign competition. The advantages to the community THE FAR^IEIl'S MAGAZINE. 425 are, that they obtain an equal amount of nutriment j had better, always as good, wliite crops after pota- at half the jirice of wheat, one acre of potatoes toes as after tvu-nips. jjroducinfjf as nuich nutriti\-e matter as two of I Some fanners com])lain that their pasture is not wheat; whilst the additional waj^es expended in j so good after potatoes, and instances of this have labour on this crop, as compared with any of the j been frequently pointed out to me ; but I have cerealia, should recommend it to those who are ' always found in such cases that the potato crop had anxious to see the laljo\u-er emi)loyed. ! been planted on a bit of inferior laiid, too wet and No crop grown by the farmer is more dependent i weedy for a turni]) croj). Indeed, it is quite com- on a due apjjlication of manure for its siiccess than mon to hear a farmer say that he nieans to take the potato. This nnist always l)e a check on its too extensive cultiA-ation ; and if it does not directly return manure to the farm, it fiu-nishes the means of more cheaply and advantageously piu'chasing manure. It is calculated that an acre of turni])s consumed on the farm will leave one-fourth of its weight of manure for the next cro]) ; for example, potatoes on a piece of land because it is not clean enough for turnips ; and yet, without considering the pre^-ious bad condition of his land, he blames the jjotato croj) for his inferior pasture. If, then, I have succeeded in sho%\ing that, as exhausting crops, the turnip and potato are on a par, wh.ile the potato crop gives a considerable tliat 24 tons of turnips will leave G tons of d\mg. 1 profit, and tlie turnij) an actual loss to the grower. Besides the dung, 24 tons of turni])s will jiroduce \ and that all the gain to tlie farm from the manure 280lbs. of beef (90 lbs. of turnips being calculated 1 returned to it Ijy the turnip crop can be so easily to produce 1 lb. live weight of beef), so that the compensated out of the extra money \-alue of the value of tlie turnip croj) may be i)retty accurately other, I think my case will be completely proved by arrived at, and c()m])ared with the ])otato crop, adducing one or two instances in which it has been The land which would produce 24 tons of turnips actually found that the frequent repetition of the would grow 10 tons of potatoes, with the same value potato croj) is not followed by exhaustion of the of maniu-e ; and the expense of cultivation would l)e soil. In the account of Ktinchcombe Farm, in ])robably much the same, after all the costs of attendance, interest, and other incidents in the management of stock, are taken into account. Assuming, therefore, the exi)enses of both crops to be alike, we find the relative value as follows : — 24 tons of turnips give 2S0 lbs. of beef, at Od., 'i £7 0 0 And G tons of dung, at 2s. 8d., 0 IG 0 Total value of an acre of turnips £7 10 0 10 tons of potatoes, at 25s. per ton . . . £12 10 0 Total value of an acre of potatoes . 12 10 0 Additional xahxe of ])otatoes to the grower £4 14 0 After making a fair allowance for the manure j)roduced by the turnip crop. The value of the dung is calculated on its relative productiveness as com])ared with guano, according to the experiments by Mr. (Jardner, detailed in tlie last number of the Joiinial of Aijricullitrc. The expenses of cultivation and manure will in both cases amount to lietween f G and £7 an acre ; so that while on turnips the farmer will scarcely realize £1, on potatoes he will have between £4 and £j after making due allowance for the manure returned to the farm in the consumption of the turni]) crop. And when the rent is charged against the balance remaining, we are not surjirised that farmers, who calculate accvu'ately the expenses of their ditierent crops, are beginning to look upon turnijis as a necessary evil, for which it would be most desirable to substitute a jiositive good. By the relative composition of the turnip and jiotato crop, it a])pears that 24 tons of turnips and 10 tons of ])()taloes extract from the soil and air nearly an ecpial amount of dry solid matter, in both cases 2.1 tons. So that, while lioth crops are theoretically the same as exhausti-rs of tlie soil, it will be found in practice that tliey are equally amehorating as jireparative crops ; for I ha\'e often Gloucestershire, in Part \\. of the Royal Agricul- tural Society's Journal, it ajjpears that potatoes have been taken as a crop every /////•(/ year for the last 40 years, and the writer, Mr. Morton, says, " I have been in the habit of riding over the farm ten or twelve times a year for the last 23 years, and I can safely say that, instead of a diminution in the crops, there has been an increase not only in the yearly return of each of the three crops grown, but also in the quality and fertility of the soil." Hie writer of this can point to two instances, the one a j)atch of about an acre, in which potatoes are the oi)hj crop which have been grown for many years, and last year the croj) was extremely luxuriant ; the other, a few acres in the possession of a tradesman, which have been crojipcd for many years back with potatoes and barley in succession, the one-half of t land l)eing every year in potatoes, and always good crops ; in both cases the soil hasbeen well manured. It may appear strange to some that 24 tons of turnips should leave only G tons of dung; but if they consider the matter, they will find that nearly 22 tons of the turnips is jiure water, and that 90 per cent, of the bulky crop which they toil themselves and their cattle 'in drawing oft" the land during great part of the winter might be much more easily obtained by a jiipe from the mill-race ; indeed, the greater luxuriance of the turnii) crop on the west as comi)ared with the east coast of the island may be very jirobably accounted for by the greater fall of rain during the year in the former, furnishing more readily the chief constituent of the cr()|). The interests of the owner of the land will be sufticiently guarded, not by ])rohibiling the crop from being grown, but by having the tenant bound, during the latter years 'of his lease, to purchase a proportionate quantity of manure for the iiotatoes he sells oft' the farm ; but the fact of a good crop ot potatoes being grown is a guarantee to the landlord that the land has been fairly treated, as without an abundant sui)i>ly of manure an abundant crop of potatoes could not be produced.— Dh/«//j>4- Herald. 420 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cultl'Re of the vine, with a view to domestic wine-making. By J. Towers, Mi;MUF.R OF THE Lo.NDOX IIOinU'ULTCRAL SOCIETY. At this season of the year, all that can be done is to rej;fulate the jiruning, in order to provide a due supply of fruit adapted to the strength of the trees, and the quality of the green fruit, fitted for the manufacture of white wine ; for, it is to be under- stood that ripe green grapes yield wines of far inferior quality, the two sugars— that is, the natural sweet principle of the Ijerry, and the cane sugar which, unfortunately, we of this country are com- pelled to introduce — not assimilating during the process of fermentation, so as to confer a bland, homogeneous flavour. The rec/, or claret wine, must be permitted to ripen its fruit, because otherwise we obtain no colour from the berry or leaf, and its saccharine ])rincij)le is so weak that the whole of the sugar must be artificially added. Where vines already exist in a state of bearing, we must contrive so to balance the strength of the tree against the quantity of fruit shown in the advancing shoots, as to husband the former by retrenching the fruit, and giving the foliage rather a predominance, in order to imjjrove the tree. Mr. Clement Hoare, the great grape cultivator, laid it down as a principle, " that the capabiUties of a vine to mature fruit was in direct proportion to the circumference of its stem," and he exhibited a scale in the first edition of his book, wherein he commenced with a stem of three inches in circum- ference just above the surface of the ground, as the smallest girth at which a vine should be permitted to bear at all, and then only 5lbs. From that girth every further increase of half an inch was consi- dered adequate to allow of an additional 5lbs. of fruit; thus, as three inches (i. e., one inch in diameter of stem) gave 5lbs., 3h inches gave lOlbs., and six inches (or two inches in diameter) were equivalent to 35lbs. of fruit. But, although we may assume dimensions of stem as a criterion for want of a better, it cannot be received as a sure or correct guide. I ha^'e raised vines during the course of twelve years, and for all purposes— for the wall, the vinery, and for pot culture— by single eyes, short cuttings, coiled cuttings, and layers, and have seen stems of all sizes, which have produced good cro])s year after year. The oldest vine in the open air, a black Frontignan, planted in 1830, now measures about six inches at its base ; it has l)orne fruit for nine years at least, but being tender, and uncertain in its setting, has never rii)ened a productive crop. A Sweetwater, of the same age, has occasionally produced above 40lbs. ; while, in the ^dneries, smaller stems have filled a long house, and, at one- third of the age, bore am])le quantities of beautiful fruit. But there is one precaution which should be attended to, which is this : — It is very usual for a tree, either at or just above its emergence from the ground, to form a node oi- collar greatly broader than the portion of the stem either above or below it : this, if measured, would give a si)urious estimate of the real breadth and circumference. But, of the cause of thickening, we can only observe, that it will be materially inlhienced Ijy the ojierations of the pi-uner. Every development (save that of fruit) tends to add fibro-ligneous substance to the stem ; therefore, if a tree be regularly and seA'erely }>runed, its bulk \\dll progress but slowly ; if, on the contrary, most of the foliage and second- ary shoots be retained, those organs of nutriment will contribute their portion to the main body of the tree, and that, whether we view the lea^'es (ac- cording to modern theory) as the absorbers of carbonic nutriment, or refer the latter solely, or mainly, to the absorbing power of the roots. The true jjrinciples of pruning will be better explained by describing the habits of the vine, and the branches which may, and ought to, produce the grapes. Every shoot that breaks from a simple hud of a young vine that was pruned back to two or three eyes is usually barren, and carries leaves only; the branches produced by their shoots, Avhen rij)e, constitute however the skeleton, or mother-bearers, of the future tree ; these ne^•er bear fniit during the first year, and are, according to the long-rod system, to be trained right and left horizontally, to such an extent as the strength of the stem may warrant, and this can be determined by the dimensions of the two shoots, which ought not to be less than a quarter of an inch in diameter. In preparing these shoots at the previous Novem- ber pruning, it will be prudent to retain three of the strong, lowest-seated buds, for the following reasons. Every green development adds strength and A'olume to the stem and its root : two shoots, to become the mother branches, must, as has been said, be secvired ; and, unless three buds be re- tained, there will be no certainty that the two branches can be obtained; finally, these buds ought to be seated so low on the stem that there shall be no difiiculty to bring the shoots down, even to the earth, if required. During the season of their growth, the three ought to be trained upright, in order to give freedom to their most ample development; and then, at the period of autumn pruning, the wood being i)erfectly ripe and flexible, choice can be made of the two best situated for horizontal training. At the same time, the weakest of the three shoots, all the vestiges of tendrils, and the short stems that may remain from laterals curtailed during the prenous growth, are to be cut away, and the two selected branches secured to the wall in their horizontal position. These branches are now in the condition of bear- ing icood J that is to say, they emerge from a central main-stem of at least three years' growth, that stem ha^'ing l^een cut down every autumn, after the growth had ceased. They are the i)roduc- tion of the last summer, and therefore are yearling wood upon older and more mature M'ood. The fruit of young trees is always borne by shoots which proceed from the mature shoot of the pre- ceding summer : though it is found that, in old vines, whereon the spur system has been rigidly main- tained upon the same rods during a course of years. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 427 the (jreen shoot of the same year, jiroiluce from tlie base of ohl s|)iirs (thouf^h pruned ahiiost close home to the rods), will be extremely fertile. This, , however, is an excei)tion to general practice, which few gardeners venture to adojit ; and therefore, \ adhering to custom, 1 would state it as a natural, leading fact, to those who have old fertile vines, of whatever figure they may be— whether trained perpendicularly with straight rods, or after the more free and unformal figure, called the fruit-tree I training — that the grapes are borne by the wood of the present year (say 1845), which emerge from that \ of the last year (1844); and therefore, that great j circumsi)ection is required to keep but a few young ■ shoots, furnished with two or three fine eyes, thus allowing spaces to train the new shoots with facility. ^^'e shall resume the subject next month, when we see what the vines can effect after the late extra- ordinary season of cold weather, which has not, even now, bade us farewell, but vaccilates and wavers from day to day, as if unwilling to give vegetation a chance of rallying in due time. As, however, the long-rod system is productive of the finest wood and largest fruit, and exhibits the most elegant figure, it will be well worth while for those who have jjlanted young vines that are sus- ceptible of easy modification, to lose no time in training strong perpendicular shoots of yearling wood, at least three feei apart, to obtain a moderate supply of grapes, according to the age and strength of the stems. In due time the entire system of the '* long-rod" method shall be described ; but at jjresent we must be content to do the work of one year in that year, and therefore to lay down any convenient shoot, or shoots, of an old vine, and secure it in the earth ; in this way an entire wall has been gradually covered with fine, renewable rods, three feet asunder, to the length of forty or fifty yards, from three or four vines only. 0\ the mismanagement of stable- dung manure, especially as re- (;ards exposure to rain. ^^'hilst, at a vast expense, the farmer is import- ing bones from the shores of the Black Sea, nitrate of soda from South America, guano from the coast of Peru and from the African coast, he is, in t(jo many instances, negligent of the manure that his stable and stalls sui)ply. This negligence has been pointed out, and emphatically dwelt on, by every recent writer of authority on agriculture. As re- gards exjwsure to rain, and the injurious ett'ects of it on the kind of m.inure just alluded to, examjdes of it, in this ])art of England (Westmoreland), where an unusual (juantity of rain falls, are of every-day occurrence, and almost everywhere to be met with. The instances of neglect constitute the rule ; of care and attention, the rare exception to the rule. The farm-steadings here are commonly on declivities ; the dung-heap is usually iilaced on a declivity, often by the road-side, and, in conse- quence, after every shower of rain, the water that runs off, percolating through the manure, r(»!)s it of some of its most valuable ingredients, especially its soluble salts, and soluble animal and vegetable matter, tending to starve the fields and pollute the roads. I have had the curiosity to collect portions of such drainage, and subject them to examination ; and I now i)ro})ose to give the results, as they show, in a very marked manner, the injurious effect, and how great is the loss to the farmer in consequence. The first jjortion collected was from a heap of stable-dung, fresh from the stal)le, just before a heavy fall of rain, the accomi)animent of a thunder-stonn, uearly an inch falling in three hours. The ^\•ater wliich ran from the dung heaji was of the colour of a weak infusion of coffee, of sp. gr. 1002, to pure water as 1000. With the pecuhar smell of stable-dung, it had a just jjerce])- tible smell of ammonia, which was rendered more distinct by the addition of lime. Under the mi- croscope, it was found to contain, beside a fine granular matter, and many minute fibres and scales, particles resembling grains of jJoUen, and two or three different kinds of animalcvdes. Evaporated to dryness, it yielded 2.0 per 1000 of brown matter, which j)artially deli(juesced on exjjosure to a moist atmosphere ; emitted a very faint smell of ammonia, when mixed with lime, indicating that, in the pro- cess of evaporation, most of the anuuoniacal salt had been expelled, and was, therefore, carbonate of ammonia ; and when incinerated afforded as much as 51.6 per cent, of grey ash — 48. 4 per cent, of the extract having been destroyed by the fire, which may be considered as animal and vegetable matter. The ash was found to contain the sulphvu'ic, j)li()s- phoric, and carbonic acids, and chlorine, with })otash, soda, lime, and magnesia, chietly in the form, it may be inferred, of carbonate of potash, phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, and common salt. The projjorlional quantity of the suljihate of lime was large, as was also that of the fixed alkaline salts, whilst that of the jjhosphate of lime and the magnesian salt was small. The next specimen examined was from a much larger and older dungheai), after a fall of 1.12 inch of rain in about 12 hours. The lluid was of a darker brown than the preceding, \ery similar in its a])pearance under the microscope, of higher sp. gr. viz., lOOS, aiul yet less rich in anunoniaeal salts, for when mixed with lime, it gave only a very faint smell of ammonia ; and its extract obtained by evai)oration, when mixed with lime, had no smell of the volatile alkali. It yielded, on evapo- ration, 10.4 per 1000 sohd matter, similar generally to that obtained from the first portion in its (|uali- ties, abounding, in like manner, in salts, and those of the same descrii»tion. The third specimen col- lected for examination was froTU the same dung- heai), after a fall of 2.79 inches of rain in twenty- four hours. It differed so little from tlie preceding, that it is not necessary to describe it particularly. As might have been exjiected. it was more dilute, its s]). gr. Iteing 1004. The last si)cciinen I shall notice was one ])rocured from the same dung-hea]), after four days of dry weather following the heavy rain last mentioiu-d. It was oo/ing out slowly in small quantity ; was of a dark brown hue, nearly 4-28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. transparent, and almost destitute of smell. Under the microscojjp, it exhibited a few particles and fibres, a very few minute crystals, without any ani- malcules. 1 had expected to have found it a con- centrated infusion of the dung-heaj), and, as such, of high specific graA-ity. But it was otherwise : its specific gravity exceeded very little that of the i)re- ceding, and was less than that of the second jiortion, being only 1005, leading to tlie conclusion that the manure was nearly exhausted of its soluble matter. The weather during the four days without rain, was comparati\-ely cold for the season (it was in Sep- tember), with a northerly wind — the thermometer, even by day, below oS degs., and at night once or twice ajjproaching the freezing point, lliis low temperature must have checked or ])ut a stop to fermentation, which, in its turn, might have pre- vented the further formation of soluble matter, 'llie infusion mixed with lime indicated the pre- sence of ammoniacal salts ; it emitted a jiretty strong smell of ammonia ; and, judging from the effects of other re-agents, its composition was veiy similar to that of the ])receding })ortions. It i)robably con- tained a larger proportion of vegetable matter, humus and humic acid, than the earlier drainings ; it gave a very copious precipitate with the acetate of lead. The bearing and ajjphcation of these re- sults hardly require to be pointed out. As the drainage of the dung-heap exposed to rain con- tains some of the best — the chief ingredients of active manure (excepting always the insoluble phos- phates), it follows, that the more the dung is exposed — the more it is subjected to the washing and percolation of rain-water — the greater must be its loss, the poorer and more exhausted it must become ; and that shelter from rain is essential as a prevention ; such a shelter as can only be well secured by a shed, under which the manure, if too dry, may be watered with the liquid that ma)' ha^-e run from it, received into a tank, and be subjected to such treatment, from admixture or othenvise, as has been found l)y experience likely to render it more efficient. These results, moreover, I need hardly remark, are perfectly in accordance with the experience of intelligent farmers, in many instances on record, of the extraordinary fertihsing effects of irrigation with waters — the washings and drainage of the farm-yard and dung-heap. — John Bavy, M.D., in the Edin. Phil. Journal.— The Oaks, Am- bleside, Oct. 12, 1844. FARMERS' CLUB HOUSE. The montlily Meeting of the Committee took place on Monday, April 7. Present — Committee of Management, Messrs. W. Shaw, James Wood, and Thomas Knight; W. Shaw, Esq., in the chair. The following gentlemen were elected members : — Henry Salter, Arundel, Sussex. Edward Wardroper, Midhurst. Abraham Courter, Mucking, Essex. The discussion in the evening did not take place, in consequence of Mr. Smith's absence in Scotland. Great disappointment was felt and expressed. BURTON-OX-TREXT FARMERS' CLUB. At the meeting on Thursday, March 20th, the following i)a])er was read by Mr. Bass, and dis- cussed by the club : — "The subject which I have engaged to submit to your consideration this evening is, ' The best mode of employing i)rofita)3ly the largest amount of la- bour on a farm.' 1 was desirous that the tjues- tions relating to an extension of the demand for labour in agriculture should be discussed by you, bscause I consider them of vital importance to every class of the community, from the landloi'd to the labourer. But, though strongly impressed with the conviction that much might be done by farmers to benefit Ijoth themselves and the landowners by emj)l()ying m )re labour, and thus raising the condi- tion of the labourer, I was certainly not incited to the task I have undertaken by any confidence in my ability to convince others. Instead, therefore, of trusting to my own imperfect knowledge of the subject, I sought the assistance and advice of friends who have paid more attention to it; and I can claim little part in the obser\'ations I am about to offer, except that I have adojjted those sugges- tions only which coincide with my own views. " The inquiiy into the means of applying more labour to the land is full of interest when A'iewed only as an agricultural question, but its importance is vastly enhanced by its intimate connexion with the condition of the labourers. Possibly the state of the agricultural labourers may not now be de- cidedly worse than at former periods, but there are few who do not admit that it is far below what it ought to be ; society has at length began to recog- nize as one of its duties the obligation to improve the moral and physical condition of those who earn their daily bread by daily labour ; and the public attention and sympathy are earnestly directed to- wards everj'thing which affects their welfare. It is certain that the poor have a right to demand that the Legislature, and each individual in society, should do all that is possible to secure to them that which Burke aflfirms to be their inahenable right — ' the fruits of their labour, and the means of making their labour fruitful.' To place within their reach the decent comforts of hfe, and to elevate their tastes and habits, so that their pros- perity may be a blessing to them, is what a sense of duty, no less than our natural feelings of kind- ness and humanity, incites us to adopt every prac- ticable means of accomplishing. It is, therefore, incumbent on us all to use every endeavour to ascertain if we have not the poM'er of giving some assistance towards the attainment of this very im- portant end ; and we should have great reason to rejoice if we should discover that the same course that would most conduce to the welfare of the labourer is ])recisely that which is essential, not only to the advance of our own jjrosperity, but even to the permanence of the very moderate profits which, as farmers, we now enjoy. " It is not a very easy thing to ascertain in what way the desire to efl[ect a permanent im])ro^'ement in the condition of the labourer can be usefully carried into practice. The i)ro])lem to be solved is, as far as I see, no less a difficult one than the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 429 discovery of a sure means of teaching; to the poor ' our economical system cannot he enlarged, except their duties, and of creating in them the will to do the means of sul)sistence be first provided. Either what is right and j)rudent. For, were it possible our agriculture must become more productive, or that the state of the labourer could e\-er be raised we must im])ort food from abroad in exchange for to that point which might procure an universal other products of our labour; or, otherwise, if our exemption from want, it could only l)e by the uni- po])ulation continue to nudtiply, it must multi- versal exercise of ])rudence. I agree, therefore, ply to starve. Employment in agricultiuT is, there- with those who think that the chief instrument of j fore, the chief thing to be looked to in our present effecting a lasting amelioration of the condition of i circumstances, that maintenance may be found for the labouring classes nuist be education, taking | the labourer, whether in agriculture or in trade, that word in its largest sense, and including in it j That this desideratum may be sujjplied is, 1 think, all the influences which form the moral and intel- apparent from the fact, that in some districts, and lectual character. Every merely economical ap- on some farms in almost e\"ery district, tlie eniploy- phance by which it is sought to alleviate the state of ment of labour, and the consetpient average produce the poor, is transient or lasting only in i)roportion as it tends to promote or impede the ac([uirement of a habit of i)rudence by them ; and tliere would, I apprehend, lie much less difference of opinion with regard to the jjolicy of many of the remedies pro- ])osed for the distress of the labourers, if it were taken into consideration how much every econo- miccil change is jiractically modified by the moral habits it engenders. ■'To wait, however, until moral influences release men from the evils of poverty, would be to repeat the folly of the clown who waited on the l)ank of the ri\'er until the waters shoidd ha.\e Wowed by to allow him to cross over. Such a change in the habits of the poorer classes must necessarily 1)e the work of much time, and fa\-oura!ilc circmnstances must consjiire with moral influences before the change can begin. In the de])ths of ])overty there is no hojje of the birth of new \irtues. The dis- tress must first be relieved before the virtues of ])rudence and self-denial can be instilled into the minds or blended with the habits of the people ; it is only then that they can collect strength to resist the influences which inevitably lead to ])o- verty. This is our state : we have a })opulation, whose numbers exceed the profitable demand for their labour; wages are, consequently, reduced below that point which will j)rocure for the laI)our- ers the indisjiensable necessaries of life ; not only does their distress excite the grief of the benevolent, Ijut the sentiments and acts which it engenders in the jjoor themselves cause serious alarm to the states- man ; we cannot delay till education has wrought its gradual change, Ijut an immediate remedy is to be found for the i)resent evil. Our state would he unfortunate, indeed, if there were not hope that new sources of pros])erity are yet untried, by which it is possible to give a new imfjulse and enlargement to the nation's resources. Whatever difference of opinion there may be as to other expedients, all are agreed that they sink into insignificance when com- ])ared with the great one of i)roviding new fields of labour. This is the only jjower on which we can safely rely, either to al)ate the |)resent distress, or to render efficient the means of that moral improve- ment by which its recurrence can alone be obviated. In every one, tlierefore, of the divisions of indus- try— in commerce, manufactures, or agriculture — it is inciunl)ent on us all to ascertain whether we have yet reached the limits of the profitable employ- ment of labour. In agriculture, especially, it is imi)ortant that new sources of lal)our should be o})encd ; for it is manifest that the other divisions of of the land, is nearly double what it is in other districts and farms, which are equally fertile by nature, and which differ only in being cultivated with less skill. No man can travel ten miles through any i)art of the country without becoming assured of what I ha\'e stated ; aiul if we take into consideration the great im])rovement which science is hkely to effect in e\'en the best of our present systems of culture, we shall be under no apprehen- sion that our means of subsistence should fail for generations yet to come. "Such ])eing the circumstances — on the one hand the great necessity for new spheres of labour, and on the other a large capacity in the land for the employment of more labourers — the landowners and the farmers have it in their power to benefit the community in a manner and to an extent un- equalled by the power of any other class. And I am as perfectly convinced that in adopting such methods of culture as would afford emi)loyment to the largest nundjer of labourers, the farmer will in an equal i)roportion increase his own profits, as I am that the average yield of land has not reached its limits by at least 50 per cent. Indeed, if the most productive S3'stems of management were not at the same time the most profitable, it would l)e strange that all the most enterprizing and inteUigent farmers should adopt them. " But it must be confessed to be easier to see the e\-il that ])resses on us, and the means which alone can alleviate it, than it is to convince the farmers, who hold the remedy in their jiossession, that they can apply it without injury to themsel\-es ; or to put them in a i)osition to apply it, when they are convinced. Many farmers still require to learn that their practice is capable of imjjrovement ; many who know this truth do not possess the ne- cessary cai)ital to enable them to carry their know- ledge into practice ; many who know what would best serve their own interests, and who have or could procure the required cai)iud, are deterred by doid)ts of another kind— they fear lest prices should fall, or they fear that others might rcaj) the capital which they might sow on the land. It is when viewed in connection with the condition of the labourer that the cpiestion as to the mode of tenancy assumes its greatest imjjortance. When this subject was discussed at a late meeting of our club, it seemed liie general oi)inion that, unless some consideral)le change in the common mode of letting land was ])rcviously elfeeted, it was in vain to expect fanners to expnui their cajjifal freely in improvements. Now, as without an expenditure of 430 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. additional capital on tlie land, there cannot be an additional demand for agricultural labour, and as this demand is the essential condition of an ame- lioration, whether economical or moral, of the labouring classes, is it not an imperative duty for the landowner to give to every tenant such security as will justify a i)rudent man in investing his capital in the culture of his land after a sujierior method. But sometimes, when farmers are tirged to apj)ly new manures, or to jjursue an improved l)lan of husbandry, they rejil)', and not A'ery absurdly if they be tenants-at-will, that the effect of an improved agriculture will be to create a rise in rents, and not a rise in the profits of farming. The ultimate effect of such improvements as are now in progress will, I suppose, be just what the efiect of the improvements of the last thirty years has been ; rents will in some degree rise, and the price of produce will in some degree fall. I believe one reason why rents have not fallen since the period of high j)rices, in the same degree as the price of agri- cultural produce has fallen, is, that agriculture has been much improved since that time. It is this which gives the landlord so great an interest in agricultural improvement; but it by no means lessens the advantage, to the tenant, of an improved system. It is possible that the rate of profit will not be permanently raised ; but it is sufficient for the farmer if he reaj) the immediate profit of his superior management. He will certainly be bene- fited, like all other classes, while he is in progress; and if, when the progress ceases, he should be brought to the same level as before, yet in the meantime he will certainly have gathered the reward for all his skill and labour. It is the opinion of many economical writers, that rents cannot rise in consequence of an improved system of cultivation. They argue that land yields a larger return for the first quantity of labour applied to it than for the second. And this is, perhaps, the case when the first and second quantities of labour are directed Avith equal skill. But, under the actual circum- stances in which we are placed, I question whe- ther the rate of rent and profit will not be as large for eveiy addition made to the ordinary labour of the farm, as is yielded by that ordinary amount of labour. If, for instance, land imder the old- fashioned system of husbandly yields 2i quarters of wheat per acre, and if, \\'hen rendered as fertile as the best management can make it, the same land yields fl\'e quarters per acre, then I think the labour and capital i-equired for the additional 2^ quarters will not (if the most improved system be skilfully applied) exceed what is now, on an unskilful system, required to produce the first 2 i quarters ; and, con- sequently, twice the profit and twice the rent would be returned by the expenditure of tAvice as much capital. "After all, however, these points are of minor importance to us as farmers. All we have to con- sider is, first, whether a change in our system of husbandr)' will return a higher ])rofit, our rent being the same; and, secondly, whether we hold the land by such a tenure as assures us that the capital we expend in effecting the change will not be put in jeopardy. 'ITiough I agree with those (and they comprise a large majority of all that have studied the question) who hold that no consider- able extension of agricultural im])rovement can be effected (at least by farmers) \\'ithovit a general change in the mode of letting land, I yet think that very much requires to be done in diffusing sound opinions on ])oints of practical procedure. It is in performing this office that such societies as ours are capa])le of producing much benefit ; and I cannot help promising myself that I may Ije the means of eliciting such information from some of the mem- bers ])resent as may confirm my opinion, that the way of farming which is most conduci\'e to the welfare of the labouring community is also most profitable to yourselves. For myself I am not, as you know, a large jjractical farmer ; yet, as far as my own experience has extended, I can adduce it in proof of the advantage of high farming, and of employing much labour on the farm. But I will not i)retend to be able to treat the subject in a strictly practical way, and to contrast in detail the comparative advantages of any two systems of management ; besides, to do this would occupy too much of your time. I can only direct your atten- tion to a few general questions as to methods of culture, and leave to other memljers the task of filling up the outlines I trace. I shall not even attemjjt any formal proof that the more modern system of husbandry is more profitable than others ; you must allow me to take it for granted, those methods which the most inteUigent of our ])ractical farmers pursue are superior in point of profit to those which have been superseded. I might adduce testimony to prove the fact from almost every number of the ' Royal Agricultural Journal ;' abundance of examples are there recorded of the successful adojjtion, by large farmers, of an im- proved system. But I choose rather to cite what has been done by labourers on small allotted pieces of land, in places where the jilan of allotments has been well tried. Nothing can, in my opinion, so strongly show that the common waj' of fanning is sus- ceptible of immense improvement. A labourer, with- out capital, and with no machinery but his spade and fork to tin his land, will pay the highest rent for his little plot of ground, will apply to it much more laljour and get much more produce, and will make it yield an ample profit, after deducting the highest rate of wages for every hour of his time on it. How is it, then, that the farmer, with skill, experi- ence, and capital, and every means and apphance to boot — good implements and machinery of every kind, and the advantage of horse labour — is beaten at the same trade by the unaided and uninstructed labour of the poor allotment holder? I do not mean to say that such examjjles are common ; but it is enough that such do exist where the plan has been properly directed. I wish I could say that in this neighliourhood we could point to such examples; but the experience hereal)outs rather teaches us what is to be avoided, than what is to be imitated in any extension of the allotment system. Now, if the land returns a profit for additional labour with the spade, it can only be a want of skill which makes it fail to yield a still higher profit for an equal extension of labour when the plough is used. I intend only to point out such differences in the old and modern systems of THiE FARMii:R*s Magazine. 411 fariniiiLf as lead to a £frcat (lirttTcnce in respect to ' the (juantity of lal)oiir ein])loye(l ; and I content [ myself witli ai)i)ealinir to the experience of each in- ' dividual, whether those farmers who employ the ' greatest amount of lal)our are not gettinf^ the best ])rofit from their land, as well as generally paying tlie higliest rent too. I know instances close to our own town wliere. on farms of the same extent and of the same (piality, the manual labour on one exceeds tliat on the other fourfold ; and I verily belic\'e, that the rate of profit on the more costly management is increased in i)roportion to the amount of labour. I confine myself to recommend- ing such a ])lan of cultivation as would raise the amount of labour on all our land to what it now is on the best managed farms, liut this is not, l)erha])s, all that is desiralde; for there is much reason to believe that a great change might be bene- ficially made, if the venerable sujjerstition in favoin- of ancient pastures were partially abohshed. Many of our best jiractical authorities hold, that by j)loughing up a great portion of our ])astures, an ecjual amount of food for cattle might be grown on the land, while tlie corn grown alternately with the cattle crops would supply subsistence for a large addi- tional ])o])ulati()n. It is calculated, that more than one half of all the land of the country is in grass. AVhy should not at least one half of this be brought into tillage, and be thus made to provide labour and food f(jr the labourers, who now languish for want of these two things ? There is, miquestion- ably, a great quantity of natural pasture, stocked with the best grasses, and so prolific in its yield as to be able, not only to sustain its own condition, but to bear an almost annual carrying oft' of the croj) to enrich with its manure other land ; there are also localities where it is advantageous to kee]) the land in pasture, as on tlie banks of streams where it is liable to be flooded, or where increased fertility can be given by means of irrigation. It would ])e an act of madness to subject any part of such land to the plough. But there is also a vast breadth of j)asture land ^^•hich has formerly been ploughed, which has been stocked with such grasses as are neither nutritious for cattle nor suited to the soil, or the soil of which is not naturally fitted for the growth of good grasses, but needs exj)osure to the air, by tillage, before its natural fertility can be brought out. On all such lands the pasttu'e might be advantageously ])loughed up, and cither kept ])ermanently in tillage, or occasionally laid down again. Many i)as- tures decline after being down in grass for a course of years, and if ploughed up, and well laid down again with good grasses, will I)c much superior in fertility to the old turf. Of course I do not intend to argue that the tenant is to enjoy the whole jjrofit which would accrue from the tillage of old i)asture lands. The landlord wo(dd be fairly entitled to share the benefit. I may here remark, that in re- turning ploughed lands to grass, which is intended to lie down more than three or four years, it is calways most economical to ado])t in the beginning a more expensive plan than fiie one comuioidy |)ur- sued. It is always better to ])lant such grasses as are known to be nutritious and suitable to the soil ; for if we truiit to chance for a stock, it i^ scarcely to be expected that a turf of good and suitable grasses will be produced. Proper seeds should be sown, therefore ; but, perhaps, the best way of laying down is by cutting strii)s of turf from a good pasture on similar soil, and planting the land with it between the rows of a drilled corn crop. This plan has long been successfully jiractised in Nor- folk ; and a writer in the last numl)er of the ' Royal Agricultural Journal' affirms the cost in labour not to amount to more than £1 per acre, while the injury to the pasture from which the turf is taken is insignificant. I grant, however, that the ]»loughing u]) of old pastures would be a very impolitic innovation, if the system of cidtivation afterwards should not be such as wcmld sustain the land in a high state of fertility. Now that we have learned how the land can alone be kept in condition — that it is by growing large tillage crops of cattle food — all the old opinions as to the neces- sity of keeping a great ])ortion of the land in grass must be either abandoned, or considerably modi- fied. In France, the proportion of arable land to the natural jiasture is as more than five to one ; but it would seem, that in that country they have as far exceeded the proper medium as to the limits of the plough, as M'e have fallen short of it ; for I notice that a ])roposition has been made to the Le- gislature during the present session to convert a considerable portion back into grass, in order to take advantage of the facilities which otier for irrigating it. There are also many suggestions for altering the {)lan of culture on tillage lands which have not as yet been tested by sufficient experience to warrant any general adoption of them, but M-hich, as well as the conversion of pasture into tillage land, would create a large additional demand for labour if they should be adopted generally. "Without, however, entering on this debateablc ground, there is a])undant room for charge if we only agree that those imjirovements which a large experience has s-anctioned ought to be diftused over the whole length and breadth of the country. " Labour may undoubtedly l)e applied on the land in a manner, or to an extent, to exceed in cost the value of tlie increase of jiroduce it causes the land to yield. But this is the case only when labour is injudiciously ajiplied, and no just argument can be raised on the fact against the skilful emjiloyment of as much labour as is necessary to bring forth from the land the largest amount of jiroduce it is cajiable of yielding. The only limit to the employ- ment of labour, when it is rightly directed, is the refusal of the land to yield an e(|uivalent of jiroilucc in return for it. Some farmers do get as much from their land as the nature of our climate will ])crmit, and it is precisely these farmers wiio com- plain least of such depressed markets and unfavour- able seasons as we are now visited with. If I can shew therefore, that by any changes in the mode of culture a greater amount of crop can be grown, I shall have made out a case for the employment of more labourers ; or if it can be shewn that by a more careful management such a saving may be elVected in the consumption of cattle food as to make an e(|ual lough furrow, a small space in each field, and he woidd thus ascer- tain the degree of benefit he might exj)ect from extending the operation over the whole field. " Whether a crop l)e sown broadcast or other- wise, it is equally necessary to I'educe the soil to that state which best fa^•ours the germination of the seed and the ^-igorous growth of the plant ; the labour, therefore, should be alike as regards the preparatory tillage. But there is a difference in the amount of labour employed in different ways of sowing. The drill has on every ^^'ell-managed farm su])planted Ijroadcast sowing; and it seems likely that the i)lan of dib1)ling will on many of our best soils take the place of the drill. Either dibl)ling or drilling I take to be essential to all good farming, for without one or the other operation you cannot clear the land from M'eeds, or stir the soil around the growing jjlants, both ^\'hich things are necessary Ijefore the soil can be made to yield its largest harvest. It is quite certain that all croi)s are greatly benefited by the admission of air into the soil ; and the increase of crop from this cause alone will repay the cost of hoeing, even on clear land. But the main object of hoeing between the rows is to clear the soil from weeds ; the more weed you destroy, by so much larger is the 1)ulk of the cultivated crop, and by so much less laborious is the prejjaratory tillage. Here, then, is a very wide field for the extension of manual labour on the farm. By substituting the sow culture and fallow croi)s for bare fallows, broadcast somng, and rest in pasture, the lal)our of the farm is not only in- creased, but the proi)ortion between the quantity of labour by men and by horses is greatly changed. Perhaj)s not more horses are needed in one system than in the other, and almost all the additional labour re(piired is performed by men. Or, what is better, women and young people can do much of the additional work, and the condition of each laljourer's family is thus rendered more jirosperous. And this substitution of manual for horse labour is not only beneficial to the agricultural labourer, but is of great importance when viewed in relation to the general wealth and ])ower of the nation. The labour of a man costs to the farmer about as much as a well-kej)t horse ; but there is a wide difference in the quantity of farming produce they respectively consume, A horse will eat in the year the croj) of three acres of fair land ; the labourer and his family will consume only the produce of half as much land of the same quality. Every substitution therefore of man's labour for that of horses tends to increase the quantity of land which is a^■ailable for the sus- tenance of that part of the population which is not engaged in agriculture. " Another large source of labour over, and alcove what is usual in common practice, may be found in the care of the manures made on the farm. Much of the feitihzing substance of the solid part of manures is lost by the slovenly way in which it is managed ; and, hitherto, the liquid part, which has been discovered to be the most valuable of all, has been almost totally neglected, and suffered to run away in waste. Farmers, however, are now become aware that the cost of tanks to coUect the liquid manure, and of the labour of applying it to the land, will be amjjly repaid them. " It would seem on the first view of the matter, that improved machinery has a tendency to lessen the amount of manual labour on the farm ; and it is true tliat it has a direct tendency to do this, for, Ity means of a superior implement, a given operation is performed with less labour. But the indirect effect of superior mechanical contrivances is gene- rally to increase the labour emplo3'ed, because by means of them many operations are rendered pro- fitable which were not practicable before their invention. Such operations as dibbling, or a deep stirring of the subsoil, for instance, might not jiay for the labour when i)erformed by manual laljour ; but when convenient machines are invented, these otherwise inadmissible changes may be generally introduced into practice. Or, the cutting and steaming cattle food might not repay the cost of the labour before good machines were brought into use, whereas the saving of food more than compensates for thelal)our employed in preparing it for cattle by means of a proper aj)paratus ; and so it is in most of the other oi)erations of the farm. Hence, one of the first steps in adopting an improved system of farming should be to get rid of the old ill-contrived implements; and thus, by saving labour in one waj', gain the power of extending it to a greater in another. " If the condition of all the land were raised by the ^-arious means I ha\'e ad-\-erted to, and the full fertile power of the soil directed to the immediate crop by a diligent culture din-ing its groA\'th, the labour emjiloyed would be on an average increased by one-half; and the average crop would be aug- mented in like proportion. But there remains another department of the farm, in which much more labour may be emj)loyed : that part of the crojjs which is consumed by cattle may be eaten on the ground, or may be gathered and consumed in sheds or yards. It may be further subjected to still more labour before it is eaten, as by slicing roots, breaking corn, cutting hay and straw, or by steaming many articles of food. By reducing dry fodder into fragments as well as by steaming, its nutritive proi)erties are more easily extracted in the stomachs of animals, and a smaller quantity of food is therefore required by them. Late experi- ments too have demonstrated the truth of Mr. Liebig's theory j that when animals are kept warm THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 435 they consume much less food than when they are exposed to cold : so remarkable was the difference in the quantity of food consumed, and the j)rogress in fatness of the sheep submitted to trial by Mr. Childers, and others who have repeated liis experi- ments, that from their data we might conclude that in cold weather twice the quantity of food will be yielded by animals from the same quantity of food when they are warmly housed. Here then is a Ijroad margin for the emjjloyment of additional labour in tiie care of cattle, and in the jjreparation of their food during the winter. It is not only in the winter, however, that the system of gathering cattle crojjs is supposed to be profitable. When cattle are pastured in the fields, a large proportion of the herbage is destroyed by their treading and by their excrements. Owing to this and other causes, it has been found that the same amount of herbage or green crop will sustain a much larger quantity of stock when the plan of soiling in sheds or yards is j)ursued. The manure too that is made from the forage produces a much better effect by being laid on the land in a i)roper manner, and at the ))roper time, instead of being scattered on the surface in hot weatlier, when a great jiart of its virtues must be lost. There are certainly objections to soiling from fields at a great distance from the homestead, because of the labour of carrying the crop home and the manure back. As long too as the slovenly habit of wasting the urine of the cattle is continued, the practice both of summer soiling and winter feeding cannot l)e practised to any extent without causing a serious diminution of the fertility of the land from which the crops are borne away. This has, perhaps, been the chief cause of the failure of the practice hitherto ; but now that we know the value of what used to be wasted, and have discovered easy methods of avoiding the waste, it is practicable to consume any quantity of the i)roduce of the land in yards or sheds, because no loss of the fertile i)roperties of the soil is in- curred ; we return to the land, when the manure is carefully managed, precisely what would ha\-e been returned had the cattle depastured the crop, and we return it when the plants most retfuire it, and when it will neither be evaporated into the air, nor washed out of the soil. " It would have been impossible for me to do more, in a j)aper which I fear you have already found too long, than to glance at the main features of the modern system of husbandry. If you adojjt this system, by growing large tillage green crops, and by consuming plenty of oilcake or corn to sustain the land in high condition ; by a deep tillage, to give sjjace for the roots to expand them- selves freely ; by a careful stirring of the soil between the rows of the crops, to give air to the soil, and to clean it of weeds : if you jjractise all this, there can be no doubt that not only the unemployed labourers may find work, but that a large addition to their numbers will be required. You will, I expect not, fail to agree with me, that a corresponding increase of produce would result from the change of system which would require tliis large increase of labourers; and if you do agree with nie in this, it will be high time to ask the question why the change is so long delayed. Tlierc is no fear lest wc should overstock the market \vith our produce, for our pojmlation enlarges full as fast as our agri- culture can jjossibly extend. The only thing that is doubtful is, whether we can furnish subsistence fast enough, or to a sufficient extent ; but this is only doubtful to those who do not know the capa- bihties of the land, and the j)ower of caj)ital to bring them forth. Nothing is wanting but that cajjital should flow as freely towards agriculture as to the other parts of our industrial system. I do not think it impossible that, when science shall have perfected our agriculture, sid:)sistence may be found for nearly double our jjresent population. It is no less necessary for the farmers to bestir themselves to maintain their own interests, than it is the interest of the community that they should advance. 'ITie great body of farmers are now In'ought into such a position, that if they do not move onwards they must be l)eaten ott"; they are brought into competi- tion with prices based on the calculations of the leaders in improvement. Unless they also adopt the improvements l)y which alone they can hope to compete on equal terms with the present prices, they must fall into a still worse state, and the com- munity must suffer through their inaction. As I have said, our agriculture must extend, or food must be brought from other countries, before our commerce or trade can be extended, and the want of labour in the trading districts can only be supphed by the landowners and the farmers. Let us calculate what would be the effect of employing an additional labourer for every 100 acres of oiu- land. First, it would add about 250,000 to the number of agricultural labourers in England ; the number now employed is about 700,000 ; the addi- tion to the whole would be, therefore, more than one-third. Now, the proportion of adult agricul- tural labourers to the whole population of England, is as one to about eighteen. Further improvements in agriculture wovdd cause the i)roportion of people engaged in other occupations to be still greater ; but supposing the present state of things to continue, and that the labours of the additional 2 50,000 \yould be as productive as the labour now employed, this addition would enable the whole population to increase from fourteen to eighteen or nineteen millions ; that is, for every new adult labourer we emi)loy, nearly twenty may be added to the number of oiu- jjopula- tion. I believe that almost every man wlio tills a hundred acres of arable land, could very well em- l)loy at least two additional labourers ; e\-ery such person has it therefore in his power to call into l)eing nearly forty others. " In submitting to you this sketch of the chief alterations which seem to me to be re(iuired in the ordinary way of farming, I have, as you will ob- serve, confined myself to such improvements as have been adopted and sanctioned l)y the authority of great numberM of our best agriculturists. 1 do not think it would have been prudent to go further tlian this, because it would scarcely Ito prudent for farmers, as a body, to change their system for one that has not been tested by a large experience. There are, however, many instances where men iiave cultivated farms, and have employed more than double the number of labourers recpiired to ciUtivatt; the land on the system I propose ; and I 436 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. do not doubt that ultimately a great i)art of the land will be tilled j)retty much as a garden is now culti\ated. In manj' soils which are deep and fer- tile, spade husbandry, or an imitation of that me- thod by implements which the ingenuity of man is sure to supjjly when they are wanted, would, I belie^-e, be more profitable than any other. Bvit for the present, we must be content with bringing up the rear of farmers to the point where the \'an- guard now are ; and Avhen the enterprising few lia^'e explored the way to still greater improvements, another generation may. in their turn, be urged to follow in the steps of their leaders. "Now permit me to repeat, that if both the land- o^\'ners and the farmers do fold their arms and de- termine to abide in their present ])osition, the rent of the landlord, the profits of the farmer, and the Avages of the labourer will surely all decline toge- ther. For without improvement in agricidture, you cannot furnish employment for the labouring com- munity ; and whether employed or not, people must be fed (though badly fed) out of the same fund from which rents and profits are derived. It is quite impossible to have at the same time a pros- perous agriculture and a superabundance of la- bourers over the demand for their labour. It is only, therefore, by making the basis of labour wider in proportion to the increase of labourers, that you can save yourselves and the labourers too from severe calamity. To do this, requires the co-ope- ration of both landlord and tenant. Where per- manent improvements are needed in the land, or where the buildings of the farm require additions to enable a tenant to imi)ro\-e his system, when the land is not under-drained, and there are want- ing yards and sheds for beasts, and urine tanks, the landlord must either incur the necessary outlay, or oiFer his land on such terms and wnth such guarantees as will tempt men of capital to efi[ect the improvements. It rests \vith the landlords, also, to abolish wide fences and hedge-row timber, to keep do-wn the game, and to give pemiission to break up such of the pasture lands as would be more pro- fitably cultivated under tillage. By granting this last privilege to a large extent, landlords have it in their power to give such a stimulus to agriculture, and secondarily to trade and commerce, as would immediately giA'e employment to every labourer we have. Let the landlord do these things, and imitate the example of that pattern of landlords, the late Earl of Leicester — let the land under such a tenure as wiU induce men of capital and enterprise to take their fanns, and exact that every tenant shall pos- sess the requisite ca})ital to farm the land as it ought to be farmed. The tenant must do his part ; first by procuring the needful ca])ital, which I am sure is at least one-half more than is on an average employed ; then by jjroviding himself with perfect implements, and a large stock of good cattle and sheep, to be kept partly on oilcakes or corn ; by preserving his farm manures, and purchasing what- ever artificial manures his land may need; by growing green crops instead of fallows ; ])y taking corn less frequently, and when he does take it, getting as much in one crop as he now does in two. "I am aware that it would be a vmn task to endea- vour to persuade farmers, or indeed any other class, to sacrifice their own interests for the benefit of the labourers. Although it be the common duty of the whole of society to do all it can to relieve the labourer from indigence, yet no one class can be reasonably called on by the others to per- form it to their own detriment. I ha^'e, however, endea\'oured to show that our benevolent feelings towards the poor and ovir regard for our own in- terests would lead to the same result ; and I should be very hai)i)y if what I have suggested should induce you to pay such attention to the subject as may lead to the conviction that the advance of the labourer in his comforts and in his character, and of the landlord and farmer in prosi)erity, can at the same time be accomplished by the adoption of an n imi)roved system of cultivation of the land." In the discussion which ensued, exceptions were taken by members on several points in the paper of Mr. Bass, but it was agreed that the system of high farming was most profitable to the farmer, and would, if more commonly practised, conduce to the welfare of the labourers. GRASS FARMING. I am induced, by seeing an article in a late number on " Grass Farming round London," to trouble you with my views on the subject. Your correspondent, truly says, the landlord gets little rent and the farmers are unable to get a living ;• how is it possible they can under the present system ? If you will allow me, I will giA'e you in detail the out-goings for a farm— say one hundred acres of land — in this parish (Finchley) : — Rent, at an average of 40s. an acre £200 0 0 Rates and taxes 50 0 0 Blacksmiths, wheelwrights, and saddlers' bills 30 0 0 Wear and tear of carts, ricks-tackle, &c 20 0 0 Keep of a team of horses, exclusive of accidents 80 0 0 Farm labour — \nz.j carter, at 15s. per week 39 0 0 An ordinary man at 12s. per week 31 4 0 Manuring 34 acres, at £3 per acre 102 0 0 'lliatching 3 ricks of 40 loads each 14 0 0 Haymaking 80 0 0 Each load of hay sent to London costs the farmer as follows : — Selling, 5s. ; binding, 2s. 6d. ; spending-money to carter, Is.; tolls average Is. 6d. ; that is, at 10s. per load 60 0 O £706 4 0 Now, what will be the retin-n under the most favouralde view ? — let us see : — 140 loads of hay, at £4 . . . .£560 0 0 After-grass, 120 acres, at 15s. .. 90 0 0 Casual profit from 2 cows . . . . 30 0 0 £680 0 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 437 Here is an expenditure of £7O0 4s. to be met with an income of £680, leaving tlie farmer minus yearly £26 in. I have charged notliing for the in- terest on capital — nothing to keej) a house over his head. Is not this a crying injustice } ought such things to Ije in a rich country like England ? I defy any practical man to prove that my estimate is at all over-rated. But the principal faidt of the system rests with the o\vner of tlie land : why do they not allow their tenants to plough uj), say half, of each farm ? Would they do this, there would be an end at once of the iigricultural distress, I mean in the county of Middlesex. The landlord would ])enefit by it in the increased value of his land ; in consequence of the annual crop of hay being reduced, the market would not be glutted, as at present, whenever there is an average croj) ; the returns for the tenant woidd l)e nearly doubled, as I will show you — for example, a crop of hay brings in, one year with the other, with the after- grass, somewhere about £5 ; suppose the farmer ploughs uf) about fifty of his one hundred acres, his first crop, I should say, will consist of sixteen acres of potatoes ; these will not want any manure the first year, in consequence of the land having laid so long imder sward ; the expense of the acre of i)otatocs would then be as follows : — Seed, 1 ton per acre £3 0 0 Setting 0 3 0 Hoeing twice, at 7s. 6d 0 15 0 Digging, say 10 tons i)er acre, at 4s. 2 0 0 P]lxtra outlay £5 18 0 Tlie returns would be, on an average, say ten tons of i)otatoes, at 50s., £25 per acre. The next crop of sixteen acres I should recommend to be peas ; the cost of seed would be three bushels ])er acre, at 6s. per bushel, that is ISs. ; drilling and hoeing, 15s.; making in the whole, £1 13s. per acre more than the grass crop would cost : the average re- turn for a crop of peas would stand thus — eight quarters of i)eas, at 32s., £12 l6s. per acre. The third croj), viz., sLxteen acres of wheat, will cost for seed £ 1 per acre. ITie return will be on this fresh land : — 4 A quarters, at 45s £lO 2 6 22 loads of straw, at 30s 3 15 0 Per acre £13 17 6 The total returns will stand as follows, viz. : — 16 acres of potatoes, at £20, that is £5 per acre under the estimate. .£320 0 0 16 acres of wheat, at £13 . . . . 208 0 0 16 acres of peas, at £12 . . . . 192 0 0 £720 0 0 Thus forty-eight acres of fresh land as arable will bring in yearly the sum of £720, while fifty acres of grass-land will average but £340. But you will say, "You have charged nothing for ploughing." In answer to this, I beg to say that the same horses and carts, with carters to act as ploughmen, will be al)le to do this instead of drawing hay which would have grown on the land ; besides, it is a fact that the grass-farmers' horses lay still fully one- third of their time for want of employment on the land. I am (|uite satisfied that unless something of this kind is done,'and that immediately, the greater part of the Middlesex farmers must and will be rxiined. A Middlesex Farmek. — Land Steivards' Journal. LECTURE ON THE REARING FA'ITENING OF STOCK. AND By Mk. J. C. Nesbit, before the Maidstone Farmers' Club. {From the Maidstone Gazette.) Mr. Nesbit, in commencing, said that on the last occasion on which he had had an opportunity of lecturing before the cIuIj, he had pointed out the nature of some of the different productions of the vegetable kingdom ; he had explained in what res- pect these had varied in their composition, but vegetable substances might be generally divided into two great classes ; those which contained nitrogen, and those which were princii)ally com- posed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. The vegetables containing nitrogen formed a large class, and were those which were found to be the best adapted to the nutrition of animals ; and, indeed, without which, it would be impossible for animals to exist. He had pointed out in his last lecture the difference in the composition of those vegetables which did not all possess alike the power of nour- ishing animals, and he had then shown that this power in the plant was in ])roportion to the amount of substances in the soil from which the power could be derived. He had then called the attention of the members to the wheat plant as an instance, and they would recollect that he had stated that the principle which contained nitrogen in vegetables was called gluten, and entered largely into the com- position of vegetable fibrine, vegetable albumen, and vegetable caseine, which were found on analysis to agree in composition wnth animal fibrine, animal albumen, and annual caseine, as nearly as could be expected from the analysis of i)ersons living, some in France, some in (Jermany, and other places, who had made these analysis without any communica- tion with each other. If the audience compared the composition of ox's flesh with vegetable albumen, they would see that it contained nearly the same i)roportions of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The same remark would apply to bullock's blood. Carb. Hyd. Nitg. Oxg. Vegetable albumen, . 54.2 .. 7.5 . . 13.9 •• 24.4 Ox flesh 52.5 . . 7.S . . 15.2 . . 23.3 He would defer for the present a further notice of these substances ; and would then refer to the con- stituents of those articles of food which contained no nitrogen, and which were shown in this table : — Carbon. Water. Starch 1'2 10 Cane sugar .... 12 11 Gum 12 11 Sugar of milk .. 12 12 Grape sugar .... 12 14 U G 3 438 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The audience would see that these unnitrogenous comj)ounds were principally composed of carbon, o.\-}'gen, and hydrogen, or, in other words, carbon and water. Starch and cane sugar were of the same composition, excepting that the sugar had eleven atoms of water to twelve of carbon ; whilst the starch had only ten atoms of water. The com- position of gum and of milk sugar, they would find to be also nearly the same, only that grape sugar contained twelve of carbon and fourteen atoms of water, whilst milk sugar contained twelve atoms of water. These latter substances were highly neces- sary to the maintenance of the animal system. The audience well knew that the air of the atmos- phere contained a powerful principle called oxygen, which had a strong destroying tendenc}'. It was, as they knew, this oxygen which caused their fires and their gas lights to j)urn, and which consumed all created things. It caused bodies to burn rapidly, like the coals in their grates, or the gas in their lamps, or it caused them to burn slowly, like animal and vegetaljle substances during decomposi- tion. It was the action of this oxygen on all vegetable and animal substances which caused them to decay ; or, in other words, to change their present form and combinations for others. When oxygen was absent, it was impossible that this change of form could take place, and advantage had been taken of this circumstance in the preservation of meat, lliousands and thousands of pounds of meat was now preserved on the principle of ex- cluding from it the oxygen of the air. The meat or fish to ])e preserved was placed in a tin canister, and subjected to such a degree of heat as should drive off a considerable portion of the oxygen it contained, and when this had been done, the canister was immediately soldered down. After meat or fish had been subjected to this process, it would keep thousands of years, ])roviding the oxygen were still kept from it. No alteration of the tem- perature affected it. 'Die luxury of English and Scotch salmon might now be enjoyed beyond the Indus ; and, indeed, the dehcacies of every country might 1)6 enjoyed in every other, by this simple ap- pUcation of scientific knowledge. The packing of fish in ice also prevented the action of the oxygen of the air ujjon it, and fish was frequently brought packed in this way from other countries to London, where it arri^-ed in a fresher state than the fish which was taken to London from a short distance as soon as it had ])een caught. 'Hiis oxygen of the air consumed the bodies of men as well as all other substances. Man was constantly inhaUng the air in common with other animals, the oxygen of which air had an action similar to that which he had descril)ed, on their systems. An adult consumed in food, during a year, as much as seven or eight hundred weight. A man could not grow without the atmosphere ; but a man did not grow se^•en hundred weight eveiy year ; on the contrary', he fretjuently existed for a great many years without becoming a single ]Jound the hea^'ier, for all the food which he had taken. The question then arose, what became of the great mass of food which he had consumed ? The visible result of this great mass of food were of trifling weight compared with the whole, and the man did not increase in bulk. What then became of this food ? He would explain what became of it. This oxygen, which was breathed by man, con- sumed the food which he had eaten, and which had thus passed away invisibly. With the carbon of this food the oxygen of the air form.ed carbonic acid, and was breathed out with eA'ery expiration. With the hydrogen of the food, it formed water, and was at the same time breathed out in vapour. The tendency of this constant action of oxygen upon the animal system, was to destroy it ; and it was only what was called the vital force under certain con- ditions, amongst which were, the supply of food and other things, which enabled the animal system to resist its influence. The audience, however, well knew that the action of the oxygen of the air upon the animal economy was continuous. It never ceased, in the pursuit of its victim, till it had idti- mately consmned it. Of the mode in which the ox^'gen operated in its attack, some idea would be gained by taking the case of a man being kept without food. The man becomes less and less in weight, his muscles shrink, the tissues of his body rapidly diminish, eventually the brain is attacked, and the vital force is extin- guished by the hand of death. What has become of the animal tissues in this case ? The oxygen of the air has consumed them. It has enabled the oxygen to overcome the vital force. Why ? Because one of the conditions vmder which the vital force could alone I'esist its action — namely, the supply of food, was absent. If the audience were to take the case of a fat man who Avas stan-ed to death, they would find that the oxj'gen of the air first attacked those portions of the l)ody that were least essential to the support of life, reserving the most useful till the last. The fat would be the first portion burned and consumed by the oxygen. The fat was a combination principally of carbon and hydrogen. The carbon would com- bine with the oxygen and form carbonic acid gas, whilst the hydrogen would combine with it and form water. The other parts of the body would gradually yield as he had described. As this distinctive action upon the animal economy could not take place under a proper supply of food, it was evident that the supply of food formed an antagonistic force, which was constantly arising from this sujiply, and which is able to resist the oxygen so long as the proper supply of food is kept up. When they came to consider the nitro- genous principle, the audience would see how beautifully it had been ordained ; that, when a proper supply of food was kept up, the action of the oxygen served to dissolve the food and render it subservient to the maintenance of animal life ; to convert, in fact, fibrine, albumen, caseine, wliich were the elements of nutrition, into muscle, bone, intestines, nails, and hair. The table to which he would direct the attention of the audience, would show these elements of nutrition and producers of flesh, which were — Vegetable fibrine ~\ Vegetable albumen > Gluten. Vegetable caseine j Animal flesh Animal blood , THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 430 The audience were well acquainted with the com- 1 position f)f an ej/o^, which consisted ahnost entiiel)' of animal albumenj this beiiisf uei\rly of tlie same comi)osition as vcpfctable albumen. The yolk was formed of nearly the same su])stance as the white, exceptinjr that it contained more colouring matter, like the colouring matter of bile. Yet, under the influence of the vital force, when the egg was placed in certain conditions as regarded heat and moisture, it was well known that this alljumen possessed all the constituents of the bones, flesh, veins, arteries, brains, claws, and feathers, of the chick that was hatched. All these things had lieen produced out ; of the albumen of the egg. Was not this strong '• exidence to prove that this same albumen, fibrine, and caseine (for in composition these substances were nearly identical), was cajiable of jjroducing the same substances when taken as food into any other animal body, as it had ])roduced in the formation of the chicken r It was in this M-ay that all animal bodies, the human body included, was produced. Now, the audience would see that a regular su])ply of i)roper food liad the ett'ect of reforming and maintaining the vital and most important ])ortions of the animal system, which, in fact, were the only portions that could be rei)laced, when they had l)een worn away by the incessant attacks of the oxygen of the air. Had the audience ever asked themselves whence was derived the heat of their l)odies ? How was it that every one j)resent could manage to keej) up his warmth of temperature in cold weather ? The Esquimaux showed an instance of man maintaining the animal heat, in the midst of a climate which kei)t e\-erything around liim in a frozen state from one year's end to the other. Where did this heat come from ? The audience knew well that if they bxu'ned charcoal, the burning of it caused it to give out a large amount of heat. Now this very same substance, charcoal (or, as chemists called it, carl)on), which they burned in one state in the air, was burned, although in another state, in their lungs, and the lungs of every animal. It was ])erfectly unimportant whether they burned this charcoal (juickly or slowly ; in each case pre- cisely the same total amount of heat was gi\-en out by a pound of charcoal, whether it was biu'ned quickly or slowly ; for the heat given out, when a j)ound of charcoal was burned in (ivc minutes, although more intense for a given time, was yet not more than the heat maintained by the slow com- Ijustion of a jwund of charcoal during twenty-four hours in the human lungs. The muscles of the body which he had si)okcn of, as having ])een formed from all>umen, iibrine, and caseine, com- l)rised a large proportion of caribou or charcoal, as much as fifty per cent. It was this carbon of the human body which was consumed by the oxygen of the air. It was to this combustion of carbon in the lungs, by the oxygen of the air, to which man owed the maintenance of his animal heat : this was the case with all animals wliich lived on (lesh. He would next refer to tliose animals whicli lived on vegetables, and this would Itringthe audience to the consideration of anotlier principle in food. All flesh-eating animals, as man in a savage state, the lion, tiger, and others, miuutuiucd tlicir animal heat only by the consumption of the muscles and tissues of their own bodies. This was a fact, which it was of great importance to l^ear in mind. If a ])erson eat any substance containing sugar or starch, ex- amination and experiment had ])roved that every trace of the starch and sugar had been assimilated by the body. He (the lecturer) had shown that it was imjjossible for sugar and gum to form animal muscle, because they were not similar in composi- tion, as they contained no nitrogen : it was, there- fore, ])erfectl}- imjjossible that any flesh coidd be formed of sugar, starch, or gum. Still, although these substances could not form flesh, they acted a very important part in the animal economy— namely, that of supporting the resjjiratory process. If a man were to live without starch, in order to keep himself warm, he would have to take a great quan- tity of muscular exercise ; for, in such a case, the instant the muscles remained at rest, that instant they ceased to be attacked by the oxygen of the atmosphere. One of the most beautiful thoughts of Liebig, was that of conceiving that it was utterly impossible to move a finger without causing a jjor- tion of the nuiscles which had given rise to that motion, to be absorbed. In effect, if two men were to be left without food, and one v.-ere to take exer- cise whilst the other sat still, he would most cer- tainly be starved to death long before the other. 'ITie action of the air, and the expenditiu-e of force, were simultaneous. An excejjtion to this principle existed in the case of fever, where, although a man's voluntary muscles might remain at rest ; dissolu- tion would rapidly take place, through the unnatural action of the involuntary nuiscles. Now, in the comi)osition of gluten there was less charcoal than in albumen and caseine, so that, as he had said before, a man, if he lived ujjon gluten, must take great exercise to keej) himself vv-ann ; because to keej) uj) his natural heat he must con- sume a certain quantity of carbon every day, and if this certain quantity were not sui)plied by his food, it must be supplied by the waste of the tissues of his I)ody ; and there was no mode of promoting the consunq)tion of the tissues of his body excepting by the ex])enditure of animal force. The kinds of food which served to maintain the res])iratory pro- cess and ])roducc fat, were the following : — Fat, oil, starch, gmn, cane sugar, grape sugar, milk sugar. An adult man burned every day from his food as much as 14 ounces of cliarcoal, to furnish which would re([uire about 10!) ounces of flesli, a much larger (piantity than a man could consume ; but if he were to feed on any substances which contained starch, gum, or sugar, he would assimilate a sulh- cient quantity of carbon to furnish the amount for keeping up the warmth of his body, and consume it in his lungs without tlie necessity of his taking exercise. If he were to live wholly on ilesii meat, he would be obliged lo walk twenty or thirty miles per day to enable him to furnish, from the material of his own Ijody. this amount of carbon. It was tlie o|)inion of I,iel)ig that if a man, haying five animals of a given weight, on which, with great exercise, he migiit exist without starch for a certain number of days ; were, instead of tliese five auimalp, to have but one animal, ami also llie weight of this one animal in starch in addition, he might subsist 4i0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. as long on this animal and the starch as he could ha\'e done on the five animals \\'ithout the starch. In the list to which he had referred, the audience would see that fat, oil, starch, gum, cane sugar, and the other substances mentioned were those best calculated to maintain the animal heat, whilst on the contrar)', the glutinous or nitrogenous food was best calculated for the formation of animal flesh and blood ; and that when these latter substances were resorted to, the effect was to increase the gro^vth of the animal. It must always be recollected that the groM'th of carni\'orous animals ne\'er could take place without flesh, and the elements of nutrition to suj)})!)' blood ; but it must also Ije remembered that when a sufficient quantity had been supplied for this purpose, e\'ery further ])ortion was positively injurious. He did not know whether he had succeeded in making himself understood with reference to these two distinct classes of food, and he would therefore recapitulate a point or two. He feared that the subject might appear dry, but still it was highly imi)ortant, and immediately ajiplicable to the ques- tion which they were then investigating, namely, the best means of rearing and fattening of stock. The substances necessary for keeping up the animal heat bj' combustion in the lungs ^^dth the oxj'gen of the air, were fat, oil, and sugar. From these substances it was impossible to produce flesh, because they contained no nitrogen. 'ITie sub- stances, howe\'er, which would sujjply flesh were filjrine, albumen, and caseine. These were nearly identical in composition with animal flesh and blood, and were consequently all adapted for fonuing flesh and blood. When any of these latter substances existed in compounds that were taken into the system, they Ijecame dissolved by digestion, and distributed to all ])arts of the body, in support of the \-ital principle which worked within. The first operation of these sul)stances was to furnish the heat which was neces- sary to animal existence ; and it was a singular fact, that the com})arative consumption of these siibstances by diflferent nations, depended on their position with reference to heat and cold. Where they ap- proached the cold regions of the north, they were compelled to consume a larger quantity of food containing charcoal, than those nations which were situated further south. The Esquimaux had been said to eat as much as 10 lb. or 12 lb. of whale l;lul)ber, to drink half a gallon of train oil, and to eat a dozen or two of tallow candles, at a meal. In the colder parts of Europe, it was well known that jjersons who were much exposed to the cold had enormous powers of digestion. It was not surprising that they should have such appetites, when they considered the vast cpiantities" of heat that was continually passing by radiation and con- duction, from men exposed to a cold atmosphere ; and who frequently lay o\it during whole nights in the snow, an intense cold that would kill the jjeople of warmer climates in hah" an hour. During this exposure they were consuming large quantities of charcoal in their lungs, in order to support that degree of heat on the maintenance of which their lives depended. The people of Hindostan were kno^vn to live wholly on rice, — their religion restraining them from the consumption of all animal food. Rice contained a very small quantity of fleshmaking substance, as it contained a larger proportion of charcoal than the fattening substances consumed by the people in the north, who could drink oS a pint of brandy or of wine at a dravight. If a man in India were to do this, he would soon find himself attacked by inflam- mation, by which he would be veiy quickly burned up and destroyed. It was of the greatest importance to gentlemen engaged in agriculture to know the difterent courses which it was necessary to pursue in fattening ani- mals, and in rearing them ; and he (the lecturer) would venture to make a few observations on that subject ; first as to the fattening of animals, and next as to the rearing of animals. The object of the farmer who fatted stock, was to create the largest qvxantity of flesh and fat at the least expenditure of food. It was quite possible for two farmers to fatten two bullocks; and for one of the farmers to find himself something in pocket, and the other to find himself a great deal out of pocket, by the operation, merely from not knowing a few necessary precautions which the other had known and followed. When the object was to fatten an animal, and that animal eat a redundant quantity of food con- taining starch, gum, or sugar ; the first process of this food was to furnish the animal heat; but the remainder of the food, after this had been done, would go to form fat. If no artificial means were taken to keejj these animals warm ; if they were exposed to the cold, they would require a larger cjuantity of this starch, gum, and sugar, to keep up their animal heat, than would be required by animals more comfortably placed. In such case, a portion of the food which ought to go to furnish fat, was consumed in supporting the vital warmth ; and consequently the animal would require a larger quantity of food to fatten It, than It would if it were kei)t warm. Agriculturists were well aware of this fact, that they never could fatten animals so well in the winter as they could in the summer. This result was easily accounted for. In summer the animals have the natural warmth of the sun to help to maintain the natural temperature of their bodies. This warmth of the sun answered as a substitute for so much starch, gum, and sugar. In the winter the farmer had, by an additional quantity of food, to pro\'ide this heat which in summer the sun would have supplied, — and even then the farmer could not give them much more food than would ser\'e to keep them as warm as in summer. A pound of coal was much cheaper than a pound of starch, of gmn, or of sugar ; yet it would gi\-e more warmth if artifi- cially applied, than either ; and if farmers were to keep their fatting places warm by artificial means, there was no reason why they might not fatten their stock as well in winter as in summer. In recom- mending that fatting animals should be kept warm, he wished it to be distinctly understood that he meant warming them by means of stoves ; not by i)a(l air, but by good air. If these means were adopted, the animals would, probably, take less food to make them fat, than was now consumed in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 441 keejjing them warm. The warmth of a f)()od flannel jacket to a man, was equivalent to 2lbs. or 3lbs. of food every dayj and if animals were clothed, they would get fat all the faster on the same amount of food. The use of clothinj^ was to jirevent the escaj)e of animal heat from the body ; and dothiufr was, with this \-iew, generally made of uon-conducting substances ; but the people of this country would not require so much clothing if they eat as much meat as the inhabitants of more northern regions. The effect of warmth in diminishing the quantity of food required was not a mere theory. It had been tried and proved by experiment. Earl Ducie at the AVhitfield Exam])le farm had ])laced 100 sheej) to fatten in a yard well furnished with covered sheds, and 100 more to fatten in an exposed situ- ation. The sheep in the yard consumed within a given tinre only 20ll)S. of food each, whilst those not ])rotected from the cold, consumed 2511)8. each within the same period, and weighed less. Another jioint in the fattening of animals was to jirevent motion as much as i)ossil)le, and, conse- (juently, to diminish their exj)enditure of force. If stock-keepers allowed motion, they allowed the ex- jjenditure of an imnecessary quantity of food. If a sufficient supi)ly of albumen, fibrine, and caseine, were given to an animal, a certain amount would be taken into the system to su])pl)' the vital j)or- tion which was wasted by the exi)enditure of force in the iuA-oluntaiy motions of the heart and the lungs, and of other involuntary motions. The greater the amount of motion made by the animal, either voluntary or involuntary, the greater the exercise of force, and, consequently, the greater the consumjjtion of food. If any animal which the farmer wished to fatten \\'ere allowed to ha\'e free motion, that animal must be sui)i)lied with a larger quantity of food than it woulil require, if its motion were restrained. One of the locomotives on the London and Dover railway woidd consume more fuel in going from Dover to London than it would in remaining with the steam uj) at Dover, and in like manner would their animals consume more food if they were allowed to scamper about a field, than they would if kei)t in quietude. The teasing of the flies in an open field also caused a mucli larger consumption of food by anunals exposed, than they would consume if sheltered. Cattle might frequently be seen gallop- ing about the fields in terror from the attack of a fly ; but even where force thus expended was not to so great an extent, the farmer might be asstired that even the motions of the ears and the tail of the animal in driving ofl" the flies, was an unnecessary expenditure of liis food. Animals ought to be al- lowed to take a small amount of exercise every day, in order to keep them in health, but after this they ought to be kei)t in a dark, warm, and cpiiet place for the rest of the twenty-four hours. In a dark jilace, animals jjroduced fat faster than in a light one, as in the dark they grew more drowsy, and felt more inclined to repose than to the exercise of force. If the audience saw a jtig which was exces- si\cly lazy and unwilling to take exercise, they might fairly calculate on its ra])idly becoming fat on a comi)arati\ely small portion of food. The same rule might be apphed to bullocks. The restless animal inclined to mischief would not fatten nearly so readily as the animal which was of a more quiet and tractable, and therefore called a more kindly disjjosition. An exj)eriment had been alluded to by Professor I'layfair, in which the comparative consumi)tion of food by animals at liberty, and in confinement, had been tried. The experiment was related in the " Sur^-ey of Sussex." Lord Egremont had put up in the usual way se\en hogs which he ^\^shed to fatten, but another, which was considered too small to fatten with the seven, of the same litter, he had put into a cage, which attbrded sufficient room for the pig to stand and lie down, but not sufficient for it to turn round. The seven hogs were ])ut up on the 25th of Febraary, but not weighed, and the other was put into the cage on the 4th of March. They were all killed on the 13th of April. ITie caged pig had consmned, at that time, exactly two bushels of barley meal, of which the other seven had had as much as they could eat, with about eight bushels of potatoes. The caged ])ig weighed, when put into the cage, list. 11 lbs., and before being killed, 18 st. 3 lb. For the first two days he was sulky, and would eat nothing, but after that he had recovered his api)etite. His dead weight, 8lbs. to the stone, was 13st. 2lbR., but the dead weight of neither of the seven exceeded 12st. 3lbs. 'lliere was no circumstance in this experiment to accovmt for this pig having fattened so much better than the others, excepting that he had been prevented from consuming his food in unnecessary motion. Another experiment had been made by Mr. Childers on the same point in fattening sheep, which had been recorded in the reports of the Royal Agricultural Society. Mr. Childers had found that sheep confined in a yard consumed one- third less than when they were left at comparative liberty; and at the same time jiroduced more weight of meat. If the farmer wanted his horse to do a great deal of work, he would not feed him on food containing starch, but would ])refer food containing gluten. The following table would show which vegetable substances most abounded in gluten : — Gluten or Albumen. Unazotized matter. lOOlbs, lbs, Flesh 25 Blood 20 Ueans , 31 Peas 29 Lentils 33 Potatoes .... 2 Oats 11 liarleymeal. . 1 I I lay S Turnips .... 1 Carrots 2 Red beet, ... 1 lbs. 0 0 51\ 5li 48 25 GS GS.l G8A 9 10 The audience would see. by this table, that peas, beans, and oats, contained a large (juantity of the substances which were necessary for replenishing the tissues of the body, which would be wasted by the exercise oi force. If the farmer fed his horse 443 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. on hay alone, tlie horse could not do the work ; because hay did not contain sullicient gluten for reproducing the tissues which his work had con- sumed. Another point to be considered in the fattening of animals was the difference in the amount of oxygen which was taken in by animals, in winter and in summer. 'ITie atmospheric air was expanded by heat, and contracted Ijy cold, and, consequently, there was a greater weight of air in a cubic foot of measurement in ^vinter than in summer ; conse- quently, animals breathed more air in winter in the same mmiber of inspirations, than in summer ; in cold chmates than in hot ones. In this point the ratio of supply and demand was admirably regu- lated ; for in cold weather and in cold chmates, a much larger quantity of oxygen was necessary for a sufficient combustion of charcoal to keep up the animal heat, than in warm weather, and in warm chmates. Another point to be considered in the fattening of animals, was the size of their lungs. Animals with large lungs would consume more food than those with small lungs ; as the former absorbed a much larger quantity of oxygen, and consumed more carbon than the other. Lions and other flesh- eating animals, and also the race-horse, which re- quired the capacity for immense exertion, all had large lungs ; because they required large lungs to corisume a large amount of muscle. But in" fat- tening animals, it was an advantage to get animals ^vith as small lungs as possible, as they fattened better on the same amount of food than animals with large lungs. Large lungs were absolutely necessary for the development of great force, but small lungs were best suited to the accumulation of fat. Another matter of the highest importance to the health and well doing of animals, was the A-entilation of stables and cow-houses. 'ITiis would be at once apparent, if the audience turned to the follow- ing tabular statement of the number of cubic feet of oxygen inspired, and of carbonic acid expired, daily, by a man, a horse, and a cow — Oxygen. Carbonic acid, Man 27 27 Horse 190 I90 Cow 137 137 It would be seen by this table that a man inspired every twenty-four hours, twenty-seven cubic feet of oxygen, and gave out the same quantity of carbonic acid gas. This carbonic acid gas was a deadly poison. It had been calculated that one part of carbonic acid gas, in twenty parts of atmospheric air, would render it unfit for respiration, and that a man, a horse, and a cow would Aatiate in this way — Cubic feet of air. Man 540 Horse 3800 Cow 2740 It would be seen that a horse or a cow required a very large quantity of fresh air CA-ery twenty-four hours, yet in very many stables and cow-houses no provision had been made for ventilation, not even so much as a small chimney. The want of A'entilation was the cause of many diseases, and this was easily to be accounted for. When any sub- stance was in a decomposing state, it had the jjower of communicating a tendency to decomposition to other bodies in its vicinity. If, for instance, yeast was taken from a brew-house and applied to a solu- tion of sugar, the yeast would cause the sugar to ferment, as well as ferment itself. In like manner all the vitiated air of a stable which was in a state of decomposition, would enter the lungs of the animals confined in it, and if it did not communi- cate to them a state of decomposition, it would render them liable to inflammation and disease, from the slightest causes. Many thousands of cattle had been totally destroyed by the want of ventilation. The account of the dreadful fate of 1 i6 Englishmen who were confined at Calcutta, in a room about eighteen feet square, and of whom all but twenty-three died in one night, from want of air, was, no doubt, fresh in the recollection of the audience. Nothing was more important to animal life and health than proper ventilation. If fanners were to warm and ventilate their stables and cow- houses, by a projierly directed currant of warm air, they would not only sa.ve by it a large portion of food, but also i)robably save the amount which the arrangements for doing so might cost them, from the farrier's bill, within a year or two after- wards ; their bullocks and cows would derive flesh and fat, and their horses a better state of health, and a greater capacity for exertion. A matter of no small importance in the manage- ment of animals was to see that their food was in a proper mechanical state, in order that they might most readily assimilate it. Cows, it was well known, chewed the cud. If animals were fed only on turnips, which contained about eighty-nine per cent, of water, they would turn the food into a pulpy mass, which would be of little value unless some other food were given along with it. If they were also fed on oil-cake, they would derive from it the gum of the seed, gum being a fattening prin- ci])le. Unless, however, they mixed their flesh- making and their fat-making food together in due proportions, they would grow fat which was worth perhaps only 2s. 8d, per stone, instead of flesh which was worth perhaps 4s. 4d. per stone. The great art of fattening was to raise proper propor- tions of fat and flesh at the same time. If they fattened with bean meal they would produce flesh, for bean flour contained 31 per cent, of gluten. By regulating the food in this way, the fatters of stock could increase the flesh and diminish the fat as much as they pleased, and it was best to do this in changing the food frequently, for all animals thrive better on a change of food. He had mentioned the flesh-making jiroperties of l)eans, and farmers might always obseiTe that the food which comprised much potash and soda, con- tained most starch ; whilst that which contained the phosphates of hme and magnesia, abounded most in gluten. In order that the audience might be clear on this very important point in fattening animals, he would again refer them to this table, that they might see which food contained most of these substances. In selecting their food, however, it would be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 443 necessary also to keep in mind the ditterent ])roi)or- tions of {fliUen he had shown in (htierent samples ; as he had shown that some wheat contained :i') per cent., whilst other samples contained only 15 per cent. It was evident that to produce the same amount of flesh would rccjuire twice as much of the latter as of the former sample. Perhajjs one of the best guides they could have as to the requirements of nature for the growth of animals was the com- position of milk, which was the following : — Composition of the ashes of Milk. Boussingalt. Ilaidlen. Phosphate of lime 0.231 0.344 Phosjjhate of magnesia. . 0.042 0.0G4 Phosphate of iron 0.007 0.007 Chloride of sodium .... 0.024 0.034 Chloride of potassium . . 0.144 0.183 Soda 0.042 0.045 Ash in 100 parts 0.490 0.67 It would be seen that milk was calculated to form flesh and bone, and was indeed the ver)' beau ideal of a flesh- producing and fat-producing com- pound. The phosphates of lime and magnesia were admirably calculated to form the bones of young animals, whilst the caseine produced flesh, and the sugar of milk jjroduced fat. All these sub- stances were j)resented to the young animal in a soluble state, which was the most favourable for assimilation. It was wrong to confine young ani- mals to potatoes, turnips, or other starch-contain- ing substances, because those substances did not furnish sufficient of the materials for flesh and l)one. They ought to sui)i)ly in addition, hay, oats, or beans, which contained gluten, and without which much of the other would be wasted. The lecturer here gave a very beautiful and clear description of the way in which the animal heat was diffused all over the body, by the blood ; which emanated from the seat of animal heat through the arteries. In conclusion, the lecturer expressed a hope that in considering these subjects of agricultural im- provement, they would never be disposed to under- rate the assistance which science could offer them. He besought all ])ractical farmers to believe that science was essentially ])ractical. Science might indeed be described as the readiest road to truth. The members of that club met and discussed the right modes of ploughing, sowing, and other agri- cultural operations. Now the ])ursuit of science was in the same way the search after the right mode of effecting otiicr agricultural oj)erations, of ecpial im])ortance to farmers. Science would teach them to account readily for many things which now puzzled them, to prevent disappointment where it now arose from (to the luiscientilic) unknown causes, and to secure success in many i)oints where they had not yet even attemjited it. The applica- tion of science and practice both consisted in efforts to effect valuable objects by the simi)lest means. Some discussion took place after the lecture, after wliich a unanimous vote of thanks was presented to Mr. Ncsbet, which was duly acknowledged. THE WEATHER. The great interest which has been taken, and ex- pressed both by individuals and by the press, in the weather of the last three or four months must be my excuse for presenting to the readers of the Carlisle Journal an account of the ^\'eather at Car- hsle, at the end of the first three months of the year, instead of waiting as usual until the end of the twelve months. This account will jierhaps be given in the best form if I present, in the first place, a tabular view of tlie temi)erature, ^kc, for the months of January, February, and March, for each year, commencing with 1S40, and then draw attention to anything remarkable that has occurred in those three months of the present year. jMean Temperature. 1845 1844 1843 1842 1841 1840 January 136.0 38.1 February 32.6' 33.3 March ,34.7i38.3 37.6 33.2 34.0 35.2 40.1 38.2 42.6t 44.0 46.3 39.6 38.5 41.7 Extremes of Temperature. LOWEST AT NICiHT, !l845il844 1843 1842,1841 1840 January | 3.0 23.0 18.8 21.5 February 1 1.4| 9.5 13.0 24.0 March 14.0 20.0 22.3 33.3 2.0 22.0 26.5| 25.3 24.0 27.0 HIGHEST IN THE SHADE. 1845 1844 1843 1842 184111840 January 51.0 52.0 February 51.0 46.9 March I 54.0j 57.8 51.5 45.5 51.5 53.4 60.0^ 56.6 49.9 5'2.0 50.8 49.4 61.0 52.5 Weather, number of frosty night.s. January February March . . 1845 1844 1843 1842 1841 1840 19 23 12 21 14 16 12 6 24 21 12 10 11 NUMBER OF DAYS ON WHICH SNOW FELL. 1845 1844 1843 18421841 1840 January . . . February . . . March ..... 5 6 10 3 17 9 6 12 8 14 3 6 1 0 5 10 5 NUMBER OF DAYS ON WHICH RAIN FELL. 1845 1844 1843 1842 1841 1840 14 6 11 12 15 8 7 10 16 8 9 12 13 22 22 18 10 9 From these tables we find that for the last three years January has not l)een the coldest month in the year ; but that February has taken its place in that respect. We also find that tlie first three 444 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. montlis of this year have been several degrees colder than the same months have been in any other of the above-named years, and, as far as I can gather, colder than the same months in any year during the present century, except 1814, when the aggregate mean temjjerature of those three montlis did not exceed 32 degrees ; which was, however, solely attributable to the thermometer having fallen to 2 degrees below zero in the month of January in that year ; thereby making the mean temperature of tliat month only 24 degrees. That year, ho\^'ever, was no jJaraUel to this one ; for in 1845 we have experienced tlie remarkable anomaly of the temjjerature decreasing as the year advanced, as was the case up to the 22nd of March ; while in 1814, as in other years, the mean temperature increased as the season advanced, though, it must be confessed, more slowly than usual. It will be seen also that the numl^er of frosty nights is veiy much greater than for the like period in the five preceding years. And it is a remarkable fact, that since the 29th of November last up to the 21st of March, a period 112 days, there having only been IS days on which the thermometer did not fall below the freezing point some time during the 24 hours. And of these 18 days 3 occurred in December, 11 in January, 3 in Februaiy, and 1 only in March. We find also that the number of daj^s on which snow fell is smaller than the number for last year, the deficiency having occurred in February, which was remarkably free from showers of eitlier rain or snow. The deficiency in the number of snowy days is not, howe^'er, nearly so remarkable as the deficiency in the quantlfi/ of snow which fell. This must have been remarked by every one. And, except the last week in January, the snow never laid upon the ground for more than 48 hours. This deficiency in the quantity of snow, however remarkable it may be when we rememlier that all the country round us has had its due quantity, and however agreeable it may hnve been to our personal feelings, has caused sad havoc to l)e made by the frost in the field and in the garden . And the more especiaUy so that as the sun gained vigour by the advance of the season, the frost seemed to gain vigour also, and, Ijetween the extreme cold of the night and the effect of the sun's rays during the day, the wheat and garden ])lants, and even shrubs, have had a sad struggle for their existence. The difference between the temperature of the night and that of the day in the sun was frequently as much (in the middle of March) as thirty-nine or forty degrees. The effect of this long frost vipon vege- tables has been sensibly felt in the London markets, where such a scarcity of vegetables has not been experienced for the last nine years past. Greens of all kinds are excessively scarce there. Savoys, which at Christmas might be obtained at one ])enny each, are now fetching four])ence. Here, too, we have felt the like scarcity. And those who cannot eat their Iamb without a lettuce will have to wait a long while ere they can enjoy either of those luxuries. Fortunately we have this knowledge for our consolation, that in almost all respects the weather of the three first months in 1844 was a parallel to that which we have just experienced. For in that year, as in this, the first three weeks in January were mild, and on the 30th of tliat montli, in 1844, as on the 28th this year, the severe weather began and continued with almost as little intermission, though perhaps not with quite such severity, until the 22nd of March, when it broke uj), as it did this year on the 21st. And we know that in 1844 the grass, and the fruits, and the grain were all ripe and ready for the garner much earlier than in former years. The deficiency in the quantity of rain which has fallen during tlie last three months is also \'ery remarka'hle. The quantity fallen being represented by the figures 4.277, while the average quantity for the last ten years is 6.888, sho\ving a deficiency of 2.61 1, or rather more than two inches and a half in these three months. But this deficiency has been going on since tire month of September last ; and if we look at the returns for the last three months of 1844, we will there find a deficiency of 3.702, or nearly three inches and three quarters. And sum- ming up the whole deficiency for the last six months, we find it to be 6.313, or rather more than six inches and a quarter. But the lowness of the ri^-ers in January, and the failing of water in wells, Ijore a more intelligible testimony to this fact than any figures of mine can bear. In comparison with other parts of this country, vv'hich, being in the south, are wont to be thought of a more genial temperature, our sufferings from the lowness of the temperature have been hght ; inasnmch as we find that in the immediate neigh- bourhood of Manchester the mercury in the ther- mometer fell 4 or 3 degrees below zero during the night l)etween the 30th and 31st of January. A similar fall of the thermometer, to the extent of 3 degrees below zero, occurred in the immediate neiglibourhood of London on the 11th of Feliruary. And at Saffron Walden, in Essex, the thermometer fell a degree and a half l)elow zero on the 6th of March. In fact, the daily London papers have teemed with paragraphs recording the imparalleled severity of the weather. The frost seems to have given way in the south on the same day as it gave way here, viz., on the 21st of March. On the continent also the weather has l)een most severe. It became so a few days earlier than in this country, and has continued \vitli imabated and unprecedented severity until the period when the change occurred here. Those who have read those details of its effects there, which have occasionally appeared in the newspapers, will congratulate them- selves that they have only been exposed to the effects of a winter in England ; for most assuredly there is as much difference between the severity of a continental winter and an English one as there is Ijetween the one country and the other in the facility for obtaining and the cost of providing the means of alleviating the rigour of the weather ; the Ijalance in both cases being very much in favour of our own country. Joseph Atkinson. Harruhy, near Carlisle, 3rd Ajml, 1845. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 445 TREASURE TROVE, BY DEEP DIGGING IN A VALLEY, ON BEACHY HEAD. The excessive wet of last winter ])re\entecl the best fanners under tlie Downs from preparing/ their stiff land for Belgium carrot-seed before the suc- ceeding continued dry weather ])revented their seed from vegetating ; but as the chalk soil absorbs all tlie rain which falls on it, I was able to sow ten acres of while carrots on Birling, between the middle of March and tlie middle of Ai)ril, which got root to stand the dry weather, and swelled into bulbs with the first rains, many of which exceeded 5lbs. weight. Thus encouraged, 80 sheep, which would, according to custom, have been sold in the autumn to l)e fatted elsewhere, were kept and fatted at Birling, on carrots and other farm /jrochtce only, and a pen of tliese sheep being foimd the best at Hailsham market, January •22nd, 1 am temj)ted to beg the favour of your printing this, to invite other farmers on the chalk soil to try early sowing in case dry weather should again check the growth of turnips on the Downs ; but I must add, it was not only early sowing which guA-c this useful cro]) of carrots for sheei) and oxen, which they thrive on 1)etter than on turnij)s, but having the land well dug, two s])its dee]), one spit under the other, with forks fourteen inches long, which was thankfully done at 3d. a rod, or i'2 an acre, which answered so well that I am now em])loying six men digging the chalk marl alhuial de])osit in a ^•alley, for carrots. And I think, whoever tried even half-an-acre of similar soil, from Salisbury Plain to Dover, would agree with me, no crock of gold would lie of equal value to being nhle to raise food on wliicli to fat the sheep reared on the Downs. Thos. Shorter, Bailiff of Birling Farm, on Beachy Head. Ffb. \st., 1845. TO L.\NDED PROl'RIETORS. If you have condescended to read my Bailiff's account of fatting sheej) on Beachy Head, I hope you will do me the fa^•our of reading the short account of the stej>s whicli led to it. In 1^37, I had travelled ten days in Belgium without seeing sheej) or ox. When I inquired how we were fed, I was told meat was i)]entiful, becau.se it was stall fed, which also provided inanurc for their luxuriant crops of grain ; when it struck me, that it would be more projitdhle to nuj country- men to follow their cxam])le, and raise enough by stall feeding at home, rather than to import in hulk their corn and cattle ; but the jiossi/jilily of increas- ing jjrodiice in England seems rarely under the consideration of associations for the protection of agriculture. On succeeding to my family ])ro])erty in 1840, and finding OGO acres on Beachy Head let for less than the fair interest of the money, the great farm house, three barns a hundred feet long each, and other suitable buildings ; finding, moreover, that the rates were 5s. 3d. in the pound, and much illness amongst tiie veiy small population, for want of work and sufficient food, 1 advertised the pasture part of this farm and buildings at the usual rent, and 300 acres of arable land at one shilling ])er acre, on condition of its being cul- ti\-ated by the sj)ade only ; and several Norfolk farmers came to see it, but they refused the farm, saying they could not hire land where they saw no turnips. On this, though old, feeble, and wholly unused to farming, 1 took the farm in liand ; directed that not more than lialf of tlie arable part should be sown witli grain yearl)', and tlie rest with green or root crojis for cattle. In 1842, having 250 cart loads more turnijis than my cattle coidd consume, three jjrincipal farmers under the Downs sent uj) their sheep to eat them on Beachy Head : this suggested the expedienc)', the following year, of keejiing the lean sheep which used to be sold at Michaelmas to be fattened else- where. But the excessive drought of 1844 checked the growth of turnijjs on the Downs, and I should have been at a loss for food if deep digging, as in Belgium, for carrots, bad not enabled them to push their roots deep enough to live through the dry weather. The extra work this has given has occasioned the reduction of the Poor-rates more than one half, and letting 36 acres to the laboiu'ers, mechanics, &c., has given much satisfaction, and thirty-six acres are now cultivated by manual labour only. Tavo acres are let to the innkee])er, who requires straw for the horses that frequent his stables, and last year he got seven quarters and fi\-e bushels of wheat by being alloA\'ed to break up the old turf and obtaining soot to maniu-e it by paying for his neighbours' chimneys being swej)!. The shoe- maker (a sedentary tradesman), who has a family, is glad to hire an acre ; and J. Harris, who was in the Eastbourne Union House in 1840, with his wife and seven children, where for food and clothing only they cost then 3s. a-head, which is equal to £70 4s., or the interest on £2,340 three per cents., with indefinitely additional demands as his family increased — this J. Harris, for the last two years and a half, has sujjported his family of nine jiersons on five acres by manual labour, and taught all the boys who came to him, reading, writing, and ac- counts, for three hours liefore noon, at one penny a-week each ; and for three hoiu-s after noon, how to till the soil as he does ; and Harris now, instead of being a receiver of rates, is become a i'.wek of rates. Harris' School is under the superintendence of his Vicar, who often calls, and he has kindly recorded his approbation in the School \'isitors' Book, where also will be found the api)robation of Dr. Buckland, Canon of Oxford, and many clergy- men and Members of Parliament. 'I'he guardians of the Waterford Union engaged J. (Jdldsmith, trained at Kast Dean, to teach the boys in the house, reading, writing, and accounts, part of the day; and how to jircpare food for stidl- fed cows on the two acres the Karl of Essex had given the use of to the union ; and Lord Essex re|)orts that the lad gives him much satisfaction, and has entered his second year's service. Miglit not stall-feeding be tlnis taught generally by siicw- ing its advantages ? The Earl of Dartmouth paid weekly for letters 446 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. from Harris's and three more little tenants for twelve months, for the statement of the work done on their land at and near East Dean ; which letters were copied by a school of seventy boys at Huddersfield, in Yorkshire, where distressed manufacturers have, by follo^^'infJ his example, sup- ported tliemselres by spade industry ; and in the words of Mr. J. Nowell, " hare shown that one half of the rates paid to the able bodied poor may be saved." This gentleman has formed the letters into a manual of field jjardening, and added notes on the present scientific improvements in agriculture ; which are printed by Kemp, of Huddersfield, and sold by Simj^kin, London. On land refused for spade husbandry at one shilling an acre, my wheat last year averaged up- wards of thirty-six bushels per acre. Whereas the first page of the first English Agricultural Society's Journal says — "The average ])roduce of wheat is twenty-six bushels per acre ; and if we could but raise this to twenty-seven bushels, we should have added to the nation's annual income 475,000 quarters of wheat, worth, at 50s. a quarter, about £1,200,000 yearly, by this trifling increase in the growth of one article alone, and that in England and Wales only." Increased produce, of course, will lower the price of wheat ; but wheat, I feel, at any price, will pa)' my tenants better than weeds ; and in the last com- mittee in the House of Commons on agricultural distress — " Scotch farmers proved that by improved methods of cultivation, they had made naturally j)oor land as productive as the best soils in Eng- land ; " and since the introduction of steam navi- gation, the bleak north has enjoyed the profit of supplying much of the fatted meat consumed in London. M. A. G. Birling, near East Bourn, March 27, 1845. MAKING AND CURING OF BUITER. (From the Farmer's Gazette.) London, Dear Sir — We cannot too much admire your disinterested desire to promote the agricultural interests of your beautiful and fertile countrj', and most readily contribute our mite of information towards the attainment of so laudable an object. We will merely premise that what we venture to suggest upon the subject of butter for this market, is the result of information obtained from valuable sources, combined with our own experience, and if it can be made useful, we need not say that it will afford us sincere gratification. To simplify the subject we will arrange it under separate heads, and first begin \vith the cows. ITiere is no better animal for produce, quahty of milk, and for standing the wet chmate of Ireland, than a good description of the old Irish cow, for although it is true that this breed greatly improves by a cross of the Ayrshire, and reaches perfection by a cross of the Dutch ore such improvement, yet these superior descriptions of cattle, require a vast deal more care than the genuine native cow, and are consequently not so well suited to the larger portion of the agricultural community. FOOD. Old inch jiasture in part, is the best feeding for producing good butter, and for house-feeding in summer, and there is nothing better than retches : neither clover, nor anything else, ordinarily used, will give either the quantity or quality of milk that vetches will ; and during the heat of the day, a cow will give more, and better milk, if fed on vetches in the house, than if left to feed on the finest pasture to be tormented \vith the flies. DAIRY. If a dairy were to be built, it would be desirable to select a cool shaded spot — away from stables, cow-houses, piggeries, dung-hills, or, in short, any and everything which could pollute the atmosphere ; but as we must deal with dairies as they already stand, we may give a few general remarks respect- ing them. It is an advantage to have a dairy paved with tiles, both for the purposes of cleanli- ness and coolness, and whilst it is necessary to haxe. a free circulation of air, it is advisible to fit the \vindows with gauze wire, so as to exclude the light as much as possible, and to keep out insects, flies, &c. ; an equal quantity of temperature should be maintained as nearly as may be practicable, and in winter artificial heat would be useful. MILKING. It is superfluous to state the well understood fact, that the cream of the milk floats in the udder, and the last drop is always the richest ; and we fancy it is equally ^\'ell known, that about a large teaspoonful of finely powdered saltpetre thrown into the bottom of the milk-pail, and the milk milked upon it, gives a sweetness, and preserves the milk — but we nevertheless maintain these facts. SETTING THE MILK. Keelers are generally made of oak, but those made from bog-deal are infinitely preferable; for they not only throw up more cream in a shorter time, but are much more easily cleansed, from the fact of their not absorbing so much acid from the milk as the oak keeler does. The produce of each milking should, of course, be set by itself, and not mixed with the milk which has already become cool. The milk should be strained through a brass-wire sieve, so fine as to catch any hairs ; and if any of the milk should be spilled, it should be immediately wiped up, for it soon becomes sour and contaminates the air. It cannot be too often repeated that the very minutim of cleanliness in a dairy is indispensable. The floor, the shelves, the walls, the utensils — in short, every part of a dairy,/ and every thing in a dairy, should be as sweet as a cow's breath, and as clean as a new pin. SKIMMING. There is a very general error respecting the time necessary to keep milk standing before it is skim- med. Some fancy that by allowing it to stand three or four days it throws up more cream ; this is a mistake. In 48 hours milk will throw to the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 447 s urface as rmich cream as if it stood for a week ; and when \\e come to treat the sul>ject of making butter, we will show that stale, sour cream cannot be made into firm, delicate bntter. CHUUNING. There are various sorts of churns. The standinjj churn makes good butter, and so does the box- churn, with a sort of ])addle-whccl revolving in it ; but the barrel-churn is ver)'' apt to make " roei/ " butter : this is caused by particles of cream ad- hering to the partitions of the chum and mixing with the butter, giving it the api)earance of the roe of a fish, bits of pure cream speckling the butter, and spoilbuj its sale. When the churn is once set in motion, it should be kept (joing till the butter is made. The churn should be as sweet and clean every time it is used as it was when new ; and in winter, after being scalded, it should be allowed to cool to about 1)lood heat, or something less than that. After the milk is drawn ofl' from the butter, the the butter must be washed ; but upon this process depends a great deal of the success of good butter for the London market. If butter be much washed, it weakens its body, injures its cnhur, and destroys its aroma ; therefore we would reconnnend that butter should be washed first in clean, fresh-made pickle, composed of about a i)int of salt to three gallons of water, then let pieces of three or four l)Ounds at a time be well worked with the wooden skimmer, or dish, until every drop of buttermilk is expressed ; but the hand must not touch it more than it is absolutely necessarj'. It is a singular fact, that in Wales an opinion obtains, that there is in some person's hand a constitutional contam- ination, and that if such persons were to work butter, with the hand, ever so clean, their touch would destroy its flavour and ruin it. Certain it is, that the less handling butter has the better ; and yet, if the buttermilk be not entirely out of it, it will quickly turn the butter sour. After this first washing and expressing, let the butter be subjected a second time to a similar ])rocess, with a stronger pickle, made with four pints of salt, one ounce of salt])etre to three gallons of water, and expressed again. .SALTING. 'ITie finest rock salt should be used, and the salti)etre should be pounded very fine, and mixed with the salt. The proportions for a firkin of butter of about Oslbs. net butter, should be two and a half pints of salt and an ounce of sahpetre. At the fall of the year when the butter becomes weaker in body, three pints of salt may he used. COLOURING. It is not ad\-isable to use any artificial colouring matter, for it is very difficult to imitate nature's colouring, and butter is often injured by the attempt. Saltpetre imparts some colour, and gives a brisk flavour to the aroma, by which butters are generally judged. After ])utter is salted it may be left a short time in a tub to drain, for the drier it is tlie more waxy it will cut. Jiefore dismissing this part of our subject, we may remark, that a ffood price can only be obtained for a first-rate article, in the London market. Therefore if butter be roey, it will fetch less in London than any where — or if by the objection- able practice of keeping cream too long before churning, the butter is cheesey, viz., having a flavour of cheese, London is no place to send it to. We hare received bad butter from various quar- ters, and found great difficulty in selling it at any price. As good butter is often spoiled by bad salt, great care should be observed in selecting the article, and it should be dried in an oven to purify it. CASK. To imitate the Dutch, the firkin should be neatly made with white hoops, and made air tight, by being filled with boiling water or pickle. When the butter is pressed tightly into the cask, a piece of clean calico, steeped in pickle, should be spread over the top, to ])revent any dirt getting to it, when it should be securely headed, and on the head the initials of the house to which it is con- signed, marked. On the other end, the initials of the i)arty to whom it belongs, and in the bilge the weight of the cask, commonly called the fare, thus— O ® Bottom of Cask Bilge of Cask (Supposing the cask consigned to Lash & Co.) The Casks should also be numbered, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. When sending butters, an invoice should be sent to the consignee, and the most scrupulous accuracy obser\-ed as to weights of the butter and tare, for if these be not correct, the dealer claims allowance for short weight, and account sales cannot be re- turned till the claim is investigated. FORM OF INVOICF.. Invoice of five firkins of butter, shij)ped on Ijoard " Duke of Cambridge " Steamer for Lash & Co., London, this 2nd of Noveml)er 1843, at Dubhn. A B 1- No. 80. 81. 79. 80. 13 Tare. 13 14 13 15 398.. OS 68 1 Note ! no ha1f-\)o\\x\.i\ is ever noticed. Please to insure A. B. 330 Net. We believe we have exhausted the sid)iecl, and beg to be, dear sir, your very faithful friends, James Ilill, Esq., Lasii and Co. &c., &c. 448 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. EAST CORNWALL EXPERLMENMAL CLUB FOR THE ADVAXCEMENT OF AGRI- CULTURE. PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE HUSBANDRY OF THE DISTRICT : COMMUNICATED BY HENRY BADCOCK, ESQ., LAND AGENT. Amongst the many defects in the system of husbandry existing in this district, that of " doing things out of proper season," seems to be attended with the greatest losses and worst consequences ; it shall therefore be the subject to which I will first call your attention. In this respect, late preparation and ploughing for wheat, and late ploughings for and tilling of spring corn and potatoes, require our first con- sideration. The next, that of depasturing seeds and meadows at improper periods ; and, lastl)^ that of spreading stall dung on the surface too late in the spring. I shall enter into a general detail of each of these defects, and then point out respectively what ap- pears to me the best remedies, making such remarks as may seem useful to the subject as I proceed. The soil differs essentially on the north and south sides of Launceston, and this much increases the diflSculty of pointing out any general plan apphcal)le to both. My observations I believe will apply more to the former than the latter district ; I hope, however, they may Ije found serviceable to each. Respecting late preparation and ploughing for wheat, and late ploughing for and tilling of spring corn and potatoes, I observe that on land intended to be Ijroken for wheat, cold earth or clay is frequently carried out, or taken from the soil of the field, and mixed with lime or sea sand, almost immediately before tilling (sometimes perhaps at a season too late even for this), and apphed to the land in quite a raw and unfit state. This is done often without any jirevious preparation of the land, further than a jmrtial skirting a few days before (except where the land is of sufficient age for paring and burning), so that frequently the manure does no good whatever to the first crop, and often injury arises from the carting, &c. Wheat, hoM'- ever, on the whole does not so often suffer from late sowing as other crops ; the faUure of this crop may generally be attributed to the mismanagement of the preparation, more particularly late ploughing. Land is frequently ploughed down in May, June, or July, and this is called a fallow for wheat, instead of being done six months before. In the fall of the year it is ploughed for wheat in a state more fit for mortar than to receive seed. Another evil and loss arises out of this, namely: when the corn fails, weeds supply its i^lace, and the land is thereby rendered unfit for the next crop. Late preparation and ploughing for wheat prevents the arishes from being ploughed in proper season, and hence arises the melancholy sight of naked fields, which last year were seen in almost every direction, sown with spring corn. Most of the arishes are not skirted down until long after Christmas, and ploughed again after Lady- day ; in all the heavy and clayey soils, this late l)loughing is attended mih much loss in the next crop, whether it be potatoes, turnips, or spring corn. In the first place weeds take full possession of the land from harvest until the first ploughing, frequently after Christmas, and impoverish the soil more than the preceding crops ; and, secondly, and too frequently, cause a failure in the foUoAving crop, even after it has cost ten times the amount in the labour of tilling that it would have cost had it been ploughed in proper season. In clayey and heavy soils it is very difficult and expensive, if not im- possible, to get the land into a good and proper state to receive seed after late ploughing. I went over many fields last year, said to have been rolled fourteen or fifteen times, that were still in a very unfit state for vegetating seed. Most experienced farmers are aware of the value of early ploughing after harvest ; Ijut if you enquire the reason why the arishes are not ploughed down in the autumn, you are generally told that the keep in them is required, and cannot be dispensed with. Now in many districts one third at least of the crops are lost by this system. I mean that only two bushels of spring corn are grown in the same land that would produce three, under a system which I will by and bye point out. The pasture in the arishes is certainly not worth more than two or three shillings per acre, on an average ; and if the land was in a clean state it woiild be of a still less value. The loss of the seed crop too, owing to the unfitness of the soil for vegetation, is almost a certain con- sequence. Turnips, in many places, are allowed to remain on the land a fortnight or three weeks after the corn seed should have been so\vn, to the detriment of that crop, as well as to the injury of the soil. Inferior samples must follow, if not a loss of the corn crop altogether. Late tillages of spring corn necessarily produce late tillages of potatoes and turnips, and hence the frequent failure of these crops also. Potatoes should be tilled before they first sprout, for it is well known that many of the early potatoes will not sprout more than twice, and some only once ; such as the ash-top kidney. It cannot therefore be supposed that the seed of the other kind of this root receive no injury from the young sprouts being frequently taken off during two or three months in the spring, which is the case in late sowing. Late tillages produce late harvests, and as a matter of course, greatly increase the expence of harvesting; and often, arising from bad weather, a loss in quantity and quality is caused. Many other evils inevitably result from too late ploughing and tilling; but we will pass on to a consideration of those which may be prevented by seasonable attention. The hoeing of turnips and potatoes is generally left much longer than is necessary before the first operation is performed ; very frequently this is delayed until the weed has quite o-\'errun the plants, or the plants have destroyed each other ; the con- secjuence is, that the work then costs twice, thrice, or even four times as much as it would have cost had it been done in proper season. The crop seldom sufficiently recovers to be of much value, and the land is always left in a foul and bad state, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 449 It is a fact worthy of notice here, however strange it may appear, that the better the crop of jjotatoes or turnij)s, the better will be the .succeedinjr crojjs of corn and seeds ; this is the case also if the land has been kej)! clean. There is something in this that I have never been able to account for, but so it is. As a general nde, tiu-nijis and ])Otatoes should ])e hoed at least three times ; the first, which is the most imj)ortant, should be ])crformed as soon as the turnip plants can be projjerly distinguished, and for ])otatoes as soon as they are up. 'I'hc next hoeing should be in about three weeks after (ac- cording to the state of the weed), and the last, at a somewhat longer j)eriod. It may be j^roper here to ol)serve, that although the samjjles of spring corn sown too late are sure to be inferior, that the (jiiality of sam])les mainly depends on the elevation. Tlie nearer the le\'el of the sea the land is, tlie better will be the sam])le, and the greater the (juantity of grain in proportion to the hulk of straw ; indeed, if sown in jiroper season, the goodness of the sample may 1)e almost measured with certainty (according to the state of the season), by the elevation. Barley cannot be gro\vn to i)erfection many hundred feet above the level of the sea, except in very pecuhar seasons. Wheat can Ije grown much higher, and oats very much al)ove wheat, and it may be set down as a certain rule that the nearer the level of the sea, the earher and the greater will be the j)erfection of all grain, of fruit, and almost of e\'ery other vegetaljle. Still, if the seed l)e not planted in })roper season, the samjjles will be bad in the very liest situations. 'Hie remedy for these defects is, of course, to do things in ])roper season ; and we will now proceed to consider when these periods ought to be, as nearly as we can ; for with such variation of soil and situation as we ha\-e in this district, there is much difliculty in laying down a rule for all. Suppose ten of us to be afflicted with the same disease, and that although the general treatment of all might be the same, it would no doubt require to be varied according to our ditlcirent constitutions and other circumstances ; so with regard to land in different elevations, and under other local con- ditions. In a general way then my plan is that all the way soil and earth, intended for manure, should be carted together nine or twelve months ])revious to being used, especially when it is of a clayey natm'e ; and that it should be turned over two or three times during the first six months ; that the lime, sand or dung, intended to l)e mixed therewith, should be added, and thorouglily mixed together, for at least three months before spreading. That if paring and burning lie the ])re])arati()n, it should, if possible, not l)e burnt until June or July, for the fresher the ashes are turned under the I)etter ; much of the fertilizing (|uality is exhausted if burnt earlier in the spring, or if allowed to remain in burrows, or spread on the surface. The sooner it is burnt after paring, the more valual)le will be tile ashes. Excejjt in very particular cases " turning to rot " after burning is not desirable ; but at once jilough for wheat, if after the beginning of July. The earlier in the season, the deeper this may be per- formed ; but in all cases of deep j)loughing, the maniu-e should l)e sjjrcad afterwards on the surface. When the jjrejiaration is a fallow, the land should he first jiloughed deep al)out the preceding Michael- mass, or as soon after as circumstances will ])ermit ; and should, when the soils are at all retentive or clayey, only be worked when perfectly drj' in the following summer. I will here mention two facts whicli most forcil)ly shew the great importance of exposing the soil to the influence of the atmosphere, by what is generally termed fallowing ; the action is of a similar nature, and produces the same results, one l)ya very slow, and the other by a quick operation. You have all seen the effect of heating the soil to a certain degree by burning peat, and most of you have observed without doubt the great strength and fertility that clay possesses by being kept dry for ages in a wall. Some chemists say, there is a decomposition effected in the clay, and that nitre is formed in old " cob " walls ; some, that ammonia is al)sorbed ; but l)e this as it may, it seems quite clear in practice, that the hotter and dryer the weather, the greater the benefit of fallow- ing, during which the soil should be kejit in the roughest and most exposed state. In all heavy and clayey soils I am inclined to believe, that with judicious management, an oat arish fftUowed is the very best preparation for a wheat tillage that can possibly be made, and is also the easiest and cheapest. My plan for this is to l)lough down the arish as soon as jiossible after the oats are carried, and as deep as it can well be turned, shewing thin skirtings of clay on the fur- rows ; in this state it should remain imlil quite dry in the following summer, when it should be tho- roughly worked and cleaned, during which the clay wll have altogether disajipeared. I3y ploughing a httle deeper in this way for every fallow, the soil may be increased to any extent, even without thorough draining, or the enormous expense of carting from a distance soil of perhaps no better quality. The manure should l)e ajjplied the latter end of July, or beginning of August, when the land should be ploughed in small ridges ; the seed should he sown in October or November, according to the wetness of the soil, and its elevation above the sea. The elevation should mainly determine the time of sowing wheat. A field may in succes- sion he sown with wheat and oats, and then fallow- ed, and good croj)s, with very moderate manuring, will be obtained with great imjirovement to the soil, and at less exjiense ; for it will require less working and no weeding. \Vhen ])otato or turnip ground is to be sown with wlieat, it will generally do l)elter without any fresh ploughing; a scuther or tormentor will answer the piu-pose ecjually well. I'Vom all that 1 have seen, too little attention has l)een i)aid to the time of ploughing ; I mean that the effects of land having been ploughed a con- sideral)le time Ijcfore sowing, have not been duly a])preciated. From my own observations, I am inclined to believe that most of the failures whi:h occur in the corn croj), [iroceeded from late plougiiing. Ploughing also, in the general way, is by far too 460 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. shallow ; and the reason that deep ploughing has in many instances failed, is owing to the seed having been sown before the land has received the necessary influence from the atmosphere for the purposes of vegetable production. A due con- sideration by the advocates of shallow ploughing, will convince them that my principle is correct. The very fact of their constantly employing or using only three or four inches of the top surface, Avhich is the only portion of the land that they allow to receive this ad\-antage, might shew them its truth ; a double or treble quantity might easily be brought to the same state of tilth, and possess the same fertilizing qualities. AU arishes intended for spring corn, or green crops, shoidd be ])loughed down at full depth, as soon as possible after the corn is removed, and allowed so to remain until after Christmas, except when very foul. In the latter case a skirting, and harrowing, and a cleaning of the weed, might first be made with advantage ; but the deep ploughing should immediately follow. The land should never remain with a smooth surface, either in winter or summer, for in this state it presents the least possible surface, and has not the full advantage of the effects of the atmosphere. As soon after Christmas as the weather will admit, the second ploughing should take ])lace, and the land will then be in a fit state for tilling, in good and proper season, in the spring. The work in most places will be well done, with a tenth of the labour that is now bestowed upon it. AVithin a month after Christmas all turnips should be taken off the land, and the ploughing for the spring crops should be performed as speedily as possil)le ; for the reasons just mentioned. Although the early ploughing of hght and sandy soils, may not be quite so necessary as that of heavy and clayey land, it is nevertheless of vast importance even to this. The longer light soils are ploughed, the firmer and more compact they become, and consequently the longer retain mois- ture ; the greater time clayey soil is ploughed and exposed, the more free and open it M'ill be, par- ticularly if ploughed dry. The most heaA'y and clayey land, ploughed for wheat in August, Avill not remain wet during mnter ; for all the water will soak freely through it ; and if there are proper furrows to take it off, will never injure the crop, whereas the same land ploughed in October or !Noveml)er (the general season for this work), will never get dry during the winter ; to use a common phrase, will " hold water like a basin." The first frost, from expansion in freezing, which water un- dergoes in crystallization, the seed and roots will be lifted out of the ground and destroyed. When the ploughing for sjjring corn in retentive soils is performed in good season, the seed is sure to vegetate and prosper, whether dry or wet even to excess ; whereas with late ploughing it is sure to fail with more than a moderate quantity of either. In the first place, if land of this description be ploughed late and wet, with a continuation of wet weather, it must be worked in this state, and soon becomes more like mud than earth to put seed in, &nd runs together in such a manner that nothing can grow and prosper in it; and, secondly, if the weather should prove dryer than common, it binds, and becomes so hard, that the seed cannot vegetate and get through ; the crop in either case is lost. As a general rule all composition manures for wheat should be prepared by midsummer; all ploughings for wheat be finished by the end of September ; all arishes to be turned as quickly as possible after the removal of the corn ; and all ploughed a second time, within a month of Christ- mas. Oats should be sown early in March, barley by the middle, and potatoes by the end of April. We now come to consider the evil of " Depas- turing seeds and meadows, at improper periods." Seeds in many districts are stocked and eaten during the whole of autumn and winter, and often up to the end of April, when they are kept u\y for mowing. By this mode of stocking, the seeds are vastly injured, and not unfrequently altogether destroyed. A little consideration, will convince any person, that eating those young plants, to the veiy roots, in frosty weather, and treading them under water when raining, must be sufiicient to destroy them, if stocked with sheep only ; but it is no uncommon thing to see Imllocks and horses in seeds, in the depth of winter, treading and making pits in the land for water to stand in, one would suppose for the purpose of destruction. The value of the keep at this time cannot be equal to one hundredth part of the injury thus occasioned. Meadows too are constantly stocked until the middle and latter end of May ; and hence one reason for the scarcity of hay, and the difficulty of keeping stock, during the next winter and spring. This difficulty imfortunately requires the same system to be followed up. I have given attention to this subject for many years, and I verily belie^-e that double the quan- tity of hay might be cut from the same land as is nowmown, under management which I will presently propose ; but I would here, in opposition to the general assertion, " that it is impossible to keep the stock without eating the seeds and meadows in this way," ask, if a double quantity of hay would not answer this purpose ; or indeed a much better purpose than this monstrous waste, particularly with the assistance of turnips. Late cutting of hay too very much reduces the value of the after-grass. The mowing and making of late cut hay not unfrequently interferes with the corn harvest, and the quality of late mown hay is always bad. If the weather be favourable during the making (which is not often the case), the de- crease of the days, and the heavy dews which prevail at this season, mil render double time necessary in the field, above that it would require about midsummer, the proper season for mowing. The remedy for this defect is very simple. No seeds should be stocked after September, and no meadows eaten after February, and most of the upland meadows not after Christmas, if intended to be cut for hay. By adopting this rule, I have no doubt whatever but that one ton of hay more on an average would be cut from every acre of meadow now mown in this district ; and from five to twenty cwt. per acre of seeds, according to the quaUty of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 451 the land. The quahty of the hay mainly depends on the time of mowing. I would here obser\'c, that it would l;e far better to mow a less quantity of land, than to cat the first shoots of the whole, in the general wixy, and thereby have the whole, at least out of season. Indeed, if the rules above were attended to, most of the hay would be in a fit slate for mowing l)y mid- summer, with almost a certainty of good cro])s, and abundance of aftermath, which would be of treble the value that it is with late mowing. Lastly, we will consider the disadvantage " of spreading stall dung on the surface too late in the s])ring." As the merits of farm jard manure ha\-e already an(l will again be discussed, I will only now refer to it, as connected with the practice of *' doing things out of season.'' Vast quantities of this \-aluable maniu-e are carried fresh and in an un- decayed state on the meadows during the months of March and Ajjril, and even in May ; and unless the weather is more wet than usual at this season, does but little good to the hay crop : and I believe often, not much aftenvards, foi' the moisttu'e which it possesses is cpiickly evajjorated, and chips of wood might as well be spread and laid on the land as dung in this state. The loss therefore in com- parison is ^■ery great. To remedy this the dung intented so to be used should be all carted and spread in December and January, whilst the days are short and evajjoration very little, or kept until i)ro])erly rotten, and a])plied immediately after carrying tlie hay, when it should be s))read and thoroughly brushed in immediately, and in either case it will be sure to answer a good ))urpose. I am aware that many arguments may be used to shew that renters with short terms, want of capital, &c., cannot generally adopt these plans ; l)ut admitting all these evils to their fullest extent, I am sure, even in a seven years term, a vast jtrofit would arise from ado])ting them. There aj)pears to be many otlier defects in the system of husbandry as practised in this district, such as — Waste, insufficiency, and mismanagement of manure. Taking too many straw crops in succession, foulness of the land, deficiency of fallowing, and green crops. Not changing the seed as frequently as is neces- sary. Want of ])roper draining. Mismanagement of orchards and plantations. On these subjects I will, at our future meetings, oft'er some remarks, if agreeable. Important to Farmkrs and Catti.k Deallrs. — The murrain has broken out with great violence in Ross-shire ami Caithness, botli in cattle and shcci), from which it has been conveyed to Edinburgli by stock from the north, many of which liavc been obliged to be carted from the .ship to be slaughtered ; this has made the trade dull there. Every precaution should be used by dealers and farmers to keep the infection out of their locality. — Montrose Standard. REPORT ON THE EXHIBITION OF IM- PLEMENTS AT THE SOUTHAMPTON MEETING, IN 1814. Bv JosiAii P.\RKES, Consulting Engineer j TO THE Society. j {From the Journal of the Royal Ayricultuial Society.) In submitting to the Council the following Re- j)ort on the imjjlements exhibited at Southampton, the writer feels it necessary to premise that the office assigned to him of Mechanical Referee to the Judges, in the event of their disagreeing in opinion on the merits of any im))lement, precluded his being present with them and tlie exhibitors during the inspection and trials of the implements ; ex- cei)ting in cases where his attendance was s})ecially ! requested by the judges. This circumstance has naturally restricted his personal knowledge of the j action and merit of the greater jiroportion of the ■ machinery investigated by the judges ; and, as i their laboiu's were carried on in divisions, it is cer- tain that no single individual, officiating for the society in the show-yard, or on the trial-grounds, can })resume on ])ossessing the amount of know- ledge requisite for illustrating that vast collection of imi)lements with the detail and exactness which may be desired by the society, the exhibitors, and the judges themselves. Impi'essed with a senti- ment of the extreme difficulty of the task of reporting on this show — also assigned to him — and of the doubt he had of satisfactorily fulfilling it, the author addressed a letter to the Coxmcil for his guidance and instruction. He was obligingly fa\-oured with the following resolution : — " It is the ojiinion of the Council, after con- sidering the letter addressed to them by Mr. Parkes, that Mr. Parkes should draw up tl)e report from the re])orts made by the judges of implements, for which they are solely responsible ; but that upon all trials which he has himself \-iewed it will be com- petent for him to make any remarks he may think necessary ; as well as upon the mechanical appeair- ance of the show." Relying, therefore, on the indulgence of the members of the society, and of the exhibitors, for the imj>erfections and omissions of notice which will be but too evident on this occasion, as com- pared with former rejjorts, the author proceeds, however inadequately, to acquit himself of the duty entrusted to him. As regards the show, its magnitude will be best api)reciated by stating that the number of articles submitted to inspection and trial exceeded tliat at the Derby meeting, which was, it will be remem- bered, by far the largest of its jiredecessors. The number of exhibitors was not quite so great as in 184:?, but in ])oint of mechanical excellence, and in the number of new or improved inventions, it is the ojuuion of the writer that the Southampton is entitled to the credit of being the most brilliant meeting yet held luulcr the auspices of the society. The planning of the implement -yard gave great satisfaction, by reason of the sjiacc allotted to the exhibitors and the public. The arrangement of the II U 462 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. stewards for conducting the trials of chaff-cutters, threshing-machines, steam-engines, &c., in a sepa- rate contiguous yard, facihtated the operations of the judges, and materially diminished the injmy not unfrequently suffered hy the machines on re- moving them, as heretofore, to distant spots for trial. The field trials were also managed with a success so superior to that attending all fonner attempts to give effect to them, as to reflect the highest credit on the stewards for recommending the new system adopted on this occasion. It has solved the problem of the possihihty of obtaining results to be reUed upon at these great assemblages arts of their plough as they deemed neces- sary to suit a change of soil; just as a skilful workman adapts his tool to the different nature of the materials under hand ; and abundant proof was afforded to, and acknowledged by the judges, that one given form of mould-ljoard is utterly in- adequate to suit all soils. Much also of the success of tliis plough is due to the princii)les of its con- struction, as already exi^lained in the Report of the Derby Meeting. Turn-irrest Ploufjii. — Under this generic name for ploughs which lay their furrows in one direc- tion, must be classed a novel description of the im])lement. invented by Mr. H. Lowcock, of Marldon, De^on, and manufactured by Messrs. Ransome. Its intent is accomj)hshed \\'ithout ha\'ing to turn the plough roimd at the end of a bout, or to change, manually, any of its acting parts. It consists, in fact, of two ploughs set back to back lengthways, and forming one body, ha\'ing a double flap or wing, hinged between the vertical parts of the two mould-boards, and com- pleting their necessaiy cur\-ature. The stilts or handles are hinged on the centre of the plough, and ser\-e to guide it in both directions by simply turning them over when the plough reaches the end of its course. The horses, whilst turning, leave the plough at rest, but pull the draught-chain to the opposite end of the beam along a rod which connects the two extremities ; and, so soon as motion recommences, the flap or \ring turns on its hinge from the effect of the resistance it encounters from the new furrow sUce, and the new shce is deposited against the preceding one. Thus, a self- acting turn-WTest is produced, and in a verj- simple and efficient manner. Tlie novelty of this arrange- ment consists chiefly in the hinged self-acting flap ; Init the construction of the sole is also entitled to much praise, as, though the plough is double, the usual extent only of frictional surface is in action. The plough carries one wheel at each end. The judges awarded a premium of £5 for this plough, which did its work very satisfactorily, and was considered to be the best turn-wrest yet in- vented. Stuhble-pariiiy, or Skua Plough. — Several imple- ments bearing this title undenvent strict trial. The judges had no hesitation in determining to which of them a preference was due, as no one of them executed its work effectually, excepting that in- vented by Mr. John Bnice, of Tiddington, near Stratford-on-Avon, for which a premium of £5 was adjudged. Mr. Bnice appears to have thoroughly studied the requirements of an imjilcmcnt of this kmd, and has certainly i)roduced one whicii will l)c con- sidered a great acquisition I)y the agriculturist. It was tried on a very short, dry, clover ley. cutting three inches deep and twenty-six inches in breadth. No jjortion was left uncut. It worked well with a pair of horses, and is capable of getting over four acres per day cleverly. It is so arranged as to be equally suitable to lidge and furrow as to flat land. It is readily thrown out of work at the end of a field, turns easily, and is furnished M'ith a set of tines following the cutting shares, in order to scarify or stir the parings, and jireparc them for being well WTOught u]ion by the harrows. These tines are raised out of the soil by jiressing on inde])endent handles and levers, and mav be used or not as II II 2 45-4 THE FARI^IER'S MAGAZINE. occasion requires. The implement in simjile, and its ])rice moderate. Subsoil-Piilccrizers. — Nearly all the varieties of this class which had appeared at ])revious meetings of the society were again exhihited. The weight, imwieldiness, and cost of them, together with the difficulty experienced in their management, and the strength of team required to do the work — indif- ferently and irregularly as it has hitherto been accomplished — ha^•e set great obstacles to the adoption of a complete underworking and pul- verization of the agricultural bed. It is acknow- ledged that the process of artificially pulverizing certain subsoils, and of admitting a free access of air and moisture to their interior parts, must be beneficial to plants, and must tend to ameliorate the texture and quahty of the soil. Nevertheless, for the want of a simple, easily manageable, and moderately jn'iced implement, this operation has been made rather the subject of private expeiiment than of extensive practice ; it has languished in the hands of many of its ad^'ocates, and been aban- doned, as too troublesome or too costly, by many firm believers in its utihty. An implement was produced at the Derby Meeting, by Mr. John Read, of 35, Regent Circus, Piccadilly, London, which had not the chance of being there submitted to trial, but with the merits of which the writer shortly afterwards became fully acquainted. It re- appeared at Southampton, and was put to the test by the judges, with several others, in the hard- baked soil at Mr. Spooner's farm. It is unneces- sary to make particular mention of these latter, as no one of them was capable of executing even tolerable work in land so circiunstanced. The pan, or old ijlough-floor, of this field had, evi- dently, ne^'er been in-\-aded by agi-icultural tools ; below six inches it was as solid as centuries of ploughing and trampling can be conceived to have made a tenacious loam, aided by a drought of several weeks' duration. Mr. Read's puh'erizer was put into the furrow opened by a plough, and set to work at about six inches under it. lire eflfect was "perfectly beautifur' — to use the judges' words. The old floor was sjilit up into fragments like broken tiles : the soil Avas separated and pulverized, not heaved up in great masses and let fall again to its original berth, the common defect of the ponderous subsoil-ploughs : the depth was maintained invariably uniform, and a holder for the implement would Ije nearly unnecessary but for the circumstance of its coming out at the end of a furrow, and of setting in again. The uni- formity of depth and regularity of motion are owing to the construction of the implement, which is as simple as it is novel. A straight beam, fur- nished with the usual pair of handles, is carried on four wheels, the leading pair being placed near the bridle, and the following pair near the after end of the beam. The stirrer or miner is let down through a mortice in the beam, immediately behind the after pair of wheels, and fixed to act at any required depth. By this arrangement the entire weight is carried on the wheels, which also ])re- serve the action of the stirrer at all times parallel Avith the bottoms of the furrows on which they travel. In consequence of the effective jierformance of this implement, and being of opinion that it re- quired considerably less force of draught than any other with which they were acquainted, the judges awarded to Mr. Read a premium of lOZ. The writer may also mention that a mole-share has been applied to this implement, and used in Kent with excellent effect in making mole-drains, with a force of four horses ; and he may add that, by reason of its manageableness and accurate working, the implement has been found by farmers in the same county to facilitate drainage in clay soils by sub-pulverization, in a remarkable manner, if used with due caution. They recommend that newly-drained clcnis be not broken up, in the first instance, to a depth beneath the furrow greater than six inches ; that the share be set another season two or three inches lower, and so on, gradually deepening the pulverized mass, rather than disrupting the whole at once. Clod-crushers. — Several clod-crushers and rollers — or im]ilements to which that appellation was given by tlieir makers — were put to work at Mr. Spooner's farm, on land well prepared for testing their respective properties and merits. Tlie remarks made in the Report of the Derby Meeting relative to Mr. Crosskill's implement were fidly borne out by the opinions of the judges who acted on this occasion, and who had the oppor- tunity of giving these implements a quieter and more rigid trial. A premium of 20Z. was adjudged to Mr. Crosskill, of Beverley, for his now almost universally known and appi'oved machine. Tlie improvements made in the construction of this crusher have been successively narrated and com- mended in previous reports ; and testimonials to its useful eft'ect in producing upon soils, not cloddy, a fine ])ulvendent surface, as well as its beneficial influence as a roller of young growing wheat, &c., &c., have been so recently collected and laid before the society (Journal, vol. iv. p. 560) that it might be deemed unnecessary to add one word more on the subject. Tlie judges, however, have particu- larly requested the writer to submit to the exhi- bitors the utter inutility of all attempts to compete successfully with Mr. CrosskUl's implement, unless they can produce a machine which, like his, can be turned round about, when one of its extremities is fixed, without tearing up the soil, and half burying itself in a hole formed whilst turning. It will assuredly be wiser to prove such properties at home, than to bring to the society's meetings imple- ments, either purporting to be what they are not, or such as have already been eclipsed by more excellent inventions, llie most complete imple- ment is not })erfect, and there is ever ample room and verge enough for attaining distinction either by the discovery of some better or cheaper principle of construction, or by increasing the utility of that which is acknowledged to be good. At the present time Mr. Crosskill's crusher and roller is un- questionably superior to any other brought to the notice of the society ; it happily combines a suffi- ciency of weight with bruising action, and simphcity with durability. The inventor makes them of diflferent lengths, to suit the circumstances of pur- chasers ; but the farmer will do wisely, when his THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4o5 means permit, to procure the longest size, as it is the heaviest and most efFecti\-e. Scarifiers. — Of the various scarifiers contained in the show-yard, the choice of the judges lay, as at the Derhy Meeting, between the Uley cultivator, exhibited by the Earl of Ducie, and Biddell's well- known im])lement, manufactured by Messrs. Ran- some. After a short trial the judges awarded the Society's ])rize of 10/. and the silver medal to the Earl of Ducie ; this award arising out of their opi- nion that the Uley im])lement required less power, and tra\-elled farther without choking or fouling. They oljserve, however, that " the Biddell did its work in good style," and state their o])inion that " implements of this descri])tion require a trial of longer duration to enal)le tlie judges to arrive at a mature knowledge of their respective merits." It will be in the recollection of the Council that the judges at Derby came to a similar conclusion as to insufficiency of time and circumstances, and, in consequence, no judgment was pronounced by them. Harrows. — A set of diagonal iron harrows, exhi- bited and manufactured by Messrs. Sanders, Wil- liams, and Taylor, of IJedford, obtained the Society's prize of Hi., being considered by the judges to have jjulverized the soil more eflectually and neatly than any others submitted to their inspection. A horse-drag, j)roduced by the same makers, re- ceived an award of 5/., it being found on trial against several others to collect the greatest quantity of stuiF in the cleanest manner, and to ])ossess the l)est delivery. D rill -pressors . — The Society's prize of 10/. and the silver medal was awarded to Mr. Richard Hornsby, of Grantham, for his two-row implement for depositing corn and maimre. Several pressers by different makers were also tried, but no one of them ajjproached Mr. Hornsby's in the faculty of delivering quantities of manure or compost — a fa- culty esteemed 1)y these, as by former judges, to be of the highest importance to the complete effective- ness of all drills. The competing pressers did not attain the deposition of what tlie judges prescribed as a sufficiency of manure ; whereas Mr. Hornsby's drill proved to be capable of depositing double the quantity of manure required by them, and in a much rougher state than that jjrejjared for the occasion. It was also pr()\ided with an extra coulter to com- plete the manuring and sowing of the open furrows, 'lliis is an entirely new operation of the presser, as the sowing of the furrow had ])reviously to be done by hand. The judges observe that " it was ac- complished in good style, and gave a finish to the work corresponding with the rest of the field." The Society will be pleased to learn that the effect of the encouragement occasioned ])y their annual pre- miums for this extensively used im])leinent has l)een so rapid ; for the origin of the drill-presser, more ])articularly in respect of its function as a manure- dejjositor, is but recent. 'I'he diameter of Mr. Hornsby's ])ressing-wheels is 3 feet \)\ inches (larger by IV inch than those of Mr. (Jaborn's excellent presser, rewarded at Derby), and the breadth of bearing or sole, is 1 \ inch. Drills. — It appears from the notes of the tiials supplied by tlie judges of tliis department, tliat thirteen drills of different descriptions, selected from the stands of eight exhibitors, were minutely tested by them. Of these, two are stated not to have been in working order, and two broke on trial. Five would not pass the damj) manure ])rei)ared for the Society, but four of these acted either well or fairly with coal-ashes. One did not i)ass manure fast enough ; and of another, being a combination of a drill with a manure-cart, produced liy Mr. Hornsby, of Grantham, the judges observe, "not good, would not drill wet manure, and if it would the judges do (not) think it desirable or profitable." 'riie result of these trials was the award of the Society's prize of 30/. and the silver medal to Mr. Richard Garrett, of Saxmundham, for his drill for general purposes ; and the prize of 10/. and the sil- ver medal to xMr. James Smyth, of Peasenhall, for his two or three rowed manure and seed ridge or l)road-work drill. On the subject of the manure-depositing proper- ties of Mr. Garrett's drill — jiroperties wliich formed the i)rincipal object of the Society's largest prize— the only remarks made by the judges are: — "This drill worked fairly with coal-ashes, but would not drill the wet manure ])reijared for use by the So- ciety." Also, that " it drilled manure as well as any, and in other respects was better." Mr. Smyth's drill is rei)orted to have "worked well on ridge and flat, and to be a com])lete turnip-drill." Also, that " it drilled the mamnx- as well as any, had a self- moving action roller for ridges superior to any, and co-\'ered the seed with roller behind better than others." A two-row turnijj-drill by Mr. Hornsby is commended; and a drill for general purposes by Mr. Hunter, of Ulceby, is mentioned as having " a better invention for covering the manure than any other, and very simjile," though it would "' not drill wet manure fast enough." It may be gathered, from these remarks and de- cisions of the judges, that no one of the drills ujjou which their experiments were made exactly re- sponded to the terms of the first prize, according to their construction of them ; but, as the effect of offered ])i-izes cannot always be inunediate, it may be hoi)ed that our drill-mechanicians — and more ])articularly those who have turned their attention to the delivery and covering of large qiiantities of moist manures or composts — will realize it on the next occasion. The hint, also, may not be lost on them that their imj)lements should be exhibited in perfect condition for work, as all are subject to the judges' call for trial. In the report of the Derby meeting, a succinct history was given of the rise and ])rogress of manure-drilling in Lincolnshire, and so far as the writer's researches on this subject bad then, or have since, extended, it would ajipear that the me- chanical deposition of manure originated in that county.* Nor has the (juanlity of fold-yard or other manure capable of being uttered by drills ap- * The writer is indebted to Mr. Richard (iarretf, of Saxmundliam, for some valuable information concerning llie history of SuffijlU drilling. .\t ])resent, however.it is iucompUte. more particularly as respecting the date of the introduction of ma- nure-drilling into that or the neigliljouring coun- ties. 456 THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. peared to have satisfied the intelligent and enter- prising Lincolnshire agriculturists until very re- cently. The judges at the Derby meeting reported their opinion that " Hunter's drill is capalDle of uttering any required quantity of such manure (fold-yard or stable-muck well chopped), and of passing lumps without obstruction, even of 5 inches diameter," &c. (Journal, vol. iv., p. 469). Since this statement was made the writer has sought to ^•erify it, and to obtain some kno\\'ledge of the actual quantity and nature of the manures drilled in per acre. Mr. "William Heseltine, of Worlaby House, near Barton, Lincolnshire (one of our judges of ploughs, &c., at Southampton), states, Sept. 20th, 1844, " I have used Hunter's drill to a great extent this season for turnips, and find it answer remarkably well. The manure I used was from cattle tied up in a shed to fatten upon linseed-cake and turnips, hanng wheat-chaflF to he upon instead of straw. The dung was taken from them twice a day, mixed with twee the quantity of soil, and turned over twice or thrice in the spring ; before driUing, a quantity of dry ashes was added, which made a rich compost. I had also a heap of manure put into a hill last autumn. In the spring, soil and ashes were mixed ■nath it in the same way as the other. Five large cart-loads, containing 40 bushels each of these composts, were drilled per acre ; and I could have got in tmce as much, or any quantity, with Hunter's drill." Mr. L. Uppleby, of Wootton House, near Bar- ton-on-Humljer, writes, October 4th, 1844, "If it be an advantage to be able to drill in a large quan- tity of compost, wet or dry, then Hunter's drill is by far the best yet out ; and that it is an advantage, few practical farmers will deny. I have drilled about 160 acres of turnips with Hunter's drill. The compost I used was the drainings and manure from our feeding beasts, mixed, under cover, day by day, with drj' soil ; and about 1^ cwt. of guano per acre. The compost and guano mixed wnth ashes amounted to abovit 4 cubic yards per acre. The season was, as you know, most unfavourable ; but yet the turnips are very good, although rather later than I should like to see them. For Swedes I put in 5 cubic yards ; and on 3 roods of land, for a person near me (who always borroM's my imple- ments), I drilled in at the rate of 13 cubic yards per aci'e : thus sho^ving that Hunter's drill is ca- pable of depositing ahnost an)'- quantity, and the delivery is so equal, the work may be done to the greatest nicety." The manure and turnip drill referred to was ex- hibited at Southampton by Mr. Hunter ; but, as no mention is made of it in the judges' notes, it would appear that it was not tried. From several other parties expressing the highest approbation of this drill, the writer has learnt that great numbers of the common drills have been altered to the same plan, which was the invention of Mr. Tobias Cart- wright, of Fordington, near Alford, Lincolnshire, in 1840: thus the acknowldgement of the value of a drill for depositing heavy tillages of manure or compost is become very extensive. Mr. Graburn, now of Walton House, Glevedon, Somerset, has this year practised another method, remarkable for its simpUcity and effectiveness, which he describes as follows : — " My drill has no manure-box ; it consists simply of the seed and manure- delivering machinerj' carried upon two wheels, and following a cart, in Avhich a man stands, whose business it is to shovel the manure on to the machinery of the drill as fast as he can. The utmost quantity he could throw out was our only stint, and amounted to about 9 cart-loads per acre, say of 30 bushels each. The advantages of this plan over large drills consist in the sa^dng of labour, time, and expense, besides a more equal de- position of the manure. You know that in the common large drills heavy manures are apt to con- sohdate in the box, and it is difficult to ' keep them ah\'e,' but on my plan the manure is always hght upon the drill-works. Three carts, three men, and a drill-man, keep the drill always going. At But- leigh I have been drilhng manure and soil ^vith seed-wheat beautifully. A quantity of road-dust was stored up in the summer, and I have obtained perfect control over the damp manure by mixing the two as required, Bihbl'my Machines. — Particular notice was taken in the report of the meeting held at Liverpool in 1841 {Joxmial, vol. ii., App. cvii.), of a seed-dibbling ma- chine invented by Mr. Newberr)^ It has since undergone successive alterations and improvements, especially in respect of the mechanical deposi- tion of the seed, therein alluded to. The judges at Southampton gave minute attention to this faculty, as possessed by an improved machine exhibited by Messrs. Saunder and Newberry, of Hook Norton and Bloxham. They report that the number of corns of wheat which issued in twenty-five drop- pings varied from one to seven, in the extreme — the average of the whole being somewhat more than four at each drop ; but they observe that " the ma- chine formed the holes and deposited the seeds very well," though vnih. the irregularity of number mentioned. ITie price of the implement is con- sidered by them as too great for the tenant-farmer : they also suggest that " the same end might be gained, and at much less expense, by using the common hand-dibble to foUow in the track of a presser." The practical value and performance of such an implement are evidently only to be measured and ascertained by its success, as manifested by the crops resulting from its use, taken in conjunction with the saving of seed, and other considera- tions. The writer has been furnished by Mr. Pusey ^vith the foUomng commentary on these practical points : — "Mr. Newberry's dibbhng machine is much hked by many farmers who have used it in Oxford- shire, and I tried it myself in the autumn before last. It is comphcated, yet accurate in its con- struction. It is also heaA7 ; but on light land, for which it seems calcvilated, that very weight is in fact an advantage, at least for wheat, because in pressing down the dibbles into the land it makes a sohd bed for the seed— the advantage of which, on light land, is well known to practical farmers. In fact, the wheat-plants which have been dibbled with this machine looked as if they were growing upon strong land, being far more vigorous than those THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 457 which had been drilled by their side. During the ! severe drought of May and June, the dibbled wheat was taller and also stronger in the straw, because ! the compression of the soil enabled it better to re- tain its natural moisture. "When ripe, the ears \ were longer and much better filled ; but in conse- | quence of the \'ariations in the soil of the trial lots, the difference of yield could not be fairly tested. The quantity of seed used was \\ bushel instead of 25, the amount commonly sown here with the drill. 'I'he allowance, however, is sometimes reduced to a bushel; and at Mr. Miles's I saw the machine sowing little more than three-quarters of a bushel per acre. Although unal)le to give any account of my own comparative yield, I am glad to have ob- tained the follo\ving statement of an experiment which is very satisfactory : — '• ' Up2)er Swell, Sept. 21, 1844. '•'Sir, — IIa\ing used your dibbling machine last year in o])])osition to the drill, I think it nothing but justice to you to state the result, which is as follows : — 1 planted six pecks per acre with the drill, which produced twenty-six bushels and one jjeck per acre ; and on the next day 1 planted with the dibbling machine five pecks per acre in the same field ( the land being the same in every respect), which produced thirty-three bushels one and a half peck, giving in favoiu- of the dibbling, seven l)ushels and half a peck, besides one peck saved in the seed. Tht^ straw was much longer and stronger. 'I'he drilled weighed only (33^ lbs. per imjaerial Imshel, the dibbled C4 lbs. Being so well satisfied with the experiment, I think you may safely recom- mend the implement, &c. " ' J. W. Hakkes. "' To Mr. Newberry.' '■ Tlie only drawbacks to the general use of this machine are the price and the draught; but the former objection is partly met by its being let out to hire like the common drill ; and though it re- quires more horses than the drill, a sanng of horse strength is made in other respects, because the dibbler is used at once on the land as left 1)y the jilough, without any harrowing or rolling as for the drill. Several neighl)ouring farmers have iised the dibbler this season, who saw its effects on my land last .summer." A hand-dibble, the invention of Mr. Richard Smith, of Upjjer Hall, near Droitwich, highly de- serves record, in the opinion of the writer, as likely to j)rove a very useful implement. He finds no mention of it in the judges' notes. This dibble plants the seed, and possesses a principle of action which, if not already perfect, is an imjjortant stej) made towards the construction of a perfect self-feed- ing, self depositing implement. On the toj) of a hollow stem is fixed a seed-box, with a delivering apparatus immediately beneath it. Below this again two handles project from the stem, one on each side, which work up and down in slides or slots formed in it. From the centre of these handles a rod descends with a tapering point, passing at bottom through a hollow conical termination of the stem, and forming j)art of the extremity which enters the ground and makes the hole. One of the lever.s of a small bell-crank is also worked by the handles, the other lever giving motion to a slider pierced with the hole which measures and lets fall the seed from the seed-box. The action is as follows : — M'hen the dibble is pressed down into the earth, the modicum of seed is discharged from the box, and falls to the bottom of the stem ; but its extremity being then closed none of it can escape, and no more can follow. On withdrawing the dibble the rising point is first liberated from the hole, whereon the seed instantly tumbles from the hollow stem into the hole. Next the dibble, or entire instrument is raised out of the ground ; a fresh hole is made, and so on. These two last apparently distinct actions are in fact only one to the user ; since the dibble itself cannot rise until the man has lifted the handles to the top of the slot, whereby the whole instrument is raised out of the ground. This account may not render the construction of the implement very clear, and there is, perhaps, no greater difficulty in descripti\'e writing than the illustration of a ^-ery simple piece of mechanism unaided by a diagram. The principle may be more perspicuously explained. It will be comprehended that the dibble is pressed vertically into the earth ; that the seed is safely berthed in its bed, before the dibble is u-ithdrawn, which last action, being also vertical, no crumbs can displace or interfere with the seed ; that uniformity of depth, and a con- siderable degree of firmness of seed-bed are also attained. In all practical respects the implement is handy and convenient to the workman. The writer has made many experiments as to the accuracy of its discharge of seed. The result has l)een that the variation in the number of grains let fall, is little greater than what is due to the differ- ence in the aggregate l)ulk of their number. As a garden-tool, its utihty must be very great, from its certainty and convenience ; and if hand-dibbling be considered too slow for general agricultural purposes, this instrument vnW be found to be of great value in filling up spaces or spots short of plants. It will be found to be particularly useful for experimental culture, and possibly for cot- tagers' allotments, as its price (3os.) places it within the reach of a number of small cultivators. Since its exhibition at Southampton, the inventor has much improved it, by making the shell of copper instead of tin ; and he is now occupied in remov- ing one or two objections ehcited from its use by practical men. Horse-hoe.'i. — ^The judges awarded a premium of 10/. to Mr. David Harkes, of Mere, near Knuts- ford, for a i)arallel expanding horse-hoe, to work between rows of turnips, &c. In principle, this im])lement is very similar to the one invented by Mr. John Morton, of Whitfield Example Fann, and described in the report of the Liverpool meet- ing. It was well constructed, and its performance highly commended. Mr. CJarrett's horse-hoe, for general purposes, was put to work on this occasion, in a piece pre- pared by the stewards for the trial of such imple- ments. Tlie judges jironounced its action to be " i)erfect," and assigned to the inventor the silver medal for some recent imjirovements, jjrizcs hanng already l)een awarded for the same machine at the Liverpool, Bristol, and Derljy meetings. The jmpro^■cnlentti referred to, consist chiefly 458 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in pro\-iding means for throwing the two outside hoes out of work, without stopping the horses, and quickly enough to prevent injury heing done to the outside rows of corn, where they may join or approach too near together at two contiguous stetches. The evil originates in irregular drilling, and has, in effect, hitherto created a practical oh- jection to the use of the horse-hoe, hut it is now, in the opinion of the judges, removed. Ayricultural Carriar/es. — The Society's prize of 15/. and the silver medal, ofJered for "the best agricultural carriage, with or without springs, for Others fell short of the duty required either in ])oint of quantity or quality of work. A new machine by Mr. James Gardiner, of Ban- bury, having a plurality of mouths, was considered by the judges to possess " considerable merit, but that the small openings for the cut create a difficulty in the feed, which is easily overdone." Another novelty was presented to the meeting, entitled the " Guillotine Chaff Machine," the in- vention of Messrs. James Ward and William Col- borne, of Stratford-on-Avon. In this machine the cut is effected ])y the ascent and descent of a the general piir])oses of the road and field," was i double-edged angular blade working perpendicu- acljudged to xMr. Daniel Coombes, of Skipton, near ,' larly, and cutting both upwards and downwards, uurlord, Uxon, for his two carts convertible into a The judges speak of it "as the smallest of all, and too small for general purposes, but meriting com waggon. Iliis is the combined carriage, for ^^'hich an encouraging premium of 5/. was awarded at perl)y. No \'eiy material change had been made in it. An account of it appeared in the report of tlie Derby meeting. Four other prizes were awarded to exhibitors in this department, three of which were obtained by Mr. Richard Stratton, of Bristol, and one by the Earl of Ducie, for the se\'eral carriages mentioned in the list of awards. Of the particular merits of these, the writer finds no mention made in the notes of the judges. Mr. th-osskill's carts and wheels are commended, particularly the latter, which were considered to be "good, cheap, and useful." Chaff-Cliff ers. — The show-yard contained, as usual, an immense number and variety of this in- dispensable implement. By far the greater pro- portion of these were submitted to careful trial by the judges. The Society's prize of 10/. and the silver medal was awarded to the Earl of Ducie, for his chaff-cutter with two spiral knives ; thus con- firming the judgment given at the Derby meeting. A description of the implement is given in the report of the Liverpool meeting. The judges ob- serve, that " the amount of work performed, com- pared with the jiower expended, was so decidedly in favour of this implement, that all the rest in competition were quite thrown into the shade." Messrs. Ransome's chaff-cutters are described as " never-failing workers, Avith a few improve- ments." Mr. J. Richmond, of Salford, produced a chaff- cutter which is represented to have " a good claim to merit, particularly for the toothed feeding- rollers, instead of the spiral or straight-fluted ones, in common use, as also for the apphcation of bevel wheels to give motion to them, as compared with the more common and uncertain ratchet and lever." The author may add his entire concurrence in this commendation, having had the o])portunity of seeing Mr. Richmond's chaff-cutter in work. It appeared to him that choking in the feed-rollers an enl to wliich the best of these machines has hitherto been more or less liable — is scarcely pos- sible from the form of toothed-rollers adopted by Mr. Richmond ; and the getting up of the instrument was well worthy the reputation of a Manchester mechanic. The three above-mentioned chaff-cutters are stated to have been respecti\'ely the best in the collection, and their merit in the order given. mendation. as the possible forerunner of an im- proved chaff-cutter." This short notice by the judges of a machine which attracted great attention in the show-yard, jjy reason of its apparent simjili- city, truth of cut, and moderate price, is, in the writer's opinion, substantially correct, and all that can l)e expected from them who regard it as an imjjlement \\'hich, upon trial, deser\Td record in the re])ort of the exhibition, but not a prize. The writer \va.s requested l)y many gentlemen to ex- amine this implement ; he did so attentively and repeatedl}', though unknown to the exhibitors. His oi)inion is that it possesses very considerable mechanical merit. The cutting blade being quite straight and flat, and presenting no difficulty of adjustment, jiermits of its being rejialred or re- newed l)y ordinary country blacksmiths. The feed is at rest during the ascent and descent of the knife, i. e., during the cut ; an excellent principle, though not original. The mode of effecting this alternate stopping and progress of the hay or straw is particularly simple and good. Notwithstanding these good points, however, it must ])e deemed very questionable whether their ad^'antages be not more than counterl)alanced by the limit ]mt by them to the quantity of work it is cajjable of doing, llie crank which imj)els the knife Is necessarily obliged to be A'cry long, as its length must equal the depth of cut, plus the breadth of blade, and some space more to permit the material to move forwards, A long crank and a short connecting rod are bad mechanical properties ; and the length of crank required has evidently governed the adoption by the in\-entors of a shallow feed or mouth ; and this can only be deepened by an elongation of the crank. Its performance, therefore, is limited to the pro- duction of a quantity equal to that ol)tained from a two-knife chaff-cutter; probably less for equal power. Turnip differs. — A premium of 5/. was very jiro]oerly awarded by the judges to Mr. James Gardiner, of Banbury, for his uni\'ersally-esteemed Implement, of M'hich so many thousands are in use. It may be truly said that this turnip-cutter, notwithstanding the many A'arletles introduced since Its Invention, Is yet recognized to be the most simple, durable, and effective of its class. Cake-Crushers. — An award of .'S/. was adjudged to Mr. Richard Hornsby, of Grantham, for a cake- crusher, which Is reported to have " proved itself on trial superior to any other In the exhibition, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 459 the workmanship to he veiy good, its superiority arising from the form of tooth adopted by the maker." The judges further observe, that there were among the large number exhi])ited, ■" some good implements, ])ut many very inferior from the form of tooth, and that those with two rollers worked the l)est." Tlie form of tooth alluded to by the judges has reference to the rollers which break the cake. The i writer may suggest, in addition, that this excellent i imjjlement, and others having rollers or parts which ] require to be adjusted at different distances asunder in order to suit their various jiurposes, \\'ould be ! rendered more durable and effective by adopting a form of tooth for the driving-\\heels whicli would admit of their Ijcing set deeper or sludlower in gear, and )'et work with equal smoothness and tnilh. Such, a form of teeth has been designed by that able mathematician and mechanician, Professor Willis, of ("aml)ridge; and a train of wheels on this i)rincij)le has been mounted Ijy Mr. Edward Cowper, Lecturer on Mechanics, &c.. King's Col- lege, London, \\ho has oldigingly assured the writer that he will explain the construction of tiie tooth to inquirers. Corn Cltfniers. — Some I'emarks are made by the judges on these machines, but no ])remium was awarded. Mr. Horn.sby's implement is considered to 1)e the best in the exhibition, and very creditable to him. It is stated to Ije able to " chalF consider- ably more corn than an)' threshing machine can ])roduce in the same time, and although not Cjuite ])erfect in some points, to l)e a superior machine for general i)iui)oses." An entirely new winnowing macliine, invented by George Parsons and Richard Clybvirn, of West Lambrook and I'ley, and exhiljited ])y the Earl of Ducie, is rejiresented to be " worthy of high com- mendation, and will, doubtless, ^vhen perfected, ])rove a su])erior im})lement." A corn-dressing or winnowing machine, by Mr. Joshua Cooch, of Harleston, is spoken of " as a good cleaner, when the dirty work is done for it ; i. p., when the corn is chaffed or half \\'innowed. Mr. Cooch's machine will complete it in a most masterly manner." Of the remainder of the nmnerous collection it is said, " they are useful of their kind, l)ul in general have not snflicient capacity to do much work, and are of the family of the last generation." After this statement l)y the judges, founded on their trials, it is to lie hoped tliat llie attention of implement makers will be m(ne pecidiarly directed to tills sultject. The dealer and miller prefer a clean to a foul samjde of corn, and the agriculturist will find his adxantage in tlie jiurchase and use of the best machine he can olitain. Barley lliimincller. — To Mr. Joshua ('ooch, of Harleston. a silver medal was adjudged for his luunmeller combined witli a winnowing machine and elevator, M'hich also obtained the a])probation of the judges, and a prize at Derby. It is spoken of '• as an effective implement, and well manufac- tured." Cum (Hid Seed Crushers. — No separate prize was given in this class, the judges having involved it in the premium of 30/. awardeil to Messrs. Ransome for their horse-engine and the machines combined with it, of which a corn and flax-seed crusher formed a component \n\rt. The judges report this crusher to be " the best implement of the kind yet brought before the public ; two were tried, the one for beans and corn, the other for flax-seed, l)otli Ijeing constructed on the same i)rincii>le, and adapted either for hand or other power. Each consisted of two rollers grooved spirally, revoh'ing at different speeds, lint in the same direction, tlierel)y causing a clipi)ing of the grain or seed, which materially lessens the power re(juired." 'I'hese implements are " recommended as of a very superior workman- ship, and witli the greatest confidence to the notice of agriculturists." The "workmanship" of a crusher exhibited by the Earl of Ducie is mentioned " as very superior, and highly commendalde," but in its effect '' in- ferior to the foregoing." The observation made on the remainder of the competing implements is, '' that they were gene- rally of good workmanship, but most of them re- quired too much i)()wer." TltreshiiKj Mficliuies. — Five, moved l)y horse or steam power, were selected for trial out of the large number in the show-yard. Much interest was ex- cited ])y the api)earance of a threshing machine ex- hibited by tiie Earl of Ducie, being a recent and scarcely completed invention by (J. Parsons and Richard Clyburn, of West Lamln-ook and Uley. The judges remark, "though it did not prove quite ])erfect, we think it worthy of the highest commen- dation." The writer greatly regrets that, in consequence of his not having seen this truly original machine in work, he cannot descrilje its construction and action with the accuracy he could desire. It is to be ho])ed that it will re-appear at the next meeting. The winnowing machine by the same makers is o])en to the same remark. •Of the hand-threshing macliines the judges ol)- serve, "That which we considered to possess the greatest merit for originality of design, as also in its performance, was exhibited l)y Messrs. Rarrett, Exall, and Andrews, of Reading. We highly com- mend this machine as likely to be useful in pojjulous districts. Se\eral others seem to have been copied from it." Fry's threshing-floor is sjioken of " as good and ingenicms." It seems to the writer that this simple contrivance, which permits the grain, as beaten out, to fall through a screen or grating of parallel round iron rods forming the upper surface of a large box which acts as the grain-receiver, may jirove extremely usefid for small farmers, and ])articularly for emigrants. The flail is a trij)le rod. and can l)e easily handled by a lad or a woman. The show-yard is stated to have contained a ijreat number of useful and good thresbing machines ; it appears, however, that no one of tbem jios.sessed claims to superiority over those sho\vn at former meetings so sufliciently marked as, in the o|)inion of the judges, to he entitled to the distinction of a ])rize. Corn Mills. — 'I'he silver medal was adjudged to Mr. Dean, of Birmingham, for a French burr-stone hand-mill. The judges slate this article " to pos- 460 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sess great superiority over the steel mills, and will continue to do so. We do not consider any of the steel mills worthy of notice." Mr. Cambridge, of Market La^-ington, Wilts, produced some mills of which ''the price was con- sidered too high, and more suitable for a baker or flour dealer than a farmer." Bone Mills. — Two mills were exhibited by Mr. Dean, of Birmingham, the one for breaking up bones to sizes suitable for drilling ; the other for grinding the produce of the preceding into fine dust. The judges obsen-e that these were the only mills for the purpose in the show-yard, and were of "fair quality." Tlie attention of Mr. Dean and other manufac- turers of strong and powerful machines may be usefully directed to the construction of small-sized bone-crushei-s. There is a prevailing sentiment among agriculturists that the crushed bones of commerce are not unfrequently mixed with ingre- dients of no value, and that home collecting and crushing would save them from imposition. A veiy simple machine might also be made for redu- cing ffiiano (some cargoes of which contain a consi- derable proportion of very hard nodules) to a fine state of pulverulence. It is a bm-den on the honest merchant to have to send this substance to a mill to be prepared for agricultural use ; and the writer conceives that it would greatly diminish the chance of fraudident tampering with this valuable manure, if it were purchased by agriculturists as delivered from the ship, and reduced for use at home. It opens another source of em])loyment for the pro- ductions of the implement maker. A very simple and cheap hand bone-breaking machine was produced by Mr. Robert Frj', exhi- bited in the collection of Mr. Richard Stratton, of Bristol, for which an award of 2/. was made. 'The preceding remarks, in respect both of bones and ^ano, apply equaUj' to this simple machine and to its inventor. Churns. — Of the variety of these dairy imple- ments presented for competition, the judges selec- ted one exhibited and constructed by Mr. David Harkes, of Mere, near Knutsford, as well deserving encouragement, and for which they gave the So- ciety's prize of 5/. It is the invention of i\Ir. George Brown, of Capesthorne, in the same neigh- bourhood. The judges report that " it has a double rotation of dashers, one set revolving Avithin the other, and consequently operating more power- fully in the production of butter." Cheese Pressers. — A silver medal was awarded to Mr. Stratton, of Bristol, the exhibitor of a lever cheese-press, invented by W. J. Gingell, of Bristol. Of this implement the judges remark that "it is recommended by its simphcity and durability, and that it is within the i)ower of a female to work it." Steam Ein/ines. — There were four steam-engines exhibited. The judges made iise of one manu- factured by Mr. Cambridge, and of another by Mr. Dean, in the prosecution of their trials. Of the former they observe "that it M'orked well, was simple in construction, and being the best of the lot they awarded for it a jn-ize of 5/." They, how- ever, give it as their opinion that " it M-ould con- siune twice as much fuel per hour or per day aa that represented by the maker." Of Mr. Dean's engine the judges observe " that it proved to be inefficient and dangerous in the ex- treme; they thought it a toy and not viseful to agriculturists." They further express their hope " that the Society wiU offer a prize of such impor- tance for steam-engines, as to bring out something better than appeared in the shoM'-yard at South- hampton, now that they are of such acknoA\'ledged xise to agriculturists." The writer may obserA-e that he did not witness the working of any steam-engines, and is, there- fore, disqualified from expressing an opinion on the subject of their merits." Horse Eiif/ines and Machinery . — An entirely novel combination of a horse-engine and machinery, constructed and exhibited by Messrs. Ransome, obtained from the judges an award of 30/., being the highest sum they coidd afford out of the amount allotted by the Society. The judges considered this compact arrangement of barn machines in connection \vith a horse-engine to be of great value to the agriculturist, as bringing the means of working the principal implements of. which he has need in that department, within the space of a horse-track. In the compass of a veiy moderate-sized cast-iron framing lies the apparatus for communicating motion, either separately or at the same time to a chaff'-engine, corn-bruising or splitting mill, &c., which are fixed upon the framing. A shaft also is connected with it for giving motion to a threshing or other machine, at more distant parts. ITie writer's presence was requested by the judges to examine the arrange- ment and execution of this apparatus, and he con- curs in their statement that " it was got up in the best stjde of workmanship, and does the Messrs. Ransome great credit as engineers." Tlie judges further " express a hope that the prize given in this case may stimulate engineers and implement makers to bring out first-rate machines." This awai'd, as previously observed, includes the prize assigned to Messrs. Ransome for their corn and seed crusher. The writer has to add, as he concei-\'es it to be his duty to do, that an erroneous impression was made on the minds of some persons respecting the practical value of this machine, from the circum- stance of the mills being planted in the centre of the horse's track. For the purpose of exhibition and trial in the Society's show yard, it was necessary that it should l)e erected in that form. In practice the frame and machines would be jjlaced on the first floor of a building, as most convenient for such uses, and the horses would work below. The judges and the writer would condemn as most incon- venient and unsightly, the conveyance of materials to be cut, bruised, or ground within a horse track. Several traveUing horse-engines were experimen- ted upon, llie preference, with high commenda- tion, is given to a set constructed by Mr. Cl3'burn, and exhi])ited by the Earl of Ducie. An over- head machine by Mr. ITiomas Reeves, of Droxford, Hants, is stated to have been "very unsteady, and not firm enough in its work." The general obser- vations by the judges on these machines are "that THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 461 they are more condensed in space than heretofore, 1 and placed on lower wheels, so as to work without ' the trouble of removing them ; but that the greater majority are of too light a construction to be con- sistent wth durabihty. Some makers have intro- ; duced the screw (worm) in jjlace of the first or horse-wheel pinion, which we directly condemn.'' Fire Engines. — The collection of fire and garden- engines exhibited by Mr. Read, of 35, Regent Cir- cus, Piccadilly, is jironounced by the judges to be " superior to any other ; the valves of the fire- engines are so constructed that failure is impossi- ble, and a premium of 5/. was awarded for the fire engines. They are highly recommended to the notice of the public, both as fire and garden- engines." The writer can safely gi\-e his testimony to the same facts ; the fire-engine referred to will pass through any door of a mansion ; and Mr. Read lias applied so simple a method of increasing the num- ber of jiersons who can act at one time upon the engine, that, as he obsen-es, " a whole brigade of fire-men and women can be rendered sen'iceable in a moment of urgencv." Water-lifting Engines. — A very wt41 arranged and well made engine for drawing water out of deep wells, was exhibited by the manufactin-ers, Messrs. Tasker and Fowle, of Andover, Hants, to whom the judges aM'arded the silver medal. The whole of the machinery is of iron : two buckets are used, the one ascending whilst the other descends ; and it appeared to the uTiter to be a very safe and effective hydraulic machine. Weighing-machines. — A ])remium of 57. was ad- judged to Mr. H. (r. James, of 44, Fish-street Hill, London, for his weigliing-machine ada])ted to all the purposes of a farm. The judges on this occa- sion confirmed the opinion of those at Derby, that " the principle on which these machines are made must be correct." Tliey cannot be too much ex- tolled for agricultural use, whether for weighing oxen, carriage loads, or smaller articles. They have already come into extensive employ on railways and in warehouses. Iron-fencing, Cow-cribs, ^-c. — Under these heads there was not such great comjjetition as at l)er])y. The judges again considered Mr. Edward Hill, of the Brierly Hill Iron Works, near Dudley, to eclipse all his rivals in the neatness and efficiency of the varif)us articles exhibited Ijy him. They par- ticularly cite the " marked advantage arising from his method of joining the lengtlis, giving great strength over other methods heretofore practised." They awarded to Mr. Hill the siher medal for his 8hee])-fences, and 2/. for his wrought-iron cow-crib. Mr. Crosskill's pig-troughs and dog and sheej) troughs were conuncnded. Harness and Hearing. — Of these items to which the Society had called attention, the judges re- mark : " nie only inijirovenK'nt in harness is a Ijack-band and tugs exhibited and manufactured l)y Mr. James Pearce, of Andover, Hants, to whom a silver medal was awarded. It will accommodate itself to the size of any shaft, is liglit, neat, and du- raljle, and tljel)ack-])and is readily detached in case of accident." Stack-ntauiL — The silver medal was adjudged to Mr. Garrett, of Saxraundham. for a stack-stand of wrought iron, invented by J. Springall, of Ipswich. It was considered by the judges to be " by far the l)est article of the kind in the exhibition." Screw-spanners. — A silver medal was thought due to Mr. Richard Clyburn, for his adjusting spanners, or WTenches, e.xhibited by the Earl of Ducie. These will be found very useful both in the workshops and for all agricultural uses ; they are much more convenient than the common mon- key s])anner. Trefoil and Clover-seed Drawing Machine. — Messrs. Joseph Hall and Co., of Cambridge, ex- hibited tlie only machine for this purpose. The judges observe that " it i)roved on trial a good im- plement, and we aM-arded for it a premium of 5/., although its price is consideralde." Hop and Malt Kiln. — A model of an ingenious, though somewhat complicated, kiln for drying malt and hops, by Mr. S. J. Knight, of Maidstone, met the a])probation of the judges ; and as an encou- ragement to induce jiarties to a consideration of the best i)rincii)les on which kilns for these purposes can be constructed, they awarded him a prize of 5/. Pofnto-J\'a.ihers and Steamers. — Mr. Crosskill's and Mr. Richmond's jwtato-washing apparatus are both commended Ijy the judges : and Mr. Rich- mond's steaming apparatus as ' simple, cheap, and safe." Haymaking Machines. — Five of these machines were examined by the judges, and two of them com- mended " as M'orking exceedingly well;" the one ])eing manufactured Ijy Mrs. Mary AVedlake,^ of Hornchurch ; and the other by Messis. R. Wed- lake and C. Thom])son, of Romford, Essex. Rick Ventilators. — The now well-knoMn rick ventilator invented by Mr. John Gillett, of Brailes, near Shipston-on-Stour, and rewarded at the Derby meeting, is re])orted by the judges " to continue to merit the strongest commendation." There are several other meritorious articles of minor import, well spoken of by the judges of the Miscellaneous department ; but the writer rinds they have to comjylain of the non-attendance of some of the exhibitors of tliese })roductions when called ujion. Also, tliat others have tried to evade the scrutiny of the judges, by keeping their articles un- jiacked \mtil after the judges have completed their investigation. It may be of use to state here, that in either of these cases, on a representation being made by the judges to the stewards, un})acked or unre]n-esentcd articles will be instantly expelled from the show-yard. Drain-Tile Machines. — Tlic mechanical apj)ear- ance of the show derived no inconsiderable lustre on this occasion front the number of drain-tile ma- chines exhibited in competition for tlie Society's prize, eniianced as it was by the general desire of landowners and farmers to become ac(|uainted \yith the best and cheajiest machine for preparing tiles for so essential and costly an operation as drainage. Thirteen machines were |)roduced, being exhibited l)y seven proprietors ; of these, foiu- machines are re- ])orted upon bv the judges of the department, three uf whieli were worked by hand, and one by horse- ])Ower. It ai)pears tliat the otlier nine " were not prepared for trial," and one of ihe four being " in 463 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. an unfinished state," our attention is confined, as was the case with the judges, to the performance of three of them. Of these, two are catalogued as the invention of Mr. F. W. Etheridge, of 11, Fur- nival's Inn, London, and manufactured by Messrs. Ransome; and the third as the invention of Mr. H. Clayton, of 21, Upper Park Place, Dorset Square, London, manufactured by himself. The judges first noticed the performance of Mr. Etheridge's horse-machine, of which a pretty fuU account is given in the ' Rejjort on Drain-Tiles and Drainage ' (Journal, vol. iv., p. 370). It appears that during six minutes — the duration of the trial — 96 tiles of different shapes and denominations were ])roduced, averaging l6i inches long=l6 articles per minute, or 9C0 per hour. Among these articles no ])ipes are mentioned. Secondly, we ha^-e the performance of a very recently-invented hand-tile machine, by Mr. Ethe- ridge, which ])roduced during fi\'e minutes 67 articles 13.\ inches long, of which 33 were full inch- bore pipes, and 1 7 tiles with soles, and double tiles = 13y'^ articles ])er minute, or 804 per hour. Thirdly, Mr. Clayton's performance is stated to have been, during five minutes, 43 pipe-tiles of various lengths, " not so sound as the last, and, being of irregular lengths, not fit to set in a kiln." This performance equals 8^;^ i)ipes per minute, or rjlG ]Jer liour : but the clay was in too moist a state for Mr. Clayton's machine, and only one third of the time mentioned was applied to the actual making of tiles. Tlie judges further observe, that "all the ma- chines were sup]jhed with clay from the same heap, and the exhibitors made tiles in any way they pleased." " We consider the hand machine (Mr. Etheridge's) wovld be most generally useful ; that it made better tiles than the horse-machine, or than Mr. Clayton's, and was the only hand-machine which made tiles that would stand well in the kiln." In conformity with the discoA-eries resulting from these trials, the judges awarded the society's prize of 20/. and the silver medal to Messrs. Ransome as the exhibitors of Mr. Etheridge's implement. It is the writer's duty to throw such light as his kno\\'ledge may enable him to do on points which seem to ha^-e escaped the judges' oljsen'ation, or not to have l)een illustrated l)y them. The con- ditions of the society's oflfered prize, required that " the price at which tiles or pijjes have been sold, be taken into consideration." Of this no mention is made ])y the judges. The writer has ascertained that at the period of tlie Southampton show, se\'enteen of Mr. Clayton's machines were in work at the establishments of different gentlemen ; and at the works of Messrs. J, and W. Squire, of Yarmouth, Isle of Wight, inch bore drain-i)ipes, produced l)y Mr. Clayton's ma- chine, were there seUing at the rate of 12s. per thousand, 12 inches long, their jjrices rising through intermediate sizes to 18s. per thousand for pipes 2^ inches diameter. This fact will he very gratify- ing to the society, when it is recollected that not more than eighteen months have elapsed since the pubhcation in their Journal (vol. iv., p. 45) that the price of inch-bore pipes was from 20s. to 22s, per thousand, being then about the half of the average selling-price of the more common tile and sole ; so that, at the present moment, small pipes are pro- curable from Mr. Clayton's machines at one-third or one-fourth of the cost of the ancient description of draining tiles. With the selling price of the articles produced by Mr. Etheridge's machine the writer is unac- quainted, or he would gladly ha\'e availed himself of this opportunity of stating it to the society. He has neither seen the prize machine at work, nor been able to satisfy inquirers as to the actual number of articles produced by it in a given time, or their selling price at any estajjlishment. The reduction in the selling price of pipe or other tiles has necessarily arisen from a diminution in the cost of production. The little Kentish machine (described in Journal, vol. iv., p. 373) could not make more in ten hours than 1000 or 1200 inch-pipes. Mr. Clayton's machine, as ex- hibited at Southampton, has regularly produced in the same time, to the ■writer's knowledge, 15,000= 1500 i)er hour ; and by a more recent improvement in the dies, it is made capable of throwing otl' 25,000 feet of pipe per diem. But this increased faculty of production is not of such great impor- tance, in the estimation of the employers of this machine, as another improvement introduced by Mr. Clayton, and engrafted on it ; viz., the means of clearing from the raw clay all stones, roots, or other matter which would impede its conversion into ])ipes or other desired forms. It was the only tile-machine in the show-yard furnished with a process of the kind. I'his process has been repre- sented to the writer by several of its employers — and is fully believetl by him, from his own observation — to be superior both to pugging and washing, as well as cheaper, in the preparation and tempering of a variety of clays ; and the wintering of many kinds of clay is no longer deemed by them to be essential to carry on the summer work of a tilerj'. At the period of the Soiithampton meeting six of the seventeen machines already referred to were at work without pug-mills. Since that time several others have been put into active operation where pug-mills do not exist. The pug-mill and horse have also been abandoned by parties who continued their vise, at first, from an uncertainty as to the powers of Mr. Clayton's preparing jn-ocess as a substitute. Since the meeting Mr. Clayton has devised an a])paratus of a very simple and cheap nature, by which drain pipes and tiles are brought to an exactly uniform length before setting them in the kiln, and another for socketing pipes for house- drains, JosiAH Pabkes. Epidemic among Cattle. — We regret that the rumour of the appearance of pleuro pneumonia, men- tioned in our last number, has been confirmed by many serious losses to individuals in our neighbourhood. The full extent to which the disease has gone we cannot take it upon us accurately to state ; but enough has come to our knowledge to induce us again to impress on far- mers the importance of a speedy insurance of the lives of their cattle of every description, as none seem exempt om the malady. — Ayrshire and Renfrewshire Agricul- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 163 KHOL RABI. I ■JO TIIi; EUITOK OF THE GLOlCESTIiKSIIIRK CIinOXICLK. I Sir, — I observed in the Gardener's Chronicle, of the 8th instant, some account of growing Khol Rabi in Gloucestershire. I wish to add my testimony of its hardihood and usefulness for field culture. Being very little affected by the insect tribe, of late so destructive to the turnip, its early growth is very rapid, the plants soon get out of the way of its only enemy, the slug. My | method of cultivation is to drill lib. jkt acre of the ' seed, with the mangel wurzel ; so that if the mangel \ wurzel fail, which it mostly does to some extent, I have ^ plants enough of the Khol Rabi in the field to fill all ; vacancies which occur on the ridge. This transplanting : is done by women and children going up and down the ! furrows, and inserting a phint where it is wanted ; and as ' they take up some earth with the root, the plant receives but little check in the operation. My Khol Rabi has been exposed to tiie frost all the winter without receiving injury, and when cut aflbrds excellent food for ewes and lambs. I don't find they get sticky except the stalk, which, when cut, cattle will eat down to the root with less waste and spoil than either mangel wurzel or turnip. Yours respectfully, J. S. March 26, 1815. P.S. I have grown both the purple and green varieties ; the purple always grows to the largest size. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Monthly Council was held at the Society's House, in Hanover Square, on Wednesday, the 2nd of April ; present — His Grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G., President, hi the Chair; Lord Bridport ; Hon. Capt. Hood ; Col. Austen ; T. R. Barker, Esq. ; S. Bennett, Esq. ; T. W. Bramston, Esq.,M.P, ; J. F. Burke, Esq. ; Col. Challoner ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; Dr. R. Dickson ; Capt. Forbes, R.N. ; A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq.; B. Gibbs, Esq.; Col. Hall; W. F. Hobbs, Esq. ; J. Hudson, Esq.; Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, Bart., ^l.P. ; G. Kimberley, Esq.; J. Kin- der, Esq.; Col. M'DowaU; Sir R. Price, Bart.; H. Price, Esq.; P. Pusey, Esq., M.P. ; F. Pym, Esq.; J. A. Ransome, Esq. ; Prof. Sewell; W. Shaw, Esq. ; J. V. Shelley, Esq. ; T. S. E. Sotheron, Esq., M.P. ; W. P. Taunton, Esq. ; C. H. Turner, Esq. ; and T. Turner, Esq. Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, chairman of the Finance Committee, laid before the Council the monthly statement of the accounts of the Society, from which it appeared that the current cash-balance in the hands of the Society's Bankers, on the last day of the month just ended, was 1,051/. Prize Essays. — Mr. Pusey, !M.P., chairman of the Journal Committee, reported to the Council the follow- ing awards made by the respective Judges of Essays in the classes of "Farming of Nottinghamshire," and " Fences :" — F. The Prize of 50/. to Mr. R. W. Corringham, of F5olham Hall, near Retford, Notts., for the best Rcijort on the Farming of the county of Nottingham. II. The Prize of 20/. to Mr. James Grigor, Nursery- man and Land- Improver, Norwich, for the best Essay on Fences. Mr. Pusey further rejiorted that the whole of tlie Essays on the Farming of Nottinghamshire were of so excellent a character, that the Judges found some diflS- culty in making their decision, but that they had at length unanimously assigned the prize to the Essay of which it now appeared, on the opening of the sealed motto-paper, IMr. Corringham was the author. Shrewsbury Meeting. — The Report of the General Slirewsbury Committee was received and adopted ; from which it appeared, that the plans for the show-yard and pavilion were finally arranged ; and that a communica- tion had been addressed to the 1-resident, from the Treasury, stating, " that the amount of License Duty paid by stage coaches, which it is proposed to run from the Railway to Shrewsbury for the purpose of convey- ing passengers during the Meeting of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, would be afterwards returned upon the mileage duty being paid, and proof being given that the coaches were only run during the week of the Meeting." The President informed the Clouncil that this privilege to the Coach Proprietors would be granted only on the condition that such fares were demanded as the Society should deem reasonable and proper. Mr. WilUam Smith, of Sion Villa, near Shrewsbury, was appointed the auctioneer to the Society for the Shrewsbury Meeting; and Messrs. Bathe and Breach, of the Loudon Tavern, Bishopsgate-street, the contrac- tors for the pavilion dinner. Mr. Fisher Hobbs gave notice that he should move, at the next Monthly Council, for the appointment of the two Committees for the Selection of the Judges of Stock and of Implements for the Shrewsbury Meeting, for the guidance of the Council, from the nomination papers to be delivered in by the members of the Society at the ensuing General Meeting in May. Country Meetiny of 1816.— Sir Matthew White Rid- ley, Bart., of Blagdon, transmitted to the Council, as chairman of a committee apjiointed by a meeting of agriculturists connected with the counties of Northum- berland, Durham, Cumbei'land, and Westmoreland, held in Newcastle-on-Tyne, on the lath of February, 1S45, at which it was unanimously resolved that an applica- tion should be made to the Council of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England, to appoint the town of Newcastle as the place of the country meeting of the Society in 1846 ; a memorial to that eflect, along with the resolutions agreed to by the committee. The Council ordered that copies of such parts of the standing regulations of the Council as prescribed the inquiries to be made and satisfactorily answered, prior to the selection of any town as the place of the country meeting of any year, should be transmitted to Sir Matthew Ridley, as the chairman of the committee in question ; and the President gave directions that the Coun- cil should be specially summoned to meet on Wednes- day, the 16th of April, for the purpose of receiving any further communication on this subject, and of taking such measures as tlie result might render necessary. Mr. H. Gibbs tlien gave notice that he should move tiic following resolution at the next IMonthly Council : — " That should the Council not deem it advisable to hold its country meeting of 1816, or of any future year, in the district next in rotation, the meeting shall be held in any other district upon which the Council may de- termine." Trial of Implements. — Mr. Ransome tlicn brought forward his motion on the trial of implements, of which he had given due notice on tlie 5th of February, and wliich he had postponed at tlie last monthly Council to the present time, on account of the pressure of other business on that day. This motion having been seconds ed by Mr. Fisher Hobbs, it was resolved, that tlu- prize- for the ploughs, drills, and tile-machines siiould not be awarded until subsequent trials have been made at the expense of the Society, and under the direction of the 464 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. stewaido and judges, in diflereut localities, and under circumstances of soil and season favourable for their trial and the determination of their comparative merits in each class respectively. The following Committee was appointed to report to the next monthly Council the details of a plan on which this resolution can be carried out in the most satisfactoi^y manner, viz., Mr. Ransome, Mr. Pusey, Mr. SheUey, Sir Robert Price, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. John Hudson, and Mr. Samuel Bennett. Fertility of Soils. — Mr. Barber, Secretary of the Stalham Farmers' Club, transmitted the required speci- mens of soil and subsoil from the field in Norfolk which had last year produced so remarkable a crop of wheat ; and the Council resolved, on the recommenda- tion of the weekly meeting, on the 12th of March, that analyses of these soils should be made at the expense of the society, by . Dr. Lyon Playfair, their consulting chemist. Epidemic among Cattle. — The Duke of Richmond laid before the Council two further communications addressed to liim by the Board of Trade, from which it appeared, in a dispatch received by the Earl of Aberdeen from Sir George Seymour, H. M. Minister at Brussells, "that the reports which had been circu- lated of the German ' Epizootic ' having spread into Belgium, were entirely without foundation ; the disease of which some traces had been observed in that king- dom, particularly in the district of Heme, being simply that of which some cases had occurred annually at the present season; and that M. Nothomb, the Belgian Minister for the Interior, had every reason for believing that no one case of the real ' Epizootic ' had to that time occurred on that side of the Rliine." Professor Sewell stated, that the late Government order to pro- hibit the importation of cattle from the Continent suspected to be afiected with, or actually labouring under that peculiar disease called " Murram," does not include the other severe and often fatal malady called the " new epidemic," or " pleuro-pneuraonia ; " and he referred the Members to the Repoit of the Smithfield Cattle Market of Monday, the 17th of March. A Veterinary Surgeon having an extensive cattle pi-actice in the dairy establishments of London, had in- formed him, that having had an opportunity of making a post-mortem examination of foreign diseased stock imported into England, he found the morbid appear- ances to be precisely the same as in those which die in this country. The President informed Professor Sewell that, on his communicating to hiua any instance of sick animals having been imported into this country from abroad, he would immediately, on receiving the instruc- tions of the Council to that effect, make a representation to the Board of Trade on the subject. The Council unanimously requested the Duke of Richmond to make such a communication to the Government on the details being furnished to him by Professor Sewell for that purpose. Veterinary Science.— The President reported from Her Majesty's Secretary of State for the Home Depart- ment, that the Government will communicate with the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, prior to granting the Veterinary Charter. Communications were received from the Claydon Farmers' Club, the Guiana Agricultural and Commercial Society, and the Rev. Dr. James Thompson. The Council then adjourned to the 16th of April. Special and Weekly Meetings of the Council were held at the Society's house in Hanover-square, on Wednes- day, the 16th of April; present: P. Pusey, Esq., M.P., in the chair. Earl of Ducie, Earl of Tyrconnel, Vicount Torrington, T. R. Barker, Esq., T. W. Bram- ston, Esq., M.P., R. Burgess, Esq., J. F. Burke, Esq., Col. ChaUoner, F. C. Cherrv, Esq., W. Cope, Esq., G. Cottam, Esq., J. E, Denison, Esq., M.P., Dr. R. Dickson, T. C. Eyton, Esq., A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P., H. Gibbs, Esq., B. Gibbs, Esq., W. O. Gore, Esq., M.P., S. Grantham, Esq., W. F. Hobbs, Esq., Rev. E. C. Keene, J. Kinder, Esq., J. H. Langston, Esq., M.P., Col. MacDouall, J. Morant, Esq., W. M. Mundy, Esq., M.P., A. Ogilvie, Esq., J. Parkes, Esq., E. Parkins, Esq., E. W. W. Pendarves, Esq., M.P., Sir R. Price, Bt., H. Price, Esq., G. H. Ramsay, Esq., J. Read, Esq., Professor Sewell, W. Shaw, Esq., R. A. Slaney, Esq., T. H. S. E. Sotheron, Esq., M.P., W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., H. S. Thompson, Esq., T. Turner, Esq., and T. Tweed, Esq. Prize Essays. — Mr. Pusey reported from the Journal Committee the following awards of Prizes for Essays : — I. The Prize of 20/. for the best Essay in the miscel- laneous class of "any Agricultural Subject," to Mr. Henry White, Land Agent and Surveyor, Warrington, Lancashire, for his detailed account of the making of Cheshire Cheese. n. The Prize of 20/. for the best account of reclaim- ing Heath-land, to Mr. John Watson, jun., Land Agent, Kendal, Westmoreland. TIL The Prize of 20/. for an account of the cheapest and best method of establishing a Tile-yard, to Mr. Frederick William Etheredge, of 15, Park-street, Westminster. Bone Manure. — Mr. Pusey then informed the Council, that the Prize Essay of Mr. Hannam, on the apjilication of bones as a manure for the Turnip -crop, contained, in his opinion, not only a detailed account of the best experiment ever made in Agriculture, but some points of so much imjiortance at the present season, when the time for sowing Turnips was coming on, that he felt anxious that not a moment should be lost in com- municating the facts to the members for their informa- tion and guidance. Mr. Pusey having adverted to the great discovery of the economical and efficient employ- ment of bones as a manure when dissolved by macera- tion in sulphuric acid, proceeded to x'cad extracts from Mr. Hannam's Prize Essay, of which the following is the substance : — I. Superiority in, Economy and Effects, — This result consisted not only in a greater amount of crop obtained at less cost than in the case of bones employed in their ordinary state, but also in the condition and character of the iilant itself, as well as in its growth ; the crops derived from dissolved bones being both more abundant, healthy, and less liable to attacks of insects, and the plant more rapid in its growth (by 10 days in the first month, and the gain of a month at the end, the Turnips from the dissolved bones being ready for use sevei-al weeks before any other) while it exhibited a decided tendency to form bulbs at a much earlier period. The greater and more readily fertilizing effects of bones dis- solved in acid than any sort of bones not so prepared, were clearly shown in the following results ; in which the crops from the dissolved bones took the lead from the commencement : — Bush, of Bones Cost of Bones State of Bones. Amount of Produce per acre. per acre. per acre. £ s. il. tons. cwt. St. lb. 16 2 0 0 Crushed 10 3 4 8 2 Dissolved 9 12 0 0 2 Dissolved 11 15 0 0 4 Dissolved 12 11 0 4 4 0 19 0 Dissolved 14 6 4 0 4 1 0 6 Dissolved 14 11 7 0 8 1 9 9 Dissolved 13 15 7 0 8 1 13 0 Dissolved 15 2 5 0 8 Dissolved 16 1 3 6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 465 From which it appeared, that 2 bushels of dissolved bones per acre would actually produce as good results as 16 bushels of bones in their ordinary state in some cases ; that 8 bushels of dissolved bones would greatly surpass 16 bushels of bones used in any other manner ; and that 1 bushels per acre would be a fair quantity to apply in the state of solution ; the results being greatly superior to those from four-fold the same quantity of bones applied in the usual manner, and the cost of the application less in proportion to the amount of effect produced, evidenced by the weight of the crop, than that of any other quantity. JI. Proportions. — 1. Bones and Acid. — The propor- tion of acid had generally been one-half of the weight of bone employed ; but one-third, or even one-fourth of the weight of bone might be used with success, if occasion required. That was an important point in the economy of the manure, as it affected the cost materially. 2. Water. — The ])roportion of water had generally been 100 times the weight of acid ; but 50 or 25 times the weight of acid would serve the purpose required very efficiently. That fact was one likely to be of great use, one of the main practical difficulties to contend with in the application of dissolved bones being the large quantity of water which had been considered necessary. iVIr. llannam's results showed that four bushels of bones (12 st.), 6st. of acid, and oOO st. of water (50 times that of acid) gave 420 gallons of dissolved bones to be applied per acre ; while 150 st. of water (25 times that of acid) would suffice. It was, however, worthy of notice, in reference to the preparation of the mixture, that the bones should be pulverised as much as possible before they are mixed with the acid, in order to render the solution more complete ; but should that not be the case, and a few of the larger portions of bone be left undissolved, that circumstance would occasion no in- jurious effect, as there would be bone enough dissolved for the plant in its early stages, and the larger particles would disintegrate by degrees and come into operation towards the end of the season. III. Dissolved -Bone Comjwst. — Mr. Pusey thought that, however great a point was gained by reducing tlie bulk of the water employed for diluting the solution of the bones, a still greater step was attained by substitut- ing altogether the compost for the liquid form of the application. In the Society's last Journal, p. 596, Mr. Tennant, of Shields, near Ayr, gave the following ac- count of his practice on this head : — " I put 25 bushels into three old boilers (of which every farmer here has a supply), and next pour in two bottles of acid, of about 1701bs. each, and 36 Scotch pints (18 imperial gallons) of boiling water into each boiler. It boils away at a great rate for some time, aiul in a day or two we empty the boilers into two carts of light mould, and turn the mixture over. At this stage the bones are only partially dissolved, but they heat and decompose in the henji, after being turned over three or four times ; and in the course of seven or eight weeks the compost becomes dry, and breaks down with a shovel in a fit state for spread- ing with the hand in the drill." Mr. Thompson stated, that he had himself, last year, found four bushels of dissolved bones, applied in the form of comjiost, fully equally to 20 loads of farm-yard manure; there being no ))ercei)tible difference in the crop throughout the field. IV. Cost of Acid.— The Earl of Dtcii: called the attention of the Council to the price of the acid em- ployed for the solution of the bones. He understood that sulphuric and muriatic acid might be obtained for OJd. per 11). It was desirable not only that tlie price of the acid should be ascertained, but that its purity ami strength should also be uniform. Mr. IIvF.TT has communicated the following inte- resting particulars in a letter to Mr. Pusey : — " Messrs. Leonard and Jordan, of the Alkali Works, Bristol, offer to supply me with acids for dissolving bones as follows : — Oil of Vitriol (sulph. acid) sp. gr. 1850 per lb., Id. Brown Acid (ditto) ditto 1700 " Jd. Muriatic Acid ditto 1100 " i{d. These prices are charged for 10 carboys or upwards : for any less quantities ^d. is usually added. A carboy is a large glass bottle, containing from 1 to li cwt. This is a reduction of 25, 50, and 100 percent, respec- tively, on some of our printed prices ; but those who buy largely should be able to test the strength, without knowing which the price, of course, is of no great value. This is done very easily with a small phial called a thousand-grain bottle, which costs about 6d. Balance once of these in the scales, fill it with the acid up to the mark on the neck ; the weight gained is the specific gravity and measure of strength. Thus, the oil of vitriol of commerce in the thousand-grain bottle should weigh 1850 grains ; and the brown acid named above, 1700 grains. The manufacturers inform me that there is no difference between these two, excepting that the latter is less concentrated than the former. This, I think, must mean less purified as well. It probably contains some very small quantity of organic matter, which has found its way into the sulphur during its voyage or manufac- ture ; and which being charred, gives the colour, and renders it less saleable for many purposes of manufac- ture. For our purposes, this is no objection. The re- duction in strength as compared with the oil of vitriol is more than covered by the reduction in price. I calcu- late, that the quantity of the brown acid, which would cost only 5/. 6s. ."id., would, taking its relative strength into account, dissolve as many bones as a quantity of the oil of vitriol, which would cost 6/. 7s. This, of course, presumes that there are no impurities in either injurious to their effect on bones, and is mere calcula- tion, which should be tested by actual trial. In all sulphuric acid, 1 believe there is a little lead derived from the leaden vessels in vkdiich it is manufactured ; and sometimes, when made from pyrites, a little arsenic, but not enough, I suppose, to have any decided effect on the specific gravity or strength, nor on the vegetable or animal that feeds upon the crop." Mr. Thompson suggested, that as it was often difficult for a small farmer to find a vessel of sufficient capacity to contain the mixture of the dissolved bones and water, it might be found a simple substitute to form a sort of l)ond, pubbled with three or four loads of clay, in which the mixture could be made. When tlie solution was complete, the clay might be mixed with the compost. ExPENSKs OF Draining. — The Cii virman called upon Mr. Parkes to read a paper on the cost of draining land. Mr. Park IS stated that the following digest had been drawn up by him at Mr. Pusey's request, in order to exhibit the real costs of drainage to a landowner who might be disposed to erect his own tilery. The price at which he had estimated the inch -bore pipes fully covered every expense incurred in their manufacture, including interest at 5 per cent, on the annual cxiienditure for wages, and a charge of 20 i)er cent, per annum for the tilery and machine, i. c, on the extreme supposition that, at the end of five years, all the jiipes required for the estate would be made, and that none would be sold to jirofit. He called this an extreme supposition, as there were few considerable estates on which many other articles besides draining tiles were not in constant de- mand, such as roofing-tiles, bricks, iS:c., and in most (;asps a profitable sale would be found for the ))roduc- tions of a lileiy. He was now erecting several tileries on a scale suited to the magnitude of the respective drainages. 466 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. INSTANCES OF THE COST OF DRAINING AN ACRK OF LAND, the Draius being laid with inch-pipes at various depths and distances asunder ; the Pipes being manufactured on an estate, and assumed to cost 6s. per thousand. !*< Instances. CO 09 U CO I I CO CA O u u core Distance between Drains. W t" CD IK. Ci en (■J O CO w ^ a. c >z. GO $0 to >- Tn ■^ o ts to -?r Ci ta w. 05 3 3B:§ (DUQ ffi as 3 J" p „. _ a. a ^ ' SI>T3 o 'S, CD 00 lO o o o c> o o 1=^ o o to CO to CO o to o 8 o g o „ ,_t .^ »^ ,_, 1^ >--cjS 60 CO ?^1 " o o tn to o o r- -J >(>■ w w tn o> VI *4 5? ^^^2? '-' o l(- llw CO TO — '-' c 3 E !>^5- 3 S ^ o K - 3 P 3 C £ fTj i ^ 3 1^ ffi 2. E g c B P CD t 3 Wg 3 ^ (f?" p 3" 5" 4 ^ 3 "■ Observations. — "The particulars of all these drain- ages were collected by myself. With the exception of iSos. 3, 10, and 11, they are stated in my * Report on Drain-tiles and Drainage,' (Journal, vol. iv.) ; the only change now made being in the cost of pipes, which is adapted to the case of a landowner manufacturing his own pipes, and charging himself with their prime cost. The wages given for digging are common to the respec- tive districts mentioned, laying pipes, filling iu; and spreading any surplus soil included. The first three examples show the rates for cutting 3 ft. deep to be alike, as regards uniform clays, in Kent, Sussex, and .Surrey. The price given for cutting must necessarily vary with the texture of the subsoil, and the depth of the drains ; whilst the total cost will be materially affected by the distance at which they are placed asunder. Nos. 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, would have cost nearly twice the money had the drains been laid in the clay 30 inches deep, whereas, by going through the clay into the gravel (which was full of water) the freer j)ercolation in the latter strata admitted of a greatly extended distance between the drains ; thus, even in such an instance as Mr. Taylor's, No. 9, the most difficult of the cited cases, and requiring greater nearness in the drains from the abundance of springs, this excellent drainage would have been effected at less than 3^. per acre, if the pipes had been produce at 6s. per thousand feet, as I believe may be done. " Mr. Thompson, No. 3, has drained 185 acres of his own two farms and 225 acres for Mr. Clarke, of Den- mark Hill, owning adjoining estates in Surrey at Sidley Bridge and Kenersley. He first drained with bushes, but, finding bush drains very liable to stoppage, he erected a tilery for Mr. Clarke, in 1841, and completed the drainage with IJ-inch pipes. He states that he never saw any of the parallel drains more than half bore full at the outfall, nor have any of them betrayed signs of derangement. He prefers, and has adopted, 4 feet for the depth when the outfall permits, and did so from observing that main drains of that depth bled the land more efi'ectually, and to a greater distance, than the parallel drains 3 feet deep flowing into them. He is in the habit of covermg the pipes with thin hedge loppings, or other refuse, which he considers to advance the ac- tion of the drains, and to prevent silt from entering at first. The water issuing from these, as from all other deep drains I have witnessed, is invariably as clear as crystal. Mr. Thompson has not paid more than 3d. per rod for any of his drains (excepting a few patches where large flat sand-stones had to be got out) and this price includes the covering with hedge -clearings pressed firmly down upon the pipes. The getting and carrying this '. refuse to the drains may be rated at about 2s. 6d. per acre. The drainers earn from 12s. to 15s. per week, according to the time of the year and their skill. "Nos. 10 and 11 are instances of the cost of stone drainage in Somersetshire. Deep drains are there recognised as much more effective than a shallow system, and I observed seme recently made 3-feet drains, at 60 feet asunder, keeping the land in good con- dition. It was clay with a porous subsoil. Stone-drain- ing seems to have been practised on the estate of the Honourable and Rev. G. Neville Grenville, Butleigh, for at least 100 years; but these old examples (which were probably not made with due precautions), are now all stopped up and useless. Almost all of them are laid in the direction of the greatest fall, and parallel with each other. The cost of stone drains, and their liability to choke, have formed a great bar to improvement in this district. From the examination I have made of the soils of Butleigh (the drainage of which is now com- mitted to ray management) , I consider that its complete and permanent drainage with pijjes made on the estate will be effected at a rate varjdng from 30s. to 40s. per acre total cost. The pipes delivered in the field will not cost so much per acre as the mere leading of the stone." Mr. Parkes then communicated some interesting facts respecting the increased produce of drained soil compared with the same before drainage. Mr. Fisher Hobbs thought that, however correct it might appear in theory, and under general conditions, that one-inch pipes were capable of carrying off any amount of water that might at any time, and under any THE FARISIER'S MAGAZINE. 407 (Sircumstances, accumulate on the land, his own expe- rience during the last six months had furnished him with several instances of their failure. The drains (to use a provincial term) had frequently, after heavy rain, become " blown," that is, rendered useless, either from the pipes having become choked up in their passage, or dislocated from their line of position by the weight of the superincumbent water. The one-inch pipes re- quired to be so accurately laid in the drains, that few labourers could be found who were capable of adjusting them to the best advantage ; and unless tlie greatest nicety was observed in that respect, the work was in- evitably spoiled. After heavy thunder-storms he had often seen the two-inch pipes discharging a full current, and streams more than two inches in diameter issuing from the common large drain-tiles. IVIr. llobbs was surprised to hear from Mr. Parkes what appeared to him a new theory, namely, tliat all descriptions of land in any season were much injured by the too quick per- colation of water through them : he fully agreed with Mr. Parkes in the exception, that some soils in ])arti- cular seasons might be injured by such an occurrence. With regard to the cost of the one-inch tiles, he doubted whether it could be assumed generally that they could be made at so low a rate as Mr. Parkes had stated, in consequence of the difficulty that would frequently be met with in procuring a suitable material on tlie estate. He thought the difference in expence between the one- inch and the two-inch tiles so trifling as not to be worth consideration, when it was taken into account that fewer two-inch pipes would be required to effect the same drainage than when the one-inch pipes were employed. He fully agreed with Mr. Parkes in the advantages of deep drainage. Mr. Henry Dixon, of Witham, was paying great attention to the subject of the construction and manufacture of drain tiles, and he, too, like himself, had frequently met with instances of failure in the use of the one-inch pipes. Mr. Pi'SEY observed, that the length of the drains mentioned by Mr. Dixon was much too great for the size of the pipes — a circumstance which would account for the accumulation of water in the soil referred to by Mr. Dixon in the Journal (^'ol V., p. GO-t), and which Mr. Pusey had noticed in the printed note, he thought it right to add to Mr. Dixon's communication at the time of its publication. Mr. Parkes agreed with Mr. Pusey on that jioint. An inch-pipe drain was sufficient, if not exceeding 300 yards in length. If the field was of greater length, larger pipes should be added in succession, as was practised in Kent. He had never heard of, nor seen, anincli-bore ])ipe running full at the out-fall, 300 yards in length, when a drain was 3 feet deep ; and when the distance between the drains was as little as 21 feet. He had never heard of incli-bore pipes llov>ing (a phrase wliich he did not understand), nor stopping, where the drain was properly formed to receive the pipes : it was a mere j)rejudice on the |)art of those who did not practise the proper system of Cutting, laying, and fil- ling in. The hundreds of instances of success in all varieties of soil, was a sufficient answer to the allegation. He would say that, by shallow drainage, the water of rain might be, and was, often carried away too quickly ; it was removed before its fertilising qualities had time to give out tlieir full virtue. By deeper drainage the water was removed below the surface as quickly as by shallow drainage, that the land was ccjually soon ready for working, ivc. ; but, by compelling the water to de- scend through a greater mass of eartii before it passed finally off, the deeper subsoil was elevated in temperature, its texture was ameliorated, and the water (juitted the earth jierfectly colourless ; whereas from shallow drains it issued cloudy, and charged with useful matter. He then instanced cases of his own knowledge, which ! showed that inch-pipe drains were uninjured by annual floods : they were neither blown up nor stojipcd uj), although the flood covered the surface of the fields, and I necessarily filled every drain with water. He also adduced examples of excess of drainage in certain soils, and the advantage in such soils of being able to com- j mand the presence of water at a proper depth below the ! surface, in a season similar to that of last summer. The use of two-inch instead of inch-bore pipes was not only unnecessary as a general rule, but would add consider- ably to the cost of drainage. Mr. PusioT objected to the use of two-inch, or any larger pipes, where the inch-bore sufficed, not only on account of their increased price, but from the increased weight and cost of carriage. He had tried the inch- jiipes, and had entered into a contract for 200,000 of them, at IDs. i)er thousand. This would only amount to 100/. The same length of draining-tiles would have cost him last winter 530/ j and six winters back 850/. He stated, as an interesting fact, that drains he had laid previous to last year, in a very retentive clay, had either not run, or very insufficiently, till last autumn, when all acted well, in consequence, no doubt, of the deep and extensive cracking of the soil, from the drought. He had begun draining at 10 feet interval and 30 inches of depth ; but now drained the same land at 30 feet interval and a dei)th of 31 inches. Drains so made last winter had acted at once, in consequence of the previous dry summer. Mr. Cottam favoured the Council with calculations on the descent of water through land, and its rate of passage through pipes of dirt'erent bore ; and Mr. Thomi)son, with remarks on the condition of soils as materially aft'ecting the retention or transmission of that liquid. Mr. Childers, M.P., presented, through Mr. Thomp- son, a collection of Australian Wheats ; Mr. Gillies a sample of the finest Van Dieman's Land Wheat ; the Rev. Dr. Thompson specimens of Mexican Barley; Mr. iNIurray (publisher to the Society), 13 volumes of works, published ])y him, and connected with agricul- ture ; Lord St. John plans of farm-buildings; and the Earl of Tyrconnel, a specimen of cylindric drain-tile, with a flat rest attached to it, and made by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen's tile machine. Mr. Bailey Denton notified to the Council that the drain-tile machine of him- self and Mr. Charnock would be shown at work until the 25th of April, at 1 1, South-street, Manchester-square. Country Mketing of 18-lG. — The special business of the Council consisted in receiving communications from Sir Matthew White Ridley, Bart., chairman of the Newcastle-on-Tyne Committee, for inviting the Society to hold its Country Meeting of next year in that town ; in taking tlie various points of those replies to tlie Coun- cil's inquiries into consideration ; in directing such further questions to be transmitted to the committee as referred to topics of required information ; and in ap- pointing the Hon. Captain Spencer, Mr. II. Gibbs, Mr. B. Gibbs, Mr. Miles, Mr. Shelley, and Mr. Tiiompson, a committee for the personal inspection of the several sites at Newcastle on-Tyne proposed for the purposes of the meeting. The Council tlien adjourned to Wednesday next, the 23rd of April. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 23rd of Apr 1 ; present: T. Raymond Barker, Esi|., in the chair; Earl of Lovelace; W. Blacker, Esq.; W. R. Browne, Es<|.; ]•:. Buller, Es(i., ^\.\\\ Col. Chalioner ; F. C. Cherrv, Esq.; H. Colman, Escj. ; A. E. Fuller, i:s<).. M.P" ; H. Gibbs, Esq.; B. (iibbs, Esq.; E. Ilolhuui, Esq.; Rev, C. E. Kecncj .V. Ogilvic, Esq.; E. Parkins, Esq.; I I 468 THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE. E.W, W. Pendarves, Esq., M.P. ; E. S. Cliandos Pole, Esq. ; Sir R. Price, Bart. ; J. Scales, Esq. ; W. Shaw, Esq.; R. A. Slaney, Esq.; H. S. Thompson, Esq.; T. Turner, [Esq. ; T. Tweed, Esq. ; and J. Wood, Esq. Bones and Sulphuric Acid, — A letter from Mr. Spooner, of Southampton, was read, in which he stated that, last year, he had used bones and sulphuric acid as compost for turnips. He had prepared it by placing If bushels of finely-ground bones in a tub, with half their ■weight of acid diluted with four times the quantity of cold water ; after some hours, a few bushels of fine mould and some coal-ashes were added, so as to make the whole amount to 15 bushels of compost. Tliis com- post was used in three days after its preparation, but, Ijeing damp, did not run so well through the drill as if time had been given for its drying. The mixture was applied at tlie rate of little more than 2 bushels per acre ; and, as INIr. Spooner states, successfully rivalled 16 bushels of bones applied to an acre of superior quality. — Mr. Slaney remarked that in Shropshire they mixed the acid and bones in a stone trough, and, having stirred them well together, continued to add water till the whole was in a proper state for use. Excel- lent crops were obtained when the mixture could be equably distributed ; but no common farmer would be able to employ it to advantage upon an extended plan until some mode for such regular distribution could be devised. — Colonel Challoxer had seen, on the Duke of Richmond's estates in Scotland, a most simple and excellent contrivance for effecting that purpose, namely, a vessel suspended like a compass, in such a manner, on a pivot, as to preserve its horizontal balance in every position of the wheels, and axle supporting it ; and so contrived that the mixture could be distributed from it exactly over the drills. The price, he believed, was from 8/. to 12;.— Mr. Thompson thought that the diffi- culty was not confined simply to the distribution of the mixture by means of the water-cart, however excellently it might be invented for the purpose required, but ex- tended to the imperfect reduction of the bones when the application was made. He had found particles of bone remain in the spout of the rose after he had increased the apertures by degrees to a considerable extent ; even when he had employed whaledust (or coarse sawdust from the large bones of the whale), instead of fragments of common bone, as the basis of his operations ; this saw- dust being found after a fortnight's maceration to be so imperfectly dissolved, as to impede the even distribution of the mixture by the rose of the water-cart. He had applied the preparation with success in the state of com- post, at the rate of 4 bushels of bones per acre. American Agriculture. — The Hon. Edward Eve- rett, the American Minister, presented to the Society a set of the " Transactions of the Massachusetts Agri- cultural Society," along with copies of the Prize Essays of Mr, Dana and Mr. Foote, on the manufacture of manures, and their application to the different variety of soils. Mr. Colman bore testimony to the highly respectable character of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, which had been now established for thirty years, and to the attainments and great practical knowledge of the gentleman whose Prize Essays were then offered to the Council. — Mr. Thompson observed, that in those essays the principles of chemistry, in reference to their application to agricultural processes, were explained with a clearness and precision he had never before met with ; and he thought Mr. Colman would confer a great favour on the agriculturists of this country, by facilitating the importation of those essays. — Mr. Col- >ian expressed the satisfaction he would feel in pro- curing copies of the works in question for any of the members, of the Couucilwho might wish to possess them, Cole-seed, — Professor Pryme, of Cambridge, having on a former occasion presented to the Society a supply of Cole-seed of a new variety , the following communi- cation from that gentleman was read, on the in- spection of the seed in question by the members present. " I have sent a present of half a bushel of Cole or Rape-seed, more productive (at least as a green food) than the common sort. I found, some years ago, about twenty plants springing up in a field of mangold wurzel, of an appearance so different, that it was at first doubted if it were a cole- seed. It was on a decomposed peaty-soil at Wistow, in the east part of Huntingdonshire. I had them trans- planted for seed : and have since grown it as much as I could. A botanical friend, to whom I sent a plant, thinks that it belongs to the Brassica campestiis oleifera, the common coleseed being Brassica napus oleifera ; and the chief test being the roughness of the young leaves of the campestris, while those of the napus are smooth. The green produce is at least in the propor- tion of 4 to 3 ; and live stock seem to prefer it. In peaty soils, of which there are about 250,000 acres in the Bedford Level, coleseed is the usual green crop, in- stead of turnips." Beans and Turnips. — Lord St. John favoured the Council with the following details of the double crop of Beans and Swede Turnips, grown on clay-land, at Melchbourue, with complete success for four years, and of which a notice had been communicated to the Coun- cil on a former occasion: — "Although I am not able accurately to furnish a statement of the weight and measure of my crop, owing to my having used some of the beans of last season amongst the stock, yet I think I can give to the Council a satisfactory account of the general results of the system of cropping. At the pre- sent time my sheep are eating off the turnips, and I have had the measure taken of the part of the field which they have cleared. It is 4^ acres, which has kept 212 sheep for five weeks. In 1843, I had 3^ quarters of beans per acre, with a very good crop of turnips; and in 1842, I had as much as 6 quarters and 2 bushels of beans per acre, with as good a crop of turnips." Productive Wheat-field. — Mr. Barber, Secretary of the Stalham Farmers' Club, communicated to the Council the following additional particulars relating to the crop of wheat brought under the notice of the Council at a former meeting, and to the field in Norfolk from which it was obtained. " The productive field, of which I have sent specimens of the soil and subsoil for analysis, contains, exclusively of fences, 4 acres, 3 roods, and 33 perches ; and its produce last harvest was 107 coombs of best wheat, and 4 coombs 2 bushels of small; making, in all, 111 coombs 2 bushels. It belongs to E. Wilkinson, Esq., of North Wal- sham, and lies in the parish of Hapisburgh, within about f of a mile of the sea, from which it it is not much sheltered. It had not been marled for many years before the abundant crop was grown, nor was it ever subsoiled. It is worthy of remark that there is not a tree either in the field or on any fence which bounds it, nor any game preserved in its neighbourhood. The previous crops in the field were grown as follow : — I. In 1338, mangold-wurtzel ; 2. In 1839, barley ; 3. In 1840 and 1841, grass-fed both years; 1. In 1842, wheat; 5. In 1843, peas; ti. In 1844, the abundant crop of wheat. About 2 bushels, 3 pecks of seed per acre were used to grow the last crop ; the best corn of which weighed about 1 7 stone 121bs. per coomb. Mr. Holland, of Dumbleton, presented to the Society the model of a single-horse cart for a hill-farm ; for which, and the other presents and communications THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 469 then received, the Council Ordered their best thaiiks to be returned. The Council then adjourned to Wednesday next, the 30th of Ai)ril, NEW MEMBERS. Adams, George T., Hawkhiirst, Stiqilchxu-st, Kent Andrus, J., Scotbury, Gravcsciid, Kent Atkinson, George, ]^Iorland Hall, Penrith, \A'estmorelaud Atkinson, Joseph, Enibleton, Ahiwick, Nortluun. Baird, Sir David, Bart., St. ^Margaret's Cottage, Twickculiani, ^liddle.sex Barker, llenrj' John, AVera, Shropshire Bates, George, Heddon, Ne\vcastle-on-Tj'HC Bencraft, Stephen, Barnstaple, Devon Blaiie, Capt. Robert, 2nd I-ife Guards Brackenbury, 'Wilhaiu T., Shouldhaui Tliorpe, Dowuhaiu, Norfolk Brewer, Edgar, Newjiort, ^Nronmonthshire Broughton, Richard M., LlanjnnjTiech, Oswestry, Salop Broiighton, Robert, Ruyton-Eleveu-Townis, Shrewsbury Browne, Richard, Duuscouibe Farm, Crediton, Devon Biu-rell, Robert, Durham Buckland, George, Bcnendcn, Craiibrook, Kent Byron, Robert, Bradford, Yorksliire Caruis, ^lichael, ^Mcldon, IMorpelh, Northumberland Carter, John, Go, South ^lolton-street, London Chune, George, Coleliroke Dale, Shrewsbiuy Corbet, A'incent, R., West Felton, Oswestry, Salop Corrmgton, R. \V., Bolham Hall, Retford, Notts. Cree, Jolui, Owermoigne, Dorchester, Dorset Davidson, John, Braudon-AMiite-House, Alnwick, Northuni. Davison, James, Ti-ihington, iMorpeth Dickenson, Joseph, Paxton-Dean, Felton, Northumberland Dodd, AVilliam J., Ipsden, AValhngford, Berks Dodd, Jolui, Bagley, EUesmere, Salop Doidiin, Samuel, BywcU, Felton Dowcll, Rev. Thomas, Ledbury, Herefordshire Dninic, Thomas, jnn., Birchcr, I^ominster, Herefordshire Edwards, Thomas, Hodgebatch, Bromyard, Herefordshire Elchn, Joseph, Caterham Court, Godstoue, Surrey Elhs, John Gam, Pwllheli, Carnarvonshire Evans, Owen, Tyn-y-Coed, Pwllheli Evans, K. AV., Eyton Hall, T,eominstcr, Herefordshire Farley, George, Henwick, Worcester Field, Frederick, 36, Upper Marsh, I^ambeth Fowle, Rev. Henrj', Chate Lodge, Andover Graham, James, Bersted Lodge, Boguor, Sussex Gray, William, East Bolton, Almvick, Northumberland Grimmer, Frederick, Thurlton Hall, Norwich finnning, Sir Robert, Bart., Horton, Northampton Hayward, George, AValford House, Shrewsbury Hilditch, George, Treflack Hall, Oswestry, Salop Hill, Hon. Richard Noel, Cronkhill, Shrewsbiu-y Hoare, George, Morden Farm, ^litcham, Siurrey Jacob, James, Kingsland, Shrewsbury Jenkins, Richard David, flavor of Cardigan Jones, John Pryce, Bitterley, Ludlow Ku:\van, Denisis, Castle Ilackett, Co. Galway Kough, Thomas Harley, Slurewsbiny I^ngley, Henry, 2d Life (Juards Lott, H. B., Tracy House, Honiton, Devon Lloyd, Alfred, Brnadgrecu, Croydon, Surrey llai-shall, James C!arth, Headingley, I-ecds, Yorkshire Matthews, A\'illiam, Baschinch, Shrewsbury iMdhouse, William, HarweU Hall, Hinckley, Leicestershire ^lorris, Henry, INIaidstoue, Kent Muir, AV. Frederick, Temple Lawn, AA'^orcester Nicholson, Calvert, Bunny, Nottingham Nicholson, AA'illiam Newzam, Newark-on-Trent, Notts. Oakden, John, AVaresley, Caxton, Cambridgeshire Phillips, Charles, llie Abbey, Foregate, Shrewsbury Pinkerton, Thomas, Ancroft-stcad, Berwick-ou-Twced Povey, John, The Denven, Oswestrj-, Salop Raviies, !Micliael, Mells Park, Frome, Somerset Reynolds, Joseph, 131, Piccachlly Ridley, John M., 15, Montague Place, Bryanstoue-stiuare , London Roberts, Thomas, Ivhigton-Bury, Leominster, Herefordshire Sadler, A^'illiam James, Purton, Wootton-Bassett, AVilts. Scott, Thomas, Beal, Belford, Northumberland Smart, AVilliam Lynn, Eversiiot, AVobum, Beds. Smart, Captain George John, Tumby, Boston, Lincolushue Smith, AViUiam, Sion A'illa, Shrewsbury Smith, John Kennedy, Radbrook A'illa, Slnewsbui-y Squire, AViUiam, Yarmouth, Isle of AVight St. Aubjii, Rev. H. Alolesworth, Clowancc, Camborne, Cornw. Talbot, AVm., Hollings-Preston-Patrick-Burton, AA'estmorelaud Taylor, F, ]\Ianley Sliawe, Castle Taylor, Co. (ialway A'enables, Richard, The Hoarstone, Hodnet, Salop AVakeman, Thomas, Graig, IMonmouth AValcot, Rev. Charles, Bitterley Court, Ludlow, Sidop AValford, John Henshaw, AA'em, Salop AVatson, George, AVcllingham, Fakenham, Norfolk AA'ood, Edward Atkyus, Osmington, Weymouth, Dorset Williams, Edward, Lowes Cotut, Radnorsliire AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR APRIL. From the date of our last report, until nearly the conclusion of this month, the weather (from the wind almost daily hlowing from the eastward) was very unseasonable ; hence, vegetation in general was prevented from making that progress which is generally observed at this particular period of the year. As might, therefore, be expected, no increase took place in the sup])ly of food for depastured stock, which was i)rincipally fed uj)on oil cake and other sul)stanccs, to the great injury of the in- terests of the grazing community. The atmos- phere becoming com})aratively mild, during the last week of the month, and we having been favoured with some fine warm rains, the grass com- menced growing very rapidly ; consequently, some of the before-mentioned dirticulticH were thus over- come. Yet, in taking a review of the whole month, there is, we lind, much to produce the appre- hension that the graziers must be considerable losers during the present season. The miserably low prices which have been ruling in Smithiield market for store stock have had the eftect of caus- ing a change in the cattle traffic of the country. For instance, we find that upwards of y,000 shceji have found their way into Yorkshire, from Lincoln- shire, and upwards of 25,000 from Norfolk and Suffolk into Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and some other counties, which, of course, has greatly interfered with the trade in the metroi)olitan market, in which the numbers offering have been fidly e(]ual to the wants of the dealers, who have been very cautious in their operations. It is with much regret we have to notice a great, and, we may add, somewhat alarming increa.se in the epidemic, in nearly, or quite every part of Eng- land. In all quarters, the losses on the farms, and more especially on the roads, have been very great, not only amongst the beasts, but likewise the sheep. Some parties, from the fact of tlie disease I I 2 470 THE FARMER>S MAGAZINE. liavinjT nearly disajipeared in the early part of last year, liave imafj^ined that the complaint has been introduced amongst the stock by the recent im- portations from abroad. We, ourselves, are not pre]iared to agree with this opinion, yet we conceive greater care should be exhibited in the inspection of the beasts as they arrive. We are not endea- vouring to prove that a want of judgment exists amongst those whose duty it is to inspect the animals previous to their being landed — our object being merely that of improving the system, for the purpose of protecting the interests of our graziers ; hence, we would suggest that the animals be com- l^elled to M'alk some distance on shore, pre^•iousl)' to their being " })assed" as healthy, as we all know that an animal sooner exhibits his weak points while walking, tlian when standing still. The imports under the new tarift' ha^•e been again large, and, as we have previously intimated would be the case, considerably on the increase, compared with those at the corresponding jjeriod in 1844. We have before given it our opinion, that the exer- tions making in various parts of Holland to improve the condition of both beasts and sheep, would vxn- questionably be the means of bringing them into close competition with our best breeds. This opinion has been fully confirmed since our last, for we may venture to observe that many of the beasts which have come to hand have proved most excel- lent M'eighers, and have found ready buyers, at mostly fair quotations, though we fully believe this speculation is still far from profitable to those en- gaged in it. Notwithstanding all the difficulties with which the farmer has had to contend, the beasts and sheep l)rought to Smithfield market in the course of the month — especially those from Norfolk, Sufl^blk, and C'ambridgeshire — have proved of fair a\'erage quality, and equal in numl)er to those returned at some previous corresponding seasons. The arrivals of dead meat from Scotland and various parts of England, up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, have been large ; and yet prime beasts, sheep, and lambs have met a steady inquir}', at somewhat im- proved rates, while the value of other kinds of stock has been mostly supported. In the early part of the month — at which jjeriod the temperature M'as very cold — great fears were entertained lest the young wheat plants had suf- fered from the effects of the severe winter ; but we are glad to say that those fears, ^vith some few ex- ceptions, were groundless. On the return of fine weather, they sjjeedily showed such was the case, and have since continued to make rapid progress towards maturity. As might be expected, out-door farm labours have engrossed nearly the whole of the time of the agriculturists in the course of the month, more particularly as they were very back- ward at its commencement. Such has been the progress made in them that, in the fonvard districts, nearly the whole of the Lenten crops haA-e been already sown, under, too, the most favourable aus])ices. Most of our readers are doubtless aware that strenuous exertions are now making in the House of Commons to induce ministers to allow the farming Ijody to malt barley for cattle free of duty. Considering the great scarcity of food in the couri- try, such a boon would have been of the highest possible importance had it been granted some months since ; but we are really doubtful, con- sidering all the matters in connexion with the subject, whether Sir Robert Peel will accede to the wishes of those who are now agitating the measure. Owing to the great scarcity, the demand for both hay and straw has been somewhat active, in the metropolitan markets, and the quotations have further improved — meadow hay having sold at from £3 10s. to £5 l6s. ; clover hay, £4 10s. to £6 4s.; and straw, £1 18s. to £2 3s. per loads In the neighbourhood of the metropolis, the stock . of meadow hay have become nearly exhausted ; the ])rincipal portion of the supplies of that de- scription of produce being now derived by railway and canal from various parts of the country, but principally from Hampshire, Essex, and Cambridge- shire. For most kinds of wheat of home produce, the arrivals of which have been seasonably good, the demand has ruled steady, and full prices have been paid in every instance. Foreign parcels have moved oft" slowly, yet the quotations have been supported. In corn, under lock, so little has been doing that the rates have ruled almost nominal. Barley and malt have sold on easier terms ; but oats, beans, and peas have had an upward ten- dency. Our letters from Scotland state that all farm operations are progressing rapidly ; that the young wheats are looking weU ; but that the corn trade has ruled somewhat inactive, at barely previous rates. In Ireland, the young wheats are represented as very promising ; while, on the whole, rather more business has been transacted in most descriptions of grain, at fully late currencies. The suppUes of fat stock brought forward in Smithfield market, in the course of the month, have been as follow : — Beasts 12,800 Sheep and lambs 110,400 Calves 600 Pigs 1,600 The bullock supplies ha^e been thus derived : — Head. Norfolk, Suffolk, &c 6,000 Lincolnshire, &c 700 AVestern and Midland districts 2,000 Other parts of England .... 2,200 Scotland 1,300 Abroad 360 Very few Irish beasts have been on sale, not^vith- standing the arrivals at Liverpool have been some- what large. The quotations have ruled as under : — Per Slbs. to sink the offal. s. d. s. d. Beef from 2 6 to 4 2 Mutton 2 10 „ 4 8 Lamb 4 8 „ 6 0 Veal 3 4 „ 4 6 Pork 3 0 ,, 4 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 471 The supplies of both town and country killed meat on sale in Newgate and Leadenhall markets have been reasonably extensive ; yet the demand has ruled steady, at full ])rices. Per 8lbs. by the carcass, s. d. s. d. Beef from 2 4 to 3 G Mutton 2 G „ 3 10 Lamb 4 8 „ G 0 Veal 3 4 „ 4 G Pork 2 10 „ 4 0 April 29. SOMERSETSHIRE. The changing scene around us furnishes abundant matter to report on at this season, and an approach to spring weather has given place to the severity of the last month and a Imgering winter seems at lengtli to be at an end. The consequence of the very severe frost of March has had its effect, especially on the bean crop, which is looking very indifterent generally ; many were obliged to be ploughed up— and those that remain, with few exceptions, are very thin. Peas look better ; and barley is nicely come up where it has been some time sown. Vetches are growing ; but the late sown ones are much cut up. Rye has afforded the greatest supply of green food of any of our winter crops. I will now turn to the appearance of the wheat on the ground. Within these few weeks there has been a wasting of the plant in many situations, particularly in the moors and on light, ex- posed soils, arising from the wire-worm, high winds, and frost : it is very evident that in some cases the first cause, although we have had a severe winter, is more prevalent than usual; and the effects of the wind, where the soil is light, has been also more than usually inju- rious, by exposing the roots. But although we have these drawbacks in particular situations, yet there is a general healthy ajjpearance of the plant, and where sown early in the autumn it is beautifully luxuriant; and this applies to our finest corn districts. If the next month be propitious, our prospect of a crop will be very good — our light pea soils forming an exception as to good appearance, in comparison with last year. As re- gards the stock of wheat on hand, there is quite an average quantity, judging from the mows still out, and amongst the large holders a good deal is said to be in hand. On the other hand, of wheat of our own growth there is no doubt a very large consumption, equal, I should say, to the consumjition of all of the growth of last year, beyond what at all times should be in store at the commencement of another harvest. The qualities being so good, tells greatly on the quality of Flour. We have not for these two or three weeks been so well sup- plied by the farmers, but they are now increasing and coming from the usually stiff' holders. Prices are steady. 5s. 6d. to 5s. 9d., white, 03 to 65 lbs. per bushel, red 58. 4d. to 5s. Cd., the same weight ; lower qualities still under these prices. Barley, for seed, has been selling at 4s. 6d. to 4s. 9d. ; there is now very little offering ; there is rather a large breadth of this corn put into ground. Oats have well supported their prices, and there was a great demand for seed at 24s. to 2C8. (and even higher) per qr. ; grinding barley has been less in- quired for at 28s. to .'iOs. per qr. There has been a complete drug in poor stock from the scarcity of keep, and the price of all have been declining ; while beef, mutton, and pork have and are advancing, being scarce. At our fair, Down couples have been ruling from 20s. to 2Cs. the coujile ; hogs, 16s. to 22s. ; four-tooth, 26s. to 32s. ; nats, 28s. to 408. ; hogs, 24s. to 30s. ; yearlings, 21, to 3/. each ; two year heifers, in calf, 5/. to 71. ; cow and calf, 8/. to 11/., extra 127. to 14/. each. Barreners, for grazing, have been also very low, fetching 30s. to 40s. per head under the prices of last year. We have not much sickness amongst our cattle, but we shall be more than usually liable from the shortness of feed when we have abundance of grass. The produce from the cows have been less, from the shortness of i)ro- vender than usual. Good lambs are scarce, and worth from 8d. to Od. per lb. ; mutton, 6d. to 7d. ; veal, 10s. to lis. per score ; pigs, 7s. Gd. to Hs. We have a very fine prospect of abundance of blossom on the fruit trees of almost every kind, and if we have some warm showers our prospect of an abundant summer will be very cheering. DEVONSHIRE. The Lenten crops are generally all put in under very auspicious circumstances, and no farmer can wish to cx- ])erience a better tilth, the land being so pulverized by the late frosts ; there is every prospect of a more remu- nerating return than there was the last year. Many that generally are sellers of barley and oats are obliged to be- come purchasers this year ; sad deficiency to their in- comes— more than can be compensated by the landlord of 15 or 20 per cent. This has been a long and trying winter, fodder very scarce ; the cattle arc necessitated to lay out earlier than usual, and grass is very short, having had but little rain for the last five months, with cold north-easterly wind. Ewes and lambs in the poor land districts are looking wretched. Fat beef and mutton getting scarce, and selling well, and at a good price ; this generally occurs when the major part of farmers have none to dispose of ; probably this may be the case res- pecting corn, for many have thrashed all, the straw being required for the cattle. Potato planting is going on fa- vourably, and in all probability will be finished a month earlier than the last year. We have had an abundance of good weather and sunshine to clean the land for the turnip crop. Mangold wurzel sowing commenced the beginning of the month, and a great breadth of turnip ground worked already. The wheat plant is looking to- lerably well, with very few failures ; the late sown rather backward on account of so late a spring. The apple- bud in this great cider county is promising, and prog- nostics say the weather is favourable in keeping it back from receiving much injury by the frosty mornings that we generally experience in the month of May ; but the vicissitudes in the weather of England are such that the farmer's hopes are frequently blighted. Guano is daily gaining reputation ; many acres of turnips grown by bones and guano superior to twenty loads of farm yard manure to the acre. Guano is selling rather high ; the best Peruvian being 12/. per ton. — April 24. CORNWALL. The average temperature of March is 36.98^, the warmest day being on the 24th, when the thermomtter was at 58'', and the coldest night on the 13th, when it was as low as 10°. The average of the barometer is 29.78 inches, and the average dryness of the air at one o'clock each day is 11.9^, the driest day being on the 9th, when the thermometer stood at 50^, and tlie dew- point was 29°, showing 21 tlegrees of dryness. The quantity of rain was .86 of an inch. The month of March has been the coldest month we have ever rcgi.«- tered, the wind being steadily from the N.E. This diy weather formed great facilities for farmers to do their carting work ; and the cHect of the frost has been to pulverise the groiuul to an extent we never before wit- nessed. The still dry, but mild weather, that has suc- ceeded the frost, is also highly favourable for preparing the land for the receptiou of the spring crops, and such 472 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. operations are in a forward state. The barley, in par- ticular, has been generally got in, and in beautiful order. The same may be said of oats, grass-seeds, and by the best growers, potatoes. Wheat is everywhere looking well ; it is a very hardy plant, and a frosty, dry winter is much better for it than a wet one, while it has a tendency to cause fertility in corn, but not in straw. These congenial results of such weather, however, have their drawbacks upon the industrious, and now hard- pressed farmer, as well as their advantages. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— MAY. Retrospect. — Up to the third week of Ajiril, and near its close, the cold still continued : the weather was meliorated — that is, there had been no sharp night frosts since the equinoctial change ; but the evenings and mornings remained cold, and the wind, generally fierce, from north by east. Some rain had moistened the earth, which other- wise M'ould have Ijecome more arid than it was at the same period last year ; and for three daj'S cold rain, and drizzling, small hail, driven with the furious blast, reminded us of the worse weather of February. Never were complaints more rife — whole gardens found themselves bare — no broccoli, no greens, no young cabbage — everything to be raised by heat ; and the worst of it was, that the extent of the mischief was not clearly revealed till the weather had softened; and then decay took place. So it was with hundreds of evergreens — bay laurel, laurustinus, and even the evergreen oak. Many which appeared to have boldly with- stood the utmost rigour of frost, gave Avay, and became parched in April, the to])s dead, the leaves brown, and the bark contracted. Let us learn to do more under glass, to frame (eai'ly) our lettuces, seedling brassicas ; and to sow in like manner the lettuce, small salading, and radishes, when we wish to enjoy them eai'ly in the 5'ear. Howe^•er, as experiment is always instructive, we mention now, though too late for the present season, that it would l)e well to try the " fibrous covering," or " Gurneyism " (said to be so useful in pastures), over sloping borders, and warm situa- ations, where salad and radishes may l^e sov.'n towards the end of the year, A sheaf of nice, even straw would go far ; and being thinly laid over the seed plots, might, by retaining the ground-warmth, do much towards forwarding and guarding a very valuable crop, which otherwise would be locked up by hard frost, and destroyed. The same might apply to October and November-sown peas. Operations in Kitchen Garden. First week — Kidney beans of both kinds ought to be in ; and especially if the soil be dry, warm, and well exposed to the sun. This is a tender vegetable, it is incapable of resisting any frost, and cannot well endure the drought of a few weeks : hence it has l)ecome apparent that an early sowing of seeds in pots of moderately rich loam, placed about the first week of April, in a gentle tempera- ture, would prevent much loss and disappointment. AVe are late in alluding to this mode of excitation ; hut experience during the cold and sleety weather of April has shown, that there is great cause to anticipate faiku'e in open-ground sowings ; for in 1844 we had to raise plants during the dry weather of June, in pots ; and so had many of the first esta1;lishments ; and these, when removed with entire balls, had to be watered night after night. The kidney-bean, dwarf and runner, affects a moderately rich, sandy loam, always warm by the sun, and never wet prior to gennination. With these conditions its vegetation is richly luxuriant and its foliage expansive. The seed decays rapidly in cold, wet ground ; therefore })Ot-culture, till the true leaves be fully expanded, is a process of securit}', provided the plants be out by the third week of May, and removed with ])lenty of earth about the fibres. Asparciffus. — Two-year-old plants vnU succeed in well prepared beds. Earli/ potatoes, if fairly emerged, ought to be carefully hoed in dry weather, and earthed uj) to the summits of the shoots. We remember that in 1831, a frost of seven degrees killed all the first developments, and destroyed m\dtitudes of other fine plants, in the comjiass of three hours. In treating potatoes wisely, the culti^'ator wiW remem- ber that a soil cannot be too friable and open among the roots and tuber-bearing processes ; he therefore might employ a light fork or mattock to loosen the soil, and therebj' would give freedom to the advancing fibres ; hence, wide spaces between the rows offer great advantages. Peas, sown early in the month, form a good succession. The Knight's marrow, imperial, Prus- sian, and cimitar, are fine. We know not what weather w\\\ come ; but if very dr)% it \vill be ])rudent to dig deeply, raise ridges, and then sow the seeds of tall peas in a three-inch drill, pre- viously watered to saturation, covering the seeds with light, rich earth, patted firmly down with the spade. In their subsequent culture, peas of every kind are much assisted by being cautiously hoed, by early sticking, and by repeated hoeing, and earthings-up, after being moistened by a gentle shower. In the third week — thence to the end, peas and beans, may be sown again ; also lettuces, radish, salading in succession. Lettuces will not bear trans- plantation now ; they should be sown in rows, and thinned out till they stand far enough apart for hearting. Some cos require tying up ; others, as the Paris cos and Cilicia cabbage, turn in naturally. The cabbage tribes may now be raised from seed — all the broccolies, summer cauliflowers, and savoys. Atkins' matchless cabbage is much praised for its rapid growth, d^^'arf habits, and fine flavour. Sulphate nf ammonia appears to be an appro^jriate manure ; a small portion, blended with bone-dust, incorporated with rotten dung, would confer to the earth all the sahne substances and phosphates which these " coarse feeders " require. At the end of the month sow kidney beans again ; and sea-kale beds may yet l)e formed, also the rooted-suckers of artichokes planted, Destroy THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 473 weeds by hand and tool in every spot. It is better to burn these intruders, collected in heaps, to destroy their seeds. Fruit Dkpartmext. What the walls will jiroduce, we cannot ascertain ; the bloom is so late — even of apricots — that no opinion is to be given ; but if fine weather take up. May will be the season for disbudding the sujjer- fluous wood, and all back and foreright shoots. In i)each and nectarine trees, the actual fruit- bearers ought to have a promising shoot left near their origin, and one as a leader. Those small shoots with a fruit at their base should not yet be curtailed. Apricot, ])lum, and cherry-trees — the last \\'ith the exception of the morello, are sj)ur- beai'ers, and these spiirs must be kept within limits, never being suffered to project as breast-wood. A'ines will grow rapidly, and all the fruitful green shoots must l)e secured to the wall so soon as they acquire a little toughness. Pigs require nailing and putting in order. It is probable that they have sustained much damage, by the three winters that have characterised this singular season ; the last, which terminated March 20, appears to have been most fatal. It has been a bad season for grafting, yet many scions must have succeeded; and these must be reheved in some degree, by loosening the ligatures. 'riie failures should be removed, cutting back the stock to a growing bud, in order to produce a new leader. FouciNG Dep.\utment. E^•ery week furnishes fresh evidence of the ex- cellent ofFect of the tank and water channel system : give us but a good furnace, one which will consume small coal and cinders, and the system will be economical as well as comjilete. A dry heat can be produced for the ripening of gra])es, equally well adapted to the )jrocess as tliat of the old Hue apparatus. We will at this time content ourselves with stating the general fact, that with five or six gallons of water, excited by the double cylinder and a central fire — or which is better, by a horizontal furnace of cast-iron, three hundred gallons of water may be Ijrought to, and retained at, a temperature sufficient to answer the following purposes — first, to warm a tank for supplying bottom-heat, either to j)ines, melons, and cucumbers ; and by means of channels led from that tank, to bring tlie atmosphere to TO or 7'^'^ ; second, to warm a plant-house to 0.1" ; and third, to command any degree of heat varying between GO and 50'^, for ])lants of a hardier temjierament. And all by the simple stream of water from one boiler, regu- lated by the adaptation of earthen cemented chan- nels, fitted with sluices to cut oft", admit, or modify the flow and return of the water. As to moisture, it will be at the volition of the operator in any of the three dejjartments, either to the amount of^ satiwation, or thence decreasing till it amounts to little more than tliat of a dry stove. A liouse under one glazed roof, of 30 to 3') feet in lengtb, divided by three glazed jjartilions, in any way suitable to the objects of the garden, may thus be constructed and rendered eflieieut. The eftecls upon the grape, the tender flowering exotics, and the harder woody tribes, during the darkness of such a winter as the last, are exceed- ingly interesting and beautiful. We write advisedly, and are thankful to the discoveries made by men of mind and genius, which have shown us that nature and its beauties are more at command than could ha\-e been anticipated. Peach trees are infested but too frequently \vith mildew and aphides. The knife may be the safest remedy for the former, though dusting \v\i\\ sulphur has still its advocates. Tobacco smoke liberally introduced by means of prepared paper, inters- persed with some of the strongest shag tobacco, and burned in garden-pots, will dimiss the latter, the operator thus avoiding the disagi'eeable, if not dangerous consequences of inhahng the narcotic vapour. Flower Department. In all the small parterre beds, renew the earth : thus perfection of fohage and tinting will be ob- tained. Tlius also every plant can be suppUed with a soil adapted to its individual habits. Heath- plants in masses can be grown in moor or bog- earth. Lobelias in simi-decayed leaves. Gerani- ums in light, manured loam ; and so forth. Our groopings among other new arrangements, prove the necessity of rigid analysis ; for, what do we reall)' know ? True it is we begin to tldnk — but that is all; and until, as in agriculture, sound investigations be undertaken by competent professors, and in well endowed estabhshments, empirical routine must govern all our operations. Electricity is coming to the rescue. AVe know that the subject is scouted, sneered at : so much the better ! that alone gives promise of truth. Facts are revealed — known — which aflbrd evidence of results grand and startling as those resulting from the once denounced appliances of steam. We bide our time, however, assured that wisdom will be justified in all her ott'spring. 'i'he weather, just one calendar month after the vernal equinox, has become beautiful and com- parati\'ely benign ; but we shall soon require warm rain. — April 21, AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. TO THE EDITOR OP THE FARMERS' MAGAZINE. Sir, — You will oldige me by su])i)lying answers respecting the growth of mangel wurzel, as follows — 1 . What soil is most suitable for it ? 2. What ])reparation it requires in ploughing? 3. "NAHiat (puintity of manure, and at what season ? 4. Which month is best to put it in ? .'). Whether the seed should be dibbled or drilled? G. How far each seed, and ridges, should be ajjart ? r. Which is the best month to house it ? 8. The best method to be pursued in storing it ? 9. What is a good average crop per acre ? If any of your correspondents can furnish answers to the above questions, you will be conferring a 474 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. fa-\-our on one who is a subscriber to the Farmers' Magazine, and would like to see them answered in that work. I am, Sir, Yours obliged, A Buckinghamshire Farmer. April lOth, 1845. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' MAGAZINE. Sir, — Will any of your correspondents be good enough to answer the foUoAving fjuestion ? — If a good fat lamb, eight to nine weeks old, weighs, when alive, 60lbs., what should be about its weight slaughtered; or what is the allowance made for offaL I am, Sir, Yours respectfully, ^v. w. Near Wreocliam, April 24, 1845. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — I should feel obliged if some of your corres- pondents would inform me which is the best time for sowing white mustard to plough in for wheat, and whether the land requires to be reduced to a fine state for the reception of the seed as for turnips ; and also, whether it is likely to answer as a manure for wheat on a poor sandy loam. Any information on these points, and any other connected with its cultivation, will be thankfully received by, Yours, &c., A Young Farmer. ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURE QUERIES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' MAGAZINE. Sir, — In the last number of the Farmers' Journal, I find a letter from a Warwickshire farmer, request- ing information in the culture of lucerne, and as I have been successful in the cultivation of this very valuable plant, I have ventured to state my experi- ence, trusting not only the Wanvickshire farmer, 1>ut all other farmers throughout the kingdom, will try the experiment, and I feel assured they will not regret incurring a trifling expense in the first instance, from the great benefit they will derive from haying so valuable an acquisition to their farm as a few acres of lucerne. I was first led to the cultivation of lucerne from observing the im- mence produce on a farm in the occu])ation of that excellent farmer. Col. Le Couteur, in the Island of Jersey ; this, I must candidly state, I should have been more satisfied with the management had it been sown in drill. The produce was, however, verj' considerable, and in Jersey it frequently hap- pens that an acre of lucerne is sold at from 12Z.to isZ. This perhaps cannot be effected in a more northern climate ; but I can confidently assert, that even in Nottinghamshire, where I reside, a most valuable produce can be obtained under a particular mode of cultivation, and although the first cost may appear consideiable, yet the oljject once attained, it is almost impossible to calcvilate the advantages arising from having a few acres of lucerne for horses, cows, and pigs, during nearly five months in the summer. The plan I adopted was to commence trenching three feet deep a \Aece of old sward. I turned the top soil to the bottom of the trench, and upon that put about twenty loads of manure per acre ; at the same time, taking great care to have the bottom soil, which was sand, at the top. The great oljjects to be gained are to give nourishment to the root of the plant, which is a strong ta])-root, when it comes in contact with the manure and top soil, the plant itself not requiring any rich soil to grow in, as it will flourish when first sown, in the meanest sand. And the great object attained by soA^ng the seed in the sub-soil, is the prevention of all weeds growing the first year, M'hich enables the young jilant to estal)hsh a good foundation. In solving the seed, I use a wine-bottle with a quill through the cork, and in this way I sow lOlb. of seed ])er acre (at lOd. per \h.) in drills sixteen inches apart, and at the depth of about three inches. During the first summer, 1843, I cut two crops; in 1844, notwithstanding the diy season, I cut four crops, besides a good herbage for sheep before the frost commenced. I must here observe, that it is very necessaiy to keep the drills quite clean, which is done at a trifling expense, by drawing a fine rake through the lucerne every time it is cut. I have just finislied mine, and at present it is beautifully green, without a weed, and with every prospe :t of an abundant crop ; perhaps if the weather proves fine, it will be ready to cut about the iCth of May. I must now apologize for this lengthened de- scription of the method I have adopted in the culti\-ation of this valuable species of fodder ; and I trust I ha\'e answered all the inquiries of the Warwickshire farmer, to whom I beg leave to state, any further information he may require, I shall most cheerfully communicate, and I remain, Sir, Your faithful servant, W. C. Fenton. Vicaraye, Maltusey, Bawfry, Yorks., April 11, 1845. N. B. I have omitted to mention that the cost of trenching an acre of ground three feet deep was £4. TO THE editor OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Your correspondent (" A Subscriber," from Farringdon, Hants, March 2) has an undoubted right to cut the branches off his neighbour's tree (overhanging his land), as well as to cut ofi' the roots encroaching therein under the surface. This was decided by Sir J. Patteson, at the Nottingham summer assizes, 1843. Your subscriber, however, must first give his neighbour notice to cut and remove the same, and on his neglect or refusal so to do, your subscriber may then cut and re- move them ; but he cannot apply his neighbour's pro- perty to his own use. He must ask his neighbour to point out some place near where he may put the branches ; and should he not reply to this, your sub- scriber must place them as convenient for his neighbour as he can. Of course the branches must be cut off in a workmanlike manner, and in the proper season. I am, sir, A Special Juryman in the above Cause. " Experimentalist" will find in the "Farmers' En- cyclopjedia," by C. W. Johnson, Esq., and published by Messrs. Longman and Co., London, under the head of "Salt, common," an excellent treatise on the pre- paration of salt and lime, and its application as a ma- nure, as well as the utility of salt for various other agri- cultural purposes. In Shaw's " Farmers' Almanack," published by Ridgway, he v/ill, amongst the general monthly notices, find remarks on salt and lime, as well as on other artificial manures. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 475 METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Thermometer. Wind and . State. Atmosphere. Day. 8 a.m. '10p.m. 1 * ! Min. Max. lOp.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p. m. 10 p. m. March 21 in. cts. 30.38 in. cts. 30.45 22 45 34 S. West lively fine sun cloudy 22 30.38 30.30 34 52 45 w. s. w. brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 23 30.20 29.96 45 52 47 w. s. w. lively cloudy cloudy cloudy 24 30.00 30.10 45 52 37 N.W. N.S. gentle fine sun fine 25 30.06 29.80 35 53 45 S. East gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 26 29.79 29.90 36 52 44 W. N. W. brisk fine sun cloudy 27 29.78 29.86 44 55 50 West strong cloudy cloudy cloudy 28 29.67 29.80 43 58 42 West strong cloudy sun fine 29 30.00 30.27 36 53 40 N. We.st brisk fine sun fine 30 30.25 30.00 35 57 44 Easterly strong cloudy cloudy fine 31 30.14 30.20 39 56 44 S.W. N.E. gentle fine sun fine April 1 30.24 30.18 37 52 36 N. East brisk fine sun fine 2 30.10 30.05 35 57 45 E. by South gentle fine sun fine 3 30.00 29.90 40 63 47 S. to X. E. gentle fine sun fine 4 29.90 30.03 39 64 48 E. by South brisk fine sun fine 5 30.0G 30.00 35 55 38 Easterly brisk cloudy sun fine 6 29.99 29.92 32 56 40 Easterly gentle fine sun fine 7 29.93 29.84 29 54 38 Easterly gentle fine sun fine 8 29.84 29.46 34 52 38 W. W. by S. variable cloudy sun fine 9 29.20 29.08 29 43 38 N.E.West variable cloudy cloudy cloudy 10 29.08 29.16 36 47 38 N. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 11 29.20 29.62 35 42 38 N. N.byW. variable cloudy cloudy cloudy 12 29.70 29.76 35 53 42 W. by North gentle cloudy sun cloudy 13 29.72 29.40 36 52 42 Westerly strong cloudy cloudy fine 14 29.40 29.58 41 48 43 W. N. W. strong cloudy cloudy cloudy 15 29.70 30.10 38 42 40 N. by East strong cloudy cloudy cloudy 16 30.25 30.27 38 54 43 N. N.E. strong cloudy sun fine 17 30.27 30.21 1 38 58 42 Northerly brisk fine sun cloudy 18 30.10 30.02 36 , , 40 N. by East brisk cloudy sun fine 19 30.03 30.10 36 65 53 Easterly brisk cloudy sun fine 20 30.07 30.10 ' 41 64 44 Easterly variable fine sun fine estimated averages of APRIL. Barometer. Thermometer. High, 1 Low. High. 1 Low. 1 Mean. 30.54 1 29.20 74 1 29 1 49.9 Real Average Temperature of the period. High. 1 Low. 1 Mean. 53.5 1 36.6 1 45.15 Weather and Phenomena. — 21st. ITie equinox brought change of wind, and there has been a prevalence of westerly currents ever since : this day was gloomy preceding. — Rain on 22nd. — 23d. 'J'otally overcast ; gentle rain for hours, pro- fuse at night. — 24th. Cold night; lunar-halo. — 25th. Changeable; damj) drizzle at night. — 2Gth. Beautiful growing-day. — 27th. (iloomy and warm; rain in the jjreceding night. — 28th. High wind ; clear afternoon. — 29th. Fine; wind brisk.^ — .30th. Cold ; easterly fierce current ; drizzling rain. — 3l8t. Beautiful. Ajiril. — First week splendid, consistently fine and dry; the eastern current, however, again prevailing. On the 7th and 9th mornings, sharp frosts, succeeded by variable winds, generally in the W. or S.W., with change- able weather. Rain in scuds, or rain and liail ; ])iercingly cold, as on the 14th and loth. — iGth. Much finer. — 17th. Improving; wind again set- North and N. East AVinds.. 5| days. East and South . . . . , 6i South and South West 6,v West and to North 11 tied to E.N.E. — 19th and 20th. Very warm sun. Lunations. — March. Full moon, 23d day, 8 h. 19 min. afternoon. Last quarter, 30th day, i h. 5 min. afternoon. April. New moon, 6th day, 7 h. 40 min. afternoon. First quarter, 14th day, 9 h. 23 min. afternoon. Remarks referring to Agriculture. — The Equinox has so far verified its predictions — gloriously fine in the main, but with windy and rainy intervals. Never, perhaps, was there a more piercing \isitation than that of the sleet of April 14th and ir)tli. Wind boisterous, rain close, dri\en almost horizon- tally, with minute particles of almost invisible hail, that were sharj) as needles. It was truly February weather ; yet it did good, as otherwise the land would have been parched. Winter and spring corn are fine ; but the latter will soon reciuire warm showers. John Towers. Maidenhead Thicket. 476 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF APRIL. Till nearly the close of March the weather con- tinued very severe, hut April commenced more favourahly, and wdth the excejition of a few frosty nights in the early part, we have experienced a tolerahly uniform temperature, the thermometer having, for the most ])art, ranged between 45 and 50 degrees. Upon the breaking up of the frost, the soil was in excellent condition for ]5loughing, and this spe- cies of work being, in consequence of the early setting in of the \\'inter, greatly in arrear, the ut- most activity has pre\'ailed among fanners to make up for lost time. Not only was the land got ready, but verj' large breadths were sown with barley and oats before the middle of the month, and at the period we are writing, these occupations, as well as bean and pea ])lanting, are being rapidly brought to a close. During the first fortnight in April, very little rain fell, and field operations scarcely received a check; subsequently, when a large pro- portion of the corn had been committed to the ground, we were favoured M'ith light showers, and though the genial warmth requisite to insure speedy gennination was wanting, until towards the close of the month, when the temperature rose con- siderably, the spring, on the whole, has been aus- picious ; for had the rain come earlier than it did, it would have interfered with ploughing. On the im])ortant point of how the autumn sown wheat has been affected by the long and severe winter, reports still vary materially; it seems, however, to be generally admitted, that on really good wheat lands the plant at ])resent wears a healthy appearance ; but on ])oor light soils, more or less injury has unquestionably been done. The most general complaint is that of the plant having been thrown out of the ground by the action of alternate periods of frost and thaw loosening the surface so as to lay bare the root. That such may, in partial instances, have been the case, we do not doubt ; but we believe that the mischief, though serious to individuals, is not to an extent to be regarded as important in a national point of view ; and after careful inquiries among our agricultural friends, we are satisfied that there exists no reason for apprehension in respect to our future prospects. Although the deliveries of this article from the growers have necessarily been small throughout the month, numerous out-door operations having left little leisure for thrashing or bringing supplies to market, business has remained in an exceedingly dull state ; and so far from any improvement ha^dng occurred in prices, the reverse has been the case. The slight ad\'ance established about the close of March has since been gradually lost, and good qualities can at present be bought in any of the leading agricultural markets on quite as easy terms as at any previous period this year. This state of things is somewhat difficult to ac- count for. Admitting that the jjlant on the ground has withstood the trying atmospherical vicissitudes better than might haA'e been expected, still, when we consider that the price is about 9s. per CjUarter lower than at the corresponding period last year, and the stock in merchants, millers, and dealers' hands decidedly smaller, with but little pros- pect of any immediate importations from abroad, and no chance of a lower duty than 20s. per quar- ter, it does seem somewhat strange that farmers should continue to force down prices. The regulation of the value of wheat has, cer- tainly, during the last three months, been almost wholly in their own hands ; the growers h&ve been during that period, and are still, the principal holders of the article; and had they been less eager to force their ])roduce on the market, a rally must have taken place. The power of influencing ])rices Nvill, however, be shortly taken out of their hands, as we do not doubt that, ere long, quotations -will fall on the continent ; and whenever they reach a point at which consignments can be made to this country without loss, a part of the stock held at the dif- ferent Baltic ports will be shipped to Great Britain. As yet prices are much too high on the other side, as will be seen from our review of the foreign markets at foot. It is now pretty evident that the deficiency in the barley crop must have been exaggerated at the time of harvest ; and so far from any scarcity of this grain having been experienced, the supply has all along exceeded the demand. It must not be foi'gotten, however, tliat — thanks to our lil)eral corn- laws — the maltsters and distillers provided them- selves largely with foreign barley during last sum- mer and autumn, and that when the time of year aiTived when the British grower calculated on selling, he found that the parties who are usually the principal purchasers of this grain had already provided for their wants by imjjortations from abroad. The malting season is now fast drawing to a close ; indeed, some of the chief makers have already left off work, and the qviantity In-ought forward, moderate as it has lately been, has never- theless exceeded the inciuirj'. In this position of affairs, it has been impossible to make sales except at reduced terms ; and at most of the markets in the agricultural districts, as well as at the principal consuming towns, the value of the article has re- ceded Is. to 2s, ])er quarter since our last. Prices of oats have also tended downwards in all parts of the kingdom during the month, not so much in consequence of any excess of supply, as owing to the belief that considerable receipts of foreign \vill reach us. What we stated last month on this subject, viz., that it was our opinion that the probable import had been somewhat overrated, we are still inclined to think ; and we believe that the future range of prices wll depend much more on the extent of the arri-\'als from Ireland than those from abroad. Many of the early j)lanted beans and peas are said to have been destroyed by the frost, and both THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 477 these articles have been in request of late at gra- dually improung rates. Considerincr the scarcity and extremely high l)rices which hay, oil-cakes, &c., have all through the winter commanded, it is sur))rising tliat the low qualities of barley, oats, and also Ijeans and peas, articles extensively used for cattle feeding, should, up to the present time, have remained com- ])aratively low in price. As already stated, we beUeve that the deficiency in the produce of s])ring corn and \n\he was over- rated ; but that there really M'as a deficiency, we do not question ; the low range of wheat has, how- ever, kept down the value of all other agricultural ])roduce ; but it is not improbable that feeding starts may yet become scarce and rise in value. Tlie backward nature of the spring has pre- vented the growth of l)0th natural and artificial grasses ; and though the meadows have lately changed tlie l)rown scorched aj)pearance which they wore at the close of March, for one of com])a- rative verdure, there is InU little keep to l)c derived from them. It is, therefore, still necessary to feed extensively on other articles, and the business of the graziers has been anything except a profital)le one. In addition to the troubles which he lias had to en- counter from this state of things, the ])rospect of large importations of cattle and meat under Peel's famous tarift" (now that the continental ports are again free from ice) is calculated to increase his difficulties ; and whilst other trades are enjoying prosperitj', the agriculturists, as a body, are in a more depressed state than has been the case for years ])ast, showing the mischievous efl'ects of the alterations made in the laws, and the withdrawal of l)rolection since 1842. Hut to return to the grain trade. The foregoing remarks on this head may suffice to give an idea of the course of Inisiness generally, still the trans- actions at Mark-lane during the month call for a separate notice. The arrivals of wheat coastwise into London have (owing to farmers having been engaged in the fields) i)een moderate : the sujijily has, never- theless, under the circumstances named, been ra- ther larger than might have been expected, and has ])roved quite adecpiate to the demand. In our last month's number we gave an account of the (pianlities of wheat sold during the six months succeeding the harvests of 1843 and 1844, at the towns from which the returns are collected for compiling tlie averages ; from which it ajiitcarcd that the deliveries from the growers had been greater by nearly twenty per cent, during the latter than the former jicriod. \Vith a view of ascer- taining how far tlie same result may be sliown in respect to the metro])olitan market, we think the following statement of the arrivals into London for the two half-years in c(Ucstion will jirove of interest lo our readers. We here give each (piartei' sejja- rately, and also specify the relative projiortions received from oiu' own coast, Scotland, Ireland, and abroad. From September 3()th to the close of tlic year, the diHerence between 1841$ and 1844, tliough in favour of the latter, is not very material ; but from January to March, the receipts of Eng- lish wheat in 1845 have exceeded those of the cor- responding three months of the preceding year by nearly 40,000 quarters : — From Sept. 30, to Dec. From Oct. 2, to Dec. 30, 28, 1844. WHEAT. Enghsh 91,792 Scotch 155 Irish 85 Foreign 19,235 111,207 From Dec. 30, to March 29, 1845. English 110,573 Scotch 93 Irish — F'oreiiin 5,743 1843. WHEAT. English Scotch . Irish . . Foreign 91,504 1,390 1,194 47,248 141,330 112,408 From Jan. 1, to March 30, 1844. English 07,199 Scotch 027 Irish 12 Foreign 20,251 94,089 Notwithstanding this enormous increase, we have at present no stocks of British wheat in London, the whole having regularly gone into consumption as it has come to hand. This is a circumstance worthy of remark, as it plainly proves that whilst all bas ajiparently been quiet, an im- mense quantity has lieen required weekly to satisfy the wants of our millers, and it is no less worthy of consideration, whether our farmers are in a })osition to continue to sujiply us on the same liberal scale. So long as they are enabled to do this, prices may remain about the same as at ])re- sent ; but if at any time the sujijily should fall short of the demand, a rise would unquestionably occur, as our merchants and millers are, as already remarked, almost bare of stocks. Hitherto, how- ever, the arriA'als have about kept jiace with the weekly requirements, and whenever they have slightly exceeded the quantity immediately wanted, buyers ha\-e gained a small ad\-antage. This was the case the two first Mondays in the month, and at the close prices of wheat are Is. to 2s. per quarter lower than they were in the commence- ment. The highest ]>oint the general average for the kingdom has for some time attained (40s. 5d.) occurred on the 5th Ajiril. Since then it has again gradually receded, and the return published on the 24tli inst. was 45s. lid. jier (piartcr. The retrograde movement in the value of Eng- lish wheat has had very little influence on prices of free foreign, the insignificant nature of the stock on hand having prevented holders losing confidence. The firmness with which they have insisted on jirevious rates has, however, had the ertect of greatly checking the demand, and the transactions have during the month been of a strictly retail character. The favourite varieties, such as fine Danzig and Rostock, have ])een taken in small quanlities for mixing with the coarser kinds of l''.nglisli ; but ordinary descrijitions have been almost wliolly neglected. Tliere is so httle really good free foreign wheat in granary, that trifling as has lieen the inquiry, it has been found necessary to release isniall (juantitics out of bond 478 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. at the existing duty to satisfy the demand, and about 1,000 quarters have been entered for home consumption weekly for sometime past. By this means, and by occasional exports, the stocks under lock have been rather diminished, and against 362,150 quarters in bond in the kingdom on the 5th of Januaiy, there were only 311,025 quarters on the 5th of Ajiril. As yet we have had no arrivals from abroad of any consequence ; but as the most recent advices from the other side inform us that the ice had at length been dissolved, we may shortly expect that a portion of the wheat bought at different })eriods on British accounts at continental ports during the winter months will ere long reach this country. The principal part will prol)ably be from Rostock, Stettin, and neighbouring ports, prices having been rela- tively lower at those places than at Danzig, Ko- nigsberg, &c. We may also calculate on moderate arrivals from Hamburg, but the quantity hkely to come forward •ndthin the next month or two will, we are inclined to think, be comparatively unimportant, the in- ducement to enter into speculative investments having at no period been very great. The value of town-manufactured flour has re- mained perfectly stationary throughout the month ; the trifling fluctuations ^\•hich have occurred in prices of wheat having had no influence on those of the manufactured article. The bakers have generally conducted their operations with caution, being unwilling to hold large stocks at a season of the year when flour is apt to go out of condition ; but notwithstanding the careful manner in which they have conducted their pvux-hases, they have failed in depressing prices. Ship flour has scarcely sold on as good terms as in March, about 32s, per sack in the river having been the current value for Norfolk households. In foreign there has been scarcely anything passing; good brands of United States being very scarce, have been held, both in bond and free, relati^'ely higher than English of similar quality, and have therefore excited no attention. The business in the article has been confined to the purchase of small lots under lock for export to the West Indies, &c. Of Canadian, there is but httle left on the market. The stock of flour in bond in the kingdom consisted on the 5th April, of 243,551 cwts., of which there were 46,257 c\\'ts. in the London warehouses. In addition to fair arrivals of barley from our own coast, we have recently received rather im- portant supplies from al^road, the latter princijjally from Hamburg, where purchases were made early in the winter, on Enghsh account. Many of the maltsters having already discontinued working, in consequence of the dull state of the malt trade, the finest qualities of barley which, till lately, brought relatively high prices, have \nthin the last fortnight receded about 2s. per quarter. On distilling and grinding sorts the fall has not been quite so great ; but all kinds have tended downwards, and even at the reduced rates the sale has been extremely diffi- cult. The importers of foreign must therefore be very heavy losers, as the purchases on the Con- tinent were generally made on high temis. Some of the Saale barley bought at Hamburg cost as much as 28s. per quarter free on board, to which must be added freight, expences, and 6s. duty, bringing the price to 36s. or 37s. per quarter; whilst capital Enghsh malting barley has recently been selling at Mark Lane at 32s. to 33s. per quarter. The latest accounts from Hamburg state that the article had fallen there to 20s., and that from the Danish Islands there were offers to ship at 18s. per quarter free on board; even at these rates there is not much risk of our merchants making further investments . The brewers appear to be generally well stocked with malt, and little disposition to purchase has consequently been evinced. Really choice qualities, which have been rather scarce, have alone main- tained their pre\'ious value, all other kinds having sold tardily and at irregular rates. Tlae arrivals of Enghsh oats into London have been small, and the receipts from Scotland have also fallen off since the close of March. There has, however, been no scarcity of this grain, as, besides good supplies from Ireland, numerous cargoes have arrived from the near Continental ports within the last week or two. In the early part of the month much firmness was displayed by factors, and until Monday, the 21st inst., prices had rather an upward tendency ; on that day there was evidently a greater anxiety to realize, caused solely by the fear that further large supphes of foreign might render it advantageous to sell with- out loss of time. Under these circumstances the principal dealers, as is usually the case when any anxiety is shown to sell, refused to buy, except at reduced terms, and in some instances they suc- ceeded in purchasing at 6d. per quarter below the prices current in the commencement of March. The remarks we made relative to the loss likely to accrue to importers of foreign barley are equally applicable to oats. Previous to the recent receijjts, Dutch brews were worth 20s. per quarter in bond, and the same description has since been seUing at l7s. to 18s.; whilst home-grown corn has nearly supported former rates, all foreign sorts have fallen upwards of Is. per quarter in value. In comparing the quarterly arrivals of oats into London for the three months ending 29th March, with the receipts of the corresponding period in 1844, a considerable increase is shown, the quan- tities being as follows : — From January 1, to March 30, 1844, Qrs. Enghsh 41,017 Scotch 32,847 Irish 241,856 Foreign 2,549 Total .. .. 318,269 From December 30, to March 29, 1845 : Enghsh 32,527 Scotch 71,351 Irish 283,779 Foreign 5,081 Total .. .. 392,738 tllE FARMER'S MAGAZINfi. 4?9 The excess, it will be observed, has been principdly | during tlie winter, on British account, than at any derived from Ireland, and as the yield in that part ' others ; and as the contracts entered into were of the kingdom was not very well spoken of at ' generally on the condition that the goods were to be harvest time, it may be fpiestioned whether the despatched at first open water, we shall jn-obably sister isle will l)e enaljled to continue to sui)])ly us ' receive rather large supplies from thence within tlie on the same liberal scale during the five or six next month or six weeks. months which must yet be i)rovided for before j At Hamburgh, prices have also given way more another crop can be secured. In many parts of or less. Wheat is, nevertheless, higher there than England oats have latterly become very scarce, and ' at the places just referred to ; and by the most re- orders have actually been received in London ] cent reports, it ajjjiears that the quantity shipping from Lincolnshire and Camljridgeshire, oat-grow- to England was triHing, higher rates having been ing counties, for this grain, so completely ha\-e given by local buyers than the limits of the orders stocks been e.xhausted in some of the agricultural i from hence had permitted merchants to ])ay. districts. I In Holland and France wheat is comparatively Beans appear also to have been worked uj) jiretty [ dearer than it is here, and there is little prospect of closely, and the arrivals at Mark Lare have barely \ suj)phes reaching us from either of those countries; kept pace with the demand. Common tick beans nor does it appear likely that exports will be made have of late commanded 33s. to 34s., and harrows from any of the Mediterranean port 35s. to 37s. per qr., being a decided advance on previous rates. Hitherto the supplies of this article from Alexandria have been small, but some quantity is, we believe, on passage from thence to this country. From the Baltic we are not likely to receive sup])lies of moment, and those expected from Eg)'pt will therefore, in all probabihty, realize good prices. At present, good qualities of Egyp- tian are worth 33s. to 34s. free, or 27s. to 28s. per qr. in bond. English peas have come fonvard rather sjiaringly, nor have the receipts from abroad been of any im- portance. The inquiry, without having been hvely, has been sufficiently active to ena])le sellers to establish an advance of about Is. j)er qr. on the best sorts of home growth ; but no rise has taken place in the value of foreign Ijoilers, of which there remains some quantity in granary. In giving our usual retrosjject of the grain trade at tlie foreign markets, we shall in the first place direct attention to the Baltic, that l)eing the quarter from which the British farmer must exjiect the greatest competition. TiU about the middle of April the princijjal rivers and harbours of the north of Europe remained closed by ice, but by the most recent advices it aj)pears that even the more nortliern ports had been set free, and there is consequently no longer any bar to shipments, except that of a want of encouragement to con- sign, owing to the dull reports from hence. Iliis may, and probably will, for a time clieck ship- ments ; but sooner or later prices will come down on the other side to our level, and there can be no doubt that during the summer sup])lies to an extent seriously to injure the English grower will reach us. Letters from Danzig on the 15th inst. state, that though a sjjeculative in(|uiry for wheat still existed there, the flat accounts from hence had already ])roduced some effect, and good high mixed quali- ties might then have been bought at 33s. per (piar- ter free on board, a price which holders had jire- viously refused to listen to. At Stettin and Rostock, from whence we have letters of the •24th inst., the fall had been more decided, the top (juotation for fine Gl to G2 lb. qualities, liaving receded at the former ])lace to 2Gs. to 2Gs. Gd., and at the latter to 2Gs. per quarter, free on board. More wheat has been bought at these ports At Odessa, ])rices are low, say iGs. to ISs. for 60 to 6 libs, red wheat; it must be recollected, however, that freight and other expenses are much higher from thence than from the Baltic, and the quality not nearly so well liked by our millers. From the other side of the Atlantic, the reports hitherto received would lead to the belief that the United States will have little wheat or flour to spare for exjiort ; and comparing quotations there with the prices here, the encouragement to make consignments to Great Britain is certainly not very great. From Canada, however, we are sure to recei\-e both flour and wheat ; and though it was stated that money was lost on every barrel of flour shijiped last season, purchases to some extent had already been made at 23s. to 23s. Gd. per barrel, with a viev/ of su])plying the Enghsh markets. There can lie little doubt that the receipts from thence -will increase from year to j'ear, a stimulus having been given to the cultivation of wheat by the Canada Bill, which, however favourable to the colony, must prove extremely injurious to the British grower. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. April 28. Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 4G 48 White 46 50 55 Old, red 48 50 62 Do 52 57 RVE, old 82 84 New,... S6 — Bauley, Grinding, 25 27 Malting 30 32 Chevnlier 33 — Irish as 27 Bere... 28 — Malt, Suflolk and Norfolk 68 63 Brown.. 56 60 Kingston and Ware 60 — Chevalier 65 — Oats, Yorksh.& Lincolnshire, feed 21 22 Potato.. 24 S6 YouKhall and Cork, black.. 10 20 Coik,white20 21 Dublin 21 22 Weslport 20 21 Waterford, white 10 20 21 Black.. 20 21 Newry...... 22 23 Galway 19 20 Scotch, feed 22 23 Potato.. 24 25 Clonmel 20 21 Limerick 22 23 Londonderry 20 21 SliKO....20 21 Beans, Tick, new 30 30 Old, small 88 40 Peas, Grey 3^ 80 Maple.. 35 9S Flouk, Town-made 42 l^tifToIk 32 34 per sk. of 280 Ibi. Stockton and Norfolk 32 3i Irish 34 36 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Wheat, Danf/ic 32 .38 flhe 40 Hamburg 30 32 Rostock 80 — Barley 20 24 Oats, Brew 17 18 Feed ... U 16 Bkans — 2> 20 Peas 28 32 Flour, American, i)cr brl 10 — Bullio .. 18 — 480 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Weekending , Wheat. ^ Barley. Oats, i Rye. Beans. Peas. March J5th 45 1 22nd I 45 5 29th 1 45 10 April 5th | 46 5 12th I 46 3 19th 45 11 Apsregate average of the six weeks which regulates the duty. 45 10 Duties payable in London till Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Out- ports till the arrival of the mail of that day from Loudon . . 20 0 Do. on graiu from British possessions' out of Europe ... 4 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES hy the Imp. Quarter, from tlie Gazelle, of Friday last, April 25th, 1845. s. d. WhBAT 45 II Bahlet 31 11 Oats 21 4 Ryb 32 1 Be Airs 35 1 Pbas 36 1 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding Gazette in tlie last year, Friday, April 26th, 1844. s. fl. Wheat 55 1 Barley 33 1 Oats 20 1 Ryb 32 4 Beans 31 2 Pbas 32 5 Account shewing the Quantities of Cora, Pulse, and Flour imported into the United Kingdom, in the month ended the 5th April, 1845 ; the Quantities upon wliich Duties have been paid for Home Con- sumption during the same month, and the Quantities remaining in Warehouse at the close thereof. 1 Quantity en- Quantity tered for remaining in consumption, wareliouse. Species of Grain. Wheat, from British Possessions Barley, do Indian Corn, do Peas, from do Wheat, foreign Barley, do Oats, do Rye, do Peas, do Beans, do Indian Corn, do Buck Wheat, do , Flour from British PoS' sessions Flour, foreign Quantity imported. qrs. bush. 37 4 986 1 3683 8415 1406 298 12972 91 1 cwts. qrs.lbs. 6 0 0 84 0 4 qrs. bush. 21 3 200 1 1.1017 7888 3704 444 4 5636 5 91 3 1 0 Gwts. qrs. lbs. 4707 0 17 320 1 19 qrs. bush. 767 6 786 0 310258 1 1645 2 59266 0 7 3 4770 2 12444 8 531 1 cwts. qrs.lbs. 6712 2 25 236839 0 2 STOCK OF GRAIN IN BOND IN LONDON APRIL 5. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans, Peas. Rye. Flour, qrs. qrs. qrs. qrs. qrs. qrs. cwts, 111,140 486 13,271 2817 1,125 — 46,257 Cloverseed, 27,114 cwts. IN THE KINGDOM. Wheat. BarU'y. O.Us. Beans. Peas. Rye. Flour. 311,025 ],645 59,266 12,444 4,770 7 243,551 Indian Corn, 1,317 qrs. PRICES OF SEEDS. April 28. English [Cloverseed, red, 45s. to 50s., extra, 52s. to 55s. ; white, 608. (o 62s., extra, up to 68s.; Foreign, red, 40s. to 48s., extra, 60s.; white, 50s. to 62s., extra, 75s. jwr cwt. Linseed, English, sowing 52 68 Baltic — — crushing 40 45 per ^r. Linseed Cakes, English. .lU. Os.to 11/. 5s. per 1000 Do. Foreign.. Tl. 7. to 7i. 10s. per ton. Mediter. & Odessa 40 44 Carraway 44 46 new .. 48 50percwt. Coriander 12 18 per cwt. Mustard, brown, new.... 8 12 white., 13 H p. bush. Bapeseed, English, new . , 34/. 26/. per last. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Monday, April 28. The market continues in about the same position ; but as the advancing growth of the bines subjects them more directly to the varying influence of the season, we may [expect fluctuation in prices ; reports of blight, &c., bemg excellent stimulations to sluggish buyers. POTATO MARKET. SOUTHWARK, Waterside, April 28. This market continues to be over-stocked, the supply being considerably more than the demand. Hundreds of tons are sold weekly for the use of cattle. Tliere is but little demand even for the best samples. York reds are selUng from 40s. to 80s., but exceedingly few fetch more than 70s. Inferior Scotch reds are unsaleable. There are several cargoes of Dutch Potatoes in the market, selUng at from 35s. to 40s., and the trade generally is exceedingly heavy at the following prices : — York Reds 40 to 80 Perth do 40 to 45 Fifeshire do 35 to 40 Early Devous do ... 40 to 45 Jersey Blues — to 00 Kent & Essex Whites — to 40 Do. do. Kidneys 70 to 75 Wisbeach Kidneys . . — to 60 Do. Blues 40 to 50 Do. Whites — to 50 Do. Regents 60 to 65 Guernsey Blues — to 60 Prince Regents York. 55 to 65 Shaws do 50 to 70 WOOL MARKET. BRITISH. LEEDS, April 25. — We have not any alteration to re- port in the state of this market during the present week. WAKEFIELD, AprU 25th.— There is no alteration to be noted in this bi'anch of business, smce last week's report, in either long or short wools. LIVERPOOL, April 26. Scotch. — If any difference in our demand for Laid Highland Wool this week, it is in favour of the seller. In white Highland nothing doing. Good crossed is in moderate request, as well as middle class of Cheviots. In the other descriptions of those classes, there has been little doing. g. d. 8. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 24Ibs .... 9 3 to 9 9 White do. do 12 6 13 6 Laid Crossed do., unwashed.... 10 6 11 9 Do. do.. washed 11 6 14 0 Do. Cheviot do. unwashed .... 10 6 13 0 Do. do.. washed 13 6 17 9 White Do. do 23 6 27 6 Foreign. — There has been considerably more inquiry for all kinds of Wool this week, and what business has been done is in favour of the seller. The London sales are advertised for the 13th May, when, as the stocks of Colonial Wools are completely exhausted, it is expected liigh prices will be realized. FOREIGN. It was expected that, ere this, there would have been public sales ; but we understand that the arrivals have been so limited, that the announcement has not yet been made, though they wiU no doubt take place next week. Accounts of the 15th April, from Leipzic, state that the fair had decidedly improved, and was going on tolerably well. A good proportion of the fabrics ofi'ered had found buyers, and woollen goods of new pat" terns sold at fully previous rates. The recent advices from India ai*e considered to have been of a more favourable character ; and as the Manchester trade is rather brisk, probably woollen fabrics may also be favourably influenced. Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-Jtreet, Strand, London. ^ ^ ,^- 1.^ y l\ G H FffilR A ¥ Sick Srrsei. Tfarksh^s -far ROADWAY IrortTOAl fencing in yard's. Dtvarf wall &. raH, cut A S*vui^ord. Jirfifj. c r-.j a^h C ,V, .i'Jr,/. THE GARDEN. HfZ&a?*(. iTffffms Farmer sClf-iiSauJtA THE EAEMER'S MAGAZINE. JUNE, 1845. j^Q^ (]^ Vol. XL] [Second Series. PLATE T. A S H O R T - li O R N E D BULL. " Buchan Hero," roan, calved 1st April, 1839. ITie property of Sir Charles R. Tempest, Bart., Broughton Hall, near Skii)lon, Yorkshire. By the ^Vhile BuU (5G43), d. (Young Broadhooks) by Young Ladykirk (4170), g. d. by Albion (731), gr. g. d. (Europa, bred by Mr. Robertson) by Sirius (598)— (Short-Tail) by AVeUington (679)— (Honeysuckle) by Sultan (631)— (Jane) by Signior (588). " Buchan Hero" obtained the first prize at the Highland Society's meetings for the best yearhng in 1840, the first i^rize as the best two-year-old in 1841, and the Society's great premium of £100 the same year at Berw'ick, for the best IniU of any age, open to the United Kingdom. He was sold at Mr. Whitaker's sale last autumn, for 350 gs. A yearling bull by him also fetched 200 gs., and a "heifer, same age, I60gs. We have no doubt that his stock will obtain many prizes, for it is generally considered that the Broughton herd rank high in the estimation of short-horn breeders. PLATE IL PLAN OF FARM BUILDINGS. {For description see page 513.) ON THE PREPARATION OF THE LAND FOR DRILL CROPS. position, to reach any aperture by which any light IS admitted. When the light is altogether excluded, plants produced in such circumstances will be BY JOHN SPROULE, ! totally blanched : the degree of blanching depend- AUTHOR OF A '< TRKATISE ON AGRICULTURE," AND ' mg OU the precise proportioU of ligllt which ^i^^ OK PRIZE KSSAV8 ON '< FLAX," " MANURKs," &c. admitted to hcm. 1 he effect of the partial seclu- " ' sion of light IS not less manifest in tlie case of Nothing is now better ascertained in the econo- plants grown in tlie open air, where tliey diance to my of vegetation than that the free admission of be under the shade of trees or overgrown hedges ; light and air is essential to the comjdete develop- crops so situated being invarial)ly worthless. Here ment of plants, and that in a much greater degree the injurious consequences of growing i)hmts in a than has hitherto been considered necessary. The situation in which nature never intended that they eff"ect of the total exclusion of light is apparent in should attain their full size, or Ijecome suthcicntly the blanched and tender stems of such plants as ripened, is too ajjparent to escape oljservation ; and may accidentally vegetate within doors, where there most farmers are accordingly loud in their con- is total, or at least i)artial, darkness ; and the demnation of hedge-row timl)er, on account of the influence thereby exercised in changing in some loss sustained Ijy tlie slmde of the trees. Tiicir degree the cjuality of certain parts of jHants is also own system of cultivation is. however, frequently manifest in the case of celery, and such other plants calculated to iHoduce tlio same rcsulls ; but then as are subjected to blancliiug. In apartments par- llie effect is not so ai)i)arciit, tliougli not. the less tially darkened, every one must be familiar with real, and lience the loss sustained from ibis cause the attein))t. as it were, made by i)lants to reach the is too often disregarded. Tlicy grow their crops light, and how they will grow, even in a slanting so closely together that tliey are, to a certain ex- OLD SERIES.] K K [No. O.—VOL. XXII. 482 THt: FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tent, blanched, though this may not have taken place to so great a degree as sensibly to affect the colour of the plants. The most obvious etlect of such a course of proceeding is an increased length of stem, and a correspondingly deficient produce of grain or roots. Repeated experiments have in- deed proved that in every one of the cultivated crops, decidedly too much seed is employed, the excess not only being mere waste, inasmuch as such excess may be regarded as actually thrown away, but it has also been satisfactorily ascertained that a diminished quantity of seed would be at- tended by a greatly increased produce. But the access of air is not less essential than light for the healthy development of plants. Seeds, however fa^ouraljly situated in other respects, will not ^Tgetate ^hen placed in a vessel from which the air has been extracted, as, for instance, under the receiver of an air-pump ; and a growing plant placed in similar circumstances will languish and die. Here, unfortunately, the evil not being at once apparent is not felt, and hence a remedy is not provided. Deficient ventilation is well known to be extremely injurious to animal life ; yet in many cases few jirecautions are taken to guard against it. Being slow in its ravages, the inroads it makes on the constitution are not perceived until they have proceeded to a considerable extent. But a proper supply of air is not less essential to ani- mal than to vegetable life. "Where plants are grow- ing closely together, it cannot be supposed that air can thus circulate freely among them, being in that case somewhat hke stagnant water in a pond, as comjjared with that of the running stream. Another necessary condition to insure vigorous vegetation is the jjresence of a due supply of moisture, both as regards its existence in the soil, and its being to some extent supplied by the dews, so copious at cei'tain seasons of the year. The manner of cultivation, whether in drills or broad- cast, and also whether thickly or thinly sown, has more influence in regvdating the supply of moisture than might at first sight be imagined. Thin sowing, and especially drill culture, considerably influences the action of the atmos])here Ijoth on the plants and on the soil itself But it is not necessaiy for our i)resent })vu-pose to enter at length into this de])artment of the subject. Besides adopting every available means for pro- moting the growth of our cultivated crops, it is also necessary to guard against the growth of any other plants than those which are the especial objects of culti\'ati()n. During the spring and summer months, when vegetation is active, it is extremely difficult to guard against the growth of weeds, and nothing but the most sedidous attention on the part of the cultivator can keep them in check. So imj)ortant, indeed, is the destruction of weeds regarded, and so difficult is this found of execution, that in an improved system of hus- bandry, crops are made to alternate \vith each other according as they favour the growth of weeds or are inimical to it, as well as on the ground of their being greater or less exhausters of the soil. Some plants, from their mode of growth, favour the j)ro- duction of weeds more than others ; but the system of culture pursued has still greater influence than the nature of the crop itself Thin sowing has been seen to be necessary for the perfect develop- ment of the individual plants coini)osing any par- ticular crop ; but thin sowing, unless imder peculiar circumstances, is favourable to the growth of weeds, which it is so necessary to eradicate. To effect this purpose the action of the hoe is necessary while the crop is gro\\dng, which can only take jdace when the drill or row system of culture is practised. Not less important than either of the essential requisites above enumerated is the regular de- position of the seed at the proper depth in the soil. Under the broad-cast system of culture the seeds are covered at extremely imequal depths, some being in fact exjjosed on the surface of the groimd, while others may be buried so deep that vegetation cannot take place at all. This ine(|uality of covering causes uneven vegetation, and uneven ripening of the crop. In the past season the value of much of the Imrley crop wa.s seriously deteriorated from this cause alone, owing to the peculiar dryness of the season at and after seed- time. A portion of the seed vegetated in due time after ])eing sown, and another jiortion after the long-looked-for rains had taken i)lace ; and this unequal vegetation caused a ver}' considerable dif- ference in the jieriod of ripening of diflerent paits of the crop ; one part was quite ripe, while another was still green, and not nearly ready for the sickle. A uniform covering of the seed would, however, ha^'e guarded against this casualty ; and this can only l)e effectually attained when the crop is culti- vated in rows. Drill husbandry has been long practised to a greater or less extent by the English farmers. Jethro Tull, who may be justly regarded as its founder, practised it so early as 1701, and published his " Horse-hoeing Husbandry" in 1731; but it was many years after before the system attracted much attention. TuU, unfortunately for the early adoption of his system, contended that its general introduction would do away with the necessity of applying manures — a proposition which was not of course well founded, and the maintenance of which tended to throw ridicule on his whole oi)erations. It is only in fact when an improved system of cul- tivation is practised, that drill-husbandry can be advantageously introduced ; and this may account for the slow i)rogress which it made in public esti- mation during a considerable part of the last cen- tury. A much finer tilth is necessary for drill crops than for such as are grown broadcast or in beds, and when this necessarj' condition cannot be attained, it is much I^etter that the row-culture should not be attempted. Drilling is more ajiplicable to certain crops of the farm than to others ; but to some it is entirely unsuited, as the clovers and other forage and herbage ])lants. It is necessary that these latter should cover the sm-face more closely than any of the other cultivated cro})s, and M-hen growing luxuriantly they efifectually prevent the growth of weeds, especially annua] weeds ; it being decidedly an evidence of slovenly husbandry if the roots of any other should be present in the j oil. The cereal grains, from their habits of growth, require the row culture still less than root crops, as the potato, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 483 turnip, and otiier similar jilants; still, when ^ ])r()])er system of tillajrc is ])ractise(l, experience shows that the advantajrcs resnltinfr from cultiva- ting grain crops in rows are very great. It is, however, to the root crops that the row culture is especially suited, not only preserving the land in the finest ])ossihle tiUh, and admitting of the entire destruction of such weeds as may spring nj) during the growth of the croj), but also as affording by far the largest return of produce. It is in the cul- tivation of root crops that the fanners of Scotland and the northern counties of lOngland esj)ecially excel ; and this is decidedly the (lci)artment in which the southern farmers of the latter country are most deficient. The neatness with which wheat is grown in rows throughout a consideral)le part of England, cannot fail to attract forcibly the atten- tion of strangers from districts where the broadcast system of culture alone is practised ; but on the same farms they are equally, if not more, surprised to find turnips grown broadcast, the croji, it may be said, of all others esi)ecially adapted to be grown in rows, and, as might have been exj)ected, gene- rally deficient crops and imperfect tillage. The bean is also another of those i)lants well adapted to drill culture, and on the hea\y soils of the northern part of the island this crop is considered to be the best ])re])aratory crop for wheat, leaving the land in a remarkably clean state. Indeed, un- der favourable circumstances, there is no other crop grown in the fields, the cidlivation of which more closely approximates to that of the garden. Throughout the entire field a weed need not be seen grooving among a bean-croj), and from the great facility which they j)rescnt for the action of the horse-hoe, the soil is thereby kejit in the finest possible tilth. In the southern counties beans are, however, grown in ridges or beds— a system which does not admit of any tillage during the growth of the crop, and which is in\-ariably followed by a ])roduce inferior to that which is obtained from drills. These are curious anomalies in husbandry, founded on local habits, which even intelligent j)ersons cannot alwa)'s successfully divest them- selves of. A south country farmer will jjcrtina- ciously maintain that he can produce a larger crop of turnips sown broadcast than could be grown in drills, inasmuch as the whole surface of the groimd is available for the crop ; but he forgets that the very same argument c'ould be brought to tell against his growing wheat in rows, while the fact is, this is the preferable i)lan for both crojjs, though both are not ecpially injured by a contrary course of proceeding. Tell him that he slioidd not only grow his turni])s in rows, but that these should be from 27 to ;5() inches apart, and the plants from 6 to 10 inches distant from each other in the rows, and he will be still more amazed, and, if ])ossil)le, still more incredulous, as to the advantages to be derived from such a system ; but this is the system adopted in those districts where the largest retiuns arc obtained, which is the best evidence that can be |)roduced as to its ])racticability and value. The necessary conditions in the jireiiaration of the land for drill crops are, to a certain extent, the same, whatever may be the croj) to be cultivated. A fine tilth is in all cases essential, and that ex- tended to a considerable dejith ; but depth of soil is much more essential in the case of some ])lants than in that of others : it is more im])ortant for root cro])s than for grain, 'llie former is indeed regarded as a prejjaration for the latter; so that, in considering the prejiaration of the land for drill croj)s, it is the former which shall be especially re- ferred to in this j)aj)er. 'lliese include the potato, turni]), carrot, i)arsnii), aiul beet, to which j)erhaps the cabbage may be added, though not, strictly sjieaking, a root crop. It may be here remarked, before jirocecding fur- ther with the sxdiject, that drilling is inexjiedient, if not impracticable, on soils not perfectly drained. The maintenance of a fine tilth, not only at the jjcriod of i)lanting the crop, but also during its growth, is absolutely necessar)' to seciu'e the largest return which can be realized ; and this is altogether impracticable in a soil saturated with moisture. Even in dry seasons this necessary condition can- not be attained, as the soil will then turn up in im- penetrable masses, from the efl'ect of it.s previously saturated state, than which there can be no condhion more inimical to the growth of plants of any de- scription. The cultivation of root crops is, indeed, rendered impracticable in any form over a large )n-oportion of the adhesive soils of the country from this cause ; so that, in such cases, before any percei)tible improvement can take ])lace, draining must extensively be carried into eficct. The ab- sence of this ])rimary improvement causes hun- dreds of acres of some of the finest soils in the country to be imder bare fallow as a preparation for wheat, which might be profitably devoted to the ])roducti()n of fallow crojjs, without the (juantity of wheat being in the slightest degree diminished. The extension of draining has already materially contributed to lessen the extent of land bare fal- lowed, and there is reason to believe that its still further extension will so much do away with the necessity of this expensive process, that in time it shall be known only in name. Subsoil i)loughing, though not absolutely necessary, is also an im- jfortant i)rc|)aratory ))rocess, as it is only after subsoiling that drains become thoroughly ct1'ecti\'e. If proi)erly drained, however, the soil may be deepened sufficiently by the coimnon jilough. In the usual course of crojiping, the land, of which we are now about to consider the preparaticm for drill croi)s, had been previously producing a grain croj), either wheat or oats, according to circumstances. So soon as the operations of har- vest are finished, it is well that it should be ploughed, and this first ])loughing is to be as deep as the ploiigli can be made to go. It is im|)ortant that this first process be performed before winter, that the land may receive the benefit of the frosts during that season, the beneficial action of which as promoting jiulverization is well known. So im])ortant indeed is the early |)erf()rmance of this operation in many cases considered, that when the state of tiie weather is such during the harvest that the grain crops cannot be led to the stack-yard, the iiorses are eini)loyed in ploughing up such of the stubble fields as have been already cleared. After this ploughing, the land must be ])rotccted from the intnision of animals during the winter, K K 2 484 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the treading of which would tend to consohdate it and retain much of that moisture which would othersvise escape by evaporation. Most farmers are aware that when land is wet and poached by cattle during the winter, it cannot be pulverized without much labour in the si)ring, and will invari- ably produce an inferior crop the ensuing season. When draining has not been properly attended to, it may be necessary to form cuts along the hollow parts of the field with the spade, to carry off surface water, and at inten'als along the head-lands of the field channels it may also be necessary for the same purpose ; but the extension of draining ^^^ll in time render any such jirecaution as this unnecessary even on the most adhesive soils. Although it is advantageous in every case that this first ploughing should be deep, yet depth of soil is more important in the case of some crops than in that in others. For carrots or parsnips, depth of soil is more essential than for potatoes or turnips ; but it is also to be obseri^ed that deep tillage is necessary to secure even a moderate degi'ee of pulverization on most soils. When the soil is pulverized to a considerable depth, rain water escapes almost as soon as it falls from the heavens, being rapidly carried off by the drains. The period of the spring at which the further I^reparation of the land is to be resumed depends on the particular crop to be cultivated, those sown or planted early requiring the preparation of the soil to be carried forward at a correspondingly early period. If intended for beans which are to be aovm in February, the ])reparation of the land precedes the so^ving of the oat crop; but if for carrots, potatoes, or turnips, it is not commenced until the somng of the spring corn crops is finished. It frequently occurs that land cannot be sufl^ciently ploughed and cleared of weeds for the production of a driU crop so early in the spring as required for beans, from the wetness of the season or other causes ; and it is therefore occasionally subjected to the necessary operations for that purpose in the autumn, and formed into elevated driUs or ridglets, in which it remains during the Avinter. This form has the effect of rapidly carrjang off the rains as they fall, and when the seed time arrives it is at once ready for the crop by the action of the harrow. Wlien circumstances are favourable for the purpose, this autumnal preparation is a proper precautionary measure, avoiding the inconvenience resulting from working the land in a wet state during the spring, and also of admitting more time at that period for the performance of other operations of the season. The first operation in resviming the preparation of the land is usually a ploughing, given in a direction crossing that of the preceding autumn ; but it mil facilitate the after pulverization to harrow the ground well before this second ploughing, if the weather and state of the soil will admit. When this harrowing is omitted, the soil turns up in rectangular masses when acted upon by the har- rows of the second ploughing ; l)iit when harrowed before this ploughing, the furrow is to a certain extent reduced before being turned up again by the plough. In all cases, however, the continued action of the harrow reduces the soil, and brings a portion of the root-weeds to the surface, which are to be collected by the hand and taken off the ground before it is again ploughed. When land is in a high state of tillage, this second ploughing, with the subsequent action of the grubber, some- times prepares it svifficiently for the reception of the seed ; but it is only under exceedingly favourable circumstances that this vnW be the case. The great faciUty with which all the operations of husbandly are performed, when a system of liberal manuring and good tillage is adopted, is not one of the least of the numerous advantages by which it is followed. The more usual course, however, in the j)reparation of the land for drill crops is that it should get another ploughing similar to the preceding one, but also in a different direction from either of the previous ones. If the autumn ploughing was in a longitudinal direction, which is almost inv^ariably the case, the first spring ploughing may have been directly transverse, and then this third ploughing will be given in a diagonal direction; should another ploughing still be necessary to bring the soil to the requisite state, it also will be in a diagonal direction, but between different corners of the field, so that it exactly crosses the last fur- row. It may be regarded as a general rule in cross-ploughing for drill crops, that no two fur- rows should be given in the same direction, how- ever numerous the ploughings may be ; but the precise direction in the field is not subject to rule, unless when the surface of the soil is quite level. On slanting surfaces this must be altogether regu- lated by the peculiar situation of the land, it being bad arrangement in any case to cause a furrow- slice to be thrown against the hill unless when the animals of draught are descending the plane them- selves. This aiTangement, it is evident, secures the soil' being much better cut up and pulverized than if any two of the ploughings followed the same course. The mode of proceeding is the same after each ploughing. The harrows operate on the newly turned up soil to pulverize it, and divest it of root-weeds, which are brought to the surface, and afterwards collected and taken off the land. The details of these processes will be much affected by peculiar circumstances. On all the lighter and medimu classes of soils the preparation of the land is comparatively easy, the operations described being quite sufficient for that purpose ; but on the heavier class of soils, which form a very large proportion of the cultivated surface of the coimtry, it is much more difficult to accomplish. The roller will be a necessary accompaniment of the harrow, following to crush the lumps of earth which that implement may disengage and bring to the surface ; but occasionally the roller is not able to accomplish this, and in such cases the clod- crusher is to be employed. It may be necessary to repeat the action of these after each ploughing, to crush the masses of earth which are successively- turned up. This, however, as already observed, is entirely regulated by the peculiar circumstances of each particular case. The grubber or cultivator has been mentioned in connexion with the plough and the harrow, as an important implement in the preparation of the lind for drill crops. It can be worked to any depth in the soil which may be considered con- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 485 Venlent or desirable. The curved form of the teeth enables it to brintr up all weeds to the surface from the depth to which the grubber extends. By the repeated action of the ploufrh, harrow, and roller or clod-crusher, this may be accomplished without the aid of the giiiliber, but then it will be at con- siderable additional exi)ense ; besides, when the land is very stiti", even the o])eration of ploughing itself tends to compress the furrow-slice, and if the influence of the sun be considerable, it will after- wards be formed into a hard mass, on which the subsequent operation of the harrow and the roller will have httle efiect; but by means of the grubber such land can be worked and cleaned with com- l)aratively little ditticulty,there being in the latter case no necessity for turning up a fresh surface while the work of pulverization is going on. The grubber, too, will go over from six to seven acres a day with a single team ; and although usually requiring four stout horses to work it, the cost of the operation is seen to be greatly less than that of the plough. In certain cases the operations of tillage are much impeded by the existence of stones through the soil, varying in size from a few ounces to a cwt. and upwards; and the prejjaration of the land for drill crops presents an unusual facility for the removal of them. The use of the grubber is indeed inad- missible on land containing stones. The usual course for the remo^•al of them i^ to mark all such as come in contact with the jjlough, by a branch of willow or other similar article, a supply of which is carried along on the plough for that pur])ose. Labourers then follow the ploiigh with s])ades, crow-bars, and other necessary imjjlements, and dig out all stones at which they find one of these marks on the surface, in order that they may at once be carried otf the land out of the way of the harrows. After the different harrowings, too, a quantity of small stones may in such cases be found ' on the surface, which should immediately be collected into carts by young persons, who take them up as , the carts i)ass along, and they are in this manner taken off the land. Many careless farmers never remove any of the small stones thus occurring in their fields ; but then they are rejieatcdly subjected j to interruption in working the land, by the breakage j of implements and harness, and frequently l)y i iujiu-ies received by the horses. The industrious and prudent farmer, however, carefully guards against these occm-rences, and by deepening his soil and removing any obstacles to tillage which it may Contain, he in some degree makes the condition of his fields a])proximate to that of the garden, and his ojierations therein to garden culture. In the remoxal of the stones and weeds off the land, some consideration is also necessar)', in order that there may be no waste of laljonr afterwards from inadvertence at the time, '^ic former are to be conveyed to the nearest situation in which they may be again required for draining or fencing ; and if allowed to stand over a season without being used, they are to be ])laced closely together, that tliey may not occu])y any consideralde extent of surface, 'llie latter should Ije ])laced in a corner of the field to be manured next season, if convenient; then to l)e incorporated with quick-lime, which will destroy their vegetative powers, and convert them into excellent manure. When the land has hitherto been in a favourable state as regards cleanliness, the qtiantity of weeds collected at this lime may be so inconsiderable that the foregoing precaution need not be adopted, in which case they may be conveniently consumed by fire, in small heaps in the field, as they are collected. These minuticC may appear too trifling to have especial reference made to them in this place ; but any attentive observer will easily perceive how much they are neglected Ijy the generahty of farmers, although no doubt can be entertained as to the economy of labour which may l)e effected by such means. The operations for preparing the land for drill crops have now been described. The object is seen to be the attainment of a minute degree of pulver- ization of the soil, and the thorough eradication of weeds ; and further, that these are to be carried to as great a depth as the implements of tillage can be made to go. The intelligent fanner will there- fore vaiy his course of operations to the circum- stances of his particular case. They may be greatly obstructed by the long continuance of wet weather, or by too much moisture in the ground ; and in this case it is better patiently to submit to delay than to act with too much precijjitation. The ])articles of the soil are kno\vTi to be distended and emollient when saturated with moisture, and if acted on by pressure while in that state, the soil loses its porosity and becomes consolidated, after which it will turn up in im))enetrable masses, which will again be reduced with extreme difficulty. In the case of the lighter class of soils, however, dis- patch is necessary in the performance of the several operations, that the ground may not be too much dried. For this purpose it may be necessary to plough but small portions at a time, so that the land may be harrowed as quickly as possible ; or when a large number of horses is employed, these operations may go on almost simultaneously ; the number of animals respectively employed in jilough- ing and harrowing being didy apportioned for that purpose. Even in the case of adhesive soils, exces- sive drought is equally inimical to pulverization with moisture; nothing being more diflicult to reduce than a cloddy surface too much dried, though every necessary means for- the purpose be at hand. Such a surface, indeed, directly aggra- vates the enls of drought by the exposm-e of an increased extent of surface, and is altogether un- friendly to vegetation. But should the newly turned up surface be damp, and little evajioration going on, some delay may be advisable, especially in the action of the roller, which, if used with too much i)recii)itation, would in such a case only tend to consolidate the soil. In all cases when wet weather is cx])ectcd. ])loughing too should be suspended, as being then inimical to judverization. Having entered thus minutely into the diflerent processes in the i)reparation of the laud for drill cro])s, it may be necessary, before concluding the subject, to add a few remarks on the formation of the drills or ridglets, and tlu^ application of the manure so far as common to the whole of the crops under consideration. In districts Wi.iie this sys- tem of cidtivation has l)een long jiractised these operations are sufficiently understood, but in many 4£6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. parts of the cctintry tlie culture of crops in raised drills or ridglets is altogether unknown, and be- lie^•ing it to be superior to every other system in the great majority of cases, the remarks which follow will not, it is hoped, be considered more diffuse than the circmnstances require. Some of the plants included in the class for which the preparation of the land has been de- scribed, though cultivated in rows, are occasionally on the flat surface, in which case the manure is incorporated with the soil by ploughing and other means before the seed is sown ; bvit as, unless on the very lightest class of soils, the system of cul- tivation by raised drills is considered to be su}jerior to that just mentioned, it may not be more par- ticularly alluded to in this place. When the land has Ijeen properly prepared, and the seasons for sowing the crops ariived, the diills are to be formed for the rece])tion of the manure. This may be done by the single or double mould- board plough, the latter performing the work with more expedition, and the former in general execut- ing it with greater neatness, and in a more perfect manner. In the hands of an expert workman, the common plough may be made to form drills at a single turn ; and after being rolled, they cannot be distinguished from those made with the double mould-board plough. The width of the drill is de])endent on the particular crop to be cultivated, and the deposition of the manure is in some degree also regulated by this circumstance, and by the ])eculiar kind of manure employed. In the case of farm-yard manure it is for the most part evenly distributed along the intervals between the drills, and covered up by reversing them ; but in that of the i)otato manures the mode of ajjplication is so various that it can only "be considered in re- ference to the especial crop to which they are ap- plied. An indisj)ensable arrangement in the cidtiAation of drill crops is that the soil is to remain as short a time as jjossible exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, from the formation of the drills until the manure and seed are deposited in them and covered up ; and this arrangement is easily secured by the C(jmmon i)lough. In this case such a number of drills is to be formed, before the opera- tion of manuring commences, as will be sufficient to allow the work to he carried on without inter- ruption. Ten or twelve drills will be usually sufficient for this ]mr])ose. A drill is then formed at one turn by the plough passing up contiguous to the last formed preparatory drill, with the mould-ljoard inclining to the imdrilled portion of the field. \Vhen the plough reaches the extremity of the field, it is to be turned to the left-hand, and passed down the centre of the first formed jireparatory drill, by reversing which a new one is formed, covering the manure which was deposited in the interim. In this manner the plough forms a drill for receiving manure or seed in its centre in passing in one direction, and another covering the manure or seed in jiassing in the contrary direction, until the field is completed. The deposition of manure and seed in the drills is encircled by the ])longh, which may either form drills with the mould-lioard incfiniug from or to the undrilled portion of the field ; but the latter plan is in general to he preferred. There must be a limit to the width of drill which can be formed by the common plough at a single turn. Something will depend on the plough itself, its guide, and the soil ; but under ordinary cir- cumstances no difficulty will be experienced in the formation of drills thirty inches apart. It requires a good ploughman to form drills with one turn of the common plough ; and although they do not in the first instance ajjpear so finished as when formed with a double turn, the most experienced eye cannot make a distinction after the roller or harrow has been i)assed slightly over theai. In the preceding remarks reference is made to the common swing i)loug"h, and when this im])lenient is not emjdoyed, a little observation and reflection will suffice to show how far they are applicable to the i)recise form of the implement, and in any particular case. The manure is for the most part conveyed to the j field in carts, and deposited in heaps in every third I drill. The one-horse cart is certainly a much more I appropriate imi)lement for that purj)0se than the ' waggon, although the use of the latter is almost I universal in some districts for every farming pur- I pose. After so much pains has been taken in ])roducing a high degree of pulverization in the soil in its i)re])aration, it is manifestly unwise to adopt any means in the after management calculated to impart a further degree of consolidation again to it than can possibly be avoided. In this respect the cart is much to be preferred to the waggon. But independent of this circumstance altogether, no doubt can be reasonably entertained as to the superi- ority of the one-horse cart in all farming oi)erations recjuiring any considerable degree of dispatch ; and in none, not even in the harvesting of the grain, is despatch more necessary than in the sowing of the spring crops. When the workmen are accustomed to the use of carts, it is jjcrfectly astonishing to witness the rapidity with which a field is manured, especially when the manure has been previously deposited in a corner of the field to which it is to be applied. The horse walks in one of the inter- vals, and each of the cart wheels in the intervals adjoining on Ijoth sides. Three or five drills are taken along, according to circumstances : when a large quantity is ai)])fied, five are prepared; l)ut when a small dressing only is given, it is better that but three drills shoidd be taken, on account of the greater inconvenience of distributing a small quan- tity of manure over an extended surface. It is of imi)ortance,\\ith a view of securing the regular dis- tribution of tlie manure, that the loads should be of an equal size ; and every load is divided into three or four portions with the dung-di-ag by the carter, who is also to ai)})ortion correctly the dis- tance between the heaps. A band of sj)readers then follows, usually consisting of a man and t\\'o boys or girls. The man takes the centre drill, and in addition to sj)reading the due portion of manure along it, he is to divide llie hca])S for the others, to secure its being eru- dent to cut but twice, and then only when the ])lant shows its blossom huds, never suflering a seed to form, nor, indeed, tlie flower to expand. It is the chief object to o])tain a strong and vigonms crown in the early com-se of the plant's growth ; and this is done by lea\-ing it to attain that maturity which is indicated by l)loom : if cut in the first instance, while ])urely succulent and immature, the same debilitating effect might result which would be pro- duced by cutting-over a fresh plot or bed of very young asparagus; for i)oth ])l:ints j)roduce crowns, which form round the first collar and much extend its bulk. In fact, if lucerne be thinned out to six- inch distances, tlie entire spaces will shortly be filled u]) by lateral developments. The hoe ought to be very eHectually used so soon as every portion is cut, in order to exterminate weeds, and particularly tufts of grass ; or in lieu of the hoe, a two-pronged bent or drag fork with I)road tines and a long handle, would be found a very eilective tool, 'i'he Indtit of (/rou-t/i, with strong, deep roots, and extending crowns, indicate |)lainly, that sheep should never he sntl'ered to depas'tiuv the antmnnal herbage, for their bile is so dose that numbers of the best plants would be sacrificed. Therefore, at th>' final (uttin^- of the 488 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. season, which ought not in general to l)e made later than the middle of October, the ground between the rows should be hoed; and when winter sets in, a dressing of fine coal-ashes mixed \vith bone-dust— nine bushels of the ashes to one ot the bones, for every half-acre — will proA'e very beneficial to future growth. Gypsum might be added to the extent of the bones, and this would give more quality to the ashes, which frequently contain aljout one tenth part of sulphate of lime ; the remaining nine-tenths being chiefly impure silex, with a httle iron. If lucerne have been sown in deeply prepared and enriched earth, dung and putrescent manures as top-dress, are seldom required ; whereas good inor- ganic manures tend to keep the surface-soil pure, light, and free from weeds. This is of consequence, as otherwise, when once tufts of grass obtain pos- session, patches will speedily occui-, and the com- pact beauty of the rich herbage will disappear, I have lately inspected a small piece, that I remember to have observed eight or ten years since, then growing and producing abundantly from April to November ; the rows are above four- teen inches asunder, the plants in perfect order, and in straight rows, not a blank visible ; and so high as partially to fall over, and conceal the spaces. It was under the scythe during the first week of the jiresent May, and was evidently carried away in detail for green fodder. The bulk was enorrnous ; and during a season of alternate periods of rain and fine -weather, this small plot, scarcely jierhaps of twenty poles, will yield an ample supply for a cow. The soil is now a blackish mould, full of vegetable matter, and it is kept hoed as the rows are mown. This plot is situated near the termination of the old town of Croydon, leading from the church to the Brighton road, and is almost surrounded by dwelling-houses. Now, as a small piece in a town can be kept in full bearing during ten years, what might not be done with a few acres among the dairy-farms of England and Ireland ? Farmers shirk the trouble of the hoeinx/ ; but such mistakes, and a neglect of their own real interests, is in this, as in but too many other instances, l)ut too apparent. There is not a ])lant which if prudently prepared for, and skilfully managed, \\ill so amjjly remunerate as lucerne. It wants calcareous phosphates, with a good staple loam, which, if scaled upon a chalk Ijottom will be thereby improved : with these, its cultivation is most simple, and the laliour required is not more than that of a crop of ridged and properly grown turnips. J. Towers. May 1 3th. ON THE VINE. I had intended to continue my observations from the points left at page 427, but the weather remained y-o cold, that beyond the middle of May, scarcely a bud had expanded; therefore, as a month has bfen lost, the ])eculiar treatment of fruiting-vines may be better deferred till July. In the mean time, it will sufiice to ]Mnch oflf every Ijarren shoot which is not wanted to fill up blanks, and to watch the fruitful shoots, securing them in due time, by careful nailing. At tbe third or fourth eye above the cluster, or clusters, each ought to be nipped off, and then the laterals will advance ; and these also are to be sto])ped just above the lowest leaf. Foli- age is the nurse of fruit ; and so much ought to be retained as will cover the wall, and render it quite green with leaves ; but then, these leaves ought to be members of the fridt-learing shoots, and not the appendages of Mandering laterals. All should be conducted upon an uniform, consistent princii)le, one which rejects useless members, but protects every leaf that is upon a fertile branch ; thus fruit and buds wiU be nourished and brought to per- fection. J. T. ON SOOT AS A MANURE. The soot of ovens and chimneys, which may be procured in the vicinity of large towns, is among the most effective mamu'es ; there is not required more than 450 or 500 lbs. on the Magdeburg acre of land, in order to produce on all soils (especially the light ones) the most luxuriant vegetation. Soot is another example demonstrative of the great utility ])lants derive from certain mineral substances, as we know, by analyses, that 100,000 parts consist of— 38,330 coal, resin, and emjjyneumatic oil. 30,200 humic acid (partly combined with am- monia). 0,200 acetate of ammonia. 0,366 chloride of calcium. 1,500 phosphate of Ume, 5,000 gypsum. 5,650 acetate of lime. 14,660 carbonate of lime, and a little carbonate of magnesia. 4,100 acetate of potash. 100,000 parts. The constituent parts of soot obviously depend on the component parts of the fuel ; for which rea- son, in some of them much car1)onate of ammonia, sulphate of ammonia, and sulphate of potash is to be found, by which naturally their action as manures is much increased. The soot of coal is superior to that of wood, the former being richer in ammonia. If 500 lbs. of soot are put upon the Magdeburg acre of land, the soil will receive (according to the above analysis), of really fertilising matter, 20 lbs. of acetate of potash, 73 lbs. of carbonates of lime and magnesia, 28 lbs. acetate of lime, 25 lbs. of gypsum, 8 lbs. of phosphate of lime, 2 ll)s. chloride calcium, 1 lb. acetate of ammonia, and 150 lbs. of humic acid and humate of ammonia. We may well assume, that of the above substances the salts of ammonia and potash, gypsum, and the acetate of lime will be the most effective, as there is too little of the other substances to possess any tangible in- fluence. In Belgium they take for every measure of seed-corn 8 to 10 measures of soot. As soot acts by its easily soluble substances, it is always to be used as a toj) manure, and it is strewed, therefore, in s])ring over the winter crops, or bar- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 489 rowed in with the seed of the summer croj). Sickly winter crops will be therel)y very soon imi)rovc(l ; their colour will change into dark green, which is owing to the ammoniacal salts. It destroys almost immediately [?] the moss of the meadows, as these plants cannot bear ammonia at all, as we have seen when speaking of the manure with urine. A top manure of soot ovev clover \\-ill j-ield a most strik- ing result, which is owing to the gy])sum it con- tains ; l)ut in order that it may act eliiciently, wet weather is wanted — in dry weather it may even be hurtful, as the jjlants will tht-n receive too concen- trated food. Its ellects last l)ut one or two yeai-s. The decomi)Ositions which it ettects in the soil are of no consequence. At some pkices, soot, jirevious to being used, is mixed with lime and earth. But before the lime- dust is added the soot and earth must l)e well mixed together, and left lying in a heap for eight or ten days. After the lime has been added, the mixture is to be left lying in heaps for four or six weeks ; then it is well worked up and used as top manure. The ])roj)ortion in which these substances are mixed together is 1000 lbs. soot, 1000 lbs, hme, and 10,000 lbs. earth; the latter, however, must be very rich in humus, or the lime will exjjel the ammonia of the soot. Ox Blilding-kubbish as Manure. — The rubbish of clay, lime, or stones, obtained by the ])ulling down or repairing of old ])uildings, may be used to a(h'antage as a manure, especially if derived from buildings which were tenanted by either man or cattle ; because in that case it will contain salt- ])etre and ammoniacal salts, as these are always formed where animal putrefaction and deconiijosi- tion is going on. Previous to its l)eing carried on the field it must be well mixed, broken in small j)ieces, and freed from large stones ; it is also to be l)rotected from much rain, which would soon ex- tract the saltpetre and the ammonia salts. The am, ? C 'S O a; S O Sj -jd e V 2 *' "a c E 5 ;^ ~ c ? (juarts. quarts. gallons. gallons. 1 •20 2i 8 8 2 40 .5 15 — 3 60 / -2 24 — 4 80 10 — — 5 100 m 30 — 6 120 15 — — 7 140 17^ 36 — 8 160 20 42 i I — 0 180 22.^ 48 — 10 200 25 54 15 11 220 27 i 60 1 — 12 240 30 60 1 1 — " This table is only offered as a guide to the sizes of churns requisite, not as containing infor- mation on any other point ; for quantities of cream or milk will vary much, according to food and management, X;c. It is better, however, to order the churns too large than too small." Although good workmanship and neatness of fmisji is an important feature in every well con- structed implement, yet in no dei)artment is this more necessary than in those utensils intended for the dairy. In attaining this important ])oint in the construction of dairy utensils, no man is more studious than Mr. Robinson ; and perhaps no man is more able to accomplish it. The whole of those exhibited l)y him here at the late show, evinced a degree of taste in their design, and neatness and cleanness in the finish, that ren- der their scientific princii)les even more valuable. A carefid dairy-maid will soon discover the difference in the tron1)le that will be necessary to clean a well-finished utensil, and the time and trou- ble ineiuTed in cleaning and washing a rude piece of workmanship, where crevices and ragged ends of boards are left, as so many trajis to catch dirt, and i)icces of tlu» cloth with which they are washed. l''or this reason, utensils of this descrq)ti()n sliould be made of the very l)est and hardest materials, and should jiresent a clean, smootli surface ; whereas soft and ill-finished jjieces act like so many s])ongcs, to collect the cream and other li(piids, which, being impossible to wash out, are left to putrefy, connnunicating tlieir noxious cfHuvia to every succeeding fill of the vessel. In this respect, I consider Mr. Robinson entitled to the thanks of the dairy-maids of lrelanroyed methods of ])loug]iing land into ridges on difl'ercnt soils and for diU'erciit purposes. It has been incidentally observed, in a preceding part of this article, that the operation of jjloughing is performed in the most efficient manner, Mhcn the successi\-e furrow-shces are so formed and laid over as to present the maximum extent of surface to the atmosjihere, and as n consequence to contain the maximum quantity of earth. Now, it has been frequently demonstrated on mathematical jirinciples that these criteria" of ])erfect ploughing are attained only when the slices are so placed as to inchne to the plane of the horizon at an angle of 45''. Thus, in Fly. 6, representing sections of furrow-slices laid : contents will evidently be less than those of the I slices h and / cut in the rectangular form. This mode of ploughing shoidd, for very obvious reasons, be always avoided when the object is to turn over the soil to be ameliorated by the intlucnce of the atmosphere, or to form a seed-bed for corn-crops. If the furrow-slice be disproportionably wide, it will be turned over almost Hat ; and each successive shcc will overlap that which immediately preceded it; while, on the other hand, when the depth materially exceeds the due proportion it should bear to the width, the slice cannot be ])roperly tnrncd over, but will be set on edge, and liable to fall back to its original position. The plougiiing executed by Wilkie's instrument is distinguished by an acute and high-raised fur- row-slice. i)resenting a rhomboidal or trajiezoidal section, as in the slices represented by k and / (tig. 7). This mode of jiloughing is commonly supposed over at difl'erent degrees of inclination, the angle c e (J, ox dfg, is 45°, and the surface and cubical contents of the slices represented by the sections h and i, is each a maximum. It is e\-ident that the two exposed faces of the furrow-slice laid over in this jiosition are of eciual width, and that the angle e cZ/ is a right angle. This circumstance admits of easy de- monstration, and it aftbrds data for ascertaining by calculation the relative dimensions of the furrow- .slice to be laid over in the proper position ; for we have edf, an isosceles right-angled triangle, of which the hyj)othenuse ef is the breadth, and either of the legs e d, or (//, the depth of the slice ; and hence, if either the breadth or depth be given, we can easily ascertain the proper dimensions of the furrow- slice. Supposing, for example, the breadth to be nine inches, then the corresponding depth will be \/ i 9- = v/ 40.5 = 6.36.3 inches; or if the breadth betaken at 10 inches, the proportionate depth will be \/ i lO- n: v^ 50 r: 7.071 inches. Again, if we siq)i)ose the depth to be five inches, the corres- ponding width will ]je \/ 5- X - — '^/ 50 = 7.071 inches. It appears from these calculations that the ratio which the breadth of a sod will bear to its depth when the angle of inclination is 45" is nearly as ;{ is to 2, or, in other words, the dejith will be two- thirds of the width ; and this is the mode of cal- culation usually ado])ted by ploughmen ; thus, when the breadtii is nine inches, the depth will be six, and so on. In this kind of ])loughing it will be seen that the furrow-slice ])resents a rectan- gular section, and that the l)ottom of the furrow is cut nearly horizontal. When the dcjjth of the furrow-slice is mucii less than two-thirds of the breadth, as in the slices represented by the sections « and b {Fuj, 6), their exposed surface and cubical Fig. 7. to be superior to that in which the slice presents a rectangular section ; inasmuch as the high-raised slices afford, it is alleged, a larger extent of surface to the action of the atmosjihere, and a greater quantity of earth to cover the seed. 'Hiis, however, is a sub- ject of dispute among ploughmakers ; for it is con- I tended by many that the superiority of the high- ' raised slices jiresenting a trapezoidal section is : merely imaginary, and that the rectangular furrow- slices actually afford the greatest quantity of earth over a similar extent of land. Those ploughs, like ; Wilkie's and the Ciu'rie, adapted to cut an acute, ' high-raised slice, are found to be heavier to draw ' than those that produce the rectangular furrow-slice, which is certainly a serious objection to their em- ployment, even admitting their work to be somewhat suj)eri()r to that of the others. Owing to the humidity of our climate, and the still imperfect facihties provided for the ready escape of rain-water from the soil, it is found necessary, in most districts of the country to dispose the ground into ridges, or " lands," as they are termed in some i)arts of England. These ridges vary very much in breadth, and are more or less raised in the middit.-, accord- ing to the nature of tlie soil and the custom of the district ; the primary object in all cases being, to aid the surface drainage, and to preserve tiio land in a comparatively dry condition during the winter months. Ridges are found to be indisjjensable on heavy retentive soils ; as, owing to tlu-ir usual ro- tundity on such land they tend to facilitate the dis- charge of rain-water into the open furrows; but, on light ]iorous, and thoroughly-drained land, it lias Ijeen satisfactorily sliown tliat raised ridges, with their inter-furrows, are decidedly more jjrejudicial than advantageous. On soils naturally dry and ])orous,or wliich have been rendered artificially so, there can be no necessity for providing means to enable the rain-water to flow ofl'. On the contrar.y, L L 498 THE FARMEIVS MAGAZINE. it is ^\'ell known that tlie rains, cliarge.l as they are with the most valuahle fertihzing ingredients, exer- cise a very beneficial influence when allowed to percolate the soil into the drains. In fact, the great object of thorough draining is to enable the rain- water to descend where it falls instead of stagnating or flomng oif. When the ground presents a uniform level surface, there is an equal depth of soil through- out the field, all parts are alike exposed to the genial influence of the solar rays, and the crop is equally abundant and equally ripened. No part of the soil or of the manure is washed away by currents of water; while, in very droughty seasons, the moisture is longer and more equably retained in the land. The principal advantage derived from ridges is, that, owing to their cur-\-ature and elevation on heavy soils, they prevent the Sjtagnation of surface- water on the land ; but judicioiis drainage is the only effectual remedy for this. Ridges are also resorted to, even in the dryest land,for the purpose of direct- ingthe workmen in performingthe several operations of ploughing, sowing, and reaping; but we shall, afterwards, see that ploughing can be performed in as perfect a manner when the land is quite flat and disposed into wde divisions, without any open furroM-s whatever, as when laid off into narrow high-raised ridges ; and as we may shortly expect to see our corn crops generally sov^nn M'ith well- contrived machines, either broad-cast or in rows, and cut down when ripe by the scythe or reaping- machine, it is evident that ridges ^dll, be not only unnecessary for these purposes, but positively in- jurious, open furrows in particular are a great nuisance, unless absolutely requisite to carry off surface-water. The practice of agriculture mil, no doubt, eventually arrive at this, and the sooner it does so the better. Nevertheless, until the wet re- tentive soils, which form so large an extent of the arable land in this countrj', be effectually rescued from the baneful influence of superabundant moisture, it will be necessary to plough them into suitable ridges in order to palliate the evil by the facility afforded by the inter-furrows for the dis- charge of surface-water. Although it is only on wet retentive soils that ridges are absolutely indis- pensable, yet, even on land so dry and porous, that little injury need be apprehended from the stag- nation of rain water on the surface, ridges are con- sidered necessary, by many fanners, on account of their convenience when performing the usual tillage operations, such as ploughing, harromng, &c. It wiU be necessaiy, therefore, to describe some of the most appro\-ed modes of forming ridges on different soils, as well as the manner of ploughing them when formed ; and in doing so, I shall first sup]5ose the surface to be quite flat, ex- hibiting no appearance of former ridges, as is usually the case after the ground has undergone the process of summer-fallow, or the jireparatory tillage for green-crops. The principal points to be considered, on commencing to plough a piece of ground from a flat surface, are the direction, length, breadth, and shape of the ridges into which it is to be formed ; the circumstances which chiefly regiilate these particulars I shall here endeavour to point out. The most favourable direction of ridges, other circumstances being similar, is that of due north and south, as the plants on both sides receive nearly equal benefit throughout the year from the light and heat of the solar rays. It is evident that when the surface of the ground is flat or nearly so, the particular direction of the ridges is of little im])ortance, in so far as regards exposure to the sun ; but where the ridges are much raised in the crown, as is usiaally the case on heavy retentive soils, if made to lie in a direction from east to west, the north side would be less favourably exposed to the sim, and consequently somewhat later in ripening than the south. But although the general J rule of running the ridges north and south should " be observed where-\'er circumstances permit, yet the most advantageous direction is determined almost entirely by the nature of the soil, and the inclination of the surface. The primary object of ridges on wet retentive soils is to facihtate the discharge of surface-water ; and hence, on such land, they are most efficacious when directed up the greatest acclivity of the ground, inasmuch as the superfluous water is thereby allowed to escape more readily from the soil. It is also considered that heaAy clay soils are more efhciently, though no doubt more laboriously, ploughed when the ridges are formed right up and down the acclivity, than when made to he in an oblique direction; nevertheless, there are many situations where the ascent is too steep to admit of ploughing (Urectly up ; and in such cases it becomes necessarj', what- e^'er the natiu'e of the soil may be, to run the ridges diagonally across the slope, observing that they incline towards the right-hand side in ascend- ing : the labour of the horses in going up the acclivity is thus very considerably diminished, in consequence of the furrow-shces falling more readily from the plough ; some jirecaution is, however, necessaiy in not inclining the ridges too obliquely across the slope, as the ploughmen would then find some difficulty in properly turning over the furrow- slices in descending, and the surface water, should the soil be very retentive, would not have ready egress. Another advantage of forming ridges in an oblique direction in hilly situations is, that the finest particles of the soil are less liable to be carried down to the lower ground liy currents of water than if they were made to he up the steepest ascent ; and, besides, in droughty seasons it is found that the moisture is longer retained in the ground. The turn-wrest plough is sometimes em- ployed in situations of this kind, and with advantage, at least to the working animals, as by it the fur- row-slices are always tvu'ned down the hill, the operation being most usually performed directly across the slope ; but it is not difficult to perceive, that this mode of ploughing becomes highly inju- dicious if practised frequently on the same piece of land, inasmuch as the soil is thereby gradually worked down to the bottom of the declinty, where it accumulates at the expense of the higher parts, which are ultimately rendered bare and unpro- ductive. The length of the ridges will, in a great measure, depend on that of the field, and also on the texture of the soil and the nature of the surface. In most instances the ridges extend through the whole length of the enclosure, unless it happen to be unusually long, in which case, particularly if THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 499 the soil be of a stiff' character, it ought to be dinded into two ridge-lengths, with the view of rendering the work less oppressive on the horses. When a field slopes in different directions, it becomes necessary to vary the course of the ridges in order to suit the inequalities of the ground, so that in all cases they may be formed in the most advantageous position for effecting their jjrimaiy object — that of facihtating the escape of the surface-water from the soil. In large fields of in-egular surface, the length of the ridges will therefore depend on the extent of particular slopes. Of course, where the soil is of a light porous nature, it vaW not l)e necessaiy to vary the course of the ridges in this way, for the purpose of aiding the surface drainage ; but on undrained, heavy land, every means should be adopted to preserve it in as drj' a condition as possible. It is found that when ridges on strong clay soils exceed -iGO yards in length, most horses become fatigued before reaching the head-lands, unless allowed to rest in the interval. It is not therefore advisable to have ridges on such land much longer than 2(3() yards, even ^fiOis considered by many to Ije sufhcient ; l)ut on the lighter classes of soils, from 270 to 300 yards wiW not be too long. Very short ridges occasion an incredible loss of time in turning at the head-lands, and ought therefore to l)e avoided as much as possible, which can be done only by forming the enclosures at first of a square or rectangular shape, and of a size suitable to the extent of the farm, the kind of soil, and the system of cropping. In the "Code of Agri- culture," it is stated as the result of experiment, that when ridges are no more than 7S yards in length, 4 hours .30 minutes are lost in turning during eight hours' work, in ploughing an acre ; whereas, when ridges are 274 yards in length, only 1 hour f9 minutes is lost during the same period, making a difference of 3 hours 20 minutes, in favour of the long ridge in regard to economy of time. The breadth of ridges should be regulated by the nature of the soil and its condition, as regards superflxious moisture. On wet adhesive soils ridges of twelve to fifteen feet in width are to be recommended, the great object being to jirocure the ready discharge of surface-water by the aid of numerous interfurrows ; l)ut when the land is in a toleral)ly dry condition, either naturally or as the result of drainage, eighteen-feet ridges are generally preferred, this width being foimd the most convenient in performing the several opera- tions of sowing, harrowing, and rea])ing. On dry porous soils, if ridges be at all formed — and certainly they are not indispensa1)le — they may l)e very con- siderably wider ; a breadth of from thirty to forty feet will not be too great. On the light dry tiu'nij) soils in several districts of Scotland, the most general practice is to i)lough the land into flat ridges from thirty-six to forty feet in width, called band-vin ridges, from the circumstances of the corn grown on them l)eing cut by a band of reapers usually consisting of six ])crsons, attended Ijy one binder. 'ITierc are no ojjcn furrows l)etween these ridges ; a light track formed with the y)lough serving to direct the sowing and reajting processes. The form of the ridges is to be determined by the same circvunstances that regidate their breadth, namely, the nature and condition of the soil. On wet retentive land the primary purpose of ridges is to facilitate the escai)e of surface-waters by the interfurrows ; and to insure in some measure the attainment of that desirable object, it is found necessary to imi)art a certain degree of curA'ature and elevation to the ridges, which is effected by the mode of ploughing termed "gathering," to be after- wards described. Where the land is very wet, it is found useful to gather the ridges twice, beginning each time at the crown, and turning the furrow- slices all inwards from the open-furrows, \yhereby an increased elcA'ation is imparted to the middle of the ridge; and when the curvature is uniform throughout, tlie rain-water readily flows into the furrows, by which it is conveyed away. _ But on light and well drained soils, where no injur)' need be ai)i)rehen(]ed from stagnant water, it is recom- mended to form the ridges quite flat, without any open furrows, as the latter do far more harm than good, unless absolutely necessary to carry off the surfi\ce-M'ater. The foregoing i)reliminaries being determined on, the ploughing of the field is to be commenced, which is done by the principal ploughman marking it off into equal and i)arallel divisions, each corres- I)onding in breadth with that of the intended ridges. The process of marking off land into ridges is, no doubt, sufficiently understood by the greater portion of my readers ; but, nevertheless, a short descrijrtion of the mode adopted north of the Tweed may not be wholly devoid of interest. It may be necessary to mention here, that the term feerimj is a]iplied in Scotland to the first fuiTows taken in the process of striking or marking off land into ridges. This operation is jjerformed with the assistance of three or more poles of wood graduated into feet and half-feet, whicli serve the double purpose of enabling the ploughman to proceed in straight Unes, and to measure off the breadth of the ridges with accuracy and dispatch. Before proceeding to draw the feer- insjs, the i)loughman marks off two spaces at the op'posite ends of the field, for the horses to turn upon; these are called "head-lands" or "head-ridges," and are commonly of the same breadth as the other ridges of the field. The ploughman then measures off with one of his jioles half the breadth determined on for the ridges, from that side of the field parallel to which they are to run, and there he sets up a jiole ; another iiole is placed at precisely the same breadth from the side, and at a suitable distance from the first, and a tliird is set up on the head- land in a right line with the other two. When the ridges are of ordinary length, and the surface of the field level, three poles will sufHce ; but where the ground is irregular, more than this number u-ill of course be rctiuircd, as the ])loughman must have at least two poles always visible before him, otherwise he could not direct his horses in a right line. Having accuratelv arranged the poles, he enters the plough at the headland in a direct line with the poles, towards which he jiroceeds imtil he reaches the first, when he halts the horses to remove the pole, by which he, at the same time measures ()ff a line cciual to the breadth of a ridge, L L 2 500 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. setting up the pole again ; on an i^•ing at the next he performs a similar process, ahvays obser^-ing in measuring the distance that it be done in a direc- tion at right angles to the line of the furrow which is being drawn by the plough. In like manner he proceeds to the third pole, which he sets up in a line with the other two. Having reached the end of the field, he returns along the same track, correcting any deviations, and throwing a shallow shce towards the side opposite to his fonner one, thus making a wide furrow, which when reversed becomes the crown of the new ridge. Instead of measuring off the breadth of half a ridge from the side of the ditch or fence, as here alluded to, some ploughmen prefer making the first feering at the breadth of a quarter-ridge from the side, and from the first to the second the l)readth of a ridge and a quarter. This latter i)lan is practised with a ^iew to greater economy of time ; but the object aimed at in both cases is precisely the same, namely, to \\a.ye whole instead of half- ridges next the boundaries of the field. The utmost attention and skill of the ploughman should be exercised in drawing all the feerings, but especially the first, as it is obA-ious that any error committed in it will be more or less transmitted to the others ; and nothing appears so unsightly as crooked, irregular ridges. To ensure correct work, the most skilful ploughman and the steadiest pair of horses should be selected for the process of feering. In some parts of the north, where more than ordinaiy attention is bestowed to this depart- ment, it is not uncommon, in order to secure perfect accuracy in measuring off the breadth of ridges, to draw three or more light furrows across the field at right angles to the first feering, the object being to mark the true lines along which to measure the breadth of the ridges when setting up the poles. A cross-staft' is some- tunes employed to lay off these transverse hnes exactly at right angles to the line of the ridges ; it is a useful auxiliary to the ploughman who can properly use it, especially where the ground is uneven, and cannot be seen from end to end ; few, however, take the trouble of drawing cross-lines, although they certainly afford considerable assis- tance to inexperienced ploughmen in lajnng off ridges with precision. Besides the usual mode of dividing land into ridges with the aid of poles, another method is occasionally practised in Berwickshire and other })arts of the south of Scotland, which is found of some use in directing inexperienced ploughmen. This consists of a stout lath or pole called a " mai'ker," exactly equal in length to the breadth of the intended ridge, and fixed to the plough at right-angles to the line of draught : one end of the marker is attached, by a simple contri- vance, to the beam a little before the coulter : while the other projects with a slight inclination down- Avards, either to the right or left-hand side of the ploughman, as may be required, and is retained steadily in its place by a rope passing from the outer extremity to the collar of one of the horses. A small coulter or harrow-tine is attached perpen- dicularly to the end of the pole, which traces a mark on the ground as the plough advances. exactly parallel to the line of draught, and suffi- ciently distinct to serve as a guide to the plough- man in drawing the next feering. On arriving at the headland, he alters the pole to the side opposite to that on which it was last, proceeds with his plough along the rut formed b)' the marker, and in so doing, another track is formed exactly parallel to the last; in like manner the whole field is di^-ided into ridge-breadths. When this plan is adopted, it is only necessary to draw the first I feering with the aid of jioles, as the marker \ attached to the j^lough traces on the ground the line on which the next is to be formed. It has been found a useful exi)edient on light land, and saves much of the time necessarily lost in stopping to reset the poles in the usual way ; but, notwith- standing, it is proper to observe that this device is now seldom resorted to by good ploughmen. On extensive farms, where several teams are employed, it is necessary that the ploughman intrusted with laying off the ridges should com- mence that process a half-day, at least, in advance, so as to artbrd work to the others, when they go afield. In beginning to plough the ridges, the ploughman first lays together the furrow-slices previously thrown out in the act of feering, to form the crown of the future ridge ; and so continues always turning the horses at the headlands to the right, until he reaches the middle of the spaces between the feerings, when he Avill have ploughed a half-ridge from either side. It is a better and more convenient practice, however, to have each ploughman take two feerings, and after laying together the first slices as before, to turn the horses to the left instead of to the right at the headlands, imtil the space between the two feerings is ploughed, finishing at the middle, which becomes an open or inter-furrow. This mode of ploughing has oljtained the appel- lation of (jutherhifj-up, from the circumstance of the furrow-slices being all gathered towards the crown of the ridge, which generally acquires some degree of rotundity and elevation by the process. As it is of much importance, esjiecially on wet clay land, that the ridges should possess a uniform curvature throughout, considerable attention is necessary on the part of the i)loughman, so that no jjart may be either raised or depressed more than the rest. For this ])urpose the first slices are laid together with a shallow furi'ow, that the crown may not be over ele\'ated ; the next three or four on each side of the feering must be held somewhat deeper than the ordinary de])th, in order to maintain the regular curvature ; and as the jjloughman ap})roaches the open furrow, the successive slices are to be dimin- ished a little both in breadth and de})th for the same object. The ploughman's skill is dis- played in the accuracy \v\\\\ which he imparts the requisite curvature to the ridges, and in finishing at the open furrows, which should alwaj's be as straight, narrow, and shallow as possible. Pro- tuberant crowns, hollow fianks, and elevated furrow- brows, are alike characteristic of the most imperfect ploughing, and shovdd be sedulously guarded against by the ploughman, but more especially by the fanner himself, to whose interest such defective work is most prejudicial. On wet clay soils, where THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 501 the paramount object of raised ridges is to facilitate the discharge of surface-water, tlie curvature and ele\'ation of the ridges may he further increased by reploughing them in a similar manner, ccjmmencing at the croM'n and gathering up from both sides. In taking U}) the last furrow-slice in finishing the ridges on such land, it is advisable to detach one of the horses from the plough ; but when the ground is very stifl", he may be yoked in a line before the other, both walking in the furrow, as wet clay soil is much injured Ijythe treading of the horses, and water is apt to stagnate in the feet- marks. The headlands shoidd l)e ploughed innnediately after the rest of the field has Ijeen finished, and not neglected, as is too frequently done, until they become overgrown with luxuriant weeds, or so hard as scarcely to be penetrable with the ))lough. Whether the land be in corn or green crop, the endridges should be cultivated, manured, and sown at the same time and in a similar manner with the other parts of tlie field; and when so treated, they will 1)0 equally, if not more j)r()ductive. When the ridges throughoiu the field have been gathered up, the headlands should be ploughed in the same manner, by commencing at the middle and turning the furrow-slices inwards. One of the horses should be unyoked, and, if necessaiy, attached Ijefore the other, in order to allow the plough to work as close to tlie ditch or fence as possible. nie mode of ploughing now described is a])pli- cable in all cases \\'here the land is to be ploughed into ridges from a flat surface. In the technical language of the art it is called (jatheriny-ui) ; and is performed, as we have seen, by commencing at the crown and turning the successive furrovr-slices in- wards, by which means a certain degree of curvature is im|)arted to the ridge. Various methods may ])e pursued in the subsequent ploughing of the ridges, according to tlie nature of the soil, the season of the year, and the object in view. They may be ploughed in such a manner that the furrows of the old ridges become the crowns of the new ; the furrows of the latter being formed at the middle of the former. The operation whereby this is effected is called crown-und-furroiv ploughing. Again, two ridges may be i)loughed together with- out altering their form or position by the system termed casting. And again, two or more ridges may be ploughed in one way, and the same niunber adjoining jjloughed in the contrary direction, still preserving the j)ositioa of the ridges and inter- fun'ows, by the method in some districts, called tivo-oitt-a))(/-ltro-i)i. These are the principal modes of ploughing, though there may be several modifi- cations, and they shall be more minutely treated when I come to sjjcak of the difi'erent cases in which each may I)e advantageously practised. tStulihle-plQiKjIiiiiij — The jiloughing of stuljldc- groimd intended for turnips or other green crojjs, should be commenced as early as possible after the labours of the harvest have lieen concUuled, in order to allow the soil to receive the full benefit of exposure to the winter frosts. Tlie stitlest and wettest land should be ploughed first, as, owing to its greater tenacity, it requires lunger time to be pulverized by the atmospheric changes, than that I [ of a lighter description. Xothing tends so power- fully to mehorate stiff adhesive soils as the sudden changes of temperature which occur during the winter and early spring months. It is well known that water in the act of freezing enlarges considerably in bulk, and with so much .energy that the strongest cannon filled with it, and jiroperly secured, will ])e shattered to pieces if exposed to intense frost, liy the exjiansive power of the water in solidifying. The water contained in the pores of the soil ])ecomes frozen when the temperature is sufficiently low ; and owing to the force \\'ith which it ex])ands during solidification, the particles of the soil are so far displaced as to fall asunder when a thaw returns. When frequently acted ujion in this way by a succession of frosts and thaws, the most obdurate soils gradually crumble down into a powdery state. .Vnother important advantage aris- ing from early i)loughing is the partial destruction of root-M'eeds. Certain plants are known to grow during the months of autumn, and also, though of course less vigorously, in winter and in early spring ; but by ploughing the land, and ex])osing the roots of such weeds to the action of the frost, their vitality may be M'holly destroyed, or at least suspended until the j)rocess of jiloughing can be resumed in spring. The mode of jiloughing to be now adopted will dejiend on the form of the ridges and the nature of the land. On wet retentive soils the ridges will have a rounded form, having been raised in the crown by the previous j)loughing. A great object to be aimed at, in jiloughing such land from the stubldc, is to jireserve it in as dry a condition as possible during the winter months ; and whatever method may be pursued, every facility must be afforded to the ready escajie of surface-water. On light jjorous soils, where no water is likely to stagnate, the system of crown-and-furrow plough ing may be advantageously jjractised. On land of this kind the ridges are, or at least should be, quite flat, and this mode of ploughing tends to keep them so. When commencing to jilough the ridges in this way, it is unnecessary to draw any feerings with the aid of poles, as in the case of gathering uji from the flat, as the ojien furrows serve to direct the jiloughman ; bxit in both instances the ridges are jiloughed liy two- half-ridges, and the furrow-slices are reversed from the jiosition in which they were originally laid. Although the system of crown-and furrow Jiloughing is well adajited for light soils and flat ridges, yet on clay lantl wliicli has not been thoroughly drained it is altogether inajijilicable. On the latter class of soils it is necessary, M-ith the view of aiding the surface-drainage, to imjiart a certain degree of curvature to tlie ridges ; and it is oljA-ious that the mode of jiloughing under con- sideration has tlie efl'ect of destroying tliat curvature, and of again levelling tlie ridges, which would be highly injudicious until the land has lieen for some time tborougli-drained. In some jiarts (if the coiuitry where tlie jiarticular mode of jiloughing is regardid as a matter of trivial imjiortance, it is not uncommon to see ridges (juite hollow in the middle, and raised at the furrows ; whereas, the converse ought to be the case on all kinds of soils, especially on those of a retentive nature. 502 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. A very suitable mode of ploughing dry land is that known by the name of " casting," whereby the situation of the original ridges is preserved. This method is practicable whether the ground be in grass or in stubble at the time of ploughing ; but in the present instance we shall suppose it to be in the latter stage. The ploughman com- mences at an open furrow, and lays the successive furrow-slices towards it, until the ridges at both sides are ploughed into one, by turning the horses to the right at the headlands. When ploughed in this manner, all the furrow-slices of one ridge lie in the same direction, while those of the adjoining one incline in the contrary way. On light dry soUs, the first slices may be laid closely together, so as to fill up the interfurrow and unite both ridges into one ; but on undrained clay land, it is necessary to presence an open-furrow between the ridges, which is effected by keeping the first shces at a short distance apart, and afterwards passing the plough between them. There is another mode of ploughing, somewhat similar to the last, called " two-out-and-two-in," which is found well suited for clay land. When this method is adopted, the ploughman commences, as in the case of casting, at an interfurrow of the old ridges ; but instead of laying the first two fvirrow- shces together, as in the latter case, he takes a light slice up the centre of the old furrow, turns the horses sharp to the right at the headland, and lays another shallow furrow-slice resting on the last; he turns again to the right, and throws in a broad and light slice resting on the margin of the space cleared out by the first. Two furrows of the proper dimensions are then ploughed from each ridge, after which the plough is passed along the space occupied by the old furrow, rvibbing the soil up mth the mould board in order to clear a channel for the passage of water. This latter part of the process is indispensable on wet retentive soils, but unnecessary on dry land. This done, the remaining portions of both ridges are ploughed together as before, by turning the horses at the headlands to the right-hand side. The next feering is to be made in a similar manner in the fourth furrow from that at which the last was fonned, and the adjoining ridges ploughed to- gether as before. Two unploughed ridges are thus included between four finished ones ; in plough- ing which, the workman commences at the side of either ridge contiguous to the ploughed land, lays a shallow slice into the former interfurrow, and does the same in returning along the side of the other unploughed ridge. Two furrow-shces of the ordinary size are then ploughed up to these, and the instrument passed along as before, not allow- ing the plough-irons however to enter the soil. The first two ridges are ploughed by turning the horses to the right, but these are done by turning to the left at the headlands. Two ridges are thus always ploughed towards the feering, and the next two from the open-furrows ; all the furrow-slices of each adjoining pair of ridges incline in one direc- tion, while those of the next pair lie in the contrary way. Tliis is a very suitable method of ploughing undrained clay land, as the form of the ridges and the situation of the original furrows are preserved. It is expeditious, too, because one feering answers for four ridges ; and even where the field is of con- siderable length, eight ridges may be taken, four being ploughed out, and four in ; but where the ridge-lengths are short, such a distance occasions a loss of time in turning at the headlands. When this mode of ploughing is practised, it is found that the open-fiuTows, at which the plough- ing of each set of ridges terminates, necessarily becomes deeper and more bare of earth than the other interfurrows. But this defect may, in some degree, be obviated, by taking fi\-e, seven, or nine ridges together, instead of four or any even num- ber. Thus, should five ridges be chosen, two are ploughed in, as before, by turning the horses to the right at the headlands, and the remaining three ploughed by turning to the left, finishing at the crown of the middle ridge, where the soil is always of a considerable depth. In like manner should seven or nine ridges be preferred, four are ploughed in, and the remaining three or five out, concluding, in both instances, in the middle of a ridge. This is considered to be a useful practice in lea, as well as stubble-ploughing, inasmuch as the furrows are thereby prevented from becoming too deep or bare of earth. In either case, when the land is next ploughed, the feering is made at the open- furrow in the middle of the ridge, the former furrow-slices are reversed, and the ridges again re- stored to their original position. Another mode of stubble-ploughing is some- times practised with advantage on wet clay-soils, with the A'iew of afl'ording ready egress to surface- water. According to this method the ploughman commences at the open-furrows, as in the case of casting ; but instead of ploughing two ridges into one, he divides every ridge into halves ; thus aflx)rd- ing every facility to the escape of water. This mode of ploughing is likewise resorted to when it is required to level down high-raised ridges, after the land has been thorough-drained, or while per- forming the process of summer-fallow, or the pre- paratory tillage for green crops ; on which account it has received the appellation of cleaving, and is exactly the reverse of gathering-up. Besides the various methods of ploughing now briefly described, there are, no doubt, several others practised in different parts of the country ; but to enter more minutely into details of this branch of my subject would extend this article beyond proper limits. Besides, it is considered that some of the modes already noticed wiU be found suitable for every variety and condition of land throughout the kingdom. But whatever system of ploughing be adopted, it is to be observed that tenacious clay soils should not be ploughed or otherwise worked when either very wet or very dry. If ploughed in a wet state, such land adheres like mortar to the instrument, and is much injured by the treading of the horses ; besides, the work can never be properly or eflfi- ciently executed. This precaution should be ob- sen^ed in all cases of wet, stiflF land, whether in stubble or lea; though when in the latter stage, owing to its greater solidity, it requires a longer time and more rain to render it unfit for being worked. It may also be observed, that it is an in- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 503 judicious ])ractice, especially on clay land, to ])lou,(i;li while the ground is covered with snow, as it tends very much to chill and wet the soil when melted. It will be more conducive to tlie interest of the farmer to suspend the operation of ploughing on these occasions, until such time as the land lie- comes sufficiently dry. Neither should clay soils he ploughed when parched with a continuance of drought, as the jilough will scarcely be made to penetrate the surface, much less to take a proper depth of furrow ; the soil is broken up into large o])durate cakes, and the labour is necessarily very severe on the horses. Such land is in the most favourable condition for being ploughed when neither too wet nor too dry, but in a medium state between both. On hea^y soils, not thoroughly drained, every precaution must be adojited to jirevent the stagna- tion of water on the surface, after the field has been ploughed. Besides the open furrows between the ridges, where the ground is irregular, super- ficial channels must be formed through all the hollows, in the direction best adapted for carrying off the water by the shortest route. These super- ficial drains may be first opened by taking one or two slices with the plough, and further deepening and clearing them out with the spade or sho\-el. The ends of the interfurrows which terminate at the furrow along the lowest headland, as well as this furrow itself, should be deepened and cleared out, and cuts made at the lowest places across the headridge into the ditch. These are what are de- nominated " gaw-furrows," in Scotland, and can be regarded only in the light of necessary evils. It is none of the least advantages resulting from complete drainage, that such nuisances can ])e al- together disjjensed with, as they are a source of much trouble and annoyance in tillage, requiring, as they do, to l)e cleared out after every operation has been ])erformed on the soil. 'Hie utility of deep-ploughing, at all seasons of the year, especially before and during winter, ap- pears to be now admitted by most farmers ; but the importance of more frequently practising it, cannot be too often urged upon their attention. One of the most essential rules of good husliandry inculcates the necessity of ploughing stubble-land intended to be grcen-cro])ped the ensuing season, as deep and as early after harvest as possible. The ])owerful agency of frost in mellowing the soil during the winter and early S])iing months has been already adverted to; but it is obvious, that unless the land he ploughed in proper time, and to a sufticient de])th, the full benefit derivable from the influence of the atmos])lieric changes cannot be secured. There seems to be some dislike to deep ])loughing in many districts, from a dread of dete- riorating the surface soil by l)ringing up something noxious from below ; but in most cases no appre- hensions need ])e entertained of injuring the land , by bringing a ])ortion of suljsoil to the surface before winter, as it will eventually improve the tex- : ture of the soil, and tend to increase its productive powers. Although deej) ploughing ought to be the rule of practice, there are some cases, however, i where a departure from it is not only allowable, but nece8.sary,as inlightthinsoils,inciunbentuponasub- 1 soil impregnated with oxides of iron, or containing some other i)rincipleuiimical to vegetation. To plough very deep in such cases, would evidently be highly injudicious, unless the land had been jireviously drained ; after which, any noxious ingredients ex- isting in the subsoil will be neutrahzed by ex- posure, for a considerable time, to the action of the atmosphere, or by the appHcation of lime. There are few soils, however, but may be much im])roved by frequent deep ploughing, espe- cially such as are of a clayey nature, resting on a dee]) fertile bottom. It is well known that lime, marl, and some other suljstances, naturally tend to descend into the groimd ; the rains, too, carry much of the soluble matter of all kinds of manure to a much greater dej)th than that at which they were originally deposited; and hence the advantage of deej) jjlougliing to Ijring those substances up again, or to enable the roots of plants to descend after their necessary food. The roots and their fibres penetrate far deeper into well cultivated soil than most farmers are aware of. The roots of the wheat plant have lieen traced to a depth of six feet ; and it is not unlikely that the roots of our other grain crops extend equally far. The fibres from the roots of turnips, l)eans, and clover, have also been traced to a very considerable dejjth ; which conclusively proves the utility of drainage and deej) cultivation, to allow full scope to the roots to extend them- selves. Deep i)ulverization, combined with efficient drain- age, is undoubtedly one of the most important ira- I)rovements of modern husbandry, and one of the most effectual means of increasing the productive powers of the soil. This is especially the case with regard to the different varieties of clay soils, and all such as are incumbent ujion retentive subsoils. Deep cultivation is of the utmost consequence in preventing the injurious effects of either too wet or too dry seasons, as rendering the ground better ada])ted for the absorption of superfluous, and the retention of necessary moisture. When the land has Ijeen made porous to a considerable depth by dee]) i)loughing, the rain-water in wet weather readily percolates through the loose soil into the drains, should any have been ])revi()usly formed ; while in seasons of continued drought, the deeii-ploughed land retains a larger siqi^ily of moisture, which is so essential for the healthful growth of plants. Thus, deep cultivation has the ettect of dra\^'ing off from the roots the sujieralnmdant water consequent on hea\ y rains, and of retaining a supply of that valuable substance at a time when it is most re- quired ; whereas, if the soil be only loosened to a k\v inches in depth, it readily gets into a state very unfit for healthy vegetation. During the conti- nuance of wet weather, the water stagnates on or near the surface, and all the soluble matter in the soil is either washed ont or rendered inactive by beiTig so thoroughly saturated with water as to ex- clude the atmosphere. Deep ])loughing materially tends to increase all our cultivated croi)s, as allowing them to extend their roots and fibres in search of their requisite nourishment. lUit there are some plants for whicli It is more necessary than others, such as beans, carrots, &c., whose roots descend perpendicularly 504 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. into the soil ; and hence, when these crops are to succeed, the stubble should be ploughed with as deep a furrow as possible. Vi'hen the soil is not naturally deep, it should be made so either by sub- soil ploughing or trench-ploughing.* The utility of sid)soil-ploughing, after the land has been thorough-drained, is so generally acknowledged, that it will not be necessary to employ any argu- i ments in this place to prove its importance. But ! even in ploughing stubble-ground in the ordinar}' I way, the de])th of the furrow-slice should never be less than eight inches in good land, though in deep : fertile soils, a furrow of ten, and even twelve inches, ' may be taken M'ith advantage. It is scarcely neces- j sary to mention, that the deeper the land is i ploughed from the stubble in winter, the easier will be its subsequent preparation f .r green crops, as ' the soil will be better pulverized, and the cross- ; ploughings, &c., executed in a more efficient man- , ner, besides being much less ojjpressive on the horses, i than if it \\'ere ])]oughed with a shallow-furro\\' at ■ first. 'I'here are several other advantages resulting from the practice of deep ploughing ; but it is un- necessary to pursue the subject any farther, as enou.gh has been already advanced in illustration ' of its importance. j Lea-iilovc/hing. — In the usual management of the ' farm, the j)loughing of lea or grass-land is seldom commenced until after that of the stubble has been | concluded ; Imt it is to be observed that the earlier | it is done, the better will the ground be prepared ! for the reception of the seed. Strong M'et land in | particular ought to be ploughed as early as pos- j sible, in order to give it the benefit of long exposure ! to the weather, because when ploughed sufliciently early, the furrow-slices are mellowed by the influ- : ence of the atmosphere, and readily break down ' Mdth the action of the harrows at seed-time ; and \ the grass, and other vegetable matters gro^dng on the | surface, have longer time to become decayed and ' converted into manure. For these reasons it is i ob\'ious that the oldest and stilFest lea should always be the first j^loughed after the stubble land has been completed. But in the case of hght friable soils, no lengthened exposure to the winter air ! being requisite to effect their pulverization, it does [ not appear to be necessary or even adxasable to plough ^-ery long before the time of sowing, as the fiiifrow-shces are liable to crumble down to a flat 1 surface Math the action of the frost, thereby afford- ] ing no adequate covering of earth for the seed, un- less by means of drilling. The most approved prac- j tice, therefore, on farms consisting of strong and hght i soils, is to plough the former first, deferring that I of the latter until near seed-time. In the ])loughing of lea, as well as of stubble- ground, A-arious methods may be adopted, the most suitable being determined by the nature and condi- tion of the soil. On light and well-drained land, ' the system of crown-and-furrow ploughing is ad- i vantageously practised, and is performed nearly in j * Tliis operation is effected by one plough going before and taking a furrow-slice of the ordinaiy depth, and another following in the same track, taking several inches additional of fresh earth, so that together they reach a considerable depth. the same manner as in the case of stubble ; but much greater attention must be observed in execut- ing all parts of the process, especially in feering or commencing the ridges, than is necessary in stubble-ploughing. The first two slices must be held verj' shallow, the next taken about the usual depth and laid closely together, so as entirely to bury the former ones, and to have the corners or J crests of the furrow-slices exactly the same distance i apart as the breadth of furrow detennined on for ploughing the field; the next three or four rounds about the feering must be held a little deeper, in order to maintain the uniform curvature of the ridges, should the nature of the soil require them of a rounded fonn. But whether the ridges be raised or flat, too much care cannot be taken l»y the ploughman to guard against the error of raising the crown too high abo\'e the rest of the ridge, which is a defect that all unskilful ])loughnien are very liable to commit. When the ploughing of a ridge is nearly completed, the breadth of the un- ploughed part should be ascertained at the middle and both ends, and these measurements will ])e found to correspond if the ])receding furrow-slices had been accuratel}' held. The ])loughman then calculates the num])er of slices into which he is to divide the unploughed piece, so that they may be as equal in size as possible, and to guard against the error of having the finishing ones either too wide or too narrow. The second last furrow-slice should be taken a little shallower than the pre- ceding ones, in order to facilitate the jiroper turning of the last or henting furrow, which is rendered somewhat difficult, owing to the land-side of the plough being unsupported ; but by making the second last slice about an inch less deep, the plough is kej)t somewhat steady by the small por- tion of solid land thus left. In finishing the ridge, only one horse ought to be used, in order to prevent the ])loughed land from being trampled upon. The mode of ploughing termed " two-out-and- two-in," is also well suited to lea ground, and is very generally practised on clay soils in several districts of the north. The manner of feering and finishing the ridges, according to this method, being nearly similar in lea and stubble, it is unne- cessary to advert further to it in this place. Ga- thering-up is but seldom resorted to in lea-]ilough- ing, though it is sometimes practised on very wet, retentive soils. But whate-\-er sj'stem of ploughing the land is subjected to, no exertion shoidd be spared to execute the operation in as perfect a style as possible ; for undovd^tedly A'ery much of the value of the crop will depend on the manner in which the ground has been ploughed. Lea should never be ploughed while the land is affected by frost, or when saturated with moisture, because, in the former case, the furrow-slices cannot be properly turned over nor laid so compactly together as they should l)e to constitute good ploughing ; and wlien veiy soft from the effects of over-wetness, the soil is cut up and otherwise injured by the horses' feet, and the furrow-shces are liable to be forced out of their proper position by the mould-board. Nor should lea be ploughed, if it can at all be avoided, Avhile affected by severe drought, as the plough is apt in this case to take too shallow a furrow, and, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 505 instead of penetrating to a pi-ojiev de|»tli, turns uj) the ground in hroad obdurate slabs, (ienerally speaking, a semi-moist state, between wet and dry, is the most preferal)le for i)luui;hinii lea. ^Vith regard to the depth to whieh lea-ground ought to l)e jjloughed, something will oljviously depend on eircumstances, and no fixed rule can be adhered to in ditt'erent cases. AVhen a field has l)een depastured by cattle or sheej) for any length of time, the surface becomes enriched by the excre- ments of the animals ; and deep jdoughing in this case would probably have the eft'ect of de|)ositing the manure to a greater dej)th than would be directly available by the ensuing crop. Nevertheless, as a general rule, lea-ground should be ploughed with a tolerably deep furrow ; for the roots of all our field-crojjs arc known to penetrate the soil to a \ery considerable de|)th in pursuit of their recpiisite nourishment ; indeed, in most cases they descend until interrupted by tlie impervious till or subsoil, and their length will therefore greatly depend on the depth of ])enetrable soil through which they can extend. A suitai)le depth for general purposes is 5i or (5 inches; and the earher the land is l)loughed before seed-time, the greater cpiantity of fresh eai"th may be ad\'antageously brought to the surface. From what has been already stated, it is obvious tliat \\'hatever depth is determined on, it must have a corresponding breadth to insure ac- ciu'ate or efiicient work. It is demonstrable that when the furrow-slices are laid ox'er at an angle of 43°, the largest extent of fresh surface is exj)osed to the action of the air, and the greatest quantity of earth raised u]) in tlie form of ribs, and ])laced in the best position for being acted upon by the harrows ; but the precise angle at which the furrow- slice is laid over, depends almost entirely on the proportion which the depth and width bear to each other. No phmghman can lay the slices in a ])osi- tion incomjiatible with the dimensions to which he is required to work : A\'hen these are fixed, he can have but little control o\'er the angle at which the furrow-slices will be laid. The ])roper position can Ije attained only when the breadth and depth are nearly in the ratio of three to two. Should the depth be much less than two-thirds of the breadth, the furrow-slice will be thrown o\'er on its back, and the imavoidable consequence will be flat jiloughing, and a deficiency of earth to cover the seed. On good land where dee[) cultivation had been prex'iously i)raclised, the lea should always be ])loughed to the depth of six inches by nine in breadth. On very old grass-land, having a tough swarth or surface, it is necessary, however, to make the furrow-slices rather wide in ])ro|)ortion to the depth, in order to have them jjroperly laid over; if deej) j)loughed, they are liable to spring l)ack to their original position, after llie jilough has passed on. Too nuich attention cannijl be paid to the ploughing of lea-ground, for if it be imperfectly executed, the jdanls grow and rijien very irregu- larly. The furrow-slices should be closely packed together, otherwise some of tlie seed is liable to be buried to such a depth as to prevent it from growing equally with the rest ; and some may even be buried so deep as to be deprived of the power of vegetating at all. As a means of insuring correct j)loughing, it is recommended to allot a certain number of ridges to each ploughman, and the work to be regularly in- spected and compared by the master ; a degree of emulation is thus excited among the ploughmen, whose exertions to excel may be further stimulated by tlie farmer occasionally olVering a small prize to be com])eted for ; and thus a ploughing-match on a small scale \\'ould be regularly kejit up on the farm, which by creating a sjjirit of emulation among the i)lotiglunen, would no doubt very materially tend to their improvement. The ditterence between good and bad jiloughing is most ajiparent after the young corn jjlants have attained to some height above the groxmd. \\ here the furrow-slices have been accuratel)- turned over in straight parallel lines, the plants grow up in regular ecpiidistant rows, as if the seed had been deposited with a drilling machine. The charac- teristics which denote correct ploughing are well summed \\\) in the following extract from Stephen's book of the farm : — " The furrow-slices should be ([uite straight; for a jjloughman that cannot hold a straight furrow is unworthy of his charge. Th.e furrow-slices shoidd be quite parallel in length; and this })roperty shows that they have been turned over of a \miform thickness, for thick and thin slices lying together ])resent irregularly horizontal lines. The furrow-slices shoultl l)e of the same height, which shows that they ha\ e l;een cut of the same breadth ; for slices of difl'erent breadths, laid together at whatever angle, presents unequal vertical lines, 'i'he furrow-slices should present to the eye a similar form cf crest, and ecjual surface ; because, where one furrow-slice exhibits a narrower surface than it should have, it has been covered with a broader slice than it should l)e. The ground, on being ploughed, should feel equally firm under the foot at all places ; for slices in a more upright ]iosi- tion than they should be, not onl}- feel hard and unsteady, but will allow the seed-corn to fall down between them, and become buried. l'\n-row-slices in too flat a stale always jield considerably to the presure of the foot ; and they are then too much drawn, and aft'ord insuflicieut moidd for the seed. Crowns of ridges, formed by tlie meeting of oppo- site furrow-slices, should neither be elevated nor dei)ressed in regard to the rest of the ridge, although ploughmen often connnit the error of raising the crowns too high into a crest, the fault being easily committed by not giving the feered furrow-slices suflicient room to meet, and therel)y pressinjj them iq)on one another. The furrow- l)rows should have slices uniform witli the rest of the ridge ; but jdoughmen are very apt to miscal- cuhite the width of the slices near the sides of the ridge. \\'hen the furrow-brows are ill made, the mould-fiUTows cannot be projiortionately jdoughed out; because, if the space l»etwcen the furrow- inows is too wide, the moidd furrows must be made too deep to fill up all the space ; and rire i-crsa. If the furrow-slices are laid too flat, the mould- furrows will be a])t to throw too nmch earth upon their edges next to the open furrow, and there make them too higli. When tiie furrow-brows of adjoining ridges are not ploughed ahke, one side of the open 506 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. furrow will reciuire a deeper mould-furrow than the other." Cross plouyhlng consists in ploughing land a second time, either at right angles, or obliquely, to the existing furrow-slices. This process is usually commenced immediately after the spring corn crops have been sown, beginning with those parts intended for potatoes and Swedish turnips. ITie object of cross ploughing being to assist in pul- verizing and cleaning the land for green crops, it is ob^^ous that any method may be practised which may best effect these purposes. Accordingly, this ploughing is not always given directly across the ridges, the most suitable direction depending much on the nature of the soil, and the number of ploughings intended to be given to it ; the state of the weather at the time has also a great influence in determining the mode of ploughing to be adopted. On dry soils, direct cross ploughing is perhaps most efficacious in cutting and breaking the old furrow-slices ; and no great danger need be apprehended from the occurrence of wet weather on such land; but considerable injiny is frequently sustained by undrained heavy soils being ploughed into large divisions without fui'rows to carry off' surface water, should a long continuance of incle- ment weather ensue. On wet retentive land, therefore, the second ploughing in preparing for green crops is not unusually given lengthwise, or in the direction of the ridges, especially should the weather happen to be rainy or unsettled at the time. The next ploughing may then be given across ; and shovild any more be rendered necessary by the nature of the crop which is to follow, or the condi- tion of the ground, they are to be given in various directions according to circumstances. In cross ploughing for green crops, the plough should be made to penetrate to a considerable depth; this is essential for bringing up roots and weeds to the surface, and also for the purpose of af- fording a sufficient dejith of loose earth to allow the subsidiary operations to be efficiently per formed. In now closing these remarks on the important subject of ploughing, I think it right to state that I claim no credit for originality. On the con- traiy, I am full)' sensible that the only \'alue they possess arises from the fact, that the modes of ploughing described are in general operation in the most improved parts of the kingdom. The im- portance of correct ploughing cannot be over estimated, and yet there are few departments of rural affairs to which so little attention is paid. While other arts have been fast advancing towards perfection, this, the most important of them all, has remained for ages almost stationary. Few subjects have given rise to greater diversity of opinion than the construction of the plough, as is exemphfied in the almost indefinite variety existing at present in different parts of the United Kingdom. England and Scotland claim their respective ])loughs ; and the mechanists of either country seem equally de- termined to uphold the superiority of their own instruments. To have entered into abstruse mathe- matical investigations, when treating of the several parts of the plough, would not, I consider, serve any really useful ])urpose, especially in an article intended more to describe existing practices, than to discuss theoretical speculations. ON CLAYING OR MARLING IN NORFOLK. I have no hesitation in saying that the value of many millions sterling is buried under what is now comparatively unjiroductive soil, in England alone. As an instance, I was shown in Norfolk what a gentleman called his " hidden jewel," so near the surface, that one plunge of his walking-stick con- vinced me it would be practicable to bring up suffi- cient by merely ploughing deeply wth the common plough, the first time he l)roke up the land, which he said he intended doing immediately after the tithe-rent charge was apportioned. On the sui'face was fight "fen," to a common obsen'er apparently of little value, yet immediately below was the valu- able slate-coloured clay, ready for its improvement. In the fens near Downham, this clay is from four to six feet below the surface. Pits, about six feet by three, and three feet apart, and dug in rows, generally two rows in a chain (of twenty-two yards), and taking out two or three spits deep of clay from each pit. In digging one pit, part of the peat is put in that which was last made. The space be- tween the pits is very necessary ; one of the men whom I saw at work, a})peared, notA\ithstand- ing this caution (as well as ha\ing a piece of wood to sujiport the sides), to run some risk of being buried by the peat. In another place, within a short distance, the peat stood much better. The cost varied, being under or over .50s. per acre, according to circumstances ; but it is verj' well repaid by the crops of red clover, wheat, and beans which the land will afterwards grow. When this slate-coloured clay is near the surface, and the land in r2-furrow " stetches," the folloAving method is occasionally adopted by Mr. Hudson, of Castle Acre, on his farm at Seech : — Two of the " stetches" are j)loughed outward, so as to lea\'e a trench be- tween them, to get out the clay for casting on each side. Tills saves some labour in digging for it. Most farmers have occasionally observed whole fields ploughed outward ; the ploughs commencing at the outside, and follo^ving each other round the field imtil it is finished. Mr. Hudson's plan of raising a s\\'amp is just re^'ersing that system, and "taking the land up." By two or three such ploughings, he calculates the land may be raised as much as by 500 loads per acre carted on to it. As Mr. Cambridge, of South Runcton, enjoys the honourable reputation, among his brother farmers in the count}', of ha\'ing made great impro\'ements by claying, &c. (the exact expression of it l)eing, " Probably no other farm in the county owes so much to its occupier ; for when he first took it, a large proportion was nothing but a white blowing sand"), I here insert a correct statement of the quantities of clay which he has spread on some of his fields. I do not give the whole list of what he has applied at his om'u expense as a tenant farmer, but I hope there is sufficient to show how great a debt of obhgation is owng to such men by the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 507 country, as well as Ijy individuals whom they more | tive and lasting in its effects, and therefore cheapest. Purchase Peruvian or Bolivian of the original con- signees or their accredited agents, and then you may rely upon having a genuine unadulterated article. directb ' benefit. A. R. V. Loads of Clav 1. Bret's Field.... 13 2 37 19G4 2. East Field .... 11 0 IG 524 3. 1 2 Acres 12 2 21 1780 4. 1 1 Acres 12 2 0 1770 5. 13 Acres 13 2 2G 320 6. Barn Close. . . . 17 1 G 3407 7. Park Piece ... . 24 0 10 21G3 S. Chapel Field . . . 20 3 34 2310 9. Town Close .. . 11 3 IG 3G34 10. llie Sinks G 0 7 2895 11. Moor Field. . . . 21 3 8 5545 12. Forston Lot . . . 10 3 16 3451 13. Thorp Lot . , . . 24 1 29 4900 14. Barn Lot 20 3 33 5852 15. Chismck Lot . . 23 1 n 5920 16. Warren Lot .. , 22 2 22 5280 17. The Grazings. . 12 3 13 2340 28G 2 25 54,055 Thus, 54,055 loads have been applied to 28Ga. 2k. 25p., or, on an average, ISS loads per acre ; but, if we observe the quantities named opposite each field, the real quantity allowed per acre has varied greatly, according to circumstances. Of course this includes repeated clayings to some of the fields. There are now several acres of clay i)its on the farm, rendered in some degree ornamental by being planted, and forming lasting proofs of the per- severing spirit of ^Ir. Cambridge. His farm is selected as a favourable specimen of what has been done for the soil in Norfolk, and to account for its jiresent productive state ; but so far from being a sohtary instance of such improvements, the prac- tice has been almost universal throughout the county, the quantity of clay a])j)lied vaiying accord- ing to circumstances. Mr. Keppel, of Lexham Hall, has made great improvement in his light sandy land, by claying at the rate of fifty loads i)er acre.* Near Swati'ham 1 observed some men clay- ing a field from a pit nearly in the centre of it. They were paid at the rate of one halfi)enny per l)arrowful, or 7d. i)er " load," their orders being to apply eighty sucli loads per acre ; making the cost of it under 50s., though the work was done witli- out the use of horses ; employment being thus found for more labourers, without fear, too, of injury to the land by its being cut in using carts when not sufficiently dry. — j}ilr. Almack, in the EiKjlish Agricultural Society's Journal. As the season for so\ving turnips has now arri\ed, we feel it our duty again to cauti(m i)in-chasers ol guano against the rubl)ish and adullcrated stuff' which is now offered in some markets. The veriest refuse has l)een swej)! up from the rocks of Ichaboe. and is temptingly offered at a low price. The use of such stuff" will bring imdeserved discredit on tlie article, and cause serious loss and disa])pointmenl to the farmer. We rejieat that the Peruvian guano, although highest in ])rice, is strongest, most eff'ec- * Mr. Hudscm states, that the late Mr. (Jarwood, of W. Lexham, clayed or marled ujjwards of looo acres twice r sr, at the rate of forty loads per ai-re each time, ' -iring the first eight years of his lease. [ dibbling themselves. REMARKS ON PLOUGHS, &c. Bv James WiLKiE, of Uddingstone, near Glasgow. The most clever treatise on ploughing that it has been my good luck to meet with, has gone forth to the public through the medium of the columns of the Far- mer's Mayazine. It is not only clever, but it is mas- terly, and every skilful tiller of the soil must read with interest and pleasure the literary contribution to the agricultural interest of Mr. T. Sullivan, by his " Re- marks on Ploughing." In the remarks of the writer, allusion is made to the names of various plough-makers, and, amongst the number, I find my own. This has induced me to offer the following remarks on ploughs. Since the intro- duction of iron in the place of wood in the construction of ploughs, we are enabled at pleasure, and with small expense, to attach to a plough any form of motdd board : indeed, almost every two-horse plough that I send to any distance is furnished with two descriptions of mould boards ; one for fallow, or smalls, coricnve, and the other for lea, or Wilkie's convex. Although I allude to the concave and convex mould boards, as they are termed, still it must be admitted that what we require is, a mould board made on some fixed principle ; and it is my conviction, that one good mould board may be found to answer every description of soil, and also to be drawn with the least resistance. Regarding wheeln on tlie beams of ploughs, I must remark that, in the course of a year, 1 make many hundred ploughs of all descriptions, from one to ten or twelve-horse power ; and that all I send to the West Indies have wheels on the beam to assist the unskilled negro; but, in corroboration of Mr. Sullivan's remark, I never put a wheel on the beam of any plough whatever to assist the holder, unless for young men learning to hold the ]»lough, or the unskilled West Indian negro. The subsoil plough I may except from the preceding re- mark ; and I believe a premium was awarded at Liver- pool for the adoption of a wheel to a subsoil plough. Having broken the ice, I may perhaps be allowed to extend my remarks from the plough to the dibbling- machine. Latterly, I have given the most decided attention to the construction of an efficient dibbling-machine, and many and great difficulties I had to encounter with ; for instance, the delivery of one individual grain of wheat with absolute curtaiiity. This, I am happy to say, I have ett'ected by very simple means, and, contrasting my simple machine with the cumbrous complicated drill- sowing implements 1 saw in England, I have little hesi- tation in j)ronouncing it as my conviction that, with fair play, my little simple dibbling-machine, both in regard to economy and efficiency, may some day super- sede them all. From practical experience I have found in dibbling, that one seed is better than two or three. The dibble that 1 have arranged can make but one hole at a time ; but with it, I can stand erect, make the hole, and deposit the seed, with absolute [certainty from 0 to I inches even in running sand. I ])lantcd tlius one- half rood of land adjacent to a broadcast fuld, and found a rather supi'rior i)roduce both in (juantity and ipiality on the dibbled piece, with a saving of seed— more than most would credit who have not tried tiie experiment of 608 THE FARMEirS MAGAZINL'. REPORT OF THE THOROUGH-DRAINING, Executed ox the Estate of Ed^vard Lucas, E^a., Castle .Shaxe, Moxaghan, by Fitzherbert FiLGATE, Esq. The next field drained was done at the same rates, exactly as the precedhig ; and the observations made with respect to the one apply to the other, excepting that in this case the main drain was cut for .3f d, per perch. No. of acTCB in field. A. R. P. 0 1 2 Xo. of I perches Price of small I per diains. perch. 9493 No. of perches of main drains. d. 4U 603 Price per perch. 0 3? Total cost of field. 9 8 Cost per £ s. d. 3 14 0 The water from these fields is carried away by the flagged sewer already mentioned. The next field, con- taining 2a. 2r. 13i'., is part of a field adjoining one of the approaches to the house, which was exceedingly wet, and covered with rushes. It was necessary to make a great length of main drains to carry off the water to the stream at the bottom of the field, which makes the ex- pense much more considerable than it would otherwise have been ; but if the remainder of the field should be at any future time taken in hand, this length of main- drain would become available for it. The prices paid were — cutting, filling, breaking stones, &c., 3^d. per perch for small, and 7id. for main drains. The stones were quarried in the demesne for 1 i^d. per perch, and drawn to the field by the farm-horses. The money paid was : — No. of acres in field. No. of perches of small drains. A. 11 P. 5 ] 2 806 Price per perch. s. d. 0 71 No. of perches of main drains. ■82 3G Price per perch. d 0 9 0 8 ^} Total cost of field. d. £ 29 1 9 5 10 G Cost per acre. j No. of I Xo. of I perches j Price acres Jii'of small per field. I drains. ])erch. A K. p. 2 2 13 4484 0 d. 417 No. of perches nf main drains. Price per perch. Total cost of field. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 110? 0 7^ 11 18 5 4 12 4 Cost per acre. Parts of two fields, lying near a stream, containing 1a. 3r. Up., were drained; the stones laid down by the farm-horses. As the ground was very soft, the main drains were cut at the same rate of small ones, 3|d. per perch. The outlay was as follows : — I No . of Xo. of perches acres in^of small field. drains. A.K. P. I 3 11 295 I No. of Price perches I Price per lof main] per perch. I drains. I perch. d. 1 3i — Total cost of field. .£ s. d. £ s. d. 3 16 11 2 2 6 Cost per acre. We finish with the field containing 5a. 1r. 2p. The soil is a rich heavy loam, of great depth ; so deep, that in many places at the bottom of the drains we had not come to the subsoil. The price paid for cutting and filling drains and breaking stones v;as the same as be- fore, 3^d. per perch ; the stones were bought at 3d. per ton, 210 tons being used. They were carted more than one Irish mile, in carts hired at 2s. Gd. per day for cart, man, and horse. The cost of the stones, when laid down in the field, was 4^d. per perch. This and a preceding field were the only cases in which, under peculiar cir- cumstances, the stones were attempted to be provided otherwise than by contract, and, as appears from the table, with an increased expense of from 25s. to 30s. per acre. The main drains cost for cutting, &c., at the rate of 3f d. and 5d. per perch, according as they re- quired to be cut unusually deep or not. It may be observed generally, that the circumstances attending the execution of the several works have been more unfavourable than should be calculated on, if com- pared with other localities, all the stones used having been quarried, with the slight exceptions mentioned. The nature of the country being hilly, has in many cases made it necessary to provide for the discharge of water, unconnected with that to be voided from the field drains ; for which reason the main drains have been of larger dimensions than would otherwise be required, while the smallness of the inclosures has also occasioned additional outlay. The great expense being the drawing and pro- curing of stones, the cost will depend chiefly on the difli- culty or facility with which they may be provided. In some cases when the drawing of the stones was performed by the farm-horses, the value of their laboui and that of the men employed must be added to the amount stated. It would not be possible to name the exact sum, charging the man and horse at 3s. per day, or any other sum, as the stones were laid down at intervals as suited our convenience. There is in all farms where there is not much summer fallow, a period at that season, during which all the horses are not employed at the ordinary routine work of the farm ; if this opportunity be taken, being the best season for laying down stones in the fields to be drained, no expense is entailed by their employ- ment. A calculation may, however, be made by adopting the price of any one, or taking the average of those fields, where the stones were provided by contract, de- ducting the amount paid for quarrying for those fields to which the stones were drawn by the farm-horses. I have thought it better, however, to state all the expenses as they actually occurred, rather than make any specu- lative return. I subjoin a tabular statement of the whole — 0 to 00 -J 0 OT *» w tc H- ■ 0^^ V 1—1 > "^1 Cn 1—1 K) ti til Ci *>. >b. "-4 tn n 0 -1 0 to •— ' w tC I— H-i 0 >— t>3 0 I— &- ,_, ,_! 1-1 to >_1 rc X c 0 w t>5 >— w to 0 -^i 0 l-H to C ' l-n F- to CC tOi*>.tOOO>..lCi -v-ri-i w S " o ? 3" 3 ST" ' M »: n> _ © oooooo 000 o; •.-t u it^ lU ib~ oD to m CI 00 I 1 "O 1-1 wool 1— iOCtOOi— 1 >&. tOc.T<0 o t>s I o o 00 O >-i '-0 if^ -o ^1 CMca.lciWw ill— c-.M ClUClM 0 0 © 0 © 0 0 © © I— »_ ai ►a 1 _ fl> •a »i3 1 00 «o rj ^ c ^ Ci © •^ p- sr 'A S, g>^ 1-1 OODOl-it— 00 P-i <—• I— ' (O H- CT 00 00 H- t-T >*>. ■^i 00 r © tOtO*.-otO«^» C5 »-• H-ice O Oi*>.0W*>--0 CO 1-1 oP" "^ n> 9 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 509 In addition to the above, there have been 3,52S peiche* i of small drains, and 302 peicLes of main drains made on j Mr. Lucas's estate, in the years 1842 and 1813, for 1 which the tenants were allowed 1-fl-d. per perch for the l former, and 2^. per perch for the latter. The drains ' were all finished as before described, and made eighteen j feet apart. There being 18G perches to the acre, exclii- j sive of main drains, when the drains are eighteen feet | apart, it will appear there have been nineteen acres drained j by tenants. — Signed, F. Fihjate, for E. Lucas, Esq. \ IFrotn the Report of Agrindlural Imp. Society of \ Ireland.] REPORT OF EXPERIMEXTS IN DEEP PLOUGH INtJ. BY iMR. JAMES .m'LEAN, BRAIDWOOD, PENICUIK. (From the Joiirnal nf the Hirjhland Agricultural Socielij.) Since the introduction of furrow-draining, sub- soil-ploughing; is altogether a new feature in Scot- tish liusbandry, and, like e\'ery other agricultural novelty, its utility has become matter of dispute, and many obstacles have been thrown in the way of its progress. There can be no douljt that sub- soil-ploughing \\-ill not operate alike on all soils — indeed, on many old cultivated lands of a gravelly textiu-e it may, in the first place. ])rovc injurious, from its permitting the rich ingredients of the ])u- trescent manure to l)e waslied down before the ])lant;s receive its benefit, while old cultixated clay- land, resting upon a loamy or even sandy subsoil, \vill, in most instances, be greatly benefited by the operation. To all soils having originally a redundance of moisture, but completely discharged by furrow- draining, it may be safely afhnned that subsoil- jiloughing will prove of essential benefit, whether they may have become exhausted from long culti- vation or newly reclaimed from a state of nature. The experiments detailed in this i)aj)er will, I trust, afford satisfactorv illustration of this asser- tion. It may be unnecessary to inquire into its cause, the effect being more im))ortant ; we may state, however, that after furrow-draining old culti- vated soils. sidjsoil-])loughing becomes imj)erative, more especially if the soil and subsoil be retentive — such soils become hard and crusty, from the water not escajnng freely into the drains, and leav- ing it in a state not well ada])ted for \-egetation. Subsoil-ploughing completely breaks through this hard pan or crust a1 the bottom of tlic old furrow, occasioned by the former i)assage of the i)lough, and converts it into mould, wliich affords a free discharge of the superabundant moisture into the furrow-drains. '['he soil of this farm rests on tlie comjiact trap- rock of the Pentland range, and is, no doubt, de- rived from the disintegration of the fels])ar ; and the small fragments of stone constituting jjart of ihc soil, and j)rofuse]y interspersed throughout the whole, consists of compact felspar day-stone and fels])ar porphyry. T'he soil has been analyzed, and found to contain, in addition to alumina, silica, and a small quantity of oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, to the extent of about ."> per cent., and sul- phate of lime. The subsoil is similar to the soil. only, 1)eing M-ashed down by the continual rains and springs which issue out of the Pentlands, it has l)ecome so hard and impen'ious to the plough as to resemble a retentive clay. 'Hie field experimented upon has been imder cvdtivatiou for a numlier of years, and, except in the most favourable seasons, yielded but deficient crojis. In 1842 it was under oats, and that por- tion wliich was ex])erimented upon proved a very scanty croj). In the winter of that j'car it was furrow-drained with tiles at the distance of 1 j feet apart ; and with three ploughings, harrowings. and grubbing, it was reduced to a ])roper state for being j)lanted witli potatoes in the beginning of May, with the same seed, and under the same tieatment in })lant- ing and manuring, as the rest of the field. The plants came up sickly, and were far behind the ad- joining ones, so much so, that I do not think one- fifth of the seed ever vegetated at all. At one time I resolved to plough up the cro]), and sow turnips ; but I let them remain. I lifted the crop on the 29th day of August, with the intention of having the ground subsoil-ploughed ; and the i)roduce only averaged 4 bolls of 4 cwt. each per imperial acre. Having had an ojiportunity of seeing Mr. Smith of Deanston's subsoil-jilough at work, and ob- served it, from its great weight, very unweildy to manage, I converted one of my strongest iron plouglis into a subsoil one, by taking off the mould-board, and attaching a narrow piece of iron, about four inches Ijroad, to the share; which caused it to go steadily, and prevented the breast-work from wearing. I put the Hunterian swing-jilough first, taking a depth of 8 inches, followed by the subsoil one, with two horses, taking an additional depth of 7 inches, making a total depth of 15 inches. It was incredible to see the fine mould (or rather compound) which was loosened by the subsoil-plough, the land having been reclaimed from a state of nature upwards of forty years ago. It was at that time well Umed, and had received several limings, both in a ))owdery and com- l)ounded state, since that time. After being sub- soiled, it was well harrowed, and received another furrow when ploughing it in ridges for the suc- ceeding crop. It remained so all winter, and was sown with common barley on the 1st of April. The weather being fa\-oural)le. the field was finished \-ery smoothly. The whole field was rolled before the ])arley ai)i)eared ; botli the subsoilcd and un- subsoiled ])ortions had the same apjicarance at brairding, and continued much alike as hmg as the drought lasted, whicli, no doubt, prevented the fibres of the grain from deriving that benefit from the subsoiling they would otherwise ha\-e obtained ; but whenever the field received a drenching of rain, the sul)soile(l i)art shewed a decided superiority, and continued to make rapid i)rogress before the other i)art of the field up to the time of harvest. The entire field was cut \\\mn the third day of Sep- tember. The subsoiled jjortion was scarcely so ri])e as the other, from its being considerably lodged ; but I was induced to cut it. from the favourable state of the weatlier. Tlie crop was allowed to remain in the stook until the 15th day of September, when it was weiglied and thrashed. 510 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Table shewing the Comparatke Results upon Land subsoiled and not subsoiled, bearimj a Crop of Barley tn 1 844. No. Treatment Received. Produce of Grain per Imperial Acre. Produce of j Weight Straw per per. Imperial Acre. Bushel. Excess Produce of Grain. Excess Produce of Straw. Quantity of Ground. 1. 2- qrs. bu. pks. Subsoiled .. .. 7 3 0 Not subsoiled . . ' 6 3 1 St. lbs. 206 6 168 6 lbs. 52* .52i bu. pks. 7 3 St. lbs. 38 0 2 acres. 2 acres. Another part of a field which I intended to furrow-drain and summer fallow in 1843, consist- ing of about four acres, after repeated ploughings and harrowings, I subsoiled to the depth of 15 inches, and afterwards limed it with 30 bolls of hme-shells per acre. It was ajiplied in a hot or floury state immediately before ploughing the seed- furrow. The land \\])o\\ each side was properly prepared for turnij), and mamu-ed with winter-made dung. 'llie cro]) throughout the season gave con^incing proofs of the ad^'antage of subsoil- ploughing. Not having ascertained by separate w^eighing the comparative resvilts of this portion of subsoil- ploughed ground, I may state that the apparent difference was equal to, if not greater than, the one accurately tested by weighing, measuring, &c. Another field, containing about four acres, was drained in winter 1842, and sown with oats in spring, and produced rather an inferior crop. It was subsoiled immediately after the cro}) was secured, and, being more tenacious, both plough- ings afforded a depth of only 13 inches. Ever since its improvement, which at that time produced a scanty herbage, when the adjoining lands were under green crop, it was set apart for summer fallowing, no doubt, from its great tenacity, and being always in a soft and marshy state : it was completely dried by the furrow-draining ; and in spring, when it was wont to be the last field upon the farm in a fit state for ])loughing or sowing — in spring, 1843, it assumed a different aspect, and was the first to give signs of approaching seed time. I was sanguine that the furrow-draining would ha\-e effected all that was necessaiy; but, ever since the turnips brairded, I found my expectations disappointed, the furrow-drained part looking thin and stunted. At one time I exp>ected to have to sow them a second time, or to summer fallow the ground. From the genial nature of the season, however, they assumed a healthy appearance, and \\axe ultimately proved nearly an average crop ; but those upon the subsoiled part came off at first with a rapid growth, and, daring the season, gave ample testimony of the benefit derived from subsoil- ploughing. Table shewinrj the Comparatice Results vjmn Land subsoiled and not subsoiled, (jroimng Turnips in 1844. No. Treatment Received. Produce per Imperial Acre. Excess Produce per Imperial Acre. Quantity of Grotmd. 1. Subsoiled tons. cwts. 23 17 19 5 tons. cwts. 4 12 2 acres. 2. Not Subsoiled - , 2 acres. I lately examined a field of about eight acres^ which for many )ears had been conspicuous for bearing inferior crops, whether grain, green crops, or pasture. It was furrow-drained in the winter of 1842, and subsoiled in autumn 1843, after the separation of the crop, with the Deanston subsoil- plough, drawn by four horses, the common plough going before, making a total depth of 15 inches. It was sown \v\Xh. Swedish, j'ellow, and common turnips in 1844. It was well prepared, and received a liberal supply of putrescent manure and com])ost of lime and earth. The crop has proved most luxu- riant, so much so, that I have not seen a better one this season. Thus furrow-draining and subsoihng constitute a simple mode of changing unj^roductive land into one of productiveness and fertility. I have thus given a short detail of the state of the land ])revious to lieing furrow-drained and subsoil-ploughed, and the results, compared with land not subsoiled, xipon turnips and barley in 1844, have proved quite satisfactory even where great expense had been incurred in furrow-drain- ing, liming, and manuring. An additional outlay of — say l'2s. per acre — is, however, injudiciously withheld for perfecting an improvement which will render the land capable of bearing abundant crops. DISEASE AMONGST CATTLE.— We have heard some whispers last week that the disease amongst cattle called pleuro -pneumonia, which has created such ravages in Prussia, and was reported to have lately been preva- lent in some districts in England and Ireland, had also made its appearance in Scotland ; but in our last num- ber Vv'e refrained from creating alarm throughout the rural district by giving currency to rumours which we hoped were at least exaggerated. We deeply regret (o state, however, that the apprehensions alluded to have proved but too well grounded ; and we find it our duty now to state facts which cannot fail to cause much un- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 511 easiness amongst the owners of herds, and to excite the ] sympathy of the class for those individuals of their num- I ber who have had their stocks thinned by an epidemic, which, in most instances, proves speedily, and almost certainly, fatal. The disease has appeared among dairy and fat stock of all ages, attacking the lungs, accompa- nied with violent cough, wheezing, and glandular swel- ling, resembling '* strangles" in the horse, and " poking'' among sheep, and, despite all exertions of the farrier, has generally carried off the animal within twenty -four hours after the time of its being first affected. Mr. Bone, of Leigh Grange, has lost twelve cattle, old and young, and Mr. M'Corrie, Whitefalls, Maybole, four ; and we ' have heard of other cases of a less serious nature. In some parts of Galloway, we learn from an eye-witness, matters are even in a more alarming state. — Ayr Advertiser, DESTRUCTIVEXESS OF HAIL-STORMS. The following limited sketch of the destructiveness of hail-storms, we have extracted from one of our antipodal cotemporaries, the Sydney Australian ; and whilst our readers will feel an interest in perusing an article of this nature from so distant a part of the world, from it they will also learn, that the violent effects of these me- teoi'ological phenomena are not confined to our own island, or to Europe, but are at times alike destructive ia most parts of the globe. A consideration of the hazards attendant upon the cultivation of the vine in Australia originated the article ; after alluding to the dangers of the plant from spring frosts, the writer ob- serves : — " There is another danger which frequently in Europe, and occasionally in Australia, has done immense injury — this danger is from hail. " There have been various conjectures and many lengthened discussions on the supposed origin of hail. It is remarked, that it accompanies violent thunder- storms, and is attended by a great degree of atmospheric cold ; whereas, after a deposition of snow, the air be- comes sensibly warmer than it was before. In order to examine the phenomenon, M. de la Rive ascended Mont d'Or, in France, during the hail season ; and ob- served in the midst of a heavy thunder storm, that when two clouds rushing from opposite directions met, hail of great magnitude was instantly shot out on all sides of the point of junction. This obsenation proves dis- tinctly, that the hail is not carried in the clouds, but is the result of some instantaneous electrical action. It had long been considered an insurmountable difficulty to exjjlain how the retcrition of masses of ice in a free atmosphere could be managed by any of the agencies with which science is acquainted. Volta had suggested, that the hail was kept in a state of balance between two oppositely electric clouds, till gravity, on the exhaustion of the tension of the clouds, suffered it to fall. The errors in tliis hypothesis have been pointed out very fully, but little has been done to correct them. Pro- fessor Stevelly, of Belfast, has suggested, that when during violent falls of rain, especially in summer, the air expands into the void space above, it robs the suc- ceeding rain so effectually of its caloric as to freeze the drops. No determinate conclusions have been arrived at, but the observations of M. de la Rive, as to matter of fact, seem (o show, that however produced, it is a momentary act. " Hail is not always confined to a mere thunder-storm- In 1/83, during the frightful earthquake which deso- lated Calabria on the 28 th March, during a period of unusual calm ; just before the beginning of the earth- quake, the winds seemed tUl let loose together, accom- panied by hail and rain. jMr. Kelsall who was an eye- witness of the great eruption of Mount Etna, in 1809, states, that on the 1st April, about 9 a.m., an enormous black cloud of smoke, 2,000 paces in diameter, formed over the then erupting cracks in the mountain ; and that from this cloud of smoke a copious shower of liailslones was discharged wpon the red-hot lava. The noise was compared to that of a large cannon ; and an English officer, a Scaletta, thirty miles distant, likened it to a brisk fire from numerous batteries ; in this case the hail must have been electric. "Again, in 1793, during the eruption of Scaptaar Jokul, not only was there a discharge from the clouds of rain, but of snow and hail ; and Sir William Hamil- ton mentions the occurrence of great cold on July 19, 1794, during the earthquake at Naples, which, at the time was attributed to electricity. "In this colony, esjiecially in the summer months, hail-storms of considerable violence are not unfrequent. Without referring to the accounts published by the early writers on the colony, who record similar instances, it may be sufficient to recall the great hail-storm of November, 1839, which destroyed windows, injured lofty trees, killed birds, and ravaged the yrain from the Blue Mountain to Sydney. Nearer still to the present time, was the equally mischievous, though not so uni- versally felt occurrence of hail during the storms of 14th January, 1844, and the preceding 16th December, 1843 ; jagged morsels of solid ice, one and a half inches in diameter, fell in the neighbourhood of Paramatta on the former day ; and the broken windows there and in Sydney gave the appearance of an assault of a less elemental kind. At Oatlands, the vineyard of J. B. Bettington, Esq., was very seriously damaged; and of course, pecuniary loss was sustained by him ; nor was he alone in the list of sufferers. " If, then, such are the accidents to which we are ex- posed during summer, and if the growth of the vine is to be as extensively cultivated as our hopes and wishes have suggested, there will unquestionably be great dangers sustained on some future occasions, and by in- dividuals great risk of serious loss will be incurred. It is not, then, a mere matter of scientific research or amusement which prompts us to enter upon this sub- ject, but the desire to be instrumental in assisting our fellow colonists to avert a danger to which they are certainly exposed, without knowing that a remedy is easily to be obtained. " At present, however, we shall content ourselves with enumerating a few of the many remarkable hail-storms on record, in which account the occurrence of such storms will be noticed, as effecting indiscriminately all portions of the globe: — It is stated that during Tippo Sultan's reign, a mass of ice fell near Scringapatam ' of the size of an elephant ." This, unquestionably, is an exaggeration ; but Col. Wilks informed Mr. Murray in the presence of Mr. A. Dunlop, at his residence in the Isle of Man, that he had himself investigated the oc- currence on the spot, and was satisfied of tlio fact, that an extraordinary circumstance had occurred. Mr. Mur- ray published this in 1833. " Dr. Cln-istie mentions a storm of hail at Hyderabad, in May 182.'^, which supplied sufficient ice to cool the mess wine for several days; and, another at Dharwar, in 1825, when hail-stones fell as large as a pigeon's egg, having a white nucleus. The latter fact has also been previously noticed in tliis colony, thougii sometimes the 512 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, nucleus is black. In 1805, Colonel Bowler rvitnessed a storm of hail at Trinchiuopoly, in which the stones were as large as walnuts. There are other memoranda of similar occurrences in Asia within reach, but these may be sufficient. " In America, North and South, storms of equal violence have occurred. Thus at ]Monte A^ideo, on the 17tli October, 1824, a storm of hail, which lasted fifteen i minutes, broke the windows of the town, and did in- 1 calculable damage. The stones are described as large [ as the eggs of a goose, and some much larger. Several ] are said to have weighed three pounds after their fall. " In the Pyrenees, hail-stones weighing twenty-three | ounces avoirdupois are recorded to have fallen in 1794; and L'Abbc Mouray announced to the Royal Society in 1 798, that pieces of ice had fallen in Germany from half an inch in diameter to eight pounds in weight. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1667, mention is made of a hail-storm in the county of Suffolk on the east coast of England ; the size of the hail at Melton was eight, and at Snape twelve inches round. Injury was done to persons as well as property ; a thick felt hat was broken through, and a man's head injured. In the same way Lieutenant Somerset, of H.M. 51st regiment, had his militaiy cap broken through by the hail of the 14th November, 1840, coming from Sydney to Paramatta. On the 25th of May, 1686, according to the Phil. Trans, of 1693, there fell at Lisle, in the north of Finance, hail weighing from a quarter of a pound to a pound, breaking windows, killing hares and partridges, and fracturing trees : some of them contained a brown matter, which exploded in the fire with a loud report. Similar to this is the case of hail, recorded in the Bulletin des Scie7ices Naiurelles, of small stones enclosed in hail, which fell in Sterlitamanrsk, Orenburg, in Russia, on the 20th October, 1824, which were found to contain in 100 parts, 70 oxide of manga- nese, 7'50 alumina, 3.75 silica, 7*50 sulphur. On July 4th, 1833, cubical aerolites fell also with hail at Nakratchine, in Tobolsk, destroying the vegetation, and breaking the windows. Again, at Tscheroy, near Widdin, Prince Peter Gortschakoft' witnessed hail to fall with mineral matter containing lime, sulphuric acid, and muriate of soda. In the Phil. Trans, for 1697, Mr. Halley i-ecords a hail-storm which killed all sorts of fowls and small creatures ; the stones weighed from five ounces to half a pound. He remarks, ' What I take to be most extraordinary in this phenomenon is, that such a sort of vapour should continue undispersed for so long a tract, as above sixty miles together ; and in all the way of its passage occasioned so extraordinary a congulation and congelation of the watery clouds, as to increase the hail-stones to so vast a bulk in so sJiort a space as that of their fall." The same Transactions for 1797, record a hail-storm on the 4th May, 1767, which killed one man and injured others, in Hertford- shire. The stones measured from about one to fourteen inches, and were round, oval, pointed, and flat. They tore up the ground, split great trees, and cut down grain as with a scythe. In April, 1833, hail-stones fell in Lancashire, measuring five inches round, and doing immense damage. On the 14th July, 1831, a storm of unvTsual violence occurred, lasting about eight minutes, at Lausanne, on the Lake of Geneva. Mr. Spence, who described it in ' Loudon's Magazine of Natural History,' says, ' the hail-stones were generally as big as hens' eggs ; seven nearly filled a dinner plate. One piece of ice was flat and squai'e, two inches long and broad, three quarters of an inch thick, with knobs as large as liazel nuts.' Mr. Spence observes, that in the interior were opaque smaller masses, called gresil by the French, and that in these larger masses were yrele. Aware of the portentous appearance of the sky, the inhabitants of Lausanne closed their Venetians, but the hail broke every window not so protected, together with the tiles of the houses. Immense damage was also done to the gardens and vineyards, which, as every one who has been in the Pays de Yaud, knows well, extend for many leagues in that neighbourhood.' " A storm of similar violence, in all respects, visited Liverpool, in England, in the year 1725. There is on record, that in the year 1510, a storm of hail, attended by a midnight darkness, destroyed birds, beasts, and fish, in the lakes and rivers of Italy. At Venice, on 23rd of July, 1825, a hail-storm lasting thirty minutes did immense damage ; the stones were as large as hens' eggs ; the trees and crops in the garden of the Armenian convent were almost destroyed ; and the vineyards in an adjoining island presented on the following day a sad picture of desolation. " On 4th January, 1829, hail, measuring three and four inches in circumference, fell at Edmonton, near London, In 1799, 1800, and 1801, many vine growers in France were reduced to great destitution by hail, which also destroyed olives and grain. On the 2nd April, 1830, a similar storm occurred at Oporto ; and 30th INIay, of the same year, according to the Aberdeen Chronicle, a storm of great violence occuiTed at Mar- nock, in Scotland, the pieces of ice, which were four or five inches round, penetrated fifteen inches into the ground, and were thirty hours in dissolving ; cabbages were pierced as by shot ; and the stones of ice re- bounded several feet from the ground. " In the Duchy of Parma, on 17th June, 1831, an extent of country, thirty miles long, by ten or fifteen broad, was devastated and buried under heaps of hail stones ; the smallest weighing half a pound, and the largest three pounds." IMPORTANT SALE OF STOCK, — Bartox, NE,\R Dari.ingtox. — An important sale of the small but select herd of short-horned cattle and Leicester sheep, the property of Thomas Charge, Esq., took place on Tuesday last, when i\Ir. Wetherell, of Durham, offered this select herd for public competition to a very numer- ous assemblage of breeders from various parts of the United Kingdom. From the well known blood and high repute of the animals, the bidding was very spirited, and the following prices were realized : — Lot 1. " Alice," roan, calved in 1843, got by Dulcimer (3,658), dam Duchess, the dam of Victoria, lot 4 ; sold for \Z\l. 5s. to Grant Duff, Esq., Eden, Aberdeenshire. Lot 2, " Louisa," roan, calved in 1842, got by Clementi (3,399), dam Duchess, the dam of Victoria, lot 4 ; sold for 78/. 15s. to Mr. T. Forrest, Stretton, Cheshire. Lot 3. "Adelaide," white, calved in 1841, got by Magnum Bonum (2,243), dam Duchess, the dam of Victoria, lot 4 ; sold for 29/. 8s. to Mr. Forrest. Lot 4. "Victoria," roan, calved in 1837, got by Sol (2,655), dam (Duchess) by Maximus (2,243), Match'em (2,281), Scipio (1,421), Stephen (1,456), Western Comet (689), Charge's Grey Bull (872), &c., &c. ; sold to John May- nard, Esq., Harlsey Halton, Northallerton, for 63/, Lot 5. " Edward, roan, calved in 1844, got by the Irish- man (5,445), dam lot 4; sold to — Vansittart, Esq., York, for 44/. 2s. Lot 6. "Alfred," roan, calved in 1845, got by Dulcimer (3,658), dam Duchess, the dam of Victoria, lot 4 ; sold to A, Maynard, Esq., Marton, York, for 44/, 2s. The sheep were in low condition, and consequently did not reahze such high prices as their blood would have warranted : — 50 wedder hogs averaged 1/, lis. 5d. each, 60 gimmer ditto 1/. lis. lid,, 7 tup ditto 3/. Is. 7d., 41 shear tups 4/. 14s,, 100 ewes and followers 21, 10s. 7d. idiQh..— Cumberland Packet. T^Hte FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 513 On the importance and advantages of an improved style of archi- tecture, AS applied to farm buildings, both in economy and CONVENIENCE. (See Plate IT.) At the monthly meetinj^ of the members of the Farmers' Chih- House, held in their rooms at the York Hotel, Britljre-street, Blackfriars, on Monday, March 3rd, " The Architecture of Farm-buihl- ings" was the sulyect which had been fixed upon for discussion, and Mr. Chcffins had promised to dehver a lecture upon this interesting to])ic. Mr. B.VKER, of Writtle, in Essex, took the chair shortly after five o'clock, and stated that the hour for commencing the business of the evening had now arrived. If punctuality was not a \-irtue, it ought to be counted as one. As Mr. Cheftins was jiresent, he thought they had better at once ])rocced with their discussion. The consideration of tlie subject which they had met this evening to discuss had, in the first instance, from unavoidable circum- stances, been postponed longer than any other on the paper ; and, in the second instance, it had been deferred in consequence of the great meeting of the Protection Society at the Freemasons' Hall, the day before the meeting of Parliament {hear, hear). He was quite sure, howcA-er, from the im- jjortance of the question before them, that they woidd lose nothing by delay {hear). He felt con- fident that Mr. Cheftins having directed his especial attention to the subject, they should I'eceive much information from the lecture with which it was that gentleman's intention to favour them (heai-), and it was to him (Mr. Baker) a matter of great plea- sure and satisfaction that it shoidd have been taken up by one so able to do it justice {hear), llie su])ject stood upon the paper in the following words : — " On the Importance and Advantages of Architecture as Api)licable to Farm-l)uildings, both as regards Convenience and Economy" — two very material points. Although the notice was couched in these words, they had not been in the habit, in former discussions, of confining themselves to the letter of the terms of the notice, and there would be no necessity now of restricting themselves to the consideration of the imi)rovcment of barns, staliles, and out-houses ; but they might discuss architec- ture generally, as applied to farm-buildings of A\hatever character. 'J'liis, however, he would leave in Mr. Cheffins's hands. He had given the notice upon the subject, and was entitled to the choice of the manner in which lie should treat it [hear). He liegged, therefore, without further ])reface, to call uj)on Mr. Cheftins (cheers). yir. CiiEFKiN's immediately rose and said — Mr. Chairman and gentlemen, in introducing this sul)- ject to your notice, it will not be necessary to de- tain you by any ])refatory remarks ; for though this is a somewhat comprehensive suljject, it is simple in its nature. I have endeavoured to treat it as ])lainly and clearly as I was able ; and I hope I .shall have so far succeeded as to make it inter- esting to you. I will, therefore, without any fvir- ther obsen'ation, at once commence {cheers). The ])resent age will stand in marked advance of its predecessors, as being tlie advent of those great and striking changes in man's social institutions, and of those l)old and startling discoveries in sci- ence, the value of which, as imi)rovements in pro- ducing the necessaries and luxuries of hfe, suc- ceeding years will more fully develoj) and ]n"ofit by. At present, this mighty change is but in its infancy ; its powers are but inadequately conceived, its ojierations but yet feebly carried out. It is desirable, therefore, to awaken a general and in- creasing interest towards this progressive move- ment, that all classes may be ready to profit by those advantages which scientific research, aiding the natural spirit of the age, may present to their notice. For many years past, commerce and the fine arts have alone been benefited by those disco- veries which science has stnick out as improve- ments on the existing state of things, and great has been the result. Agriculture, that other great absorbing interest of the countr}', has now aroused from inaction, and calling to her aid the subtile agencies of chemistry, and that expansion of mind which education and enterprise haA^e conferi'ed upon her sons, she stands i)roudly in the van of the pro- ductive powers, and disputes, in friendly rivalry with commerce, and Avith daily increasing success, the title of " the great benefactor to the country." Architecture, which has hitherto confined her talents to the service of the church, of commerce, and to domestic comfort, now offers a helping hand for the furtherance of agriculture, in the confident belief that she can aid her in her present progress towards imjirovement. It will not be expected that I should urge the adoption of the regular orders of architecture in the construction of farm-buildings. The Grecian, the Roman, and the Gothic styles have sprung from the nature of climate and the force of cir- cumstances ; and, fostered by the sun of encourage- ment, man's invention has produced in the temples, palaces, and cathedrals of the world, resiUts and effects alike M'onderful and gratifying. To apply the i)rinciples which htive wrought such mighty works to the simple sheltering of corn and cattle, would be to use them for a purpose in some mea- sure un\\'orthy of their great jiowers ; but we need not lose sight of two of tlie first princij)les of the science — I mean st/wmetnj nndftiiess. The first, as a]>plied to the outward disposition of the l)uildings, and the latter, as to the most ai)i)ropriate arrange- ment for the purjjoses for which they are intended; and I assert it most distinctly, tliat this symmetry and fitness are jierfectly compatible with the best mode of erecting farm-buildings. External effect will de])end, in a great measure, ujjon the choice of materials; and this will generally be decided l)y the (juestion of cost and the re- sources of the locality. Brick and stniie, where they can be obtained at a moderate expence, should be chosen as the staple material, as well from their lasting and durable nature, as from their non-liability to damage l)y fire, and from tlic facility thev afford to the keeping up an equal temperature and thorough ventilation. 514 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Stone, if it can be quarried on the estate, is unquestionably superior to any other material ; and as bricks can now be made at a low cost, where it was formerly thought to be impossible to make them at all, there is not that inducement to use materials of a less substantial nature. Slating is the most approved covering for roofs; and from its comparatively small cost, its dura- bility, its freedom from vermin, and its non-com- bustible qualities, it ought to be universally adopted. A great improvement has lately been made in the construction of slated roofs for manufactories and agricultural buildings ; in ^\•hich the common raft- ers are laid diagonally on the purlines and prin- cipals. Countess slates are then nailed on to the rafters, in such a manner as effectually to keep out rain and snow ; thus entirely superseding the use of battens or slating lath, and the entire cost of the slatiny and rafters is less than is usually charged for the slates alone. This invention is patented ; but the patent is matter of dispute, and is now submitted to reference. For roofs of a temporary nature, an admirable covering is provided in the patent asphalted felt, v/hich is hght, durable, and waterproof, and costs only one penny per square foot. ITie use of iron in kingposts, ties, &c., might be introduced \rith great advantage into the roofs of faiin-buildings, and can be strongly recommended for its economy, both of cost and space. For barn floors, good Enghsh oak jjlank is gene- rally preferred; but as this is a costly article, yellow Petersburgh battens, 2 1 inches thick, may be substituted ; and, if well tarred on the imder side and between the joints, will last from forty to fifty years. An objection has somewhat obtained against aU wood floors, on the plea that they har- bour rats and other vermin ; but by bricking up the mows to the level of the ])lanks, and by fiUing in between the joists with concrete, this evil may be remedied. The Seyssel asphalte has lately been introduced for barn-floors, \\\\\\ great success, and numerous testimonials prove that com threshed on it comes to market in good condition. For stables, cow-house, beast-houses, and pig- geries, hard stock bricks laid on edge, are found to be the best paving, and if Ijurnt on the estate, vAW be an exceedingly cheap floor ; but a good substi- tute may be found in large smooth pebbles, called " setting stones." The boimdaiy fences to a farm-yard, where any are required, should be of brick or stone, and not less than six feet high ; but the divisions, where not buildings, can be made of three-quarters-of-an- inch round iron rods, in rough oak or elm posts (sawn or spht from ])oUards) at a very small cost ; and if the bottom of the posts be charred, and an occasional coat of paint or tar be given them and the rods, this very cheap fence -will last many years ; and can be easily removed and refixed. Having pointed out the several materials best adapted for the erection of farm-buildings, I \n\\ now treat of their construction and arrangement ; and as each building requires conveniences pecu- liar to itself, I \\\\\ take them singly in the order of their importance. £arn.— The barn, then, is intended as a secure shelter for corn and grain, with convenience for threshing out and preparing the same for market. In dimensions, the width betM'een the walls should not be less than eighteen feet, nor more than twenty-foiu feet. Fifteen feet from the floor Avill be found a sufHcient height, and the length will depend upon the space required. No barn should be less than thirty-six feet long ; that is, twelve feet for the floor, and twelve feet for the mow or bay each side the floor ; additional length should be gained by adding as many bays of twelve feet each as may be wanted. 'ITie advantages oi stack- huj com, more particularly wheat, instead of liousing it in barns, is more and more admitted eveiy day ; and the principle being fairly acknow- ledged, it win be sufficient in future to build barns of the size shown on the plan, as adequate to the wants of a large farm. Where brick or stone walls are chosen, great economy ■wall be found by forming them of piers of solid work, eighteen inches thick, at intervals of from six feet to ten feet, and filling up the spaces between them with nine-inch work, built battering or sloping inwards towards the top, which will not only save materials, but will allow the com to be housed wth greater facility, and prevent that un- sightly and unsafe bidging of the walls to which brick or stone barns are liable, and which can only be obviated by greater thickness of work. Flat, elliptical, or segment arches may connect the tops of the piers, and a projecting brick cornice to re- ceive the slate, will be the best and safest finish to the eaves. To ensure a thorough ventilation (the want of which has been a great objection to brick or stone barns), vertical apertures, three quarters of an inch mde on the outside, and opening to six inches Avide on the inside, may be made at interv^als of four or five feet all roimd the building ; the size of which will exclude birds, vermin, and bad wea- ther, but wU eflectually admit the air, The prin- cipals, tye-beams, kingposts, and stmts, I wovild have of iron, and the only woodwork should be the plates and the common rafters to receive the patent slating before spoken of. Of the best kind of barn-floors I have already treated, and need only now refer to the doors, lifts, &c. The former should be folding in two heights ; and if the latter were made in two heights also, and five feet high altogether, a great waste of corn, which now flies out during threshing, would be prevented. Mow- boards, three feet high, of studs and boarding, should be formed on each side the floor; and where a plank floor is not used, some pro^^sion should be made to receive the com as it is threshed, till it is dressed, by laying a boarded floor in part of one of the bays or mows. ITie use of machinery in large farmmg establishments, is now becoming very general ; and I have, therefore, provided for the erection of horse poAver, which can he a})phed to threshing or dressing corn, chaff-cutting, &c., and its situation attached to the barn, among the stacks in the rick-yard, wiU be found very con- venient. If a land ditch be dug one foot deeper than the foundations of the bam, and three feet distant from them, Avith one or more drains into it from each bay or mow, the inconveniences of a wet soil or 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 6U bad situation may be entirely obviated, llie prac- tice of covering the surface of tlie bays or mows with concrete or common cement stucco, is becoming l)revalent ; and Avhere cement or hme can be had cheap, will be found very beneficial ; but wliere ex- pense is an object, the above jjlan of under-draining the mows will be found to answer everj' ])uri)ose. Slabic — The essential requisites of this building are light, sufficient warmth, and perfect ventilation. It should be constructed of l)rick or stone-work ; should not be less than fifteen feet wide between the walls, nor less than eight feet high to the plates. The length will depend upon the number of horses kept, four feet six inches being allowed for each horse, without stalls, and six feet if stalls are adopted. Stables constructed to accommodate five or six horses will be found to be more con- venient and more healthy than those which will contain a greater number; in fact, six is the maximum niunber which ought to be housed in one stable. Farm- stables are usually without stalls, but ever)' stable shoidd be jjrovided with one of these divisions for the use of vicious or entire horses. I have also provided a hospital or loose box for sick horses. The roof I would recom- mend to be of iron and slate, as for the barn ; and if the air-slits there descri))ed are ])rovided under the eaves and in the gables, the objection of heat as arising from the use of slate will be entirely avoided, and the ventilation will be thorough and efficient. I have already alluded to brick on edge paving as the best floor for stables, and where it is not too expensive, should be generally adopted ; and I have also mentioned a cheaper substitute. In laying the floor, care should be taken to give a slight convexity from side to side to the space allotted to each horse, with a fall of three inches from the manger to his heels. This is greatly the re\-erse of the present ])ractice, wliich is to lay each stall or standing hollow, with a grating in the middle, to carry oflf the urine into the drain which usually runs through the stalls. This grating, from its position, must soon become choked ; and besides insuring the poor horse a wet bed, is a continual annoyance to him from the strength of the ammonia rising up at the very spot where he is most hkely to lay his head. The i)lan above l)roposcd, will allow the urine to pass oH" between each horse ; and the gratings into the drain, which should rvm behind the horses, can be made in more convenient situations. Under the ])resent system of manger-feeding, racks are nearly useless in stables, and will j)ro- bably soon l)e dispensed ^\^th altogether. The mangers should, however, be both wider and deeper than they now are, and if })laced nearer the ground, will be more convenient. AVood, if protected against crib-biting by iron-hooping, is the best material for mangers. Every stable should be ])rovided with harness place, chafl'-house, and corn-bin, which may be so jjlaced as to divide two stat)les, with a passage from one to the other. Light may be admitted l)y Infferboard windotes, which will also assist the ventilation. In addition to tlie boarded stable-doors, light lattice gntes shoidd be provided for summer use, where the horses are not turned out at night into the pastures. Coiv-house. — The cow-house requires warmth, combined with a pure atmosphere ; to ensure which, the general construction of the building, as regards walls, roof, floor, &c., should closely resemble the stable before described. It should be of the same width and height, with a space of three feet six inches allowed for each cow. The calves'-pen may be placed under the same roof, or it may be placed as a lean-to at the end of the cow-house ; and it should be divided for calves of different ages. The floor of the calves'-pen will be best of oak lattice- work, but it may be of bricks on edge, with half- inch spaces between each brick, which shoidd be so laid as to allow a free passage of water, urine, &c., from the whole surface of the floor into the drain of the cow-house. Shutters should also be hung to admit or keep out the air, as may be ex- pedient, and the challc rack should not be for- gotten. From the great value of the liquid manure from the cow, especial care should be taken with the drains from the cow-house. The cow-stall, if preferred, may be continued as at present, but the chain, strap and ring are daily coming into use. Mangers formed of l^rick, stuccoed with cement, with a space for water between e\-ery two cows, are greatly to be recommended. Beast-house. —The beast or fatting house is next in importance to the cow-house, and requires to be constructed with the same advantages, and to be drained and ventilated on the same principles ; though it must be allowed that the common lean-to shed is often found a useful suljstitute in the ab- sence of a l)etter building. It should, however, be not less than seventeen feet wide between the walls, to admit the feeding and water-troughs being so placed as to allow the stock-tender to fill them in front of the beasts, and to afford ample space for cleaning out, littering, and examining them. Root-house, c)-c.—'Vhe turnip and root-store is a necessary adjunct to the feeding-house, and should l)e in close connection with it, with sufficient room for storing and cutting the food ; it may also be annexed to the steaming-house and meal store, where these systems of feeding are adopted. If this building should form part of the general range of the farm-buildings, it may be constructed in a similar manner; but, if placed out of immediate obsen-ation, it may be built of clay lumps, which are used extensively in some locahtics ; and if the work is carefully done, and the outside coated with gas tar, it will be very durable and very cheaj), and from its effectually excluding both heat and cold, will answer very well as a storehouse for mangel, turnips, &c. A reference to the i)lan which is submitted with this ])a])er will sht)W how the building here mentioned may be arranged with great advantage. The farm granary may be placed as a loft over the steamery and meal-house, where it will be free from damp and ;ermin, and be under the farmer's esjjecial supei-vision. Piggeries. — The piggeries chiefly require jilenty of air^ and the secure division of their noisy in- mates, lUiildings of brick and stone, with slated roofs, as before described, jjartly open as covered yards, communicating with enclosed boxes, which open into a jiassage behind (either open or close, as may be preferred), form the most approved JI M 2 516 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. system of pig feeding or breeding. I need not mention here the details of tlie feeding-troughs, water-tanks, &c., as they will chieHy depend on the expense which the projirietor is disposed to incur in this portion of his establishment. The wash- cistern, meal-bin, steamery, &c., should be placed with reference to the convenience of this important division of farm economy, and a pipe from the dairy and scuUeiy will obviate the necessity of placing tlie swinish crew inconveniently close to the dwelling-house. Poultry-houses. — Poultry-houses require only thorough ventilation, and such a construction as will secure the safe keeping of the })oultiy, and the exclusion of vermin of all kinds. If fattening is cai-ried on to any great extent, considerable space WlM be necessaiy ; but great icarmth and cleauliness will require the architect's chief attention. These buildings should be placed sufficiently nigh the house to be under the charge of the dairy-maid, to whom the care of poultry is usually entrusted, and no mode of construction ^vill answer better than has been described for the stables, cow-house, &c. Sheep-yard. — An enclosed yard, surrounded by low sheds for sheep feeding, will be found a valu- able addition on a cold, wet farm ; and its advan- tages in the lambing season are too evident to require much notice. Cart-lodge. — ^Yaggon and cart lodges will not require much description. They should be built of brick or stone on the back and both ends, with a slated roof as before described, which should be continued down as a lean-to on the backside, to form a convenient shelter for i^loughs, rollers, and other implements. From its occupying but little space, and its great durabiUty and economy, iron may be introduced to support the open front of the lodge \\\t\\ great advantage. Storehouses or barns for hay and straw, in trusses, contribute greatly to economy of the ar- ticle, as well as to a saving of labour, in cutting hay or tying up straw as they are wanted. They should be placed near the barn, and easy of access from the stables, &c. Workshops for the smith, carpenter, and wheel- wright, with store-rooms for the farming tools and smaller implements, should also be provided. Their construction, as \vell as the hay and straw barns, should be of brick and slate, as has been already recommended ; and they may be placed in the rear of the main buildings, so as to form enclosed yards for stock or other purposes. This arrangement is shghtly shown on the plan. Tanks. — One or more manure tanks should be constructed in every farm-yard, lliey will be cheapest if built in a circular or elliptical form, of bricks on end, stuccoed with cement or stone lime. They should have a shed over them, but do not require a building to enclose them. They should be well placed to receive the drains from the dif- ferent buildings, and also the surface drainage of the feeding-yards, which must have the necessary inclination towards them; and if these j'ards are pro]}erly levelled and prepared with chalk rubbish, no absorption will take place, and none of the most valuable portion of farm-yard manure will he lost. Similar tanks should be made to receive the water from the eavestroughs of all the buildings in th6 farm-yard, unless a good pond is immediately con- tiguous, into which it may be led ; in the absence of which these tanks will be found very useful in collecting water for the cattle, and if placed near the beast-house, ^vill save considerable labour and expense. They will, of course, require no roof over them, but will be simply domed in, with a wooden trunk in the dome, to receive the pipe of a small portable iron pump. Foddering Cribs are very essential in the feeding- yards. The best and most serviceable construc- tion is a light circular roof, about ten feet in dia- meter, supported by struts springing from a cirb three feet in diameter, securely tied to the purlines. These struts will form the manger or crib, by filling in the spaces between them wth strong lattice work or boarding, as may be preferred. The expense of iron, stone, or brick stands for corn stacks, yv\i\\ the rough wood framing to re- ceive the corn, Avill be paid for by one year's saving of the loss incurred by damp, vermin, &c. Privies should be constructed for the use of the farm labourers, and a portion of the water from the eaves-troughs should ])e led through them into a drain communicating ^vith the mamue tanks. I have now, I beheve, described all the principal buildings and accommodations which are required under the present improved system of agriculture, and my leading principle in detailing their con- struction has been to insist on the use of durable and cheap material, on the making all the buildings warm, light, and perfectly ventilated, and on a general arrangement which will admit of a thorough supervision by the farmer. The plan, which I submit with these remarks, is not intended or put forth in any way as the plan for a model farm. It is merely to illustrate the foregoing statements, and to embody my ideas of the most profitable and practical mode of arrang- ing and constructing farm-buildings. I have not entered upon the cjuestion of the site of the dwel- ling-house and buildings of a farm j for it luust be evident that this will depend upon circumstances exclusively local, and which cannot be governed by any specific rules ; though, of course, a few general principles, which are too well known to need repe- tition here, will aid in selecting the most eligible spot the situation offers for choice. I set out by stating that symmetry and fitness might be and should be studied in farm-architec- ture ; and I respectfully assume that this plan, with the description which has been read to you, has fully sustained my ])osition. The erection of an entirely new farm establishment is not of every day occurrence ; but the principles I have here laid down, and the form and arrangements sketched out on the plan, should enter largely into all the alterations and reconstructions which the improve- ments of the age ■will cause to be effected. I have not alluded to the residence of the farmer himself, though I have sho^vn it on the plan, as I considered it to be unnecessary. The station he holds in society entitles him to the utmost enjoy- ment of every addition to domestic comfort which modern improvement can devise ; at the same time he will freely declare, that he likes that house thq THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 517 best where lie can, while enjoyinjj the comforts of home, have full command and thorough super- vision over the whole of his establishment. AVith these remarks Mr. Cheffins concluded his address, which was listened to with great attention and received with warm apjjrobation. Mr. Baker said tlie jjrinciple u])on which they usually carried on their discussions was this — that tlie gentleman \\'ho opened the question of the e\eiiing having stated his views and ojjinions ui)on it, it was competent to other gentlemen, having suggestions to offer, to have the opjjor- tunity to do so in succession, and if any questions arose out of it, or any opposing vicM's were offered to tliose of the opener, that the latter, as in the learned courts, shoidd have the right of reply (hear). He therefore jiresumed that certain deduc- tions would he drawn from the statements of the several members who might take part in the dis- cussion, and that upon those deductions some resolution on the jiart of the clulj ought to be adojjted (/u'rt/-). They had not done this hitherto ; but in all the local clubs that was the usual coiu'se; and thus the marrow of what was stated was ex- tracted and ])reser\-ed for the use of those who might wish to refer to it afterwards {hear, hear). If any gentleman present now had any obsen'ations to offer, he should be very hajipy to hear them. After a short j)ause, Mr. Baker proceeded to say, that as no gentleman at present ap])eared disposed to offer any remark, he would himself address a few obsersations to them. He had taken a few notes of Mr. Cheffins' remarks, and would offer a few himself ujjon the results of his own observations and experience as applied to farm buildings. One of the leading ])oints of the subject under discussion was economy in the erection of buildings, and not economy only, but convenience also. So very expensive was building in this countrj-, that it was necessary well to consider this jioint (hear). Now he knew a gentleman who had a large farm of 500 acres, who was adA'ised l}y his steward to take oft' 130 acres and erect new farm buildings for it — in short, to make a separate farm of it ; and he entered u])on this not very judicious undertaking. He erected entirely new and separate farm Ijuildings for the occupation of these 130 acres of land. It was not necessary to build a liouse, as there was already one on this jjortion of the farm \\hich he had let for £12 jier annum. "Well, his new buildings cost him £1700; and after doing all this, and bringing the farm into culti\ation, he proceeded to look for a tenant. But after all tliat he had done, and giving up the rent of £12 a year for the house alone, he could only get £"90 a year for his new farm {hear, hear). He tlien very naturally turned round upon his agent for leading him into so bad a speculation ; but he was most to blame himself for not incpiiring ^\•hat tlie farm would let for, Ijefore he proceeded to make so large an outlay of money {hear). He mentioned tliis to show how much economy bore U])on these matters, and because it was sometliing like a re])ly to the obser- vations of a party wlio were frequently attacking the landlords (hear)— he meant the Anti Corn-I.aw League — about the reduction of rents {hear, hear). "Why, in a large farm, if you took the absolute cost of the farm buildings and reckoned the common per centage on buildings, it would be found that the whole rent of the farm did not more than cover the interest upon the cost of these ])uildings. 'ITiis fact showed how important an item was the expense of such l)uildings in farming. The actual cost was frequently not i)erce{)tible, or at least not sufficiently estimated from the circumstance of their l)eing added ])y little and little {hear), llie convenience of farm buildings was also a very important considera- tion in their erection ; but their nature and de- scription must entirely depend upon the nature of the farm — whether it was a grazing or a corn farm. He might, however, make this one general observation, that they ought to be so constructed as to be made a])plicablc to carrying out the objects of the farmer in the most advantageous manner {hear). It was desirable that evevy yard shoidd contain a barn, and that the barns and all the buildings about the farm should as it were form fences enclosing the farm. Another important point was that there should jje only one entrance accessible at night, and that that should be so disposed that the Ijailitt 's house commanded a view of it {hear, hear). This arrangement prevented the entrance of evil disposed ])ersons for the jnirpose of injuring the stock or cattle {hear). Mr. Cheftins had given them some very useful information on the general principles of architecture as it related to farm buildings. He (Mr. Baker) only begged to oft'er a few remarks on ])ractical points, which were the result of his having attended to the erection of such buildings himself. He had, im- fortunately, a very great " itch " for Ijuilding at his own expense {Hear, and laurjhter) ; and he feared he should never be cured of the ])ropensity, although it had involved him in very consideral)le cost (hear, liear). But he had erected some which were very useful, at a very cheap rate. A\'ith regard to build- ing stables, he held that they should be so con- structed as to hold two teams, (and not a te.am and a half only as was commonly the case), with a si)ace wide enough between the horses to prevent injury by kicking. In a stable so constructed, a single candle would serve the men attending the horses at night and morning. There was another jioint in favour of a dou])le team stable, which was this : the men might have to quit their horses, and leave the candle burning, which \\as always dangerous. But this danger was ])artly removed by a double team stable, because one man might always be present while the other went away (/war) ; and in i)()int of economy there was the advantage of one candle serving for two men. His ])lan was to build stables 18 feet wide, having a stall on one or both sides parted oft" in case of there being vicious horses; or in the event of one coming in late at night, it ])revented his disturbing the others ; it was con- venient also in the event of a horse being sick. Then at the back he had a lean-to for the chall' and corn bins, and another for the harness. He never used a stable for the purpose of housing horses — only for attending to them. All his were kejn in an open yard, and in each tiiere was a division to put a single horse into if it came in late at night, or rcfpiircd to be put Ijy himself from any other cause. 518 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Since he had adopted the yard system, he had no sickness among his horses ; before that they were ahvays aihng. ^Yith thirty cart horses for the last two years, his farrier's bill had not amounted to 30s. [hear, hear). He perceived by Mr. Cheffins' plan, M'hich was laid uj^on the table, that there were some sharp angles in the yards, as he had divided his premises. His opinion, however, was that angles should always he a^•oided, for the stronger of the cattle M'ould generally press against the weaker, and do them great injury, as was well known often to be the case. Fences should also be suffi- ciently high, to pre\'ent the cattle in one part of the farm from seeing those in another. For when some were feeding upon luxurious food, and others were kept u]3on i)Oorer food, the latter would look on and pine unless they were altogether prevented from seeing them {hear, hear). This therefore was an important point to be attended to. Heknew no better method of constructing sheds than that of having a single row of posts with transverse beams, assum- ing the umbrella shape; the length of the cross beams should be about 22or 24 feet, 1 1 or r2feet being con- sidered quite wide enough on each side. These cross beams were strongly secured with a brace and knee, and a continuous row of rafters was then put on. The shed thus formed a divldion in the yard, and the cattle had every requisite access on each side. This he considered a very admirable plan (hear). A great deal of the hazard of the cattle injuring each other was clone away by this means, which recommended itself because it was cheap, and not only because it was cheap, but also because it displayed a good deal of taste (hear, hear). He had practised a plan of covering in with slate, by having slight rafters and a piece fixed down the centre, so as to form a ra])bet, and fixed the slates with nails and putty, exactly as the hot-house lights are glazed. In some instances he had seen a system adopted of covering in by the use of slit rafters and rabbets, just in the manner in which common green-house roofs are glazed. With regard to keeping out the rain, he had not used slates, but pan-tiles, which he did not think were heavier than slates. (Mr. Cheffins — " Oh yes, they are heavier than slates.") There were two methods of roofing these sheds. One was the ordinary way of using ])an-tiles, and pointing them ; l)ut the great objec- tion to pointing was that the tiles were very likely to get removed ])y the wind or the action of the frost. If, however, you use laths on the under part of the rafter, and fill in the space with straw thatch until quite full, and then ])ut on the pan-tiles, you M'ill be kept thoroughly drj', and have a warm shed in winter and a cool one in summer {hear). Another considerable advantage of this method was that pan-tiles so managed never blew off, while under the old system, when the wind was pressing to escape, whole courses would sometimes be blown off together. Another plan was to beat up clay with mulch, and fill up the space between the pan-tile lath with this ; the pan-tiles being then put thereon be- came partly embodied in the clay, no pointing was required, and there was all the advantage by put- ting in straw. At a very small exj^ense this could be done by a common labourer, as well as by a carpenter, provided a carj^enter was employed first to put the pan-tile laths on. Another point to which Mr. Cheffins had alluded was the flooring of barns. Now the flooring of barns was a A'ery important subject ; in his county (Essex) plank flooring was generally used, and in some instances Yorkshire paving, llut the great objection to the Yorkshire paA'ing is that it generally becomes damp, and gives the wheat a cold rough character, which diminishes its value to the extent of several shillings a quarter {hear, hear). If, however, this Y'orkshire paving be laid in pitch, you get rid of a great degree of that damjjness which it contracts when laid upon a loamy or clayey soil. But if the paving has got wetted by the salt water in the course of transit, whatever steps you may take, you will never have a dry floor. The greatest difficulty in respect of plank floorings is that the rats and vermin get into and vmder it ; and as a remedy, he had struck out a plan, the adoption of which he thought would eft'ectually prevent not only their getting imder the floor, Ijut iinder the foimdation at all {hear, hear). "When the foundation of the barn was dug out, and 1)efore a single brick had been laid, he had a row of common tiles put down, and the first row of bricks put upon the edges of the tiles, so that the tiles should project internally into the barn. After the soil was put in, these tiles would not appear ; and whenever the rats attempted to get in, they always went down to the foimdation of the walls, but finding their course impeded by the tiles, they at once returned without discovering that they might make their way under the tiles if they con- tinued their course further inwards {hear, hear). Wherever this plan could be adojited, great ad- vantage would I)e found to result from its a]> plication. A good plank flooring is indispensable wherever much wheat is gro^^'n, and, if well laid with seasoned oak, \vill last for years. He had never seen a floor which had been concreted beneath be- come a prey to the dry rot {hear). There was more danger of dry rot from air becoming fixed than tliere was from the floor actually and directly lying upon a damp soil. This was, he believed, an established fact, and builders now endeavoured to protect the floor by admitting a free circulation of air under- neath it {hear). He had observed that oak lasted longer when not painted than it did when painted, for the very same reason ; if painted, the paint fixed the air within, and dry rot was sure to be the con- sequence. He had an illustration of this truth on his ov/n farm. Having had new oak gates put up, in order to indulge his own vanity, he had had all those next the road ])ainted white. Now he could take a knife, and thrust it into them with the greatest ease ; the oak of all those which had been jminted was in a state of complete decay, while all those which had not been painted were as sound as on the first day they were put vqi {hear, hear). He was quite of the opinion, (to use an expression of an eccentric friend of his,) that painting oak was like painting an old woman's face. Y'ou may make her appear handsomer, but you cannot make her any younger {laughter), lliis friend of his never had any article of wood painted except at the joinings. In putting anything together — a harrow for instance — he would have the tenons painted, because if the water got in they would he sure to rot ; but he THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 519 never painted the solid parts. The anti-corrosive paint was tlie best that could be iised. In using coal tar, it should never be heated, but mixed with l)oihnfj water, which made it work pleasantly, and having l)een thus laid on, the water would evaporate, leaving the tar only u])on the surface of the wood. Coal tar ajiplied to ehn or fir would comi)letcly destroy it. The addition of quicklime to coal tar would make it spread much more easily, and was much Ijetter than boiling it in the ordinary way. The advantage of the lime was tliat it gave the tar, when dry, a glazed and polished surface, and made it look as handsome as black paint. He had used coal tar with the clay lumps which were frequently employed for making the walls of the common sorts of farm l)uildings, or to protect potatoes ; or mangel wurzel. Tlie way to make them was to take calcareous or chalky clay, and have it trodden down with mulch, old hay, or anything that would make it adhere together : then put it into moulds 18 by 12 and 9 inches, and strike it oft" just as in brick-making. One of these lumps was equal to IS bricks in brick-work, and he generally ])aid 8s. a hundred for making them. There was no fiuther trouble beyond the necessity of constantly tiu'ning them over. They should he made in the s])ring or middle of summer, and they formed most excellent walls for certain descriptions of farm buildings. They stood very much better if pieces of old iron hoop were inserted into them in the courses. The hooping coidd ])e ])urcliased in London for about ISd. a cwt. The lumjjs were very durable, and were non-conductors of heat, which was an advantage. Common bricks were conductors of heat ; but these were not. However hot the wea- ther might be in summer, a building formed of these lum])s would Ije found to be comfortably cool ; or if the weather was cold, it would be com- ])aratively warm ; and they were quite as durable as bricks, if kejjt dry. For comfort and conve- nience there was no covering equal to thatch. No covering, perhaps, was more expensive ; but in point of utihty it was unequalled ; next to thatch, slates were perhajjs the best ; and last of all came common tiles. But the objection to them was that they were so heavy, that unless the roof of the building was imusually strong, it woidd not last for any great length of time. Tlie ])lan of l)uilding in Essex was not so much with I)ricks as with wood. Most of the I)uildings were framed until wood, and covered with weatlier-boards. He had a strong objection to the use of fir weather- boarding : elm weather-boards held more firmly to the nail, and were not so liable to s])lit ; while those of fir were very apt to si)lit. For the co\'er- ing of a Ijarn he preferred elm weather-boards to almost anything. Weather-boarded barns are more fiivoura1)le also to ventilation. In brick-barns you cannot obtain so extensive and perfect a ventilation as you can in l)arns thus constructed. If barns were not well ventilated, considerable delay and inconvenience would be often the consequence in farming ojjerations ; for the corn would have to be kejit out in stands while the barns remained empty ; for if this was not done, the corn would often be sjjoiled. But with weather-boarded barns tliis was not the case : you i)rocurcd good ventilation, and the corn got into good condition almost as quickly as if kept in open stands. Mr. Cheffins' obsen-a- tions upon calves' pens he thought very good. He was quite of the opinion that calves should occasionally have their ])ens changed. Diseases got into cow-houses and calf-pens, which it was very difficult to eradicate without such change, and this had led him to erect some additional buildings. He had in some seasons lost calf after calf in succession from " scouring" or from some epidemic or cough which prevailed among them, and which, before he did this, he found the greatest difficulty in mastering. But since he had had more room than he actually wanted to occupy at one time, this had ne\-er happened. (Ueur.) \Yhen he removed the calves out of one i)en to put them in another, lie had that from which they had been removed cleaned out and sprinkled with quick-hme, and disease was thus jn-evcnted from spreading. Quick- hme was the most efficacious thing which could be used in such cases. Next wth regard to stables. From some cause or other, farmers' horses \vere frequently subject to blindness. One principal cause was believed to be the pressure of the collar upon the neck, which produced detennination of blood to the head. Young horses were very a]it to go bhnd. Another and great cause he beliewd to be the al)sence of light from stables. In most of the old farm stables the only hght ad- mitted was that which came in at the door when it was opened; and when it was shut again, the horses were consequently in total darkness. On the other hand, when it was opened there was a sudden burst of light upon the eyes of the horses, which must be very injurious, and it was 'prol)ably by these alternations of strong light and total darkness that so many went ])hnd. It was very important that all stables should have windows: not common "luffer boards," as was mostly the case, but glazed windows turning upon a pivot, by which plan, in addition to a good light, a free admission and ])erfect circulation of air were at all times insured. The windows themselves might be glazed like a common cucumber frame. He would not dwell longer on this part of the subject, al- though the point to which he had called attention respecting the admission of a proper hght into stables he considered a very important one. {Hear.) Amongst the minutes he had made during the lecture of Mr. Cheftins was one on the subject of asphalte roofing. He had never used any of it himself, although he apprehended from its light- ness and durability it was a verj' useful article ; but he had seen some which ajipeared to have shrunk up at the joints, and sejiarated, so that the water could enter in between them. Perhaps a gentleman in the room, who he understood was con\-ersant with the subject, would cxjjlain how it ought to be used. Forit was a common observa- tion that the manner of a])plying an article was as inq)ortant as the article itself (hear), and he thought it very probable that the defect to \yhich he liad alluded arose from tlie manner in which it had been jnit on, rather than from any defect in the article itself. He should be glad therefore to hear some explanali(m on this subject; and if he had any general observations to otlcr, he was sure the 5-20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. gentlemen present would be happy to receive them. The next point to which he would allude was the construction of barn roofs. They were generally found to be made ^nth cross-beams and large braces, which \vere very much in the way. He recommended cast-iron or wooden knees, which got rid of the l)races, and prevented the in- terru]ition which these obstacles often caused. He agreed with the observation of Mr. Cheffins, that iron was best wherever it could be introduced, as being not only lighter and cheaper, but safer also. It was from the fact of so much wood being used in farm buildings undoubtedly that if a fire once broke out upon a farm, there was very little chance of extinguishing it until everything was destroyed. (Hear.) Mr. Croggox then rose, and, in reply to Mr. Baker's inquiries respecting the asphalte roofing, stated that when it was first brought into use it had been the custom to put it on in small pieces. But it was soon found that there was great diffi- culty from the number of laps to ])re\ent the water from making its way in between the joints. It had since been manufactured in pieces of from 40 to 45 feet in length, which were lapped one over the other at the edges, and then " payed " down with coal-tar. With regard to shrinking, he had never before heard it complained of. Indeed (he con- tinued) we frequently make it in pieces sufficiently long to go the whole length of the roof, and then nail it to the boarding, in which case it is impos- sible that it can shrink. (Hear, hear.) Mr. Baker said that for the flooring of sheds and other such buildings he had seen a substitute prepared for asphalte, which was almost equal to asjihalte itself, by mixing gravel with quick-lime. This made an excellent concrete ; a sufficient quan- tity of coal-tar was then mixed up with it, and having been laid and well rammed and flattened down, made an excellent flooring, almost as hard as one of asphalte. He did not know anything that would make a better floor for cow-sheds and potato-houses ; a further mixture of coal-tar and sand made it still better. Mr. Price said a portion of St. James's park was so paved. Mr. Cheffins mentioned that the citadel of Antwerp was entirely covered with a mixture of that kind. Mr. Price. — The only objection to it appears to be that it is in warm weather apt to be rather sticky. Probably the tar had not taken up a suf- ficient cpiantity of the sand. Mr. Wood wished to ask how buildings roofed with asphalte resisted the Avind getting vmder it ? Mr. Croggon. — It is quite impossible that it can be affected by the wind, unless the whole roof were blown off. Mr. Wood. — I have seen it waving with the wind during the whole length of the roof. Mr. Croggon. — That could not have been pro- perly nailed down. I have seen it after six years' wear as perfect as the first day it was put on. {Hear.) A gentleman present recommended an article called "The Newcastle Fire Lumps," or " Heddon Fire-bricks," as Avell calculated for making a good flooring for barns or sheds, as they precluded the entrance of dampness. Mr. Baker thought the asphalte made as good a flooring for barns as could be desired. Mr. Cheffin.s. — Yes, especially in damp situa- tions ; and at present they lay it very cheajily — as low as 3s. 9d. a square yard. Mr. Wood having been called upon, said that if he had thought he could have attbrded any infor- mation, he should not have sat so long ; but he believed there were many gentlemen in the room who had not risen, and who were more capable of giving him instruction than he was to inform or instruct them. (Hear.) With regard to farm- buildings, he had already laid out some money in that way ; and, as times went, he was not disposed so to expend any more (hear) ; so that, however excellent the remarks which had l)een made were, they were not of much use to him at aU events. With some of the observations of Mr. Cheffins, ex- cellent as they were, he was not disposed to agree, especially those which related to calf-pens, in which he did not approA-e of having lattice-work to carry away the liquid manure. He had himself ti-ied the plan, but thought it would not answer at the pre- sent value of manure. He did not consider that the u)-ine of the cattle was more than the dung required or should have. The treading down by the cattle would i)revent any fermentation until it was wanted. He equally objected to stables con- structed with lattice-work, and thought it was a disad^•antage to have gutters to carry away the urine. His plan was to put fresh litter down every day under the cattle, and let them tread it down. There it remained in layers until taken away alto- gether ; and he did not think the cattle were injured ])y the smell of the urine at all. For, unless the manure was disturbed, the sal ammoniac did not rise, and was not smelt at all. By this plan the manure was much stronger, and answered the purposes for which it was intended much better than when taken away a little at a time. [Hear.) He had tried thirty or forty beasts at once on this plan. Every bullock was shut in a ten-feet stall ])y himself, and they were all allowed to stand in their litter until the manure was wanted. He was very much delighted, when at the Duke of Bedford's estate at ^Yoburn, with a great deal that he saw ; but he was certainly disappointed in this respect, for there water was sufl^ered to wash away the urine and all the best parts of the manure into tanks, and when it was wanted it had to be pumped up again. This was a manifest loss. He quite co- incided in opinion with what he had once heard an old gentleman say, that the only way to carry away liquid manure was to carry it away in the straw. {Hear.) He beheved that with calves there was the greater necessity of removing them to dif- ferent pens when the litter was taken away than when it was not. He had known calves kept in this manner until they were perfectly fat, without ever having had their litter disturbed. His (Mr. Wood's) county, Sussex, was not a calf county {7nuch laughter, caused by the droll manner in which this ivas said) ; but he had been assured by some of his neighbours, who were fatters of calves for the Brighton market, that the veal of calves so THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 521 kept would be of better quality and colour than i tliat of cah'es which had been kept in pens cleaned ' out. (Hear.) That was the experience of his neighbours who were fatters of calves in a small way ; and he made these observations ])artly from their representations and partly from what he had himself experienced. {Hear, hear.) With re- f{ard to the erection of buildinjjs, the (juestion of materials Avas entirely a question of cost ; and those which would last a certain time, and cost only half wliat those would cost M-hich mij^ht endure very nnich longer he was disposed to think it exj)e(licnt to use. That was to say, he was in favour of cheap materials. (Hear.) New tlieories and fine notions were all very well ; but he liked to be jjrovidcnt, and not expend too much upon the improvements of to-day, lest he should have no money left to try tliose which might spring up to-morrow. (Hear, hear, and a luuyh.) lie preferred kee})ing his money to spending it upon the plans of those who were rather theorists than practical men. [Hear.) If you set an architect to work, he would soon run you to considerable expense. He was not indeed employed to reduce expenditure, and therefore did not turn his attention to it : it was not his interest to do so ; but it was the business of the owner of the money to ])ay attention to that particular, and to take care that there was not a greater outlay than the circumstances would justify. (Hear.) His advice was generally to keep down the expense of farm-buildings as much as possible. He was not at all oi)j)osed, however, to a little more ex- l)ense in the case of barns ; it was very desirable to have a good barn. That might be built on a more expensive scale. (Hear.) But as things went generally, and in comparatively small farms, the farmer must do a great deal of the work himself, and without the assistance of an architect at all. On large farms, and where there was capital suffi- cient to put up extensive buildings, the best thing l)erhai)s that could be done would be to take ad- vantage of steam-jjower at once ; but unless that could be done, he did not see how any improve- ments could be carried far enough to meet the exigencies of the times. {Hear.) The money ne- cessary to erect such im])roved farm-buildings as had been described this evening, would be suffi- cient to put up a steam-engine, which might be worked to real advantage. [Hear.) He had been very much in hojies that they should have had some obser\'ations on the ajijjlication of steam- power to agricultural i)uri)oscs this evening, \rdT- ticularly when he saw Mr. Ilansome among them. {Cheers.) To an outlay of money, whidi would enable farmers to do this, he was decidedly favour- able ; but altogether against it for the meie im- j)rovement of sheds, ])ens, or any such matters. {Hear.) In conclusion, he begged to say that if any resolution should be drawn iq) on the .subject, he hoped it would have some bearing upon this jiart of the question. (Cheers.) Mr. Knicmit (Kdmonton) next addressed the meeting, and said a very cheap kind of l)uilding, which would be found useful for kcejiing ])otatoes and mangel wiuzel in, miglit be ma(k' willi mud walls ; and he described a potato-house of this kind, 100 feet long, IG feet broad, and 10 feet high, which an Irish labourer had erected for him when he first entered on his farm at Edmonton, thirty- eight years ago. This shed or house was always warm in the winter ; and since he had had it, he had never lost a ton of potatoes. He quite agreed with Mr. Baker's remarks on the necessity of having stables j)roperly lighted ; and his manage- ment of the windows he thought very good. [Hear.) His son had adojjted the same plan at a fann in Norfolk, and his horses did remarkably well. It ^\■as a most imj)ortant thing to look well to the condition of stables, and a jierfect state of ventila- tion was a great point. {Hear.) He had himself on one occasion got the disease called glanders Into his stables, and lost as many horses as cost him £500, and found it necessary to get rid of the remainder, burn the harness, and begin anew. (Hear, hear.) His horses were more frecjuently in and out than country horses. His plan was to exjjose them to the air as much as possible in eveiy way ; and he Ijelieved that their health was all the better for it. (Hear.) The CHAiiM.\N then called upon Mr. Ransome. Mr. Ransome said, with regard to farm budd- ings for cattle, his own opinion was that so long as the health of the animals was ensured, that was of nuich more importance than the consideration of mere economy of construction. (Hear.) His oi)inion in reference to economy was, that it was Ixised upon this principle, that if you have not health, you cannot have j)rofit; and, therefore, that that only was economy which was of such a kind and such a character as was most conducive to health. (Cheers.) The question of the construc- tion of barns and granaries resoh'ed itself into a very simple principle ; but the question with respect to buildings necessary for keeping animals was, what kind of building kept them in the soundest health. {Hear, hear.) That ^^'as the true economy. (Hear.) Mr. Baker contended for carrying away the animal excrement, and he must deliberately say, that his own opinion in reference to all animals kej)t in enclosed buildings was, that it was desira- ble to get away from them all that which they gave forth as excrement, and ^hich caused a fiying off of gases which were unquestionably deleterious to animal life. [Hear, hear.) On the other hand, there was no oljjection to the plan adhered to in Norfolk, of putting the cattle in sheds ojjcu on all sides, and allowing them to stand in their own manure from the time they went in to the time they came out fatted. {Hear.) In the one instance tliere was opportunity for the escape of all that was noxious ; but to apply the same mode of keej)- iiig their manure under them in enclosed buildings, as was practised in open sheds, he conceived to be wrong. (Hear, hear.) He now came to a point which had Iteen consideiably dwelt ujion by a gen- tleman near him (Mr. Wood), namely, the intro- duction of steam-engines. (Hear.) He knew so much of south-country farming, that he did not at present anticipate tlie introduction of steam as a part of agricultural economy ; but as engineers miglit turn their attention to simplifying the cha- racter of the steam-engine, and tlie material con- sumed might be con.siderably reduced in cost, he thought the time was not very remote when the 522 THE FARMEli'S MAGAZINE. steam-engine should become a most important ad- junct to agricultural operations. {Hear, hear.) If the application of steam-power were carried to the ultimate point, at which it might be used, it would be found much cheaper than horse-laljour. He apprehended that as agricvilture impro\'ed, and the knowledge of agriculture in connexion with science and machinery became more extended, horse-labour might, to a very great amount, be dispensed with. (Hear.) By the a])phcation of steam, the " scarifier" would take the place of the plough, and with the increased facilities of transit consequent upon irapro\'ed railway communication, the necessity of so large a number of horses upon farms would also be greatly diminished. (Hear.) Steam-power might be made aA'ailable in almost every operation upon a farm except thrashing : chaff-cutting, corn-giinding, and many other operations, might be performed to great advantage where there was a steam-engine. (Hear.) He then proceeded to point out how desirable it was to have things arranged upon a farm as they are in exten- tensive manufactories, in order that there shall be as little loss of time and labour in removals from place to place as possible. That machinery and those buildings would be the most perfect which were found the handiest, and which accomphshed their objects at the least possible expenditure. (Hear.) In some of the farms which were con- sidered the best managed in England, and where machinery was introduced, he had seen the rail- road running down into the stack-yard, the corn thro\\Ti by children to certain elevations, then taken up to the thrashing floors, from whence it falls imder the winnowing machines, and is at last de- posited in the sack, with a system which is perfectly admirable. {Hear, hear.) After some few further remarks upon the means through the aid of ma- chinery of attaining to the most ])erfect system of farming economy, Mr. Ransome resumed his seat amid the hearty cheers of the company. Mr. Baker said so much had already been said upon the economy of fami-buildings, of the appli- cation of machinery, and the best modes of making manure for the lands, that there remained very httle to be observed upon {hear). He thought, however, that there v/as one point which had es- caped them all, and that was the necessity of com- ])letel)' carr)'ing M-ater away from farm-buildings l)y means of eaves-troughs, and under-drains, so that no portion of the water which fell from the roofs of the buildings should come upon the dung and fodder of the animals {hear). Manure, he beheved, was never so well made as when it received just enough of liquid to keep it in a moist condition. Some of the writers upon this subject had recently started a new theorj', and recommended that manure should be kept in a comparatively dry state ; but the objection to this was, that a large proportion of the best manuring qiialities was thus lost by the ammonia passing off; whereas, if it were kept in a projjerly moist con- dition, the ammonia would not escape (hear, hear). They had also been taught by many per- sons v/ho had written upon the sul)ject, that they could not make their manure so weU in any places as in those which were covered in, He had, how- ever, always differed from this opinion, and thought that open yards or sheds were the most favourable for the making of good manure (hear). With regard to the playful observations of Mr. Wood, he begged to say that he had not expected that any one would contend with Essex for the honour of producing calves (laughter). It appeared, hoAvever, that the Essex mantle had fallen upon the county of Sussex ; at all events, Mr. Wood claimed it for that county {hear, and laughter). Ten towns of old contended for the honour of having given birth to Homer ; and it api)eared that there was to be a con- test among the counties for the honour of producing the best calves (much laughter). With regard to the remarks of Mr. Ransome, " on the application of machinery to the jjurposes of agriculture," he agreed with that gentleman that there could be nothing more beneficial to the farmer than the in- troduction of steam power to the operations of farming, were it not for the incubus which rested upon them in the necessity of employing manual lal^our, and which prevented their using machinery, except as a help to human labour. This necessity precluded their using machinery so as fuUy to advance the interests of agriculture. He hoped England would by-and-by arrive at such a point that the labourers which the agricultural districts had to spare would be taken up by the manufac- turer, in order that by the employment of ma- chinery the British farmer might produce corn at as cheap a rate as foreign countries [hear). Until something, however, could be done to take away a portion of the laljouring population from the agricultural districts, he felt fully persuaded that they never could fully sxdal themselves of the ad- vantages of steam power (hear). He felt very much obliged to all the gentlemen who had ad- dressed them this evening, and thought that the discussion of to-night would redeem them from an observation which had been made of some of their meetings, namely, that the subjects discussed were not of sufficient interest or importance to insure a fuU attendance of members {hear, hear). He thought that all present must feel that they had heard much of a useful character, and he trusted that they should meet on future occasions in in- creased numl)ers {hear). Though small in number to-night, he was sure, hoA\^ever, that they were large in point of intelligence {hear, hear). Mr. Shaw said their excellent chairman had this evening, as he always did, manifested great interest in the pursuit which they all had in view, viz., that of gaining information upon points connected with a correct knowledge of agriculture (cheers). He believed their society was highly in- debted to him for the manner in which he pro- moted their objects, and he should be sorry that he should leave the room this night without their ex])ressing a grateful sense of the perfect propriety with which he at aU times conducted himself in that chair {hear, hear, and cheers). He felt, how- ever, called upon to say two or three words in re- ference to what had fallen from him. He was exceedingly loath to differ from one whose know- ledge of agricultural subjects claimed the attention of all who where engaged in that pursuit (hear, hear), and he was anxious to pay the highest THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 523 respect to the positions which he laid down. But I He trusted, however, that the day would ere long he also respected that gro\\'ing feelin i garded as the most important era in the "annals of i great degree ])revents the growth of weeds, and British agriculture— as the commencement, in fact, , promotes the decomposition of vegetable matter in the soil. It is well known that extensive tracts ot land, formerly regarded as mere waste, have been rendered comparati\-ely productive by the cultiva- of its i)rogressi\'e iinj)roveinent, and the foundation of its i)resent comparative excellence. 'J"o illustrate the utility of this A'alued root, we need only con- trast briefly the present with the past condition of farming in this country. Until the turnip was grown to some extent as a field croj), many were the difficulties which the farmer had to contend with, whether engaged chiefly in the cultivation of the soil, or in the rearing and feeding of live-stock : much difficulty was experienced in cultivating any except the lightest class of soils, and these soon became exhausted and infested %vith weeds, in con- sequence of the too frequent repetition of corn crops. Bare or summer-fallow was then the only means of effecting a thorough eradication of weeds, and of ])rei)aring the stiffer kinds of land for the ])roduction of wheat ; and as this process necessa- rily involves the loss of a crop on the land subjected to it, a large extent of the country was annually iinproductive. It would obviously be irrelevant to my subject to enter here into the important question of simimer-fallow, or to in(juire how far that process may now be altogether dispensed with ; but certainly the extension of thorough draining and turnij) husbandry has gone far to render the necessity of resorting to naked fallow of very rare occurrence. Until an adequate supi)ly of this root could be oljtained, the fattening of live stock was necessarily conducted on the most limited scale ; even their maintenance in a thriving condition during the winter months was attended with no small degree of difiiculty; and hence the quantity of manure at the farmer's command was very scanty as well as of inferior quality. Similar diffi- culties have to be encountered, and the same evil consequences arise in those parts of the kingdom where the cidtivation of green crops is not yet extensively pursued. But now the condition and resources of the far- mer are, generally speaking, greatly altered for the better; and though various circumstances have conspired to bring about an improved system of husbandry, the successful culture of the turnip has undoulttedly been at the foiindation. It enables the farmer to keep an increased numl)er of stock, to fatten some for the butcher, and to maintain others in a thriving condition during winter. The size and quality of the animals of the farm have been greatly improved by the abundant supjdy of nutritious food ailbrded by the turnip crop; and, by feeding large numl)ers of cattle and sheep, where only a few could l)e maintained before, an increased quantity of valuable manure is ])roduced, to restore and augment the fertility of the soil for the produc- tion of succeeding crops. "Without a due suj)ply of turnips or other green food for stock, the tillage fanner would be altogether unable to convert his straw into manure. The turnip is also valuable as a fallow or cleaning crop ; and when cultivated in rows or drills at a suibcient distance apart, the ground receives a course of tillage before and after the sowing of the seed, which, when judiciously tion of this crop, and the application of the manure produced by its consumption. But the advantages derived from the judicious culture of the turnij) are too numerous and apparent to require further illustration. We have thus seen its utility in affording an abundant supply of nutritious and easily raised food for live stock, as a means of pro- ducing valuable manure, and as a ])rofitable and efficacious substitute for bare fallow, to which, indeed, it is a near apjjroximation ; in short, tho- rough draining and turnip husbandry have already conferred inestimable benefits on this country, and it is difficult to foresee what their further extension and improvement may accomplish. Coinidete drainage is an indisjiensable prehininary operation, inasmuch as abundant crops cannot be obtained, or indeed expected, until the soil be entirely freed from superfluous moisture. It is scarcely necessary to add that the criteria by which the agricultural character of a district is now estimated are the jirogress it has made and is making in thorough draining, and the extent of land annually devoted to the cultivaticm of turnips and other green crops. Although the turnip was well-known to the Romans, and cultivated on the continent from time immemorial, its introduction into this country is of coiTii)aratively recent date, having been almost entirely unknown as a field crop until about the beginning of the last century. The credit is usually conceded to Norfolk of being the county in which the turnip was first grown in the fields in Britain ; but it is generally allowed that its culture on an extensive scale was first brought to some degree of perfection in the southern counties of Scotland. There is now scarcely a district in the empire in which this root is not raised to some extent, and in many quarters its cultivation is doubtless very well understood: but, notwithstanding the length of time which has elajjsed since the drill-culture of turnijjs was originated, there are still many locali- ties in which it is either im])erfectly known, or injudiciously ])ractised. 'llie truth of this being generally admitted, it has occurred to me that some jjiactical details of the modes of cultiva- ting this crop on difl'erent soils in the more ad- vanced i)arts of the kingdom may prove acceptable at this season. Farmers, who are accustomed to adhere under every circumstance to one favourite system, ought to remember that, although on suit- able land they may succeed in raising what they consider excellent crops, yet it is possible by the adoption of a more judicious mode of culture to double the jjroducc now regarded as an average; and, considering the immense importance of the turnip crop, and the evils conse(|uent uj)on its entire or ])artial failure, it is obviously the interest of tlie farmer to try, by every means in liis ])o\ver, to increase the amount of its produce, and diminisb the ' risk of failure. It is especially incumbent upon hini 530 tHE FARMER*S MAGAZINE. to give an impartial and imprejudiced trial to those modes of culture which have so long stood the test of practice, and are found efficient in other localities. It must also be remembered that the propriety of any system of turnip husbandry does not merely depend on the quantity of roots thereby obtained, but also on the condition in which the land is left for the production of succeeding crops. The turnip is of the natural order Crucifera, and of the class and order Tetradynamia Siliqiiosa of the Linnpean system. It belongs to the genus Brassica, a family of plants, including cabbages, rape, &c., most of Avhich are of considerable importance to the agriculturist, as affording wholesome and nutri- tious food both for man and the inferior animals. The turnip is of biennial growth, sending forth in the first year large succulent leaves directly from the root, and in the second, a tall branched stem bearing a profusion of seed, and having smooth leaves entirely different in form and appearance from those of the preceding year. Its usual mode of cvilture in rows, and luxuriant foliage, gwe it the character of a restorative rather than that of an ex- hausting crop ; but this holds true only when its cul- tivation is confined to the first year, and when the produce is consumed on the farm, and the manure thereby produced apphed to the land. The turnip, when not allowed to ripen its seeds, is one of the least exhausting of our cultivated plants ; but when its culture is extended to the second year for the purpose of obtaining seed, it becomes one of the most scourging crops \vith which we are acquainted. The \-arieties of the turnip now cultiA^ated in the fields are very numerous; no fewer than fortj'-six dif- ferent kinds being enumerated and described in Law- son's " Agriculturists' Manual," namelj^ eighteen of white, seventeen of yellow, and eleven of Swedes; all of which are, however, comprised under two distinct species, namely, Brassica campestris (Swe- dish turnip), and Brassica Rapa fcommon turnip). The varieties of the last-named species are far more numerous than those of the other, being more easily produced by the effects of chmate, soil, and cultivation. They are sometimes di\dded into three classes, distinguished by the form of the bulb, namely, the round or globular, the depressed or Norfolk, and the oblong or fusiform. Another distinguishing mark of different kinds is the colour of the portion of the root which grows above the ground ; as, the white, the green-topped, pur- ple-topped, &c. The globe is usually regarded as the principal variety of white turnips. The bulbs grow to a large size, producing a heavy crop in ordinary seasons, and are highly relished by cattle and •sheep. Owing to its rapid growth, it is ill adapted for early somng, but comes soon to maturity, being always the first ready for consumption, llie white kinds are esteemed chieflyon account of their quick growth and early maturation; but being unable to withstand the severity of the weather, and ill adapted for storing, they must be consumed during the early part of the winter. It is the large pro- portion of water in their composition, and the thin- ness of the rind, that render them unfit for being stored for any considerable time. The green and the purple-topped varieties of the common turnip are likewise well adapted for early consum])tion, and generally come into use after the globe. Like it, they are best suited for the lighter class of soils, on which they are frequently eaten on the ground by sheep ; they also yield a large produce of leaves and bulbs, but require to be con- sumed before the severities of the winter season set in, as they are hable to nm to seed, or be injured by frost, though not so much so as the white kinds. Tlie purple-top is considered to be the hardiest of the foregoing sorts, and in dry land it is found to retain the most of its nutritive juices till the month of February, after which all the ^'arieties of the common turnip become more or less fibrous, and consequently deteriorated in value as food for live stock. The Aberdeen yellow, or Aberdeen yellow bul- lock, supposed to be intermediate between the globe and Swede, is one of the most esteemed varieties of the yellow turnip. Being of a much hardier nature than the globe, it requires to be earlier sown, comes later to maturity, and is better able to resist the winter frosts. Under judicious management, this variety produces abundant crops ; and though somewhat inferior in this respect to some of the white kinds, yet the roots are much more nutiitious, and ^\^ll maintain a larger number of stock than an ecpial quantity of globes, which compensates for any inferiority in regard to com- parative bulk of produce. The portion of the root which grows below ground is a deeji yellow orange, which remains permanent on exposure to the weather ; those bulbs that assume a whitish shade below, after being pulled, are not accounted gentiine. Being less juicy, and possessing a thicker rind than the white kinds, it is better adapted for storing, and when properly secured in dry weather will keep fresh for a considerable time. There are two sub-varieties of the yellow Aberdeen, distin- guished by the colour of the top, namely, the green and purple-topped kinds, the former of M'hich is the more esteemed for its fattening properties. Besides those already mentioned, there are a great number of approved varieties of yellow turnips cvdtivated in different localities, to which, however, it is unnecessary to refer in this place. The Swedish turnip is by far the most important species, and is undoubtedly the most valuable root in general cultivation for the feeding of stock. There are, no doubt, several other roots, such as potatoes, mangel wurzel, carrots, &c., that contain a larger proportion of nutritive matter ; and could these be raised with equal facility, they would of course be entitled to the preference. But, con- sidering the greater risk of failure, and the com- paratively smaller produce obtained at best, the turnip must still be regarded as superior to them all for feeding stock. The Swedish is, on several accounts, the most valuable kind ; no other can so well withstand the severities of the winter frosts, or so long retain its nutritive juices in spring. Gene- rally speaking, it is more difficult to raise than any of the common varieties, and is not so well adapted to elevated as low situations. It also re- quires a richer soil and a larger application of manure to bring it to perfection ; but when these are supphed, there is none that yields a more valua- THE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE. 531 ])le crop, or better repays the expense of cultiva- tion. Tlie Swedish possesses some vahiable pro- ])ertics, M'hich ^i\-e it a decided superiority over any of the other sorts. It is an important pccu- harity of this turnip, that the larger the bulbs grow, the greater quantity of nutritive matter they contain ; whereas the reverse is the case with the common kinds, which, it is well known, become soft and spongy after attaining a certain size. This un- doubtedly atlbrds a strong inducement to the far- mer to endeavour, by every means in his ])ower, to Ijring this valuable root to the largest size attain- able. The Swede is also of superior value, on account of perserving its juices till a late ])eriod in spring ; thus affording nutritious food to the stock from the time when other turnips become almost worthless, till the fields yield a plentiful pasturage. If projierly stored in dry weather, they will be found to have lost but little of their nutritive jiro- perties at the end of May. Anotlier imjjortant property of the Swedish turnip is that of bearing to be trans])lanted ; whereby the redundant jilants at one ])art of tlie field can Ije drawn to fill up any blank sj)aces that may ajipear. There are also several varieties of Swedes, some of which are distinguished by the coloiu* of the top, as the green and the purple-topped ; others by the names of the respective propagators, as Skirving's, Laings' &c. The latter kind i)ossesses the valuable j)ro- ])erty of retaining its nutritive juices till a later jieriod in the spring than most others, a circumstance which renders it well adapted for storing. The great number of existing \arieties of the turnip will not appear astonishing when it is con- sidered how readily new ones are jjropagatcd, l)oth l)y natural and artificial hybridising. It is proba- ble tliat most of those now in use have been ob- tained by the former ])rocess, which indeed can scarcely be prevented when different sorts grow to seed in the \'icinity of each other. Amongst the numerous hybrids between the Swedisli and com- mon turnip. Dale's is generally esteemed as one of the most valuable for solidity of texture, nutritive properties, and produce per acre. A full history of the propagation of this hybrid is given by jNIr. Lawson, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, the following extract from which may be interesting: — " Two years ago," says Mr. Lawson, " my attention was particularly attracted to the ])roduce of the sample of a hybrid turnip, or doubly-impreg- nated sort, the seed of which I received from Mr. Dale, a very intelligent farmer at Libl^erton, West Mains, near Edinburgh. It attracted my attention, first, on accoimt of its early growth and matura- tion ; secondly, its fine shape ; thirdly, by the great size to which it attained, in comparison with any other sort under similar treatment ; and, lastly, by its standing the winter equally well with any other turnip, except the Swedish. And, con- ceiving that the great desideratum in the selection of a proper variety of the turnij) is to obtain the greatest possible weight on a given space, and at a given expense of manure, this variety seems to be more adajjted to this end than any other sort hitherto introduced. The manner in which it was oljtained by Mr, Dale was the following : — In the year 1822 or 1823, he got a few ounces of seed of a new hybrid turnip from James Shireft', Esq., of Hastleridge, in Berwickshire. This Mr. Dale sowed, and he found the produce to resemble the Swedish in shape, but it had too few of the superior properties of that variety. He therefore picked out such as had most of tlie yellow appearance, and planted them along with some of the best Swedish which he could find. This he continued doing for four successive years, and since that period he has selected the l)est roots of the doubly- impregnated kind which he could find for raising seed, till they have attained the quality which they now possess." I have thus 1)riefly noticed the characters of the leading classes of the turnip, and, although there are many other approved varieties in general culti- vation, those referred to, viz., white-globe, green- top Aberdeen, purple-top Swede, and Dale's hybrid, are regarded as standard sorts, and have long ob- tained the preference among practical farmers ; some of them will be found adapted to every kind of soil to 1)e met with, and there are several other approved kinds which may also be jirofitably grown on some lands. But, notwithstanding the number and goodness of existing varieties, the propagation of new ones should be encouraged and skilfully l)ersevered in ; for there cannot be a doubt but that by judicious bybrisiding,and continued careful selection of large and well-formed bulbs, the exist- ing sorts would be veiy considerably improved. A statement of the comparative solidity, _ and of the nutritive properties of the three different kinds of turnips, viz., Swedish, yellow, and white, affords the l)est idea of their relative value as food. In the Agricultural Report of Aberdeenshire the specific gravity of these sorts is thus given- Specific gravity of vellow Swedes in Dec. r035 Ditto 'white ditto .. .. r022 Ditto yellow bullock .. .. 0-940 Ditto white-globe .. .. 0-840 Tlie sul)joincd table exhibits the nutritive pro- ducts of these turni])s, and of a few other roots, as ascertained by Sir H. Davy : — Name. Mucilage or Starch. Saccharine Matter. Swedish turnip - - 0 T)! Common turni]) - - 7 34 Potato From 200 to 155 From 20 to 15 Mangel wurzcl - - ! l-"^ 119 Carrot 3 9"> Parsnip - - . . 9 90 Cabbage I 41 24 Gluten. Extract or^Wholc Quantity of 1 Insoluble ' Soluble or Nutri- Matter. tive Matter. 2 1 From 40 to 30 4 6S3 tills. FARMElVS MAGAZINE. According to the same authority, the quantity of nutritive matter contained in an average crop per acre of the diiFerent kinds is as follows : — • Produce. Nutritive Matter. Swedish turnip . . 30 tons. . . 1 ton 16 cwt. Green-top yellow 30 „ .. 1 „ 10 „ White globe . . 35 „ • • 1 „ 8 „ The turnip being,as we have already stated, one of our jjrincipal fallow or cleaning crops, it should in- variably commence the rotation, succeeding one corn crop and preceding another. Formerly none but the lightest description of land was considered at all suitable to the growth of this crop, most probably because no other could be reduced and prepared in a sufficient manner for the seed ; but owing to the extension of thorough draining, and the employment of improved and efficient imple- rnents, intelligent farmers are now enabled in or- dinary seasons to make the stiffest land produce good crops. Undrained clay-soils are obviously the least adapted to the production of turnips, as the l)ulbs never attain any considerable size on wet land, unless in very favourable seasons ; and even then, the produce is far short of what it would be it the land were properly drained. Every farmer must also be aware of the difficulty of carting the crop off Met clays, as well as the injury necessarily sustained by the land in doing so. Hence draining is the first and most essential preparatory ojieration, if the land be not already sufficiently dry; for, without it, the most laborious cultivation and the most enriching manure will, in most in- stances, fail to produce an abundant crop. Thorough draining, minute pulverization, and li- beral manviring, will render almost any kind of soil, however unproductive in its natural state, fa- vourable to the growth of the turnip. All that it requires is a dry, rich, and well pulverized soil, and these conditions must be secured in order to obtain the maximum return, whatever the nature of the land may be. By judicious management, and the ap2)hcation of sufficient manure, the Swede can be raised on almost any description of dry land ; but the bulbs attain the largest size on deej), rich loam. It is often very difficult to secure a good braird on stitr soils, however well drained and liberally lua- nured, though when the young plants are well started, the crop usually turns out satisfactorily. Such soils are naturally ill-suited for the cultivation of the turnip ; but skilful management may con- quer the most stu])l3orn land, and surmount every difficulty. On farms consisting of a variety of soils, the lightest is reserved for white turni])s, the medium quahty for the yellow, and the strongest and best for the Swedish. In the preparation of the soil for this and other green crops, deep cultivation is an object of pri- mary importance, especially where the land had been previously drained. The subsoil plough may be employed with much advantage in deepening the soil, particularly if it be incumbent upon an impervious tilly bottom. Trench ploughing is also sometimes resorted to at this stage, and usually with the most beneficial results. But when neither of these operations is carried into eflfect, the land should be ploughed with as deep a furrow as can be accomplished with the common plough ; and the sooner it is performed after the removal of the corn crop the better. Many farmers object to deep ploughing before winter, as it buries the weeds beyond the influence of the frost, and the opera- tions of the tillage implements in spring. This no doubt verj' often occurs ; but it is entirely the re- sult of very defective management. It is in con- sequence of gross mismanagement that the ground becomes so much infested with weeds as to prevent it from being deeply jiloughed at a time when its exposiu-e to the influence of the weather is so much to be desired. It is of the utmost importance that the first ploughing should be performed as early in autumn as the concluding operations of the harvest will permit, that the soil may derive the full benefit of a lengthened exposure to the influence of the frost. It is, in fact, a work of great difficulty to reduce stift' clay to a sufficiently fine mo\dd for turnips, unless it be ploughed early before winter, and exj)osed to the action of the frost, by the powerful influence of which its subsequent pulverization is most materially facilitated. Where the land is not naturally of a porous texture, nor made so by drainage and deep cultivation, means must be adopted to prevent the stagnation of water upon the surface. For this purpose the curvature of the ridges is to be preserved by gathering or casting them, keeping the interfurrows oj)en for the pas- sage of water. It is scarcely necessary to observe that by preserving the land in as dry a condition as possible during the winter months, its pulveri- zation is considerably facilitated in spring ; whereas if saturated with moisture, it becomes soured, to use a common expression, is seldom ready for being worked at the proper time, and M'ill, in most cases, produce an inferior crop the ensuing season. The further preparation of the turniji land is re- sumed as early in the spring as the other labours of the farmx as that busy period will allow. Should any ])ortion of it be more than usually infested with weeds, the sooner it receives a furrow the better, in order to check their growth. As the Swedes require to be earliest sown, the preparation of the land intended for them commences imme- diately after the sowing of the corn crops, and the planting of potatoes are concluded. The first opera- tion in spring should be a good harrowing, to reduce the winter furrows jireparatory to cross- ploughing ; but this is frequently dispensed with, and is, perhaps, unnecessary on friable land, though it should not, in my opinion, be omitted, unless the furrow-slices of the winter-ploughing are well cruml)led down. By harrowing the ground, a firmer footing is afforded to one of the horses in ploughing, which considerably diminishes the labour ; and many weeds will at the same time be disengaged, which are, of course, to be collected, and taken oft' the land before it is ploughed. When deep oj)en furrows occur between the ridges, thej' are filled up with a few furrow-slices from each side, which renders the surface more uniform for sub- sequent operations. The first spring ])loughing should also be given with a deep furrow, which \vill be the more easily accomplished if that of the preceding winter had been of sufficient depth. From eight to ten inches may be taken with ad- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. m vantage, and this will be as much as a pair of horses are capable of drawing ; but a three-horse team is often employed at this stage, even in those ])arts of the country where economy of laboiu- is most strictly attended to, and almost uniforndy with advantage. In fact, the land cannot be too deo])ly ploughed when gi\ing the fn-st cross-furrow in spring, unless it be of a sliallow nature, and rest- ing ujjon a bad sidjsoil, which it would be inju- ihcious to bring to the surface at this period. The nature and amount of the subsetpient pre- paratory operations entirely depend on the texture of the soil and the state of the weather. Should j the land be of a friable nature, comparatively free from weeds, and have been ])l(jughed in due time , l)efore winter, its preparation is attended with little difficulty, and is speedily accomphshed. One spring ploughing, with the requisite harrowing, will generally suffice ; but in some cases of even light land, another ploughing will be necessary l)efore the ground can be properly jjulverized and cleared of weeds. When two spring jiloughings are lequired, the first is usually given in a direction at right angles to the line of the ridges ; and should the weather be droughty at the time, the harrow and roller closely follow the plough — the former to reduce the newly turned-up soil, and the latter to consolidate the surface, so as to prevent tlie eva])oration of the moisture it contains. The weeds must, however, be carefully collected, and removed oft" the field ; and if very numerous, the grubber or cultivator is usefully emjdoyed in dragging them to the stn-face with its long- curved teeth, besides assisting at the same time in reducing the soil. Indeed, in light land this in- valuable implement is often made to super- sede the plough after the first spring furrow has Ijeen given. It is far superior to the plough in brealiing and loosening the soil, wliich it does to a considerable depth ; and it is much more expeditious, which is an imjjortant consideration at such a busy season. Sbould the ground not be sufficiently jndverized and cleaned after these operations, another ploughing is bestowed diago- nally through the field, which acts eftectively in i)reaking the soil than i)loughing twice consecu- tively in the same direction. It is to be again harrowed, rolled, and also grubbed if necessary, after which it is formed into drills when the projjcr seed-time arrives. Wlien the land is much infested with weeds in consequence of jjrevious mismanagement, the fol- lowing mode of cvdture is sometimes jjursued : — Shortly after the removal of the corn-crop, the ground is ribbed up with the common plough ; this is an imperfect kind of iiloughing, somewhat resembling drilling, in which a shallow furrow-slice is laid over on as much of the solid land as it covers. It is resorted to merely for the purpose of more speedily and efiectually destroying root-weeds, l)y exjiosing more of the imder surface of the furrow- slice to the action of the frost than could be done in the ordinary modeof i)lougluiig. Many farmers allow the land to remain in tliis state till the usual time fur cross-ploughing in spring ; but others, with more judgment, reverse the autumn-formed ribs about the beginning of February, if the weather prove favourable at that period. The portion of the ground formerly left unjiloughed is then turned up to the weather, in which state it remains until the proi)er time arrives to conunence its preparation (or the crop. It is then well harrowed, to level the ribs and disengage the weeds from the soil, which are immediately collected and taken oft" the land, after which it is i)luughed with as deep a furrow as the horses are able to draw. On becoming suf- ficiently dry, the ground is drag-harro',veil or grubbed to bring the weeds to the surface, which are again gathered oft". If it be not properly re- duced and cleaned after being well grubbed, har- rowed, and rolled, another ploughing is given hi a (hrection crossing tlie last, and the same subsidiary operations arc rejjcated as before ; after \\'hich the ground is, in most cases, in a suitable condition for being formed into drills for the reception of the manure and seed. Ahhough I have here adverted in detaU to this ])ractice, which is common in se- veral jiarts of England, under dift'erent apjiellations, and also in the north of Scotland, I am, however, far from ajjproving of it. I consider it merely as one of those injudicious exi)edients resorted to by incorrect farmers when they allow their land to become overgrown with weeds. On light lands, such as we have been hitherto considering, the cultivation of the turniji is at- tended with comparatively little ditficulty in ordi- nary seasons ; l)ut on the stift'er class of soils, which in their natural state are altogether unsuited to turnip-husbandry, the requisite pulverization of the ground for such small seeds as those of the turnip, is a much more precarious and difficult task. The leading objects to be attended to in the jn-eparation of the soil for this crop, are minute pulverization, thorough eradication of weeds, and the accomplishment of these in due season ; for a proper seed-lime is just as essential as anything else towards securing an abundant croj). "Whatever course of tillage, therefore, circumstances may in- duce the farmer to adopt, the attainment of these primary objects must be constantly ke\>t in view. Nothing, as we have had occasion already to ob- serve, tends so much to facilitate the preparation of the soil for this and other green crops, as deep and early jjloughing in autunni. And this is jiarticu- larly necessary in the case of clay soils, the due pulverization of which, unaided by the mellowing infiuence of the winter's frost, would be attended with an amount of lal)our and expense which the ])ro(luce of the turnip crop itself would by no means repay. The second ploughing is given as early !8 convenient in sjjring. in order to check the growth of weeds. It may be given in a direition at right angles to the autunui i)loughiug ; that is, directly across the ridges, if the land be drained ami no im- mediate danger of wet weather apprehended ; Itt.t if it be undrained, and the weather unsettled at the time, it is ])rcferable to jilough again longitudinally, reversing the original furrow-slices, and keeping some of the interfurrows open for the jjassage of water. The ground, on becoming sufticienlly dry, after being ploughed, is repeatedly harrowed in dillerent directions, to 1)rcak down the clods while soft, and to expose root weeds. There arc two pre- cautions to be parlicularly observed in harrowing 534 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. clay soils, while undergoing the preparatory tillage for green crops, to which it may be proper to advert. In the first place, the operation should never be performed in wet weather, or when immediate rain is apprehended; for when clay land lies in a re- duced state, vdth an even surface, one day's rain does more injury and retards the process longer than thrice the quantity if the ground had not been harrowed at all. The reason of this is too obvious, and the fact itself too u'ell known to require any explanation. But on the other hand, in droughty weather, clay soil should be well harrowed as soon as j)ossible after being ploughed, as the influence of the sun quickly converts the newly turned up earth into indurated clods, on which the combined operations of the harrow and roller produce little effect until they become again softened by a co- pious shower. Inattention to these useful maxims of tillage, frequently occasions much additional labour and delay in the preparation of clay soils. The grubber, cultivator, or scarifier, is a use- ful auxiliary to the plough and harrow in the ])reparation of the land for turnips. It serves the double purpose of dragging up weeds to the sur- face with its strong curved teeth, which penetrate to a considerable depth, and it greatly assists in pulvei-izing the soil ; indeed, in this respect it is nuich superior to either the plough or harrow. It is preferable to the plough in loosening and break- ing the soil, wthout bringing u]) any fresh earth from below, or burying the dry mould on the sur- face. With regard to the operation of grubbing, it may be remarked, that it is most effectually per- formed M'hen the land is in a dry state ; if saturated with moisture, the teeth of the instrument cut through, but do not break or pulverize the soil. Prior to the invention of Finlayson's harrow, which was the first of this class of inplements of any prac- tical utility made in Scotland, it must have re- quired a great deal of jiloughing, harrowing, and r(jlling to pulverize and clean stiff soils in a suit- able manner for green crops. This instrument, in its new and improved form, is undoubtedly of great value to the tillage farmer; but it has been superseded in many districts by others of a lighter and more convenient form. Both England and Scotland are now well provided with superior im- plements of this class, the emjjloyment of which materially diminishes the labour and expense of culti\'ating fallow crops. As the eradication of weeds is one of the primary objects to be secured in the preparation of the land for turnips, no ])ains should be spared in effecting their complete destruction. Couch, or quich grass {Trificimirepens), is exceedingly difficult to extir- l)ate, especially in moist weather; and when the land is much infested with this troublesome pest, its collection must be assiduously persevered in while a root remains to be seen. This is the proper and most convenient ]ieriod of the rotation to clean the ground, and much of the ^•alue of the turnip as a fallow crop depends on the exertions made to ac- comphsh that desirable object. AN'hen sufficient ])ains are taken, there is no land so foul but maybe ellectually cleaned without resorting to a naked iallou'. It is an extremely false economy to j)ass vi\acious weeds with only a partial gathering, as the roots left behind are sure to multiply to such an ex- tent as to create a great deal of after labour and an- noyance. In some seasons, the heat of the sun is sufficient to destroy the vitality of the weeds ex- Ijosed to its influence, and in this case they may be ploughed under with safety and advantage ; but unless the soil is finely pulverized, large quantities of the roots will remain incased in the indurated clods, which the action of the solar rays cannot aftect ; and on the return of moisture, they wU again vegetate with vigour. The safest course to adopt in most cases, is to gather the weeds into small heaps, and afterwards remove them to some convenient corner of either that or the field to be m.a- nured the ensuing year, where they are subsequently formed into a compost with quicklime, which de- stroys their vegetati^'e powers, and converts the whole mass into an excellent top-dressing. Some farmers consider that the best way of getting rid of these weeds is to burn them in heaps, and scatter the ashes over the ground. This, no doubt, is an eftectual way of destroying the vitality of the weeds ; but it is l)y no means the most econo- mical mode of disposing of them ; foi%when decom- posed in a heap, and incoi'porated with a quantity of quicklime, or saturated with urine from the tanks, they form a valuable species of manure. The weeds brought to the surface by the preced- ing operations being collected and removed, the land is ready for the second spring ploughing, which is given in a contrary direction to the last, and the process of harrowing, rolling, grubbing, and weed-gathering are repeated, after which, if the land be not yet sufficiently cleaned and pul- verized, it is again ploughed and treated as before, Vv'hen these objects \\dll, in most cases, be attained. With regard to the operation of rolling, the ob- servations made in refei'ence to harrowing clay land apply with equal force to it. To use either imiilement efficiently, attention must be paid to the condition of the soil and the state of the weather. It is only v/hen the land is dry that the pressure of the roller can have any effect in pulverizing it; if it is in any degree saturated with moisture, its api)lication con- solidates the soil so much, that when again ploughed it turns up in raw compact slices. Light dry land should, however, be roUed as soon as jiossible after being ploughed and harrowed, in order to prevent the evaporation of the moisture. These pi'ecau- tions may, jjerhaps, appear imdeserving of special notice ; but in the variable climate of tliis country, the successful cultivation of the soil requires the strictest attention to every circumstance affecting the farmer's operations, especially in the pre])aration of clay soils for turnips. An excess oj" a deficiency of moisture, it must be remembered, is equally inimical to the proi)er pulverization of such land ; and the course of proceeding to be adopted will, in a great measure, be determined according as either predominates. In the case of large fields, it ap- pears to be a useful precaution to prepare only small portions at once, while the weather re- mains unsettled ; thus jjerforming all the necessaiy processes of i)ulverization, weed-gathering, drilling, and sowing, in close succession ; after which, ano- ther jiortion of the field is to be similarly treated and sown. This piecemeal preparation of the soil THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 535 may appear to be a tedious mode of proceeding ; Ijut such is not actually the case, and the practice goes far to ob^•iate the injury and delay which fre- (juently arise from having a large breadth of land in a half-pulverized state on the approach of wet weather. But, of course, this precaution is neces- sary only in unfavouraljle seasons. Should a long continuance of such weather occur, delay, until the land becomes sufficiently dry, is far more prefer- able than ploughing and poaching through it while in a ^^■et state. Clay, it is well known, expands vi'hen saturated with moisture ; and in this condition it is utterly impossible to reduce it to that fine state of division which is so essential for the germination of the seed, and for pushing fonvard the growth of the young turnip plant. If jjloughed, or otherwise worked while in a wet state, the soil is consolidated, or runs together, to use the common phrase, so as to require a great (k'al of after labour to etl'ect its pul- verization. Necessary delay, then, becomes far more expeditious at the end than precipitation. Nor is less vigilance required in droughty sea- sons, especially on imdrained, stift" soils, as by the jjreparatory tillage the moisture is so com- jjletely dissipated before the ground can be reduced to the necessary tilth, that tbe small seeds of the turnij) can scarcely be ex])ected to germinate at all in such an unfavourable l)ed ; or if the plants do come up, it will be in so weakly a state as to render them an easy prey to the devouring fly. In this case, the land should be well harrowed and rolled as soon as possible after being ploughed ; for, if delayed too long, the slices are apt to be baked by the heat of the sun into hard clods, hke bricks, which can afterwards be reduced only jjy very heavy rolling, or the ap])lication of Croskill's clod-crusher, which is found to be an efficient implement in \ni\- verizing clay soils. The foregoing remarks, how- ever, apply chiefly to adhesive land, on which the oflfects of drought and of over-wetness are equally opposed to its j)roper pulverization. AVith a view of surmounting these difficulties, the practice of giving clay land a thorough autumn tillage has jjeen jjroposed and adojjted in some quarters with success. The stubble ground intended for turnijjs is ploughed, soon after the removal of the croj), to such a de])th as may not bury the weeds too dee}) if the land be in a foul state. After being sufliciently harrowed, grul)bed, and rolled, the drills are formed and the dung covered in the usual manner. In this state it remains throughout the winter ; and at seed-time the soil, however stift", is invariably found to l)e in a highly pulverized condition, from the action of the frost. The drills arc then lightly harrowed, to destroy any annual weeds that may be springing uj), after which the doid)le mould-board plough is passed between them to raise the earth up again, and the seed is deposited in the usual way by the sowing-machine. I have been thus somewhat tedious in my re- marks on the pre])arali()n of diftcrent soils for tlie turnip crop, and have, perhaps, adverted to par- ticulars which may be considered too obvious or unim])()rtant to recpiire special notice ; but remem- liering that tl\e value, not only of the turnip croj) itself, but ui:~o of the succeeding ones in the rota- tion, depends so nuich on the efficiency of the til- lage bestowed on the soil, I have preferred minute- ness of detail even at the risk of incurring the charge of proUxity. Numerous circumstances may, however, arise, which will render it necessaiy to de\-iate from the modes of proceeding here de- scribed; but the intelligent farmer will vary his practice to suit the different circumstances in which he may be placed. It is scarcely necessarj^ to ob- serve, that the preparation of the soil for turnips afl'ords a good opportunity for the removal of stones or other obstacles to tillage. Some small stones will hkewise be occasionally found on the surface,^ which will, of course, l)e collected and taken off the land before forming the drills. The turnij) should "^invariably be cultivated in drills or ridgelets, for the following, among other reasons : — The manure can be more directly and conveniently applied to the croj), in order to push forward the young i)lants beyond the most critical stage of their gro\rth ; the plants can be thinned with greater facihty, and the intervals between the rows admit of a considerable amount of tillage dur- ing the summer months. The merits of the drill- culture of turnips do not, however, consist so much in producing a heavy crop, as in enabling the farmer to effect the destruction of weeds, and other- wise prepare the soil for the production of succeed- ing crops. Indeed, in so far as regards the turnip itself, a better arrangement of the plants than in straight, equidistant rows might possibly be adopted. Thus, if the seeds could be so deposited on a level surface as to come up at equal distances from each other, it would, no doubt, l)e a better arrangement, so far as regards the growth of the plants, than the drill system ; but it would obx-i- ously preclude the oi)erations of the plough and horse-hoe in after culture, and thus the value of this as a fallow-crop would be greatly diminished. Hut, notwithstanding those undoubted adwintages, the drill-culture of turnips does not appear to be yet quite general in England ; the l)road-cast mode of sowing being not uncommon in many quarters. The seeds are often scattered promiscuously, and sometimes deposited in rows on the flat surface, which is an approximation to the raised drills ge- nerally adopted in well cultivated districts, and to which I shall here confine my observations. The distance between the drills is dependent, in some degree, on the condition of the soil, and tlie variety of turnijjs to be grown. On lands in a high state of cultivation, where large bulbs and leaves may be exjjccted, the breadth of the drills must obviously be greater than is necessary on less fertile soils. It is also evident that tho.se varieties of the turnij) that j)ossess large foliage reejuire more room to grow than such as have smaller leaves ; thus, the Swede does not require so wide intervals between the drills as the white or yellow kinds, l)ecause its leaves do not grow so luxuriantly. lUit it is a ma- nifest error to make the drills for any kind of turnij)s over-narrow, as it is well known that a free circulation of air is absolutely essential to the perfect develojjnient of tbo j)lants; but when the ' intervals between the rows are not of suflicient ; breadth, the huge si)reading leaves exclude the ad- ; mission of light and air to the bulljs, and a free ' circulation cannot be obtained. Besides, when the 536 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ilrills are too narrow, the action of the horse-hoe in the after- culture is confined, and produces but a Hmited effect. The intervals should never be less than twenty-six inches for Swedes, the softer kinds requiring a little more space ; but twenty-seven inches is found to be a good standard breadth for all kinds. The proper seed-time is dependent u])on the variety to be grown, the condition of the soil, and the climate of the locality. The farmer finds it of much convenience to cultivate several varieties of turnij)s, each requiring a different seed-time, and coming to maturity at different periods. It serves to divide the la1)our of spring, and affords a supply of green food for the stock when the pastures be- come bare. On farms where a large extent is an- nually to be prepared for turnips, it would be al- most impossible to get the ground ready in a suffi- cient manner within the period best calculated to insure the most abundant return of one variety ; besides, the hoeing and thinning process could not be attended to at the proper time. Hence, the ne- cessity and propriety of growing different kinds. The Swedish turnip is to be sown earliest, as it re- quires the longest time to come to maturity ; then the different yellow sorts, in the order of their com- parative hardiness ; and the white, last of all. Again, on cold, retentive soils, it is necessary to sow earher than on those that are dry and rich, where the plants are likely to grow up quickly. As a general rule, where the condition or situation of the soil is such as to induce quick vegetation and rapid growth, it is less adapted for early sowing than hmd of a different character. But again, the cli- mate of particular districts, which mainly depends on their latitude and elevation, has a considerable influence in determining the proper seed-time, not only for turnips, but for each of our cultivated plants. The farther north, and more elevated the locality is, the earlier must the turnip seed be so\\ti ; thus, the variety that must be sown for a general crop in Aberdeenshire, in the first and second weeks of May, could not, with propriety, be sown in the south of England till the first week in June, because it grows more rapidly and comes sooner to maturity in the latter quarter. In general, from the 10th to the end of May is the most favourable time for sowing Swedish turnips. If sown earher, they are apt to ripen, and send forth their flower-stems prematurely ; and if much later than the last week in May, and the season turn out unfavourable, the crop is likely to be deficient both in quantity and cpiality of produce. Dales hybrid, Aberdeen yellow, and other allied kinds, are sown next ; the proper seed-time for which is during the middle and latter part of June. The globe, and other white sorts, are sown up to the middle of July, after which it is not advisable to sow turni])s, unless from absolute necessity, or under ver)' favourable circumstances. It is well known that common turnips, if sown prior to the first week in June, are liable to send forth their flower-stems before the end of the year, which, of course, deteriorates the bull)s as food for stoi_k. It is also generally known that, when sown too earl)', the croj) comes to maturity before being required for consumption ; and the later they are sown, the better wijl they be enabled to withstand the influence of the winter* and the longer will they retain their nutritive juices. We have thus seen that early and late sowing have each its advantages ] but the intelligent farmer will be guided by circumstances in regulating the seed- time for the different kinds of turnips which he cul- tivates. {To be continued.) MEETING OF MEMBERS OF THE FAR- MERS' CLUB. DISADVANTAGES OF GROWING HEDGE-ROW TIMBER ON FARM LANDS. The Monthly Meeting of the Farmers' Ckd) took place on Monday evening. May 5 — Mr. Baker, of Writtle (Essex), in the chair. The attendance of members was imusually numerous. The subject of discussion for the evening was " The disadvantage of hedge-row timber to landlord and tenant," to be brought forward by Mr. Knight, of Edmonton, at six o'clock. Mr. Baker said the time for their discussion had arrived, and as the business on hand was the question of the disadvantages of growing hedge-row timber on farm lands, he l^egged to call upon Mr. Knight, who had given notice of his intention to favour them with some remarks upon this interesting sub- ject (hear). Mr. Knight said, that in opening the discussion of this subject he must say that he felt somewhat incompetent to the task of doing it justice, but as he had given notice of his intention to do so, he would proceed to its performance to the best of his abilities — [hear) — not doubting that he should be followed by some of the gentlemen present in such a way as to convince them at the close of the even- ing they would not go away without having gained some valuable information. He proposed to look at the question as it affected the interests of Ijoth landlord and tenant. He M-as not disposed to quarrel vAiii the practice of growing hedge-row timber in meadow and pasture lands, but go at once to the consideration of the subject in relation to arable land (hear) ; for he thought they would all agree with him in believing that in the case of arable land there was much more injury done to the interests of the farm by hedge-row timber, than on meadow and pasture land (liear). He be- lieved that with regard to the tenant farmers this subject came next in importance to game ; it was in fact the next greatest nuisance. He regarded game as nuisance No. 1, and hedge-row timber as nuisance No. 2 {hear, and a laucjh). In order to show the disadvantages to the landlord of grow- ing hedge-row timber, let them take, for example, 100 acres of land, divided into enclosures of from .5 to 15 acres each, to have 200 trees growing thereon, and granting them to be worth in 50 years time, the sxun of 30s. each, they would realize £300. If the land wtre cleared of the trees, no tenant would object to pay an additional rental of Is. per acre, which on the 100 acres would amount to £5 per annum. Now if this sum were annually in- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 537 vested at £3 per cent, per annum, during a period j of C)0 years it would produce .£'500, thereby shew- injr a balance of £'2G0 in fav()ur of the landlord. Now I f/o a little further, and double the number of trees upon tlie 100 acres, their ])eriod of growth floo years being the presumed period in which timber trees arrive at maturity), and the additional rental. Now juitting 400 trees at the average value of £5 each, they would realize the sum of £'2000 ; and valuing the laiul at an a, being an average, in round numbers, of 3700 for each parish, equal to 1051 miles in length, about half as long again as the great wall of China, and suthcient to hedge round the whole of P^ngland {hear, and a laugh). He thought he had said enough to show them that, in a jjecuniary jioint of view, the landlord was a very great loser by this practice, and he was quite sure it required no further argument to show that the tenant was also. If it met with the ajijirobation ofthe meeting, he should, at the close of their discus- sion, move a resolution embodying their opinions upon this imjiortant subject [hear, hear). Mr. SiiAW said he was quite sure that they would all feel very much gratified with the atten- tion which their friend Mr. Knight had ]md to the consideration of this subject, and more especially so at the very practical manner in which he had treated it (hear, hear). He had not attemi)ted to ca])tivate tliem by any fine language, but had con- fined himself to sound statistical statements, which, in matters relating to agriculture, were highly im- portant (hear, hear). He (Mr. Shaw) felt, however, some difliculty in reconciling the two positions which he thought he had attemi)tcd to establish, namely, that the landlord was injured, and that the tenant was more injured by the practice of growing hedge-row timber. Now, there were certain moot questions which used to be considered landlords' questions and not tenants' (juestions, and on the other iiand,(]uestionswliich were considered tenants* (piestions and not landlords' (piestic.ns [hear, hear). The observations which he was about to make had occurred to him while Mr. Knight was s])eaking ; he had not considered the subject pre- viously, nor was he so well (juahfied to speak ujion it as that gentleman, but he did conceive that this was purely a landlords' question, and not a tenants' 538 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. question {hear, hear). Whatever might have been the case in times gone by, he trusted the time was rapidly approaching when the question of advan- tage or disadvantage with respect to occupation of farms would become a mere matter of contract be- tween the landlord and tenant, and when rents would be commensurate with the advantages or disadvantages of the position of the tenant. There was no doubt that the loss of wheat was very consi- derable where land was encumbered with timber, but he did hold that the injury was greater to the landlord than to the tenant. Whatever the disad- vantage to the tenant was, from the growth of tim- ber, it was not one which came upon him after he had entered upon the occu])ancy of his farm [hear, hear). No doubt, as ]Mr. Knight had said, game stood as nuisance No. 1, and timber as nuisance No. 2. If a tenant took a farm, and the game was afterwards considerably inci'eased, he had certainly great cause of complaint, as he also would if his landlord, after letting him the farm, were to proceed to plant a quantity of timber. But he did hope they would hear no more about the disadvantages to tenants in reference to this subject, when they took the farms with their eyes open (hear, and a laurjh). I'here was another little point in which also he differed from Mr. Knight, and that was his assertion that the injury of timber was greater in arable land than in meadow or pasture land. Now, inasmuch as it made labour in arable more diffi- cult, so far he would admit that the injury was greater ; but as far as it affected the crops of hay, he (Mr. Shaw) thought that there was as great and serious an injury done to pasture land as there could be in the case of arable land. He should not, however, feel any sj^mpathy with the tenant, if he did not keej) his eyes open and look to his own interests [hear, hear). Mr. Wyatt said he entirely agreed with tlie gentleman who had last addressed them (Mr. Shaw) that this was a landlords' and not a tenants' ques- tion— (hear, hear) — and one that it behoved the landlord to look to in regulating his rental. Tliere were, however, in some portions of Sussex, Surrey, and Kent, lands which were more favourable to the growth of timber than anything else. In those ])laces timber seemed to be \\\&\r forte. Mr. Knight had S])oken of the necessity of allowing timber to grow fifty years before cutting, in fact that it was not of a cixtable age until after a i)eriod of fifty years had elapsed; but his (Mr. Wyatt's) view of the matter was that timber was at a cutable age whenever it stopped succession. He was quite prepared to prove this ; and he thought also that timber might be grown in hedge rows, without any serious in- jury, so long as there was a continued cutting and a continued succession. This mode of ju'oceeding would pay the landlord much better than allowing the timber to grow for fifty years without cutting at all — (hear) — and if tlie space shaded was to the extent of only five or six feet, the injury done was very small. 'I'hat must be admitted by every one {no, no). He certainly thought the size of the tree was a very material jioint as affecting the interests of the tenant, and that whether it grew one, two, or three yards into the field was an important consi- deration {hear). There was frequently a very ccm- I siderable profit upon the growth of timber, but it should be confined to soil which was fit for nothing I else, or if grown at all there should be an acreage allowance to the tenant for the injury done to his farm thereby {hear, hear). Captain Aitcheson thought the best practical mode of proceeding with regard to the growth o£ timber would be to devote certain portions of land exclusively to the growth of timber, lea\'ing those portions intended for farming purposes entirely free {hear, hear). He quite went with Mr. Knight in his remarks upon the injurious and prejudicial effects of the roots of the trees, and thought he had kept ^-ery much within the mark in what he had stated {hear). In corn which grew near the hedge rows you saw nothing but blighted ears. If the tenant thus suffered, it would ill become them if they did not suggest to the landlord the practica- bility of growing both timber and corn, but of keeping them perfectly distinct and separate from each other. This ^A'as the only way of making the landlord and tenant meet pleasantly and derive mutual advantage {hear, hear). Mr. Ander.son said he should not have taken upon himself to address the meeting had not this been a subject to which he had turned his attention ; he had discussed it with the late Lord Spencer and the present Duke of Bedford, when Marquis of Tavistock. On the Duke of Bedford's estate the rule was to cut down the timl)er every ten years. On each side of the rows were a hedge and ditch ; and what was the consequence ? Why, that there was an absolute loss of land on both sides [hear, hear). He had kept an exact account of what the timber came to on this estate in six years; it was £18, so that he would leave it to be supposed what must have been the loss by growing timber on that land. He, as the steward of the estate, accordingly applied for leave to grub the trees up. At that time there were a great many poor in the parish, and he believed every farmer was insolvent. He was, consequently, applied to on the subject of bettering the condition of the la- bouring poor, upon which he suggested that thej' should be employed in digging, draining, and ploughing the land ; and Lord Spencer came for- ward at once, and said, " I will bear half the expense with Lord Tavistock." A quantity of land was well and thoroughly drained ; but had the timber not been got rid of, all the drains would soon have been stopped up {hear). He I'ecollected Lord Spencer getting up and stating his objection to hedge-row timber ; his Lordship complained that a pole and a-half or two poles of land were always injured on the north-east side, wherever the timber grew. There were many persons who had formerly cried down these opinions who were now ready to go the whole hog with them {hear, and a langh). He (Mr. Anderson) should be very glad if the land- lords would take their ad^•ice upon this point. There was a place for every thing, and if the land were poor and sandy, it would be found to grow larch very well, and if better, oak and ash ; but hedge-row thnber he regarded as the greatest curse which could be inflicted iqjon the tenant farmer [hear, hear). He did not speak as a young beginner : he had known Kent e^'er since 1814, and had THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 639 travelled through Devonshire : the latter county was, abo^-e all others he had seen, surrounded by hedge rows of timber. 'Hiey had, howe\-cr, latterly felled a good deal, and thereby considerably opened and enlarged their fields. They could now see whe- ther a man had got into trouble or not [hear, anil a hiiKjh). AVith regard to the size of fields upon strong lands, he recommended fields of a moderate size, say from twelve to fifteen acres, not too deep, because in the event of storms and heavy rains, they got washed too much ; but if they were long and not too deej), the rapidity of the water would be checked, and the soil would not be deteriorated. It might perhaps be thought that, connected as he was with the interest of the landlord, he was too much advocating the rights of the tenant. But he thought that in sjieaking up for the tenant he was doing the greatest service to the cause of the land- lord. If the mutual interests of landlord and tenant were projierly looked at, it would be a great advantage to all parties [hear, hear). Mr. Ellmax said Mr. Wyatt had oiFered to the meeting some observations which he thought it was necessary to take notice of. He had stated what a])peared to him to be rather a startling fact, that there was more land better adapted to growing tim- ber than anything else. He thought he would have some difficulty in establishing that position. In some parts of Surrey and Sussex, there was so nuich timber grown on the land, that it would grow nothing else, and draining was quite impossible {hear, hear). He had had some experience in the tenacious lands, which were suj)])osed best for growing oak ; but by removing the timber and draining the land, the soil was completely changed [hear, hear). There was a great difference in the nature and extent of the injury done ])y timber, depending U])on the description of timber grown. The difference in the cfifects of the oak and the elm were very great; the one injuretl by its roots, the (42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Shaw, seconded by Captain Aitcheson, he Avithdrew from it the jiortion relating to that part of the sub- ject, and exjjressed a hope that some other gentle- man would luring the matter forward at a future meeting as a substantive motion. Thanks were tlien voted to Mr. Baker for his conduct in the chair, and the meeting broke up. SELECT DRESSINGS FOR THE "AGRI- CULTURAL GUIDE PLOTS." TO THE EDITOR OF THE WEST BRITON." Sin, — llie following list of some of the most successful dressings, you ought to have had two or three weeks ago ; but leisure has not served to complete it, till now. In fact, their selection from upwards of 1000 experiments reported in the appendix to Johnstone's Lectures, and in the jour- nals of the English and Scotch Agricultural Socie- ties, was rather a puzzling task. The differences of %oil, climate, culture, and rotation, which are given in the reports, have great influence on the results ; but cannot be detailed in a list of this kind. Some of the products, too, are larger than those here given ; but under circumstances requiring more explanation than is suited either to your columns or my leisure. AVHEAT. t top dress. d drill. I hquid Quantity. Produce. Cwt. Bushels. Sulphate of ammonia 1 t 54 Super-phosphate of lime> 6 t 53| Rape dust 10 to 15 d 50 Guano 3 t 45 Nitre 1 cwt and salt 1^ ^ 43 Nitrate of soda 1 cwt, . and salt.. \h t 43 BARLEY. Guano Nitr. of soda \ cwt. . . . salt. . . Nitr. of potass 1 cwt.. . salt. . . Nitrate of soda Sulphate of magnesia Salt.... t t t n s t 64 56 55^ 55 54 OATS. Nitr. soda and salt, each ^ t 75 Bone dust 4 d 72.^ Guano 2 t 70 Nitrate of soda ( •, , , , Sulphate of soda S ^^^^^ '^^' Bone 3 cwt. and sulphuric acid I5 Z 62 Sulphate of soda 1 5 Nitrate of soda , 14 62 61 HAY. Cwt. Sulphate of ammonia 1 t 70 Nitrate of soda 2 t 69 Sulphate of soda 3 / 65 Nitrate of soda 1 t 64 Salt 3 t Guano.,,...,,, 2 t 55 52^ Quantity. Produce. BEANS. Cwt. Bushels. Nitr. soda and sulphate do., each l^ t 70 Gypsum 4 t ii7 Nitr. of soda and gypsum t PEAS. Gypsum 4 t Slj Sulphate of soda 2 t 51 Sulphate of soda Nitrate of soda t POTATOES. Nitr. soda and suli)hate do., each 1 t Nitrate of soda and sulphate of "1 , , magnesia, each , 48 Bags. 428 360 '\ 302 244 213 Sulphate of soda ^* ^^ Sulphate of ammonia f j Nitr. of soda 2 cwt. sulphate do. 1 t Sulphate of soda 1 Sulphate of ammonia i Sulphate of magnesia I cwt. with ^ ^ nitr. soda or sulphate ammonia S TURNIPS.* Bone dust 8 bushels ^ j Sulphuric acid ih cwt. 5 Bone dust 8 bushels ^ , Guano , . . . 1 5 cwt. t Bone and ra])e dust, each. ... 6 bushels d Bone, worked with sheep dung d Guano 3 cwt. d Nitrate of soda 1 cwt. t Burnt bone 12 bushels d Raw bone, i inch 12 bushels d The particulars of preparation and ajiplication of soil, clim.ate, and rotation, and of the progress of growth, as well as of ])roduce, are so clearly given in the original reports, that I would earnestly re- commend all farmers, who have time and means, to read them and select for themselves. They will be bound in the Appendix to Professor Johnstone's Lectures, price Is. 6d. or 2s. ; and in the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 8th numbers of the Highl. and Agrl. Jour- nal, 3s. each. Those who look for large crops must not trust to these light dressings alone, wthout due preparation of dung or compost. They will give early and vigorous growth ; but to bear out heavy cro])s, the roots must be supjjlied with organic matter as well as the leaves, so as to let the plant feed and fatten at its ease. Remarks. WHEAT, barley, AND OATS. Grain and seeds of all kinds, and wheat in parti- cular, require a large supply of phosphates ; and unless these are in the soil, or supplied in manure, the plant cannot produce grain, however strong it may grow. Sulphate of ammonia and the two nitres, therefore, though so productive in some cases, can only be so when the land contains enough phosphates either naturally, or by pre^dous dress- ing. All the three produce rapid growth of leaf * The products of turnips are too varied to give a satisfactory' amount to each, without explanation. The first on the list averages best, the last worst, and so according to their order ; the three middle ones being pretty nearly equal. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 543 and st ilk, and light grain ; and should not be used when there is much tendency to straw ; though the additioiro*^ salt corrects this, more or less. Pro- fessor Low thinks, that upon the long run, the nitrates do not increase the grain at all, however successful in certain cases. Bone dust, superphos])hate of lime, and guano, all contain i)hosi)hates ; Init are deficient in alkahes, which are equally necessary. Ilcnce these will succeed best in land containing alkalies; whilst the nitrates may do better where the alkalies are wanting. Rape dust contains both phos])hates and alkalies; and is found to answer for wheat pretty generally, but is costly. Bran, which contains the salts of wheat itself (for as the grain ri])ens, the salts i)ass into the bran, very little remaining in the flour), would appear better suited for wheat than rape dust, while it costs less. Or the bran maybe eaten and the dung used with equal advantage, provided the in-ine is saved, in which much of the phosphate and all the alkali is dissolved. Well saved dung contains the salts of the plants on which the animals feed, as well as organic matter. The sulphates (except that of ammonia) do not run the plant to stalk ; and have, therefore, been successfully mixed with nitrates ; whilst in guano, the phosjjhates are naturally mixed with ammonia ; and in the last year's exj)eriments, such mixtures have been carried further, to com])rise (til the inor- ganic ingredients of the crop ; and, in some cases, with remarka])le success. Salt, alone, has greatly increased the produce of grain, where the land wanted it, and was supplied with the other essentials; but this is seldom the case near the sea. Here, salt is useful chiefly as a corrective of ammonia and the nitrates; and an enlivener of dung and compost, IIAV. "What has been said of the dressings for grain, apply also to those for grass and hay ; bearing in mind that in this case we want leaf and stalk, and need, therefore, seldom fear the nitrates or ammonia. To obtain quality, however, as well as (juantity, the soil must contain the other essential ingredients. PEAS AND BEAN.S. On these two crops the experiments have not been numerous, nor the results very definite, which is the less important, as they are so little grown in this district. Although the mixture of nitrate and sulphate of soda succeeded so well in the instance first on the list, the nitrates do not seem generally to have increased the pod so much as the haulm. The suljjhates have Ijeen most tried, and with greatest success ; sulphate of ammonia might probal}]y answer on limy soils. Beans are now being grown with turnips and caljbages, pro- ducing two good crops together on the same acre. POTATOES. The top dressing of nitrate and sulj)hate of soda, which has produced such admirable cft'ects in Scot- land, has given more jjromisc than jirofit, in an ex- periment in our own ncighbourlidod : the i)lant running up green and rank, without i)ro])()rtionatc root, 'hie general result of the experiments show that they require magnesia; and when this is not contained in the soil, or in the lime employed, it must be added. One (luartcr of a hundred of sul- phate of magnesia to the acre seems to be enough ; or five gallons of bittern, from the salt works, may be eut two bushels of bone-dust, not ground very fine, into a tub, with 701bs. of acid, and added 1 lOlbs. of water ; it was all well stirred together, remaiiu'd in the ttdj 21 hours, and then mixed with cinder-ashes in sufficient quantity to make it drill. 1 tried it by the side of bones at the rate of eight bushels to the acre, mi.\ed also with ashes ; the superiority of the former was most striking, more particularly during the two first months. I may add, 1 left a few* drills without any manure, which of course were throughout the season conspicuously bad. In cost there was little saving, but perliaps 1 ought not to have given 2d. a pound for the acid. I was so well pleased with the result of last year's trial, I am quite dis- posed to use them again ; it is particularly of a cheap rate. I should not have troubled you with this commu- nication, but not having seen an experiment upon the same description of land upon which bones are applied with greater success, I think, than almost any other, I thought perhaps it might be found acceptable. 1 shall be liaj)py to answer any questions, or give any other in- formation in my power upon the subject, should it be required. — C. J. Kkndi.i:." Mr. Pusey also favoured the Council with the follow- ing excellent practical mode of mixing the materials, which had been communicated to him from Lincoln- shire : — " Calstor, March 4, 1845. " In the event of tlie liquid form of ajiplication not being attainable, or in case of the compact form being preferred, the following is a very easy way of making a couijiost applicable by the common drill : — Make a conical heap (similar to that which is made by brick- layers in making mortar) of ashes or finely riddled light soil, using as much as can be conveniently drilled over 3 acres. Make a hole in the centre, in the form of an inverted cone, into which place three quarters of ground bones, the more finely ground the better. (Jive the whole heap its original conical shape, and make a hole in the centre as before, into which pour IHOlbs. of sul- phuric acid (the average quantity contained in a car- boy) and 9 gallons of water. Keep constantly adding bones and ashes from the sides of the hole, until the whole of the liquid is mixed with the bones and ashes, and turn the whole over once or twice to secure an in- timate mixture. Let the heap stand for twelve or four- teen days, after which it may be turned occasionally until required for use. — W. E." Mr. Dobito, of Kirtinghall, Newmarket, expressed his willingness to undertake any experiment in agricul- ture the Clouncil might wish to have tried. Mr. Stace, of Berwick, near Lewes, Sussex, applied for leave to exhibit at the Shrew-sbury Meeting his mode of applying wind-i)Ower to jjloughing and other agricidtural ope- rations performed by means of draught. Mr. Smith, of Lewes, informed the Council of a serious disease which has broken out among the Southdown flocks in Sussex. Mr. Bencraft explained the principles on which his j)atent hames were constructed. Mr. Clarke gave a detail of the advantages of making oil-cake from Linseed, from which the oil had not been taken. ]Mr. Ilillyard exhibited several wire-worms at that time in- festing his crops ; and Dr. Bickes appeared before the Council to express his willingness to sulimit his mode of prejiaring seeds for early germination, to any ju'actical trial the Council might propose. The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 21st May. Special and Weekly Meetings of the Council were held at the Society's House, in Hanover-s(|uare, on Wednesday, tiie 21st of May; incsent, his Grace the DuKi: ok Rkiimonu, K.(!., President, in the chair. Earl Spencer, Viscount Hill, Lord Portman, Lord Camoys, lion. R. 11. Clive, M.P., Hon. Capt. Spencer, R. Archbold, Esq., M.P.,Sir D. Baird, iU., D. Barclay, Esq., M.P., V. Burke, Esq., Col. Challoner, F. C. Cherry, Esq., II. Colman, Esq., C. Cure, Esq., F. W. Etheredge, Esq., A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P., W. L. 550 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Gower, Esq., G. F. Heneage, Esq., C. Hillyavd, Esq., Sir H. Hoskyns, Bt., E. Hussey, Esq., J. Johnson, Esq., Sir J. Johnstone, Bt., M.P., J. Laycock, Esq., Sir C. Lemon, Bt., M.P., Col. M'Douall, T. W. Mayer, Esq., J. I. Mechi, Esq., W. Miles, Esq., M.P., A. Ogilvie, Esq., E. Parkins, Esq., E. W. W. Pendarves, Esq., M.P., E. S. C. Pole, Esq., H. Price, Esq.,R.W. Purchas, Esq., P. Pusey, Esq., M.P., F. Pym, Esq., W. Roddam, Esq., W. Shaw, Esq., R. A. Slaney, Esq., W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., C. Stokes, Esq., E. Thomas, Esq., J. H. Tremayne, Esq., T. Tunno, Esq., T. Tweed, Esq., G. Wilbraham, Esq., M.P., J. L. Wight, Esq., and H. Wilson, Esq. A letter was read from Captain Stanley Carr, an Honorary Member of the Society, residing at Tiischen- beck, near Liibeck, introducing to the Meeting a gentle- man named Kotschetow, at present travelling, by com- mand of the Emperor of Russia, for the purpose of col- lecting such agricultural information as may qualify him, on his return to Charkow, to fill the agricultural Profes- sor's chair at that place. The President informed the Council that it was with great regret that he had received from Mr. Hudson an intimation of his wish to resign the office of Secretary of the Society. Mr. Colman communicated to the Council a state- ment of the occurrence in the United States, of green sand, or New Jersey marl, which had been found to operate as a most powerful and beneficial manure in the soil of that State, increasing the crops from ten to sL\ty bushels of Indian Corn on an acre, and other crops in proportion. The principal constituent of its fertility was supposed to be potash. The Council re- ferred this communication, and the specimens of sand, on their arrival, to Mr. Pusey and Dr. Buckland. Mr. Fuller, M.P., communicated the results of stone -drainage, obtained by Mr. Meyrich, of Bodorgan, on a piece of land in Anglesey. Mr. Stirling exhibited and explained the construc- tion of his culverts for drains or sewers. Mr. Purchas, Secretary of the Monmouth Farmers' Club, detailed to the Council his results in the manipu- lation of sulphuric acid and bones ; and their application as a manure for the turnip crop under different circum- stances. Mr. Ramsay suggested prizes for wool to be given next year, at the Newcastle-upon-Tpie Meeting. Mr. Stokes recommended that it be referred to the General Shrewsbury Committee, to consider the pro- priety of giving a free ticket to any member residing within 20 miles of the Annual Country Meeting, to admit working mechanics to the exhibition of imple- ments. Messrs. Warner, of Cornhill, presented various samples of foreign Turnip-seed for the acceptance of the Council, for which, and the communications then received, the Council ordered their best thanks to be returned. The Council having agreed to a Report to the Gene- ral Meeting to be held on the following day, adjourned over the 28th of May to Wednesday the 4th of June. The half-yearly General Meeting of the Society was held at the rooms of the Society in Hanover-square, on Thursday, the 22nd of May, agreeably with the terms of the Charter ; present. His Grace the Duke of Rich- mond, K.G.. President, in the chair. Earl Spencer, Earl of llosebery. Earl of Lucan, Viscount Hill, Lord Braybrooke, Lord Camoys, Hon. Capt. Spencer, Hon. J. J. Carnegie, .Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Sir Samuel Hancock, Bart., Sir R, P. Jodrell, Bart., Sir Charles Burrell, Bart., M.P,, Sir Benjamin Hey- wood, Bart., Sir Henry Dymoke, Bart., Colonel Elwood, Captain Scobell, Colonel Challoner, Professor Sewell, Rev. E. Ethelston, Rev. J. Mainwaring, Messrs. Al- cock, Archbold, M.P., Raymond Barker, S. Bennett, Burke, Bonser, Burrell, Burr, Blacker (of Armagh), Crossley, F. Crisp, T. Crisp, T. S. Carter, J. Cheese, F. C. Cherry, A. W. Cherry, J. Bell Crompton, J. Druce, S. Druce, C. Devon, Dewmg, De Porquet, East, F. W. Etheredge, A. E. Fuller, M.P., Foster, S. Grantham, Gamlen, J. B. Glegg, J. Hudson, H. Hip- pisley, Hercy, T. P. Heywood, W. Fisher Hobbs, Haw- kin, Hillyard, Hawkins, S. Jonas, Justice, C. W. John- son, Kinder, Karkeek, J. Lavcock, T. Mainwaring, M.P., E. M. Mundy, M.P., R. Milward, T. W. Mayer, A. Ogilvie, F. Pym, J. F. Phillips, E. W. W. Pen- darves, M.P., R. W. Purchas, J. Parkes, C. E. Porcher, Pyne, Payne, F. Peel, H. Price, Chandos Pole, J. Rod- weU, R. Rigg, C. B. Reybole, H. Strafford, W. Smart, W. Shaw, James Smith, Salvin Silvertop, W. StaflTurth, C. Stokes, J. V. Shelley, C. H. Turner, T. Tweed, W. Trimber, T. H. Tremayne, T. Turner, H. Trethewy, E. Thomas, T. Turner, W. B, Wingate, Jonas Webb, J. L. Wight, G. Warriner, and G. Wilbraham, M.P. ELECTIONS. AGREED TO UNANIMOUSLY. President. — The Right Hon. Lord Portman. Trustees. — Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, Bart., M.P. ; Lord Braybi'ooke ; Hon. Robert Acland Henry Clive, M.P.; Right Hon. Sir James Graham, Bart., M.P.; Henry Handley ; Sir Francis Lawley, Bart. ; Joseph Neeld, M.P. ; Philip Pusey, M.P. ; Duke of Richmond ; Duke of Rutland ; Earl Spencer ; Duke of Sutherland. Vice-Presidents. — Duke of Buckingham; Earl of Chichester ; Eai-1 of Ducie ; Marquis of Exeter ; Earl FitzwiUiam ; Sir Thomas Sherlock Gooch, Bart. ; Sir Charles Gould Morgan, Bart. ; Duke of Northumber- land ; Lord Portman ; Earl Talbot ; Duke of Welling- ton ; Lord Worsley, M.P. Mr. Shaw, Mr. Purchas and Mr. Hudson having been appointed scrutineers, reported that the following twenty- five Members of Council were unanimously elected : Col. Thomas Austen, M.P., Hon. Wm. Bingham Baring, M.P. ; Samuel Bennett, Esq., Thomas Wm. Bramston, Esq., M.P., Edward Buller, Esq., M.P., Colonel Challoner, John Walbanke Childers, Esq., M.P., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., Lord Hatherton, John Hud- son, Esq., Wm. Henry Hyett, Esq., Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Fielder King, Esq., William Miles, Esq., M.P., Richard Milward, Esq., of Thur- garton Priory, E. W. Wynne Pendarves, Esq., M.P., Sir Robert Price, Bart, Francis Pym, Esq., Sir Mat- thew White Ridley, Bart., John Villiers Shelley, Esq., T. H. S, Estcourt Sotheron, Esq., M.P., W. R. Crompton Stansfield, Esq., M.P., Viscount Torriug- ton ; George Turner, Esq., of Barton, Henry Wilson, Esq. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. The attention of the Council, during the last half- year, has been directed principally to the following points : — 1. The revision of the List of Members, and a scrutiny into the several cases of Members who claim ex- emption from the liabilities of their election, on the ground of the peculiar circumstances under which their election took place. 2. The consideration of the arrears of subscription, and of the mode by which their collection may be facilitated. 3. The adoption of a more general plan for the nomi- nation and selection of the Judges of Stock and Implements. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 551 4. An extension of the trial of ioaplements, beyond the place and period of the Country Meetings ; and lastly, 5. A chemical analysis of the ashes of plants grown on different soils, and in different localities, throughout the kingdom. 1. The Finance Committee have reported the details — of which a statement is now laid on the table — connected with the number of members, theamount of arrears, and the investment of capital. At the last Genei-al Meeting in December, the Society consisted of G,827 Members; since that date 311 Members have been elected, while IGl have been struck off the list, and 47 have died ; so that the Society at present consists of 96 Life Governors, 204 Annual Governors, 495 Life Members, 6,123 An- nual Members, and 15 Honorary Members; making a total of 6,933 INIembers. It appears from the state- ment of arrears that, on the 1st day of the present month, 35 Governors and 2,281 Members were in ar- rear of subscription, tlie sum amounting to 5,730/. ; that at the General Meeting in December last the amount of such arrears stood at 6,609/., a reduction of 879/. hav- ing been effected during the last six months. The pre- sent amount of invested capital is 8,200/. — a purchase of 500/. stock in the 3;J- per Cents, having been made during the last month. The current cash balance in the hands of the Society's bankers at the present time is 2,038/., not including the sum of 1,000/. contributed by the town of Shrewsbury, towards the expenses of the ensuing Country Meeting, and already paid over to the credit of the Society's account. 2. A Committee has been formed for the purpose of considering the best mode in which the collection of subscriptions can be effected by means of paid collectors, and, on their report, the Council have resolved to try the experiment of such local collection within districts comprised by the counties of Bedford, Buckingham, Cambridge, Essex, Hertford, Huntingdon, and North- ampton ; the Committee, accordingly, having arranged the practical details by means of whicli such resolution may be systematically carried out. 3. Tlie Council have invited the Members at large to nominate, at the General May Meeting, such Judges for the Country Meetings as they recommend for the several classes of stock and implements ; and they have appointed Committees for each of those de- partments resjjectively, to examine such lists of nomina- tion, and report the result to the Council, by whom the appointment will be finally made. As no exhibiter will be allowed to take any part in tlie nomination or appoint- ment of Judges for the classes in which he competes, the Council trust that this extended mode of selecting their Judges will meet witli the approbation of the ex- hibiters. 4 . The Committee to whom the Council confided the consideration of the mode by whicli a trial of tile- maciiines, ploughs, and drills, subsequently to the period of the Country Meeting, under circumstances best adapted to the testing of tlieir respective merits, could be most advantageously effected, have reported the fol- lowing recommendations, which the Council have adopted : — (1.) That the tile-machines shall be tried by the Judges at Shrewsbury ; and such of them as the Judges may think worthy, shall be selected by them for further trial, such trial to made by a visit, on the part of the Judges, to some one tile-yard pointed out by each inven- tor respectively, and subsequently elsewhere, as the Judges may see fit. (2.) That the Judges shall select, at the Shrewsbury trial, so many ploughs as they think fit for subsequent trial ; and the ploughs so selected shall be at the dis- posal of the Stewards and Judges, (3.) That the Rules for the selection and trial of ploughs shall apply also to drills. (4.) That the winning implement of the previous year shall be included in these subsequent trials. (5.) That the makers and inventors of the imple- ments shall be entitled to attend , at their own expense, at some one of the trials, of which notice shall be given to them. (6.) That if the Judges select for trial at the Shrews- bury Meeting the plough of any exhibiter, and the ex- hibiter wish to substitute for it any other plough exhibited by him at the same Meeting, such other plough shall be tried at the Shrewsbury Meeting, but not elsewhere (unless the Judges think fit) ; but the Judges shall also try (if they think fit) the plough originally selected by them. (7.) That the Judges shall report on the reserved im- plements to the first Council in November. 5. At the suggestion of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Council have resolved that a chemical analysis of the ashes of plants, grown in different localities and on different soils throughout the kingdom, shall be made at the expense of tlie Society; and they have voted the sura of 350/. towards carrying out that desirable and important object. At the request of the Stalham Farmers' Club, the Council have in- structed their consulting chemist. Dr. Playfair, to ana- lyze, at the expense of the Society, specimens of the soil and subsoil of a wheat-field in Norfolk, remarkable for its productiveness. 6. The Journal Committee have reported the follow- ing awards to the authors of Prize-essays, and scliedule of the subjects of Prizes, amounting to 310/., for the Reports and Essays of next year. AWARDS. Tlie Prize of 20 sovs. to Mr. H. "White, of Warrington, for his Essay on the Details of Making Cheshire Cheese. Tlie Prize of 50 sovs. to Mr. R. \V. Corriiighain, of Bolhani Hill, near Retford, for his Report on the Farming of Nottiug- hamslure. The Prize of 50 sovs. to Mr. W. F. Karkeck, of Truro, for his Report on the Fanning of Cornwall. The Prize of 50 sovs. to ^h: G. Buddaud, of Beueudeu, for his Report on the Farming of Kent. The Prize of 20 sovs. to Mr. J. Watson, jiui., of KeuJal, for his Essay on Reclahuiiig Heath-land. The Prize of 10 sovs. to Mr. E. Bowly, of Cirencester, for his Essay on the Advantages of One-horse Carts. Tlie Prize of 20 sovs. to Mr. J. Grigor, of Norwich, for liis Essay on Fences. Tlie Prize of 10 sovs. to Mr. G. Dobito, of Kirthng Hall, Newmarket, for his Essay on Fattening Cattle. The Prize of 20 sovs. "to jMr. F. ^V. EthereJge, of Park- street, \\'cstminster, for his Essay on the Cheapest and Best Method of Establishing a Tile-yard. The Prize of 20 sovs. for an Accomit of the Best Experiment in Agriculture, to Mr. J. Haiuiam, of North Deighton, near Wctlierljy, for his Essay on the Theory and AppUcatiou of Bone-manure. SCHEDULE. £ On tlie Agiiculture of North AVales . . .50 On the Agricultiue of the West Riding of Yorkshire . 50 On the Agriculture of Cambridgeshire . . .50 On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Breaking up tiiass-lands . . . . . .50 On the Iniprovcinent of the Condition of the Agricultiiral Labourer, so far as it may be Promoted by Private Ex- ertion, without I.^gislativc Enactment . . .30 On Keeping Farm Accounts . . . .10 On i'liiiployment by tlie Piece . , . .20 On I'eat-cliarcoal as a .Manure . . . .10 On yiilphuric Acid and Bones . . . .10 On Wliitc :Mustard . . . . .10 On St. John's Day Rye . . . .10 Ou Draiiiuig Rumiing Sands . . . .10 552 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The Council have received from the Journal Com- mittee a highly favourable opinion of the character of the Essays sent in this year to compete for the various Prizes ottered by the Society. The Council have reason to anticipate, from the exten- sive entry already made of implements, and the nume- i-ous applications for certificates of Stock, that the Country Meeting of the present year, to be held at Shrewsbury, for the North Wales District, in the week commencing the 14th of July next, will be fully as large and satisfactory as on former occasions. The Council have accepted the invitation of a public meeting, convened at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, to hold the Country Meeting for the Northern District, at that town, in the year 184G. The Council, in conclusion, have the satisfaction, at the close of the 7th year of the establishment of the Society, of congratulating the members on the steady advance of the Society in the accomplishment of its various practical objects, and the gradual development of its prospects and resources : among which the Coun- cil cannot help alluding to the establishment of local societies for the discussion of agricultural subjects, which they feel have mainly originated from the atten- tion which the exertions of this Society have attracted to the improvement of agriculture, and which the Coun- cil are confident will lead to the most beneficial results. The President then announced that Mr. Hudson had tendered his resignation of the oflice of secretary to the society. Mr. F. Crisp said he would respectfully ask the reason that had been assigned for that gentleman's resignation : he was well aware that any gentleman connected with the society had a perfect right to resign whatever office he held without being called upon to explain why he had done so, but a rumour had gone abroad, that a promise which had been made to Mr. H. when he first became secretary to the society, as to an increase in his salary, had not been fulfilled; therefore, he (Mr. C.) hoped that his grace would state to the meeting what the Se- cretary's present salary was, and whether the rumour just mentioned was correct or not. The Chairman, in reply, remarked, that he had re- ceived a letter from Mr. Hudson, intimating his inten- tion to resign, inasmuch as he could not maintain his family on the salary allowed to him. The salary paid to Mr. Hudson was 400/. a-year, out of which he had to pay 16/. to a clerk. He had also the upper part of the Society's house, with coals and candles, rent free. It seemed Mr. Hudson conceived that he was entitled to an increase of salary if the Society prospered, but the Council were not aware that any definite promise had been made. He had, however, understood that it was Mr. Childers (M.P.) who had made some such promise, but he could not speak of his own personal knowledge to such being the case. He regretted that Mr. Hudson should think of resigning, inasmuch as that gentleman had always conducted the business entrusted to him in a most satisfactory manner. Mr. Crisp agreed with the noble chairman in the commendation he had passed on Mr. Hudson's conduct. He understood that Mr. Hudson entered upon his duties at 400/. per annum when there were nine hundred members, with a promise of increase. (Hear, hear.) There were now seven thousand, and he was confident that a proposition for increasing the secretary's salary to 500/. a-year would not be objected to by the mem- bers. Mr. C. contended that it did not matter whether the present Council had or had not promised an in- crease of salary; but if such a promise had been made to Mr. Hudson, at the time he was appointed secretary, by any gentleman in office, the society were bound to carry out the same. (Hear, hear.) He (Mr. C) had had frequent opportunities of witnessing the superior qualifications and strict business habits of Mr. Hudson, and could testify to the great care and attention he invari- ablybestowedintransactingthe businessof the Society, and he hoped that it would not go forth to the public at large, that for so trifling an advance of 100/. the Society would lose the valuable services of a gentleman, who had in- variably proved himself in every way competent to fulfil the laborious duties of his office. The Society might, in all probability, find gentlemen willing to accept the situa- tion at a reduced salary, but would they meet with one who was so much respected (as Mr. Hudson was) by the members generally ; and who had not only attended the meeting of the Society at Southampton last year, but had also attended those which had taken place for several previous years, thereby enabling him to become acquainted with gentlemen in their own localities ? Mr. C. concluded by again hoping that the Council would retain the services of Mr. Hudson (whose superior abili- ties, as their Secretary, had been acknowledged by the members at large), and at once increase his present salary to 500/. per annum, clear of any deduction whatever. The Duke of Richmond said he would bring the matter under the consideration of the Council at the next monthly meeting. A prize sheet was put in for the meeting at New- castle-upon-Tyne in 1846. It contained prizes for improving the breed of cattle, bulls (Herefords, Devons), horses, sheep, pigs; as well as for imple- ments, extra stock, seed wheat, barley, oats, &c. Some business of a routine character having been transacted, a vote of thanks was passed to the Chair- man, who briefly acknowledged the compliment. NEW MEMBERS. F. R. Westward, Esq., of Arnwood House, Lyming- ton, Hampshire, and Ruthin Castle, Denbighshire ; Thomas Percival Hey wood, Esq., of Claremont, near Manchester, and Hyde-park Gardens, London, was elected a Governor, and the following gentlemen Mem- bers of the Society : — Applewhaite, Edward, Pickenhara Hall, Swaffham, Norfolk Ar\uulell, Hon. Robert A., Houghton Lodge, Stockbridge, Hants. Ayre, S., Grove-end House, St. John's Wood Baker, Robert, A\'est Hay, Bristol Best, Rev. Francis, Flyford-Flavel, Worcester Biljby, Tlionias, Llanfyllan, Oswestry, Salop Blayds, Charles Calverley, Thurgartou Hill, Southwell, Notts Boucherett, Ayscoglie, Williughani House, Market-Rasei), Line. Bm-ton, Roliert, ilayor of Shrewsbury Carleton, Hon. and Rev. Richard, 25, Brutou-street, London Chaplin, William James, Ewehurst Park, Basingstoke, Hants Cheese, John, Castle-Weir, Khigton, Hertfordshire Cooper, William Henry, Shrewsbmy Corbet, Andrew William, SuuJome Castle, Shrewsbury Danes, John, Halford, Ludlow, Herefordshire Dickson, Francis, Chester Dickson, James, Chester Elwes, Capt. H. Cary, Spennel House, Kidderminster, Wore. Evans, William, (jlascoeJ, Llasautffraid, Oswestry. Fison, Cornell, Thetford, Norfolk Foulis, Sir William, Bt., Ingby Manor, Stokesley, Yorkshire Grey, George A., Millield Hill, Wooller, Northumberland Griffiths, Henry, Bryndafydd, Swansea, Glamorganshire Griffiths, John, Cound, Shrewsbury Gwynu, Edward, Wein, Salop Hanmer, Sir John, Bart., Bettisfield, Wliitchurdi, Salop Hardcastle, Jonathan, Blidworth Dale, Mansliekl, Notts Hare, Jabez, 10, Nelson-square, Sonthwark How, William Wybiirgh, Shrewsbury Hunt, William, Dilston, Hexham, Northumberland Jones, Dr., Lancych, Newcastle-Emlyn, Cardiganshhe THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 503 Knight, S. Norlington, I>owes, Sussex Kyiiaston, Sir Jolui Rog-er, Bart., liarJwick, Slircwsliury Lee, Josejjli, Dilston, Hexham Lovcl, KicliarJ, ICdi^t-cot lyodjce, Baiilmry, Oxnii Lowe, Josepli, Hill Hall, Banlllekl, Braiutrec, Essex jMaiNcill, Furhes, 41, Fiiislniry Circtis JMansell, Thomas, AJcott Hull, Shrewsbury !Mic'klebui-,icli, Charles, iloiitfroinery Nea\e, Kichanl Dij^by, Pitt House, Ei)30)u, Surrey Partriilf^e, Rev. \Villiaui Eilwanl, HurseuJeu House, Risbo- roiigli, Bucks Pierpont, ^Matthew, Crow's Nest, Worcester Pratt, Edward, Sedlescomb, Buttle, Sussex Propert, Jolui, BlaeupistiU, ('urdii^anshire Pyue, AVilliaiu, 4, luiier-Teniple-luue, Loudon Scarth, Thomas Freshfield, Kcvi-rstou, Darlington, Durham Scurth, Willium Thomas, Ke\crston, Dai'liiigton Scarth, Edward, Westside House, Darlington Smith, Sir William, Bart., Eardiston House, Worcester Smith, William, (iuydou, Kineton, Warwickshire Smith, Kuhard Wycherley, Wtm Stepheus(ju, Marshall, Fourstoncs, Hexham Taylor, Henry Thomas, Holmer Hull, Hereford Taunton, William Eliaa, Frculand Lodge, Ensham, Oxon Thorpe, John Pitt, Hastings, Sussex Vibunt, James, Chilliswood House, Taunton, Somersetshire Walker, Oliver Ormerod, Biu'y, Lancashire \N hite, Henry, Warrington, Lancashire \\'illiams, H. Lloyd, Llanfy Han, Oswestry, Salop. OX FARM-BUILDINGS, WITH ORSERVA- TIONS ON THE STATE 01' AGRICUL- 'I'URE IN KENT.— By Vis. Torringtox. Ridgway, Piccadilly. We have been favoured with an early co])y of Lord Torriiiffton's i)am])hlet " On Farm-buildiiiLrs, with Observations on the State of Agriculture in the County of Kent," the ])erusal of which has afforded us very great gratification. In reading this httle ])ublication, it is impossible not to recog- nise the same zeal and energy which are displayed by his Lordship in prosecuting his agricultural jjursuits. We trust that, when the account is cast up at the end of the year, the figures may be found on the right side of the account. It is quite clear that his Lordship's views ujion fanning are soundly based. lie estimates highly the advantages of edu- cation, ])Oth as regards the tenant and labourer, in promoting agricultural improvements thrinigh the judicious management of the former, and the in- creased skill in the performance of his work of the latter. He also attaches a due im])Ortance to the knowledge and experii-ncc of the agent, as will be seen by his quoting the oi)inion of Mr. Buckland, of Benenden, upon that subject. There is, how- ever, another ])oint to which we attach the highest importance, but to which we do not observe that his Lordship has directed his attention ; which is, the educdtion of the ItnnUord. It will be found to Ije uniformly tlie case — and we challenge contradic- tion, notwithstanding the opinions which some prejudiced [jcrsons entertain to the contrary — that the tenantry of tliose landlords who are themselves best acquainted with fanning practically, are the most fairly and considerately treated. The same state of thmgs will exist wlien the landlord, having a competent ar/ent, reposes an entire confidence in his management, and refrains from interfering in that which he does not understand. The ostensible object of his Lordsliij/s ])ami)hlet is a description of his new farmstead, the arrangement and con- struction of wliich bear all the external evidence of convenience and utility : still we consider that his Lordship's " (Jbservations on the State of Agricul- ture in the (Jounty of Kent" — and which, in the main, are eipially applicable to many other coun- ties— are of nuich value. In reference to the con- struction of buildings, his Lordship remarks, with much point — " In considering this subject, I can hardly do better than point the reader's attention to the buildings of the calculating manufacturer (be his occupation what it may). Observe the arrangement of his premises ; mark liow judiiriously they are placed, with a view to the economy of time and labour, aided by excellent ma- chinery, so contrived and placed as to be easily acces- sible for all the purposes for which it may be re- quired ; and by this combination of power, producing his goods in a short period, and at the lowest possible cost ; thus enabling liini to sell at remunerating prices. Why, let nu; inquire, may not the same objects be kept in view in the erection and arrangements of farm build- ings ? Why may not improved machinery of every de- scription be made the means not only of lessening the amount of manual labour to the tenant, but saving the landlord the outlay required for the erection of large, ill- connected, cumbersome, and expensive buildings, such as are commonly met with in the southern counties ?" The fohowing remark will ajijjly in by far too many ])arts of the country, in which the treading down of straw by animals fed upon the saitie article is wu'.vcalled making manure : — " The habit of having large yards filled with straw, which remains unmixed with animal matters, rotting all the winter, with little to aid it in the process excepting the weather, can hardly be maintained to bo right, how- ever great the quantity of straw. It is foolish to ima- gine that straw merely rotted by the weather, when car- ried out on the land, can be of much benefit to it. Its value as a manure is small, and those croi)s the jiroduce of which is dejjendant on its efficacy fail." His Lordshijj's observations on the material used for the covering of 1)uildings deserve the serious attention of landlords. " It would be impossible, after having entered so generally into all the various details (-onnected with homesteads, to omit one most important consideration respecting them ; I allude to the habit, too often in use, of thatching buildings. This cannot be too gene- rally reprehended. The arguments against it are end- less : it entails a continual expense, robs the land, creates danger from fire, is a harbour for vermin. Either of these objections is a sufficient reason fi)r stopjiing this monstrous practice. If landlords relied upon this, they will sec that they insure an injury to their land by com- pelling their tenants to repair with straw ; whereas tiles or slates are preferable in every way. It is only the first outlay which is to be considered; by adojiting which, robl)cry to the land and unceasing expense to the tenant is prevented. In the buildings lately pulled down at IVckham, to make room for those above described, there must have been nearly an acre of thatch, and tiiey harboured vermin sulficient to stock a whole county. There are instances in the W^eald of Kent, where nearly the whole straw of the tenant is used for his house and buildings, a fact lamentable in every view of the ques- 554 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tion. If straw is to be taken from the land, let it be sold, and the money laid out in artificial manure ; but it is most desirable that it may soon cease to be used for such improper purposes." For tlie description of the 1)uildings we must refer to the pamphlet itself. The feeding-hoiise is, as it seems to us, upon a practically useful plan. The barn — a most useful important — is constructed to hold a small stack, about a day's work for the machine. It is sixty feet long by twenty-one wide, and his Lordship obserA^es that experience has convinced him that it is unnecessarily large for 300 acres of corn land. The barn-doors are hung upon an excellent jirinciple, which is thus de- scribed : " The doors are not hung upon hinges, but slide backwards and forwards, on each side, upon wheels ; whicli they hang to, and which run upon a single sus- pension rail. This will certainly be found a much im- proved and most desirable method ; for the weight of barn doors on lunges, necessarily great, makes them lia- ble to sink and get out of order. The wind sways them about and injures them, and when not shut they may always be said to be in the way ; whereas, by this plan, whether in use or not, their position is never changed, and they slide backwards and forwards with the touch of a finger, and never have the slightest strain through any of these causes." The guttering is to us wholly new, and combines strength, neatness, and efficiency beyond any we have e^er seen. In his " Observations on the State of Agricul- ture in the County of Kent," his Lordship says — '* The weald of Kent comprises one-fifth of the acre- age of the county, and it may be safely stated that one- eighth* is hedge-row and timber ; and when we calculate the loss sustained by this, and consider the increase of produce which may be obtained by draining and a pro- per system of cropping, we cannot but look with anxious desire to discover any means by which this great work might be carried out, the benefit o£ which to all classes it would be impossible to over-value." In reference to their treatment of the labourer, his Lordship passes a high eulogium on the farmers of Kent, He says — "There is one subject which will always entitle the yeomanry of Kent to admiration and respect — the pay- ment of their work-people. No one, who reflects on this important subject, but must allow that it is a bright feature in their character, and one which cannot be too highly estimated. The attempt has not been made there to ci-ush the labourer, and compel him to work at the least possible wages. The scale of wages has not been varied according to the price of bread, and the lowest possible sum doled out to him for his maintenance, and that of his family. But two shillings per day, or twelve shillings per week, has been the average amount of daily wages throughout the county (and this rate, within the knowledge of the writer, has never been altered), leaving out entirely the different hay, corn, and liopf harvests, which would make the average of men in constant em- ploy equal to fifteen shillings per week ; and this is a sum which must be allowed to be a fair and just remu- neration to the labourer, one which is as much as the • This calculation includes the shade created by the timbei-, ice. t The very general existence of wcU-paid piece-work in the hop districts gives the Kentish labourer a great advantage over his fellows in the corn-growing counties. farmer can possibly afford to pay ; and when we com- pare this with the amount paid in some of the counties of England, when we reflect that the price of provisions varies but very little in those different counties, it may be allowed that if the farmers of Kent are in any way behind hand in the cultivation of their soil, they are, in one sense of the word, in advance of those who, if their cultivation is better, grind down the poor for the pur- pose of finding means for accomplishing it, and do not practise that just charity to their fellow men, and carry out that Christian maxim, that ' the labourer is worthy of his hire.' " His Lordship deprecates summer fallows, and observes — ' ' Nature never intended the land to lie idle ; and the disposition which it shows, when remaining in that state, to grow every species of weeds, must point out to us that it only requires the skill and ingenuity of man to meet the difficulties which arise, caused by the nature of the soil, and to make it bring forth each year crops which may be an advantage to the land, and beneficial to the tenant. The objections raised to the practice of growing root crops are, first, that from the stiftness of the clay it is difficult to get it properly pulverized, or in other terms, to get the land sufficiently fine for that purpose ; and another reason is, that if turnips are ob- tained, the soil will not admit of a fold, and allow them to be fed upon the land. This first objection may hold good in some years, where the land remains undrained ; but where it is thoroughly drained, there is no reason why it should not always be made sufficiently fine, or why excellent root crops of every description may not be obtained." And further — " It may be safely asserted, that where root crops are properly cultivated and consumed within the farm, the tenant will not be long in discovering that he has vastly increased all the other produce of his farm, adding, therefore, to his own resources, and doing justice to his landlord by the improved cultivation of his land. The whole question resolves itself into one of a system of thorough draining. Unless all parties in the Weald of Kent put their shoulders to the wheel, considering the present prices of all agricultural produce, and the little likelihood of any very great improvement in the mar- kets, the whole of the district (unless active measures are taken for its advancement) will run a very probable chance of being altogether thrown out of cultivation." Again — ' ' A thorough draining of the Weald of Kent would employ, for a long period, the whole population ; and that, in addition to the clearing away of all superfluous timber and hedges, would not only afford endless em- ployment, but reduce to a mere notliing the poor-rates of this district, which now press most heavily on the tenantry, and add to their distresses." These remarks apply not only to the Weald of Kent, but to a great extent of land in all parts of the kingdom. His Lordship's method of growing turnips is well deserving attention : " The practices pursued for the cultivation of Swede turnips, and carried on for the last ten years on the ad- joining farm to that of West Peckham, and now together with it under one management, are worthy the attention of the reader, when it is premised by the statement, that failure in their cultivation has not yet taken place, I may be stated that the utmost pains have been given to their production; every different plan that has been spoken of as an improved method has been tried ; and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 557 though of course the results have not all corresponded in amount, and some have been put aside as not altogether desirable, still total loss of crop has never taken place. ' ' Two or three reasons may be given for this success : first, it is laid down as useless to attempt to sow turnips with anything like a certainty of obtaining a crop with- out the land being pulverized suflicicntly, and worked fine enough for the seed to be put in ; consetjuently, great pains have been always taken for this purpose ; secondly, charcoal should invariably be put in with the seed ;* and, thirdly, a top dressing of salt should be sown after the turnips are drilled in. By these two last- mentioned plans you bring down such an amount of moisture to the plants, from the nature of these ingre- dients, that in their early state they will be enabled to grow away quickly from the msects, and in dry weather to exist well till rain arrives. In this country, where salt and charcoal are both readily procured, and where the latter is in such abundance, the absence of them ought not, undoubtedly, to be permitted. " The first method practised for better insuring this crop, is to broadshare or scarify the ground immediately after the wheat-crop is carried off : that portion which you intend to sow with rye or tares should have a slight coat of manure. These are fed off by sheep ; four bushels of bone-dust per acre are broadcast before the land is ploughed. Having worked it fine, one cwt. and a-half of guano per acre mixed with wood ashes is sown, and the ground is left for a week ; the first day the weather suits, the turnips are drilled in with a consi- derable quantity of charcoal, harrowed down, and two cwt. of salt broadcast. The object of leaving the land a week after it is ready, and after the guano is sown, is two-fold ; first, that the guano gets well amalgamated with the soil, for if previously to that it touches the tur- nip-seed, it is sure to destroy it ; whilst on the other hand, the young plants will be found to be very much less liable to be eaten off by the flea when they first come up. " It has been observed on this farm, that the flea ap- pears within a w-eek after the land is prepared, and left at rest ; and if the turnips are sown at the same time, they both appear together, and the food of one is ob- tained to the destruction of the other ; wliereas, if the flea comes, and the turnips are not sown, it either leaves the land, or perishes for want of food, and in this dis- trict (Mid Kent), it is the greatest enemy we have to that crop. " Where rye and tares are not sown, still the first method of cleaning the wlieat stubble is the same, and the practice pursued is to carry out during the winter, whenever it is possible, fresh dung direct from the yards, sufficient for a light coating, and plough it in innne- diately as deep as possible, and then leave it till towards the spring, by which time the dung has completely rotted and mixed with the land, which from being ploughed and made light by the rough dung (necessarily in that state, from not having been previously mixed un- derneath) has been well acted upon by the frosts, and works with much greater ease than the land in the spring is generally found to do. Six bushels of bone dust per acre are then sown, and the field cross-ploughed ; and it will be found that the land (in this district of ISIid Kent) will not re(|uirc after that another or third ploughing, in the general run of seasons. An implement something of the scarifying description run through it will pulverize it completely, and in an unkindly spring, ' Crosskill's clod crusher ' will be found one of the most useful im- plements ever invented, and with it no difficulty need • In the Journal of tlio Koynl ARridiUiu-nl Society of EiiKlfliKl, vol. viii. part 1, puge 280, it will bo seen tliut tliis pldn lias been adopted with success by Lord Essex, ever be found in getting the ground sufficiently fine. Guano will then be sown, and the same course adopted as shewn by the previous method after rye and tares. "These two methods have been found here superior to all the others tried, as tending not only with greater ease and certainty to secure the crop, but at the same time, giving a greater amount of produce, and tending, likewise, to the ]>rogressive improvement of the land ; which, by entire dependance upon artificial manures by themselves, it is attempted to be argued, will not in the end be benefitted ; but if these artificicial manures are used in conjunction with dung, they are most valuable in their eflect." It appears that the carts and vi'aggons in general use in the county are clumsily made, and have wooden axletrees ; making, according to his Lord- ship, a difference in the draft of one horse in four. His Lordshi]) is an enthusiastic admirer of the Kentish Turn-wrist Plough, and thus remarks upon it : " la all these parts a sound system of farming is pursued, a regular rotation of cropi)ing, a high rate of cultivation ; and, in spite of the much abused Kentish plough, a no larger number of horses are kept, per 100 acres, than on all those celebrated and much-talked-of districts where two-horse ploughing is regularly adopted. After all, this is the whole secret of tlie question of ploughing ; it is the number of horses kept per hundred acres of arable land. Of what consequence can the number be which are used in ploughing, if he who uses four keeps no more horses than he who ploughs with two '" His Lordship entertains a very different opinion of the Kent sheep ; of which he says — " They possess undoubtedly good wool, and may be considered a very hardy cdass of sheep after the first year ; but the lambs require, to bring them through the winter, a large sujiply of food, and where the Romney farmers do not sell them as lambs, but put them out to winter on indifferent keep, it may be safely asserted that the loss sustained is often one-third, and when even on good keep, they will not do so well, or pay so much money, as Down lambs, which, in addition, wiil go to fold every night, whilst the Kent lambs will not. The Kent sheep are deficient in their legs of mutton — which is a most serious fault — have bad scrags, and thick ears ; the latter generally considered to betoken slow feeders. " There is a breed called, ' Goord's improved Kents,' on which, however, considerable difference of opinion exists. The owners claim some of the recognized signs of an improved animal — small bone, short legs, straight and deep carcass, and last, though not least, early maturity; but it maybe doubted i I there is any real improvement between them and the old Kents. The fact is, that the moment they arc i)ut in competi- tion with any other description of lotig-woollcd sheep (as at Southampton show), the figure they cut is most truly pitiable," The quantity of artificiul manures used in the county is said to lie immense, being ctjual to the rental of the land. We have been led on in our remarks to a greater length tluunve iiiteiuled.from the interest excited bv the mode in whidi the subject is treated, and which we are persuaded ollu'rs will also fed in perusing this ])amp]ilet ; and we shall now close by strongly recommending its perusal, audevpressingourthanks to his Lordship for having llius i)laccd his views 556 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. so clearly and efFectivelj' before the agricultural world. Rank and talent cannot be more usefully and beneficently engaged than in encouraging and promoting an occui^ation which aftbrds so much employment to the people as does agriculture. LAND TAX. RETURN to an Order of the House of Commons, Dated r2th July, 1844 :— AN ACCOUNT of the Land Tax Redeemed and Un- redeemed in England and Wales, under the following heads: — "Names of Counties," "Land Tax Re- deemed," " Land Tax Unredeemed," "Total." LAND TAX REDEEE.MED AND UNREDEEMED IN ENG- LAND AND WALES. Names of Counties. Redfoi-a Buks BuokiiiKliani . .. . Caiubiiiine .. .. Chester Cornwall Curaberlanil . ... Derby Devon Dors't Durliaiii Essex Glouc. stor Hereford Hertford HuntingJon Kent Laneastir Leicester Lineolii iMoninoiitli Norfolk Northampton . . . Northumberland Nottingham .... Oxford Rutland Salop Somerset Southampton . .. Stafiord Suttblk Surrey Sussex Warwick Westmoreland .. Wilts AVorcest r York Land Tax Re-Xand Tax Uu' deemed. redeemed. Anglesea . . . , Brecon Cardigan . . . Carmurllien , Carnarvon . . . Denbigh Flint Glamorgan . , Merioneth . . . Montgomery . Pembroke . . . Radnor Middlesex, includ- ing London and Westminster £ 08li5 •ilJll 77U7 l.':i73 2091 7071 -ii).>0{) 10520 575G lU7(i.O 7;)-it 2101. S 427H< «0-15 12702 19.).i5 30'.';) 10334 14807 5319 9160 14b08 1235 7777 24730 25563 9808 22754 2859G 27424 15311 1780 20450 12-/84 44402 s. d. 1 8; 9 2' 11 3' 13 8 2 4.i 6 0^ 15 74 13 3.J 7 3 8 4 3 (1.^ 2 Hi 6 2^ IS 2^ 13 3I 15 2 10 10^ 6 8 17 9^ 11 St, 4 4 0 Hi 7 (1.1 0 9^ 19 9i 15 11 18 10 10 83 6 U 11 8A 4 fii 17 Hi 19 7 4 9J J3 llif 3 2^ 0 li .148 Ifi 941 10 396 8 1180 3 GOO 7 1G02 1 743 17 1G03 9 485 4 1073 7 1280 12 831 5 4i £ 18507 21102 25406 23007 19769 18104 1636 16332 485/2 21505 41*68 421180 2(i891 12763 20765 II 01 13 37710 13161 21440 5U93 6582 62485 32351 8141 17572 23^29 4237 20906 45165 27033 16331 49745 36513 30974 28794 1250 3 537 19626 41003 s. d 18 7 6 10 19 10;,' 17 2 0 4 9 8*- 16 7.i 1 2 Hj 3 9i 19 1 5 I4 6 6r 1 34 7 O5 3 8- 7 lOr 6 4 7 5 2 3 16 'tl Total. £ 2^433 40197 4(:818 32402 27476 30477 3727 V3103 16 041 i I4, 0 103 4 5i 2 8 3 lOjl 19 yj. 5 0*1 IS 4"j 4 ('il 12 «i 4 2 I 17 Oi 18 8ii 32026 10414 88647 46057 20100 41783 15278 80495 19406 342J8 70548 9612 81819 47159 134:;0 26733 381^/ 5473 28634 G9902 52590 26140 72499 65110 58399 39106 8030 50987 82111 88405 s. d. 0 4 10 I 11 2i 10 10 8 7i 18 IJ 19 0 IS 10 15 Hi 9 3i 11 Oh 2 If 2 7i 8 Oi 12 9 19 6 0 4 18 lOj 18 9 13 0 •J .-4 13 Hi 1 oi 3 5 3 U 1 lo| 0 8 0 4i 1 G 14 7 5 loa 16 9 2 101 2 O 1 9J 17 64 87791 3 4 £;724463 19 2l 936 17 7^1 2013 1 9|: 832 I 9 2962 14 2 I6i;6 6 3 5055 8 9 1502 18 8 60(3 3 11^ 1937 18 C,] 4732 6 2I 162* 5 sa 18^2 5 5| 1535 14 2954 12 1278 10 4148 17 2272 13 6717 10 2246 16 7071 13 2423 2 58115 13 2902 17 2653 10 U8455 5 4J 23C249 8 8i 11344LO 0 lOi' 1858924 6 IJ This Return is made up from the Accounts of the year ending 25th March, 1843, the Accounts for the year endiog 25th March, 1844, not being completed. FOREIGN CHEESE. The following letter from Mr. Colvile, on a subject to which he had devoted great attention, will be read with much interest by our agricultural friends : — TO THE EDITOR OF THE DERBY MERCURY. Sir, — An account has just been presented to the House of Commons of the quantity of cheese imported into Great Britain during the past year. I feel anxious that the information therein contained should not be laid before our dairy-farmers without their having an opportunity of at once comparing the importation of the last with that of former years, as I have reason to know attempts are being made by certain parties to depress the cheese market, by inserting in the metropolitan and provincial papers exaggerated accounts of the iiuporta- tion of American and other cheese. The following table of the importation of the last, and twelve preceding years, will show that, although in 1844 more cheese was imported than in the two previous years, owing, most probably, to our short make in this country, the aggregate of importation was less in 1844 than in the years 1837, 1838, 1840, and 1841 ; though in the mean- time our cheese-eaters have been increasing at the rate of 1,000 every 24 hours. It will be seen, also, that the importation under the tarift' of 1842 furnishes no just cause for alarm ; the cheese imported from British pos- sessions under that enactment at the reduced price of two shillings and sixpence per cwt. having in no case exceeded Blcwt. in one year, which is scarcely more than the produce of 20 English cows. I have taken the trouble to write this letter for no other reason than to show our Derbyshire farmers that they need not sell their cheese at a lower rate than they have done in former years, unless they prefer a bad price to a good one. I know all the dairy-farmer wants is a fair remunerating price for his produce ; let me beg of him, therefore, not to listen to statements put forth by those whose interest it is to keep down the price of cheese, but to look at facts as displayed in the following table : — Year. Imported from America. From Hol- land or Belgium. Cwt. Cwt. 1831 9 133397 1832 50 132111 1833 None. 131355 1834 1 145004 1835 6 139C94 183G 1 210024 1837 1 235973 1838 2 225G95 1839 None. 209547 1840 41 224957 15154 I 1841 1842 14098 1843 42312 — 1844 53115 — From other Countries of Europe. Aggregate of Importation Cwt. Cwt. 1049 134459 1282 133446 1712 134073 1584 146594 1152 140852 1143 211169 172G 237732 2179 227877 1389 210436 14G4 226462 270149 179748 179389 213769 The return also furnishes an account of all European cheese, exclusive of British cheese, exported from Eng- land during the years 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, and 1844 ; by which returns the exportation is shown to be in 1840, 8,620cwt. ; in 1841, 9,116cwt. ; in 1842, 5,991 cwt.; in 1843, 7,100 cwt.; and in 1844, C,920cwt. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 657 The cheese which has been imported under the tariff of 1842, at 2s. 6d. per cwt. duty, is as follows : — 1842, 36cwt. ; 1843, 79cwt. ; 1844, 81cwt. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient servant, London, May 5, 1845. Charles R. Colvile. CHEESE.— The "Rochester (N. Y.) Democrat" says, a new impetus has been given to the cheese trade, and for a few weeks it has been in great demand for the eastern market. About six weeks since speculations commenced in Boston, and a few days after the bulk of the quantity in that city and New York was monopolized by a few dealers. What was dull of sale at the close of navigation last fall, in the eastern cities at 4 to 5 cents, is now in demand at 7 to 8 1-2 cents, the rise being nearly 100 percent. Tlie rapid increase of tliis import- ant item of the dairy at the West, is astonishing. Last year the aggregate value of the amount that passed through the canals and the Hudson river, was over one million and a half of dollars. The following interesting statistics in relation to it are derived from the canal office at Albany : — Arrived at tlie Hudson River. 1834 6,340,000 pounds. 1835 9, 580, 000 " 183G 14.060,000 '• 1837 15,560,000 " 1838 13,810,000 " 1839 14,530,000 " 1840 18,820,000 " 1841 14,170,000 " 1842 19,004,000 " 1843 24,334,000 " 1844 26,674,500 " The shipments to foreign nations have averaged for the last ten years about 3,000,0001bs. annually. This went to 42 countries. Within the two past years the market in England has been gradually gaining, and there was exported there in 1843 2,353,416 pounds. 1811 5,000,000 " estimated. The last accounts from Liverpool state that the Ame- rican cheese was driving that from Ireland and Holland out of the market. The West Indies and Cuba are our next largest foreign marts. China, it is supposed, will also be a customer — large quantities liaving been sent tlicre as an experiment. We notice, by the Cincinnati prices current, that cheese is scarce in that city at 7 1-4 cents— the market having been mostly cleared by a New Orleans house for a foreign market. — Massachusetts Ploughman. WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES AND WOOL— Re- turns upon this subject were issued on Satnrdny, by order of tlie House of Coninious (on niotion.s of Mr. Mastcrman and ^Ir. Aldain). It theiirc appears that the declared value of tlic British woollen niamifactures CNported from the United Kiii},'- dom in 1814 was £8,201,836, of which £2,444, 780-worth was exported to the United States of Amcrira. During the 8anie year 05,079,52111)3. of glircp and lambs' wool, foreign and colonial, were iniporicd into the United Kingdom, of wliich l,02l,8261bs. were re-exported from the United KiM;;doni, chiefly to Belgium. Of British sheep and lambs' wool, 8,947,6191bs. were exported to foreiyn roiuitrics ; and 8,271,906 lbs. of Britisli woollen aud worsted yarn, including yarn of wool or worsted mixed w ith other materials. I'herc were also imported into the United Kingdom 635,3571bs. (of wliich 47,84811)5. were re-exported) of alpaca and llama wool; and l,290,7711bs. of mohair, or goats' wool, of wliich 97,5291bs. were re-exported. KHOL RABI, OR EGYPTIAN KALE. TO THE EDITOR OK THE FARMEr's GAZETTE. Sir, — In your paper of March 29th, there is a letter from Mr. Samuel Lysons, on the cidtivation of Khol Kabi for cattle ; and as !Mr. L. mentions having obtained a small quantity of seed in Germany, it may not be generally knowni that it can be obtained from any respectable nurseryman in this country. 1 lia\c gro«n\ it annually (with the exception of two or three years) for the last eighteen years as a culinary vegetable, aud have foiuid it very con\cnient and useful when other mor^ tender vegetables were scarce, especially from October to IMay during which time it can be had good, llie tops are used when yoiuig aud tender for greens ; but these shoidd be gathered ^■ery sparingly, otherwise it will retard the growth of the bulb, which sometimes, on strong rich soils, will weigh a stone each ; but when they come to anything hke that size, they are not fit for the table, as they get luud and woody ; therefore, to have them tender and fit for the table for seven or eight mouths of the year, it is necessary to make two or three sow- ings, from the 1st of March to the end of Jlay, in a small seed- bed, for which one oiuice of seed will l)e sufficient ; and when the young plants have produced a few rough leaves, they should be pricked into a nursery-bed, six inches apart, aud ui fotir or five weeks they will be fine strong plants to plant out tinally in hues, two feet apart, and 14 or 15 inches in the hue, as they, as well as almost every other sort of vegetable, arc better tlavoiured when allowed plenty of room for sun and air about them. Those who may wish to cultivate Khol Rabi on a large scale for cattle, must m.Tke their sced-bcd accordingly ; and, perhaps, the last week in March, or beginning of April, would lie the best time for sowing the seed ; and as those would have but little chance of being pricked out into a luusery-bed, if the weather was fa\ourablc at tlie time of planting, they woidd do very well without it. Indeed, I have no doubt but they woidd do equally as well to sow at once in the drills, the same way as turnips, about the beginning of May. This would save a deal of labour, and not be so dependent on the weather ; and as the seed is rather dear, it would be a more economical plan to dibble in the seed, at a foot apart, dropping two or three seeds into each hole along the top of the drills; and when the plants were of proper size to thin them out to one in each hole and other- wise hoc and clean the ground, the same as for turnip crops ; and when the bulbs get about the size of a person's hand, if a little earth is drawn to the stem it will do them good, but not to raise the earth so high as to cover any part of the bidb ; and as they wilt stand very severe frosts without injury, I did not find it necessary to store them up in the autumn. I think, Mr. Editor, that the cottagers would lie greatly benefited by growing annually more or less, as they had convenience, of Kliol Kabi, as it is a very hanly plant, and can be very readily cultivated ; aiuf, by having a small quantity sown in a seed bed in the beginning of .Vjiril, it would be ready to plant out ill any spare corner, or after a crop of early potatoes. It is also well adapted to plant in any vacancies that may occur in late crops of ticld ))otaloes, JC'c, and with ^cry little trniible it might produce a great deal of food : for, « hen boiled and sliced with a little melted butter, it makes a very iialatablc dish ; and to those who have a cow or pig it woidd be particularly useful during winter. Yours, Buried W^ire. Wooden pin. 55 yards. Wooden phi. The cost of the above woidd be — for 61bs. of iron wire, at 4d. per lb. (for burying), 2s. ; 41bs. of ditto, at 3d. per lb. (for sus- pension). Is.; two poles of dry wood. Is.; labour, &c., Is.; total, 5s. As the area increases, the cost dimuiishes. Conve- nient and desirable areas are, for two acres, 127 by 75 yards ; one acre, 80 by 55 ; three quarters of an acre, 82^ by 44 ; half an acre, 73 l-3rd by 33 ; quarter of an acre, 55 by 22 ; one- eighth of an acre, 36 by 16 l-3rd. The mode in which the plot is laid out is as follows : — With a maruier's compass and measured lengths of common strhig, lay out the places for the wooden pins, to which the hurled wire is attached (by passuig tlirough a small staple). Care must be taken to lay the length of the buried wire due north and south by compass, and the breadth due east and west. TJiis wire must be placed from two to three inches deep in the soil. The Unes of the buried wire are then completed. The suspended wire must be attached and in contact with the buried wires at both of its ends. A wooden pin with a staple must therefore be driven in at A, and the two poles (one 14 feet and the other 15 feet) being placed by the compass due north and south, the wire is placed over them, and fastened to the wooden stake, but touching likewse at this point the buried wire. The suspended wire must not be drawn too tight, otherwise the v.iniX will break it. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 6G1 THE WIREWORMS. elliptical, the head obtuse, v.itli two little tuhcrcles; Repeated inquiries respecting these troul)lesome the tail is furnished with two moveable and pointed insects induce nie to give a sketch of their economy, • appendages, which is deserving the attention of every cultivator ! of the soil, since they visit both fields and gardens, i sparing neither corn, turnips, mangold wurzel, ])otatoes, or jiasture-land ; and revelling alike upon cabbages and carnations, lettuces and pansies. In an early number of this pajjcr, the natural history of the snake-millipedes was j)ublished ; they are often mistaken by agriculturists for the wireworm, but they are not even insects. The true wire- wonns are the offspring of a tribe of beetles, which are called in England skijj-jacks, or sj)ring-beetles, from the i)ower they jiossess of leaping uj) to re- cover their feet, when placed ujion their backs ; and from the distinct snap which one hears on such occasions : they are also termed snap or click- 1 The beetle named by Linnaeus Elater Uncatus is beetles, and also blacksmiths, but the scientific | of a dull brown colour, with short ochreous de- name of the genus is Elater. \ pressed hairs ; the horns are not long, but com- Of the various species that inhabit this country, ' pressed, rusty, and eleven-jointed, the basal joint there are jirobably only three or four whose larvae j being the largest and stoutest, the second and third do much mischief; they are the ii/rt/cr .v/^fc/w/or, ' the smallest and obovate; the head is rather large E. ohscurus, E. Uneatus, and E. ruficandis. Their and bent down, thickly and minutely punctured ; economy is similar ; and as the Elater /incfiftis has the eyes are lateral, small, black, and shining ; the been most frequently reared, I shall proceed to give thorax is similarly jiunctured, very convex and its history. The beetles are found in fields and suborbicular, the front being a httle truncated, the gardens, woods and hedges, from April to July : hinder angles jjrojecting, and forming two trigonate the females are supposed to lay their oval whitish ' spines of an ochreous colour; there is also a faint eggs in the earth, close to the plant which is 1 channel down the centre ; the scutel is depressed, selected to supply nourishment to the future pro- ; and rather circular ; the elytra are more than twice geny ; and no sooner are the larv-a? hatched, than as long as the thorax, and elliptical, the ajiex coni- they commence eating into the stem or root, not ! cal ; they are minutely punctured with nine punc- unfrequently ascending the centre of the stalk, even j tured stri.-e on each, the alternate spaces ferruginous above the surface of the earth. They are at first or cinereous ; the ample wings are folded beneath very minute, but often become three-quarters of an j them in repose ; the underside of the thorax is inch long when full grown ; and it is asserted that j furnished with a strong tooth, which is fitted into a they are five years in undergoing their transforma- [ groove in the Ijreast, and this forms the leaping tions, which is exceedingly ])ro]ja1)le, for I have ' ajjparatus ; the female is furnished whh a horny kept them ten or twelve months \\ithout discover- 1 ovipositor ; the six legs are small, of a rusty brown; ing any material change in their stature. As soon i the tarsi, ferniginous; claws, minute: fig. 4, fig, as they have done feeding, ha^-ing cast off three .>, magnified. skins as they increased in size, they fonu an oval For a more detailed account of these insects, I cell at a considerable de])th in the earth, where ; must refer to the 5th vol. of the " Royal Agricul- they change about July or August, to pupa-, which 1 tural Journal," where the subject is also illustrated exhibit the members of the future insect so per- ; l)y two jjlates ; and the best "modes of preventing fectly, that the genus may be identified. After j their ravages are discussed. I shall, therefore, remaining in this state, sometimes for a few weeks only state, for the benefit of the gardener, that the only, at others for many months, the beetles issue wire-worms are frequently introduced into his forth rejoicing in the spring. j grounds with the loam from grass and heathy The wireworm has been so designated from its ' lands ; consequently every little lumj) of earth extreme toughness. That of Ehiter linra/iis is very ' ought to be broken before it is put on the flower- smooth and shilling, of an ochreous colour, with a borders ; and nothing can be more dangerous than to plant choice carnations and fine pansies in beds surrounded by turf, for in all probability it swarms with wireworms, which will soon quit their old haunts to partake of more delicate fare. When such is the case, the best plan is to ])lant daisies, and place slices of jjotato around, to decoy the wireworms. Turnips, cabbages, beet-root, parsnips, carrots, ap])les, and yoimg lettuces, may be cm- ])loyed in the same way. Fig 1 rcjjresents a wheat jilant transmitted to me the end of Ajjril, with a small wireworm eating into the stem, nearly an inch below the surface of the soil, which is indicated by a horizontal line. — Rubicola. — Gardeners' Chronicle, few hairs scattered over its body ; it is seniicylin- drical ; the head is flattened or wedj5e-shaj)ed, with two little horns, and a minute eye-like dot on each side ; the mouth is j)itcliy, and furnished with two strong, horny mandibles, maxilla;, jjalpi, irket. Previous to the commencement of the sale, upwards of 1,")0 gentlemen partook of an ex- cellent luncheon, provided in the barn adjoining Mr. C.'s house, which was tastefully decorated with ever- greens and paintings of the sevi-ral animals that have obtained prizes at the Bury, Wickham Market, Stow- market, and other agricultural associations. Notwith- standing the depression under which agriculture labours, some of the animals realized very high prices. .\ heifer, 19 months old, fetched 34 guineas; ilitto, the same age, 2H guineas ; a cow calf, 3 mouths old, 21 guineas ; a bull calf 10 montlis old, 21 guineas; ditto, G weeks old, 7 guineas. The stock oH'ered for sale aj^peared in excellent condition, and were greatly admired ; and we hope that the success that has attended Mr. C.'s exer- tions will encourage him to persevere in the improve- ment of the breed of shorthorns, the qualities of which animals are daily becoming more generally known. The following are the average prices : — £ s. d, 11 Cows 20 0 0 18 Heifers 17 0 0 5 Bulls 20 0 0 12 Calves 11 0 0 2 Yearling Steers . 9 15 0 The bull, " Count Conrad," was not sold. HXTKNSIVE SAI.F, OF FAT STOCK AT AUCTIEN- CHIFFK I'AKISll OF DUMFKIFS, AND KICFOOT, I'AUISII OF KIKKMAIIOK— Although sales by auction arc (•oiiimon fiioiifrh at tlio term cif Wliitsiuiiliiy, in the case of tenants loa\ in;; their farius, Mr. Thcnnas Ijiurie's roup, in\ Th>ns(hiy last, formed so great a uovelly ttiat we doubt wliether iinytliiiig similar ever i«-einres, ami Herwiclvsliire excepted ; yet, eoMsidering the ease and re:;iilarity with wliieli the hiisiiiess was eonilneted, it seems not improhahle tliat many iiereafter will he indneeil to follow so good an example. Hetweeu twelve ami one o'clock hlls^less connnenccil at .VnehencrielT, where .'il hcautifnl Imlloeks and heifer.s of various breeds, such asshort-horns, erosses.d'alloways. and pnre .\ysliires were sold, one by one, to the chime of -Mr. Dunbar's hanuncr. The syunuctry of the animals, apart from their condition, excited 670 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. high admiration, and did great credit to the owier's powers of selection. From first to last the biddings rarely flagged, and considering the amoimt of money involved, it is impossible to conceive the idea of a sale conducted in a more satisfactory manner. From Auchencrieflf the company repaired to Rig- foot, where forty more splendid cattle vere sold suigly as before, not a few of which exhibited such compactness of bone and muscle, that their weight w;is calculated at from SO to 90 stones. The highest-priced annual brought £30 15s.; the second, £29 10s.; the thu-d, £28 ; the fourth, £27 4s. ; while .£26, £25, £24, and £23 were common figm-es. Our tovnis- raen, Messrs. Jolm Payne and James Kerr, purchased largely, the fonner ha\ing secured the heaviest bullock of the whole lot ; and, we beheve, a good deal of business was done by persons in the same trade from the towns of Liverpool and ilanchester, all of whom expressed their high admiration of the cattle, and said they were the finest lot they e\'er saw exhibited. All the cattle were luimbered by stamped marks, and as notes of these, with the prices, were taken by the purchasers, not the slightest confusion can ensue in the delivery, whether now or three weeks hence. Together the 71 cattle reahzed £1,573 5s., or on an average, better than £22 per head. From Rig- foot the company retm'ued to Anchencrieff, where 340 fat sheep, placed in pens of twenties, all of the pure Cheviot Ijreed, were sold at prices varying from 45s. 6d. to 47s. per head. The principal purchasers were Messrs. M'Fie, Tomlinson, Bankes, Kerr, and Pajiie ; and we have heard that the bill of sales against Mr. K. exceeded £000 sterling. This part of the busi- ness was easily overtaken, and altogether Mr. Laurie and ]Mr. Dunbar had gi-eat reason to be satisfied with their day's work. — Dumfries Courier. HAVERFORDWEST FAIR.— There was a marked im- provement in the value of stock, and a better demand, llie pig fair went off briskly, and fair prices were obtained. CHERTSEY FAIR was most numerously stocked with cat- tle of every description, but we are sorry to say from the back- wardness of the season and the shortness of keep, they were in miserable condition, notwithstanding which very considerable sales were eflected. Between thirty-flve and forty thousand sheep were penned — tegs fetching from 24s. to 40s., couples 20s. to 53s., fat ones 5s. 4d. per stone. Milch cows were in good request, and eagerly sought after ; barreners (fresh) were soon bought up. Other cattle in low condition were ditticidt to dispose of. Cart horses were only a didl trade. Pigs deai-, yet a good many were sold ; upon the whole a very consider- able business was transacted, in anticipation, as the season ad- vanced, it would become more genial. At STOKE-BY-NAYLAND FAIR the show of stock was scanty. Fat bullocks sold as high as 4s. per st. of 81b., and fat hoggets from 4s. to 5s. At Long Melford there was also a thin supply, and dealers from town and comitry being present, the stock of fat meat having become scarce, a general clearance M'as made at both these fairs, at a considerable advance upon late prices. ORilSKIRK FAIR. — The show of cow cattle was miusually large, and anything of choice quali.y sold briskly at rising prices : not much business done in shabby articles. Good horses were very scarce, and eagerly sought after, realizing large prices. Work horses atul hacks were only slowly sold. EGREMONT HIRING FAIR was pretty well attended. Good well-known servants of both sexes were readily hhed at high wages, and upon the whole it was a good fair for those that had their labour to dispose of. EGREMONT CATTLE FAIR,— Sales were not very brisk, except beasts forward in coudition, which met with a ready sale. Milch cows, and those not in contUtion, of which there was a great proportion, was scarcely saleable, luiless at low prices; upon the whole the fair wiis not so good as many of the recent fairs held in M^est Cumberland, but perhaps the market was only stocked ^^'ith an inferior description of cattle. WOOLER FAIR.— The show of cattle was large, and the demand was good. Two-year-olds sold from 10?. to 131. ; one- year-olds from 5/. to HI. jNIilch cows brought good prices. The horse market displayed a fair show ; some brought about 25/., but the greater part were very inferior, fit oidy for a dog's dinner. The demand for pigs was good, and prices high. Women servants were getting for the lialf-year as high as 6/. 10s. The fair was but thinly attended in comparison to for- mer years. EXETER FAIR.— The show of all sorts of cattle was large, and though business at the commencement was exceedingly dull, yet before the close of the fair the primest lots were sold off at very good prices. The show of fat beef was larger than might be expected at this time of the year, and included some very superior articles. Mr. Wippell, of Brenton Barton, Exminster, showed a magnificent pair of oxen, which attracted much attention, and were surrounded by crowds of spectators during the fair. They were estimated at 64 score each, and were sold to Messrs. Cann and Batting, of Newton St. Cyres, at 10s. 9d. per score. J. G. Newton, Esq., of Bride- stowe, showed a very large and fine North Devon ox, of the same breed as that shown recently as a bovine curiosity in Exeter ; it was above 64 score weight, and was sold to Mr. Lake, butcher, of South-street, Exeter, for 10s. per score. Mr. Samuel Drew, of Exminster, showed a very fine buss, which was sold to Mr. Seaward, butcher of Exeter, at 123. per score. John Garratt, Esq., of Bishop's Court, had some very fine animals, amongst which was a first-rate heifer, estimated to weigh near 12 score per quarter, and which was sold to Mr. Lane, of Farringdon, for 1 2s. per score ; Mr. Lane also purchased four excellent steers from the same lot for 106^., being about lis. 6d. per score. A. Smith, Esq., of Traisbeare, showed a fine group of four heifers, which were sold at lis. per score. Mr. Kingwell, of Clist Honiton, had some superior stock, one of which, a heifer, estimated at 34 score, was bought by Mr. Shackell, of Sampford Peverell, at lis. per score. Mr. Mitchell, of Clist Honiton, had three beautiful heifers, which were sold to Mr. Webber, of Exmouth, at nearly lis. per score. Mr. Smith, of Drewsteignton, had some very fine cattle, which were sold at 10s. 6d. per score. Mr. Steer, of Moretonhampstead, had a capital lot of stock, which were disposed of at a similar figure. The quotations for fat stock generally were from 10s. to 12s. per score. With the exception of the fat cattle, the quality of the other lots was, on the whole, but very middling, and business, as far as they were concerned, continued very dull throughout the fair. Some lots of store cattle were purchased by graziers from the eastward. The quotations for oxen were 28/. to 30/. per pair, steers from 18/. to 25/. ; cows and calves and yearlings were abundant, but the sale was so indifferent that it is im- possible to fix any quotations. The splendid lot of ten wether hog sheep, the property of J. W. Buller, Esq., of Downes, to which the first prize was awarded on the preceding day at the Agricultural Exhibition, were shown in the fair, and attracted much attention. They were bought by Mr. G. Lane, at 3/. 10s. each, or about 7d. per lb., as they were estimated at 301bs. per quar- ter. Mr. Mitchell, of Clist Honiton, showed a fine lot of 22 sheep, shorn, which were purchased by Mr. Mit- chell, of liympstone, at 7d. per lb. THE TESTIMONIAL TO Mr. ROBERT BAKER,— It has already been announced, that the testimonial to Mr. Baker, from the agricidtural body, for the spirited and able manner in which he led their defence against the Leagiie, will be presented at a public dinner on the 6th of this month ; we now find that Wm. Fisher Hobbs, Esq., will preside on the occasion, and while the festival is likely to be imposing as a display of the strength which can yet be ralhed round the plough, arrange- ments are making to secure the comenience of all, and pro- mote that good feeling and liilarity which belongs to an as- semblage of Essex formers. A long list of names are already enrolled as stewards, and a party of vocaUsts, under the super- intendance of Mr. Robinson, of Loiulon, has been engaged to mingle the pleasures of song with the other enjoyments of the eAcning. — Essex HenM. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 571 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF MAY. In a re\ae\v of the corn trade, the weather must i always be a siiliject of primary consideration : i we are sorry to say that the month of May has been far less favourable than could be de- sired for i)romoting the growth of the difl'erent grain crops. The wind has almost constantly blown from one quarter (the north), and the tem- perature has more resembled that usually experi- enced in March than what we are accustomed to associate with the " merrie month." Bleak winds, occasional night frosts, with heavy hail- storms and a])undance of rain, ha\'e jiroved unwel- come substitutes for warm sunshine and genial showers. Under these circumstances, it may l)e readily conceived that vegetation has not made very rapid i)rogress, and within the last few weeks re- l)orts of rather an unfavourable natiu-e have been circulated in respect to wheat ; the plant has, it is said, suffered materially in the important counties of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire from that great enemy to agriculturists — the wire-worm ; and simi- lar complaints are beginning to reach us from other quarters. Considering the extreme severity of the ])ast winter, some surprise is felt that this insect should have escajjed destruction ; but the reports of its appearance are too well authenticated to admit of doubt, ^'arious inquiries are l)eing made as to the best mode of getting rid of so insidious a subsoiler, and considerable correspondence will, no doubt, take place on the subject ; but hitherto no remedy for the evil has been hit upon. In other respects the crop is generally reported to wear a healthy aspect, though unquestionably far less forward than at the corresponding jieriod of last year; and, unless June should prove ex- tremely propitious, the harv'est must, we fear, be late. It is not often that May closes without wheat- ears having been produced in many parts of the country ; but we are disposed to think that this year none will be discovered. "Within the last fortnight some uneasiness has been created regard- ing the probable effects of so late a sjmng, and the languor which we have so frecpiently had occasion to notice as having j)revailed in every l)ranch of the grain trade has at length been succeeded by some- what more activity. Until recently neither mer- chants nor millers showed the slightest inclination to liold stock ; and, having for months jiast confined their purchases to such quantities as they refpiired for immediate use, they would, if an imj)ortant ad- vance should now occur, be placed in a somewhat awkward ])Osition. We have, in jjrevious numbers, drawn attention to the fact that the farmers were almost the only holders of English wheat in (Jreat liritain : this we now repeat. I'^ver since harvest they liave su])plied the markets so liberally, that no inconvenience lias been experienced l)y purchasers in obtaining what they n'(|uir(>(l, and all ])artics have therefore continued to act on the " hand to mouth" system. Sliould, however, any apprehen- sion arise relati\'e to the probable result of the crop on the ground, growers, whose stocks must, not- withstanding the acknowledged aljundance of the yield of 1S44, I}e nmch reduced, would naturally Ijecome less inclined to sell what remains at the low rates they have been compelled, up to the present time, to acce])t, in which case the value of the article would ine\itably advance. In how far this state of things will actually come to j)ass, will greatly dejjend on the weather experienced in June. Should that month ])rove extraordinarily fine, imeasiness as to the future would speedily be set at rest, and affairs would prol)ably go on much the same as before ; but unpropitious or even unsettled weather during the month would, we have no hesitation in stating, at once cause an anxiety on the part of millers and merchants to increase their stocks, and render farmers less inchned to sell. So much for predictions as to the future. We wdll now turn our attention to what has occurred in wheat since the ])eriod we last addressed our readers. During the first half of the month busi- ness remained quiet enough, but about the middle slight indications of a rise began to show them- selves : the first symptoms were a falling off in the supplies from the growers, and a greater anxiety on the part of London and other millers to buy free on board at the shipping ports on the east coast ; in consequence of which a rise of 2s. to 3s. per qr. has been established at Spalding, Lynn, Boston, and Wisliech. This advance has since become more general in other parts, and, taking the kingdom collectively, wheat may be considered as worth more by 2s. per qr. at the close than it was at the commencement of the month. The foregoing remarks are intended to ajtjjly ex- clusively to wheat. The accounts hitherto received respecting the appearance of the spring-sown crops agree in describing their general aspect as extremely healthy and j)romising, and i)resenting a strong contrast to what they were at the same time last year. A consideraljle ])readth of the land intended for 1)arley and oats was then not sown, owing to the long ])revalence of drought ; ^\'hereas these species of grain, as well as beans and peas, have, notwithstanding the want of genial warmth, at pre- sent a vigorous and healthy asjiect; whilst grass lands, which then indicated too surely a miserable hay crop, are now well covered, thick at ])ottom, and only retpiire a montli's fine weather to insure a jjlcntiful return. Our jjrospccts, on the whole, are therefore far from dislieartening ; and we still hojic that the outcry about the injury done to wheat l)y the wire-worm may prove to have been prema- ture. 'I'he deliveries of barley from the growers have of late decreased materially ; this has, however, failed to have any effect on ])rices. and the value of tlic article has continued to tend downwards in all parts of tlie country. Had we been entirely de- pendent on our o>vn producers for supjjlies, this 572 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. could scarcely have been the case ; but the large arrivals which have taken jilace at se^'eral of the principal maritime ports from the north of Europe since the breaking up of the ice on the continent, and the comparatively small quantity of barley re- quired at this season of the year, either by malt- sters or for feeding purposes, have prevented that raUy which might, under otlier circumstances, have taken place. It is scarcely possible, however, that prices of this grain can suffer any further depression, capital malting qualities having recently been sold, in some of the barley producing counties, at 28s, to 29s., whilst foreign of heavy weight, but only sviitable for feeding, has been offering at outports, as well as in the metropolis, at from 23s. to 25s. per quarter, according to quahty. Very little of the barley received from abroad was consigned to this country, nearly the whole having been l)ought by English speculators during the winter months. The hea^')' loss which has attended these invest- ments (in most cases from 5s. to 7s. per quarter) will, we trust, induce more caution in future opera- tions, and thus protect the British grower against such mischievous foreign competition. The scarcity of oats in all parts of England, to which we alluded last month, has since become more apjjarent ; and so much has this grain been wanted, in several of the agricultural districts, in consequence of the high price of hay and deficiency of green food for cattle, that purchases have been made, at those ports where the largest stocks of Irish oats were held, by buyers from counties which usually send supplies of the article to the leading consuming markets. Under these circumstances, prices have steadily crept up, notwithstanding the arrival of rather important supplies at some of the ports on the coast, and into London, from the con- tinent. Whether the increased growth of grass, and other green crops, will hereafter cause a re- action, it is difficult to determine ; but, on the whole, we are inclined to think that the recently established advance will be supported, unless Ireland should continue to furnish larger supplies than the reports from thence would lead us to expect. The arrivals from the north of Europe are not likely to be very extensive, the slight chance of the duty falling below the present point (6s. per quarter) tending materially to check the inclination to make purchases on the continent. The cargoes which have hitherto arriA'cd have been entered for home consumption at that rate, and have been generally sold at a sacrifice. The greater projjortion of these oats were bought at 1 Is. or 13s. per quarter free on board, which, with 6s. duty, and from 3s. to 5s. per quarter other expenses, amounted to more than they have realized here. Beans have come forward sparingly in all parts of the kingdom, and it would appear that the stocks of English are well nigh exhausted. Though this article is not extensively used during the spring and summer months, the supphes have barely kept pace with the demand, and prices have consequently tended upwards. That such has been the case is shown by the rise in the averages, the last general weekly return for the kingdom being 37s. 4d., whilst that published four weeks before was only 35s. 9d. per quarter. The duty, which was at the close of April 8s. 6d., has since receded to 6s. 6d., and there is a prosj^ect of its falling another Is. about the middle of June. The stock in bpnd in the kingdom consisted, on the 5th instant, of 16,809 quarters, principally Egyptian, and se\Tral cargoes are, we believe, on passage from Alexandria to this country, still, the entire quantity likely to be en- tered for home consumption is not very large. The stocks of peas, of home growth, have been reduced into a \ery narrow compass, and since the demand for sowing has suljsided, very few have been brought forward for sale; -notwithstanding, therefore, the usual decrease in the demand (for at this season of the year the consumption of the ar- ticle is unimportant), prices have tended upwards ; good boilers having, in some parts of the country, risen to 40s., and maples to 36s. to 37s. per quarter. In pursuing our accustomed plan, of giving a se- parate notice of the occurrences at Mark Lane, we have this month less difference to point out be- tween the trade there and in other quarters of the kingdom than has been the case on some preced- ing occasions. During the first two weeks of May the arrivals of wheat coastwise into London were of a very liberal character, upwards of 21,000 quarters having been received from the 3rd to the I7th instant. This large supply was principally from Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and the greater part of the same went direct to millers. Their wants having been thus amply provided, they had little occasion to visit Mark Lane as buyers, and business was consequently dull in the extreme during the time named. Subsequently the receipts from the east coast began to fall off, and the weather having meanwhile remained cold and ungenial, a firmer tone began on the 19th instant to be assumed by factors. On that day an advance of Is. per quarter on former rates was partially established, and before the week terminated the improvement was general on all quaUties. Since then the upward tendency has continued, and at the period we are writing, good red wheat, such as might have been bought at the close of April at 46s. to 47s., is scarcely ob- tainable below 50s. per quarter. The first arriv^als from the Baltic came to hand in the early part of the month, and altogether about 14,049 quai'ters have since then been received; by far the greater bulk is from Rostock, the quality generally good, and the weight varying from 60^ to 62 lbs. per bushel. Most of this wheat was bought on English account, last winter, for shipment in spring, and must, with freight and charges, cost the importers 32s. to 35s. per quarter, exclusive of duty. Some of the first received cargoes were sold, on arrival, at a loss ; the prices realized, duty paid, being 50s. to 52s. Afterwards a demand arose for shipment to Belgium, which enabled sellers to do somewhat better in bond ; still our merchants must be losers on these investments. The inquiry for export, arising about the same time that uneasiness began to be felt respecting the effects of the winter on our own crop, had, however, the effect of stop- ping the entries for consumption at the 20s. duty, which has in so far proved advantageous to the British grower. Of old free wheat in granary the TPIE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 673 quantitj' remaining on hand is quite insigrnificant, ' and for the finer descriptions of high mixed Danzig ver)' full rates have lately l)een ohtained. The honded stocks have also diminished rather than increased, more having heen taken for ship- ment or released for home consumj)tion than the imports have amounted to. On the oth April last there were 31 1,025 qrs. under lock in the kingdom, of which 111,149 qrs. were in the London ware- houses ; whereas on the oth of this month the quantities were, respectivelv, '298,327 (p's., and 100,767 qrs. It ^A-ill he seen from our review of the foreign markets, given at the close of this article, that there is not much prosjjcct of large arrivals from ahroad during the summer, for whilst we were in this countr)' hlessed with an extremely ahundant yield of wheat last year, the crop was exceedingly deficient in many of the ])rincipal wheat-gromng districts on the continent. Notwithstanding the generally improved tone of the wheat trade, flour has heen difficult of disposal throughout the month. Latterly, the millers have endeavoured to establish a rise of 3s. j)er sack ; hut, by so doing, they have caused the bakers to l)uy with even greater caution than before. The nominal top quotation lias become unsettled, and the fluctuation in the value of countiy marks has not been of much importance ; the lowest sales were made between the 5th and 12th instant, when Norfolk households were, in some cases, parted with at 31s. i)er sack in the riA'er, the same being now held at 32s. to 33s., according to quahty. In foreign flour there has been very little pass- ing, the operations having been confined to the sale of smdl parcels of United States for export, at about 19s. per barrel in bond. The arrivals of English barley into London have been quite moderate ; but having, up to the 17th instant, received a large su])})ly from the near continental i)orts, no scarcity has been felt. The retrograde movement in ])rices con- tinued, until very good malting fjualities receded to 30s. Within the last week or two, however, some slight inclination has been manifested to invest in this grain; but, as yet, this has pro- duced no rise in its value. 'I'he duty advanced, as anticipated, on the 8th instant, to 7s. ; and, on the 29th, to 8s. ; since the fonrier jieriod the receipts from abroad have been mostly land- ed in bond, and as the market has thereby been somewhat reliew'cd, we should not be surprised to witness a small amendment. At ])resent, foreign grinding qualities, weighing from 49 to 53 lbs., may stjll be bought, duty ])aid, at jirices varying from 22s. to 25s. ; and Saale barley, which has got into favour with our maltsters, at 28s. Gd.to 29s. i)er(jr. The arriwals of oats, though tolerably good, have scarcely ke])t pace with the demand ; in addition to a good local inquiry, l)uycrs have visited Mark Lane from diflerent jjarts of the country, and the sales have, on the whole, been extensive. Had it not been for the receipts of foreign, amount- ing altogether to over 50,127 (jrs., j)nces would ])robably have risen materially ; and, even under tlie circumstances named, good corn has advanced in value. This will be best shown by quoting the present value of some of the best known qualities, say Lincolnshire feed, good Scotch and Irish weighing 40 to 41 lbs. per bushel. The former sort has lately commanded 23s. to 24s., Scotch feed from 23s. to 25s., and the description of Irish referred to 22s. Gd. to 23s. per qr. The foreign oats have been selling at various ])rices according to quality and the condition in which the cargoes have come to hand ; but on all, there must have been a loss to the importers. The arrivals of beans of home growth into Lon- don have ])een on a moderate scale, and, without any disposition to speculate in the article, the actual consimiptive inipiiry has caused a gradual rise to take place in quotations. Handsome small beans are at present worth 40s. per qr. at Mark Lane, and other sorts realize corresponding rates. We do not know the precise prices paid in Egypt for the Alexandrian cargoes which have recently come to hand, l)ut are inclined to think that the importers will do better with this article, than those who invested their capital in wheat, barley, &c., at Baltic ports, during the winter. The present duty, as already stated, is only Cs. Gd., and, from the jiosition of the averages, there ia every ])rospect of its falUng to 5s. Gd. in June. Good Egyj)tian beans are worth 33s. to 34s., duty paid, which must, we conceive, yield a fair profit on the outlay. With English peas the market has been even more sparingly supplied than udth beans, and, having received none from a1)road, holders have been enabled to establish an advance of Is. to 2s, per fp-. This article appears to be quite as scarce in the Baltic, and other countries from which ship- ments are occasionally made to Great Britain, as with us, and its value will most likely mle high until the next crop shall have arrived at maturity. The stocks of ohl foreign free peas are gradually going into consumption, and are realizing higher rates than could at any previous period have been obtained. In bond there are only 1405 qrs. in London, whilst the stock in the kingdom amounted, on the 5th May, to 5088 qrs. None of these will for some time be entered for consumption, as a pros])ect exists of a lower duty later in the year. In reviewing the state of the foreign grain mar- kets, the most novel feature is the comparatively trifling influence which the English advices have hitherto produced on prices abroad. In ordinary seasons, Mark Lane may be said to give the tone to the trade, not only all over Great Britain, but likewise to the principal markets of Europe ; but this has not been the case this year. Whilst wheat was excessively dull here, and drooi)ing in price from week to week, (juotations were not alone sup- ported on the other side, but actually rose in the face of the discouraging rejjorts. The cause of this somewhat unusual state of things is, however, easily explained — the weather experienced over a large tract of the continent of Europe, during the latter i)art of last smnmcr, and also at harvest time, was |)rociscly the reverse of that with which (ircat Britain was favoured; for whilst it was here characterized as being more than commonly dry, tiie countries lying east and north of our island were deluged willi rain, ITiQ 674 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. consequence was, that their harvest was exceed- ingly unfavourable, and, having but comparatively small stocks to fall back upon, real scarcity was felt during the M'inter. Russia, Poland, and part of Prussia appear to have suffered most; and those being the districts which, in ordinary seasons, produce a large surplus of grain for ex- port, we need feel no surprise that a failure in the crops there should have influenced prices in other countries. So great has latterly become the want in Russia, that an imperial Ukase has per- mitted the free importation of wheat, rye, barley, &c., into that empire till 13th July. Konigsberg, from whence large exports are generally made, has also been obliged to draw supplies from other quarters for the consumption of its inhabitants ; and at Danzig the stocks have been diminished by shipments to Riga, Pernan, Konigsberg, &c. ; whilst the arrivals from Poland have been comparatively unimportant. Lately a fresh impetus has been given to prices of wheat in the Baltic ; firstly, by the news of the duty on the article in Belgium being reduced, and orders from thence being received ; and, lastly, by the firmer tone of the advices from hence. All these circumstances considered, it may be safely affirmed that the imi)ortations of wheat from abroad are not likely to be large. By the most recent advices from Danzig, we learn that holders of really fine high mixed parcels, the growth of 1842, were firm in demanding 34s. and 35s., and that moderately good qualities were not to be had below 30s. per quarter free on board. ITie shipments from thence to England had been trifling since the ojiening of the naviga- tion, and the few cargoes despatched had been in execution of contracts entered into during the winter. Tlie more recent purchases had been principally for shipment to the Channel Islands and to Bel- gium, for which a lower quality than that usually bought by our merchants had been taken. From Konigsberg we learn that prices of wheat were at least 2s. to 3s. per quarter higher there than at Danzig ; and that there was so little chance of ex- ports from thence, that several vessels had left in ballast. Until within the last fortnight, wheat was comparatively cheap at the lower Baltic ports, say 26s. for good qualities of red weighing 61 to 62 lbs.; the Belgium demand has, however, occasioned a veryrapid rise, and by letters from Rostock, Wismar, Stettin, &c., it appears that holders had risen their pretensions fully 2s. per quarter ; indeed, at the first of these places the same description of wheat which a few weeks before had been sold at 26s., had risen to 30s. per qviartei, free on board. At Hamburg the vipward movement has been eqvxally great, and the best heavy samples have lately been selling there for local consumption at equal to 32s. to 33s. per quarter. That specula- tion has aided to produce this excitement we have no doubt ; and should it hereafter become manifest that the wants of France and Belgium have been overrated (which we fully expect will prove the case), prices would, we think, soon recede again to their former level, unless, indeed, the weather here should continue of a character calculated to create uneasiness, and our merchants be thereby tempted to send out orders. The ad^'ices from the Mediterranean ai'e of a quiet tone ; and the fall which has taken place in the duty at Marseilles seems to have produced little effect either there or at the neighbouring ports. High as the value of wheat has lately become in the Baltic, it is nevertheless cheaper there than in the Southern parts of Europe ; and as there is consequently no prospect of the English grower having to expect competition from thence, a pas- sing notice of the state of affairs there is all that is required in this place. We now have to turn our attention to the posi- tion of the wheat and flour markets on the other side of the Atlantic. At the principal ports in the United States ])rices do not appear to have under- gone much variation : about 4 J to 4f dollars per barrel has all along been the ciuTent A-alue of good brands of Western flour, and such was still the case when the last mail left for England. Taking the dollar at 4s. 2d. the price in English money will be free on board 18s. to 20s., which \vith 3s. 4d. per barrel freight, and other expenses, would bring the cost here to 21s. to 23s. per barrel. The article is at j^resent not worth more that IDs. here, and it fol- lows, therefore, that little encouragement exists to consign to this country. From Canada, however, we must reckon on sup- plies of some magnitude. By the latest accovmts from Montreal, we learn that considerable purchases of flour had already been made with a view of ship- ping to Great Britain : the cost laid down here will amount to about 24s. ; and, as the duty is nominal, a profit may be reckoned on at that rate. Tlie result of last year's speculations in Canada flour is said to have been very unfavourable to the ship- pers, but this does not appear to deter them from again trying our markets, and, from year to year, we expect the mischievous tendency of the Canadian Corn Bill, both as regards our farmers and millers, will become more fully developed. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. May 26. Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 46 57 White 46 50 57 Old, red .48 50 54 Do 62 56 Rye, old 32 34 New.... S6 — Barley, Grinding, 24 28 Malting 80 32 Chevalier 83 — Irish 24 26 Bere... 25 — Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk 58 63 Brown.. 56 60 Kingston and Ware 60 — Chevalier 65 — Oats, Yorksh.& Lincolnshire, feed 22 23 Potato.. 24 26 Youghall and Cork, black.. 20 21 Cork,white21 22 Dublin 21 22 Westport 21 23 Waterford, white ,. 20 21 Black.. 21 22 Newry 22 23 Galway 20 21 Scotch, feed ... 22 23 Potato.. 24 25 Clonmel 21 22 Limerick 22 23 Londonderry 21 22 Sligo .... 21 22 Beans, Tick, new 30 36 Old, small 88 40 Peas, Grey 36 88 Maple.. 35 88 White 38 40 Boilers.. 38 40 Flour, Town-made 42 Suffolk 32 34 per sk. of 280 lbs. Stockton and Norfolk 32 34 Irish 34 36 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Wheat, Dantzic 32 36 fine 40 Hamburg 30 32 Rostock 30 33 BARLEY 19 23 Oats, Brew 17 18 Feed ... 14 17 Beans. — 9t 29 Pbas 28 32 Floub, American, per brl...... 19 — Baltic ## 18 — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 675 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. "Weekending | Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans. Peas- April 12th 46 3 luth ! 45 11 28th 1 45 11 May 3d 46 0 10th 45 10 I7th J 15 0 AKKTi'Cnte uverajfe ol| the six weeks which reculutea the duty. 45 11 Duties payable in London till 'Wcd- nuday next inclu- sive, and at the Out- ports till the arrival of the mail of thai day from London . . Do. on grain from British possessions out of Europe .. .; 4 0 >^J- 1 32 5 31 11 31 6 1 31 2 1 80 5 * j 80 0 31 3 7 0 1 1 0 6 1 20 9 31 4 20 a 30 0 35 0 3R G I 3.0 5 30 I 35 0 3G I 21 3 I 30 7 6 0 ! 10 6 1 36 10 1 30 8 3; 37 0 6 6 6 6 COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES hy the Imp. Quarter, fi-om tlie Gazette, of Friday lasi, May 23rd, 1845. 9. d. Whbat 45 9 Bakley 30 0 Cats 21 9 Ryb 29 7 Beans 37 3 Pba8 87 0 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding Gazette in the las! year, Friday, May 24th, 1844. s,